Chap. II.
HERA
Of Lines.
ones being always next to that of the blue ones. Vair
is ufually of lix rows 5 if there be more or fewer, the
number ought to be exprefied j and if the colours are
different from thofe above mentioned, they muft like-
Vvife be expreifed.
I he Englifh multiply thte furs* as well as the names
of the tinctures, though no other nation has adopted
luch varieties. Thus they give us,
1. ff kite, which is the natural colour of the ermine j
but it is ui'ed on no other occafion but in the defcfip-
tions of mantles.
2. Ermines, which is the fame w ith contra-ermine.
3. Erminois; the field is Or, the powdering Sable,
(N° 13.). For the ufe of this fur Guillim cites Bara,
p. 14.; but no fuch fur is to be found in Bara.
4* Pean; the field is Sable, the powdering Or,
(N° 14.). The French ufe no fuch term : but they call
all furs or doublings des pannes or pennes ; which term
has pofTibly given rife to this miftake, and many
others, in thofe who do not underftand the French
language.
\5- Erminites; the fame as Ermine, with the addi¬
tion of a red hair on each fide of the black. Sir George
M‘Kenzie calls thefe diftinaions “ but fancies* for er¬
minites fignifies properly little ermines:'1
6. Counter-vair; when the bells of the fame tindure
bafe, and point againft point,
7. Potent-counter-potent, anciently called Vairy-cuppy,
as when the field is filled with crutches or potents
counter-placed, (N° 17.).
It may not be improper to obferve, that the ufe of
the tindures took it§ rife from the feveral colours
ufed by warriors whilft they were in the army, which
S. de Petra Sanda proves by many citations. And
becaufe it was the cuftom to embroider gold and filver
on filk, or filk on cloth of gold and filver, the heralds
did therefore appoint,* that in imitation of the clothes
fo embroidered, colour fhould never be ufed upon co¬
lour, nor metal upon metal.
Sect. III. Of the Lines ufed in the parting of Fields.
Escutcheons are either of one tindure, or more
than one. Thofe that are of one only, that is, when
fome metal, colour, ot fur, is fpread all over the fur-
face or field, fuch a tindure is faid to be predominant:
but in fuch as have on them more than one, as mod
have, the field is divided by lines j which, according to
their divers forms, receive various names.
Lines may be either flraight or crooked. Straight
lines are carried evenly through the efcutcheon : and
are of four difi’erent kinds j viz. a perpendicular line J ;
a horizontal, — ; a diagonal dexter, a diagonal fi-
nifter, /.
Crooked lines are thofe wdiich are carried unevenly
through the efcutcheon wdth rifing and falling. French
armorills reckon 11 different forts of them ; Guillim
Vol. X. Part II. 7
L D R V. 40 s
admits of 7 only; but there are 14 diftind kinds, Of Lines,
the figures and names of which are as jm fig. 1.
N° 1—14. viz.
I. The engrailed. 2. The inveded. 3. The wavy.
4. The embattled, or crenelle. 5. The nebule. 6. The.
raguly. 7. The indented. 8. The dancette. 9. The
dove-tail. 10. The grafted, n. The embattled aronde.
12. I he battled embattled. 13. The patee or dovetail.
14. Champaine.
The principal reafon why lines are thus ufed in he¬
raldry, is to difference bearings which would be other-
wife the fame ; for an efcutcheon charged with a chief
engrailed, differs from one charged with a chief wavy,
as much as if the one bore a crofs and the other a
laltier.
As the fore-mentioned lines ferve to divide the field,
it muff be obferved, that if the divificn confiffs of twro
equal parts made by the perpendicular line, it is called
parted per pale ; by the horzontal line, parted per fefs ;
by the diagonal dexter, parted per bend; by the diago¬
nal finifler, parted per bendfinifer ; examples of which
will be given in the fequel of this treatife.
It a field is divided into four equal parts by any of
thefe lines, it is faid to be quartered $ which may be
done two ways, viz.
(Quartered or parted per crofs ; which is made by a
perpendicular and horizontal line, which, eroding each
other at the centre of the field, divide it into four
equal parts called quarters. See Plate CCLIV. under
fig. I. (a).
Quartered or parted per fdltier; which is made by
two diagonal lines, dexter and finiffer, that crofs one
another in the centre of the field, and likewife divide it
into four equal parts. Ibid.
I he efcutcheon is fometimes divided into a greater
number of parts, in order to place in it the arms of the
feveral families to which one is allied ; and in this cafe
it is called ^genealogical atchievement. Thefe divifions
may confiff of 6, 8, 1 2, and 16, quarters fas under fig. 1.
(a)], and even fometimes of 20, 32, 64, and upwards;
there being examples of fuch divifions frequently exhi¬
bited at pompous funemls. An extraordinary inftance
of this kind was exhibited at the pompous funeral
of the Vifcountefs Townfhend, whofe corpfe was
brought from Dublin cable in Ireland to Rainham-
hall in Norfolk, one of the principal tenants on horfe-
back carrying before the hearfe a genealogical banner,
containing the quarterings of his lordihip’s and her
ladyfhip’s family, to the amount of upwards of 160
coats. Sir George Booth, reblor of the valuable
living of Aihton under Line, hears fix diftiiift coats
of arms in his ihield; viz. thofe for Booth, Barton,
Venables, Mount fort, Aihton, Egerton ; and has be-
fides a right to 37 other coats: but Sir William Dug-
dale very juftly objefts to fo many arms being cluftered
together in one ihield or banner, on account of the dif¬
ficulty of knowing and diftinguiihing one coat of arms
from another,
3 E Sect,
bitLlIdUre^Lare ftl11 ,lntr(i)ducccI Jn,t0 Engliih coats of arms, but for particular reafons, which heralds can
0f t])e ordinaries ^ ^ by ^ Frencil frequently taken for a principal figure, and numbered among the reft
402 HERA
of
> -v—1 Sect. IV. Of the Differences of Coats of Arms.
Armorists have invented divers differences or cha-
radleriflical marks, -whereby bearers of the fame coat
of arms are diftinguifhed each from others, and their
nearnefs to the principal bearer denronftrated. Ac¬
cording to J. Guillim, thefe differences are to be confi-
dered either as ancient or modern.
Art. i. Of Ancient Differences.
Thofe he calls ancient differences confifl. in hordures
(a) j which is a bearing that goes all round, u'd paral¬
lel to the boundary of the efcutcheon, in form of a hem,
and always contains a fifth part of the field in breadth.
Bordures were ufed in ancient times for the diftinguifh-
ing not only of one nation or tribe from another, but
alio to note a diverfity between particular perfons de-
fcended of one family and from the fame parents.
This diflinftion, however, was not exprefsly fignified
by invariable marks j nor were bordures always ap¬
propriated to denote the different degrees of confan-
guinity •, for, as Sir Henry Spelman obferves in his
Afpilogia, p. 140, ancient heralds, being fond of per-
fpicuous differences, often inverted the paternal tinfture,
or fometimes inferted another charge in the efcutcheon,
fuch as bends, croflets, cantons, or the like j which ir¬
regularity has, I fuppofe, induced modern armorilts to
invent and make ufe of others.”
Plate There are bordures of different forms and timSlures,
€CLV. as in the examples, fig. 3.
N° 1. is “ Sable, a Bordure Argent *, borne by the
right hon. Sackville Tufton, earl of Thanet.—When-a
bordure is plain, you are not to mention it, as it is al¬
ways underflood fo in heraldry, though it be not ex-
preffed ; but if it has any other form, you are to fig-
nify it.
2. “ Gules, a Bordure engrailed Argent j” borne
by the right hon. Charles Gray, Lord Gray 'Ihis is
called engrailed, from the French word engrele, which
fignifies a thing the hail has fallen upon and broken
eff the edges, leaving it with little femicircles ftruck
out of it.
3. “ Gules, a Bordure engrailed Or borne by the
right hon. George Talbot, earl of Shrewfbury. You
muft obferve, that in a bordure or ordinary formed of
thefe lines, the points are reprefented on all fides to¬
wards the field, and the femicircles turned towards the
bordure or ordinary.
4. “ Argent, a Bordure invefted Azure.”—This
is quite contrary to the laft 3 for as the other turns its
points from the bordure into the field, fo contrarywife
this does, by the inverfion of the points from the field
into the bordure. Such a charge or any other formed
of thefe lines is feldom to be met with in Englifli
coats of arms.
5. “ Gules, a Bordure indented Argent.”—The
word indented requires very little explanation, the fig-
nification being obvious to all perfons, from its figure,
which is compofed of tracks refembling teeth, called in
Latin dentes.
6. “ Azure, a Bordure Ermine.”
7. “ Vert,, a Bordure Vair.”
8. “ Ermine, a Bordure compony, or gobony, Or
L D R Y. Chap. If,
and Sable.”—This is fo termed from its being com- Ancient
pofed of fmail and equal pieces. I. Guillim calls this Differences,
bordure gobonated, which implies the fame meaning j ^
but the word being obfolete, is not ufed by modern
heralds.
9. “ Quarterly, Azure and Gules, a bordure com¬
pony Argent and Azure borne by his grace Henry
Somerfet, duke of Beaufort, &c.
10. “ Azure, a Bordure counter-compony Argent
and Gules.”—Obferve, that the counter-compony does
always confifl of two tracks and no more.
11. “ Or, a bordure cheeky Argent and Sable.”—
This has a great refemblance with the laft bordure,.
having only one track more ; therefore you muft take
care, before you blazon, to number them, or elfe you
may eafily err in taking the one for the other.
I 2. “ Gules, a Bordure Argent, charged with eight
Trefoils flipped proper, that is, Vert.”—All nations
ufe few terms in blazoning bordures $ but Englifli ar-
morifts, in order poflibly to raife the dignity of this
fcience, have perplexed it, and rendered it unintelli¬
gible to all foreigners, by introducing into it feveral
myftical proper names, among which may be reckoned
the following ones, viz. They call a bordure, if char¬
ged with eight plants, fruits, flowers, or leaves, verdoy
of fuch vegetables j or enaluron of fuch birds j emirny
of hearts ; perfew of furs ; and entoyre of inanimate
things of wrhat kind foever.
13. “ Gules on a Bordure Azure, eight Stars Or.”
14. “ Argent, a Bordure compony of the laft: and
Gules, the firft charged with Roles of the fecond, barb¬
ed and feeded proper.” This bordure is borne by his
grace Charles Lenox duke of Richmond, &c.
15. “ Ermine, with a Bordure engrailed Gules j”
the coat of arms of the right hon. Henry-Benedidl
Barnewall, Vifcount Kingfland, &c. of Ireland.—This
ancient and noble family is of French extraction, and
allied to the dukes of Little-Bretagne, where the name
continues ftill in great repute.
16. “ Argent, a Bordure Sable charged with eight
Befants j” borne by the right hon. Cole,
Lord Ranelagh, of Ireland.
17. “ Party per pale Argent and Gules, a Bordure
charged wdth eight Efcalops counterchanged $” the
coat of arms of the right hon. William Maule, earl
of Panmure, &c. of Ireland. This very ancient family
is originally French, and derives its furname from the
toyrn and lordlhip of Maule in Normandy, where the
fame arms are ftill to be feen in the parilh-church.
17. “ Azure, a Bordure quarterly, the firft and
fourth Ermine, the fecond and third counter-compcny
Argent and Azure.”
19. “ Purpure, a Bordure compony Or and Gules,
each of the laft charged with a Befant,”
20. “ Quarterly Or and Gules, within a Bordure
Vert, charged with eight Efcalops Or.”
We fhall conclude this head with obferving, that a
Lordure is never of metal upon metal, and feldom of
colour upon colour, but rather of the tinfture which
the principal bearing or charge is of. I hus Sir — ,
Dalziel of Glenae, whofe predeceflor was a younger
brother of the noble family of Camw7ath, has, within
a Bordure Argent, the paternal coat of the ancient
name of Dalziel, viz. Sable, a hanged man with his
arms extended. Argentformerly they carried um
hanging
w
Chap. II. HERA
Modern hanging on a gallows. This bearing, though fo very
differences. Ungular for a coat of arms, was given as a reward to
v one of the anceftors of the late Robert Dalziel, earl of
Carnwath, to perpetuate the memory of a brave and
hazardous exploit performed, in taking down from a
gallows the body of a favourite and near relation of
King Kenneth II. hung up by the Pifts j which ftory
is thus related by Alexander Nilbet : “The king being
exceedingly grieved that the body of his minion and
kinfman Ihouid be fo difgracefully treated, he proffered
a great reward to any of his fubjedts who would ad¬
venture to refcue his corpfe from the difgrace his cruel
enemies had unjuftly put upon it: but when none
would undertake this hazardous enterprife, at laft a
x Valorous gentleman came and faid to the king, Dafeie/,
which fignifies ; “ I dareand he did adluRlly per¬
form that noble exploit to the king’s fatisfadlion and
his own immortal honour, and in memory of it got
the aforefaid remarkable bearing : and afterwards his
pofterity took the word Dalxiel for their furname, and
the interpretation of it, I dare, continues even to this
day to be the motto of "hat noble family.” We can
have no better proof of rhe truth of this tradition than
this, that the heads of this ancient family have for
many ages carefully retained this bearing without any
alteration or addition.
Art. 2. Of Modern Differences.
The modern differences which the Englifh have
adopted not only for the diftinguifhing of ions iffued
out of one family, but alfo to denote the difference and
fubordinate degrees in each houfe from the original
anceftors, are nine, viz.
CCLIV For the heir or firft fon, the Label $ 2d fon, the
under fig. i. ^'re^centi 3^ ^on> the Mullet j 4th fon, the Martlet j
(A). 5th fon, the Annulet ; 6th fon, the Flower-de-luce 5
7th fon, the Rofeg 8th fon, the Crofs moline; 9th
fon, the Double Quater-foil.
By thefe differences, the fix fons of Thomas Beau¬
champ, the 15th earl of Warwick, who died in the
34th year of King Edward III. are diftinguiftred in an
old window of the church of St Mary at Warwick j
fo that although they are called modern differences, their
ufage with the Englifti is ancient.
It muft be obferved, that, of all the forementioned
marks of diftinftion, none but the label is affixed on
the coats of arms belonging to any of the royal family j
which the introducers of this peculiarity have, however,
thought proper to diftinguiffi by additional pendants
and diftinft charges on them.
As to the diftindlion to be made in the arms of the
offspring belonging to each of the above-mentioned
Plate ^rot:^ers» ^ ^ expreffed by figures on the top and
CCLV margin °f the table contained in fig. 4. For inftance,
The heir or firft fon of the fecond houfe, beareth a
crefcent charged with a label during his father’s life
only. The fecond fon of the fecond houfe, a crefcent
charged with another crefcent. The third fon of the
fecond houfe, a crefcent charged with a mullet. The
fourth fon of the fecond houfe, a crefcent charged
with a martlet. The fifth fon of the fecond houfe, a
crefcent charged with an annulet. The fixth fon of the
fecond houfe, a crefcent charged with a ffower-de-luqe;
and fo on of the other fons, taking care to have them
of a different tin&ure.
L D 11 Y. 403
In what part of the efcutcheon thefe differences Modern
fltould be borne is not certain ; for Guillim, Morgan,
and others, give us many different examples of their
pofitiom The honour-point would be the propereft
place, if the arms wrould admit of it j but that is not
always the cafe, as that part may be charged with
fome figure in the paternal coat, which cannot with
propriety receive the difference. There are inftances
where thefe are borne as perfect coats of arms, as the
examples fubjoined to the Table of Houfes fufficiently
ffiow ; which are to be blazoned thus :
The firft is “ Azure, a Label Argent.”—When
fuch a label is borne as a difference, the pendants, ac¬
cording to G. Leigh, fignify that he is but the third
perfon j the dexter pendant referring to his father,
the finifter to his mother, and the middle one to
himfelf.
The fecond is “ Argent, a Label of fine points
Azure j” borne by the name of Hentington. If a
label has more or lefs Wian three pendants or points,
they are to be expreffed as in the foregoing example
The third is “ Azure, a Crefcent Argent,” borne
by the name of Lucy.—The reafon G. Leigh affigns
for the fecond foil’s having a crefcent for a difference
is to (how that he ffiould increafe the family by adding
to it riches and reputation.
The fourth is “ Argent, a Mullet Sable, on a
Chief Azure, a Fleur-de-lis Or $” borne by the name
of Rogers, in Gloucefterfliire.—A mullet or fpur was
appointed for the third fan’s difference, as the laft
mentioned author fays, to ffiow that he ffiould follow
chivalry.
The fifth is “ Azure, a Fleur-de-lis Argent ;”
borne by the right hon. Henry Digby, Baron Digby
of Geaffiil, in King’s county, Ireland.
Thefe few examples, among many more that might
be given, demonftrate the impropriety of adopting
thefe modern differences, as they are called, for marks
of cadency to diftinguiffi the different branches of a
family : for it is impoffible to diftinguiffi the uncle or
grand-uncle, from the nephew, or grand-nephew', if
each of them are fecond, third, or fourth fons; and
in the courfe of fucceffion thefe differences would mul¬
tiply to fuch a number, that it would be impoffible to
delineate them diftindtly in moft cafes. But as they
are given by moft of the Engliffi writers on heraldry,
though no foreign nation ufes them, it was thought
proper to infert them here.
Sifters, except of the blood-royal, have no other
mark of difference in their coats of arms, but the form
of the efcutcheon (as obferved before) ; therefore they
are permitted to bear the arms of their father, even as
the eldeft fon does after his father’s deceafe. The reafon
of which is by Guillim faid to be, that when they are
married, they lofe their furname, and receive that of
their huffiands.
Next to thefe diminutions, G.. Leigh, J. Guillim,
and after them Dr Harris in his Lexicon Technicum,
fet forth at large divers figures, which they pretend
were formerly added to the coats of fuch as were to
be puniffied and branded for cowardice, fornication,
flander, adultery, treafon, or murder, for which they
give them the name of abatements of honour $ but as
they produce but one inftance of fuch whimfical bear¬
ings, we have not inferted them here. Befides, arms
3 F 2 kemg
4°+ HERA
Honour- being marks of honour, they cannot admit of any note
rable.O'di-0f infamy J nor would any body now-a-days-bear them
s—' . if they were fo branded. It is true, a man may be
degraded lor divers crimes, particularly high treafon ;
but in fuch cafes the efcutcheon is reverfed, trod upon,
and torn in pieces, to denote a total extindion and
luppreflion of the honour and dignity of the perfon to
whom it belonged.
Plate
CCLV.
Chap. III. Of the Charges.
Armorists call a charge wdratfoever is contained
in the field, wdiether it occupy the whole or only a
part thereof. All charges are diftinguifhed by the
names of honourable ordinaries, fub-ordinaries, md com¬
mon charges.
Honourable ordinaries, the principal charges in he¬
raldry, are made of lines only, which, according to their
difpolition and form, receive different names.
Sub-ordinaries are ancient heraldic figures, frequent¬
ly ufed in coats of arms, and which are diftinguifhed by
terms appropriated to each of them.
Common charges are compofed of natural, artificial,
and even chimerical things j fuch as planets, creatures,
vegetables, inftruments, &c.
Sect. I. Of Honourable Ordinaries.
The moft judicious armorifts admit only of nine ho¬
nourable ordinaries, viz.
The Chief
The Pale
The Bend
The Bend finifter
The Fefs
The Bar
The Cheveron
The Crofs
and
The Saltier.
Of thefe, but fix have diminutives, which are called
as follows: That of the chief is a fillet; the pale has a
pallet and endorfe ; the bend, a bendlet, cofi, and ribband;
the bend finifter has the ficarp, and baton ; the bar, the
clofiet and barulet ; the cheveron, a chevronel and couple-
clofie. All which will be treated of in their order.
Art. i . Of the Chief.
The chief is an ordinary determined by an hori¬
zontal line, which, if it is of any other form but
ftraight, muft be expreffed. It is placed in the upper
part of the efcutcheon, and containeth in depth the
third part of the field. Its diminutive is a fillet, the
content of which is not to exceed one fourth of the
chief, and ftandeth in the loweft part thereof. This
ordinary is fubjeft to be charged with variety of fi¬
gures 5 and may be indented, wavy, nebule, &c. as in
the examples, fig. 5.
N° 1. is “ Or, a Chief indented Azure j” borne
by the right hon. Edmund Butler, Vifcount Mount-
garret, &.c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This great
and illuftrious family of the Butlers, fo renowned for
the many valiant and loyal perfons it has produced, is
defeended from the ancient counts of Brion in Norman¬
dy ; but iince King Henry II. conferred the office of
chief butler of Ireland upon one of the family, he and
his fucceffors have affumed the name of Butler.
2. u Azure, a Chief engrailed Or.”
3. “ Argent, a Chief invefted Vert. ”
4-
5-
6.
7-
Of the
Chief.
D R Y. Chap. HI.
“ Vert, a Chief undy Or.”
“ Azure, a Chief nebule Argent.”
“ Or, a Chief cheeky Azure and Argent.”
. “ Ermine, a Chief quarterly Or and Gules j”
borne by the name of Peckham.
8. Argent, a Chief Sable, in the lower part thereof
a Fillet of the Field.”
6. “ Azure, fretty Argent, a Chief Or j” borne
by the right lion. Hayes St Leger, Vifcount Do-
neraile, &c. of the county of Cork in Ireland. This
ancient and noble family is of French extradlion •, and
is defeended from Sir Robert Sent Legere, Knight,
who, in 1066, accompanied William duke of Nor¬
mandy in his expedition into England j and the fa¬
mily have a tradition, that he, with his own hand,
lupported the laid duke when he quitted the (hip to
land in Suflex.
10. “ Argent, on a Chief engrailed Azure, a
T ortoife paflant Or j” borne by the name of Bid-
good.
ti* <£ Argent, on a Chief Gules, two Spur revels
Or; borne by the right hon. John St John, Lord
St John of Bletftioe, &c. Of this ancient family,
which derive their furname from a place called St John
in Normandy, was John de St John, Efq. who ha-
ving a principal employment in the army of the Nor¬
man duke, attended him in his expedition into Eng¬
land.
“ Argent, on a Chief Vert, two Spears Heads
12.
ere£! of the Field, the points imbrued Gules $” borne
by the right hon. George Brodrick, Vifcount Middle-
ton, &.c. of the kingdom of Ireland. This family is
lineally defeended from George de Brodrick, who came
into England in the reign of William II.
13. “ Or, on a Chief Sable, three Efcallops of the
field,” for the name of Graham; and borne quartered
in the arms of his Grace William Graham, duke, mar¬
quis, and earl of Montrofe, &c. with Argent three
Rofes Gules. According to the Scots w'riters this great
and noble family is defeended from the renowned Greme
or Grame, who in the year 404 was general of King
Fergus II.’s army, and in 420 forced his way through
the wrall built by the Romans between the rivers Forth
and Clyde to keep out the Scots from molefting them
in their poffeffions, and the laid breach has ever fince
been called Gratne's Dike.
14. “ Argent, on a Chief indented Gules, three
Croffes pattee of the Field ; borne by the right hon.
John Percival earl of Egmont, &c. This very ancient
and noble family is fuppofed, from circumftances little
flrort of pofitive proof, to have fprung from a younger
branch of the fovereign dukes of Bretagne in France,
of the fame name. They w^ere tranfplanted into Nor¬
mandy before the conqueft, poffeffed of great eftates
and powder, and invefted with the office of chief butler.
Upon the Norman invafion, two of this family came
over into England with the Conqueror, from one of
which the defeent of the prefent earl of Egmont is de¬
duced by the cleareft and moft indifputable proofs of
hiftorians and records.
15. Azure, on a Chief indented Or, three Spur-
revels Gules $” borne by the right hon. Charles Moore,
earl of Drogheda, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland.
This noble family, which is of French extraction, came
into England foon after the conqueft, and made their
firft
Chap. III. HERA
Of the firft residence In the manor of Moore-court, in the
, county of Kent.
16. “ Ermine, on a Chief indented Azure, three
ducal coronets Or j” borne by the name of Lytton.
17. “ Azure, on a Chief Or, three Martlets Gules,”
for the name of Wray ; and borne by Sir Cecil Wray,
Bart, of Lincolnllnre.
18. “ Ermine, on a Chief Gules j five Lozenges of
the firll borne by the name of Dixin.
19. “ Argent, fretty Gules, on a Chief of the fecond,
three Leopards Faces Or borne by the right hon.
Henry Liddel, Lord Ravenfworth. This noble lord is
defcended from the ancient lords of Liddle-caitle, in the
county of Durham, where they have been proprietors
of great coal-mines time out of mind.
20. “ Ermine, a Chief party per pale Azure and
Or \ on the dexter the Sun in his fplendour, on the fini-
fler a Crofs pattee Gules.” The arms of the bilhopric
of Raphoe, in the kingdom of Ireland.
Art. 2. Of the Pale.
The Pale is an ordinary, confifting of two perpen¬
dicular lines drawn from the top to the bafe of the e-
fcutcheon, and contains the third middle part of the
field. Its diminutives are, the pallet, which is the half
of the pale ; and the endorfe, which is the fourth part
of a pale. This ordinary and the pallet may receive
any charge, but the endorfe fhould not be charged.
The endorfe, befides, is never ufed, according to J.
Leigh, but to accompany the pale in pairs, as cotices
do the bend ; but Sir John Feme is of a different opi-
Plate ni°n- fig- 6.
CCLV. Ex. 1. “ Gules, a Pale Or j” by the name of Grand-
main.
2. “ Party per Pale Argent and Gules, a Pale
counterchanged.
3. “ Argent, a Pale between two Endorfes Gules.”
4. “ Party per Pale, iff, Paly of fix Argent and
Sable, 2d, Azure borne by the name of Trenchard.
5. “ Paly of fix Or and Azure.”
6. “ Argent, three Pallets undy Sable j” by the
name of Downes.
7. “ Party per Pale, Argent and Gules;” borne by
the right honourable John Waldegrave, Earl Walde-
grave, &c. This noble earl is defcended from John de
Waldegrave, who was (heriff of London in the year
I 205, in the feventh year of King John.
8. “ Party per Pale indented, Or and Gules j”
borne by the right honourable Thomas Bermingham,
baron of Athenry, in the kingdom of Ireland. Of this
ancient and noble family, which are of Englilh extrac¬
tion, and took their name from the town of Berming¬
ham in the county of Warwick, was William de Ber-
mingham, who was poffeffed of the town of that name
in the reign of Henry II. which continued in that fa¬
mily till the reign of Henry VIII.
9. “ Quarterly per Pale dove-tail, Gules and Or j”
borne by the right honourable Thomas Bromley, Lord
Montfort, &c. ihis noble lord is maternally defcend¬
ed from Sir Walter Bromleghe of Bromleghe, in the
county of Stafford, who fiourilhed in the reign of King
John. Sir Thomas Bromley, another of his lordfhip’s
ancefiors, was conftituted lord high chancellor of
England, 21 Elizabeth j in which poll he died, 29 E-
lizabeth.
L B n Y. 405
10. “ Argent, a Pale flory counterflory Sable.” Of the
ir. “Argent, a Pale lozengy Sable j” borne by.
the name of Savage. —y—~
12. “ Argent, a Pale indented Vert j” borne by
the name of Dickfon.
“ 13. “ Argent, on a Pale engrailed Sable, three
Crefcents Or j” borne by the name of Ap^ly.
14. “ Ermine on a Pale engrailed azure, three
Lion’s Heads couped Or j” borne by the name of A-
very.
15. “ Vert, on a Pale radiant Or, a Lion ram¬
pant Sable j” borne by the right honourable James
O’Hara, Lord Tyrawley, &c. in the kingdom of Ire¬
land. This noble lord is defcended from Milefius king
of Spain, by his eldelf fon Hiberius, w-ho, with his
brother Heremon, eftablilhed a colony in Ireland. Sir
Charles 0‘Hara, father to the prefent lord, was created
baron of Tyrawley by Queen Anne, Jan. 10. 1706, be¬
ing at that time a lieutenant-genera.!, and colonel of
the royal regiment of fufileers : and the next year was
made general in Spain, where this fon, Lord James, was
W'ounded at the battle of Almanza.
16. “ Azure, a Pallet Argent.”
17. “ Vert, an Endorfe Or.”
18. “ Argent, on two Pallets Sable, fix Crofs-
croflets fitchy Or j” borne by the name of Betimes, of
the county of Salop.
19. “ Argent, two Endorfes Gules, in Chief three
Mullets Sable j” borne by the name of Vautort.
20. “ Azure, on a Pale walled with three pieces on
each fide Or, an Endorfe Sable j” borne by the name
of Sublet de Noyers, a family of diffin&ion in France.
Art. 3. Of the Bend and Bend-sinister.
The bend is an ordinary formed by two diagonal
lines, drawn from the dcxter-chief to the finiffer-bafe :
and contains the fifth part of the field in ^breadth, if un¬
charged ; but if charged, then the third. Its diminu¬
tives are, the bendlet, which is the half of a bend ; the
coil or cotice, when two of them, accompany a bend,
which is the fourth part of a bend 5 and the ribband, the
moiety of a coft, or the eighth part of the field.
There is alfo the bend-finiller, which is of the fame
breadth as the bend, but drawn the contrary way : this
is fubdivided into a fcrape, which is the half of the
bend, and into a baton, which is the fourth part of
the bend, but does not extend itfelf to the extremities
of the field, there being part of it feen at both ends.
See the examples, fig. 7. pj (
Ex. 1. “ Argent, a Bend wavy Sable 5” borne by CGLVL
the right honourable John Wallop, earl of Portfmouth,
&c. This noble earl is defcended from the Wallops
of Hampfhire, a Saxon family, who were poffeffed of.
lands to a confiderable value in the county at the time
of the conqueft.
2. “ Cheeky Or, and Azure, a Bend Ermine j”
borne by the right honourable John Ward, Vifcount
Dudley and Ward, &c. The anceffors of this noble
lord were anciently of the county of Norfolk, of which
was Simon Ward, who had large poffeflions in the
reign of Edward I. and was in France and Scotland in
the reigns of King Edward II. and III.
3- “ Azure, a Bend engrailed Argent, between
two Cotices Or 5” borne by the right honourable
Matthew Fortefcue, Lord Fortefcue, as alfo by the.
right
4°6 HERA
Of the right honourable Hugh Foi tefcue-Aland, Baron Forte-
i -e”( ’ , fcue, in the kingdom of Ireland, this laft nobleman
bearing a crefcent in his arms for difference. The fa¬
mily of Fortefcue is defcended from Sir Richard le
Forte, a perfon of extraordinary ftrength and courage,
who accompanied William duke of Normany in his fn-
vafion of England ; and bearing a ftrong iliield before
the duke, at the battle of Haftings, had three horfes
killed under him, and from that fignal event the name
and motto of the family were aflumed; for the Latin
word fcutum, or the old French word efcue “ a fhield,”
being added to forte “ ftrong,” compofe their name ;
and the motto is, Forte fcutum falus ducum.
4. “ Sable, a Bend Argent between two Cotices in¬
dented Or j” borne by the name of French.
5. “ Paly of fix Or and Sable, a Bend counter-
changed borne by the right honourable Frederick
Calvert, Baron Baltimore. Tho original of this family
is from an ancient and noble houfe of that furname in
the earldom of Flanders, -whereof Sir George Calvert,
knight, among other honourable employments, was
fecretary of ftate to King James I. by whom he was
created a baron, Feb. 20. 1624, and from whom he had
a grant to him, and his heirs, of the province of Mary¬
land and Avalon in America.
6. “ Party per Bend crenelle Argent and Gules f
borne by the right honourable Edmund Boyle, earl of
Cork and Orrery, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This
noble lord is faid to be defcended from Sir Philip Boyle,
a knight of Arragon, who, in the reign of King
Henry VI. tilted at a tournament with Sir Jofeph
Aftley, knight of the Garter.
7. “ Argent, three Bendlets enhanfed Gules
as the Englifti exprefs it, but the phrafe enhanfed is
ufed by no other nation. The proper blazon of this
arms is, Parted per bend, ift bendy of fix gules, and
argent 5 2d of the laft. Borne by the right honour¬
able William Byron, Lord Byron. From Doomfday-
book it appears, that this family was poffefled of numer¬
ous manors and lands in the reign of the Conqueror \
and that Sir John Byron, one of his lordftiip’s an-
ceftors, attended King Edward III. in his wars in
France.
8. “ Ermine, a Bend voided Gules j” borne by the
name of I reton.
9. “ Argent three Bendlets wavy Azure j” borne
by the name of WUbraham.
10. “ Bendy of fix pieces Argent and Azure.” Ob-
ferve, that when the Ihield is filled with an equal num¬
ber of bendlets of metal and colour, it is called bendy ;
but if the number of them is unequal, they are to be
blazoned by the name bendiets, and their number fpe-
cified.
11. “ Party per Bend Azure and Argent, two Bend¬
lets engrailed counterchanged $” borne by the name of
Frenes.
12. “ Quarterly, Or and Gules, a Bend over-all
Vair ;” borne by his grace Lionel Cranfield Sackville,
duke of Dorfet and earl of Middlefex, &c. The an-
ceftors of this family were lords of the town and feig-
niory of Sackville in Normandy, and came over with
the Conqueror whlen he invaded England in 1066.
13. “ Gules on a Bend Argent, three Trefoils Hip¬
ped proper borne by the right honourable George
William Hervey, earl of Briftol, See. This noble lord
1
L D R \. Chap. Ill,
derives his pedigree from Robert Fitz-Hervey, aOftheFefs
younger fon of Hervey duke of Orleans, who came and Bar.
over from France with William the Conqueror. u—y—
14. “ Argent, on a bend Gules coti fed Sable; three
pairs of Wings conjoined of the firftborne by the
right honourable Richard Wingfield, Vifcount Powers-
court, in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble lord
is denominated from the manor of Wingfield in Suffolk,
where they had a feat before the Norman conqueft
called Wingfeld-cajlle. '
I5' Gules, on a Bend centre Ermine cotifed Or,
three Boars Heads couped Argent ;” borne by the
right honourable George Edgcumbe, Lord Edgcumbe,
&c. The anceftors of this noble lord received their
name from the manor of Edgcumbe in Devonlhire.
One of this lord’s anceftors was Sir Richard Edgcumbe,
who came over to England with the earl of Richmond)
having a great ftiare in the vidlory he obtained over
King Richard III. at Boftvorth, by which the earl
made his way to the throne of England.
16. “ Argent, a Bend-finifter Gules.”
17. “ Or, a Bendlet Gules.”
18. “ Argent, a Ribband Gules.”—The name of
this bearing- correfponds well with its form, being both
long and narrow, which is the ftiape of a ribband.
19. “ Azure, a Scrape Or.”—This bearing, as
Guillim obferves, is that kind of ornament called now-
a-days a Scarf which is ufed by officers on duty, and
ufually w-orn after the fame manner.
20. This contains three Batons. The firft is corn-
pony ermine and azure ; fet over the royal arms, for
his grace William Fitzroy duke of Cleveland. The fe-
cond is compony argent and azure ; fet over the royal
arms, for his grace Auguftus Henry Fitzroy, duke of
Grafton. 7 he third is gules, charged with three rofes
argent, feeded and barbed proper ; fet over the royal
arms, for his grace George Beauclerk, duke of St Al¬
bans. The grandfathers of thefe noble dukes being na¬
tural fons of King Charles II. is what entitles them to
the royal arms.
Art. 4. Of the Fess and Bar.
The Fefs is an ordinary which is produced by two
parallel lines, drawn horizontally acrofs the centre of
the field, and contains in breadth the third part there¬
of. Some Englifti writers fay it has no diminutive,
for a bar is a diftimft ordinary of itfelf.
The Bar, according to theit-definition, is formed of
two lines, and contains but the fifth part of the field :
which is not the only thing wherein it differs from the
fefs; for there mhy be more than one in an efcutcheon,
placed in different parts thereof, whereas the fefs is
limited to the centre-point; but in this the French
differ trom them. The bar has two diminutives; the
barulet, which containsAhe half of the bar ; and the
clofet, which is the half of the barulet. When the
ihield contains a number of bars of metal and colour al¬
ternate, of even number, that is called barn; of fo
many pieces, exprefling their number. See the ex- Plate
amples, fig. 8. CCWX
N° 1. is “ Argent, a Fefs indented Sable :” borne
by the right honourable John Weft, Earl Delaware, &c.
7 his noble family is defcended from the Wefts, a great
family in the weft of England ; but in the reign of
Edward II. they appear to have been feifed of ma¬
nors
Chap. III. HERA
Of the Fefs nors and lands in the county of Warwick. Sir Tho-
and Bar. mas knight, one of his lord drip’s anceftors,
being at the battle of Creffy, and there taking John
the French king prifoner, had granted him, for that
remarkable adiion, an augmentation to his atchieve-
ment, viz. a Crampette Or, diftinguifhed by the chape
of a fword in the middle j the chape being given him
by the laid king, as an acknowledgment of his be¬
coming his prifoner: his cognizance was a rofe parted
per pale, argent, and gules j which two badges are
Hill borne in the atchievement of the prefent Lord De¬
laware.
2. “ Argent, a Fefs wreathed Azure and Gules
borne by the right honourable John Carmichael, earl
of Hyndford. Of this ancient family, which is faid to
alfume their furname from the lands of Carmichael,
in the county of Lanark, in Scotland, where they Hill
have their chief feat, was Sir John Carmichael, who
accompanied Archibald, earl of Douglas, to the aflid-
ance of Charles VI. of France, againft the Englilh ;
and fignalizing his valour at the battle of Baughey in
April 1421, and breaking his fpear when the French
and Scots got the vidlory, had thereupon added to his
paternal coat, a dexter arm holding a broken fpear,
which is now the creH of the family.
3. “ Party per Fefs Or and Argent, a Fefs nebule
Gules borne by the name of A-iteftied.
4. “ Party per Fefs indented Or and Azure j”
borne by the name of Saunders.
5. “ Cheeky Or and Azure on a Fefs Gules, a
Crefcent Argent for difference borne by the right
honourable Plugh Clifford, Lord Clifford, of Chudley.
This noble lord is defeended from Walter de Clifford,
of Clifford caille, in the county of Hereford, who came
over into England with the Conqueror j of which fa¬
mily was fair Rofamond, miff refs to King Henry II.
6. li Argent, on a Fefs Azure, three Lozenges
Or j” borne by the right honourable Eaffl Fielding,
earl of Denbigh and Defrnond, &c. This noble earl
is defeended from the earls of Hapfburg, in Germany.
Geoffrey earl of Hapfburg, being opprelfed by Ro-
dolph emperor of Germany, came over into England,
and one his fons ferved King Henry III. in his wars,
whofe anceftors laying claim to the territories of Lauf-
fenburg and Rhin-Fielding, in Germany, he took the
name of Fielding.
7. “ Or, on a Fefs Gules, three Fleurs-de-lis of the
firft }” borne by the name of Lermard. This is in the
firft and fourth quarters of the right honourable Thomas
Barret Lennard Lord Dacre’s arms.
8. “ Ermine, on a Fefs Gules, a Lion paffant Or 5”
borne by the right honourable John Proby, Baron Carys-
fort, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland.
9. “ Sable, a Fefs Ermine, between three Cref-
cents Or j” borne by the right honourable George
William Coventry, earl of Coventry, &c. This noble
earl is defeended from John Coventry, a native of the
City of Coventry, and afterwards mercer and lord mayor
of London, in the reign of Henry V. : from whom de¬
feended Thomas Coventry, one of the juftices of the
court of common-ideas, in the reign of Queen Eliza¬
beth ; whofe fon Thomas was recorder of London, and
afterwards lord keeper of the great feal in the reien
of King Charles I.
JO. “ Sable, a Fefs cheeky, Grand Azure, between
L D R Y. 407
three Befgnts j” borne by the right honourable Ridge- Of the Fefr
way Pitt, earl and baron of Londonderry, &c. Of and Bar.
this noble family, which wTere anciently of Bandfort, '1'" “v
in the county of Dorfet, was Thomas Pitt, Efq. wEo,
in the reign of Queen Anne, was made governor of Fort
St George in the Eart Indies, wdiere he refided many
years, and purchafed a diamond, which he fold to the
king of Fiance for 125,000!. fterling, weighing 136
carats, and commonly known at this day by the name
of Pul's diamond.
11. “ Or, on a Fefs Sable, between three Mufcovy
Ducks proper, a Rofe of the Field j” borne by- the
right honourable John Bateman, Vifcount Bateman,
&c. Of this noble family, which was anciently feated
at Halefbrook, near St Omers in Flanders, was Giles
Bateman, Efq. whofe fon was a merchant of London,
and was father to Sir James Bateman, knight, who, in
1712, was chofen member of parliament for Ilchefter
in the county of Somerfet, and re-chofen in 1713.
12. “ Sable, on a Fefs Argent, between three Leo¬
pards paffant guardant Or, three Efcalops Gules
borne by the right honourable Wills Hill, earl of Hillf-
borough, S;c. Of this family, which, in the reign of
Queen Elizabeth, were of note in the county ofDowne,
was Sir Mofes Hill, who, during O’Neile’s rebellion,
was one of thofe gentlemen who affociated under the
earl of Effex to fupprefs it \ and afterwards ferved un¬
der Arthur Lord Chicheffer, lord deputy, and by King
James I. was appointed provoft-marfhal of the whole
province of Ulfter in Ireland.
13. “ Gules, two Bars Or5” borne by the right
honourable Simon Harcourt, earl of Harcourt, Sic.
This noble earl is defeended from the Harcousts of
Normandy, who took their name from a place called
Harcourt, in that province, where the family ufually
refided. Gervaife, count de Harcourt, with his two
fons Jeffrey and Arnold, came over with the Conqueror,
when he invaded England in 1066.
14. “ Ermine, two Bars Gules 5” borne by the
right honourable Thomas Nugent, earl of Weftmeath,
Baron Delvin.
15. “Argent, twm Bars indented Sable;” borne
by the right honourable Godart Ginkle, earl of Ath-
lone. Godart, who was the firft earl, was defeended
ot a very ancient family in the united provinces of Hol¬
land, where hf was baron de Reede and Ginkle, Sec.
In 1691, he was a lieutenant-general of King William’s
forces in Ireland; where, in June the fame year, he took
Ballymore for the Englifti ; and, in July following,
the Iriih town of Athlone, which laft exploit is one of
the greateft recorded in hiftory.
16. “ Argent, three Bars gemels Gules ;” borne
by the right honourable Richard Barry, earl of Barry
more, Sec. This noble family, who have been renown¬
ed for their loyalty and valour, are faid to derive their
furname from the iftand of Barry, in the county of Gla¬
morgan, in Wales ; and from their riches and eftates
have been called by the people Barrymore, or the Great
Barry.
17. “ Or, a Fefs-couped Gules, between two Lions
paffant Sable ;” borne by the right honourable Samuel
Maftiam, Lord Mafham, Sec. Fhis noble lord is de¬
feended from Sir John Maftiam, who ftourilhed in the
reign of King Henry VI. and was buried at Thorne-
ham, in the county of Suffolk, iy I4i;5.
Jt8.. '
4*8 HERA
Of the iS. “ Argent, a Lion rampant guardant Gules,
Uicvfct-on. debrutfed by a Fefs Azure, between three Etoiles if-
fuing out of as many Crefcents of the fecond;” borne
by the right honourable Robert Dillon, earl of Rofcom-
inon, &c. in the kingdom of Ireland. This noble
family is derived from Logan, furnamed Di/une dr
J?e/ion, which fignifies brave and valiant, to tvhom the
duke of Aquitaine gave his daughter in marriagej in
whofe right, after her father’s death, he became prince
and fovereign of Aquitaine, which continued in his
pofterity till Henry II. married Alionora, daughter
and heir to William V. duke of Aquitaine, and about
1172 obtained that principality by fuperior force ;
and, to prevent any didurbance, brought Sir Henry
Delion or Dillon, and his brother Thomas, then infants,
to England, their father being flain.
19. “ Or, two Bars Azure, a Chief quarterly of the
the fecond and Gules, the ill and 4th charged each
with two Fleurs-de-lis of France; the 2d and 3d with
a Lion of England j” borne by his grace John Man¬
ners, duke of Rutland, marquis of Granby, &c. This
chief w as anciently Gules; and the charge thereon is
an honorary augmentation, Ihowing his grace’s defcent
from the blood-royal of King Edward IV.
20. “ Barry of ten pieces Argent and Azure, over
all fix Efcutcheons ; 3, 2, r, Sable, each charged
with a Lion rampant of the firll, armed, and lan-
gued Gules, a Crefcent for difference}” borne by the
right honourable James Cecil, earl of Salifbury, &c.
This noble earl is defcended from the famous William
Cecil, Lord Burleigh, ftatefman in the reigns of Ed¬
ward VI. and Elizabeth. This great man left two
Ions, Thomas and Robert, who were both made earls
in one day, May 4. 1603. Robert, the younger fon,
anceftor of the prefent noble lord, was created earl of
Saliibury in the morning j and Thomas, the eldeft, earl
o£ Exeter in the afternoon.
Art. 5. Of the Cheveron.
The Cheveron, which reprefents two rafters of a
houfe well joined together, or a pair of compaffes half
open, takes up the fifth part of the field with the
Englifii, but the French give it the third. Its diminu¬
tives are, The cheveronel, which contains the half of
a cheveron ; and the couple clofe, which is the half of
a cheveronel, that is, its breadth is but the fourth part
of a cheveron. Leigh obferves, that this laft diminu¬
tive.is never borne but in pairs, or with a cheveron be¬
tween turn of them. The French have but one dimi¬
nution of this ordinary called Etaije, containing the
‘^late third part of its breadth.
CLVI. Examples of cheverons are given in fig. 9. viz.
1. “ Argent, a Cheveron Gules between three Tor-
teaux j” borne by the right hohourable Bennet Sher-
rard, earl of Harborough, &c. This noble earl is
lineally defcended from Scherard, wdio was poffeffed of
manors and lands to a great value in the counties of
Chelhire and Lancalhire in the reign of William the
Conqueror. Geoffroy, another of this earl’s anceflors,
was three times fheriff of Rutlandlhire, in the reigns of
King Edward IV. and King Richard III.
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Etoiles Ar¬
gent j” borne by the right hon. Marmaduke Lang-
dale, Lord Langdale. This noble lord is defcended
from the Langdales of Yorkfnire, who refided at the
2
L D R Y.
Ghap. Ill,
town of Langdale, from whence they took their name, Of the
in the reign 'of King John 5 but his anceftor, who Oheveroru
makes the greateft figure in hiftory, is Sir Marma-
duke Langdale, who raifed forces in the north of Ena-,
land in defence of King Charles 1.5 was victorious ixi
nurribeliefs battles and lieges ; and when his majefty,
by the united forces of England and Scotland, was at
length overpowered, he attended King Charles II. in
his exile, and returned to England with his majefty at
the reftoration.
3. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Leopards
Heads Or j” borne by the right hon. William Went¬
worth, earl of Strafford, &c. All gehealogifts agree,
that the name of Wentworth is of Saxon original, and
taken from the manor of Wentworth in Yorklhire,
where, in the reign of William the Conqueror, lived
Reginald de Wenteworde, as it is fpelt in Doomfday-
book.
4. “ Argent, a Cheveron between three Grif¬
fons paffant Sable, a Crefcent for difference borne
by the right hon. Heneage Finch, earl of Ailesford,
&c. This family is defcended from Herbert FitZ-
Herbert, earl of Pembroke, and chamberlain to King
Henry I. They took the name of Finch in the reign
of King Edward I. One of the anceftors of this fa¬
mily was the right hon. Heneage Finch, earl of Not¬
tingham, who was conftituted lord high-chancellor
of England in 1675 ; and lord high-fteward on the
trials of Philip earl of Pembroke, and William vifcouiit
Stafford, in 16S0.
5. “ Azure, a Cheveron Ermine, between three
Efcalops Argent j” borne by the right hon. George
Townftiend, Vifcount Towmfhend, &c. This family
is of Norman extra&ion, and came into England about
the time of the conqueft. Charles, lord vifcount
Townftiend, grandfather of the prefent vifcount, was
appointed principal fecretary of ftate in the reign of
King George I. in 1720, and continued fo to the end
of his majefty’s reign j when, upon refigning the feals,
they w’ere returned to him again by his late majefty
King George II. who continued him in that honour¬
able office to the year i7d°*
6. “ Azure, a Cheveron between three Mullets
Or borne by the right honourable John Chetwund
vifcount ChetW'ind, &c. of the kingdom of Ireland.
Of this family, which hath been of great antiquity in
the county of Salop, taking their furname from Chet-
wTynd in that county, was Adanl de Chetwynd, wffio
married Agnes daughter of John Lord Lovel, baron of
Dockinges, and lord of Minfter Lovel in Oxfordihire j
and by her had iffue Sir John de Chetvvynd, who, in
the 37th of Henry III. had a charter of free-warren,
through all his demefne in the counties of Salop, Staf¬
ford, and Warwick.
7. “ Argent, a Cheveron Gules, between three fquare
Buckles Sable 5” borne by the right honourable Mat¬
thew Ducie-Mdrton, Lord Ducie, &c. This nobles
lord is defcended from the Ducies in Normandy. Af¬
ter they came into England, King Edward I. conferred
on them the lordlhip of Morton in Staffordffiire, and fe~
veral other lordffiips and manors, which the family en¬
joyed for many years. Sir Robert Ducie, one of his
lordffiip’s anceftors, was lord mayor of London in the
reign of King Charles I. and though he lent his ma*
jefty 80,cool, which was loft by the king’s being
drive*!
Chap. III. HERA
Of the driven out of London, he died, however, worth
Cheveron. 400,000!.
s.-—v——j g. {{ ^rgent> a Cheveron Cheeky Gules, and of
the Held, between three Bugle-horns ftrung Sable,
garnilhed of the fecond borne by the right honour¬
able Lord Hugh Semple, Lord Semple. The princi¬
pal family of this name was Semple of Eliotflon in Ren-
frewfliire, where they had large poflellions and offices, as
Itewards and bailiffs under the family of Stewart, pro¬
prietors of that county before they came to the crown.
The firft Lord Semple was Sir Robert, who, being-
much in favour with King James IV. was by him crea¬
ted Lord Semple in 1489.
9. “ Argent, a Cheveron engrailed between three
Lions paffant Sable j” borne by the right honourable
and the reverend Philip Smithe, Vifcount Strangford.
One of this lord’s anceftors was John Smithe, Efq ;
who acquired a confiderable eftate whilft he was farm¬
er of the cuftoms in the reign of Henry VIII. He
left two fons, John and Sir Thomas j which laft was
fent ambaffador by King James I. to the emprefs of
Ruffia. 1
IO-. “ Quarterly Argent and Azure, a Cheveron
engrailed counter-changed borne by the name of
Chamber.
11. “ Party per Cheveron engrailed Gules and Ar¬
gent, three X albots Heads eraied counter-changed j”
borne by the right honourable Anthony Duncombe,
Lord Feverffiam, &c. His lordlhip is defeended from
the Duncombes of Barley-end in Buckinghamffiire. Sir
Charles Duncombe, uncle to the prefent lord, was
lord mayor of London in 1709; and this nobleman was
created Lord Feveriham and baron of Dowton in Wilt-
ffiire, June 23. 1744.
12. “ Paly of fix, Argent and Gules, on a Che¬
veron Azure, three Crofs-croflets Or j” borne by the
name of Carpenter, Baron Carpenter, of Killaghy in
Ireland. This ancient and noble family are of great
antiquity in the county of Hereford, and have been
lords of the manor of the Home in the parilh of Del-
wyn, near Weobley, for above 300 years. George, the
firff Lord Carpenter, was fo created May 4. 1 719.
13. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Befants, a Bay Leaf Proper $” borne by the right hon¬
ourable ;Tames Hope, earl of Hopeton, &c. This noble
family is defeended from Henry Hope, a native of
Holland, who, about two centuries ago, came over
and fettled in Scotland. Charles Hope, Efq. grand¬
father of the prefent earl, was created an earl by Oueen
Anne, April 13. 1703.
14* “ Vert, on a Cheveron between three Unicorns
Heads erafed Argent, horned and maned Or, three
Mullets Sable borne by the name of Ker, being the
iff and 4th quarters in the arms of his grace John Ker,
duke of Roxburgh, &c. This ancient family is faid
to come from Normandy. John Ker, marquis of Beau¬
mont and Cesford, the firll duke of Roxburgh, was fo
created April 27. 1707.
15. “ Azure, on a Cheveron Or, between three
Bears Heads couped (Argent, muzzled Gules, a Roe¬
buck’s Head erafed, between two Hands holding
Daggers all properborne by the right honourable
Donald Mackay, Lord Reay. This family is faid to
derive their defeent from Alexander, a younger fon of
Ochonacker, who, about the end of the twelfth cen-
Vol, X. Part II,
LDRV 40
tury, came from Ireland j and the fourth in defeent Of the
from him was Donald of Strathnavern, whofe fon was Crofs.
named 2 More; and from him began the furname
of Mac T, Mackie, or Mackay. Donald, the firlt
lord of this family, was created baronet in 1625, and
on June 20. 1628, was created Baron Reay of the
county of Caithnefs, by Charles I.
16. “ Ermine, on a Cheveron Azure, three Foxes
Heads erafed Or, and in a Canton of the fecond a
Fleur-de-lis of the third borne by the right hon-
ouiable Stephen, earl of Ilchefler, &.c. Of the family
of I ox there have been many perfons of note living m
the counties of Dorfet, Somerfet, Wilts, and Hants,
particularly Richard Fox, bilhop of Winchefter. His
lordlhip was created Lord Ilchefter and Baron Strange-
ways, May n. 1741, 14 Geo. II. and earl of Ilche-
ffer in June 1736.
17. “ Or, two Cheveronels Gules j” borne by the
right honourable John Monfon, Lord Monfon. This
noble lord is defeended from John Monfon, who flou-
nlhed in the reign of King Edward HI. from whom
defeended another John, who attended King Henry V.
in his wars in France. Sir John Monfon, Bart, father
of the prefent lord, was created Lord Monfon, May
28. 1728. J
18. “ Orj on a Fefs, between two Cheveronels
Sable, three Crofs-crollets of the firff borne by the
right honourable George Walpole, earl of Orford, &c.
Xhis family took their name from Walpole in Norfolk,
where they refided before the conqueft. Sir Robert
Walpole was, in King George II.’s reign, eleaed
knight of the garter in 1726, and created earl of Or¬
ford, February 9. 1741-2.
19. “ Azure, three Cheveronels interlaced Or,
and a Chief ot the laft j” borne by the name of Fil¬
ling h.
20. “ Argent, three Cheveronels Gules, in Chief a
Label Azure borne by the right honourable Wil¬
liam V ildman Barrington, Vifcount Barrington, &c.
X his family is of Norman extra6Xion j in wffiich duchy,
whilft it continued annexed to the Englifti crown, there
w'ere to be feen the remains of a caftle, bearing the
name of Chute, or Shute, and formerly in the family,
with other monuments in feveral towns of that duchy.
John Shute, the late Vifcount Barrington, was in 1708
made a commiffioner of the cuftoms, and fucceeded to
the eftates of Francis Barrington, Efq.; and of John
Wild man of the county of Berks, who made him their
heir 5 and in purfuance of the will of the former, he
took the name and arms of Barrington. On June n.
1720, he was created Vifcount Barrington.
Art. 6. Of the Cross.
The Crofs is an ordinary formed by the meeting of
two perpendicular with two horizontal lines in the
fefs-point, where they make four right angles; the
lines are not drawn throughout, but difeontinued the
breadth of the ordinary, which takes up only the fifth
part of the field when not charged j but if charged,
then the third. It is borne as well engrailed, in¬
dented, &c. as plain.
There is fo great a variety of croffes ufed in he¬
raldry, that it would be a very difficult talk to treat
of them all. Guillim has mentioned 39 different forts ;
De la Columbiere, 72 3 Leigh, 46; and Upton declares
3 F he
4io
Of the
Crofs.
Plate,
ecLvi.
I
H E R A
he dares not afcertain all the various erodes borne in
arms, for that they are almoft innumerable •, there¬
fore, as all their forms cannot be expected here, we
will only take notice of fuch as are moft commonly
feen at prefent in coats-of arms. See Fig. 10.
The fir ft is “ Quarterly, Ermine and Azure, a
Crofs Or 5” borne by his grace Thomas Olborne duke
of Leeds, &c. This noble duke is defeended from
the honourable family of the Ofbornes of Alhford, in
the county of Kent 5 Sir Thomas Ofborne, the grand¬
father to the prelent duke, was advanced to the peer¬
age by King Charles II.
2. “ Gules, a Crofs engrailed Argent, a Lozenge
in the dexter-chief of the lecond borne by the right
honourable Edward Leigh, Lord Leigh. This family
took their furname from the town of High Leigh in
Chefhire, where they refided before the Norman con-
queft. Sir Thomas Leigh, the firft lord of this fami¬
ly, was created Baron Leigh of Stonely, by King
Charles I. on July i. 1643.
3. “ Gules, a Crofs Argent fretty Azure:” borne
by the right honourable .Nicholas Taaffe, Vifcount
Taaffe, of Corran, &c. in Ireland. Of this noble and
ancient family was Richard Taaffe, who lived in 128
as in 1306 did John Taaffe, who was archbilhop'of Ar¬
magh j and, in 1479, t^e or^c1' t^ie Garter being
eftablilhed in Ireland, Sir Nicholas Taaffe was one of
the firft members 5 and John, his fon and heir, wras
created a baron and vifcount by Charles I. Auguft 1.
1628.
4. “ Sable, a Crofs raguly Or 5” borne by the name
of Stovoay.
5. “ Argent, on a Crofs Sable, a Leopard’s face
Or borne by his grace Henry Brydges duke of
Chandos, &c. The anceftors of this noble family took
their name from the city of Bruges in Flanders ; and
one of them came over wdth William the Conqueror,
and had a confiderable ftiare in the viftory obtained
near Haftings in Suffex, 1066. James, the father of
the prefent duke, was created Vifcount Wilton and earl
of Caernarvon, Oftober 19. 1714; and marquis of
Caernarvon and duke of Chandos,  30. I7I9>
6. “ Or, on a Crofs Sable, a patriarchal Crofs of
the Field j” borne by the right honourable Thomas
Vefey, baron of Knapton in the kingdom of Ireland.
The truly noble family of Vefcey or Vefey, derives its
origin from Charles the Great, king of France, and
emperor of the weft^ who died at Aix-la-Chapelle in
Germany, January 28. 814. His lordihip’s father was
created a peer April 10. 1750'
7. “ Argent, on a Crofs Gules, five Efcalops Or 5”
borne by the right honourable William Villiers earl of
Jerfey, Sec. This noble earl is defeended from the fa¬
mily of Villiers in Normandy, fome of whom came over
to England with the Conqueror •, feveral manors and
lands in England being foon after granted to Pagan
de Villiers, one of this earl’s anceftors. The firft peer
of this family was created a baron and vifcount, March
20. 1690.
8. “ Sable, on a Crofs within a Bordure engrailed
Or, five Pellets borne by the right honourable
Francis Greville, earl of Brooke and Warwick, &c.
The anceftors of this noble family are of Norman ex-
tra£tion, and came over with William the Conqueror,
who conferred manors and lands on them in England,
L D R Y. Chap, ill,
of a confiderable value j and at length they obtained Of the
the government of the caftle of Warwdck, the prefent Crofs.
feat of the family. Sir Fulke, the firft peer of this fa-'
mily, was created Baron Brooke by King James I.
January 9. 1620.
9. Argent, a Crofs botonny Sable,” borne-by the
name of Winwoocl.
jo. “ Or, a Crofs-croftet Gules,” borne by the name
of Taddington.
11. “ Azure, a Crofs potent fitchy Or.” This en-
fign is faid to have been borne by Ethelred king of
the Weft Saxons ; and croffes ol this fort are frequent¬
ly met with in coats of arms.
12. “ Party per pale, Gules and Argent •, a Crofs
potent quadrate in the Centre, between four Crofles
pattee counter-changed 5” the arms of the epifcopal fee
of Litchfield and Coventry. This fee wTas originally
fixed at Litchfield ; from thence removed to Chefter,
and from both to Coventry. It contains the whole
county of Stafford, except two parifties ; all Derby-
ftrire ; the better part of Warwicklhire, and near half
Shropftu’re •, divided into the four archdeaconiJes of
Coventry, Stafford, Derby, and Salop. The parifiies
are 5 97 in number ; but, including chapels, they
amount to 643.
13. “ Azure, a Crofs moline Argent j” borne by
bis grace Cavendilh Bentinck, duke of Portland, &c.
This noble duke is defeended from a very ancient
and diftinguiihed family in the United Provinces of
Holland, of which w^as William Bentinck, Eiq. wTho
in his youth was page of honour to William prince of
Orange, afterwards William III. king of Great Bri¬
tain, and, on the acceflion of William and his con-
fort, was made' groom of the ftole, privy-purfe to
his majefty, lieutenant-general of his majefty’s ar¬
my, &,c. and alfo created baron of Cirencefter, Vii-
count Woodftock, and earl of Portland, April 19.
1689.
14. “ Argent, a Crofs patonce Sable 5” borne by
the name of Rice.
15. “ Sable, a Crofs pattee Argent j” borne by the
name of Maplefden.
16. “ Azure, a Crofs flowery Or; borne by the
name of Cheney.—This is faid to have alio been the
arms of Edwdn, the firft Chriftian king of Northum¬
berland.
17. “ Argent, fix Crofs-croftets fitchy 3, 2, I,
I Sable, on a Chief Azure, two Mullets pierced Or,”
borne by his grace Henry Clinton, duke of New-
calile, &.c. This noble family is defeended from Jef¬
frey de Clinton, lord chamberlain ,and treafurer to
King Henry I. grandfbn to William de Tankerville,
chamberlain of Normandy; from whom defeended
William de Clinton, chief juftice of Chefter, governor
of Dover caftle, lord warden of the king’s forefts
fouth of Trent. Edward Lord Clinton, another of
this noble earl’s anceftors, was conifituted lord high-
admiral of England for life, in the reign of Queen
Elizabeth, who created him earl of Lincoln, May 4.
lSl*-
18. “ Gules, a Cheveron between ten Croffes pat¬
tee, fix above and four below, Argentborne by the
right honourable Frederick Auguftus Berkeley, earl of
Berkeley, &c. This noble family is defeended from
Robert Fitz-Harding, who obtained a grant of Berke-
Chap. III.
HERA
ley-caftle in Gloucefterfliire, which the family flill in¬
herits, and from whence they obtained the furname of
Berkeley, from Henry duke of Normandy, afterwards
king ol England; the faid Robert Fitz-Harding
was defcended from the royal line of the kings of
Denmark.
19. “ Azure, three mullets Or, accompanied with
feven Crofs-croflets fitchy Argent, three in Chief, one
in Fefs, two in Flanks, and the laft in Bafe borne
by the right honourable James Somerville, Lord So¬
merville. The firft of this name on record is Sir Wal¬
ter de Somerville, lord of Wichmore, in the county of
Stafford, who came to England with William the Con¬
queror.
20. “ Gules, three Crofles recercelee, voided Or,
a Chief vairy ermine and contre ermine borne by
the right honourable John Peyto Verney, Baron Wil¬
loughby de Broke. This noble lord is defcended from
William de Vernal, who ffouriffied in the reign of
King Henry I. 1119.
Art. 7. Of the Saltier.
The Saltier, which is formed by the bend and bend-
finifler eroding each other in right angles, as the in-
* terfefling of the pale and fefs forms the crofs, con¬
tains the fifth part of the field ; but if charged, then
the third. In Scotland, this ordinary is frequently
called a St Andrew's Crofs. It may, like the others,
p]ate be borne engrailed, wavy, &c. as alfo between charges
CCLVII. or charged with any thing. See examples, fig. 11.
N° I. is “ Argent, a Saltier Gulesborne by his
grace James Fitz-Gerald, duke of Leinfter, See. This
noble lord is defcended from Otho, or Other, a rich
and powerful lord in the time of King Alfred, de¬
fcended from the dukes of Tufcany; who palling from
Florence into Normandy, and thence into England,
there the family ffourilhed, until Richard Strongbow,
earl of Pembroke, their kinfman, engaged them to
partake in his expedition to Ireland, in which Maurice
Fitz-Gerald embarked, and was one of the principal
conquerors of that kingdom, for which he was reward¬
ed with a great eftate in lands in the province of Lein-
ffer, and particularly the barony of Offaley, and the
caftle of Wicklow; and died, covered with honours,
in the year 1177, 24 Henry II.
2. “ Gules, a Saltier Argent, between twelve Crofs-
croflets Or;” borne by the right hon. Other-Lewis
Windfor Hickman, earl of Plymouth, &c. This noble
earl is defcended from Robert Fitz-Hicman, lord of
the manor of Bloxham, Oxfordlhire, in the 56 Hen. III.
1 27 2; and he is maternally defcended from the noble
family of the Windfors, who were barons of the realm
at the time of the conqueil.
3. “ Vert, a Saltier wavy Ermine borne by the
name of IVaketnan of Beckford, in Gloucefterihire.
4. “ Ermine, a Saltier counter-compony Or and
Gules ;” borne by the name of Ulmjlon.
5. “ Argent, a Saltier Azure with a Bezant in
the centre ; borne by the right hon. Philip Yorke,
earl of Hardwicke, &c. He was in October 1733
conftituted lord chief-juftice of the king’s bench, and
November 23. in the fame year, created Baron Hard¬
wicke of Hardwicke.
<5. “ Argent on a Saltier Gules an Efcalop Or;”
L D R Y. 41:
the arms of the biflioprick of Rocheffer.—This clio- Of the
cefe, the leaft in England, comprehends only a fmall Saltier,
part of Kent, in which there are 150 churches and
chapels; and the two pariihes of Ifelham in Cam-
bridgefhire, and Frekenham in Suffolk. It has only
one archdeacon, that of Rochefter. For many years
it was in the immediate patronage of the archbiihop
of Canterbury.
7. “ Party per Saltiere, Azure and Argent, on a
Saltier Gules, a Crefcent of the fecond for difference ;”
quartered by the' right hon. William Hall Gage, Vif-
count Gage, of Caftle-Ifland in Ireland. This noble
family is ol Norman extraction, and derives defeent from
de Gaga or Gage, who attended William I. in his ex¬
pedition to England ; and, after the eonquelt thereof,
wras reivarded with large grants of lands in the forelt
of Dean, and county of Gloucefter, near wdiich forelt
he fixed his relidence, by building a feat at Clerenwell,
in the fame place where the houfe of Gage now Itands:
he alfo built a great houfe in the town of Cirenceffer,
at which place he died, and wras burled in the abbey
there. Sir Thomas Gage, the eighth baronet, was
created baron of Caitle-Bar, and Vilcount Gage, 1721.
8. “ Gules, on a Saltier Argent, a Rofe of the firit
barbed and feeded proper;” borne by the right hon.
George Neville, Lord Abergavenny, premier baron of
England.
9. “ Or, on a Saltier Azure, nine Lozenges of
the firff ;” the paternal arms of the right hon. John
Dalrymple, earl of Stair, &c. OF this family, which
took their furname from the barony of Dalrymple,
lying on the river Dun in Ayrihire, Scotland, was
Adam de Dalrymple, who lived in the reign of Alex¬
ander III.
10. “ Argent, on a Saltier engrailed Sable, nine
Annulets Or;” borne by the name of Leak.
11. “ Gules, a Saltier between four Crefcents Or;”
borne as the fecond and third quarters in the coat-of-
arms of the right honourable Charles Kinnaird, Lord
Kinnaird. George Kinnaird, Efq. one of the pre-
fent lord’s anceftors, being of great fervice to King
Charles II. during the ufurpation of Oliver Cromwell,
he was by that prince, at his refforation, made one of
the privy-council; and December 28. 1682, created a
baron.
12. “ Argent, a Saltier engrailed between four Ro-
fes Gules,” for Lennox ; and borne as firft and fourth
quarters in the coat-of-arms of the light hon. Francis
Napier, Lord Napier. This family is faid to be de¬
fcended from the ancient thanes or ftewards of Len¬
nox in Scotland, but took the furname of Napier
from the following event. King David II. in his wars
with the Engliih, about the year 1344, convocating
his fubjefts to battle, the earl of Lennox fent his fe-
.cond fon Donald, with fuch forces as his duty obliged
him ; and, coming to an engagement, where the Scots
gave ground, this Donald, taking his father’s ftandard
from the bearer, and valiantly charging the enemy with
the Lennox men, the fortune of the battle changed;
and they obtained the victory : whereupon every one
advancing, and reporting their afts, as the cuftom was,
the king declared they had all behaved valiantly, but
that there was one among them who had na pier, that
is, no equal; upon which the faid Donald took the
^3 F 2 name
HERA
name of Napier, and had, in reward for his good fer-
vices, the lands of Gosfield, and other eftates in the
county of Fife.
13. “ Gules, a Saltier Or, furmounted of another
Vert,” for the name of Andrews; and borne by Sir
William Andrews, bart. of Denton in Northampton-
fliire, who is defeended from Sir Robert Andrews of
Normandy, knight, who came into England with Wil¬
liam the Conqueror. Sir William Andrews, the firft
baronet of this family, was created December 11.
1641.
14. “ Azure, a Saltier quarterly quartered Or and
Argent.” The arms of the epifcopal fee of Bath and
Wells.—The diocefe of Bath and Wells contains all
Somerfetlhire, except a fewr churches in Briftol. And
in it there are three archdeaconries, viz. thofe of Wells,
Bath, and Taunton. The number of the parifhes is
388, though, according to fome, the total number of
the churches and chapels amounts to 503.
15. “ Party per Saltier Argent and Gules, a Saltier
coun ter-ch an ged.”
16. “ Party per Pale indented Argent and Sable,
a Saltier counter-changed 5” borne by the name of
Scote.
17. “ Argent, three Saltiers couped and engrailed
Sable $” borne by the name of Benton.
18. “ Argent, a Saltier Gules, and a Chief Er¬
mine }” borne by the right hon. Francis Thomas
Fitz-Maurice, earl of Kerry, &c. This very ancient
and noble family is a branch of the family of Kildare,
who are originally defeended from the great duke of
Tufcany, and of which was Otho, a noble baron of Italy,
whofe fon Walter, attending the Norman conqueror
into England, was made conftable of the caltle of
Windfor. Raymond, one of the prefent earl’s ancef-
tors, had a principal hand in the reduftion of Ireland
to the fubjeftion of Henry II. and Dermoid Mac-
Carty, king of Cork, fought his aid againft his fon
Cormac O’Lehanagh, which he undertook, and deli¬
vered the king from his rebellious fon •, for which that
prince rewarded him with a large tra6l of land in the
county of Kerry, where he lettled his fon Maurice, who
gave his name to the county, which he called Clan-
Alaurice, and is enjoyed by the prefent earl of Kerry,
who is Vifcount Clan-Maurice. Thomas the firfl earl,
and father of the lail, was the 21 ft Lord Kerry, who was
t reated earl January 17. 1722.
19. “ Sable, a Saltier Argent, on a Chief Azure,
three Fleurs-de-lis Or borne by the right hon. John
Fitz-Patrick, earl of Upper Oflbry, and baron of
Gowran in Ireland. This moft ancient and princely
family is defeended from Heremon, the firft monarch
of the Milefian race in Ireland and after they had
aflumed the furname of Fitz-Patrick, they were for
many ages kings of Ofibry, in the province of Leinfter.
John, the firft earl of this family, fucceeded his father
Richard as Lord Gowran, June 9. 1727, was created
earl Odlober 5. 1751, and died 1758.
20. “ Party per Pale Argent and Gules, three Sal¬
tiers counter-changed ;” borne by the name of Lane.
Thefe arms are alfo borne, without the leaft alteration,
by the name of Kingstnan; for which fimilitude we can
no otherwdfe account, than by fuppofing there has been
fotne quftake made through many tranferiptions,
L D R Y.
Sect. II. Of Sub-Ordinaries.
Chap. HI.
Sub-
Ordinaries.
Besides the honourable ordinaries and the diminu¬
tions already mentioned, there are other heraldric fi¬
gures, called fub-ordinaries, or ordinaries only, which,
by reafon of their ancient ufe in arms, are of worthy
bearing, viz. The Gyron, Franc-quarter, Canton,
Pairle, Fret, Pile, Orle, Inefcutcheon, Treffure, An¬
nulet, Flanches, Flafques, Voiders, Billet, Lozenge,
Gutts, Fufil, Ruftre, Mafcle, Papillone, and Diapor,
See Plate CCLIV. fig. 1. (a.)
The Gyron is a triangular figure formed by two
lines, one drawn diagonally from one of the four an¬
gles to the centre of the fhield, and the other is drawn
either horizontal or perpendicular, from one of the
fides of the fhield, meeting the other line at the cen¬
tre of the field.
Gyronny is faid, when the field is covered with fix,
eight, ten, or twelve gyrons in a coat-of-arms: but a
French author would have the true gyronny to confift
of eight pieces only, as in the fig. which reprefents the
coat-of-arms of Flora Campbell countefs of Loudon,
&c. whofe anceftor was created baron of Loudon in
1604 by James VI. and earl of the fame place, May 12,
1633, the 9th of Charles I.
The Franc-quarter is a fquare figure, which occu¬
pies the upper dexter quarter of the ihield. It is but
rarely carried as a charge. Silveftra Petra Sandla has
given us a few’ inftances of its ufe.
The Canton is a fquare part of the efcutcheon,
fomewhat lefs than the quarter, but without any fixed
proportion. It reprefents the banner that wras given
to ancient knights-bannerets, and, generally fpeaking,
pofiefies the dexter-chief point of the Ihield, as in the
fig.; but fliould it pofiefs the finifter corner, which is
but feldom, it muft be blazoned a canton-finifter.
James Cotes reckons it as one of the nine honour¬
able ordinaries, contrary to moft heralds opinion. It
is added to coats of arms of military men as an aug¬
mentation of honour : thus John Churchill, baron
of Eyemouth in Scotland, and one of the anceftors of
the prefent duke of Marlborough, being lieutenant ge¬
neral to King James II. received from him a canton ar¬
gent, charged with the red-crofs of England, added
to his paternal coat, “ which is Sable, a lion rampant
Argent.”
The Pairle is a figure formed by the conjun&ion of
the upper half of the faltier with the under half of the
pale.
The Fret is a figure reprefenting two little flicks in
faltier, with a mafcle in the centre interlaced. J. Gib¬
bon terms it, the heralds true-lovers knot; but many
diffent from his opinion.
Fretty is faid when the field or bearings are covered
with a fret of fix, eight, or more pieces, as in the fig.
The word frettif may be ufed without addition, when
it is of eight pieces •, but if there be lefs than that num¬
ber, they muft be fpecified.
The Pile, which confifts of two lines, terminating
in a point, is formed like a wedge, and is borne en¬
grailed, wavy, &.c. as in the fig. It iffues in general
from the chief, and extends towards the bafe; yet there
are fome piks borne in bend, and ifiuing from other
parts
Chap HI. HERA
Sub- parts of the field, as may be feen in Plate CCLVII.
Ordinaries^ j 2> , 2) &c.
' The Orle is an ordinary compofed of two lines go¬
ing round the fhield, the fame as the bordure, but its
breadth is but one half of the latter, and at iome di-
flance from the brim of the fhield, as in the fig.
The Inefcutcheon is a little efcutcheon borne w ith¬
in the Ihield *, which, according to Guillim’s opinion,
is only to be fo called when it is borne fingle in the
fefs point or centre ; fee the fig. on Plate CCLIV.
but modern heralds, wfith more propriety, give the
name of inefcutcheon to fuch as are contained in I late
CCLVII. fig. 12. N° 2. and call that which is fixed
on the fefs-point efcutcheon of pretence, which is to con¬
tain the arms of a wife that is an heireis, as mention¬
ed above.
The Treffure is an ordinary commonly fuppofed to
be the half of the breadth of an orle, and is generally
borne flowery and counter-flowery, as it is alio very
often double, and fometimes treble. See the fig.
(Plate CCLIV). This double-treffure makes part
of the arms of Scotland, as marlhalled in the royal at-
chievement, Plate CCLIX. fig. 2i. N° 7* an^ ^vas
granted to the Scots kings by Charlemagne, being
then emperor and king of France, when he entered
into a league with Achaius king of Scotland, to fliow'
that the French lilies fliould defend and guard the
Plate Scottifh lion.
CCLIV. The Annulet, or ring, is a well known figure, and is
frequently to be found in arms through every kingdom
in Europe.
The Flanches are formed by two curved lines, or fe-
micircles, being always borne double. See the figure.
W. Leigh obferves, that on two fuch Flanches two
fundry coats may be borne.
The Flafques referable the flanches, except that the
circular lines do not go fo near the centre of the field j
(fee the figure). .1. Gibbon would have thefe twro
ordinaries to be both one, and wrote funk; alleging,
that the tw'o other names are but a corruption of this
laft : but as G. Leigh and .1. Guillim make them two
diftin& and fubordinate ordinaries, wfe have inferted
them here as luch.
The Voiders are by Guillim confidered as a fubor¬
dinate ordinary, and are not unlike the flafques (fee
the figure), but they occupy lefs of the field.
The Billet is an oblong fquare figure, twice as long
as broad. Some heralds imagine, that they reprefent
bricks for building; others more properly confider
them as reprefenting folded paper or letters.
The Lozenge is an ordinary of four equal and pa¬
rallel fides, but not reftangular *, two of its oppofite
angles being acute, and the other two obtufe. Its
fhape is the fame with thofe of our wfindow-glafles,
before the fquare came fo much in falhion. See the
figure.
Gutts, or drops, are round at bottom, waved on the
fides, and terminate at the top in points. Heralds have
given them different names according to their different
tin&ures thus if they are
Yellow"
White
Red
Blue
Cd'Or
■ they are called -j ^
l_de Larmcs
L D R Y.
bS } - called [fe
The Fufil is longer than the lozenge, having Its up¬
per and lower part more acute and fharp than the
other two collateral middle parts, which acutenefs is
occafioned by the Ihort diflance of the fpace between
the two collateral angles j which fpace, if the fufil is
rightly made, is always ihorter than any of the four
equal geometrical lines whereof it is compofed. See
the fig. ibid.
The Ruftre is a lozenge pierced round in the middle
(fee the figure.) They are called by the Germans rut ten.
Meneftrier gives an example of them in the arms of Le-
baret in France, argent three ruffres azure.
The Mafcle is pretty much like a lozenge, but voided
or perforated through its whole extent, ihowing a nar¬
row border, as in the figure. Authors are divided
about the relemblance } lome taking it for the maih of
a net, and others for the Ipots of certain flints found
about Rohan ; and as no writer has given a clearer^ ac¬
count in fupport of this laid opinion than Colombiere,
author of La Science Hera/dique, we fliall tranfcribe it
for the fatisfaftion of the curious.
“ Rohan (fays he) bears Gules, nine Mafcles Or,
3, 3, 3. Opinions have varied very much about the
original of the mafcles or maflres, as being iomewhat
like the maflies of nets: but for my own part, having
often obferved that thofe things which are remarkable
and Angular in fome countries, have fometimes occa¬
fioned the lords thereof to reprefent them in their
efcutcheons, and to take them for their arms, I am
of opinion, that the lords of Rohan, who, I believe,,
are the firft that bore thofe figures in their arms though
defcended from the ancient kings and princes of Bre¬
tagne, took them, becaufe in the mold ancient vifcounty
of Rohan, afterwards erefded into a duchy, there are
abundance of fmall flints, which being cut in two,
this figure appears on the infide of them j as alfo the
carps, which are in the filh-ponds of that duchy, have
the fame mark upon their fcales 5 which, being very
extraordinary and peculiar to that country, the an¬
cient lords of the lame had good reafon, upon obfer-
ving that wonder, to take thofe figures for their arms,
and to trafmit them to their poiderity, giving them
the name of macles, from the Latin word macula, fig-
nifying a fpot; wdience fome of that houfe have taken
for their motto, Sine macula macla, that is, A mafcle
without a fpot.”
Papillone is an expreflion ufed for a field or charge
that is covered with figures like the fcales of a fiflr.
Monf. Baron gives as an example of it the arms of
Monti, Gueules Papelone d’Argent. The proper term
for it in Englilh would be fcallop work.
Diapering is faid of a field or charge lhadowed with
flourilhings or foliage with a colour a little darker than
that on which it is wrought. The Germans frequent¬
ly ufe it j but it does not enter into the blazoning or
defcription of an arms, it only ferves to embellilh the
coat.
If the fore-mentioned ordinaries have any attributes,
that is, if they are engrailed, indented, wavy, &c. they
muft be diftin&ly fpecified, after the fame manner as
the honourable ordinaries.
See examples of fubordinaries, gcc. fig. xii.
I. “ Gules,..
4T3
Sub-
Oi dinaries.
414- HERA
Sub- r. tl Gules, an Orle Ermine j” borne by the name
Ordinane-. cf Humframville.
' “ Argent, three Inefcutcheons Gules borne
CCLYII. by the name of Hay, and the 2d and 3d quarters in
the coat-of-arms of the right hon. Thomas Hay, earl
ef Kinnoul, &c.—The firil of the name of Hay that
bore thefe arms, got them, as Mr Nifbet obferves,
becaufe he and his two fans, after having defeated a
party of the Danes at the battle of Loncarty, anno 942,
were brought to the king with their Ihields all llained
with blood.
3. “ Argent, a Fret Sable-,” borne by the right
hon. Lionel Talmalh, earl of Dyfart, &c. This fami¬
ly was advanced to the peerage by King Charles I. in
1646.
4. “ Or fretty of Gules, a Canton Ermine borne
by the right hon. Henry Noel, earl of Gainfborough,
&c. This nobleman is defcended from Noel,
who came into England with William the Conqueror,
and, in confideration of his fervices, obtained a grant
of feveral manors and lands of very great value. Sir
Edward, who w?as knighted by King James on his ac-
ceflion to the throne, and created a baronet June 29.
1611, was the firil advanced to the honour of Baron
Noel, March 23. 1616.
5. “ Girony of eight Pieces Or and Sable the
ill and 4th quarters of the coat-of-arms of the right
hon. John Campbell, earl of Breadalbane, &c. This
ancient and noble family is defcended, in a regular fuc-
ceffion, from Duncan the firft Lord Campbell, ancellor
of the family of Argyll. John, the firit earl, in con¬
fideration of his perfonal merit, was, from a baronet,
created Lord Campbell, Vifcount Glenorchie, and earl
of Breadalbane, Jan. 28. 1677, Charles II.
6. “ Lozengy Argent and Gulesborne by the
right hon. George Eitz-William, Earl Fitz-William,
&c. This noble earl is defcended from Sir William
Fitz-William, marlhal of the army of William the
Conqueror at the battle of Haftings in Suffex, by
which viftory that prince made his wray to the
throne.
7. “ Sable, a Mafcle within a Treflure flowery Ar¬
gent borne by the name of Hob/ethorne.
8. “ Gules, three Mullets Or, within a Bordure of
the latter, charged with a double TreiTure flowery and
counter-flowery with Fleurs-de-lis of the firft borne
by the noble family of Sutherland, &c. This family,
in the peerage, is among the oldeft in Britain, if not
in all Europe; the title of earl being conferred on one
of their anceftors in 1067.
9. “ Azure, a Pile Ermine,” for the name of
Wyche; and is quartered as firft and fourth in the
coat-of-arms of Sir Cyril Wyche, Bart.
10. “ Or, on a Pile engrailed Azure, three Crofs-
crollets fitchy of the firft j” borne by the name of
Rigdon.
11. “ Or, on a Pile Gules three Lions of England
between fix Fleurs-de-lis rfzurej” the firft and fourth
quarters of his grace Edwjard Seymour duke of Somer-
fet, &c. granted him by King Henry VIII. on his mar¬
riage w-ith the lady Jane Seymour.
12. “ Ermine, tw-o Piles iffuing from the dexter and
finifter fides, and meeting in bafe Sable 5” for the name
of Holies.
13. “ Argent, three Piles, one iffuing from the Chief
1
L D R Y. Chap. III.
betw-een the others reverfed, Sable for the name of Common
Hulfe, and borne by Sir Edward Hulfe, Bart. < Charges.
14. “ Azure, a Pile wavy bendways Qr 5” borne' ~v
by the name of Oldham.— Fhere is no mention made
of its iffuing out of the dexter corner of the efcut-
cheon, for this is fufticiently determined by the term
headways.
15. “ Or, three Piles in Bend, each point enfeign-
ed with a Fleur-de-lis Sable }” borne by the name of
Norton.
16. “ Argent, three Piles meeting near the point of
the bafe Azure;” borne by the name of Bryan.
17. “ Party per Pale and per Bend Or and Azure
counterchanged ;” borne by the name of Johnfon.—.
This bearing is equal to two gyrons; lee p. 41 2. col. 2.
18. “ Party per Pale and per Cheveron Argent and
Gules counterchanged.”
19. “ Party per Pale chappe Or and Vert counter-
changed.” This is a bearing ieldom to be met with.
20. “ Party per Fefs Gules and Argent, a Pale
counterchanged;” borne by the name of Lavider.
Sect. III. Of Common Charges borne in Coats-of-arms.
It has bee . already obferved, that in all ages men
have made ufe of the reprefentation of living creatures,
and other fymbolical figns, to diftinguiih themfelves in
war; and that thefe marks, which w-ere promifcu-
oufly ufed for hieroglyphics, emblems, and perfonal de¬
vices, gave the firft notion of heraldry. But nothing
fhows the extent of human wit more, than the great
variety of thefe marks of diftindtion, fince they are
compofed of all forts of figures, fome natural, others
artificial, and many chimerical ; in allufion, it is to
be funpofed, to the flate, quality, or inclination of the
bearer.
Hence it is, that the fun, moon, ftars, comets, me¬
teors, &c. have been introduced to denote glory, gran¬
deur, power, &c. Lions, leopards, tygers, ferpents, flags,
&.c. have been employed to fignify courage, ftrength,
prudence, fwdftnefs, &c.
T he application to certain exercifes, fuch as war,
hunting, mufic, &c. has furnifhed lances, fwords, pikes,
arms, fiddles, &c. Architefture, columns, cheverons,
&c.; and the other arts feveral things that relate to
them.
Human bodies, or diftindl parts of them, alfo clothes,
and ornaments, Lave, for fome particular intention,
found place in armory ; trees, plants, fruits, and
flowTers, have likewife been admitted to denote the
rarities, advantages, and Angularities, of different
countries.
The relation of fome creatures, figures, &c. to par¬
ticular names, has been likewife a very fruitful lource
of variety in arms. Thus the family of Coningfby
bears three coneys ; of Arundel, fix fwai!owrs ^ of Ur-
fon, a bear ; of Lucie, three pikes, in Latin tres lucios
pifces; of Starkey, a ftork ; of Czftleman, a caftle
triple-tow-ered; of Shuttlewerth, three weavers fhut-
tles, &c.
Befides thefe natural and artificial figures, there are
chimerical or imaginary ones ufed in heraldry, the re-
fult of fancy and caprice ; fuch as centaurs, hydras,
phoenixes, griffons, dragons, £<c. Which great variety
of figures fliows the impoflibility of comprehending all
common
Chap. III. H E R A
Natural common charges in a work of this nature ; therefore fucli
Figures. on]y be treated of as are moft frequently borne in
v_^ ' coats-of-arms.
Art. i. Of Natural Figures borne in Coats-of-arms.
Among the multitude of natural things which are
ufed in coats-of-arms, thofe moft ufually borne are, for
the fake of brevity as well as perfpicuity, diftributed
into t-he following clafles, viz.
Cehjlial figures i as, the fun, moon, ftars, &c. and
their parts.
Effigies of men, w'omen, &c, and their parts.
Beafls ; as, lions, ftags, foxes, boars, &c. and their
parts.
Birds; as, eagles, fwans, ftorks, pelicans, &c. and
their parts.
Fifhes; as dolphins, whales, fturgeons, trouts, &.c.
and their parts.
Reptiles and infieBs; as, tortoifes, ferpents, grafs-
lioppers, Stc.’and their parts.
Vegetables; as trees, plants, flowers, herbs, &c. and
their parts.
Slones ; as diamonds, rubies, pebbles, rocks, &c.
Thefe charges have, as well as ordinaries, divers at¬
tributes or epithets, which exprefs their qualities, poft-
tions, and difpofitions. Thus the fun is laid to be in
Ins g/onj, ec/ipfcd, &c.; the moon, in her complement,
increfcent, &c. Animals are ft id to be rampant, pafijant,
&c. Birds have alfo their_ denominations, luch as
clofie difplayed. Sec. Fifties are deferibed to be hauriant,
naiant, Sec.
I. Examples of Celeflial Figures.
Plate 7 ; . 5
CCLVII. I. “ Azure, a Sun in his Glory;1’ borne by the
fig. 13. name of St Clere ; and is found in the firft and fourth
quarters of the edat-of-arms of the moft noble William-
John Ker, marquis of Lothian, Sec. It is needlefs to
exprefs the colour of the fun, nothing being capable to
denote it but gold.
2. “ Azure, one E.ay of the Sun, bendways Gules,
between fix Beams of that Luminary Argent borne
by the name of Aldam. There is no mention made of
their ifiuing out of the dexter-corner of the efcutcheon ;
for this is implied in the term bendways, for the reafcn
mentioned before.
3. “ Argent, five rays of the Sun ifluing out of the
finifler corner Gules;” borne by the name of Mudt-
Jhideler, a family of diftinclion in Franconia.
4. “ Or, a Sun eclipfed.” This bearing is feldom
to be met with, except in emblematic or hieroglyphic
figures; and might be expreii’ed Salle, becaufe that hue
is accidental and not natural. _
5. “ Gules, the Moon in her complement Or, illu-
ftrated with all her light proper.” This is fufficient
without naming the colour, which is Argent.
6. “ Azure, a Moon dccrefcent proper;” borne by
the name of Dcla/una.
7. “ Gules, a Mocn increfcent Or;” borne by the
name of Deficits.
8. “ Argent, a Moon in her detriment. Sable.”
1 iris word is ufed in heraldry to denote her being
eclipftd.
9. “ Azure, a Crefcent Argent;” borne by the
Maine of Lucy. This bearing is alfo ufed as a diffe-
L D R Y. 415
rence, it being afligned to the fecond fon, as before- Celeftial
mentioned. t Lgute5.
1 o. “ Gules, three Crefcents Argent;” borne by
Oliphant, Lord Oiiphant (at prefent dormant). A-
mongft the anceftors of this noble family was David de
Oliphant, one of tjiofe barons who, in 1142, accom¬
panied King David I. into England with an army, to
aflift his niece Matilda againft King Stephen ; but after
raifing the fiege of Winchefter, the faid King David
was fo clofely puifued, that, had it not been for the An¬
gular condufl oi this brave perfon, the king would have
been taken priioner.
11. “ Azure, a Crefcent between three Mullets
Argent;” borne by Arbuthnot, Vifcount and Baron
Arbuthuot. In the year 1105, the firft of this family
marrying a daughter of the family of Oliphard, fherifF
of the county of Kincardin, with her he had the lands
of Arbuthnot in that county, from whence he took his
furname. Robert Arbuthnot was the firft of this family
who, lor his loyalty to King Charles I. was Nov. 16.
1641, dignified with the title of Baron and Vifcount Ar-
buthnot.
1 2. “ Gules, a Star ifluing from between the Horns
of a Crefcent Argent.”
13. “ Azure, a Star of 16 points Argent;” borne
by the name of Huitfioh.
14. “ Argent, three Mullets pierced Sable;” borne
by the name of Wollafilon.
15. “ Azure, fix Mullets, 3, 2, 1, Or ;” borne by
the name of We If!}.
16. “ Ermine, a Mullet of fix points Gules, pier¬
ced ;” borne by the name of Hejfenhul.—When & mul¬
let has more than five points, their number muft, in
blazoning, be always named.
17. “ Argent, a Rainbow with a Cloud at each
end proper.” This is part of the creft to the earl of
Hopeton’s coat-of-arms, which is inferted in fig. ix.
N° 13. The whole of it is a globe fplit on the top,
and above it is the rainbow, &c.
18. “ Party per Fefs crenelle Gules and Azure,
three Suns proper ;” borne by the name of Pierfion.
19. “ Gules, a Mullet between three Crefcents Ar¬
gent ;” borne by the name of Oliver.
20. “ Gules, a Chief Argent, on the. lower part
thereof a Cloud, the Sun’s refplendent rays iffuing
throughout proper ;” borne by the name of Leefion.
II. Examples of Effigies of Men, Ac. and their Parts.
1. “ Azure, the Virgin Mary crowned, w ith her Fig. 14.
Babe in her right arm and a feeptre in her left, all
Or ;” the coat-of-arms of the biftiopric of Salifbury.
2. “ Azure, a Prefbyter fitting on a Tomb-ftone,
with a Crown on his head and a Glory Or, his right
hand extended, and holding in his left an open Book
Argent, with a Swmrd crofs his mouth Gules;” the
coat-of-arms of the biftiopric of Chichefter.
3. “ Azure, a Eiftiop habited in his pontificals fitting-
on a chair of ftate, and leaning on the finifter fide
thereof, holding in his left hand a Crofier, his right
being extended towards the dexter chief of the efcut¬
cheon, all Or, and refting his feet on a culhion Gules,
tafleled of the fecond ;” the coat-of-arms of the biftiop-
rick of Clogher in Ireland.
4. “ Azure, a Bilhop habited in his pontificals,
holding before him, in a Pale, a Crucifix proper ;”'
thev
.
4i6 H E R A
Effigies of the coat of arms of the bifhop of Waterford in Ire-
, . land.
v 5. “ Or, a man’s Leg couped at the midft of the
thigh Azure j” borne by the name of Hadrian.
6. “ Azure, three fmilter Hands couped at the wrift,
and erefted Argent j” borne by the ancient family of
Malmains.
7. “ Argent, three fmifter hands couped at the wrift,
and erected Gules borne by the name of Maynard.
—By thefe two laft examples it appears that different
coats of arms may be eafily made from the fame fi¬
gure or figures, by varying the colours only, without
the addition of any other charge, counter-changings,
partings, &c.
8. “ Argent, a Man’s Leg erafed at the niidft of
the thigh Sable borne by the name of Prime.
9. “ Gules, three Legs armed proper, conjoined in
the Fefs point at the upper part of the thighs, flexed
in triangles, garnifhed and fpurred, Or.” I his is the
coat of arms of the Ifle of Man and is quartered by
the moft noble John Murray, duke of Athol, titular
lord or king of that ille.
10. “ Gules, three dexter Arms vambraced fefs-
ways, in Pale proper j” borne by the name of Armjlrong.
This coat is very well adapted to the bearer’s name,
and ferves to denote a man of excellent conduct and
valour.
xi. “ Or, three Legs couped above the knee Sable 5”
borne by the name of Hofy.
12. “ Vert, three dexter Arms conjoined at the
fhoulders in the Fefs-point, and flexed in triangle Or,
with fits clenched Argent j” borne by the name of
Tremain.
13. “ Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, within two
equilateral triangles interlaced Sable j” borne by the
name of Villages, a family of diftinftion in Provence.
14. “ Azure, a flnifter Arm, iffuing out of the
dexter-chief, and extended towards the finifter-bafe
Argent.”
1 5. “ Argent, a dexter Hand couped at the wrift
and eredted, within a bordure engrailed Sable j” borne
by the name of Manley.
16. “ Argent, a Man’s Heart Gules, enfigned with
a Crown Or, and on a Chief Azure, three Mullets of
the firft.” The paternal coat of the name of Douglas,
and quartered in the arms of the dukes of Hamilton and
Queenfberry ; as alfo in thofe of the earls of Morton
and March, and the lord Mordington.
17. “ Gules, a Saracen’s Head affrontee erafed at
the neck Argent, environed about the temples with a
wreath of the fecond and Sable j” borne by the name
of Mergith.
18. “ Argent, three Blackamoors Heads couped
proper, banded about the head Argent and Gules
borne by the name of Tanner.
19. “ Gules, three Befants, each charged with a
man’s face affrontee proper}” borne by the name of
Gamin.
20. “ Or, a Blackamoor’s Head couped proper,
banded about the head Argent 5” borne by the name of
U/Ioc.
Obferve, that when half of the face, or little more,
of human figures, is feen in a field, it is then faid to be
in profile; and when the head of a man, woman, or
L D R Y. Chap, m,
other animal, is reprefented with a full face, then it is Politions
termed affrontee. ot ^lon;-,
III. Examples of the different Poftions of Lions, &c. in
Coats-ofArms.
1. “ Or, a Lion rampant Gules 5” quartered by Fig- 15-.
Percy, duke of Northumberland, &c.
2. “ Azure, a Lion rampant-guardant Or j” borne
by the name of Eitx-Hammond.
3. “ Gules, a Lion rampant-reguard ant Or j” quar¬
tered by Cadogan, Lord Cadogan, &c.
4. “ Ermine, a Lion faliant Gules j” borne by the
name of Worley.
5. “ Azure, a Lion ftatant-guardant Or borne by
the name of Bromfield.
6. “ Or, a Lion paffant Gules 5” borne by the name
of Games.
7. “ Argent, a Lion paffant guardant Gules crown¬
ed Or j” quartered by the right honourable James O-
gilvy, earl of Findlater, &c.
8. “ Gules, a Lion fejant Argent.”
9. “ Or, a Lion rampant double-headed Azure j”
borne by the name of Mafon.
10. “ Sable, tivo Lions rampant-combatant Or,
armed and langued Gules j” borne by the name of
Carter.
11. “ Azure, two Lions rampant-adoffee Or.” This
coat-of-arms is faid to have been borne by Achilles at
the fiege of Troy.
12. “ Sable, two Lioncels counter-paffant Argent,
the uppermoft towards the finifter fide of the efeut-
cheon, both collared Gules j” borne by the name of
G/egg.—It is the natural difpofition of the lion not to
bear a rival in the field : therefore two lions cannot be
borne in one coat-of-arms, but muft be fuppofed to be
lion’s whelps, called lioncels; except when they are
parted by an ordinary, as in fig. viii. N° \*. or fo diff
pofed as that they feem to be diftindlly feparated from
each other, as in fig. xv. N° 20. In the two foregoing
examples they are called lions, becaufe in the 10th they
feem to be ftriving for the fovereignty of the field,
which they would not do unlefs they were of full
growth ; and in the nth they are fuppofed to reprefent
two valiant men, whofe difpute being accommodated
by the prince, are leaving the field, their pride not fuf-
fering them to go both one wray.
13. Argent, a Demi-lion rampant Sable j” borne
by the name of Mervin.
14. “ Gules, a Lion couchant between fix Crofs-
crofiets, three in Chief, and as many in Bafe, Argent j
for the name of Tynte ; and is the firft and fourth quar¬
ter of the arms of Sir Charles-Kemys lynte, Bart.
15. “ Azure, a Lion dormant Or.”
16. “ Or, out of the midft of a Fefs Sable,^ a Lion
rampant naiffant Gules 5” borne by the name of Emmie.
This form of blazon is peculiar to all living things that
fhall be found iffuing out of the midft of fome ordinary
or other charge.
17. “ Azure, three Lioncels rampant Or j” borne
by Fienes, Vifcount and Baron Saye and Sele.
18. “ Gules, a tricorporated Lion iffuing from three
parts of the Efcutcheon, all meeting under one Head
in the Fefs-point Or, langued * and armed Azure •,
borne
2
I
Chap. HI. H E II A
Different borne by the name of Ci'oiiclibnck. I his coat appertain-
Animals. eci to Edmund Crouchback earl of Lancafter, in the
reign of his brother King Edward I.
19. “ Gules, a befant between three Demi-lions
rampant Argentborne by Bennet, earl of Tanker-
ville, &c. This noble earl is defcended from the fa¬
mily of the Bennets in Berkihire, who flouvilhed in the
reign of King Edward III. Charles, Lord Offultlon,
was created earl of Tankerville on October 19. T7l4>
by George I.
20. “ Party per Pale Azure and Gules, three Lions
rampant Argent y1 borne by Herbert earl of Pem¬
broke, &.c. This noble family is defcended from Henry
Fitz-Roy, natural fon to Henry I. Sir William Her¬
bert, one of the ancetlors ot the prefent earl, was mat¬
ter of the horfe to King Henry VIII. lord preiklcnt of
the marches of Wales, and knight of the garter. He
was alfo, by that king, advanced to the dignity of Ba¬
ron Herbert of Caerdiff, OH. 10. 1551, and the very
next day created earl Ji Pembroke.—Obferve, that it
a lion, or any other beat!, is reprefented with its limbs
and body feparated, fo that they remain upon the field
at a fmail diftance from their natural places, it is then
termed Dchache or couped in all its parts ; of which ve¬
ry remarkable bearing there is an inftance in armoury,
which is, “ Or, a Lion rampant Gules, dehache, or
couped in all its parts, within a double Treflure dowery
and counter-fiowery of the fecond j” borne by the name
of Maitland.
IV. Examples of other Quadrupeds, and their Parts,
borne in Coats-of-Arms.
Fig. x<5. 1. “ Sable, a Camel ftatant Argent 5” borne by the
name of Camel.
2. “ Gules, an Elephant ilatant Argent, tulked
Or.”
3. “ Argent, a Boar ftatant Gules, armed Or $”
borne by the name of Trevoarthen.
4. “ Sable, a Bull paffant Orborne by the name
of Filz-Gtffrey.
5. “ Sable, three Nags Heads erafed Argent
borne by Blayney, Baron Blayney of Monaghan, in
Ireland. This noble family is defcended in a direft
line from Cadwallader, a younger fon of the prince of
Wales j and the firft peer was Sir Edward Blayney,
knight, who was created a baron by King James I.
July 29. 1621.
6. “ Argent, three Boars Heads erafed and ereH
Sable, langued Gules,” for the name of Booth.
7. “ Azure, three Boars Heads erafed Or quar¬
tered by his grace Alexander Gordon duke of Gordon,
&c. Of this great and noble family, which took their
furname from the barony of Gordon in the county of
Berwick, there have been, befides thofe in North Bri¬
tain, feveral of great diftinHion in Mufcovy ; and in
the time of King Malcolm IV. 1160, this family was
very numerous, and flouriftied in the county afore-
faid.
8. “ Argent, three Bulls Heads erafed, Sable, arm¬
ed Or 5” borne by Skeffington, earl of Maflareene,
&c. of Ireland. This ancient and noble family derives
its name from the village of Skeflmgton, in the county
of Leicefter, of which place Simon Skeffington was
lord in the reign of Edward I. and from him defcended
Vol. X. Part IJ.
L D R Y. 4T7
Sir William Skeffington, knight, made fo by King . Birds,
Henry VII. .
9. “ Argent, two Foxes counter-faliant, the dexter
furmounted of the linifter Gules 5” for the name of
Kadrod Hard, an ancient Britilh family, from which
is defcended Sir —  W ynne, Bart, who
bears this quartered, fecond and third, in his coat-of-
arms.
10. “ Argent, three Bulls paflant Sable, armed and
unguled Or j” for Aftdey, and quartered by the right
honourable Anthony-Aftiley Cooper, earl of Shaftelbu-
ry, &c. This noble earl is defcended from Richard ,
Cooper, who flouriftied in the reign of King Hen. VIII.
and purchafed the manor of Pauiet in the county of
Somerfet, of which the family are ftill proprietors.
But his anceftor who makes the greateft figure in hifto-
ry is Sir Anthony-Athley Cooper, who was created
Baron Aflftey of Winbourn, April 20. 1661, and af¬
terwards earl of Shaftelbury April 23. 1672.
11. “ Ermine, three Cats pafiant in Pale Argent y1
for the name of Adams.
12. “ Gules, two Grehounds rampant Or, refpeHing
each other j” borne by the name of Dogget.
13. “ Or, an Afs’s Plead erafed Sable borne by
the name of Hachwell.
14. “ Gules, three Lions gambs erafed Argent j”
for the name of Newdigate.
15. “ Argent, three Lions Tails erected and erafed
Gules p’ borne by the name of Cork.
16. “ Azure, a Buck’s Head caboffed Argent
borne by Legge, earl of Dartmouth, &c. This noble
family is defcended from Signior de Lega, an Italian
nobleman, xyho flouriftied in Italy in the year 1297.
What time the family came into England is uncertain *,
but it appears they were fettled at Legge-place, near
Tunbridge in Kent, for many generations •, and P'ho-
mas, one of their anceftors, was twice lord-mayor of
London, viz. in 1346 and I353’
17. “ Argent, two Squirrels fejant adoffee Gules,”
for the name of Samwell.
18. “ Gules, a Goat paffant Argent p’ borne by tie
name of Baker.
19. “ Sable, a Stag Handing at gaze Argent;”
borne by the name of ‘Jones, of Monmouthftiire.
20. “ Azure, three Holy Lambs Or borne by
the name of Row.
V. Examples of Birds, Fijhes, Reptiles, &c.
1. “ Ermine, an Eagle difplayed Sable borne by Fig. 17.
the name of Beddingfield.
2. “ Gules, a Swan clofe properborne by the
name of Leigham.
3. “ Argent, a Stork Sable, membered Gules j”
borne by the name of Starkey.
4. “ Gules, a Pelican in her neft with wings elevat¬
ed, feeding her young ones Or ; vulned proper borne
by the name of Came.
5. “ Argent, three Peacocks in their pride proper
borne by the name of Pavone.
6. “ Sable, a Goffiawk Argent, perching upon a
ftock in the Bafe-point of the Efcutcheon of the fecond,
armed, jeffed, and belled Or;” borne by the name of
IVhee/e.
3G
7-
H E R A
7. “ Or, a Ravfen proper j” borne by the name of
Corbet.
• 8. “ Argent, three Cocks Gules, crefted and jow-
lopped Sable, a Crefcent furmounted of a Crefcent for
difference 5” borne by Cockayne, Vifcount Cullen, of
Donegal in Ireland. Of this ancient family was An¬
dreas Cockayne of Afhburne in the county of Derby,
who lived in the 28th year of Edward I. Charles, foil
to Sir William Cockayne lord-mayor of London, 1619,
was the firft who was advanced to the peerage, by
Charles I. Auguft 11. 1642.
9. “ Sable, a Dolphin naiant embowed Or j” borne
by the name of Sijmonds. This animal is borne by the
eldeft fon of the French king, and next heir to the
crown, no other fubjefl in that kingdom being permit¬
ted to bear it. In England, where that rule cannot
take place, there are feveral families that have dolphins
in their coats-of-arms.
10. “ Argent, three Whales Heads ere£l and erafed
Sable 5” borne by the name of Whalleij.
11. “ Gules, three Efcalops Argent-,” borne by
Keppel, earl of Albemarle, &c. This family is de-
fcended from Arnold Jooft van Keppel, a nobleman of
the province of Guelderland in Holland, who came
over into England with the prince of Orange in 1688,
to whom he was then a page of honour, and afterwards
mailer of the robes, and was by him created a peer of
England, by the title of earl of Albemarle, in the duchy
of Normandy in France, February 10. 1696.
12. “ Azure, three Trouts fretted in Triangle Ar¬
gent j” borne by the name of Troutbeck.
13. “ Vert, a Grafshopper paffant Or.”
14. “ Azure, three Bees two and one volant in pale
Argent j” borne by the name of Bye.
15. “ Vert, a Tortoife paffant Argent-,” borne by
the name of Gawdy.
16. “ Gules, an Adder nowed Or borne by the
name of Nathiley. Adders, fnakes, and ferpents, are
faid to reprefent many things, w-hich being according
to the fancy of the ancients, and a few modern authors
who have adopted their opinions, it is needlefs to en¬
large upon. It is certain they often occur in armory ;
but the noblefl is that of the duchy of Milan, viz.
“ Argent, a Serpent gliding in Pale Azure, crowned
Or, vorant an Infant iffuing Gules.” The occafion of
this bearing was this : Otho, firft vifcount of Milan,
going to the Holy Land with Godfrey of Bouillon, de¬
feated and flew in fing-le combat the great giant Volux,
a man of extraordinary ftature a>nd ftrength, who had
challenged the braveft of the Chriflian army. The
vifcount having killed him, took his armour, and among
it his helmet, the creft whereof was a ferpent fwallow-
ing an infant, worn by him to ftrike terror into thofe
who fhould be fo bold as to engage him.
17. “ Ermine, a Rofe Gules barbed and feeded pro¬
per j” borne by Bofcawen Vifcount Falmouth, &c.
This family is defcended from Richard Bofcawen, of
the town of Bofcawen, in the county of Cornwall,
who flouriftied in the reign of King Edward VI. Hugh,
the firft peer of this ancient family, was created baron
of Bofcawen Rofe, and Vifcount Falmouth, on the 13th
of June 1720, 6th of George I.
1 8. “ Azure, three Laurel leaves flipped Or 5” borne
by the name of Levefon, and quartered by the right ho-
L D R Y, Chap. III.
nourable Granville-Levefon Gower, earl of Gower, Artificiaf
&C. Figures.
19. “ Azure, three Garbs Or 5” borne by the name ' y
of Cuming. Thefe are ftieaves of wheat } but though
they were barley, rj-e, or any other corn whatfoever,
it is fufticient, in blazoning, to call them Garbs, tell¬
ing the timfture they are of.
20. “ Gules, three Cinquefoils Argent -,” borne by
Lambart, baron of Cavan, &.c. in Ireland. Of this
ancient family, which is of French extraftion, was Sir
Oliver, who in the reign of Queen Elizabeth, attend¬
ing the earl of Eflex to Spain, was there knighted by
him, and afterwards returning with that earl into Ire¬
land, was, for his Angular fervice in the north againft
O’Neal earl of Tyrone, made camp-mafter-generai, and
prefident of Connaught ^ and February 17. 1617, was
created Lord Lambart and baron of Cavan by King
James I.
It muft be obferved, that trees and plants are fome-
tlmes faid to be trunked, eradicated, fruftuated, or ra-
guled, according as they are reprefented in arms.
Art. 2. Of Artiitcial Figures borne in Coats-of-
Arms.
After the various produflions of nature, artificial fi¬
gures, the objects of arts and mechanics, claim the next
rank. They may be diftributed into the following claf-
fes, viz.
Warlike injlruments; as fwords, arrows, battering-
rams, gauntlets, helmets, fpears, pole-axes, &c.
Ornaments ufed in royal and religious ceremonies $ as
crowns, coronets, mitres, wreaths, crofters, &c.
Slrcliite&ure; as towers, cattles, arches, columns,,
plummets, battlements, churches, portcullifes, &c.
Navigation; as {hips, anchors, rudders, pendants, fails,
oars, mails, flags, galleys, lighters, &c.
All thefe bearings have different epithets, ferving ei¬
ther to exprefs their pofition, difpofition, or make2
viz. fwords are faid to be erebl, pommeled, hiked, &c.-,
arrows, armed, feathered, &c •, towers, covered, em¬
battled, &c. -, and fo on of all others, as will appear
by the following examples.
1. “ Sable, three Swords, their points meeting in F,g. xg,
the Bafe Argent, pommeled and hiked Or, a Crefcent
in chief of the fecond for difference $” borne by Powlet,
duke of Bolton, &c. This noble duke is defcended
from Flercules, lord of Tournon in Picardy, who came
over to England with Jeffrey Plantagenet earl of An¬
jou, third fon of King Henry II. and among other lands
had the lordihip of Paulet in Somerfetftnre conferred on
him. William Powlet, the firft peer of this illuftrious
and loyal family, was treafurer of the houfehold to
King Henry VIII. and by him created Baron St John
of Bafing, in the county of Southampton, March 9.
1538.
2. “ Argent, three Battering-rams barways in Pale,
headed Azure and hooped Or, an Armulet for differ¬
ence borne by Bertie, earl of Abington, &c. The
firft of the family of Bertie that bore the title of earl of
Abington was James Bertie Lord Norris of Rycote,
being created earl, Nov. 30. 1682, by Charles II,
3. <e Azure, three left-hand Gauntlets with their
backs forward Or 5” borne by Fane, earl of Weftmore-
land", &c. This noble earl is defcended from the Fanes,
an
Chap. III. HERA
Artificial an ancient family whicli refided at Badfal in Kent, from
Figures. defcended Francis Fane, fon and heir of Sir Tho-
U‘^v mas Fane, Knight, by Mary his wife, foie daughter and
heirefs to Henry Nevil Lord Abergavenny, afterwards
created Baronefs Defpenfer. The faid Francis was a
knight of the bath ; and in the reign of King James I.
was created Baron Burgherlh and earl of Weitmoreland
Dec. 29. 1624.
4. “ Azure, three Arrows their points in bafe Or
borne by Archer, Lord Archer, &c. This noble lord
is defcended from John de Archer, who came over
from Normandy with William the Conqueror j and this
family is one of the moll ancient in Warwickfhire, be¬
ing fettled at Umlserflade in that county ever fmce the
reign of Henry II. His lordihip is the firll peer ; and
was created Lord Archer and baron of Umberflade by
King George II. July 14. I747>
5. “ Gules, two Helmets in chief proper, garnifhed
Or, in a Bafe of a Garb of the third j” borne by Chol-
mondeley, earl of Cholmondeley, &c. This noble earl
is defcended from the ancient family of Egerten in
Chelhire, which flourilhed in the time of the conqueft,
from whom alfo the duke of Bridgewater was defcended.
The firft Englifh peer of this branch was Hugh Vif-
count Cholmondeley of Kells, in Ireland, who, joining
with thofe who oppofed the arbitrary meafures of King
James II. was on the acceffion of King William and
Queen Mary created Lord Cholmondeley of Nampt-
wich, in the county of Chefter.
6. “ Argent, a Ship with its fails furled up Sable 5”
quartered by Hamilton, earl of Abercorn, &c. The
defcent of this noble family is from that of the duke of
Hamilton : for James, the fourth Lord Hamilton and
fecond earl of Arran, marrying Lady Margaret Doug¬
las daughter of James the third earl of Morton, by her
had four fons, James, John, Claud, and David : where¬
of Claud was progenitor of the lord we are now fpeak-
ing of } and in conlideration of his merit and loyalty to
Mary queen of Scots, James VI. created him Lord
Pailley in 1591, as alfo earl of Abercorn, baron of Ha¬
milton, &.c. July 10. 1606.
7. “ Or, an Anchor in pale Gules j” quartered by
the moft noble George Johnlfon, marquis of Annan-
dale, &c. The Johnllons are an ancient and warlike
family, and derive their furname from the barony of
Johnfton in Annandale.
8. “ Sable, three Spears heads ereft Argent, im¬
brued Gules, on a chief Or, as many Pole-axes A-
zure $” borne by King, Lord King, &c. Peter King,
Efq. the firft lord of this ancient family, wTas chofen re¬
corder of the city of London, July 27. 1708, and on
the 12th of September following had the honour of
knighthood conferred on him. He was conftituted
lord-chief-jullice of the common pleas in the firft year
of King George I. 1714 5 on the 5th of April follow¬
ing was fworn of his majefty’s moft honourable privy-
council, and on May 19. 1723 was created a peer of
this kingdom by the title of Lord King, baron of Ock¬
ham.
9. “ Gules, three Clarions Or j” quartered by Car¬
teret, earl of Granville, &c. This ancient family
derives its pedigree from Offerey de Carteret, who
attended .William the Conqueror in his defcent upon
England, and contributed to the victory he obtained
L D R Y. 419
over King Harold, at Haftings in Suffex, io56 J he Artificial
had manors and lands in England conferred on him by Dg^res. ^
that prince, as a reward for his eminent fervices. v
George the firft earl was, in confideration of his own
merit and the lervices oi his anceftors, created a peer
of Great Britain, October 19. 1681.
10. “ Argent, a Maunch Sable borne by Haft¬
ings, earl of Huntingdon, &c. This family is de¬
fcended from Hugh de Haftings, a younger fon of the
ancient and noble family of the Haftings, earl of Pem¬
broke, of which family was William de Haftings, fteward
of the houfehold to King Henry I.—William, the firft
Lord Haftings, was created a baron on July 6. 1461,
by King Edward IV.
11. “ Azure, a 'circular Wreath Argent and Sable,
with four Hawks Bells joined thereto in quadrature
Or borne by Jocelyn, Vifcount Jocelyn, &c. This
noble family is of great antiquity ; for, afteF the Ro¬
mans had been mailers of Britain 500 years, wearied
with the wars, they took their final farewel of it, and
carried away with them a great many of their brave old
Britilh foldiers, who had ferved them in their wars
both at home and abroad, to whom they gave Amo-
rica in France, for their former fervices, -which coun¬
try was from them afterwards called Little Britain.
It is fuppofed that there were fome of this family
amongft them •, and that they gave the name of Joce¬
lyn to a town in this country, which ftill preferves
that name; and it is thought probable that they return¬
ed with William the Conqueror ; for wre find, in 1066,
mention made of Sir Gilbert Jocelyn. The firft lord
of the family, was created Baron Newport, of Newport
in Ireland, on Nov. 29. 1743, and vifcount in Nov.
I7SI*
1 2. “ Gules, three Towers Argent quartered by
Fowler, Vifcount Alhbrook, &c. William Fowler,
Efq. was advanced to the peerage by King George II.
and created baron of Caftle Durrow, in the county of
Kilkenny, 061. 27. 1733 ; and his fon was created
Vifcount Alhbrook, of Alhbrook in Ireland, on Sep¬
tember 30. 1751 } now extinft.
13. “ Gules, two Keys in Saltier Argent, in Chief
a Royal Crown proper the arms of the archbilhopric
of York.
14. “ Gules, two Swords in Saltier Argent, pom¬
meled and hiked Or 5” the arms of the bilhopric of
London.
15. “ Sable, a Key in Bend, furmounted by a
Crolier in Bend linifter, both Or j” the arms of the .
bilhopric of St Afaph.
16. “ Gules, two Keys adoffee in Bend, tire upper-
moft Argent, the other Or, a Sword interpofed be¬
tween them in Bend-linifter of the fecond, pommeled,
and hiked of the third j” the arms of the bilhopric of
Winchefter.
17. “ Gules, three Mitres with their pendants Or j”
the arms of the bilhopric of Chefter.
18. “ Sable, three Ducal Coronets paleways Or
the arms of the bilhopric of Briftol.
19. “ Gules, a Sword erefl in pale Argent, pom¬
meled and hiked Or, furmounted by two Keys in
Saltiemif the laft j” the arms of the bilhopric of Exeter.
... 26. “ Gules, three Ducal Coronets, Or j” the arms
of the bilhopric of Ely.
3 G 2
Art.
HER
A
420
Chimerical
Figures.
Art. 3. Of Chimerical Figures.
The laft and the cddelt kind of bearings in coats-of-
arms, is comprehended under the name of chimerical
figures; that is to fay, fuch as have no real exigence,
but are mere fabulous and fantaltical inventions. 1'hete
charges, griffons, martlets, and unicorns excepted, are
fo uncommon in Britilh coats, that in order to make
up the fame number of examples hitherto contained in
each collection, feveral foreign bearings are introduced
here •, which, horvever, as they are conform to the laws
of heraldry, will alfo contribute both to entertain and
inftruCt the reader. Thofe molt in ufe are the follow¬
ing, viz.
Angels, Cherubims, Tritons, Centaurs, Martlets,
Griffons, Unicorns, Dragons, Mermaids, Satyrs, Wi-
verns, Harpies, Cockatrices, Phoenixes.
Thefe, like the foregoing charges, are fubjedt to va¬
rious pofitions and difpofitions, which, from the princi¬
ples already laid down, wall be plainly underltood from
the following examples.
Fig. ip. N° 1. is “ Gules, an Angel ftanding affrontee, with
his hands conjoined and elevated upon his bread, ha¬
bited in a long Robe clofe girt Argent, his Wings dif-
played Or 5” borne by the name of Bra rigor de Ccrevi-
fia, a foreign prelate, who atTifled at the council of
Conilance, 1412. This example is quoted by Guiliim,
Seft. III. Chap. I.
2. “ Sable, a Cheveron between three Cherubim
Or borne by the name of Cltaloner, of Yorklhire and
Chefhire.
3. “ Azure, a Fefs indented between three Cheru¬
bim Argent.” Thefe arms were granted to John
Ayde, Efq. of Doddington in Kent, by Sir William
Segar, garter.
4. “ Gules, a Cherub having three pair of Wings,
the uppermoft and lowermoft counter-croffed Saltier-
W'ays, and the middlemoft difplayed Argent}” borne
by the name of Buocafoco, a foreign prelate. This ex¬
ample is copied from Meneftrier’s Methode du Blafon^
p. 120. N° viii.
5. “ Azure, a Griffon fegreant Or, armed and
langued Gules, between three Crefcents Argent
quartered by Bligh, Lord Clifton, &c. The ancellor
of this noble family, who lived ih London, going over
to Ireland in the time of Oliver Cromwell, as an agent
to the adventurers there, acquired a good eftate, and
laid the foundation for the grandeur of this family.
6. “ Gules, three Martlets Or j” borne by the name
of Macgill. Guillim obferves, that this bird, which
is reprefented without feet, is given for a difference to
younger brothers, to put them in mind, that, in order
to raife themfelves, they are to truft to their wings of
virtue and merit, and not to their legs, having but little
land to fet their feet on.
y. “ Azure, three Mullets Argent within a double
Treffure counter-flowery Or, in the centre a Martlet
of the laft j” borne by Murray, Lord Elibank. Sir Gi¬
deon Murray, knighted by King James VI. by whom
he was made treafurer-depute, wras third fon of Sir
Andrew Murray of Blackbarony. His fon Patrick,
in refpe£l of his loyalty to Charles I. was on May 16.
1628 made a baronet, and in 1643 created Lord Eh-
bank.
L t) R Y.
Chap. IV.
8. “ Sable, a Cockatrice difplayed Argent, crefted,
membered, and jowllopped Gules.”
9. “ Argent, a Mermaid Gules, crined Or, holding
in her right hand a Comb, and in her left a Mirror,
both proper j” borne by the name of Ellis.
10. “ Argent, a Wivern, his Wings elevated, and
his Tail nowed below him Gules j” borne by the name
of Drakes.
11. “ Or, a Dragon paffant Vert.”
12. “ Gules, a Centaur or Sagittary in full fpeed
reguardant proper.” This was the coat of arms of
Stephen furnamed of Blois, fon to Adela daughter of
William the Conqueror, and of Stephen earl of Blois 5
and on this defeent grounding his pretenfion to the
crowrr of England he was proclaimed king in 113?,
and reigned to the 25th of October 1154.
13. “ Argent, an Unicorn fejant Sable, unguled
and horned Or borne by the name of Hai ling.
14. “ Argent, a Dragon’s Head erafed Vert, hold¬
ing in his Mouth a finifter Hand couped at the Wriit
Gules borne by the name of Williams.
15. “ Gules, three Unicorns Heads couped Or
borne by the name of Paris.
16. “ Argent, a Wivern volant Bendways Sable j”
borne by the name of Raynon.
17. “ Azure, a Lion Sejant guardant winged Or,
his Head encircled with a Glory, holding in his fore¬
paws an open book, wherein is written, Pax tihiy
Marce, Evangeli/la meus ; over the dexter fide of the
Book a Sword ere£t, all proper.” Thefe are the arms
of the republic of Venice.
18. “ Azure, a Bull faiiant and winged Or,” borne
by the name of Cadenet, a family of dittindlion of Pro¬
vence.
Crowns.
19. “ Argent, a Wivern with a hum vi Face af¬
frontee hooded, and winged Vert,” borne by the
name of Buferaghit an ancient and noble family of
Luques.
20. “ Azure, a Harpy dilplayed, armed, crined,
and crowned Or.” Thefe are the arms of the city of
Nuremberg in Germany.
To the forementioned figures may be added the
montegre, an imaginary creature, fuppoled to have
the body of a tyger with a fatyr’s head and horns} al¬
fo thofe which have a real exiftence, but are faid to be
endowed with extravagant and imaginary qualities, viz.
the falamanfier, beaver, cameleon, &c.
Chap. IV. Of the External Ornaments of Efcut-
cheons.
The ornaments that accompany or furround efeut-
cheons were introduced to denote the birth, dignity,
or oftice, of the perfons to whom the coat-of-arms ap-
pertaineth ; which is pra&ifed both among the laity
and clergy. Thofe moft in ufe are of ten lorts, viz.
Crowns, Coronets, Mitres, Helmets, Mantlings, Cha¬
peaux, Wreaths, Crefts, Scrolls, Supporters.
Sfxt. I. Of Crowns.
The firft crowns wTere only diadems, bands, or
fillets j afterwards they were compofed of branches
of divers trees, and then flowers were added to
them.
Among
/
(
Chap. TV. HERA
Crowns. Among the Greeks, the crowns given to thofe who
' carried the prize at the Ilihmian games, were of pine •,
at the Olympic, of laurel} and at the Nemean, of
fmAlage.
The Romans had various crowns to reward martial
exploits and extraordinary fervices done to the repub¬
lic ; for which fee the detached article Crown in this
Dictionary, and Plate CLXIV.
Examples of fome of thefe crowns are frequently
met with in modern atchievements, viz. i. i he mural
crown in that of Lord IVlontfort, which was conferred on
Sir John Bromley, one of his lordlhip’s anceftors, as an
augmentation to his arms, for his great courage at the-
battle of Le Croby. Part of the creft of Lord Archer
is alfo a mural crown. And there are no lefs than
ten Englifh baronets, w’hofe arms are ornamented wdth
the fame crown. 2. The naval or roltral crown is
ftill ufed with coats-of-arms, as may be feen in thofe
of Sir William Burnaby, Bart, now admiral of the red
fquadron, and of John Clerke, Efq. as part of their
crefts. 3. Of the cajirenfe or vallary crown, we have
inftances in the coats-of arms of Sir Reginald Graham,
and of Ifaac Akerman, Efq. 4. The crelt of Grice
Blackney, Efq. is encompafled with a civic crown.
5. The radiated crown, according to J. Yorke, was
placed over the arms of the kings of England, till the
time of Edward III. It is itill ufed as a creft on
the arms of fome private families j thofe, for example,
borne by the name of Whitfield, are ornamented with
it. The celeftial crown is formed like the radiated,
with the addition of a ftar on each ray v and is only
ufed upon tomb-ftones, monuments, and the like.—
Others of the ancient crowns are Itill borne, as crelts,
by feveral families.
But modern crowns are only ufed as an ornament,
which emperors, kings, and independent princes fet
on their heads, in great folemnities, both to denote
their fovereign authority, and to render themfelves
more awful to their iubjects. Thefe are the molt in
uie in heraldry, and are as follows :
Tig. 20. The imperial crown (N° 1.) is made of a circle of
gold, adorned with precious Itones and pearls, height¬
ened with fleurs-de-lis, bordered and feeded with pearls,
raifed in the form of a cap voided at the top like a
crefcent. From the middle of this cap rifes an arched
fillet enriched with pearls, and furmounted of a mound,
whereon is a crofs of pearls.
The crown of the kings of Great Britain (2.) is a
circle of gold, bordered with ermine, enriched with
pearls and precious ftones, and heightened up with
tfour croffes pattee and four large fleurs-de-lis alter¬
nately ; from thefe rife four arched diadems adorned
with pearls, which clofe under a mound, furmounted
of a crofs like thofe at bottom. Mr Sandford, in
his Genealogical Hiftory, p. 3^1* remarks, that Ed¬
ward IV. is the firft king of England that in his
feal, or on his coin, is crowned with an arched dia¬
dem.
The crown of the kings in France (3.) is a circle
enamelled, adorned with precious Hones, and heighten¬
ed up with eight arched diadems, riling from as many
fleurs de-lis, that conjoin at the top under a double
fleur-de-lis, all of gold.
The crowns of Spain, Portugal, and Poland, are
all three of the fame form, and are, among!! others,
L D R Y. 421
thus deferibed by Colonel Parfons, in his Genealogical Coronet-
Tables of Europe, viz. A ducal coronet, heightened v
up with eight arched diadems that fupport a mound,
eniigned with a plain crofs. Thofe of Denmark and
Sweden are both of the fame form, and confifl of eight
arched diadems, riling from a marquis’s coronet, which
conjoin at the top under a mound eniigned with a crofs-
bottony. #
. The crowns of moll other kings are circles of gold,
adorned with precious ftenes, and heightened up with
large trefoils, and clofed by four, fix, or eight diadems,
fupporting a mound, furmounted of a crofs.
The Great Turk (4.) bears over his arms a tur¬
ban, enriched with pearls and diamonds, under two
coronets, the firll of w'hich is made of pyramidical
points heightened up with large pearls, and the upper-
moll is furmounted wdth crefcents.
The Pope, or bilhop of Romq, appropriates to hini-
felf a Tiara (N° 5.), or long cap of golden cloth, from
which hang two pendants embroidered and fringed at
the ends, Jemee of croffes of gold. This cap is enclofed
by three marquifes coronets ; and has on its top a
mound of gold, whereon is a crofs of the fame, which
crofs is fometimes reprefented by engravers and pain¬
ters pometted, recrofled, florvery, or plain.—It is
a difficult matter to alcertain the time when the popes
affumed the three forementioned coronets. A patch-
ed-up fucceflion of the holy pontiffs, engraved and pub-
lilhed fome years ago by order of Pope Clement XIII.
for the edification of his good fubjedls in Great Bri¬
tain and Ireland, reprefents Marcellus, wdio was cho-
fen bilhop of Rome anno 310, and all his fucceffors,
adorned with fuch a cap : but it appears, from very
good authority, that Boniface VIII. wTho was elected
into the fee of Rome anno 1295, firft compaffed his
cap with a coronet’, Benedict XII. in 1335* added a
Lcond to it •, and John XXIII. in 1411, a third; with
a view to indicate by them, that the Pope is the fove¬
reign prieft, the fupreme judge, and the foie legillator
among!! Chriftians.
Sect. II. Of Coronets.
The coronet of the prince of Wales, or eldeft fon*
of the king of Great Britain (N° 7 ), was anciently a
circle of gold fet round with four croffes pattee, and as
many fleurs-de-lis alternately ; but lince the reftoration,
it has been clofed with one arch only, adorned wfith pearls,
and furmounted of a mound and crofs, and bordered with
ermine like the king’s.
Befides the aforefaid coronet, his royal highnefs the
prince of Wales has another diftinguilhing mark of
honour, peculiar to himfelf, called by the vulgar the-
prince's arms, viz. A plume of three oftrich-feathers,
with an ancient coronet of a prince of Wales. Under
it, in a fcioll, is the motto, Ich Dicn, which in the
German or old Saxon language lignifies, “ I ferve
(fee N° 6.). This device was at firft taken by Edw ard
prince of Wales, commonly called the black prince,
after the famous battle of Creffy, in 1346, where ha¬
ving with his own hand killed John king of Bohemia,
he took from his head fuch a plume, and put it on his
own.
The coronet of all the immediate fons and bro¬
thers of the kings of Great Britain, is a circle of gold,
bordered j.
a
HERA
bordered with ermine, heightened up with four fleurs-
de-lis, and as many crofl'es pattee alternate, (fee N° 8.).
—The particular and diftinguiflung form of fuch co¬
ronets as are appropriated to princes of the blood-royal,
is defcribed and fettled in a grant of Charles II. the 13th
of his reign.
The coronet of the princeffes of Great Britain is a
circle of gold, bordered with ermine, and heightened
up with croffes-pattee, fleurs-de-lis, and llrawberry leaves
alternate (N° 9.) ; whereas a prince’s coronet has only
fleurs-de-lis and croflfes.
A duke’s coronet is a circle of gold bordered with
ermine, enriched with precious flones and pearls, and
fet round with eight large ilrawberry or parfley leaves j
(N° 10.).
A marquis’s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered
with ermine, fet round with four ftrawberry leaves, and
as many pearls on pyramidical points of equal height, al¬
ternate j (N° 11.).
An earl’s coronet is a circle of gold, bordered with
ermine, heightened up with eight pyramidical points
or rays, on the tops of which are as many large pearls,
and are placed alternately, (with as many ftrawberry-
leaves, but the pearls much higher than the leaves :
(N° 12.).
A vifcount’s coronet differs from the preceding ones
as being only a circle of gold bordered with ermine,
with large pearls fet clofe together on the rim, with¬
out any limited number, which is the prerogative above
the baron, who is limited : (fee N° 13.)*
A baron’s coronet, (No 14.), which was granted by
King Charles II. is formed with fix pearls fet at equal
diftances on a gold circle, bordered with ermine, four of
which only are feen on engravings, paintings, &.c.to fhow
he is inferior to the vifcount.
The eldeft fons of peers, above the degree of a ba¬
ron, bear their father’s arms and fupporters with a label,
and ufe the coronet appertaining to their father’s fecond
title j and all the younger fons bear their arms with pro¬
per differences, but ufe no coronets.
As the crown of the king of Great Britain is not
quite like that of other potentates, fo do moft of the
coronets of foreign noblemen differ a little from thofe
of the Britifh nobility 5 as for example, the coronet of
a French earl is a circle of gold with 18 pearls fet on
the brim of it *, a French vifcount’s coronet is a
circle of gold only enamelled, charged with four large
pearls; and a French baron’s coronet is a circle of
gold enamelled and bound about with a double brace¬
let of pearls ; and thefe coronets are only ufed on
French noblemen’s coats-of-arms, and not worn on
their heads, as the Britifh noblemen and their ladies
do at the king’s coronation.
Sect. III. Of Mitres.
The archbifhops and bifhops of England and Ire¬
land place a mitre over their coats-of-arms. It is a
round cap pointed and cleft at the top, from which
hang two pendants fringed at both ends ; with this
difference, that the bifhop’s mitre is only furrounded
with a fillet of gold, fet with precious (tones, (fee
fig. 23. N° 6.) whereas the archbifhop’s iflfues out of a
ducal coronet, (fee fig. 20. N° 15.).
I
L D ft Y. Chap. IV-
This ornament, with other mafquerade garments, Helmets
is ftill worn by all the archbifhops and bifhops of the aiK*
church of Rome, whenever they officiate with folem- Mantling-
nity ; but it is never ufed in England, otherwife than
on coats of arms, as before-mentioned.
Sect. IV. Of Helmets.
The Helmet was formerly worn as a defenfive wea¬
pon, to cover the bearer’s head, and is now placed
over a coat-of-arms as its chief ornament, and the
true mark of gentility. There are feveral fcrts, di-
ftinguifhed, iff, by the matter they are made of;
2dly, by their form 5 and, 3dly, by their pofition.
iff, As to the matter they are, or rather were,
made of: The helmets of fovereigns were of burnifhed
gold damafked ; thofe of princes and lords, of iilver
figured with gold ; thofe of knights, of fteel adorned
with filver, and thofe of private gentlemen of polifhed
ffeel.
2dly, As to their form : Thofe of the king and the
royal family, and noblemen of Great Britain, are open-
faced and grated, and the number of bars ferv«s to
diffinguilh the bearer’s quality 5 that is, the helmet ap¬
propriated to the dukes and marquifes is different
from the king’s, by having a bar exatfly in the middle,
and two on each fide, making but five bars in all, (fee
fig. 21. N° 1.) wdiereas the king’s helmet has fix bars,
viz. three on each ;fide, (ibid. N° 7’)' The other
grated helmet with four bars is common to all degrees
of peerage v a marquis. The open-faced helmet
without bars Jenotes baronets and knights. The clofe
helmet is for all efquires and gentlemen.
3dly, Their pofition is alfo looked upon as a mark
of diftin&ion. The grated helmet in front belongs
to fovereign princes. The grated helmet in profile
is common to all degrees of peerage. The helmet
Handing direct without bars, and the beaver a little
open, denotes baronets and knights. Laitly, the iide-
ftanding helmet, with the beaver clofe, is the way of
wearing it amongft efquires and gentlemen. See
N° 1, 2, 3, 4, and 7, inferted in fig. 21. Ornaments.
Sect. V. Of Mantlings.
MaNTLINGS are pieces of cloth jagged or cut into
flowers and leaves, which now-a-days ferve as an orna¬
ment for efcutcheons. They ivere the ancient cover¬
ings of helmets, to preferve them, or the bearer, from
the injuries of the weather, as alfo to prevent the ill
confequences of their too much dazzling the eye in
adtion. But Guillim very judicioufly obferves, that
their fhape muff have undergone a great altera¬
tion fince they have been out of ufe, and therefore
might more properly be termed flourijbings than mant-
lings. See the examples annexed to the helmets repre-
fented in fig. 21.
The French heralds affure us, that thefe mantlings
were originally no other than ffiort coverings which
commanders wore over their helmets, and that, going
into battles with them, they often, on their coming
away, brought them back in a ragged manner, oc-
cafioned by the many cuts they had received on their
heads: and therefore the more hacked they were, the
more
t
Chap. IV. HERA
ChapeaMx, more honourable they were accounted •, as our colours
Wreatiu, jn tjme 0f war are more efteemed for having been
&.C i • o
, (hot through m many places.
Sometimes Ikins of bealfs, as lions, bears, &c. were
thus boi-ne, to make the bearer look more terrible,
and that gave occalion to the doubling of mantlings
with furs.
L D R Y.
423
Archer’s which is, “ Out of a mural crown Or, a
Wyvern’s head Argent.” There are feveral inftances
of crefts that are relative to alliances, employments,
or names j and which on that account have been
changed.
The Scroll
and
Supporters.
Sect. IX. Of the Scroll.
Sect. VI, Of Chapeaux.
A Chapeau is an ancient hat, or rather cap, of dig¬
nity worn by dukes, generally fcarlet-coloured velvet on
the outiide, lined and turned up with fur ; of late
frequently to be met with above an helmet, inftead of
a wreath, under gentlemen’s and noblemen’s crefts.
Heretofore they were feldcm to be found, as of right
appertaining to private families ; but by the grants of
Robert Cooke, Clarencieux, and other fucceeding
heralds, thefe, together with ducal coronets, are now
frequently to be met with in families, wrho yet claim
not above the degree of gentlemen. See the repre-
fentation of the chapeau, N° 5. fig. 21.
Sect. VII. Of Wreaths.
The Wreath is a kind of roll made of two Ikains
of filk of different colours twdfted together, which an¬
cient knights wmre as a head-drefs wrhen equipped
for tournaments. The colours of the filk are always
taken from the principal metal and colour contained
in the coat of-arms of the bearer. They are ftill ac¬
counted as one of the leffer ornaments of efcutcheons,
and are placed between the helmet and the creft : (fee
fig. 21. N° 6.). In the time of Henry I. and long af¬
ter, no man, who was under the degree of a knight,
had his creft fet on a wreath •, but this, like other pre¬
rogatives, has been unfringed fo far, that every body
now-a^days wears a wreath.
Sect. VIII. Of Crefs.
The Creft is the higheft part of the ornaments of
a coat-of-arms. It is called cref, from the Latin wmrd
crifa, which fignifies comb or tuft, fuch as many
birds have upon their heads, as the peacock, phea~
fant, &c. in allufion to the place on which it is
fixed.
Crefts wTere formerly great marks of honour, be-
caufe they wTere only worn by heroes of great valour,
or by fuch as w’ere advanced to fome fuperior military
command, in order that they might be the better di-
llinguiftied in an engagement, and thereby rally their
men if difperfed ; but they are at prefent confidered
as a mere ornament. The creft is frequently a part
either of the fupporters, or of the charge borne in the
escutcheon. Thus the creft of the royal atchievement
of Great Britain is a “ Lion guardant crowned,” as
may be feen in fig. 21. N° 7. The creft of France is
a double Fleur-de-luce. Out of the many crefts
borrowed from fupporters, are the following, viz.
The duke of Montagu’s, “ A Griffon’s head coup’d
Or, back’d and wing’d Sable,” the marquis of Rock¬
ingham’s, “ A Griffon’s head argent, gorg’d with
a ducal coronet : the earl of Weftmoreland’s, “ A
Bull’s head Argent, py’d Sable, armed Or j and Lord
The Scroll is the ornament placed above the creft,
containing a motto, or Ihort fentence, alluding thereto,
or to the bearings *, or to the bearer’s name, as in the
two followdng inftances. The motto of the noble
earl of Cholmondeley is, Caffs tutiffma virtus ; i. e.
“ Virtue is the fafeft helmet j” on account of the hel¬
met in the coat-of-arms. The motto of the right honour¬
able Lord Fortelcue is, Forte fcutum fa/us ducum ; i. e.
“ A ftrong ihield is the fafety of the commanders
alluding to the name of that ancient family. Some¬
times it has reference to neither, but expreffes fome-
thing divine or heroic j as that of the earl of Scarbo¬
rough, which is, Mur us cereus confcientia fana; i. e.
“ A good confcience is a wall of brafs.” Others are
enigmatical ; as that of the royal atchievement, which
is Dieu ct mon Droit, i. e. “ God and my rightin¬
troduced by Edward III. in 13,40, when he affumed
the arms and title of king of France, and began to
profecute his claim, which occafioned long and bloody
wars, fatal by turns to both kingdoms : or that of
the prince of Wales, which is Ich dien, “ I ferve,”
the origin of which has been already mentioned.
Mottos, though hereditary in the families that firft
took them up, have been changed on fome particular
occafions, and others appropriated in their ftead, in¬
ftances of which are fometimes met with in the hiftory
of families.
Sect. X. Of Supporters.
Supporters are figures Handing on the fcroll, and
placed at the fide of the efcutcheon ; they are fo called,
becaufe they feem to fupport or hold up the Ihield.
The rife of fupporters is, by F. Meneftrier, traced up
to ancient tournaments, wherein the knights caufed
their Ihields to be carried by fervants or pages under
the difguife of lions, bears, griffons, blackamoors, &c.
who alfo held and guarded the efcutcheons, which the
knights were obliged to expofe to public view for
fome time before the lifts w'ere opened. Sir George
Mackenzie, who diffents from this opinion, fays, in
his Treatife on the Science of Heraldry, chap. xxxi. p. 93.
“ That the firft origin and ufe of them was from the
cuftom which ever was, and is, of leading fuch as are
invefied with any great honour to the prince who
confers it : thus, when any man is created a duke,
marquis, or knight of the garter, or any other order,
he is fupported by, and led to the prince betwixt, two
of the quality, and fo receives from him the fymbols
of that honour ; and in remembrance of that folemnity,
his arms are thereafter fupported by any two crea¬
tures he choofes.” Supporters have formerly been
taken from fuch animals or birds as are borne in the
Ihields, and fometimes they have been chofen as bear¬
ing fome allufion to the names of thofe whofe arms
they are made to fupport. The fupporters of the
arms of Great Britain, fince King James the Firft’s
acceftion .
424 HERA
"Suppoitrr? acceOloTi to tlje throne, are a Lion ram par, t guard ant
1— crowned Or, on the dexter fide, and an Unicorn Argent,
crowned, armed, unguled, maned and gorged with an an¬
tique Crown, to which a chain is afiixed, all Or, on the
fitliftef *, as it appears by fig. 21. N° 7.
This laft figure reprefents the coat-of-arms of the
king of Great Britain, or the royal atchievement, as
it has been marlhalled fince the acceffion of King
•George I. in 1714, and is blazoned as follows, viz.
ARMS. Quarterly, in the firfi grand quarter Gules,
three Lions rampant guardant in pale Or, the imperial
enfigns of England j impaled with Or, a Lion rampant,
within a double trefifure fiowery and countir-fiowery
Gules, the royal arms of Scotland. The fiecotid is Assure,
three Fleurs-de-lis Or, the arms of France. The third
is Assure, a Harp Or, firinged Argent, the eniign of
Ireland. The fourth grand quarter is Gules, t wo Lions
pajjant guardant in pale Or, for Brunfwick } impaled
with Or femee of Hearts' Proper, a Lion rampant A-
zure, for Lunenburg ; with grafted in hafe Gules a
Horfe current Argent, for ancient Saxony j and in a
(Heldfurtout Gules, the Crown of Charlemagne Or, as
' arch-treafurer of the empire •, the xchole within a Gar¬
ter, inferibed with this motto, Honi soit qui MAE Y
tense, as fovereign of that noble order, given by the
founder King Edward III.
CREST. On a Helmet full-faced, grated and fur-
mounted of a Crowh, a Lion guardant crowned Or ; the
mantlings of the lafi, and lining, Ermine.
SUPPORTERS. On the Dexter fide a Lion
rampant guards Or, crowned as the Crejl. On the Si-
nijlerfide an Unicorn Argent, crowned, armed, maned,
and unguled Or, gorged with an antique Crown ; a Chain
affixed thereto, refie&ing over the back, andpqffing over
the hind legs of the lafi, both fianding on a Scroll in¬
feribed with this motto, Dieu ET MON DROIT, from
which iffiue the two Royal Badges of his Majefifs chief
Dominions, viz. on the Dexter fide a Rofe party per Pale
Argent and Gules, fialked and leaved proper, for Eng¬
land ; and on the Sinifier fide a Thifile proper, for Scot¬
land ; being fo adorned by King James I. upon hisfuc-
ceeding to the crown of England. As king of Scot¬
land, he bore two unicorns, as above, for his fupporters;
but upon the union of that kingdom with England,
1603, he introduced one of the above fupporters on the
finilter fide of the royal atchievement, and which conti¬
nues to this day.
It is to be obferved, that bearing coats-of-arms
fupported, is, according to the heraldrical rules oi
England, the prerogative, ill, Of thofe called nobilcs
majores, viz. dukes, marquifes, earls, vifeounts, and
barons *, 2d, Of all knights of the Garter, though they
fhould be under the degree of barons •, 3d, Of knights
of the Bath, who both receive on their creation a grant
of fupporters. And, laftly, of fuch grants as the
king chcofes to bellow this honour upon 5 as in the in-
flance of Sir Andrew Fountain, who w-as knighted by
Philip earl of Pembroke, when lord lieutenant of Ire¬
land, Fountain being then his fecretary *, and. on his
return to England, King William granted him fup¬
porters to his arms, viz. two Griffins Gules and Or.
In Scotland, all the chiefs of clans or names have
the urivilege of claiming fupporters 5 alio the baro¬
nets." But by aft of parliament, 10th September
L D R Y. Chap. V,
1672, none are allowed to ufe either arms or fupport- Rules of
ers, under a penalty and confifcation of all moveables Heraldry,
whereon arms are put, without the Lord Lyon’s au* 4
thority.
Chap. V. Gf the Rules or Laws of Heraldry.
The feveral efcutcheons, tinftures, charges, and
ornaments of coats-of-arms, and their various proper¬
ties, being now explained ; it may not be improper to
fubjoin fuch rules for blazoning the fame, as the an¬
cient ufage and laws of heraldry have ellabliOied a-
mongft us. _ 1
I. The firfi and moll general rule is, to exprefs
one’s felf in proper terms, lo as not to omit any thing
that ought to be fpecified, and at the fame time to be
clear and concife without tautology j as in Ex. xiv.
Chap. III. art. 1. and alfo in Ex. 11. art. 7. wherein
thefe expreffions of the Yield, or of the Firfi, prevent
the repetition of the forementioned tinfture.
II. One mull begin with the tinfture of the field,
and then proceed to the principal charges which pol-
fefs the moll honourable place in the ihield, fuen as
Fefs, Cheveron, &c. always naming that charge firil
which lies next and immediately upon the field 5 as in
Ex. 15. Chap. III. art. 5.
III. After naming the tinfture of the field, the
honourable ordinaries, or other principal figures, you
mull fpecify their attributes, and afterwards their me¬
tal or colour, as in Ex. 16. Examples of Effigies, &c.
IV. When an honourable ordinary, or feme one
figure, is placed upon another, whether it be a kefs,
Cheveron, Crofs, &c. it is always to be named after
the ordinary or figure over which it is placed, with
one of thefe exprefiions,yi/r tout, or over all, as in Ex.
20. Chap. III. art. 4.
V. In the blazoning of fuch ordinaries as are plain,
the bare mention of them is fufficient; but if an ordi¬
nary Ihould be made of any of the crooked lines men¬
tioned above, its form mull be Ipecified 5 that is,
whether it be Engrailed, Wavy, &c. as in Ex. 1. 2.
3. Chap. III. art I.
VI. When a principal figure poflefies the centre of
the field, its polition is not to be exprelfed : or (which
amounts to the fame thing) when a bearing is named,
without fpecifying the point where it is placed, then
it is underilood to poflefs the middle of the Ihield $ as
in Ex. 15. Examples of other Quadrupeds, &c.
VII. The number of the points of mullets or liars
mull be fpecified when more than five and alfo if a
mullet or any other charge be pierced, it mull be men¬
tioned as fuch, to diilinguilh it from what is plain ; as
in Ex. 13. 14. Examples of Celefiialfigures.
VIII. When a ray of the fun, or other fingle figure*
is borne in any other part of the efcutcheon than the
centre, the point it iffues from mull be named j as in
Ex. 3. Examples of Celefiial figures.
IX. The natural colour of trees, plants, fruits,
birds, &c. is no otherwife to be exprefled in blazon¬
ing but by the word proper, as in Ex. 2. 7. Examples of
Birds, &c.} but if difcoloured, that is, if they differ
from their natural colour, it mull be particularized ; as
in Ex. 1.2. Examples of other Quadrupeds, &c.
X. When three figures are in a field, and their pro-
fition
2
(
Chap. VI. ^ H E 11 A
Marflial- fition is not mentioned in the blazoning, they are al-
ling- ways underltood to be placed, two above, and one be-
low . as in ftg. 23. N° 3.
XI. When there are many figures of the fame fpe-
cies borne in a coat-of-arms, their number muft be
obferved as they ftand, and diftinftly exprefied 5 as in
Ex. 1. Of Artificial Figures, Ac.
But for the better underftanding of this laft rule, we
have inferted examples of the dijferent clifpojitions of
figures, wherein they are properly reprefented, viz.
Two may be ranged in Pale, in Fefs, &c. See
fig. 22. N° i and 2.
Three, may be 2 and 1, as alfo in Bend, &c. See
N° 3 and 4.
placed 2 and 2, or cantoned, as in
L 1) R Y
425
1, in Crofs; or 2, 1, 2, in Salfier. See
See N° 10.
3, 2, 1, in
Pile.
Four,
N° 5.
Five, r, 3,
N° 6 and 7.
Six, 3, 2, 1, in Pile; or 2, 2, 2, Paleways. See
N° 8 arid 9.
Eight, in Orle, or on a Bordure.
Fine, 3, 3, 3, Barvyays j or 3,
See N° 1 1 and 1 2.
Ten, 4, 3, 2, 1, in Pile ; or elfq 4, 2, 4, Barways.
See N° 13 and 14.
Twelve, are placed 4, 4, 4, Barways. See N° 15.
There are other pofitions called irregular; as for
example, when three figures which are naturally placed
2 and 1, are difpofed 1 and 2, &c. It muft alfo be
obferved, that when the field is ftmved with the fame
figures, this is expreffed by the word fetnee : but, ac¬
cording to a French arrnorift’s opinion, if the figures
llrewed on the field are whole ones, it muft be denoted
by the words fans notnbre ; whereas, if part of them is
cut otf at the extremities of the efcutcheon, the word
Jemee or ferni is then to be ufed.
Chap. VI. Of MarJJjalling Coats-of-anns,
By marfsailing coats-of-arms, is to be underftood
the art of difpofing divers of them in one efcutcheon,
and of diftributing their contingent ornaments in proper
places.
Various caufes may occafion arms to be thus con¬
joined, wFich J. Guillim comprifes under two heads,
viz. manifejl and ohfcure.
What this learned and judicious herald means by
manifejl caufes in the marfhalling of coats-of-arms, are
fuch as betoken marriages, or a fovertign’s gift, grant¬
ed either through the fpecial favour of the prince, or
for fome eminent fervices. Concerning marriages it is
to be obferved,
I. When the coats-of-arms of a married couple,
defeended of diftinft families, are to be put together
in one efcutcheon, the field of their refpeftive arms is
conjoined Paleways, and blazoned parted per pale, Ba¬
ron and Femme, two coats;firjl, Ac. In which cale the
baron’s arms are always to be placed on the dexter fide,
and the femme’s arms on the finifter fide, as in N° I
and 2, fig. 23. OJ arms tnarfisalled, which are,
1. The coat-of-arms of the Rev. Edward Barnard,
D. D. chaplain in ordinary to his majefty, provoft of
Etcn-college, canon of Windfor, &c. impaled with that
of S. Hagatt, his fpoufe.
2. x he coat-of-arms of the Rev, Thomas Dampier,
VOL. X. Part II.
D. D. chaplain in ordinary to his majefty, prebendary Marflia!-
of Durham, canon of Windfor, &.c. impaled wuth that JinS'
of F. Walker, his fpoufe. 'r"“
If a widower marry again, his late and prefent
wife’s arms are, according to G. Leigh, “ to be both
placed on the finifter fide, in the efcutcheon with his
own, and parted per Pale. The firft wife’s coat fhall
Hand on the Chief, and the fecond on the Bafe ; or
he may fet them both in Pale with his own, the firft:
wife’s coat next to himfelf, and his fecond outermoft.
If he Ihould marry a third wife, then the two firft
matches fliall ftand on the Chief, and the third fhall
have the wdiole Bafe. And if he take a fourth wife,
flie muft participate one half of the Bafe wfith the
third wife, and fo will they feem to be fo many coats
quartered.’’ But it muft be obferved, that thefe
forms of impaling are meant of hereditary coats,
whereby the hufband ftands in expe&ation of having*
the hereditary pofleffions of his wife united to his pa
trimony.
II. In the arms of femmes joined to the paternal
coat of the baron, the proper differences by which they
were borne by the fathers of fuch women muft be in¬
ferted.
III. If a coat-of-arms that has a Bordure be im¬
paled with another, as by marriage, then the Bordure
muft be w'holly omitted in the fide of the arms next the
centre.
IV. The perfon that marries an heirefs, inftead of
impaling his arms with thofe of his wife, is to bear
them in an efcutcheon placed in the centre of his
flneld, after the fame manner as the baronet’s badge
is marfhalled in Ei° 3. and which, on account of its
fhowing forth his pretenfion to her eftate, is called an
efcutcheon of pretence, and is blazoned furtout, i. e.
over-all, as in the efcutcheon borne in the fourth quar
ter of the royal atchievement. But the children are
to bear the hereditary coat-of-arms of their father
and mother quarterly, which denotes a fixed inheritance,
and fo tranfmit them to pofterity. The firft and fourth
quarters generally contain the father’s arms, and the
fecond and third the mother’s; except the heirs Ihould
derive not only their eftate, but alfo their title and dig¬
nity, from their mother.
V. If a maiden or dowager lady of quality marry a
commoner, or a nobleman inferior to her rank, their
coats-of-arms may be fet afide of one another in two
leparate efcutcheons, upon one mantle or drapery,
and the lady’s arms ornamented according to her title*
Re N° 4, and 6, which reprefent the coats-of-arms of
Gen. C. Montagu, and Lady Elizabeth Villiers Vif-
countefs Grandifon.
VI. Archbi(hops and biftiops impale the arms dif¬
ferently from the fore-mentioned coats, in giving the
place of honour, that is, the dexter fide, to the arms
of their dignity, as it is expreffed in N° 6. which re-
prefents the coat-of-arms of Dr Philip Yonge, Lord
bi-hop of Norwich. It may be obferved of the’ above
prelates, that they thut: bear their' arms parted per
Pale, to denote their being joined to their cathedral
church m a fort of fpintual marriage.
. vVith. reipeft to fuch armorial enfigns as the fove-
reign thinks fit to augment a coat-of-arms with, they
may be marihalled various ways, as may be feen by
the arms of his grace the duke of Rutland, inferted in
3 H fig< 8.
Plate
etxx.
HERA
fig. 8. N° 19. and the example contained in fig. it.
N° 11.
To thofe augmentations may be added, ift, The
baronet’s mark of dilfindion, or the arms of the pro¬
vince of Ulfter in Ireland, granted and made heredi¬
tary in the male line by King Tames I. who eroded
this dignity on the 22cl of May 1611, in the 9th
vear of his reign, in order to propagate a plantation
in the fore-mentioned province. This mark is y/r-
srent, a fmijler Hand couped at the Wriji, and ere Bed
Gules ; which may be borne either in a canton, or in
an efcutcheon, as will belt fuit the figures of the arms.
See fig. 23. N° 3. which reprefents the coat-of-arms
of Sir William Lorrayne, of Kirk-harle, Northumber¬
land, and are thus blazoned : Quarterly, Sable and
Argent, a plain Crofs counter-quartered of the Field.
The Creft,—A Lei rel-lree couped, two branchesfprout-
ing out proper, and fixed to the lower part thereoj with a
Belt Gules, edged and buckled Or. This, according to
tradition in the family, was granted for fome worthy
adion in the field.
2dly, The ancient and refpedable badge of the
moft noble order of the Garter, militated by King
Edward HI. 1349, in the 27th year of his reign j
and which, ever iince its inftitution, has been looked
upon as a great honour bellowed on the nobleft per-
fons of this nation and other countries. This honour¬
able augmentation is made to furround, as with a gar¬
ter, the arms of luch knights, and is inlcnbed with
this motto, Ihnifoit qui nial y penfe: fee N° 7. which
reprefents the coat-of-arms of his grace the duke of
Montagu, earl of Cardigan, Earon Brundenel of Stan-
ton-Wevil, conftable and lieutenant of Windfor-caftle,
knight of the moft noble order of the Garter,
and baronet, prefident of St Luke’s Hofpital, and
F. R. S.
This nobleman, whofe arms were Argent, a Cheve-
ron Gules between three Morions proper, has, lince the
deceafe of John duke of IVIontagu, taken the name and
arms of Montagu, on account of his being married to
Lady Mary Montagu, youngeft daughter and one of
the co-heireffes of his grace.
So far the caures for marlhalling divers arms in one
ft field, Sec. are manifeji. As to fuch as are cafted oh-
jcure, that is, when coats-of-arms are marfliailed in fuch
a manner, that no probable reafon can be given why
they are lo conjoined, they mull be left to heralds to
explain, as being the prepereft perfons to unfold thefe
and other myfteries of this fcience.
Chap. VII. Of Funeral Efcutcheons.
After having treated of the effential parts of the
coats-of-arms, of the various charges and ornaments
ufually borne therewith, of their attributes and difpo-
fitions, and of the rules for blazoning and marlhalling
them, we fhall next deferibe the ftveral funeral efcut¬
cheons, ufually called hatchments; whereby may he
known, after any perfon’s deceafe, what rank either he
or lire held wThen living y and it it be a gentleman’s
hatchment, whether he was a bachelor, married man,
or widower, with the like diflindlions for gentlewo¬
men.
The hatchment, fig. 24. N° 1. reprefents fuch as are a
affixed to the fronts of koufes, when any of the nobility
L D R Y. Chap. VII.
the arms therein being thofe of a pri- Of Efcut-
and gentry dies # w
vate gentleman and his wife parted per pale j the dex¬
ter fide, which is Gules, three Bars Or, for the huf-
band-, having the ground without the efcutcheon black,
denotes the man to be dead •, and the ground on the
finiiler fide being white, fignilies that the wife is living,
which is alfo tlemonll rated by the fmall hatchment,
N° 2. which is here depibled without mantling, helmet,
and creft, for perfpicuity’s fake only.
Wh en a married gentlewoman dies firft, the hatch¬
ment is diftinguilhed by a contrary colour from the
former ; that is, the arms on the finifter fide have the
ground without the efcutcheon brack 5 whereas thofe
on the dexter fide, for her furviving hulband, are upon
a white ground : the hatchment of a gentlewoman is,
moreover, differenced by a cherub over the arms inllead
of a creft. See N° 3.
When a bachelor dies, his arms may be depicled
fingle or quartered, with a creft over them, but never
impaled as the two firft are, and all the ground with¬
out the efcutcheon is alfo black. See N° 4. ^
When a maid dies, her arms, which are placed in a
lozenge, may be fingle or quartered, as thole of a
bachelor 5 but, inftead of a creft, have a cherub over
them, and all the ground without the efcutcheon is afio
black. See N° 5.
When a widower dies, his arms are reprefented im¬
paled with thofe of his deceafed wife, having a helmet,
mantling, and creft over them, and all the ground with¬
out the efcutcheon black. See N° 6.
When a widow dies, her arms are alfo reprefented
impaled with thofe of her deceafed hulband, but enclo-
fed in a lozenge, and, inftead of a creft, a cherub is
placed over them ; all the ground without the efcut¬
cheon is alfo black. See N° 7*
If a widower or bachelor ihould happen to be the
laft of his family, the hatchment is depided as.in N° 6.
and that of a maid or widow, whole family is extinct
by her death, is depided as in N° 7. with this diffe¬
rence only, that a death-head is generally annexed to
each hatchment, to denote, that death has conquer¬
ed all.
By the fore-mentioned rules, which are fometin.es
negleded through the ignorance of illiterate people,
may be known, upon the fight of any hatchment, what
branch of the family is dead and by the heLs.et or
coronet, what title and degree the deceafed perfon
w^as of.
The fame rules are obferve-J with refped to the el-
cutcheons placed on the hearfe and horfes ufed in pom¬
pous funerals, except that they are not furmounted with
any creft, as in the foregoing examples ox hatchments,
but are always plain. It is neceffary, however, to.en-
fipn thofe of peers with coronets, and that ol a maiden
lady with a knot of ribbands.
In Scotland, a funeral efcutcheon not only (hows forth
the arms and condition of the defund, but is alfo a
proof of the gentility of his defeent 5 and fuch perlons
for whom this fpecies of efcutcheon can be made out,,
are legally entitled to the charafler of gentlemen, of
blood, which is the higheft fpecies of gentility. The
Englifli hatchment above deferibed exhibits no more
than a right to a coat-of-arms which may be acquired
by purchafe, and is only the firft fiep towards eftabliih-
ing gentility in a family.
cheons.
/
HE HAIj \) E Y
. /. (A).
l.INE, S 1) IFF K H E X C E S^vr .
C_
ftWct/.
r^rrr^rr^nrr\
3. ris/is //am/.
0. • //{/'/ari'.
^v__r\_£lxv=,
M/ywvyW'A
/VVVWAVVWAVWA
I'LfV^r mm/a/?/■>/a/ a it,/-
12. t//A/t///,-,/ />////a///-//.
13. '/7a■ C/J,>r,/a//.
—2^r^Jsr^L^r
j 1. SS/t- / //a //tf/a / //,-.
^ (/',*/<■<•/,/ '■is ///'/'/>/. J* /at///, /a ////////.
t. /a/,-/. “ , 1
o.. y'/'/r,-/-,//> /a. ■ „ s' /’ /7 y "
6- ^,,^/',l%£//a/m-/m/.
.
/// /t,a/-,/u-a/
'//a^//,/'//'>/.k(///ar/,-/-,t/c///sr,///s/i/. //yra/t.
/ a/t/’tt.
t^/a.
//•/-. t///a/,•///•/(-,>/t. • ^/,/.a//<,\ t //a//,/a/.
/ ,’/,/<•/>/. - ^/<>Jy’//,/<’•
^ y
^ S'//,)//.
' //a.i,/', //-.>. // ///a// // y.
>//. /. (1J).
/■ r
ESC FT F HE f) N 8 .
CCLIV
. '//i.//./,;/'■ >/.
t
-
/
I
<• ///, ////);/,.//„7^, y,-'v.
1 'yy/~ //■
S-AXrTIKltS! .
ILKIIAT.IVRT.
lJJale CCLVJt
\ /2.
OR DIN ARTS "*C.
i/t-
RFriRIE^ ^C.
2
CCLVJU.
Animals fc
i a
Vi I UUj
/<S>.
AIIT IF ICIA L Fig V R E s
Birds jc
r //XY/fS/f // .v/.
I
HEK^VLJD R Y.
■Jfttfss/ A'in? /see.
C K OWS S
VX. *2.
c'
UI SP O SI T TOZKT S.
.Plate
C C1.X .
MllJl AT,J)RX
cZ ‘l. t , '//ar'i/uf//<’s/.
Wn 'r//ss n/}
K AH 1, of
X. oxrp o iry
E A RJj of
I ‘ -SI i ' i -. KMI.IX K
if A S TEK of
L OUT5 OTT .S'
E^\RJ. of
XOEE
r o_lv-ie
Ko S S of I
.BAi.SAfion'Ayl
S F. ARE of
11. J XI. I Til (J Q H-
mm
l.OiW
imtTilirOX'Tl
X OEIJ
Drum no .v n
H A R .L of
1 liR'"
i
;; :^frfejif Tfo^oj ^
v -aMm
Chap. VII. HERA
OfEfcut- The funeral efcutcheon, as exhibited in Scotland,
, cbeon!i- France, and Germany, is in form of a lozenge, above
fix feet fquare, of black cloth ; in the centre of which
is painted, in proper colours, the complete atchieve-
ment of the defunft, with all its exterior ornaments
and additional marks or badges of honour j and round
* the fides are placed the lixteen arms of the families
from which he derives his defcent, as far back as the
grandfather’s grandfather, as the proofs of his genti¬
lity : they exhibit the armorial bearings of his father
and mother, his twTo grandmothers, his four great¬
grandmothers, and his eight great-grandmothers mo¬
thers j if all thefe families have acquired a legal right
to bear arms, then the gentility of the perfon whofe
E D R Y. 427
proof it is muft be accounted complete, but not other- OF Efcut-
vife. On the four corners are placed mort-heads, k cl*eons- .
and the initials of his name and titles or delignation ;
and the black interftices are femee or powdered with
tears, as in the figure, N0 8. which is the efcutcheon
of the right honourable James 5th earl of Balcarras,
chief of the ancient furname of Lindefaij.
On the morning of the interment, one of thefe is
placed on the front of the houfe where the deceafed
lies ; and another on the church in which he is to be
buried, which after the burial is fixed above the grave.
The pall, too, is generally adorned with thefe proofs
of gentility, and the kories of the hearfe with the de«
fun&’s arms.
HER
Heraldus HERALDUS, Desiderius, in French Herault, a
H counfellor of the parliament of .Paris, has given good
uus PJ?nts Pr?ofs of uncommon learning by very different works.
C v-. His Adverfaria appeared in 1599 ; which little book,
if the Sca/igerana may be credited, he repented the
having publifhed. His notes on Tertullian’s Apology,
on Minutius Felix, and on Arnobius, have been
elleemed. He alfo wrote notes on Martial’s Epigrams.
He difguifed himfelf under the name of DavidLeidh-
rejerus, to write a political dilfertation on the inde¬
pendence of kings, fome time after the death of Henry IV.
He had a controverfy with Salmafius, De jure Attico
cc Romano; but did not live to finifh what he had
written on that fubjeft. What he had done, however,
was printed in 1650. He died in June 1649. Guy
Patin fays, that “ he was looked upon as a very learn¬
ed man, both in the civil law and in polite literature,
and wrote with great facility on any fubjefl he pitched
on.” Gaille, fpeaking of fuch Proteftant writers as
condemned the executing of Charles I. king of Eng¬
land, quotes the Pacijique Royal en deuil, by Herault.
J lib author, fon to our Deliderius Heraldus, was a
minifter in Normandy, when he was called to the fer-
vice of the Walloon-church of London under Charles I.
and he was fo zealous a royalift, that he w'as forced to
fly to France, to efcape the fury of the commonwealth-
men. He returned to England after the Reftoration,
and refumed his ancient employment in the Walloon-
church at London 5 fome time after which he obtained
a canonry in the cathedral of Canterbury, and enioved
it till his death.
PIERB, in Bolarnj, a name by which Linnreus de¬
nominates that portion of every vegetable which arifes
from the root, and is terminated by the frunification. It
comprehends,^ 1. The trunk, ftalk, or ftem. 2. The
leaves. 3. Thofe minute external parts called by the
fame author the fulcra or fupports of plants. 4. The
ouds, or, as he alfo terms them, the winter-quarters of
the future vegetable.
Herb-Chriftopher. See Actea, Botany Index.
Herb-Robert, (a fpecies of Geranium). See Ge¬
ranium, Botany Index.
HERBACEOUS plants, are thofe which have
iucculent ftems or ftalks *hat die down to the ground
H E R
every year. Of herbaceous plants, thofe arc annual Herbage
which perilh ftem and root and all every year ; bien¬
nial, which fubfift by the roots two years; perennial Herbert.
which are perpetuated by their roots for a feries of v 
years, a new ftem being produced every fpring.
HERBAGE, in Law, fignifies the pafture provided
by nature for the food of cattle $ alfo the liberty to feed
cattle in the foreft, or in another perfon’s ground.
HERBAL, fignifies a book that treats of the claffes,
genera, fpecies, and virtues of plants.
Herbal, is fometimes alfo ufed for what is fome-
times called hortus fccus, or a collection of dried
plants.
HEBBELOL, Bartholemew d’, a French writer,
eminent for his oriental learning, was bom at Paris in
1625. .He travelled feveral times into Italy, where
he obtained the efteem of fome of the moft learned
men of the age. Ferdinand II. grand duke of Tuf-
cany, gave him many marks of his favour ; a library
being expofed to fale at Florence, the duke defired
him to examine the manufcripts in the oriental lan¬
guages, to felea. the belt of them, and to mark the
price which being done, that generous prince pur-
chafed them, and made him a prefent of them. M.
Colbert being at length informed of Herbelot’s merit,
recalled him to Paris, and obtained a penfion for him
I500 livres : he afterwards became fecretary and in¬
terpreter of the oriental languages, and royal profef-
for of the Syriac tongue. He died at Paris in 169J.
His piincipal work is entitled Ribliotheque Orientale,
which he firft wrote in Arabic, and afterwards tranf-
lated into French. It is greatly efteemed. M. Her¬
belot’s modefty was equal to his erudition 5 and his
uncommon abilities were accompanied with the ulmoft
probity, piety, and charity, which he praftifed through
the whole courfe of his life.
HERBERT, Mary, countefs of Pembroke, was
filler of the famous Sir Philip Sidney, and wrife of Hen¬
ry earl of Pembroke. She was not only a lover of the
mufes, but a great encourager of polite literature 5 a
charafter not very common among ladies. Her bro¬
ther dedicated his incomparable romance Arcadia to
her, from which circumftance it hath been called The
Countefs of Pembroke's Arcadia. She tranllated a dra-
3 H 2 raatric
HER
[ 42? ]
HER
Herbert- matic piece from the French, entitled Antonins, a tra-
Y—" gedy j though it is faid (hie was aflifted by her lord’s
chaplain, Dr Babington, afterwards biihop ol Exeter.
She alfo turned the Pfalms of David into Englifh metre;
but it is doubtful whether thefe works were ever print¬
ed. She died in 1621 ; and an exalted charafter of
her is to be found in Francis Oihorne’s memoirs of
King James I.
Herbert, Edward, Lord Herbert of Cherbury in
Shropflnre, an eminent Englifh writer, w'as born in
1581, and educated at Oxford j after which he tra¬
velled, and at his return was made knight of the Bath.
James I. lent him ambaffador to Louis XIII. in behalf
of the Proteftants who were befieged in Several cities
of France ; and continued in this ftation till he was re¬
called, on account of a difpute between him and the
conftable de Luines. In 1625 he wTns advanced to
the dignity of a baron in the kingdom of Leland, by
the title of Lord Plerbert of Caftle Itland and in 1631
to that of Lord Herbert of Cherbury in Shroplhire.
After the breaking out of the civil wars, he adhered
to the parliament j and in 1644 obtained a penfion, on
account of his having been plundered by the king’s^
forces. Fie wrote a Hitlory of the Life and Reign of
Henry VIII. which was greatly admired ; a treatile
De veritate; and feveral other works. He died at
London in 1648. , . ,
“ Lord Herbert (fays Mr Granger), Hands m the
fir'd rank of the public minifters, hillorians, and phi-
lofophers of his age. It is hard to fay whether his per-
fon, his underftanding, or his courage, was the moll
extraordinary ; as the fair, the learned, and the brave,
held him in equal admiration. But the lame man was
wife and capricious •, redreliled wrongs, and quarrelled
for punctilios *, hated bigotry in religion, and was him-
felf a bigot to philofophy. He expofed himfelf to
fuch dangers as other men of courage would have care¬
fully declined : and called in queftion the tundamen-
tals of a religion which none had the hardinels to dn-
pute befides himfelf.
Herbert, William, earl of Pembroke, was bom at
Wilton in Wiltfhire, 1580-, and admitted to New-
college in Oxford in IC92, where he continued about
two years. In 1601 he fucceeded to his father’s ho¬
nours and ell ate ', was made K. G. in 1604; and go¬
vernor of Portfmouth fix years after. In 1626 he
was elefted chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford j
and about the fame time made lord fleward of the
king’s houfehold. He died fuddenly at his houfe called
Baynard's cajlle, in London, April 10. 1630 ‘, accord¬
ing to the calculation of his nativity, fays Wood, made
feveral years before by Mr Thomas Allen .of Gloucetler-
hall. Clarendon relates concerning this calculation,
that fome confiderable perfons conneaed with Lord
Pembroke being met at Maidenhead, one of them, at
fupper drank a health to the lord fteward •, upon which
another faid, that he believed his lordthip was at that
time very merry j for he had now outlived the day,
which it had been prognofticated upon his .nativity he
would not outlive ; but he had outlived it now, for
that was his birth day, which had completed his age
to to years. I be next morning, however, they re¬
ceived the news of his death. Whether the noble hi-
Ilorian really believed this and other, accounts relating
to altrology, apparitions, providential interpofitions,
Sec. which he has inferted in his hillory, we do not
prefume to fay: he delivers them, however, as if he
did not aClually dilbelieve them. Lord Pembroke
was not only a great favourer of learned and ingenious
men, but was himfelf learned, and endued with a con¬
fiderable (hare of poetic genius. All that are extant
of his produClions in this way were puhlifhed with this
title : “ Poems written by William earl of Pembroke,
&c. many of which are anfwered by way of repartee
by Sir Benjamin Rudyard, with other poems written
by them occafionally and apart, 1660, 8vo.
Herbert, Sir Thomas, an eminent gentleman of
the Pembroke family, was born at York, where his
father was an alderman. William earl of Pembroke
fent him to travel at his expence in 1626, and he (pent
four years in vifiting Afia and Africa : his expectations
of preferment ending with the death of the earl, he
went abroad again, and travelled over feveral parts, of
Europe. In 1634, he publiihed, in folio, A Relation
of lome Years I ravel into A-frica and the Gieat Alia,
efpecially the Territories of the Perfian monarchy, and
fome parts of the Oriental Indies and iiles adjacent.
On the breaking out of the civil war, he adhered to
the parliament •, and at Oldenby, on the removal or
the king’s fervants, by defire of the commiflioners
from the parliament, he and James Harrington were
retained as grooms of his bed-chamoer, and attended
him even to the block. At the reftoration he was cre¬
ated a baronet by Charles II. for his faithful fervices
to his father during his two lall years. In 1678 he
wrote Threnodia Carolina, containing an account of
the two lafi: years of the life of Charles I. and he af-
filled Sir William Dugdale in compiling the third vo¬
lume of his MonaJHcon Anglicanum. He died at York
in 168 2, leaving feveral MSS. to the public library at
Oxford, and others to that of the cathedral.at York.
HERBIVOROUS animals, thofe which feed only
on vegetables.
HERCULANEUM is the name of an ancient city
of Campania in Italy, which was deftroyed by an
eruption of Vefuvius in the firlt year of the emperor
Titus, or the 79th of the Chriftian era, and lately
rendered famous on account of the curious monuments
of antiquity difcovered in its ruins 5 an account of
which has been publiihed by order of the king of
Naples, in a work of fix volumes folio.—The epocha
of the foundation of Herculaneum is unknown. Dio-
nyfius Halicamaffenfis conjedlures that it may be refer¬
red to 60 years before the war of Troy, or about 1342
years before Chrill ; and therefore that it lafted about
1400 years.
The thicknefs of the heap of lava and allies by
which the city was overwhelmed, has been much in-
creafed by fiery llreams vomited fince that cataftrophe 5
and now forms a mafs 24 feet deep, of dark gray
Hone, which is eafily broken to pieces. By its non-
adhefion to foreign bodies, marbles and bronzes are
preferved in it as in a cafe made to fit them •, and exadl
moulds of the faces and limbs of ftatues are.frequently
found in this fubllance. The precife fituation of this
fubterraneous city was not known till the year 1713,
when, it was accidentally difcovered by fome labourers,
who, in digging a well, Ilruck upon a llatue on the
benches of‘the theatre. Many others were afterwards
dus out and fent to France by the prince of Elboeuf.
O Knf
Herbert
Hercu'a-
H E R [
But little progrefs was made in the excavations
Charles infant of Spain afcended the Neapolitan throne •,
J by whofe unwearied efforts and liberality a very con-
fiderable part of Herculaneum has been explored, and
fuch treafures of antiquity drawn out as form the moll
curious mufeum in the world. It being too arduous
a talk to attempt removing the covering, the king
contented himfelf with cutting galleries to the princi¬
pal buildings, and, caufing the extent of one or two of
them to be cleared. Of thefe the theatre is the mod
confiderable. On a balludrade w^hich divided the or-
chedra from the dage wTas found a row of datues ; and,
on each fide of the pulpitum, the equedrian figure of
a perfbn of the Nonia family. They are now placed
under porticoes of the palace 5 and from the great
rarity of equedrian datues in marble would be very va¬
luable objecfs, were their workmandiip even lefs ex¬
cellent than it is : one of them in particular is a very
fine piece of fculpture. Since the king of Spain left
Naples, the digging has been continued, but with lefs
fpirit and expenditure : indeed the collection of curio-
fities brought out of Herculaneum and Pompeii is al¬
ready fo confiderable, that a relaxation of zeal and
aClxvity becomes excufable. They are now arranged
in a wing of the palace *, and conlill not only of datues,
buds, altars, infcriptions, and other ornamental ap¬
pendages of opulence and luxury ; but alfo comprehend
an entire affortment of the domedic, mufical, and chi-
rurgical indruments ufed by the ancients 5 tripods of
elegant form and exquifite execution, lamps in endlefs
variety, vafes and bafons of noble dimenfions, chande¬
liers of the mod beautiful lhapes, pateras and other
appurtenances of facrifice, looking-glades of polifh-
ed metal, coloured glafs, fo hard, clear, and well
darned, as to appear emeralds, fapphires, and other
precious Hones •, a kitchen completely fitted up with
copper-pans lined with filver, kettles, ciilerns for heat¬
ing water, and every utenlil necedary for culinary
purpofes ; fpecimens of various forts of combudibles,
retaining their form though burnt to a cinder ; corn,
bread, fidi, oil, wine, and flour ; a lady’s toilet, fully
furnithed with combs, thimbles, rings, paint, ear¬
rings, &c. Among the datues, which are numerous,
connoidears allow the greated lhare of nserit to a Mer¬
cury and a deeping faun : the buds fill feveral rooms 5
but very few of the originals whom they were meant
to imitate are known. The doors are paved with an¬
cient molaie. Few rare medals have been found in
thefe ruins 5 the molt curious is a gold medallion of
Augudus druck in Sicily in the 15th year of his reign.
The frefco paintings, which, for the fake of preferva-
tion, have been torn od' the w^alls and framed and
glazed, are to be feen in another part of the palace.
“ The elegance of the attitudes, and the infinite va¬
riety of the fubjefls (Mr Swinburne obferves), damp
them as performances v/orthy of the attention of artids
and antiquarians; but no pictures yet found are ma-
derly enough to prove that the Greeks carried the art
of painting to as great a height of perfedtion as they
did that of datuary. Yet can we fuppofe thole au¬
thors incapable of appreciating the merits of an Apelles
or a Zeuxis, who with fo much critical difcernment
have pointed out the beauties of the works of a Phidias
or a Praxiteles, beauties that w^e have dill an oppor¬
tunity of contemplating ? would they have bellowed
429 ] HER
till equal praifes upon both kinds of performances if either Hercules,
of them had been much inferior to the other i1 I think 1 " 'v
it is not probable 5 and wTe mull prefume, that the ca¬
pital productions of the ancient painters, being of
more peritbable materials than butts and datues, have
been dedroyed in the fatal difaders that have fo often
affli&ed both Greece and Italy. Herculaneum and
Pompeii were but towns of the fecond order, and not
likely to polTefs the malterpieces of the great artids,
which wrere ufually dedined to adorn the more celebra¬
ted temples, or the palaces of kings and emperors.”
A more valuable acquifition than bronzes and pictures-
was thought to be made, wfflen a large parcel of manu-
fcripts was found among the ruins. Hopes wrere en¬
tertained that many works of the claffics, which time
has deprived us of, were now going to be redored to
light, and that a new mine of fcience wras on the point
of being opened. But the difficulty of unrolling the
burnt parchment, of pading the fragments on a flat
furface, and of deciphering the obfcure letters, have
proved fuch obflacles, that very little progrefs has been
made in the work. A pried invented the method of
proceeding ; but it would require the joint labours of
many learned men to carry on fo nice and tedious an
operation with any fuccefs. The plan is dropped ; and
the manufcripts now lie in dudy heaps, as uielefs to the
learned world as they had been for the preceding
feventeen centuries.
HERCULES, in fabulous hidory, a mod renowm-
ed Grecian hero, who after death w^as ranked among
the gods, and received divine honours. According to
the ancients, there wrere many perfons of the lame
name. Diodorus mentions three, Cicero fix, and fome
authors extend the number to no lefs than forty-three.
Of all thefe, one generally called the Theban Hercules,
is the moil celebrated ; and to him, as may eafily be
imagined, the ablions of the others have been attribu¬
ted. Fie is reported to have been the fon of Jupiter
by Alcmena (wife to Amphitryon king of Argos),
whom Jupiter enjoyed in the ihape of her hulband
while he wras abfent ; and in order to add the greater
drength to the ckild, made that amorous night as long
as three. Amphitryon having foon after accidentally
killed his uncle and father-in-law Ele&ryon, was obli¬
ged to fly to Thebes, where Hercules was born. The
jealoufy of Juno, on account of her hulhand’s amour
. with Alcmena, prompted her to deflroy the infant. For
this purpofe (he fent twro ferpents to kill him in the
cradle, but young Hercules drangled them both. He
was early indrufted in the liberal arts, and Cador the
fon of Tyndarus taught him how to fight, Eurytus how
to (hoot with a bow and arrow's, Autolicus to drive a
chariot, Linus to play on the lyre, and Eumolpus to
fing. Fie, like the red of his illudiious contemporaries,
foon after became the pupil of the centaur Chiron, and
under him he perfefted and rendered himfelf the mod
valiant and accompliflied of the age. In the 18th year
of his age he refolved to deliver the neighbourhood of
Mount Cithaeron from a huge lion which preyed on
the flocks of Amphitryon his fuppofed father, and
which laid wafle the adjacent country. He went to
the court of Thefpius king of Thefnis, who (hared in
the general calamity ; and he received here a tender
treatment, and was entertained during 50 days. The
50 daughters of the king became mothers by Hercules
during
H E H [ 430 1 H E ?V
Ilercule?. during Iris flay at Thefpis, and fome fay that it was ef-
v 1 fedted in one night. After he had deitroyed the lion
of Mount Citheeron, he delivered his country from the
annual tribute of xoo oxen which it paid to Ergipus.
Such public fervices became univerfally known 5 and
Creon, who then fat on the throne of Thebes, reward¬
ed the patriotic deeds of Hercules by giving him his
daughter in marriage, and entruffing him with the go¬
vernment of his kingdom.
Euriilheus, the fon of Amphitryon, having fucceeded
his father, foon became jealous of Hercules •, and fear¬
ing lell he might by him be deprived of his crown,
left no means untried to get rid of him. Of this Her¬
cules was not infenfible, becaufe he was perpetually en->
gaging him on fome defperate expedition •, and there¬
fore went to confult the oracle. But being anfwered
that it was the pleafure of the gods that he fhould
ferve Euriflheus 1 2 years, he fell into a deep melan¬
choly, which at lalt ended in a furious madnefs •, du¬
ring which, among other defperate aflions, he put
away his wdfe Megara, and murdered all the children
lie had by her. As an expiation of this crime, the
king impofed upon him twelve labours furpaffing the
power of all other mortals to accomplifh, which never-
thelefs our hero performed with great eafe. The fa¬
vours of the gods had indeed completely armed him
when he undertook his labours. He had received a
coat of armour and helmet from Minerva, a fword from
Mercury, a horfe from Neptune, a fhield from Jupi¬
ter, a bow and arrows from Apollo, and from Vul¬
can a golden cuirafs end brazen bufkin, with a cele¬
brated club of brafs according to the opinion of fome
writers.
The firfl labour impofed upon him was the killing
of a lion in Nemea, a wood of Achaiaj wdiofe hide was
proof againft any weapon, fo that he w'as forced to
feize him by the throat and ftrangle him. He carried
the dead bead on his fhoulders to Mycenae, and ever
after ^clothed himfelf with the Ikin. Euriftheus was
fo aflonifhed at the fight of this bead, and at the cou¬
rage of Hercules, that he ordered him never to enter
the gates of the city when he returned from his expe¬
ditions, but to wait for his orders without the walls.
He even made himfelf a brazen veffel into which he
retired whenever Hercules returned.—The fecond la¬
bour wTas to dedroy the Lernaean hydra, which had
feven heads according to Apollodorus, 50 according
to Simonides, and 100 according to Diodorus. This
celebrated monder he fird attacked with his arrows ;
but foon after he came to a clofe engagement, and by
means of his heavy club he dedroyed the heads of his
enemy. This, however, was produftive of no advan¬
tage j for as foon as one head was beaten to pieces by
the club, immediately tw7o fprang up 5 and the labour
of Hercules would have remained unfinifhed, had not
he commanded his friend lolas to bum with a hot iron
the root of the head which he had crufhed to pieces.
This fucceeded •, and Hercules became victorious, open¬
ed the belly of the monder, and dipped his arrows in
the gall to render the wmunds which he gave fatal and
incurable.—He w'as ordered in his third labour to
bring alive and unhurt into the prefence of Euridheus
a dag, famous for its incredible fwiftnefs, its golden
horns, and brazen feet. This celebrated animal fre¬
quented the neighbourhood of Cknoe $ and Hercules
I
w’as employed for a whole year in continually purfuing Hercules,
it : at lad he capght it in a trap, or when tired, or, J
according to others, by (lightly wounding it and leflen-
ing its fwiftnefs.—The fourth labour wras to bring
alive to Euridheus a wdld boar which ravaged tha
neighbourhood of Erymanthus. In this expedition he
dedroyed the centaurs, and caught the boar by clofely
purfuing him through the deep Inow. Euridheus rvas
fo frightened at the fight of the boar, that, according
to Diodorus, he hid himfelf in his brazen vefiel for
fome days.—In his fifth labour Hercules was ordered
to clean the dables of Augeas, where 3000 oxen had
been confined for many years.—For his fixth labour he
was ordered to kill the carnivorous birds which rava¬
ged the country near the lake Stymphalis in Arcadia.
—In his feventh labour he brought alive into Pelopon-
nefus a prodigious wild bull wdiich laid wade the iiland
of Crete.—In his eighth labour he w'as employed in
obtaining the mares of Diomedes, which fed upon hu¬
man flelh. He killed Diomedes, and gave him to be
eaten by his mares, which he brought to Euridheus.
They were fent to Mount Olympus by the king of
Mycenae, where they were devoured by the wild beads j
or, according to others, they were confecrated to Ju¬
piter, and their breed dill exided in the age of Alex¬
ander the Great.—For his ninth labour, he was com¬
manded to obtain the girdle of the queen of the Ama¬
zons.—In his tenth labour he killed the monder Ge-
ryon king of Gades, and brought to Argos his nume¬
rous docks which fed upon human defh. This was in
Iberia or Spain •, in the furthed parts of which he
ere£led his two pillars, as the utmod limits of the then
known world. Thefe ten labours he atchieved, as the
fable fays, in about eight years. In this lad expedi¬
tion he is likewife affirmed to have killed Antaeus, a
famous giant of a mondrous fize, who, wffien wTeary
with wredling or labour, was immediately refreihed by
touching the earth. Hercules overcame him in wued-
ling, and dew' him ; and after him the tyrant Bufiris,
in his way through Egypt. This bloody man ufed to
facrifice all his gueds and drangers upon his altars; and
defigning to have done the fame by Hercules, was
dain by him, together with all his attendants.—His
eleventh labour was the carrying aw^ay the HefperiaR
golden apples kept by a dragon : (See Hesperides).
—The twelfth and lad, and mod dangerous of his la¬
bours, was to bring upon earth the three-headed dog
Cerberus. Defcending into hell by a cave on Mount
Taenarus, he was permitted by Pluto to carry awTay
his friends Thefeus and Pirithous, who were con¬
demned to punilhment in hell, and Cerberus alfo was
granted to his prayers, provided he made ufe of no
arms but only force to drag him awray. Hercules, as
fome report, carried him back to hell after he had
brought him before Euridheus.
Many other exploits are faid to have been performed
by Hercules ; in particular, he accompanied the Ar¬
gonauts to Colchis before he delivered himfelf up to
the king of Mycenae. He affided the gods in their
wars againd the giants, and it was through him alone
that Jupiter obtained a vidlory. He conquered Lao-
medon, and pillaged Troy. When lole, the daughter
of Eurytus king of CEchalia, of wffiom he was deeply
enamoured, was refufed to his intreaties, be became
the prey of a fecond fit of infanity, and he murdered
Iphitus,
H E R [ 431 ] HER
Hercules Iphxtus, the only one of the fons of Eurytus who fa-
voured his addrefies to dole. He was fome time after
purified of the murder, and his infanity ceafed ; but
the gods perfecuted him, and he was vifited by a dif-
order which obliged him to apply to the oracle of
Delphi for relief. The coldnefs with which the Pythia
received him irritated him, and he refolved to plunder
Apollo’s temple and carry away the facred tripod.
Apollo oppofed him, and a fevere conflifl was begun,
which nothing but the interference of Jupiter wdth his
thunderbolts could have prevented. He w^as upon
this told by the oracle that he muft be fold as a Have,
and remain three years in the moil abjefl fervitude to
recover from his diforder. He complied ; and Mer¬
cury, by order of Jupiter, conducled him to Omphale,
queen of Lydia, to whom he was fold as a Have. Here
he cleared all the country from robbers; and Omphale,
wdro was aitonithed at the greatnefs of his exploits,
married him. Hercules had Agelaus and I^amon by
Omphale, from whom Crcefus king of Lydia was de-
fcended. He became alfo enamoured of one of Om-
phale’s female fervants, by whom he had Alceus. Af¬
ter he had completed the years of his (lavery, he re¬
turned to Peloponnefus, wdiere he re-efcabliihed on the
throne ot Sparta Tyndarus, who had been expelled by
Hippocoon. He became one of Dejanira’s fuitors,
and married her after he had overcome all his rivals.
He was obliged to leave Calydon his father-in-law’s
kingdom, becaufe he had inadvertently killed a man
with a blow of his fill, and it was on account of this
expulfion that he was not prefent at the hunting of
the Calydonian boar. From Calydon he retired to
the court of Ceyx king of Trachinia. The king re¬
ceived him and his wife with great marks of friendlhip,
and purified him of the murder which he had commit¬
ted at Calydon. Hercules was Hill mindful that he
had once been refufed the hand of lole ; he therefore
made war againit her father Eurytus, and killed him
with three of his fons. lole fell into the hands of her
father’s murderer, and found that fhe w^as loved by
Hercules as much as before. She accompanied him
on Mount CEta, where he wras going to raife an altar
and offer a folemn facrifice to Jupiter. As he had
not then the fhirt and tunic in which he arrayed him-
ie!r to offer a facrifice, he ient Lichas to Trachin to
his wife Dejanira, in order provide himfelf a proper
diefs. Dejanira had fome time before been attempted
by the Centaur Neflus, as be was ferrying her over the
river Euenus; and Hercules beholding it from the
fhore, had given him a mortal wound with an arrow.
The monfter finding himfelf dying, advifed her to mix
iome oil witn the blood which flowed from his wound,
and to anoint her hufband’s fhirt with it, pretending
that it would infallibly fecure him from loving anv other*
woman ; and Ihe, too well apprifed of bis inconllancy,
bad a finally prepared the poifoned ointment accord-
ingly. Lychas coming to her for the garments, un-
foitunately acquainted her with his having brought
away lole; upon wmch (he, in a fit of jealoufy, anoint¬
ed his fhirt with the fatal mixture. This had no fooner
touched his body, than he felt the poifon diffufe itfelf
through ail his veins; the violent pain of which caufed
him to difhand hL army, and to return to Trachin.
His torment ftill increafing, he fent to confu.lt the-
oracle for a cure ; and -was anfwered, that he fhould Hercule*.
caufe himfelf to be conveyed to Mount CEta, and there —v—
rear up a great pile of wood, and leave the reft to Ju¬
piter. By the time he had obeyed the oracle, his pains
being become intolerable, he drefled himfelf in his
martial habit, Hung himfelf upon the pile, and defired
tlie byitanders to fet fire to it. Others fay that he
le:t tne charge or it to his fon Philoftetes; W'ho having
performed his father’s command, had his bow and ar¬
rows given him as a reward for his obedience. At
the fame time Jupiter, to be as good as his word, fent
a flafh of lightning, which confumed both the pile and
the hero ; infomuch that loliius, coming to take up
his bones, found nothing but afhes : from which they
concluded, that he was paffed from earth to heaven,
and joined to the gods. His friends fhowed their
gratitude to his memory by railing an altar Where the
burning pile had Hood. Menoetius the fon of Adtor
offered him a facrifice of a bull, a wild boar, and a
goat, and enjoined the people of Opus yearly to ob-
ferve the fame religious ceremonies. His worfhip foon
became as univerfal as his fame ; and Juno, who had
once perfecuted him with fuch fury forgot her refent-
ment, and gave him her daughter Hebe in marriage.
Hercules has received many furnames and epithets, either
from the place where his worfhip was eilablifhed, or
fiom the labours which he atchieved. His temples were
numerous and magnificent, and bis divinity revered.
No dogs or flies ever entered his temple at Rome ;
and that of Gades, according to Strabo, was always
forbidden 40 women and pigs. The Phoenicians of¬
fered quails on his altars ; and as it was fuppofed that
he prefided over dreams, the fick and infirm were fent
to fleep in his temples, that they might receive in their
dreams the agreeable prefages of their approaching re¬
covery. J he white poplar was particularly dedicated
to his fervice.
It is obferved, that there are none even of the twelve
great gods of antiquity that have fo many ancient mo¬
numents relating to them as Hercules. The famous
ffatue of Hercules, in the Farnefe palace at Rome, is
well known to the connoiffeurs : this reprefents him
rclling after tne laff of his twelve labours above recited,
leaning, on Ids club, and holding the apples of the
Hefperides in his hand. In this ffatue, as in all the
other figures of him, he is formed, by the breadth of
his fhoulders, the fpacioufnefs of his chert, the large-
nefs of his fize, and the firmnefs of his mufcles, to
exprefs ftrength and a capacity of enduring great fa¬
tigue, which conrtituted the chief idea of virtue among
the ancient heathens. His other attributes are his
hoo s fkin, his cluo, and his bow.—Hercules is re-
prefented by the ancients as an exemplar of virtue :
however, the Hercules Bibax, or drunken Hercules, is
no uncommon figure; and his amours are deferibed
both by the poets and artills. I hus, the Cupids are
made to take away his club, and lie is exhibited in the
pofture of bending under a little boy ; by which actions
v. e perctftve, that he who conquered all difficulties was
a flave to love. His children are as numerous as the
labours and difficulties which be underwent; and indeed
they became fo powerful foon after his death, that
they alone had the courage to invade all Peloponnefus.
See Heraclid®.
Xhe-
HE R
[
Jf mules
Right.
The aputheofis of Hercules, or the enablifliment of
i*. his altars in the principal cities of Greece, is fixed by
Hereditary -j'hrafybulus 29 years before the taking of Troy.
Hercules has been particularly honoured by the
Greeks under the name of Mufagetes, “ the conductor
of the Mufesand at Rome under that of Hercules
Mufarurn. He is reprefented on medals with a lyre in
his hand ; and the reverfe is marked with the figure of
the nine Mufes, with their proper fymbols.
Hercules, in HJlronomy, one of the conftellations
of the northern hemifphere.—-The ftars in the conftel-
lation Hercules in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 29 ; m
Tycho’s, 28-, in the Britannic catalogue, 113.
Hercules's Pillars, in antiquity, a name given to
two lofty mountains, fituated one on the mod louthern
extremity of Spain, and the other on the oppofite
part of Africa. They were called by the ancients
Abyla and Calpe. They are reckoned the boundaries of
the labours of Hercules-, and according to ancient tradi¬
tion, they were joined together till they were fevered by
the arm of the hero, and a communication opened be¬
tween the Mediterranean and Atlantic feas.
PIERCYNIA silva, in Ancient Geography, the
larged of foreds. Its breadth was a journey of nine days
to the bed traveller. Taking its rife at the limits oi the
Helvetii, Nemetes, and Rauraci, it run along the Da¬
nube to the borders of the Daci and Anartes, a length
of 60 days journey, according sto Caefar, who appears,
to have been well acquainted with its true breadth,
feeing it occupied all Lower Germany. It may there¬
fore be confidered as covering tiie whole of Germany ;
and mod of the other foreds may be confidered as parts
of it, though didinguidied by particular names : confe-
quently the Hartz, in the duchy of Brunfwic, which
rrave name to the whole, may be confidered as one of its
parts. The name Hartz denotes “ refinous,” or, “ pine-
trees.” By the Greeks it is called Orcynius, as a name
common to all the foreds in Germany; in the fame
manner as Hcrcijniits was the name given by the Ro¬
mans -, and both from the German Hartz.
HERD, among hunters, an affemblage of black
or fallow beads in contradidinclion to flock. See
Flock.—In the hunting language there are various
terms ufed for companies of the divers kinds of game.
We fay a herd of harts or bucks, a bevy of roes, a rout
of wolves, a richefs ab. martens, &c.
HEREDITAMENTS, whatever moveable things
a perfon may have to himfelf and his heirs by way of
inheritance; and which, if not otherwife bequeathed,
defcend to him who is next heir, and not to the exe¬
cutor as chattels do.
HEREDITARY, an appellation given to what¬
ever belongs to a family by right of fucceflion from heir
to heir.
Hereditary is alfo figuratively applied to good or
ill qualities fuppofed to be tranfmitted from father to
fon : thus we fay virtue and piety are hereditary qua¬
lities in fuch a family \ and that in Italy the hatred of
families is hereditary. And indeed the gout, king’s evil,
niadnefs, &c. may really be hereditary difeafes.
Hereditary Right, in the Britilh conftitution. The
grand fundamental maxim upon which theywj- corona,
or right of fuccefiion to the throne of Britain depends,
Sir William Blackdone takes to. be this : That the
crown is, by common law and conftitutional cutlom,
432 ] H £ R
hereditary ; and this in a manner peculiar to itfelf : but Hereditary
that the right of inheritance may from time to time Riglit.
be changed or limited by a£l of parliament \ under
which limitations the crown ftill continues hereditary.
x. The crown is in general hereditary, or defcend-
ible to the next heir, on the death or demife of the laft
proprietor. AH regal governments muft be either he¬
reditary or elective : and as there is no inftance where- .
in the crown of England has ever been afferted to be
eleflive, except by the regicides at the infamous and
unparalleled trial of King Charles I. j it muft.pf confe-
quence be hereditary. Yet in thus afferting. an he¬
reditary right, a jure divino title to the throne is by no
means intended. Such a title may be allowed to have
fubfified under the theocrative eftabliihments of the chil¬
dren of Ifrael in Palelline 5 but it never yet fubfilled
in any other country 5 fave only fo far as kingdoms,
like other human fabrics, are fubjefl to the general
and ordinary difpenfations of Providence. Nor indeed
have a jure divino and an hereditary right any nect iary
connexion wfith each other $ as fome have very weakly
imagined. The titles of David and Jehu were equally
jure divino as thofe of either Solomon or Ahab ; and
yet David flew' the fons of his predeceifor, and Jehu his
predeceffor himfelf'. And when our Kings have the
fame warrant as they had, whether it be to lit upon
the throne of their fathers, or to defiroy the houfe of
the preceding lovereign, they will then, and not before,
poffefs the crown of England by a right like theirs,
immediately derived from heaven. The hereditary
right, which the law^s of England acknowledge, owes
its origin to the founders of our conftitution, and to
them "only. It has no relation to; nor depends upon,
the civil laws of the Jews, the Greeks, the Romans,
or any other nation upon earth •, the. municipal laws
of one fociety having no conneftion with, or influence
upon, the fundamental polity of another. The found¬
ers of our Englifh monarchy might perhaps,.h they
had thought proper, have made it an elective mo¬
narchy ; but they rather chofe, and upon good rea-
fon, to eltablifn originally a fucceflion by imheritance.
This has been acquiefced in by general confent, and
ripened by degrees into common law; the veiy lame
title that every private man has to his own eftate.
Lands are not “naturally defcendible, any more than
thrones: but the law has thought proper, for the be¬
nefit and peace of the public, to efiablifh hereditary
fucceflion in the one as well as the other.
It mull be owned, an ele&ive monarchy feemS to be
the moll obvious, and belt fuited of any to the rational
principles of government, and the freedom of human
nature; and accordingly we find from hiftory, that, m
the infancy and firit rudiments of almoft^ every ftate,
the leader, chief magiilrate, or prince, nath ufually
been eleaive. And, if the individuals who compoie
that Hate could always continue true to firft principles,
uninfluenced by pafiion or prejudice, unalfafled by cor¬
ruption, and unawed by violence, . eleaive fucceflion
were as much to be defired in a kingdom as m other
inferior communities. The heft, the wifefl, and tne
braved man, would then be fure of receiving that crown
which his endowments have merited ; and the.fenfe oi
an unbiased majority would be dutifully acqmeiced m
by the few who were of different opinions.. But hiltory
and obfervation will inform us, that elections 0- c^y
HER [ 43.3 ] H E. R
Hereditary kind (in the prefent ftate of human nature) are too fre-
'quently brought about by induence, partiality, and ar¬
tifice : and, even where the cafe is otherwife, thefe
pra&ices will be often fufpe&ed, and as conftantly
charged upon the fuccefsful, by a fplenetic difappointed
minority. This is an evil to which all focieties are
liable ; as well thofe of a private and domeftic kind, as
the great community of the public, w’hich regulates and
includes the reft. But in the former there is this ad¬
vantage, I hat fuch fufpicions, if lalfe, proceed no far¬
ther than jealoufies and murmurs, which time will ef¬
fectually (upprefs , and, if true, the injullice may be
remedied by legal means, by an appeal to thofe tribu¬
nals to which every member of fociety has (by beco¬
ming fuch) virtually engaged to lubmit. Whereas, in
the great and independent fociety which every nation
compofes, there is no fuperior to refort to but the law
of nature ; no method to redrefs the infringements of
that law, but the adlual exertion of private force. As
therefore between two nations, complaining of mutual
injuries, the quarrel can only be decided by the law of
arms j fo in one and the fame nation, when the funda¬
mental principles of their common union are fuppofed
to be invaded, and more efpecially wdien the appoint¬
ment of their chief magiftrate is alleged to be unduly
made, the only tribunal to which the complainants can
appeal is that of the God of battles, the only procefs
by w'hich the appeal can be carried on is that of a ci¬
vil and inteftine war. An hereditary fucceflion to the
crown is therefore now eftablifhed, in this and moft other
countries, in order to prevent that periodical blood-
flred and mifery, which the hiftory of ancient imperial
Rome, and the later experience of modern times,
has fhown to be the confequences of ele6five king¬
doms.
2. But, fecondly, as to the particular mode of in¬
heritance. It in general correfponds with the feodal
path of defcents, chalked out by the common law in
the fucceflion to landed eftates ; yet with one or two
material exceptions. Like them, the crown will de-
fcend lineally to the iflue of the reigning monarch j
as it did from King John to Richard II. through a re¬
gular pedigree of fix lineal generations As in them
the preference of males to females, and the right of
primogeniture among the males, are ftriaiy adhered
to. Thus Edward V. fucceeded to the crown, in pre¬
ference to Richard his younger brother, and Elizabeth
his elder fifter. Like them, on failure of the male
line, it defcends to the iflue female ; according to the
ancient Britilh cuftom remarked by Tacitus, So/en/ fee-
tmnarum duFtu be Hare, etfexum in imperils non difeernere.
Thus Mary I. fucceeded to Edward VI. j and the line of
Margaret queen of Scots, the daughter of Henry VII.
fucceeded, on failure of the line of Henry VIII. his
fon. But among the females, the crown defcends by
right of primogeniture to the eldeft daughter only and
her iflue •, and not, as in common inheritance, to all
the daughters at once ; the evident neceflity of a foie
fucceftion to the throne having occafioned the royal
law of defcents to depart from the common law in this
refpea : and therefdre Queen Mary, on the death of
her brother, fucceeded to the crown alone, and not
in partnerfhip with her fifter Elizabeth. Again, the
doanne of reprefentation prevails in the defeent of
the crown, as it does in other inheritances ; whereby
Vol. X. Part 11, *
the lineal defeendants of any perfon deceafed ftand in
the fame place as their anceftor, if living, would have
done. Thus Richard II. fucceeded his grandfather
Edward III. in right of his father the black prince j
to the exclufion of all his uncles, his grandfather’s
younger children. Laftly, on failure of lineal defeen¬
dants, the crown goes to the next collateral relations
of the late king •, provided they are lineally defeended
from the blood-royal, that is, from that royal flock
which originally acquired the crown. Thus Henry I.
fucceeded to William II. John to Richard I. and
James I to Elizabeth •, being all derived from the Con¬
queror, who was then the only regal flock. But herein
there is no objedlion (as in the cafe of common de-
feentsj to the fuccefiion of a brother, an uncle, or
other collateral relation, of the half-blood j that is,
where the relationfhip proceeds not from the fame
couple of anceftors (which conftitutes a kinfman of
the whole blood), but from a fingle anceftor only ; as
wdien two perfons are derived from the fame father,
and not from the fame mother, or vice verfa : provided
only, that the one anceftor, from whom both are de¬
feended, be that from whofe veins the blood-royal is
communicated to each. Thus Mary I. inherited to
Edward VI. and Elizabeth inherited to Mary j all
born of the fame father, King Henry VIII. but all by
different mothers. See the articles Consanguinity,
Descent, and Succession.
3. The doftrine of hereditary right does by no
means imply an indefeafible right to the throne. No
man will aflert this, who has confidered our laws, con-
ftitution, and hiftory, without prejudice, and with any
degree of attention. It.is unqueftionably in the breaft
of the fupreme legiftative authority of this kingdom,
the king and both houfes of parliament, to defeat this
hereditary right j and by particular entails, limita¬
tions, and provifions, to exclude the immediate heir,
and veil the inheritance in any one elfe. This is ftridlly
confonant to our laws and conftitution j as may be ga¬
thered from the expreflion fo frequentlv ufed in our
ftatute-book, of “ the king’s majelly, his heirs, and
fucceflbrs.” In which we may obferve, that as the
wrord heirs neceflarily implies an inheritance or here¬
ditary right generally fubfifting in the royal perfon j
fo the word fuccejfors, diftindlly taken, muft imply that
this inheritance may fometimes be broken through;
or, that there may be a fucceflbr, without being the
heir of the king. And this is fo extremely reafon-
able, that without fuch a power, lodged fomewhere,
our polity would be very defective. For, let us barely
fuppofe fo melancholy a cafe, as that the heir-apparent
fhould be a lunatic, an idiot, or otherwife incapable of
reigning ; how miferable would the condition of the
nation be, if he were alfo incapable of being fet afide ,
—It is therefore neceflary that this power Ihould be
lodged fomewhere ; and yet the inheritance and regal
dignity would be very precarious indeed, if this power
were exprefsly and avowedly lodged in the hands of
the fubjeft only, to be exerted whenever prejudice, ca¬
price, or difeontent, (hould happen to take the lead.
Confequently it can nowhere be fo properly lodged as
in the two houfes of parliament, by and with the con-
fent of the reigning king ; who, it is not to be fup¬
pofed, will agree to any thing improperly prejudicial to
the rights of his own defeendants. And therefore in
3 I tho
HER [ 434 J 'H E R
Hereditas, the king, lords, and commons, and parliament aflem-
H ere ford our laws have exprefsly lodged it.
‘ 4. But, fourthly, However the crown may be li¬
mited or transferred, it Hill retains its defcendible qua¬
lity, and becomes hereditary in the wearer of it. . And
hence in our law the king is faid never to die in his
political capacity •, though, in common with other
men, he is fubjecf to mortality in his natural: becaufe
immediately upon the natural death of Henry, Wil¬
liam, or Edward, the king furvives in his fucceffor.
For the right of the crown veils, eo ui/lanti, upon his
heir j either the hccres natus, if the courfe of defcent
remains unimpeached, or the lucres faElus, if the in¬
heritance be under any particular fettlement. So that
there can be no interregnum • but, as Sir Matthew
Hale obferves, the right of fovereignty is fully invelled
in the fucceffor by the very defcent of the crown. And
therefore, however acquired, it becomes in him abfo-
lutely hereditary, unlefs by the rules of the limitation
it is otherwife ordered and determined : In the fame
manner as landed eilates, to continue our former com-
parifon, are by the law hereditary, or defcendible to
the heirs of the owner 5 but Hill there exiHs a power,
by which the property of thofe lands may be tranf-
ferred to another perfon. If this transfer be made
ilmply and abfolutely, the lands will be hereditary in
the new owner, and defcend to his heir at law : but if
the transfer be clogged with any limitations, condi¬
tions, or entails, the lands muH defcend in that chan¬
nel, fo limited and prefcribed, and no other. See
Succession.
HER ED IT AS jacens, in Scots Laxu. An eflate
is faid to be iti hereditatejacente, after the proprietor’s
death till the heir’s entry.
HEREFORD, which in Saxon Hgnifies the ford
of the army, the capital of Herefordfhire in England,
fituated in W. Long. 2. 35. N. Lat. 52. 6. It is
fuppofed to have rifen out of the ruins of Kenchefler,
in its neighbourhood, which Camden believes to have
been the Ariconium of Antoninus. It is very plea-
fantly fituated among meadows and corn-fields, and is
aim off encompaffed with rivers. It feems to _ have
owed its rife, or at leaft its increafe, to the building
and dedicating a church there to Ethelbert king of
the Eaft Angles, who w^as murdered in the neigh¬
bourhood, and afterwards taken into the catalogue of
martyrs ; foon after it became a bifiiop’s fee, and in
confequence of that a confiderable place. In 1055 it
was facked, the cathedral deftroyed, and its biffiop
Leofgar carried awav captive by Gryflin prince of
South-Wales, and Algar, an Englifhman, who had
rebelled againff Edward the Confeffor. Harold forti¬
fied it with a broad and bigh rampart •, and it appears
by Doomfday-book, that there w’ere no more than
300 men within and without the wall. A very large
and ffrong caffle was built by the Normans along the
Wye, and the city walled round. The prefent ftately
cathedral was founded in the reign of Henry I. by
Bifhop Reinelm, but enlarged and beautified by his
fucceffors. It fuffered much in the barons wars and
w-as often taken and retaken in the war between King
Charles 1. and the parliament. This city is pretty
large, and had once fix churches*, but two wrere de-
ftrcyed in the civil W’ars. It is not very populous nor
well built, many of the houfes being old. Its manu¬
factures are gloves and other leathern goods j and its
corporation confiffs of a mayor, fix aldermen, a high Hereford-
fteward, deputy-fleward, and town-clerk *, who have a flnre~
fword-bearer and four ferjeants at mace. Each of
the companies enjoys diffimSt laws and privileges by
their charter, and each has its hall. The cathedral,
which w'as built in 1050, and deffroyed by the Welih
in 1060, but rebuilt in the reign of the Conqueror, or,
as fome fay, in that of Henry I. is a beautiful and
magnificent ftrufture, but being greatly decayed, part
of it was deftroyed by the fall of the tower in Sep¬
tember 1786, and the fpire on another tower was ta¬
ken down to be rebuilt at the fame time. Here is an
hofpital well endowed for 16 poor people ; and two cha-
rity-fchools, one for 60 boys, the other for 40 girls.
The chapter-houfe, which was once a very, elegant
building, built about the year 1079, is now in ruins
Here were formerly two or three priories. Almoft
the only drink here is cyder, which is both cheap and
good, the very hedges in the country being planted
with apple-trees. The city gave the title of earl to
the noble family of the Bohuns j then of duke to
Henry of Lancafter, afterwards Henry IV. king of
England j after him, of earl to Stafford earl of Buck¬
ingham j then of vifcount to Devereux earl, of Effex,
which a collateral branch of his family Hill enjoys,
and is thereby the premier vifcount of England.
Herefordshire, a county of England nearly of
a circular form, bounded on the eaft by Worcefter
and Gloucefter, on the fouth by Monmouthftfire, on
the weft by Radnorfhire and Brecknockfhire, and on
the north by Shroplhire. Its length from north to
fouth is 46 miles, its breadth from eaft to weft. 40.
It contains 8 market towns, 87 vicarages, 176 pariftres,
and 391 villages. This county contains, according to
the returns made to the houie of commons, in conle-
quence of an act of parliament, paffed in 1801 for af- 1
certaining the population of the kingdom, 17 >OC)3 houfes,
occupied by 18,822 families j of this number 43,955
were males, and 45,236 females ; 31,261 perfons were
employed in agriculture, and, 8588 in trade, manufac¬
tures, &c. The total number amounted to 89,191
perfons. It is divided into 11 hundreds, and lends eight
members to parliament, namely, two knights for the
(hire, and two for each of the following tov\ns, Hereford,
Lempfter or Leominftcr, and Weobly.
The air of this county is allowed to be as pleafant,
fweet, and wholefome, as that of any other in Eng¬
land, there being nothing either in the foil or fituation
to render it otherwdfe. The foil throughout is excel¬
lent, and inferior to none, either for grain, iruit, or
pafture, fupplying the inhabitants plentifully.with all
the neceffaries of life ; but that by. which it is diffm-
guilhed from moft others, is its fruit, elpecially apples,
of which it produces fuch quantities, that the cyder
made of them is not only fufficient for their own con-
fumption, though it is their ordinary drink, but alfo
in a great meafure for that of London and other parts.
That in particular which is made from the apple called
redjlreak, is much admired, and has a body almoft
equal to that of white-wine. The county is well fup-
plied with umod and w'ater j for, befides leffer ftreams,
there are the rivers Erome, Loden, Lug, Wye, Wadel,
Arro, Dare, and Monow ; the laft of which is large,
and all of them are well ftored with fdh, particularly
the Wye, which breeds falmon. It lies in the diocefe
of JJerefordj and Oxford circuit.
herenausen,
HER
L
Herefy.
of Germany near
of Great Britain.
Hetenaufen HERENAUSEN, a palace
Hanover, belonging to the king
, Here are lodgings for all the court j and a garden of
vail; extent, in which are fine waterworks, a labyrinth,
and many other curiofities worthy the oblervation of a
traveller.
KERENTHALS, a town of Brabant in the Au-
ftrian Netherlands, in the quarter of Antwerp 5 feated
on the river Nethe, in E. Long. 4. 54. N. Lat. 51. 13.
HERESY, in Law, an offence againft ChriJlianity,
confifting in a denial of fbme of its effential doctrines,
publicly and obilinately avowed ; being defined, fen-
tentia rerum divinarum humano f? fu excogitata, palam
doSia et pertinaciter defenfa. And here it muft be
acknowledged that particular modes of belief, or un¬
belief, not tending to overturn Chriftianity itfelf, or to
lap the foundations of morality, are by no means the
objeft of coercion by the civil magiftrate. What doc¬
trines ihall therefore be adjudged herefy, rvas left by
our old conftitution to the determination of the eccle-
fiaflical judge ; who had herein a moft arbitrary lati¬
tude allowed him. For the general definition of an
heretic given by Lyndewode, extends to the fmalleft
deviations from the doflrines of the holy church : hce-
reticux efl qui dubitat de fide cathohca, et qui negligit
fervare ea, qiue Romana ecclefia Jlatuit, feu fervare de¬
er ever at. Or, as the ftatute 2 Ken. IV. c. 15. ex-
prelTes it in Englifh, “ teachers of erroneous opinions
contrary to the faith and bleffed determinations of the
holy church.” Very contrary this to the ufage of the
firfl general councils, which defined all heretical doc¬
trines with the utmoll precifion and exaftnefs. And
what ought to have alleviated the punifhment, the un¬
certainty of the crime, feems to have enhanced it in
thofe days of blind zeal and pious cruelty. It is true,
that the fanftimonious hypocrify of the canonifts rvent
at nrft no farther than enjoining penance, excommuni¬
cation, and ecclefiaftical deprivation, for herefy j though
afterwards they proceeded boldly to imprifonment by
the ordinary, and confifcation of goods in pios ufus.
Bat in the mean time they had prevailed upon the
vveaknels of bigotted princes to make the civil power
fubfervient to their purpofes, by making herefy not
only a temporal, but even a capital, offence : the Ro-
mith ecclefiaftics determining, without appeal, what¬
ever they pleafed to be herefy, and (hifting off to the
lecular arm the odium and drudgery of executions ;
with which they themfelves were too tender and deli¬
cate to intermeddle. Nay, they pretended to intercede
and pray, on behalf of the convidted heretic, ut citra
mortis periculum fententia circa eum moderetur : well
knowing that at the fame time they were delivering the
unhappy vidlim to certain death. Hence the capital
punifhments inflidled on the ancient Donatiffs and Ma-
nichaeans by the emperors Theodofius and Juifinian :
hence aifo the conftitution of the emperor Frederic
mentioned by Lyndewode? adjudging all perfons with¬
out dillindlion to be burnt with fire wrho were convic¬
ted of herefy by the ecclefialiical judge. The fame
emperor, in another conftitution, ordained, that if any
temporal lord, when adrnonifhed by the church, ftiould
negledl to clear his territories of heretics within a year,
it ftiould be lawful for good catholics to feize and oc¬
cupy the lands, and utterly to exterminate the hereti¬
cal poffeffors. And upon this foundation was built
435 1 HER
that arbitrary power, fo long claimed and fo fatally ex¬
erted by the Pope, of difpofing even of the kingdoms '
of refradlory princes to more dutiful fons of the church.
The immediate event of this conftitution was fome-
thing lingular, and may ferve to illuftrate at once the
gratitude of the holy fee, and the juft punifhment of
the royal bigot j for, upon the authority of this very
conftitution, the pope afterwards expelled this very em¬
peror Frederic from his kingdom of Sicily, and gave it
to Charles of Anjou.
Chriftianity being thus deformed by the dsemon of
perfecuticn upon the continent, we cannot expedt that
our own ifland ftiould be entirely free from the fame
fcourge. And therefore we find among our ancient
precedents a w-rit de fueretico comburendo, which is
thought by fome to be as ancient as the common law
itfelf. However, it appears from thence, that the con-
vidfion of herefy by the common law was not in any
petty ecclefiaftical court, but before the archbifhop
himfelf in a provincial lynod ; and that the delinquent
was delivered over to the king to do as he ftiould pleafe
with him : fo that the crown had a controul over the
fpiritual power, and might pardon the convift by if-
fuing no procefs againft him ; the writ de fueretico com ■
burendo hdng not a writ of courfe, but iffuing only by
the fpecial diredlion of the king in council.
But in the reign of Henry IV. when the eyes of the
Chriftian world began to open, and the feeds of the
Protertant religion (though under the opprobrious name
of lollardy) took root in this kingdom ; the clergy, ta¬
king advantage from the king’s dubious title to demand
an increafe of their own power, obtained an adt of par¬
liament, which ftiarpened the edge of perfecution to its
utmoft keennefs. For, by that ftatute, the diocefan
alone, without the intervention of a fynod, might con¬
vict of heretical tenets 5 and uniefs the convidt abjured
his opinions, or if after abjuration he relapfed, the ftie-
riff was bound ex ofiicio, if required by the biftiop, to
commit the unhappy vidtim to the flames, without wait¬
ing for the confent of the crown. By the ftatute
1 Hen. V. c. 7. lollardy was alfo made a temporal of¬
fence, and indictable in the king’s courts; which did
not thereby gain an exclufive, but only a concurrent,
jurifdidtion with the biftiop’s confiftory.
Afterwards, when the final reformation of religion
began to advance, the power of the ecclefiaftics was
fomewhat moderated; for though what herefy is, was
not then precifely defined, yet we are told in fome
points what it is not: the ftatute 25 Hen.fVIII. c. 14.
declaring, that offences againft the fee of Rom e are not
herefy; and the ordinary being thereby reftrained from
proceeding in any cafe upon mere fufpicion ; that is,
uniefs the party be accufed by two credible witneffes,
or an indidfment of herefy be firft previoufty found in
the king’s courts of common Jaw. And yet the fpirit
of perfecution was not yet abated, but only diverted
into a lay channel. I1 or in fix years afterwards, by
ftatute 31 Hen. VIII. c. 14. the bloody law of the
fix articles was made, which eftabliftied the fix moft
contefted points of popery, tranfubftantiation, commu¬
nion in one kind, the celibacy of the clergy, monaftic
vows, the facrifice of the mafs, and auricular confeffion j
which points were ii determined and refolved by the
moft godly.ftudy, pain, and travil of his majefty : for
which his moft humble and obedient fubjects, the lords
3*3 fpiritual
Herefy.
HER * [ 43^ ] HER
Herefy. fpiritucil 7in<\ temporal and the commons, in parliament
—v—affembled, did not only render and give unto his high-
nefs their moft high and hearty thanks j” but did alfo
enaft and declare all oppugners of the firft to be here¬
tics, and to be burnt with fire and of the five laft to be
felons, and to fuffer death. The fame ftatute eftabliih-
ed a new and mixed jurifdidfion of clergy and laity tor
the trial and conviftion of heretics \ the reigning prince
being then equally intent on deftroying the fupremacy
of the bifhops of Rome, and eflablifning all other their
corruptions of the Chriftian religion.
Without perplexing this detail with the various re¬
peals and revivals of thele fanguinary laws in the two
fucceeding reigns, let us proceed to the reign of
Queen Elizabeth; when the reformation was finally
eitablilhed with temper and decency, unfullied with
party-rancour, or perfonal caprice and refentment.
By ftatute 1 Eliz. c. 1. all former ftatutes belonging to
herefy are repealed, which leaves the jurifdidlion ol he»
refy as it flood at common lawT*, viz. as to the infli&ion
of common cenfures, in the eccleliaftical courts; and in
cafe of burning the heretic, in the provincial fynod only.
Sir Matthew Hale is indeed of a different opinion, and
holds that fuch power refided in the diocefan alfo j
though he agrees that in either cafe the writ de hceretico
comburendo was not demandable of common right, but
grantable or otherwife merely at the king’s difcretion.
But the principal point now gained was, that by this
ftatute a boundary is for the firft time fet to what fhall
be accounted herefy 5 nothing for the future being
to be fo determined, but only fuch tenets, as have
been heretofore fo declared, 1. By the words of the
holy fcriptures *, or, 2. By the firft four general
councils, or fuch others as have only ufed the words of
the holy fcriptures } or, 3. Which (hall hereafter be fo
declared by the parliament, with the affent of the clergy
in convocation. Thus was herefy reduced to a greater
certainty than before j though it might not have been
the worfe to have defined it in terms ftill more precife
and particular : as a man continued ftill liable to be
burnt, for what perhaps he did not underhand to be
herefy, till the ecclefiallical judge fo interpreted the
words of the canonical fcriptures.
For the writ de Jueretico comburendo remained ftill
in force } and we have inftances of its being put in exe¬
cution upon two Anabaptifts in the feventeenth of E-
lizabeth, and two Arians in the ninth of James I. But
it was totally abolilhed, and herefy again fubje&ed on¬
ly to ecclefiaftical corredlion, pro fa lute animee, by vir¬
tue of the ftatute 29 Car. II. c. 9.: for, in one and the
fame reign, our lands were delivered from the flavery
of military tenures ; our bodies from arbitrary impn-
fonment by the habeas corpus a£l 5 and our minds, from
the tyranny of fuperftitious bigotry, by demolilhing
this laft badge of perfecution in the Englilh law.
Every thing is now as it (hould be, with relpeft to
the fpiritual cognizance, and fpiritual punifhment of
herefy : unlefs perhaps that the crime ought to be more
ftridlly defined, and no perfecution permitted, even in
the ecclefiaftical courts, till the tenets in queftion are
by proper authority previoufly declared to be heretical.
Under thefe reftriflions, it feems neceffary for the fup-
port of the national religion, that the officers of the
church {hould have power to cenfure heretics ; yet not
to harafs them with temporal penalties, much lefs to
exterminate or deftroy them. The legiflature hath in- Heretic
deed thought it proper, that the civil magiftrate fliould ^ lj^_
again interpofe, with regard to one fpecies of herefy ,
very prevalent in modern times •, for by ftatute 9 & 10
W. III. c. 32. if any perfon educated in the Chriftian
Religion, or profeffing the fame, ffiall by writing, print¬
ing, teaching, or advifcd fpeaking, deny any one of
the perfons in the Holy Trinity to be God, or maintain
that there are more gods than one, he lhall undergo
the fame penalties and incapacities which were juft now
mentioned to be infli&ed on apoftacy by the fame ftatute.
HERETIC, a general name lor all fuch perfons
under any religion, lo. efpecially. the Chriftian, as pro-
fefs or teach religious opinions contrary to the efta-
bliihed faith, or to wdiat is made the ftandard of or¬
thodoxy. See Heresy.
HERETOCHS, among our Saxon anceftors, fig-
nified the fame with dukes or duces, denoting the com¬
manders or leaders of their armies.
It appears, from Edward the Confeffor’s laws, that
the military force of this kingdom was in the hands of
the dukes or heretochs, who were conftituted through
every province and county in the kingdom, being ie-
le&ed out of the principal nobility, and fuch as were
moft remarkable for hding fapientes, f deles, iif ammoji.
Their duty was to lead and regulate the Englifh armies,
with a very unlimited power •, and becaufe of their great
power, they were eledted by the people in their full af-
fembly, or folkmote, in the fame manner as fheriffs
■were elefted.
HERFORDEN, or Heryvarden, a free and im¬
perial town of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia*
and capital of the county of Ravenffierg. Here is a fa¬
mous nunnery belonging to the Proteftants of the con-
feffion of Augfburg, whofe abbefs is a princefs of the
empire, and has a voice and place in the diet. It is
feated on the river Aa. E. Long. 8. 47. N. Lat. 52. 12.
HERGRUNDT, a town of Upper Hungary, re¬
markable for its rich mines of vitriol. Thofe who work
in the mines have built a fubterraneous town, which
has a great number of inhabitants. E. Long. 18. 15*
N. Lat. 48. 30.
HERIOT, in Law, a cuftomary tribute of goods
and chattels, payable to the lord of the fee on the de-
ceafe of the owner of the land. See Tenure.
Heriot is of two forts—viz. 1. Heriot-cuftom, where
heriots have been paid time out of mind by cufiom,
after the death of a tenant for life. In fome places,
there is a cuftomary compofition in money, as 10 or 20
(hillings in lieu of a heriot, by which the lord and te¬
nant are both bound, if it be an indftputably ancient
cuftom } but a new compofition of this fort will not bind
the reprefentatives of either party. 2. I leriot-iervice,
w’hen a tenant holds by fuch fervice to pay .heriot at
the time of his death j which fervice is expreffed in the
deed of feoffment.—For this latter the lord lhall dif-
train 1 and for the other he ftiall ftize, and not diftrain.
If the lord purchafe part of the tenancy, heriot-fervice
is extmguifhed j but it is not fo of heriot-cunom.
HER1SSON, in Fortification, a beam armed with
a great number of iron fpikes with their points out¬
wards, and fupported by a pivot on which it turns.
Thefe ferve as a barrier to block up any paffage, and
are frequently placed before the gates, and more efpe
cially the wficket-doors, of a town or fortrefs, to ferure
thole
HER [ 437 ] HER
Heritable thofe paflages which muft of neceffity be often opened
and (liut.
'rdo HERITABLE rights, in Scots Law, fignify all
rights affefting lands, houfes, &c. or any immoveable
fubjed.
HERITAGE, in Scots Law, lands, houfes, or any
immoveable fubjetl, in contradiftinftion to moveables
or moveable fubje£ls. It alto fometimes fignifies fuch
immoveable property as a perfon fucceeds to as heir to
another, in contraditlinftion to that which he himfelf
purchafes or acquires in any other manner, called con-
quejl.
HERMAEA, in antiquity, ancient Greek fellivals
in honour of the god Hermes or Mercury. One of
thele was celebrated by the Pheneatae in Arcadia j a
fecond by the Cyllenians in Elis j and a third by the
Tanagrasans, where Mercury was reprefented with a
ram upon his (boulder, becaufe he was faid to have
walked through the city in that pollure in time of a
plague, and to have cured the lick ; in memory of
which, it was cuftomary at this feftival for one of the
moll beautiful youths in the city to walk round the
walls with a ram upon his (boulder.—A fourth feltival
of the fame name was obferved in Crete, when it was
ufual for the fervants to fit down at the table while
their mailers waited ; a cultom which was alfo obferved
at the Roman Saturnalia.
HERMANN, Paul, a celebrated botanift, was born
at Halle in Saxony, and praftifed phyfic in the illand
of Ceylon, r* d the Cape of Good Hope, after which
(in 1679) he was chofen profeflbr of botany at Ley¬
den, and fuperintendant ©f the botanical garden, in
which fcience he obtained the higheft reputation, and
died in the year 1695. His firft publication, in 1687,
was a catalogue of plants in the garden of the univer-
fity,—a garden which, in feven years he had fo much
enriched with plants from the Ealt and Weft Indies, that
it nearly rivalled the very firft in Europe. His me¬
thod of botanical claflification is contained in his Florcc
Lugduno-Balavce Flores, publilhed in 1690. His Pa-
radifus Batavus, &.c. was publiftied after his deceafe,
by William Sherard, wThich contains many rare, and
fome entirely new fpecies, delineated in a very elegant
manner. The reft of Hermann’s works are, Mufcei
India Catalogus, continens varia exotica animalia, in-
feBa, vegetabilia, miner alia ; Lapis Lydius Mater ice
Medtcce, in which laft his new charaflers of plants are
made ufe of to illuftrate their medical properties. At
his death he left behind him 450 fine drawings, and a
numerous collection of dried plants, which ferved for
the bafis of the Flora Ceylanica of Linnaeus, and alfo a
catalogue of plants of the Cape of Good Plope. Dr
Hannes addrefled to him a beautiful Latin ode, which
is (till preferved 5 but many of the treafures of his in-
duftrious life were itrangely neglected, and allowed to
be dtfperfed.
HERMANNIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the rnonodelphia clafs, arid in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 37th order, Columnifercc.
HERMANS TADr, a handfome, populous, and
ftrong town of Hungary, capital of Tranfilvania, with
a bhhop’s fee. It is the refidence of the governor of
the province ; and is feated on the river Ceben, in E.
Long. 24. 40. N. Lat. 46. 25.
HERMAPHRODITE, is generally underftood
to fignify a human creature poflefTed of both fexes, or Herma-
who has the parts of generation both of male and fe-
male. The term however is applied alfo to other ani¬
mals, and even to plants.—The word is formed of the
Greek a compound of Mercury,
and AtpgacWn Venus; q. d. a mixture of Mercury and
Venus, i. e. of male and female. For it is to be ob¬
ferved, Hermaphroditus was originally a proper name,
applied by the heathen mythologifts to a fabulous dei¬
ty, whom fome reprefent as a fon of Hermes, Mercury, ■
and Aphrodite, Venus \ and who, being defperately in
love with the nymph Salmafis, obtained of the gods to
have his body and hers united into one. Others fay,
that the god Hermaphroditus was conceived as a com-
pofition of Mercury and Venus ; to exhibit the union
between eloquence, or rather commerce, whereof Mer¬
cury was god, with pleafure, whereof Venus was the
proper deity. Laftly, others think this junftion in¬
tended to (how that Venus (pleafure) was of both
fexes ; as, in effedl, the poet Calvus calls Venus a
god*
Pollentemque Deum Vencrem.
As alfo Virgil, HLneid, lib. ii.
Difcedo, ac ducente Deo Jlammam inter et hojles
Expeditor 
M. Spon obferves, Hefychius calls Venus Aphroditos:
and Theophraftus affirms, that Aphroditos, or Venus,
is Hermaphroditus; and that in the iftand of Cyprus
(he has a ftatue, which reprefents her with a beard like
a man.—The Greeks alfo call hermaphrodites
androgyni, q. d. men-women. See the article Andro¬
gynes.
In a treatife by Mr Hunter, in the 69th volume of
the Philofophical Tranfadlions, hermaphrodites are di¬
vided into natural and unnatural or monftrous. The firft
belongs to the more fimple orders of animals, of which
there are a much greater number than of the more per-
fedl. The unnatural takes place in every tribe of ani¬
mals having diftinfl fexes, but is more common in fome
than in others. The human fpecies, our author ima¬
gines, has the feweft ; never having feen them, in that
fpecies, nor in dogs; but in the horfe, flieep, and black
cattle, they are very frequent.
From Mr Hunter’s account, however, it does not
appear that fuch a creature as a perfect hermaphrodite
has ever exifted. All the hermaphrodites which he
had the opportunity of feeing had the appearance of
females, and were generally faved as fuch. In the
horle they are very frequent j and in the mod perfedl
of this kind he ever faw, the tefticles had come down
out of the abdomen into the place where the udder
(hould have bfeen, and appeared like an udder, not fo
pendulous as the fcrotum in the male of fuch animals.
There were alfo two nipples, of which horfes have no>
perfedl form ; being blended in them with the (heath
or prepuce, of which there was none here. The ex¬
ternal female parts were exadlly limilar to thofe of a
perfect female 5 but inftead of a common-fized clito¬
ris, there was one about five or fix inches long y which-
when ereft, flood almoft diredtly backwards.
A foal afs very fimilar to the above was killed, and
the following appearances were obferved on difledtion.
The tefticles were not come down as in the former,
poflibly
HER t 433 ] HE R
Henna- potTibly bccaufe the creature was too young. It had
phrodite. aif0 tvvo nipples ; but there was no penis palling round
""" v" the pubes to the belly, as in the perfefl: male als. The
external female parts w7ere flmilar to thofe of the Ihe-
afs. Within the entrance of the vagina w7as placed
the clitoris $ but much longer than that of a true fe¬
male, being about five inches long. The vagina was
open a little farther than the opening of the urethra
into it, and then became obliterated : from thence, up
to the fundus of the uterus, there was no canal. At
the fundus of the common uterus it was hollow, or had
a cavity in it, and then divided into two, viz. a right
and a left, called the horns of the uterus, which were
alfo pervious. Beyond the termination of the two
horns were placed the ovaria, as in the true female 5
but the Fallopian tubes could not be found.—From the
broad ligaments, to the edges of which the horns of
the uterus and ovaria were attached, there palled to¬
wards each groin a part fimilar to the round ligaments
in the female, which were continued into the rings of
the abdominal mufcles •, but with this difference, that
there were continued with them a procefs or theca of
the peritonaeum, fimilar to the tunica vaginalis com¬
munis in the male afs •, and in thefe theca were found
the tefticles, but no vafa deferentia could be obferved
pafling from them.
In molt fpecies of animals, the produ£tion of her-
maphrodites appears to be the effefl of chance, j but in
the black cattle it feems to be an eltablilhed principle
of their propagation. It is a well known fa£t, and, as
far as has yet been difcovered, appears to be univerfal,
that when a cow brings forth two calves, one of them
a bull, and the other a cow to appearance, the cow is
unfit for propagation, but the bull-calf becomes a very
proper bull. They are known not to breed 5 they do
not lhow the leaft inclination for the bull, nor does the
bull ever take the leaft notice of them. Among the
country people in England, this kind of calf is called
■a free-mart in } and this fingularity is juft as well known
among the farmers as either cow or bull. When they
are preierved, it is for the purpofes of an ox or fpayed
heifer j viz. to yoke with the oxen, or fatten for the
table. They are much larger than either the bull or
the cow, and the horns grow longer and bigger,
being very limilar to thofe of an ox. J he bellow7 of a
free-martin is alfo fimilar to that of an ox, and the meat
is limilar to that of the ox or fpayed heifer, viz. much
finer in the fibre than either the bull or cow •, and they
are more fufceptible of growing fat with good food.
By fome they are fuppofed to exceed the ox and heifer
in delicacy of tafte, and bear a higher price at market*,
this, however, does not always hold, and Mr Hunter
gives an inftsmee of the contrary. I he Romans, vyho
called the bull taunts, fpoke alfo of taura in the femi¬
nine gender different from cows. Stephens obferves, that
it was thought they meant by this word barren cows,
who obtained the name becaufe they did not conceive
any more than bulls. He alfo quotes a paffage from
Columella, lib. vi. cap. 22. “ And, like the taurw,
which occupy the place of fertile cows, Ihould be re-
ieeded or fent away.” He likewife quotes Varro? De
re rufica, lib. ii. cap. 5. “ The cow which is barren
is called tauraP From wdiich we may rcafonably con-
je&ure, that the Romans had not the idea of the cir-
cumftances of their produ&ion.
Of thefe creatures Mr Hunter difiedled three, and Herma-
the following appearances w7ere obferved in the moft P‘llQ *te'
perfeft of them.—The external parts were rather (’mailer *Y~”
than in the cow. The vagina paffed on as in the cow
to the opening of the urethra, and then it began to
contradl into a fmall canal, which palled on to the di-
vifion of the uterus into the two horns *, each horn paf-
fing along the edge of the broad ligament laterally to¬
wards the ovaria. At the termination of thefe horns
were placed both the ovaria and tellicles, both of which
were nearly about the fize of a imall nutmeg. No
Fallopian tubes could be found. To the tefticles were-
vafa deferentia, but imperfeift. The left one did not
come near the tefticle the right only came clofe to it,
but did not terminate in the body called epididymis.
They w7ere both pervious, and opened into the vagina
near the opening of the urethra.—On the pofterior
furface of the bladder; or between the uterus and blad¬
der, were the tw7o bags called the veficulw feminales in
the male, but much (mailer than what they are in
the bull : the dudfs opened along with the vafa def-
ferentia.
Concerning hermaphrodites of the human fpecies,
much has been written, and many laws enadfed about
them in different nations j but the exiftence of them is
ftill difputed. Dr Parfons has given us a treatife on
the fubiedt, in which he endeavours to explode the no¬
tion as a vulgar error. According to him, all the her¬
maphrodites that have appeared, were only women
whofe clitoris from iome caule or other wav overgrown y
and, in particular, that this was the cafe with an An¬
gola woman Ihown at London as an hermaphrodite
lome time ago.
Among the reptile tribe, indeed, fuch as w7orms,
fnails, leeches, &c. hermaphrodites are very frequent.
In the memoirs of the French academy, we have an ac¬
count of this very extraordinary kind of hermaphro¬
dites, which not only have both fexes, but do the office
of both at the fame time. Such are earth-worms,
round-tailed worms found in the intellines of men and
horfes, land-fnails, and thofe of frelh waters, and all the
forts of leeches. And, as all thefe are reptiles, and
without bones, M. Poupart concludes it probable, that
all other infefts which have thefe tvvo characters are
alfo hermaphrodites.
The method of coupling pra£tifed in this clafs of
hermaphrodites, may be illuftrated in the inftance of
earth-w7orms. Thefe little creatures creep, two by
two, out of holes proper to receive them, where they
difpofe their bodies in fuch a manner, as that the head
of the one is turned to the tail of the other. Being
thus ftretched lengthwife, a little conical button or pa¬
pilla is thruft forth by each, and received into an aper¬
ture of the other. Thefe animals, being male in one
part of the body, and female in another, and the body
ftexible withal, M. Homberg does not think it impol-
fible but that an earth-worm may couple with itfelf,
and be both father and mother of its young ; an
obfervation which, to fome, appears highly extrava¬
gant.
Among the infe£!s of the foft or bonelefs kind, there
are great numbers indeed, which are fo far from being
hermaphrodites, that they are of no fex at all. Of this
kind are all the caterpillars, maggots, and worms, pro¬
duced of the eggs of flies of all kinds: but the reafon
3
her' [ 439 ] HER
• Heim a- of this is plain ; thefe are not animals in a perfedl Hate,
pbrcdite ^ut cj;fgUifes under which animals lurk. They have no
Hermes ^ufinefs with the propagating of their fpecies, but are
i  to be transformed into animals of another kind, by
the putting oft' their feveral coverings, and then only
they are in their perfedl ftate, and therefore then only
ihow the difterences of lex, which are always in the
diflindl animals, each being only male or female.
Thefe copulate, and their eggs produce thefe crea¬
tures, which {how no fex thl they arrive at that per¬
fect ftate again.
Hermaphrodite F/ozvers, in Botany. Thefe are
io called by the fexualifts on account of their contain¬
ing both the antherae and ftigma, the fuppofed organs
of generation, within the lame calyx and petals. Of
this kind are the flowers of all the claffes in Linnaeus’s
fexual method, except the clafles moncecia and dioecia;
in the former of w7hich, male and female flowers are
produced on the fame root; in the latter, in diftindl
plants from the fame feed.—In the clafs po/ygamia,
there are always hermaphrodite flowers mixed with
male or female, or both, either on the fame or diftindt
roots. In the plaintain-tree the flowers are all herma¬
phrodite 5 in fome, however, the anther* or male or¬
gan, in others the iligma or female organ, proves ab¬
ortive. 1 he flowers in the former clafs are ftyled fe¬
male hermaphrodites; in the latter, male hermaphrodites.
—Hermaphrodites are thus as frequent in the vege¬
table kingdom as they are rare and fcarce in the ani¬
mal one.
HERMAS, an eccleliaftical author of the firft cen¬
tury ; and according to Origen, Eufebius, and Jerome,
the fame whom St Paul falutes in the end of his epiftle
to the Romans. He wrote a book in Greek fome time
before Domitian’s perfecution, which happened in the
year pj. This wmrk is entitled The Pafor, from his
reprefenting an angel fpeaking to him in it under the
form of a ftiepherd. The Greek text is loft, but a
very ancient Latin verflon of it is Hill extant. Some
of the fathers have conftdered this book as canonical.
The belt edition of it is that of 1698, where it is to
be found among the other apoftolical fathers, illuftra-
ted wuth the notes and corredlions of Cotelerius and
Le Clerc. With them it wras tranflated into Englilh
by Archbilhop Wake, the beft edition of which is that
of 1710.
Hermas, a genus of plants belonging to the polyga-
mia clafs. See Botany Index.
HERMES, or Herma, among antiquaries, a fort
of fquare or cubical figure of the god Mercury, ufually
made of marble, though fometimes of brafs or other ma¬
terials, without arms or legs, and planted by the Greeks
and Romans in their crofs-ways.
Servius gives us the origin thereof, in his comment
on the eighth book of the Aineid. Some ftiepherds,
fays he, having one day caught Mercury, called by the
Greeks Hermes, afleep on a mountain, cut off his hands 3
from which he, as well as the mountain where the ac¬
tion was done, became denominated Cyllenius, from
xvAAef, maimed: and thence, adds Servius, it is that cer¬
tain ftatues ^without arms are denominated Hennefes or
Hernue. But this etymology of the epithet of Cyllenius
contradicts moft of the other ancient authors ; wflio de-
jt. e it hence, that Mercury v/as borne at Cyllene a city
of Elis, or even on the mountain Cyllene itfelf, which Hermetic •
had been thus called before him. ^ ^ ^
Suidas gives a moral explication of this cuftom of p0crates"
making ftatues of Mercury without arms. The Her- u—v.... \
mefes, fays he, were ftatues of ftone placed at the vefti-
bules or porches of the doors and temples at Athens 3
for this reafon, that as Mercury was held the god of
fpeech and of truth, fquare and cubical ftatues were pe¬
culiarly proper 3 having this in common with truth, that
on what fide foever they are viewTed, they ahvays appear
the fame.
It muft be obferved, that Athens abounded more
than any other place in Hermefes : there were abun¬
dance or very fignal ones in divers parts of the city, and
they were indeed one of the principal ornaments of the
place. They were alfo placed in the high-roads and
crofs-ways, becaufe Mercury, who was the courier of
the gods, prefided over the highways 3 whence he had
his furname of Trivius, from trivium ; and that of Via-
eus, from via.
From Suidas’s account, above cited, it appears, that
the terms, termini, ufed among us in the door-cafes, bal¬
conies, &c. of our buildings, take their origin from thefe
Athenian Hermefes, and that it was more proper to call
them hermetes than termini, becaufe, though the Roman,
termini were fquare ftones, whereon a hand was fre¬
quently placed, yet they were rather ufed as land-marks
and mere ftones than as ornaments of building. See
the articles Mercury and Thoth.
HERMETIC, or Hermetical Art, a name given
to chemiftry, on a fuppofition that Hermes Trifmegi-
ftus was the inventor thereof, or that he excelled there¬
in. See Thoth.
Hermetical Philofophy is that which undertakes to
folve and explain all the phenomena of nature, from
the three chemical principles, fait, fulphur, and mer¬
cury.
Hermetical Phyfc, or Medicine, is that fyftem or
hypothefis in the art of healing, which explains the
caufes of difeafes, and the operations of medicine, on
the principles of the hermetical philofophy, and parti¬
cularly on the fyftem of alkali and acid.
Hermetical Seal, a manner of flopping or clofing
glafs veflels, for chemical operations, fo very accurately,
that nothing can exhale or efcape, not even the moft:
fubtile fpirits. It is performed by heating the neck of
the veffel in the flame of a lamp till it be ready to melt,
and then with a pair of pincers twilling it clofe toge¬
ther. This they call putting on JLr/we.r’j-yr’tf/. There are
alfo other ways of fealing veffels hermetically 3 viz. by
flopping them with a plug or ftopple of glafs, well luted
into the neck of the veffel 3 or by turning another ovum
philofophicum upon that wherein the matter is con¬
tained.
HERMHARPOCRATES, or Hermarpocra-
TES, in antiquity, a deity, or figure of a dsity, com-
pofed of Mercury, and Harpocrates the god of Si¬
lence.
M. Spon gives us a hermharpocrates in his Rech.
Cur. de PAntiquite, p. 98. fig. 15. having wings on his
feet like Mercury, and laying his finger on his mouth
like Harpocrates. It is probable they might mean,
by this cpmbination, that filence is fometimes elo¬
quent.
HERMIANI,
HER
t 44° 1
HER
Her niani HERMIANI, or Hermiatit/E, a fed of heretics
II in the fecond century, thus called from their leader
ermo ac- j^erm;as> They were alfo denominated Se/euciani.
1  v n 1 One of their diftinguifhing tenets was, that God is
corporeal. Another, that Jefus Chriff did not alcend
* into heaven with his body, but left it in the fun.
HERMIONE, in Ancient Geography, a confider-
able city of Argolis. It was in ruins (except a few
temples) in the time of Paufanias *, who fays that the
new city was at the diftance of four fladia from the
promontory on which the temple of Neptune flood. It
gave name to the Sinus Hermionicus, a part of the Si¬
nus Argolicus.
HERMIT, or Eremit, Eremita, a devout per-
fon retired into folitude, to be more at leifure for prayer
and contemplation, and to difencumber himfelf of the
affairs of this world.—The word is formed from the
Greek defert or wildernefs; and according to
the etymology, fhould rather be wrote Eremit.
Paul furnamed the Hermit, is ufually reckoned the
firft hermit 5 though St Jerome at the beginning of
the life of that faint fays, it is not known who was
the firft.—Some go back to John the Baptift, otheis
to Elias : others make St Anthony the founder of the
•eremitical life j but others think that he only rekind¬
led and heightened the fervour thereof, and hold that
the difciples of that faint owned St Paul of Ihebes
for the firft that pra&ifed it. The perfecutions of
Decius and Valerian are fuppofed to have been the
occafion.—Several of the ancient hermits, as St An¬
thony, &c. though they lived in deferts, had yet num¬
bers of religious accompanying them.
There are alfo various orders and congregations of re¬
ligious diftinguifhed by the title of hermits; as, hermits
of St Auguftine, of St John Baptift, of St Jerome, of
St Paul, &e. _ r a
Hermit the, Peter Gautier, a French officer or A-
miens in Picardy, who quitted the military profel-
fion, and commenced hermit and pilgrim. He tra¬
velled to the Holy Land about the year 1093 •, and
1 making a melancholy recital of the deplorable fitua-
tion of a few Chriftians in that country to Pope Ur¬
ban II. and at the fame time enthufiaftically lament¬
ing that Infidels fhould be in poffefiion of the famous
city where the Author of Chriftianity firft promulgated
his facred doftrines, Urban gave him a fatal commii-
fion to excite all Chriftian princes to a general war
ngainft the Turks and Saracens the poffeffors of the
Holy Land. See Croisade.
HERMITAGE properly figmfies a little hut or
habitation, in fome defert place, where a hermit
dwells. , v •
Hermitage is alfo popularly attributed to any religi¬
ous cell, built and endowed in a private and recluie
place, and thus annexed to fome large abbey, of whic
the fuperior was called hermita.
HERMODACTYL, in the Materia Medico, a root
brought from Turkey. It is of the ftiape of a heart
flatted, of a white colour, compaa,yet eafy to be cut or
powdered j of a vifcous fweetifh tafte, with a light degree
of acrimony. Hermodaftyls were of great repute a-
mong the ancients as a cathartic ; but thofe we now
meet with in the {hops have very little purgative virtue*,
Neumann declares he never found them to have any
cffe.a at all.—The hermodaayl is the root of the Goi-
Hermus.
-chicum variegatum, according to fome j others fuppofe Hermoge*
it to be the root of the iris tuberofa. n,^
HERMOGENES, the firft and moft celebrated
architea of antiquity, was, according to Vitruvius, •—
born at Alanbada, a city in Caria. He built a tem¬
ple of Diana at Magnefia •, another of Bacchus at
Tros ; and was the inventor of feveral parts of archi-
teaure. He compofed a book on the fubject, which
is loft.
PlERMOGENES-TarfenJis, a rhetorician and orator, and
w-ho was in every refpea a prodigy. At 17 years
of age he publilhed his fyftem of rhetoric, and at
20 his philofophic ideas: but at 25 he forgot every
thing he had known. It is faid, that his body being
opened after his death, his heart was found of an ex¬
traordinary fize, and all over hairy. He died about
168 B. C.
HERMOGENIANS, a feft of ancient heretics,
denominated from their leader Hermogenes, who lived
towards the clofe of the fecond century. Hermogenes
eftabliffied matter as his firft principle •, and regarding
matter as the fountain of all evil, he maintained that
the world, and every thing contained in it, as alfo
the fouls of men and other fpirits, were formed by the
Deity from an uncreated and eternal mafs of corrupt
matter. The matter of Hermogenes, with regard to
the origin of the world and the nature of the foul, were
warmly oppofed by Tertullian.
The Hermogenians were divided into feveral branches
under their refpedlive chieftains, viz. Hermiani, Seleu-
cians, Materiari, &c.
HERMON, or Aermon, in Ancient Geography, a
mountain of the Amorites, called Samor by the Phoeni¬
cians, and Sanir or Senir by the Amorites, on the- eaft
of Jordan. It is alfo called (Moles) ; but muft
not be confounded with the Sion of Jerufalem. By
the Sidonians it wras called Scinon ; in the yulgate, it
is called Sanon. Joffiua informs us, that it was the
dominion of Og king of Baffian *, which muft.be un-
derftood of its fouth fide. It is never particularly
mentioned by profane writers *, being comprifed under
the appellation Lihanus, or Antihbanus, with which
mountain it is joined to the eaft. It is alfo called Har¬
monium plurally, Pfalm xlii. 6. becaufe it was extenfive,
and contained feveral mountains.
HERMOPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, the name of
feveral cities in Egypt, dedicated as the name imports,
to Hermes or Mercury. Near one of thefe cities, pro¬
bably Hermopolis Magna, w^as fituated a moft magni¬
ficent temple, of which the portico only now' remains.
It was vilited by Denon who accompanied the French
army in their expedition to Egypt, in 17995 and
he defcribes it as a moft beautiful monument ot an¬
cient architefture, and a fplendid relic of the higheft
antiquity. Among the hillocks within 300 or 400
yards of the portico, enormous blocks of ftone are ieen
buried in fand, and regular architedure beneath them,
which appear to form an edifice containing columns ol
granite, juft rifing above the prefent level of the foil.
Every part of this edifice is covered with hieroglyphics.
Conneded with the fcattered fragments of the great
temple, a mofque has been built, in which is a number
of columns of cipoline marble. Near this is the village
of Achmunin, which contains 50QO inhabitants. .
HERMUS, in Ancient Geography, a river oi loma $
which
Hero.
HER [ 441 ] H
Hetnandria which rifing near Dorylaeum, a town of Phrygia, in a hero of the Iliad is Achilles
mountain facred to Dindymene or Cybele, touched
j Myfia, and ran through the Regio Combufta, then
through the plains of Smyrna down to the fea, carry¬
ing along with it the Pa&olus, Hyllus, and other lefs
noble rivers. Its waters were faid, by Virgil and other
poets, to roll down gold.
HERNANDRIA, Jack-in-a-box -tree : a genus
of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs j and in the
natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tricoc-
cce. See Botany Index.
HERNE, a town of Kent, fix miles from Canterbu¬
ry, 12 from Margate, and 14 from Feverlham. The
church is a large ancient ftrufture, with a tower of flint,
and has fix flails of the cathedral kind, with divifions of
the choir from the nave by a carved fcreen of oak.
The church is 113 feet long. The ftone font is very
ancient. Here the great Dr Ridley, the Englifh mar¬
tyr, was vicar. Here is a commodious bay, frequented
by colliers, &c.
HERNIA, in Medicine and Surgery, a defcent of
the inteftines or omentum out of their natural place j
or rather, the tumour formed by that defcent, popular¬
ly called a rupture. The word is Latin, hernia, and
originally fignifies the fame with tumor feroti, called alfo
ramex. Prifcian obferves, that the ancient Marfi gave
the appellation hernia to rocks ; whence fome will have
hernias thus called propter duritiem, on account of their
hardnefs. Scaliger choofes rather to derive the word
from the Greek £gvej, ramus, branch. See Surgery
Index.
HERNIARIA, rupture-wort, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 1 ith order, Sarmentacece. See
Botany Index.
HERO, in Pagap mythology, a great and illuf-
trious perfon, of a mortal nature, though fuppofed by
the populace to partake of immortality, and after his
death to be placed among the number of the gods.
I he word is formed of the Latin heros, and that of
the Greek femi-deus, “ demi god.”—The Greeks
crefted columns and other monuments over the tombs
of their heroes, and eftablifhed a kind of worfhip in
honour of the manes both of their heroes and heroines.
.1 he Romans alfo raifed ftatues in honour of their he¬
roes ; but there were fix of their heroes of a fuperior
order, and who were fuppofed to be admitted into the
community of the twelve great gods : thefe were Her¬
cules, Bacchus, Efculapius, Romulus, Caftor, and
Pollux. Writers have diftinguilhed between the wor-
fliip which the ancients paid to their heroes and that
offered to their gods.. The latter, it is faid, confifted
of facrifices and libations; the former was only a kind
of funeral honour, in which they celebrated their ex¬
ploits, concluding the rehearfal with feafls.
Hero is alfo ufed in a more extenfive fenfe, for a
great, illuftrious, and extraordinary perfonage j par¬
ticularly in refpeft of virtues.
I. Bouhours makes this diftin&ion between a great
man and a .hero, that the latter is more daring, fierce,
and enterprifing: and the former more prudent, thought¬
ful, and referved. In this fenfe wt: properly fay, Alexan¬
der was a hero, Julius Casfar a great man.
Hero of a poem or romance, is the principal perfo¬
nage, or he who has the chief part in it. Thus the
Vol. X. Part II.
E R
, of the Odyffey, Ulyffes 5
of the AHneid, Aineas ; of Taffo’s Jerufalem, God¬
frey of Boulogne •, of Milton’s Paradife Loft, Adam \
though Mr Dry den will have the devil to be Milton’s
hero, becaufe he gets the better of Adam, and drives
him out of Paradil’e.
Hero, in fabulous hiftory, a famous prieftefs of
Venus, lived at Abydos, in a tower lituated on the
banks of the Hellelpont. She being beloved by Lean-
der, who lived at Seftos on the other fide of the ftrait,
he every night fwam over to vifit her, being direfted
by a light fixed on the tower. But the light being put
out in a ftormy night, the youth miffed his w^ay, and
was drowned ; on w hich Hero threw herfelf into the
fea, and periftied.
Hero, the name of two celebrated Greek mathe¬
maticians j the one called the old, and the other the
young, Hero. The younger was a difciple of Ctefibius.
They are known by twm works tranflated into Latin
by Barochius j Spira/ium liber, by Hero fenior ; and
Traclat. artis et machin. militar. by Hero junior. They
flourilhed about 130 and 100 B- C.
HEROD, lurnamed the Great, was born about 71
years before the commencement of the Chriltian era.
When about 25 years of age, his father Antipater made
him governor of Galilee, where he diftinguiihed him-
felf by fupprefimg a band of robbers, and executing
their ringleader. For this action, as it -was performed
by his own authority, and without trial of the crimi¬
nals, he was ordered to appear before the fanhedrim j
but by the influence of his party and the favour of the
high prieft, he efcaped judgment. During the civil
war between the republican and Ca5rarian parties, He¬
rod joined Caflius, and was made governor of Ccele-
fyria. He caufed Malichus to be affaffmated for having
poifoned his father, and ingratiated himfelf with Mark
Antony. After being an exile for fome time in Egypt,
he found means to arrive at Rome, where Antony re¬
ceived him with great kindnefs, and the fenate made
choice of him to the crown of Judea, about 40 years
before the birth of Chrift. It w^as in ihe poffeflion of
Antigonus at that time, and he had confequently to
fight his way to it. He was finally viftorious, Anti¬
gonus was taken prifoner, and Herod fucceeded to the
regal dignity in the year 37 before Chrift. In filling
his empty coffers he was guilty of many cruel extortions,
and it is but juft to add, that he performed many a£ts
of clemency. He fent for the aged high prieft Hyrcan,
who had been depofed, and treated him with the great-
eft kindnefs, and raifed Ariftobulus, the brother of his
beloved Mariamne, to the pontifical dignity. Soon af¬
ter, indeed, from a fit of jealoufy, he caufed him to be
drowned in a bath. He was accufed to Antony by his
mother-in-law, and he appointed his uncle Jofeph to
govern in his abfence, charging him to put the queen
to death, if his trial Ihould prove fatal to him, as he
could not fupport the idea of her falling into the po-
feflion of another.
Herod received a vifit from Cleopatra, who is re*
ported to have had amorous intentions with regard to
him, which he prudently drfappointed, for fear of the
vengeance of Antony j but he fully fatisfied her avarice
with the moft ample donations. When hoftilities com¬
menced between Antony and O&avius, he raifed an
army to join the former, but had firft to contend with
3 K Malchps,
Item,
Herod.
H E R
[ 442 ]
H E R
Herod, Maklms, king of part of Arabia, wbom be defeated,
—and compelled to fue for peace. After the battle of
Aftium, he refolved to make terms with the vittor, to
prepare for which he put the aged Hyrcan to death,
and embarked for Rhodes, where Auguihis at that time
was. He appeared before the emperor in all the mlig-
nia of royalty except his diadem, boldly relating all
the fervices he had performed to his benefadlor Antony,
and obferved that he was willing to transfer the fame
gratitude to a new patron, from whom he might hold
his crown and kingdom. . . .
Auguftus was llruck with the magnanimity ol this
defence, and replaced the diadem on his head. When
Augultus paffed through Syria in his way to and horn
Egypt he was magnificently entertained by Herod, for
which he reftored him the whole of his dominions, and
even enlarged them. Before his interview with Augul¬
tus Herod had given a fecond order refpedting the mur¬
der of ilariamne ; and growing jealous of Sohemus, her
laft guardian, he foon after had her condemned and exe¬
cuted, in fpite of the folemn proteftations of her inno¬
cence. His remorfe on this occafion was dreadlul, and
no feenes of riot and debauchery could banilh her from
his mind. He would frequently call aloud upon her
name and ordered his attendants to bring her into his
prefence, as if unwilling to forget that fire was no more.
He built a theatre and amphitheatre at Jerufalem, lor
the purpofe of celebrating games in honour of Augul¬
tus, which exafperated the Jews to fuch a degree that
a confpiracy was formed againft him, and on the detec¬
tion of it, the principal contrivers were pumlhed with a
mercilefs feverity. . f
He built feveral firong fortreffes m different parts of
Judea for his own fecurity, one of which, m honour o
the emperor, was denominated Csefarea. 1 o upply in
fome meafure the lofs of Mariamne, lie married another
lady of the fame name, the beautiful daughter of a
prieft, whom he raifed to the fupreme pontificates He
was in fuch favour with Auguftus, that he_was appoint¬
ed imperial procurator of Syria, and obtained a tetrar-
chy for his brother. To conciliate the favour of he
Jews, he undertook the vaft work of rebuilding the
temple of Jerufalem, and by conftantly employing a
whole army of workmen for a year ana a half, this mag¬
nificent edifice was completed. In the courfe of ano¬
ther vifit to the emperor, Herod obtained new favouis,
particularly a grant of half the produce of the mines
of Cyprus, and the overfeerlhip of the reft. After this
he dedicated his new city of Caffarea when he exhibit¬
ed fo much profufe magnificence, that Auguftus faid,
his foul was too great for his kingdom. He procured
the condemnation and the death of his two fons by tne
firft Mariamne, for which he has been bitterly accuied ;
but when we recoiled that he took the greateft care of
the two fons whom each left behind him, we mult con¬
clude that there was more reafon for their punilhment
than fome are willing to allow. The charge brought
againft them was an unnatural confpiracy againft his
life and crown, and it feems to have been fairly fubflan-
tiated. His ungrateful brother Pheroras, and his fa¬
voured fon Antipater confpired againft him. Soon af¬
ter the difeovery of it the former died, and the latter
went to Rome. r u'
The birth of Chrift happened m the 33d year of his
reign, which is faid to have been foon followed by that
ad of barbarous cruelty, the maffacre of the children Herod
of Bethlehem, inftigated by iealoufy of this king of the IIerJi inf
Jews in a fpiritual fenfe, of whofe birth he obtained   v—_
information from the magi. It is to be obferved that
the account of this deed is no where to be met with but
in St Matthew’s gofpel, for while Jofephus leems to
dwell with ftudied minutenefs on the cruelties of Herod,
he gives not a lingle hint refpeding this maffacre. As
Antipater was returning from Rome, he was arrefied
by his father’s orders, tried and condemned for trea-
fonable pradices. Thefe calamities, joined to a fhat-
tered conftitution, threw Herod into a loathfome ^ dif-
temper, accompanied with remarkable fymptoms, which
has fometimes been confidered as a judgment from hea¬
ven. He ordered the fentence againft Antipater to be
put in execution, and appointed his fon Archelaus to
i’ucceed him on the throne. According to Jofephus, he
colleded together at Jericho the chief perfons among
the Jews, where he ordered them to be ihut up in the
circus, giving ftrid orders to his fifter Salome to ha\e
them all maffacred as foon as he breathed his laft. This
order v;as never executed, but rve very much doubt
the veracity of Jofephus whether it was ever g1^**
The molt bloody monfter that ever exifted, was chief¬
ly pleafed with fuch ads of cruelty as he could either
perform in perfon, witnefs by the agency of his (laves,
or know to be doae during his lifetime •, but this iup-
pofed pofthumous cruelty of Herod is wholly unac¬
countable. If it was a dually the cafe, we can account
for it upon no principles of human depravity, and it is
wholly unique in the annals of tyranny.
His remains were interred with great pomp and mag¬
nificence ; and although his memory has been confign-
ed tp deteftatioo and abhorrence, his great talents and
the glories of his reign, confpire to aflign him a dii-
tinguifhed place in the lift of fovereigns.
HERODIAN, an eminent Greek hiftonan, who
fpent the greateft part of his life at Rome, fiourhhed
in the third century, in the reigns of Severus, Cara-
calla, Heiiogabalus, Alexander, and Maximm. His
hiftory begins from the death of Marcus Amelinthe
Philofopherj and ends with the death of Balbinus
and Maximin, and the beginning of the reign of Gor¬
dian. It is written in very elegant Greek 5 and there
is an excellent tranflation of it into Latin, by Ange-
lus Politianus. Herodian has been pubhflied by Henry
Stephens in 410, in 1581 ; by Boeder, at Strafburg,
in 1662, Bvoj and by Hudfon, at Oxford, in 1699,
HERODIANS, a fed among the Jews at the
time of our Saviour : mentioned Matth. xxu. 16.
Mark 111. 6. n * i ^
The critics and commentators are very much divided
with regard to the Herodians. St Jerome, 111 his Dia¬
logue againft the Luciferians, takes the name to have
been given to fuch as owned Herod for the Meffidn,
and Tertullian and Epiphanius are of the fame opi¬
nion. But the fame Jerome, in his Comment on St
Matthew, treats this opinion as ridiculous and main¬
tains, that the Pharifees gave this appellation by way
of ridicule to Herod’s foldiers who paid tribute to the
Romans 5 agreeable to which the Syrian interpreters
render the word by the domejhcs of Heiod, 1. e. »
courtiers.” M. Simon, in his notes on the 22d chap¬
ter of Matthew, advances a more probable opinion.
H E R [ 443 ] HER
Herodotus. The name llcrodian he imagines to have been given
- k-j ^ as aJhere(i to Herod’s party and interefl:; and
were for preferving the government in his family,
about which were great diviiions among the Jews.—F.
Hardouin will have the Flerodians and Sadducees to
have been the fame.—Hr Prideaux is of opinion
that they derived their name from Herod the Great,
and that they were diftinguilhed from the other Jews
by their concurrence with Herod’s fcheme of fubjedd:-
ing himfelf and his dominions to the Romans, and
likewile by complying with many of their heathen
ufages and cufloms. This fymbolizing with idolatry
upon views of intereft and worldly policy, wras probably
that leaven of Herod, againft which our Saviour cau¬
tioned his ddciples. It is farther probable that they
wrere chiedy of the fedt of Sadducees 3 becaufe the
leaven of Herod is alfo denominated the leaven of the
Sadducees.
HERODOTUS, an ancient Greek hitforian of
HalicarnaxTus in Caria, fon of Lyxus and Dryo, was
born in the firft year of the 74th Olympiad, that is,
about 484 B. C. The city of Halicarnaffus being at
that time under the tyranny of Lygdamis grandfon
of Artemilia queen of Caria, Herodotus quitted his
country and retired to Samos •, from whence he tra¬
velled over Egypt, Greece, Italy, &c. and in his tra¬
vels acquired the knowdedge of the hiftory and origin
of many nations. He then began to digelF the ma¬
terials he had collected into order, and compofed that
hiftory which has preferved his name among men ever
lince. He wrote it in the Hie of Samos, according to
the general opinion.—Lucian informs us, that when
Herodotus left Caria to go into Greece, he began to
coniider with himfelf
What he Ihould do to be for ever known,
And make the age to come his own,
in the moft expeditious way, and with as little trouble
as poffible. His hiftory, he prefumed, would eaffty
procure him fame, and raife his name among the Gre¬
cians in whofe favour it was written : but then he fore-
faw that it would be very tedious to go through the
feveral cities oi Greece, and recite it to each refpedftive
city 3 to the Athenians, Corinthians, Argives, Lace¬
demonians, &c. He thought it moft proper there¬
fore to take the opportunity of their afiembling all
together 3 and accordingly recited his work at the
Olympic games, tvhich rendered him more famous
than even thole who had obtained the prizes. None
were ignorant of his name, nor was there a Angle perfon
in Greece wdio had not feen him at the Olympic
games, or heard thofe fpeak of him who had feen him
there.
His work is divided into nine books 3 which accord¬
ing to the computation of Dionyfius Halicarnallenfis,
contain the moft remarkable occurrences within a pe-
0^24° years; from the reign of Cyrus the firft
king of Perfia, to that of Xerxes when the hiftorian
was living. I hefe nine books are called after the
names of the nine mufes, each book being diftinguifti-
ed by the name of a mufe 3 and this has given birth to
two difquifitions among the learned : 1. Whether they
were fo called by Herodotus himfelf 3 and, 2. For what
realbn they w7ere fo called. As to the firft, it is ge¬
nerally agreed that Herodotus did not impofe thefc
names himfelf 3 but it is not agreed why they were
impofed by others. Lucian tells us, that thefe names
were given them by the Grecians at the Olympic games,
when they were firft recited, as the belt compliment
that could be paid the man who had taken pains to do
them fo much honour. Others have thought that the
names of the mufes have been fixed upon them by way of
reproach 3 and were defigned to intimate, that Hero¬
dotus, inftead of true hiftory, had written a great deal
of fable. But, be this as it will, it is certain, that
with regard to the truth of his hiftory, he is acculed
by feveral authors; and, on the other hand, he has not
wanted perfons to defend him. Aldus Manutius, Joa¬
chim Camerarius, and Henry Stephens, have written
apologies for him 3 and, among other things, have very
jultly obferved, that he leldom relates any thing of
doubtful credit without producing the authority on
which his narration is founded 3 and, if he has no cer¬
tain authority to fix it upon, ufes always the terms ut
ferunt, ut ego audivi, &c.
1 here is aicribed alfo to Herodotus, but falfely, a
Life of Homer, which is ufually printed at the end of
his work.—He wrote in the Ionic dialed!, and his ftyle
and manner have ever been admired by all people of
tafte. I here have been feveral editions of the works
of this hiftorian 3 two by Henry Stephens, one in
I57°» anb the other in 1592 3 one by Gale at Lon¬
don in 16793 and one by Gronovius at Leyden
in 1715, which is the laft and belt, though not the beft.
printed.
HEROIC, fomething belonging to a hero, or he¬
roine. Thus we fay, heroic adlions, heroic virtue, he-
foic ftyle, heroic verfe, heroic poet, heroic age, Sec.
Heioic Age, is that age or period of the world
wherein the heroes, or thole called by the poets the
children oj the gods, are fuppofed to have lived.—The
heroic age coincides with the fabulous age.
Heroic Poem, is that which undertakes to deferibe
fome extraordinary adtion or enterprife. Plomer, Vir-
gi|, Statius, Lucan, Taflb, Camoens, Milton, and Vol¬
taire, have compofed heroic poems. In this fenfe, heroic
poem coincides with epic poem.
Heroic Verfe, is that wherein heroic poems are
uiually compoled 3 or, it is that proper for fuch poems.
In the Greek and Latin, hexameter verfes are peculiarly
denominated heroic verfes, as being alone ufed by Homer,
Virgft, &c. Alexandrine verfes, of 1 2 fyllables, were
formerly called heroic verfes, as being fuppofed the only
verfe proper for heroic poetry 3 but later writers ufc •
verfes of ten fyllables.
HEROINE, Heroina, or Herois, a woman that
has the qualities and virtues of a hero, or that has done
fome heroic adfion.
HERON. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
This bird is a very great devourer of fifh, and will
do more mifehief to a pond than even an otter. Some
fay that an heron will deftroy more fitli in a tveek than
an otter will in three months 3 but that feems carrying
the matter too far. People who have kept herons,
have had the curioftty to number out the fifti they fed
them with into a tub of w'ater ; and counting them
again afterwards, it has been found that a heron will
eat 50 moderate-fized dace and roaches in a day. It
has been found, that in carp-ponds vifited by this bird,
one heron will eat up 1000 ftore carp in a year, and
3 K 2 will
HER [ 444
will hunt them fo clofe that very few can efcape. . rIhe
readieft method of deftroying this mifehievous bird is
by fiihing for him in the manner of pike, with a
baited hook ; the bait confiding of fmall roach or
dace, and the hook fadened to one end of a^ drong
line,’made of fdk and wire twided together. To the
other end of the line is faftened a done of a pound
weight •, and feveral of thefe baited lines being funk
bv means of the done in different parts of the pond,
in a night or two the heron w ill not fail of being taken
by one or other of them.
HERPES, in Medicine, a bilious pudule, which
] HER
They are in full roe at the end of June, and continue Herring,
in perfection till the beginning of winter, when they ' v "
begin to depolit their fpawn.
There are different names given to preferved her¬
rings, according to the different manners wherein they
are ordered i as, i. Seo-Jitcks; which are Inch as aie
caught all the fiihing feafon, and are but once packed.
A barrel of thefe holds fix or eight hundred •, eight
barrels go to the ton by law ; a hundred of herrings is
to be a hundred and twenty ", a lad is ten thouiand,
and they commonly reckon fourteen barrels to the Eft.
2. There are others, repacked on fhore, called repack-
HERPES, m Medicine, a u mus Pu ’ , 7 • . feventeen barrels of fea*fticks commonly
breaking out in different manners upon the fkm, accord- ^ fourteen of repacked herrings,
ingly receives different denominations. See M D ^k ^ ^packing them is, to take out the
^HERRERA tordesillas, Anthony, a Spanifli
hiftorian, the fon of Roderic de Tordeflllas and Agnes
de Herrera, it being the cuftom of that country to bear
the mother’s name, was born in I5^5‘ •r^e was ^ecre'
tary to Vefpafian de Gonzaga, viceroy of Navarre and
Valentia, and afterwards appointed royal hiftoriogra-
pher for the Indies by Philip II. to which a liberal pen-
fion was attached. While he held this office, he wrote
his general hidory of the Indies in 4 vols folio, com¬
prehending the whole of the Spaniih tranfaClions theie,
from I492°t0 1 554. The celebrated Scottlfl, hillorian
Dr Robertfon, fays of it, that it “ furmflies the Imleft
and moft accurate information concerning the conqueft
of Mexico, as well as every other traniathion of Ame¬
rica. The induftry and attention with which he con-
fulted not only the books, but the original and public
records, were fo great, and be ufually judges ol the
evidence before him with fo much impartiality and can¬
dour that his decads may be ranked among the mod ju¬
dicious and ufeful hiftorical collections.” Herrera hke-
w’ile compofed a general hidory of his own time, from
irrito 1 co8, which is not fo much admired. His
death, which happened in 1625, prevented him from
enjoying the office of fecretary of date, which Phi¬
lip IV. defigned for him on the very firft vacancy.
Herrera, Ferdinand de, a Spamfti poet of the
16th century, was a native of Seville. In the year
1582, he publiflied a colkaion of poems of the lyric
and heroic fpecies, which were reprinted in 1619. Ey
thefe he obtained a confiderable reputation as a favourite
of the mufes, and made him be regarded as tne hid
lyric poet belonging to Spain. As to his dyle, it is gene¬
rally allowed to be neat, elegant, copious, and correct.
He likewife publidied an edition of Garcilaffo de la
. . 1 4.1— v r\ k I it r\rn c
ega,
with notes ; a narrative of the war of Cyprus,
and of the battle of Lepanto. # -
HERRING, in Ichthyology, a fpecies of Glupea.
The name herring is derived from the German heer,
an army, which expreffes their number, when they mi¬
grate into our feas. Herrings are found in great plenty
from the highed northern latitudes as low as the.north¬
ern coads of France. They are alfo met with in vad
fhoals on the coad of America, as low as Carolina :
thev are found alfo in the fea of Kamtfchatka, and po -
fibly reach Japan : but their winter rendezvous is with¬
in the arftic circle, whither they retire after fpawmng,
and where they are provided with plenty of infect food.
For an account of the remarkable migration of her¬
rings, and the hidory of the fifhery, &c. fee CLUPEA
and Herring-FnHEKY.
herrings, w'adi them out in their own pickle, and lay
them orderly in a tredi barrel theie nave no fait put
to them, but are clofe packed, and headed up
fworn cooper, with pickle, when the barrel is half full.
The pickle is brine ; fo drong as that the herring will
fwim in it. 3. Summers, are fuch as the Dutch cbafeis
or divers catch from June to the 15th of July, ihcle.
are fold away in fea-dicks, to be fpent prefently, in re¬
gard of their fatnefs j becaufe they will not endure re¬
packing. They go one with another, full and fhottea *,
but the repacked herrings are forted, the full herrings
by themfelves. 4. The Jhottey and fick herrings, by
themfelves •, the barrel whereof is to be marked didinft-
ly. y. Crux herrings; which are fuch as are caught
after the x 4th of September. Thefe are cured with
that kind of fait called fait upon fait, and are carefully-
farted out, all full herrings, and ufed in the repacking.
6. Corved herrings. Thefe lerve to make red herrings,
being fuch as are taken in the Yarmouth feas, fiom th<
end of Augud to the middle of Offober 5 provided they
can be earned aihore within a week, more or le.s, al¬
ter they are taken. Thefe are never gipped but rowed
in fait, for the better preferving of them, till they can
be brought on fhore •, and fuch as are kept to raa^e
red herrings are wadied in great vats in fredi water, be¬
fore they are hung up in the herring-hangs or red-her¬
ring houfes. _
As for the manner of falling herrings. The nets be¬
ing haled on board, the tidies are taken out, and put
into the warbacks, which dand on one fide of the vei-
fels. When all the nets are thus unloaded, one fills
the gippers bafkets. The gippers cut their throats,
take out their guts, and fling out the full herrings into
one baiket, and the ftiotten into another. One man
takes the full baiket when they are gipped, and carries
them to the rower-back, wherein there is fait. One
boy rows and flirs them about in the fait, and another
takes them, thus rowed, and carries them in baffiets to
the packers. Four men pack the herrings into one
barrel, and lay them, one by one, flraight and even 5
and another man, when the barrel is full, takes it from
the packers. It is left to dand a day, or mote, open
t« fettle, that the fait may melt and ddfolve to pickle •,
after which it is filled up, and the barrel headed, ihe
pickle is to be drong enough to Main a herring *,
othenvife the fifti decay in it.
Herring, Thomas, archbiihop of Canterbury, .me¬
morable for his attachment to civil and religious liber¬
ty, was the fon of a clergyman, and born in the year
1693. He received his grammar-fehool education at
Herring.
H E R
[ 445 ] HER
Wifbech in the ifle of Ely j and at the age of i 7 was
fent to Jefus college in the univerfity of Cambridge, at
which place he was made B. A. in 1714, and the title
or degree of A. M. was conferred upon him about three
years afterwards. In the year 1722, he was appointed
chaplain to Dr Fleetwood, bilhop of Ely, who gave
him two redfories j and in 1726 he was nominated
preacher to the honourable fociety of Lincoln’s Inn.
He was chofen chaplain in ordinary to his majeity
about thejfarae period, and obtained from Cambridge
the degree of D. D. in the year 1728. Bilhop Fleet-
wood, his worthy patron, declared to his friends, that
he never heard a fermon from Dr Herring which he
would not have been proud to be the author of himfelf..
In 1731, he was chofen redlor of Blechingley in Sur¬
rey ; the fame year appointed dean of Rochefter, and
the king promoted him to the fee of Bangor in the
year 1737. Fie was appointed archbilhop of York in
1743 ; and it was peculiarly fortunate for the country
at that critical juncture, that a man of his principles
and public fpirit was raifed to iuch an exalted rank.
The rebellion in Scotland was fo artfully concealed by
its friends in England, that it was fcarcely believed the
Highlanders were in arms, till the royalifts were de¬
feated at the battle of Preftonpans. Amidft the uni-
verfal confternation which this event occalioned, Arch¬
bilhop Herring; roufed the people to a fenfe of their
danger, contributed to remove the panic, and encoura¬
ged them to unite with firmnefs and vigour in the de¬
fence of their country.
A meeting of the nobility, gentry, and clergy, w'as
held at York, where the archbilhop addreffed them in
a very able and animated fpeech, requefting them to
unite as one man in averting the prefent danger, to pre-
ferve their happy conllitution, and contribute to a fub-
feription for railing troops in defence of the country.
The whole alfembly entered warmly into his view's,
and immediately fubferibed about 40,000k for the im¬
portant purpofe recommended by his grace. On the
death of Archbilhop Potter, which happened in 1747*
Dr Herring w’as tranflated to the fee of Canterbury.
In 1753 he was feized with a violent fever, which
brought him to the verge of the grave •, and although
he fo far recovered that he languilhed for a few years,
yet his ilrength and fpirits were very much exhauiled,
and he expired in 1756, in the 63d year of his age.
He was buried, according to his owm defire, without
any pomp or parade, and no monument vras erected to
his memory.
We are informed by Mr Duncombe, that the arch-
bilhop’s perfon w’as tall and comely ; his conliitution,
from his tendered: youth, weak and delicate •, his ad-
drefs eafy, engaging, and polite. He was generous
without prodigality, magnificent wdthout profufion, and
humble without meannefs. In his life-time he could
never be prevailed upon to publilh any ©f his fermons j
but after his death Mr Duncombe publilhed feven fer-
mons on public occafions, in one volume odtavo, giv¬
ing in the preface feme account of the author’s life.
In the Monthly Review he was termed “ a prelate of
uncommon virtues, a man of extraordinary accomplilh-
ments, a candid divine, a polite fcholar, a warm lover
of his country, a true friend to liberty, religious as well
as civil, and of courfe, a moft fmcere hater of perfccu-
tipn.”
HERRNHUT, or Herrnhuth, the firil and moil Her.nhut^
conliderable fettlement of the United Brethren, com- ' ^ J
monly called Moravians, lituated in Upper Lufatia,
upon an eilate, belonging to the family of Nicolas
Lewis Count Zinzendorf, about 50 miles eait of Dref-
den. See the article United Brethren.
The building oi this place was begun in I727
fome emigrants from Moravia, who forfook their pol -
fedions on account of the perfecution they luftered as
Proteftants from the Roman Catholics, and being well
received by Count Zinzendorf, cleared a fpot of
ground allotted to them by him upon the rife of an hill
called the Hutberg, or Watch-hill, from which they
took occafion to call the new' fettlement Herrnhut, or
tlje Watch of the Lord. More emigrants taking re¬
fuge with them, and many other perfons joining their
congregation, the buildings increafed confiderably j and
at prefent Herrnhut is a regular and well-built village,
containing about 1300 inhabitants, all members of the
Church of the United Brethren. Befides the miniller
and his affitlants, a wrarden is appointed, who preiides
in the veilry, and fuperintends the temporal concerns
of the fettlement. The Brethren dilfinguilh themfelves
by a plain and uniform drefs, the women having re¬
tained the drefs of the countries from which the firfl
emigrants proceeded, not from any fuperllitious attach¬
ment to old forms, but from a defire to preclude vani¬
ty and ufelefs expence. As molt of the fettlements of
this community refemble each other, both in the difpo-
fition of their buildings and in their internal regula¬
tions, we wall give a Ihort Iketch of Herrnhut, as the
pattern from wdiich the relt w'ere copied, though there
are others in which the buildings are more regularly
planned. The chapel, which is fituated in a large
fquare, is a fpacious and neat building, furnilhed with
a good organ and moveable forms, but no pewTs. The
men fit on one fide, and the women on the other, en¬
tering at feparate doors. Befides the ulual Sunday’s
fervice, the congregation meets here every evening and
the children every morning. The dwellings of the mi-
niiler and warden of the congregation form one, and a
fchool-houfe the other, wing to the chapel. From the
chapel an avenue of trees leads to the burying-ground,
which is a large fquare field on the declivity of the
Hutberg, and at fome diftance from the village. Se¬
veral walks bordered by trees, and furnilhed with feats,
furround and interfe£I it. The grave-ftones and graves
are all of equal fize, and placed in regular row's; only
the vault of Count Zinzendorf, as lord of the manor, is
larger than the reft. Burials are performed with great
folemnity,, but no mourning dreffes ufed.—On one fide
of the fquare, in which the chapel Hands, is a large
building, inhabited by the fingle men, with workihops,
outhoufes, anchgardens, exclufive of the dwelling rooms.
The main building contains a neat chapel, in which a
fhort morning and evening fervice is performed for the
inhabitants •, a dining-hall; and a dormitory, in which
each has a feparate bed. The latter is a lofty room*
furnilhed with large windows and ventilators, fo as to
admit and preferve a pure air. For the lick, apart¬
ments are allotted, and fick waiters appointed. The
number of inhabitants in one room is proportioned to
its fize, but there are many who have rooms to them¬
felves. No one lives here by compulfion. Each in¬
habitant pays for rent and board a moderate fum, fixed
by.
HER [ 446 ] H E R
Ilerriiliut.
by a committee of overfeers, in which the warden of
the houfe prefides ; whofe bufmefs it is to maintain good
order, attend to the external welfare of the houfe and
its inhabitants, and by his advice and adlivity to pre¬
vent every evil arifing from external fources. Beiides
the warden, an unmarried clergyman refides in the
houfe, appointed to attend to the moral condudt and
ipiritual concerns of all the Angle men belonging to the
congregation. He hears their complaints, aflilts them
with good advice, and ufes all his influence for their
benefit, and for the prevention of any evil that would
undermine their fpiritual happinefs.— On the other tide
of the fquare is another large building, inhabited by
Angle women 5 with a chapel, dining hall, dormitory,
and a large garden. The internal regulations are ex¬
actly the fame with thofe of the horde of the Angle men.
There are likewife houfes for widowers and widows,
who find in them an agreeable retreat, with board and
lodging. The poor are cared for and maintained ; for
which purpofe feveral charitable inftitutions exift in the
congregation.—The manor-houte, the houfe of Count
Reufs, the (hop and linen warehoufe, are the moft con-
fiderable buildings in Herrnhut ; the family houfes are
built in regular llreets, opening into the fquare. Both
the flreets and houfes are kept clean ; and befides a
watchman at night, an officer is appointed to attend to
good order in the day. All itrangers are treated with
civility 5 but neither drunken nor diforderly vifitors nor
beggars are fuflfered to infeft the flreets. d he latter
receive an alms, and are then delired to proceed, i. he
principal trade carried on at Herrnhut is in linen j be¬
fides which tire work done there by taylors, glovers,
fhoemakers, cabinet-makers, filverfmiths, and other ar¬
tificers, is well known for its good quality. They have
their firfl: prices, and never make any abatement.
Every workman receives his wages ; no community of
goods exifiing among the brethren, as is falfely fuppo-
fed ; and the contributions towards the fupport of the
ellabliihment at large, the millions, and other chari¬
table inftitutions, are voluntary. The building and in-
creafe of this fettlement occaiioned no fmall furprife in
the adjacent country j and both in I732> I73^> an^
1737, commhfioners were appointed to examine into
the dodlrines and proceedings'of the brethren at Herrn-
hut. The commiffioners made a favourable report •, and
ever fince both Herrnhut and other fettlements of the
United Brethren in Saxony have been protedled, and
even feveral immunities offered them by the court, but
not accepted. Herrnhut was vifited in 1766 by the
late emperor Jofeph II. after his return from Drefden,
by the prefent king of Pruflia, and by feveral other
royal perfonages, who expreffed their fatisfaftion in ex¬
amining its peculiar regulations. The United Brethren
have fettlements in Saxony, Silefia, and other parts of
Germany *, in Holland, Denmark, England, Ireland,
and America. In England, their principal fettlements
are at Fulnec near Leeds, and Fairfield near Manchef-
ter. In Greenland, North and South America, the
Weft Indies, and Ruifia, they have miflions for the
propagation of Chriftianity among the heathen ; and in
many parts have had confiderable fuccefs. See Bufching's
Account of the Rife ami Progrefs of the Church of the
Brethren, Halle 1781 *, and Crania's Hifory of the
Brethren, London 1780.
Herrnhut, JVieu', the firfl; million fettlement of the
United Brethren, in the ifland of St Thomas in the Weft Hermhut
Indies, under the Danilh government, begun in 17'to; TT Ji
.1 • -n- • u • b j ’ j 5 toy- Herfillon.
their miliionaries having endeavoured to propagate ,
Chriftianity among the negro (laves ever fince i7T>
and fuffered many hardlhips and perfecutions, from
which their converts were not exempted. Many of the
planters finding in procefs of time that the Chriftian
flaves were more tra&able, moral, and induftrious, than
the heathen, not only countenanced but encouraged
their endeavours. Tiiefe were alfo greatly facilitated
by the protehlion of the king of Denmark. The
fettlement coniifts of a fpacious negro church, a dwel-
ling-houfe for the miifionaries, negro-huts, out-houfes,
and gardens. From this place the illands of St Croix
and St Jan were at fir ft fupplied with million aries ;
and the Brethren have now two fettlements in each.
The negro converts belonging to their church a-
mount in thofe three illands to near eight thoufand
fouls.
Herrnhut, New, is alfo the name of the oldeft mif-
fion fettlement of the United Brethren in Greenland.
It is fituated on Balls River, a few' miles from the fea,
near Da vis’s Straits, on the w?eftern coaft of Greenland,
not far from the Danifti colony Godhaab. The two
firft miffionaries were fent from Herrnhut in the year
1733, and their laudable intentions were favoured by
the king of Denmark. They had to ftruggle in
this uncultivated, frozen, and favage country, with in¬
conceivable hardlhips, and found at firft great difficulty
in acquiring the language of the natives. However,
after fix years labour and perfeverance, they had the
fatisfaflion to baptize four perfons, all of one family :
and from that time the million began to profper, fo
that in the fucceeding years two other fettlements were
begun, called Lichtenfels and Lichtenau: All of
them continue in profperity. i\.bout 13CO of the na¬
tives have been chriftianized fince the beginning of this
million. See CranlAs Hifory of Greenland, London,
1777.
HERSCHEL, the name by which the French, and
moft other European nations, call the planet difeovered
by Dr Herfchel in the year 1781. The Italians call
it Uranos, and the Britilh, Georgium Sidus.
HERSE, In Fortification, a lattice, or portcullis,
in form of a harrow, befet with iron fpikes. The
wmrd herfe is French, and literally fignifies “ harrow
being formed of the Latin herpex or irpex, which de¬
notes the fame. It is ufually hung by a rope faftened
to a moulinet ; to be cut, in cafe of furprife, or wLen
the firft; gate is broken with a petard, that the herfe may
fall, and flop up the paffage of the gate or other en¬
trance of a fortrefs.
The herfe is otherwife called a famafin, or cataract;
and when it confifts of ftraight flakes, without any
crofs-pieces, it is called orgues.
Herse, is alfo a harrow, which the befieged, for
w'ant of chevaux de frife, lay in the way, or in breach¬
es, with the points up, to incommode the march as w'ell
of the horfe as of the infantry.
HERSILLON, in the military art, a fort of plank
or beam, ten or twelve feet long, whofe two fides are
driven full of fpikes or nails, to incommode the inarch
of the infantry or cavalry. The word is a diminutive
of herfe ; the herfillon doing the office of a little herfe.
See Herse.
%
HERTFORD.
Hertford
II
Hervey.
HER [ 447 ] HER
HERTFORD. See Hartford.—In the account
given of this county under the latter name, it was
omitted to mention that the Eaft India Company had
eftablithed a college in it, where perfons are to be pro¬
perly qualified for filling places of truft and importance
in the government of India. It is compofed of a
fchool, into which boys may be admitted at an early
age, and a college for ftudents, 15 years old, in which
they are to continue till they have completed their 18th
year, or till the dire&ors fend them to their particular
deftinations. In the fchool, the chief intention is to
qualify them for public bufinefs, and the firft depart¬
ments of commercial life. The ftudents of the college
are to hear public leisures, fimilar to thofe which are
delivered in the univeifities. The means of inftrufting
them in the elements of oriental literature will alfo be
attended to, for which purpofe they will be taught
the rudiments of the Afiatic, Arabic, and Ferfian lan¬
guages, and the hiftory, cuftoms, and manners of the
eaftern nations, as well as the political and commercial
relations fubiifting between Great Britain and India.
The college is to be under the authority of a princi¬
pal and feven profefibrs, befides a French mailer, a
drawing-mafter, a fencing-mailer, and other fuitable in-
flrudlors.
The principal is required to preach in the college
chapel, in rotation with fuch of the profeftbrs as are in
holy orders, and to bear his part in performing the
other funftions of religious worftiip.
The ledlures of the profeffor^are to be arranged un¬
der the following heads 5 viz. oriental literature ; ma¬
thematics and natural philofophy ; daflical and general
literature ; law, hiftory, and political economy.
It is propofed to divide the college year into two
terms of 20 weeks each, and the laft week of each
term is to be dedicated to the examination of the ftu¬
dents. A lift of their names wftio are found to have
made the greatell proficiency, will be tranfmitted to
the court of direftors, who will reward merit in fuch a
manner as may be agreed upon by the college commit¬
tee. The utmoft attention will be paid to their moral
and religious inftruflion, comprehending an account of
the evidences, doftrines, and duties of divine revela¬
tion.
The college and fchool were opened on the 3d of
February 1806, for the reception of ftudents and pupils.
The mafter of the fchool is to receive 70 guineas an¬
nually, without any additional charge, and ftudents are
to pay 50 guineas to the company at the commence¬
ment of each term, for which they will receive every
accommodation except a few articles of private conve¬
nience. Every kind of extravagant expence is to be
difeouraged.
HERTHA, or Herthus, in Mythology, a deity
worfhipped by the ancient Germans. This is mention¬
ed by Tacitus, in his book De Moribus Germanorum,
cap. 40. Voflius conjectures, that this goddefs was
Cybele : but fhe was more probably Terra or the Earth ;
becaufe the Germans Hill ufe the word hert for the
earth, whence alfo the Englifh earth.
HERTZBERG, a confiderable town of Germany,
in the electorate of Saxony, and on the confines of Lu-
fatia. E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat. 51. 42.
HERVEY, James, a pious and ingenious divine of
the church of England in the 18th century, a writer of
very great popularity among people of the Calviniitic Hervey.
perfuafion, was born at Hardingftone in the year 1714.
He was educated at the free grammar-fehool of North¬
ampton, where he acquired a competent knowledge of
the Greek and Latin languages j and in 1731 he was
fent to the univerfity of Oxford. The firft two or three
years of his refidence at that feminary were fpent, we
are told, without much application to ftudy, and there¬
fore without making much improvement 5 but after¬
wards becoming acquainted with thofe w7ho zealoufly
ftudied what they called primitive Chrijlianitiy, after-
wards termed Methodi/ls, he became ftrongly attached
both to piety and learning. Independent of his other
ftudies, he learned anatomy from Dr Keil, and natu¬
ral philofophy from Dr Derham’s Phyfico and Aftro-
theology j and by the perufal of Mr Spence’s effay on
Pope’s Odyfley he improved his ftyle. He attempted
the Hebrew language without a teacher, and after re-
linquiftiing the Itudy of it in defpair, he refumed his
labours, and became a tolerable proficient in that for¬
bidding language.
In the year 1740 he was curate of Biddeford in De-
vonihire, where he had only 60I. a-year, including a
ftated colleClion made by his friends. On the death of
the reClor he was dilmifled by the new incumbent, con¬
trary to the earned expoftulation of the parithioners,
who offered to maintain him independent of the reftor.
In 1743 he became curate to his father, who held the
living of Wefton-Favell in Northamptonlhire, and con¬
tinued in that ftation till 1730, when his health was
rapidly declining, from his intenfe application to ftudy,
and a conftitution naturally delicate. Having been art¬
fully decoyed to London for a change of air, he conti¬
nued about two years in that metropolis, and was loon
recalled to Wefton-Favell to fucceed his father. He
got both the livings of Wefton and Collingtree in the
fame neighbourhood, and in 1752 was made M. A.
He attended to the duties of both parifhes alternately
with a curate, in the difeharge of which he was fervent
and indefatigable. He feldom made ufe of notes in the
pulpit, and conilantly catechifed the children of his pa-
rilhioners, nor did he negle£f his paftoral vifitations at
their own houfes. So great were his exertions, that he
brought on a decline, accompanied with an inceifant
cough and acute pains, all which he fupported, not
only with fortitude, but without a fingle expreflion of
peevifhnefs.
He died without a groan on the 25th of December
1758, about 44 years of age. His piety was ardent
and fincere, although in the eftimation of good judges
he was rather enthufiaftic. He was unquefh’onably a
man of the moft unblemilhed moral deportment; his
temper was difinterefted, and he was truly humble
without affectation. To fociety he was juft and punc¬
tual, and candid to people of every defeription. The
700I. which he received for his Meditations, were ap¬
plied to the relief of the indigent and diftreffed. He
was fuch a rigid Calviniit that he was almoft an anti-
nomian, whenever he fpoke of imputed rigbteoufnefs.
His erudition was refpectable, but not fuch as to place
him among fcholars of the firft rank, although he leems
to have been mafter of the claflics. Many have ad¬
mired the ftyle of his writings, but a judge muft cer¬
tainly pronounce it by far too diffufe to be termed ele¬
gant, for it is neither chafte, manly, nor nervous.
^ Belkles
Hervey-
-Iflancl
H E S t 44*
Befules his Meditations, he publiilied remarks on
Lord Bolingbroke’s letters on the ufe and ftudy of hi-
ftory, fo far as they relate to the hiftory of the Old
Teftament j Theron and Afpafio j Afpafio Vindicated,
and Sermons on the Trinity, &c. publilhed from his
own MSS. after his death.
HERVKY-IJlatuI, one of the South Sea iflands difco-
vered by Captain Cook, September 23. 1773, who
gave it that name in honour of the earl of Briltol. It
is a low ifland, fituated in W. Long. 158. 54. S. Lat.
19. 8.
HESBON, Esebon, or Hefebon, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, the royal city of the Amorites, in the tribe of
Reuben, according to Mofes: 1 hough in Jolhua xxi. 39.
where it is reckoned among the Levitical cities, it is
put in the tribe of Gad •, which argues its fituation to
be on the confines of both.
HESIOD, a very ancient Greek poet *, but whether
cotemporary with Homer, or a little older or youngei
than him, is not yet agreed among the learned j nor is
there light enough in antiquity to fettle the matter ex-
attly. His father, as he tells us in his Opera et Dies,
was an inhabitant of Cuma, one of the Eolian iiles,
now called Taio Nova ; and removed from thence to
Afcra, a little village of Bceotia, at the foot of Mount
Helicon, where Heliod was probably born, and called,
as he often is, j^fcrceus, from it. Of what quality his
father was, is nowhere laid ; but that he was driven by
his misfortunes from Cumae to Afcra, Hefiod hirofelf
informs us. His father feems to have profpered better
at Afcra than he did in his own country } yet Hefiod
could arrive at no higher fortune than keeping Iheep on
the top of Mount Helicon. Here the mufes met with
him, and entered him into their fervice :
Erewhile as they the fhepherd fwain behold,
Feeding beneath the facred mount his fold,
With love of charming fong his breafi: they fir’d,
There me the heav’nly mufes firft infpir’d
There, when the maids of Jove the filence broke,
To Hefiod thus, the fhepherd fwain they fpoke, &c.
To this account, which is to be found in the beginning
of his Generatio Deorum, Ovid alludes in thefe two
lines :
Nec mihi funt vifce Clio, Clutfque for ores,
Servanti pecudes vallibus Afcra tins.
Nor Clio nor her fitters have I feen,
As Hefiod faw them in the Afcraean green.
On the death of the father, an eftate was left, which
ought to have been equally divided between the two
brothers Hefiod and Perfes j but Perfes defrauded him
in the divifion, by corrupting the judges. Hefiod was
fo far from refenting this injuftice, that he expreffes a
concern for thofe miftaken mortals who place their hap-
pinefs in riches only, even at the expence of their vir¬
tue. He lets us know, that he was not only above
want, but capable of aflifting his brother in time of
need •, which he often did though he had been fo ill
ufed by him. The laft circumftance he mentions rela¬
ting to himfelf is his conqueft in a poetical contention.
Archidamus, king of Euboea, had inftituted funeral
games in honour of his owrn memory, which his Ions
afterwards took care to have performed. Here He¬
fiod was a competitor for the prize in poetry j and won
I
5 ] H E S
a tripod, which he confecrated to the mufes. Hefiod Hc fper
having entered himfelf in the fervice of the mufes, left K ., s
off the paftoral life, and applied himfelf to the ftudy of
arts and learning. When he was grown old, for it is
agreed by all that he lived to a very great age, he re¬
moved to Locris, a town about the fame diilance from
Mount Parnaffus as Afcra was from Helicon. His
death was tragical. The man with whom he lived at
Locris, a Milefian born, ravilhed a maid in the lame
houfe j and though Hefiod w'as entirely ignorant of the
fail, yet being malicioully accufed to her brothers as
an accomplice, he wras injurioufly flain with the ravilh-
er, and thrown into the fea. The Theogomj, and
Works and Days, are the only undoubted pieces of this
poet now extant: though it is fuppofed that thefe poems
have not defcended perfe£t and finilhed to the prefent
time. A good edition of Hefiod’s works was publilh¬
ed by Mr Le Clerc at Amfterdam in 1701.
HESPER, Hesperus, in AJlronomy, the evening
ftar j an appellation given to Venus when Ihe follows
or fets after the fun. The wwd is formed of the Greek
'Es-TTigoj \ and is fuppofed to have been originally the
proper name of a man, brother of Atlas, and father of
the Hefperides.
Diodorus, lib. iii. relates, that Hefperus having af-
cended to the top of Mount Atlas, the better to ob-
ferve and contemplate the ftars, never returned more •,
and that hence he was fabled to have been changed in¬
to this ftar.
HESPERIA, an ancient name of Italy 5 fo called
by the Greeks from its weftern fituation. Hefperia
was alfo an appellation of Spain j but with the epithet
ultima (Horace), to diftinguilh it from Italy, which is
called Hefperia magna (Virgil), from its extent of em¬
pire.
HESPERI cornu, called the Great Bay by the
author of Hanno’s Periplus; but moft interpreters,
following Mela, underftand a promontory ; fome Cape
Verd, others Palmas Cape : Voflius takes it to be the
former, fince Hanno did not proceed fo far as the latter
cape.
HESPERIDEiE, in Botany (from the Hefperi¬
des) •, golden or precious fruit: the name of the 19th
order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method.
See Botany.
HESPERIDES, in the ancient mythology, were
the daughters of Hefper or Hefperus, the brother of
Atlas. According to Diodorus, Hefperus and Atlas were
two brothers who poffeffed great riches in the weftern
parts of Africa. Hefperus had a daughter called Hef¬
peria, who married her uncle Atlas, and from this mar¬
riage proceeded feven daughters, called Hefperidei from
the name of their mother, and Atlantides from that of
their father. According to the poets, the Hefperides
were three in number, 4Egle, Arethuia, and Hefper-
thufa. Hefiod, in his Theogony, makes them the
daughters of Nox, Night, and leats them in. the fame
place with the Gorgons ; viz. at the extremities of the
weft, near Mount Atlas : it is on that account he
makes them the daughters of Night, becaufe the fun
fets there. The Hefperides are reprefented by the an¬
cients as having the keeping of certain golden apples,
on the other fide the ocean. And the poets give them
a dragon to watch the garden where the fruit grows j
this dragon they tell us Hercules Hew, and carried off
H E S [ 449 ] H E S
HefpericJes the apples.—Pliny and Solinus will have the dragon to
II be no other than an arm oi the fea, wherewith the gar-
, (jen was encompafled, and which defended the entrance
thereof. And Varro fuppofes, that the golden apples
were nothing but fheep. Others, w'ith more probabili¬
ty, fay they were oranges.
The Gardens o f the Hespkridks are placed by fome
authors at Larache, a city of Fez ; by others at Bernich
a city of Barca, which tallies better with the fable.
Others take the province of Sufa in Morocco for the
ifland wherein the garden was feated. And, laftly,
Rudbecks places the Fortunate Iflands, and the gar¬
dens of the Hefperides, in his own country Sweden.
HESPFRIDUM insul®, in Ancient Geography,
iflands near the Hefperi Cornu; but the accounts of
them are fo much involved in fable, that nothing cer¬
tain can be affirmed of them.
HESPERI3, ROCKET, Dame's Violet, or queen's
gil/ifiower ; a genus of plants belonging to the tetrady-
namia clafs 5 and in the natural method ranking under
the 3Qth order, Siliquofe. See Botany Index.
HESPERUS, in fabulous hiftory, fon of Cephalus
by Aurora, as fair as Venus, was changed into a liar,
called Lucifer in the morning, and Hefperus in the
evening. See Hesper.
HESSE, a country of Germany, in the circle of
the Upper Rhine \ bounded on the fouth by the bi-
fhoprick of Fulda 5 on the call by the principalities of
Hersfeld, Thuringia, and Eichsfeld, as alfo by that of
Calenburg ; on the north by the bithoprick of Pader-
born and Waldeck, the duchy of Weftphalia, and the
county of Witgenilein •, and on the w’eft, by Naffau-
Dillenburg, the county of Solins, and Upper-Ifenburg.
in the above limits, the county of Katzenellnbogen
and fome other tendtories are not included. The
whole country, in its utmoil length, is near 100 miles,
and in fome places near as much in breadth. The air
is cold, but wholefome *, and the foil fruitful in corn,
wine, wood, and pailure. The country abounds alfo
in cattle, filh, and game j fait fprings, baths, and mi¬
neral waters. The hills, which are many, yield filver,
copper, lead, iron, alum, vitriol, pit-coal, fulphur,
boles, a porcelain earth, marble, and alabafter. In
the Eder, gold is fometimes found $ and at Franken-
berg a gold mine was formerly wrought. Befides
many leffer dreams, Heffe is watered by the following
rivers, viz. the Lhan, the Fulda, the Eder or Schw7alm,
the Werra or Wefer, and Diemel. The Rhine alfo
and the Mayne pafs through the country of Katze¬
nellnbogen. This country, like moll others in Ger¬
many, has its Rates, confiding of \\\t prelates, as they
are called, the nobility, and the towns. The diets are
divided into general and particular, and the latter into
the greater and fmaller committees. The houfe of
Heffe is divided into two principal branches, viz. Caf-
Jel and Darmftadt, of which Philipfdale, Rhinfeldts, and
Homburg, are collateral branches ; the two firft of
Heffe-Caffel, and the laft of Heffe-Darmftadt. Their
rights and privileges are very conliderable. In par¬
ticular, they have feveral votes at the diets of the em¬
pire ; and caufes, not exceeding 1000 florins, are de¬
termined by the courts of the country, without appeal.
The princes of Heffe-Caffel are not of age till they
are 25, but thofe of Heffe-Darmftadt are fo at 18.
The right of primogeniture hath been eftablifhed in
Vol. X. Part II. 1
both houfes. The revenues of Darmfladt are faid to
amount to near 100,000!. a-year, and thofe of Heffe-
Caflel to near 200,000!. The fmall county of Schaum-
berg alone yields, a revenue of io,ocol. and that of
Katzenellnbogen, wnth the forefts of Richardfwalde,
it is laid, wras farmed near 200 years ago at 12,000!.
The prince of Heffe-Caffel has 40 or 50,000 men in
his dominions fit to bear arms j and the troops that he
hires out have often brought him in large fums, efpe-
cially from Great Britain. He keeps a Handing ar¬
my of 15,000 men. This family is allied to moft if
not all of the Proteftant princes in Europe. The
branches of Caffel, Homburg, and Philipfdale, are Cal-
viniits; that of Darmftadt, Lutherans j and that of
Rhinfeldts, Roman Catholics. The prince of Hefle-
Caflel, in the year 1749, embraced the Roman Catho¬
lic reli ion ; but in 1754 drew up, and confirmed by
oath, an inftrument, of which all the Proteftant princes
are-guarantees, declaring that the eftablithed religion
of His dominions Ihould continue in every refpefl as be¬
fore, and that his children fliould be brought up and
inftruffed therein. Here, as in the other Proteftant
Lutheran countries of Germany, are confiftories, fuper-
intendants, and infpe&ors of the church. In the whole
landgraviate are three univerfities, befides Latin fchools
and gymnafia, for the education of youth. The manu¬
factures of Heffe are linen cloth, hats, ftockings, gloves,
paper, goldfmiths wares j and at Caffel a beautiful por¬
celain is made. I hey have alfo the fineft wool in Ger¬
many ; but are reproached with want of indufiry, in
exporting inftead of manufaRuring it themfelves.—'This
is fuppofed to have been the country of the ancient
Catti, mentioned by Tacitus, &c. who in after-ages,
"ere called Chatti, Chaji, Haft, and HeJJi. The two
chief branches of Caffel and Darmftadt have many
rights and privileges in common, which we have not
room to fpecify. Both of them have a feat and vote in
the college of princes at the diet of the empire, and
thofe of this circle. Each of thefe princes, befides
their guards and militia, maintains a confiderable bodv
both of horfc and foot.
HESSIAN FLY, a very mifchievous infedf wdiich
lately made its appearance in North America ; and
wffiofe depredations threaten in time to deftroy the
crops of wheat in that country entirely. It is, in its
perfefl ftate, a finall winged infeft ; but the mifchief
it does is while in the form of a caterpillar ; and the
difficulty of deftroying it is increafed by its being as
yet unknown where it depofits its eggs, to be hatched
before the firft appearance of the caterpillars. Thefe
mifchievous infedts begin their depredations in autumn,
as loon as the wheat begins to ffioot up through the
ground. They devour the tender leaf and ftem with
great voracity, and continue to do fo till flopped by the
froft ; but no looner is this obftacle removed by the
warmth of the Ipring, but the fly appears again, laying
its eggs now, as has been fuppofed, upon the ftems of
the wheat juft beginning to fpire. The caterpillars,
hatched from thefe eggs, perforate the ftems of the re¬
maining plants at the joints, and lodge themfelves in
the hollow wuthin the corn, wffiich lhowrs no fign of
difeafe till the ears begin to turn heavy. The ftems
then break 5 and being no longer able to perform their
office in fupporting and fupplying the ears wdth nou-
rilhment, the corn perilhes about the time that it goes
3 L into
Heftlau
Fly.
H E S [
into a milky flate. Thefe infers attack alio
i barley, and timothy-grafs, tliougk tkey feem to pre-
' fer wheat. The deftruction occafioned by them is
defcribed in the American Mufeum (a magazine pub-
liftred at Philadelphia) for February 1787, in the fol¬
lowing words 1 ii It is well known that all the crop's
of wheat m all the land over wThich it has extended,
have fallen before it, and that the farmers beyond it
dread its approach ; the profpedt is, that unlefs means
are difcovered to prevent its progrefs, the whole con¬
tinent will be overrun 5—a calamity more to be dread¬
ed than the ravages of w'ar.”
This terrible infedt appeared firll in Long Illand
during the American war, and was fuppofed to have
been brought from Germany by the Heffians 5 whence
it had the name of the Hejfian jhj. From thence it has
proceeded inland at the rate of about 15 or 20 miles
annually 5 and by the year. 1789 had reached 200
miles from the place where it was firft obferved. At
that time it continued to proceed with unabating in-
creafe } being apparently Hopped neither by rivers nor
mountains. In the fly Hate it is likewife exceedingly
troublefome •, by getting into houfes in fwarms, fall¬
ing into victuals and drink } filling the windows, and
flying perpetually into the candles. It ftill continued
to in felt Long Ifland as much as ever; and in many
places the culture of wheat was entirely abandoned.
The American States are likewife infefted with ano¬
ther mifchievous infect, named the I irgiman wheat-fly.
This, however, has not yet palled the river Delaware 5
though there is danger of its being gradually inured to
colder climates fo as to extend its depredations to the
northern colonies alfo. But it is by no means the
fame with the Heflian fly. The wheat fly is the fame
with that -whofe ravages in the Angumois in France
are recorded by M. Du Hamel j it eats the grain, and
is a moth in its perfeft flate. On the other hand,, the
Heflian fly has hitherto been unknown to naturalifts *,
it eats only the leaf and flalk 5 and, in its perfedl ftate,
is probably a tenthredo, like the black negro-fly of the
turnip.
As of late years great quantities of wheat were im¬
ported from America into Britain, it became an ob-
je<fl worthy of the attention of government, to confider
how far it w7as proper to allow of fuch importation,
left this deftruftive infeft might be brought along with
the grain. The matter, therefore, was fully.canvafled
before the privy council \ and the following is. the fub-
ftance of the information relative to it •, and in confe-
quence of this, the importation of American wheat was
forbid by proclamation. .
1. By a letter, dated 2id April 1788, Mr Bond,
conful at Philadelphia, informed the marquis of Caer-
marthen, that there was a defign to export wheat from
thence to England; that the fly had made great depre¬
dations j and that there might be danger of its thus be¬
ing conveyed acrofs the Atlantic. He added, that it
was not known where the eggs of the inleft were depo-
fited, though it was fuppofed to be in the grain. Steep¬
ing the feed in elder juice he recommended as an effec¬
tual remedy and prefervative of the crop.
2. In confequence of this information his Lordfhip
wrote to Sir Jofeph Banks, prefident of the royal fo-
ciety, defiring him to inquire as much as poflible con¬
cerning the infeft, both with regard to its natural hif-
45° 1 H E S
rye, tory, and the method of preventing its. ravages.
In
this refearch, however, that learned gentleman miftook  
the infecf called the flying weevel for the HeJJianfly.
Of this infe6t he gives a defcription \ but in a little
time, being fenfible of his miftake, he obferved to
the council, that his report to the marquis of Caer-
marthen applied not to the Heflian fly, but to a differ-
ent infeft, viz. the flying weevil; that the danger of
importing this infeft was much greater than that of the
Heflian fly. The corn already brought from Ameri¬
ca, he was of opinion, might eafily be examined, and
a difcovery made whether the fly had been there. A-
mong other methods v.'hich might be ufed for this pur-
pofe, that of putting the corn among water was one,
when the infefted grains would rife to the top, and
might then be opened and examined. oome flight
trials of that kind he had already made ; and found
manifeft figns of the fly in fome grains which he had
opened.
3. A farther account of the infeft was given by Dr
Mitchel, in confequence of the above-mentioned letter
from the marquis of Caermarthen. According to
him it was firft difcovered in the year 1776,. on Sta¬
ten Ifland, and the weft end of Long Ifland ; lince that
time it proceeded regularly through the fouthern di-
ftrift of the ftate of New York, part of Connefticut ,
and at the time of giving the account, July 1788, had
got into New Jerfey. As it appeared about the time
that the Heflian troops arrived, an opinion had gone
abroad that they brought it along with them. 5 but the
Doftor was of opinion that it is a native animal, nou-
rithed by fome indigenous plant, but which then, m*
the firft time, came among the wheat, and found it
proper food. He had feen the caterpillar, chryfalisj
and fly, but never could find the egg, or difcover where
it is depofited. The caterpillar appears, as has already
been faid, in autumn, and, after having devoured the
tender ftalk, fcon becomes a chryfalis, coloured like a
flax-feed ; which, being fixed between the. leaf and the
ftalk, injures the plant by its mechanical preffure;
from this proceeds the fly, which is either able of it-
lelf to fuftain the intenfe winter frofts, or lays eggs
capable of doing it. Early in the fpring the caterpil-
lar appears again, even when the heat is icarce nifii-
cient to make the wheat grow; its ravages, therefore,
are at this period particularly deftruftive j and it paf-
fes through its metamorphofes with fuch fpeed, as to
produce a third generation while the wheat is yet ten¬
der and juicy ; however, as the corn has by this time
grown confiderably, the third generation is not fo de-
ftruftive as the fecond. It hurts chiefly by rendering
the ftraw weak, and liable to break down when loaded
afterwards by the weight of a full ear j “ and fometimes
(fays the Doftor) it will be infefted by the fourth fwarm
before harveft.” . . r o- t r v tj i
4 In another communication ol Sir Joieph Banks,
dated July 24. 1788, he makes fome general obier-
vations on the nature of thofe caterpillars from which
flving infefts proceed •, and to which clafs both the
flying weevil and Heffian fly belong. Nature, he oo-
ferves, has provided againft the kinds of danger the.e
tender infefts are moil likely to meet with. \ hus, in
climates where the winters are fevere, the eggs of the
moft tender infefts refill the force of the ufual froit j
in feafons of remarkable feverity, indeed, fome are de-
Itroyed ^
Iltfiian
Fly.
H E S
firoyed; but a fufEcient number always efcape for pro-
, pagating the fpecies. Ihe young caterpillar, if hatch¬
ed before its proper food be ready, will furvive even
weeks before it periihes for want of nourifhment j and
in iome few inftances where it Js hatched in the au¬
tumn, it is directed by initinft to fpin a web, in which
it remains torpid and without food during the whole
winter. I he chryfahs, though deprived of loco-mo¬
tion, is capable of refilling various dangers, anfing from
cold, heat, wet, &c.; and the length of time which the
animal remains in that Hate is capable of very confider-
abiC extenfion. Che complete animal, tender as it ap¬
pears, and intended to exift no longer than is necef-
fary to fulfil the bufinefs of propagation, w'hich, in
feme fpecies, is gone through in a few days, neverthe-
lefs is capable, in fome inftances, of enduring the utmoft
variation of climate j and if by accidental circum-
ftances, the fexes are prevented from meeting, its Ihort
life is extended to many times the amount of its ufual
duration.
The obfervations on the fly made by Sir Jofeph in
this paper, are not different from thofe already related ;
only he diffents. from the opinion of Mr Bond, that
the eggs are laid on the grain ; thinking it more pro¬
bable from analogy, that they are depofited on the
ftraw; and being Ihaken off from thence by the ftrokes
of the flail in thrafhing, are mixed with the corn ;
from whence it muft be very difficult to feparate them.
Hence he concluded, that there was an apparent and
very great rilk of importing the eggs along with the
corn j and there was no doubt, that wffien once they
had got a footing, they would eftablilh themfelves in
Britain as well as in America. It muft be obferved,
however, that none of the grain which was examined
ffiowed any figns of this fly}> its eggs, or caterpillars j
Juch infedls as wTere found in fome difeafed fpecimens
being only the weevils common in England as wHl as
m other countries j though fome which were infpec-
ted in the month of Auguft this year contained the
chryfalis of fome infers, which Sir Jofeph Banks was of
opinion might be the flying weevil j and as he did not
know wffiether thefe would revive or not, he gave it as
his opinion, that the cargo in which the) were found
ought not to be fuffered to come into the kingdom.
5. In order to procure all the intelligence that could
be had concerning thefe infefts, the duke of Dorfet
addreffed a letter to the Royal Society of Agriculture in
Fiance, to know whether any of them exifts in that
country, d he report of the fociety wTas accompanied
with a drawing of two infeas; one of which was fup-
pofed to be the caterpillar of the Heffian fly, from its
attacking the wheat only when in the herb; begin¬
ning its ravages in autumn, reappearing in the fpring,
and undergoing the metamorphofes already mentioned!
lat infe£t (fay the fociety), wffiofe havock has been
well known m America only fince 1776, does not Ap¬
pear to differ from it, as well as w^e can judge from a
very fliort defeription of thofe which have been obferved
in the north, and of which the hiftory is contained in
the different volumes of the academy of fciences of
Stockholm. We know that there exift in France ca-
terpillars whofe manner of living refembles that of
thole infers; but the mifehief which they do to corn
Having never been confiderable enough to attraft the
attention of government, and not having been ourfelves
1 45' ]
H E S
engaged in following in detail the hiftory of that fpe-
cies of caterpillar, we regret not being able to fay any
thing particular upon that fubjeft.” ‘ The reft of the
report contains an account of the living weevil.
. Fuither recourfe was now had to America for
information. Ihe marquis of Caermarthen wrote to
Sir John lemple at New York, the Britiffi conful ore-
nerai; and this gentleman applied to Colonel Morgan,
who had been more curious with refpeift to this infeft
than any other perfon with whom he was acquainted.
His account was, that the Heffian fly was firft intro¬
duced into America by means of Come ftraw made ule
of in package, or otherwife landed on Long Ifland at
an early period of the late war; and its firft appear¬
ance was in the neighbourhood of Sir William Howe’s
debar cation, and at Flat Buffi. From thence it
fpread in every direction, but at firft very flowlv;
and it was not till the year 1786 that they reached
Mr Morgan’s farm, fituated not quite 50 miles from
New York. No damage was done the firft feafon
and very little the fecond ; but in 1788 they were
materially damaged, and in fome places totally deftroy-
ed all round. “ The name of Hefian Jhj (fays Mr
Morgan) was given to this infett by myfelf and a
friend early after its firft appearance on Long Ifland.”
In a letter to General Walhington, dated July 31ft
1788, Mr Morgan treats particularly of the inleft it-
feif, and mentions feveral experiments made by himfelf
to oppofe its depredations. The refult of thefe was, that
good culture of ftrong foil, or well manured lands, may
lometimes produce a crop of wheat or barley, when
that fowed on poor or middling foil, without the other
advantages, will be totally deftroyed. “ But (fays
he) as the infefl lives in its aurelia ftate in ftraiv and
litter through the winter, I find that unmixed barn¬
yard manure fpread on the land in the fpring multi-
plies the fly to an aftonilhing degree : hence the farmer
will fee the neceflity of mixing his yard will earth and
marie in heaps; adding, where he can do it, a quan¬
tity of lime, and changing the heaps, after they have
undergone the neceffary fermentation that their parts
may be well incorporated, and a new digeftion brought
on, which will effeftually deftroy the infeds. Rolling
of wheat juft before the firft frofts in autumn, and foon
after the laft in fpring, or before the wheat begins to
pipe or fpindle, has alfo a good effect. In the firft
place, it is a part of good culture; and, fecondly, the
roller cruffies and deftroys a great proportion of the
miefts. Top-dreffings of lime, or of live affies, are
uieful as manures, and may (when applied about the
times I have mentioned as proper for rolling) be of-
fenfive to the infeft ; but if ufed in fufficient quantity to
deftroy them, would, I believe, deftroy the wheat alfo
In the year 1782, a particular fpecies of wheat was in¬
troduced on Long Ifland, which is found to refill the
fly, and to yield a crop when all other wheats in the
lame neighbourhood are deftroyed by it. But as this
wheat has been incautioufly fowed in field with other
kinds, it has generally become fo mixed by the far¬
mers, as to fuffer in its character in proportion to this
mixture ;infomuch, that fome farmers, from inatten¬
tion to this circumftance, have condemned it altogether,
fortunately, however, fome crops have been preferved
from this degeneration ; and I was fo lucky as to pro¬
cure the whole of my laft year’s feed of the pureft kind :
3 L 2 the
Heffi
Fly
H E S [ 45
the confequence of which has been a good crop, whilit
my neighbours fields, fowed with other kinds ot wheat,
have been either totally defiroyed or materially m-
iured. I have fatisfied myfelf that this fpecies ot wheat
was brought to New York in 1782-, that a cargo ot
it was then fent to Meffrs. Underhill’s mill to be ma-
nufa£tured into Hour j and that, from feed faved out
of this parcel, the yellow-bearded. wheat was propaga¬
ted. It is a generally received opinion, that the capa¬
city of the yellow-bearded wheat to refill the attacks
of the fly is owing to the hardnefs or fobdity ot the
ft raw •. but when we relief! that other wheats are lome-
times wholly cut off in the fall of the year, and fome-
times early in the fpring, before the feafon of its run¬
ning to ftraw, we Ihall be induced to alhgn form other
caufe. I cannot point out more than two diftmdions
of this from other wheats. This firft is in the ear,
at or after harveft. The obvious difference, then, is m
the colour of the chaff. The fecond can only be ob-
ferved by the miller, who fays, ‘ this grain requires to
be more aired and dried than any other wheat before
grinding, or it will not yield its flower fo kindly, as it
is of a more oily nature •, but when thus aired and dri¬
ed, the quality and quantity of its flour are equal to that
of the belt white wheat.” , , , , .
7. In a letter from Mr Wadfworth, dated 22a Au-
guil 1788, we are informed, that the experiments
made with elder juice, recommended as a preventive
of this evil by Mr Bond, were fallacious, and had fail¬
ed in every inftance in 1785 5 but the efficacy of the
yellow-bearded wheat in refilling the attacks of the _y
is confirmed. The progrefs of the fly northward is
like wife confirmed 5 but we are told that it has di (ap¬
peared in many places near New York, where it form¬
erly abounded. „ .
8. In confequence of the correfpondence between
the marquis of Caerraarthen and Mr Bond, the latter
made very particular inquiry concerning this milchie-
vous infedl, and has given a better account of it than
any of the above. “ The Heflian fly (fays he) is a
fmall dark fly, with thin, long, black legs 5 clear tranl-
parent wings, extending far beyond the body 0. the
trunk ; with fmall, though perceptible, horns or feelers
proiefting from the fnout. Thefe I have ieen appear
in iize and fhape like a little fly which attacks cheefe
in this country, and which is very clofely watched by
the keepers of dairies here, as productive of the worm
or fkippers which deftroy cheefe 5 and it is remar -
able, that the worm produced from the egg of t le
Heffian fly, though rather thinner and longer bears a
ftrong refemblance to the worm in cheefe. T ne horns
which evidently appear on the Heflian fly may be
provided by nature as feelers to enable them to peifo-
rate hard grain, as well as grain in a loiter ifate^
though I have not yet feen any perfon who has perceived
the egg, worm, or fly, in the grain of the wheat, or who
has found any nit, mucus, or even dull, in the dry thaw,
in ricks or barns, to induce a belief that the egg is
there depofited after the harveft. One publication,
fianed a Landholder, goes fo far as to favour the idea
that the fly even perforates the feed, and depofits its
en-gs therein. His ideas have been condemned, as
tending to miflead others 5 but by no means confuted
cither by reafon or experiment. An obfervation I
made myfelf, gave me feme caufe to apprehend that the
2 ] RES
idea mentioned in the paper figned a Landholder was
founded in fad : Upon examining a barn, m a country
w'herein the fly had not been known to injure the hal¬
ve ft fthough it has now certainly made its appearance
there within a few weeks), I obferved in the flaws and
apertures where the wood was decayed, over which
cobwebs were woven, feveral of thefe flies entangled
in the webs, many of them dead, but fame alive, and
ftruo-gling to difengage themfelves 5 from hence I con¬
cluded that there was a propenfity m the fly to get in-
ciuaea uiai  j ^
to the mow, but whether with a purpoie of mere ihei-
ter and nurture, or with a view to depofit its eggs, I
am at a lofs to decide..
o Mr Bond then refers to fame obfervations by a
Mr Potts and Mr Cleaver, which, with feveral other-
papers on the fubjeeff, he bad inclofed in bis letter to
the marquis. The former was a farmer in the county
of Chefter, who flacked his wheat in autumn 1788, at
a time when the fly had not been feen in or near that
county. About fix or feven weeks after the harveft
he had occafion to threfh fome of his wheat 5 and with
a view to prevent its Mattering and wafting, he t.rrew
the iheaves from the rick upon a large flieet. Un ta¬
king up the fheaves to carry them to the threilung-
floor, he perceived a great number ot flies, anfwenng
precifely the defeription of the Heffian fly, lying upon
the ffieet, fome dead, and others in a torpid fxate ;
from whence he concluded that the fly had got a
footing in his rick 5 but from'any examination either
of the flraw or grain, no trace of the eggs being de¬
pofited was difeovered. Mr Cleaver, a farmer m the
fame county, apprehending that the fly might ap¬
proach his'neighbourhood, fowed fome wheat m his
warden, which grew fo as to appear above ground m
lefs than a fortnight, when a violent north-eaft wind
came on 5 and immediately after he perceived fmall
clouds of flies over and about the wheat he had fown.
He examined the grain in a few days 5 and found that
numbers of the flies had depofited their eggs in the
heart of the main ftalk, and many of them lay dead
on the ground where the wheat was fown, and near
it. Many of the eggs w ere found in the italk -, and
fome fmall white worms produced from other eggs
were lately difeovered in the ftalk very near the root
of the wheat. Wherever thefe worms were louno,
the whole of the individual ftalk was perceptibly
changed in point of colour, tending to a yellowilh
caff ; the top hanging down quite flirunk and wit er-
ed. In fome of the wheat which was carefully ex¬
amined the eggs were found within the ftalk, ot a
verT minute fizfand whitifh colour, with fomethmg
of a yellow 'tinge. In thofe where the worm was
formed, it was carefully wrapped up grounded by
different coats of the fhoot in which it lay, as it it
had been fkilfully and tenderly rolled up for its pre-
fervation-, around it the ftalk was plainly eaten away
fome nearly through. The worm ftrongly reiembles
the fkipper in cheefe, fomewhat thinner, and rather
longer, of a whitilh call. The ground on which this
wheat was fown was rich garden ground high and
dry, the natural foil a ftrong red clay 5 of the
{hoots, of which there were many in one duller, m
proportion to their number, were hurt by the y.
This was imputed to the ftrength or the foil which
producing a rebuff powerful growth, refilled, mjr
H E S [ 453 ]
Heflian great degree, the attack of the fly, though the weak therefore recommends
fiy- flioots fuffered generally. ^ . ,
10. A llmilar account of tlie Hefflan fly is given by
Mr Jacobs, an experienced farmer in the county or
Montgomery. From his obfervations the egg is utually
depofited in the funnel or flieath, a little above the nr it
ioint. When the eggs are laid in the autumn or
fpring, they are utterly deftruaive of the growth ot
the wheat; but when they are depofited Ihortiy be¬
fore the harveft, the grain or even the ftalk is fcarcely
affeaed, efpecially in rich ground. The egg, he lays,
is at Aril very minute ; it grows rapidly, "becomes lull
and large, and turns to a brown hue; in fize and co¬
lour very like a flax feed. A material difference was
alfo perceived between rich and poor ground with re-
fpea to the ravages of the fly 5 but none between moilt
and dry foils. He is alfo of opinion that the yellow-
bearded wheat will reflft the attacks of the fly ; and
that rolling and feeding the wheat will be of great ler-
vice**
xx, A farmer in Jerfey, who dates his letter from
Hunterdon, Jan. 30. 1787, oblerves, that though the
fly is fuppofed to advance about 15 miles annually,
and neither waters nor mountains obitruhl its paftage j
yet when diffurbed, he never faw them take a flight
of above five or fix feet; neverthelefs they are fo
a£Hve, that it is very difficult to catch them. They
nvft appear towards the end of September ; and loon
after their eggs appear hatched, in colour and fize like
a flax feed : they are very low at the joints \ fome even
in the ground ; and here they harbour all winter. On
their Aril: appearance in any diflrift, their numbers be¬
ing fmall they feldom cut off the crop in this ftate,
which is often the cafe the fecond or third year. In
the fpring, after warm weather, they again appear
as a fmall worm, and deftroy the crop. I he remedies
propofed by this farmer are, fowing upon rich ground,
eider, and rolling. A gentleman whofe account was
dated on the Arfl of November 1786, fays, that their
eggs referable what is commonly called the Jli/-b/ow on
meat, being very fmall, and only one in a place. Soon
after, the other blades of wheat proceeding from the
fame kernel inclofe the Arfl:, the egg is covered, and
agreeable to the ufual progrefs of infers arrives at the
iiate of a wrorm, and defeends towards the root,, where
it confumes the tender blade, fometimes deftroying die
whole crop in the fall ", but if, by reafon of the fer¬
tility of the foil, and other concurrent circumftances,
the vegetation is fo rapid as to baffle their eftorts, fome
of the latter-laid eggs, when at the worm-ftate, en¬
trench themfelves in the ground to the depth of an
inch or more, where he had found them after fevere
H E S
frofl-s changed from a white to a greenifh colour, and
almoft tranfparent •, from this they proceed to the au-
relia ftate, and thus continue probably in the ground
till the fpring, when the fly is again produced, which
again lays its eggs, and finifhes the work begun in.the
fall, to the total deftruflion of the crop. Another piece
of intelligence he gives, but not from his own obferva-
tion, that by feeding the wheat very clofe in the win¬
ter and fpring, if the land is rich, it will again fpring
up, and the worms do not much injure the fecond
growth. By another correfpondent we are informed,
that maritime places are lefs liable to be infefted with
the fly than the interior parts of the country j and
    — an experiment, that fine fait
ftiould be fprinkled on the wheat juft before, or very u
foon after, the appearance of the fly. By others, elder
has been much recommended, as well as rolling, &c.
though the bearded wheat already mentioned feems to
be the only effetftual remedy.
12. By another communication from Mr Morgan
to the Philadelphia Society for promoting. agriculturer.
he informs us, that he had made himfelf acquainted
with the fly by breeding a number of them from the
chryfalis into the perfeft ftate. The fly is at firft of
a white body with long black legs and whilkers, fo
fmall and motionlefs as not to be eafily perceived by
the naked eye, though very difcernible with a micro-
fcope ; but they foon become black and very nimble,
both on the wing and feet, being about the fize of a
fmall ant. During the height of the brood in June,
where 30 or 100 of the nits have been deposited on
one ftalk of wheat, he has fometimes difeovered, even
with the naked eye, fome of them to twift and move
on being dlfturbed : this is while they are white } but
they do not then travel from one ftalk to another, nor
to different parts of the lame ftalk. I he ufual time
of their fpring-hatching from the chryfalis is in May.
“ Thofe (fays he) who are doubtful whether the tly
is in their neighbourhood, or cannot find their eggs or
nits in the wheat, may fatisfy themfelves by opening
their window's at night and burning a candle in the
room. The fly will enter in proportion to their num¬
bers abroad. The firft night after the commencement
of wheat harveft, this feafon, they filled my dining¬
room in fuch numbers as to be exceedingly trouble-
fome in the eating and drinking veffels. Without ex-
aggeration I may fay, that a glafs tumbler from which
beer had been juft drunk at dinner, had 500 flies in it
in a few minutes. The windows are filled with them
when they defire to make their efcape. T hey are very
difiinguilhable from every other fly by their horns or
whilkers.” With regard to the cure, it feems to be
confirmed that the fowing of that called the yellow-
bearded wheat can only be depended upon. The fly in¬
deed will relide in fields of this wheat, and lay its eggs
upon the ftalks j but no injury was ever known to hap¬
pen, except in one Angle inftance, where it was Town
in a field along with the common fort, and that in a
veiy fmall proportion to it. By another account, how¬
ever, we are told that the yellow-bearded wheat is equal¬
ly liable to be deftroyed in the autumn with the com¬
mon kind ; fo that the only method of fecuring the crop
is by fowing it late in the leafon, when the fly is moftly
over.
13. The utmoft pains were taken by the Britilh
government to find out whether this deltrmftive inleft
exifts in Germany or any of the northern countries of
Europe ", but from the accounts received, it appears
that it has not hitherto been obferved, or at leaft il it
exifts, the damage done by it is too inconftderable to
attraft notice.
14. From the whole correfpondence on this fubjeft,
which from the abridgment juft now given of it is
evidently fomewhat difeordant, Sir Jofeph Banks drew
up a report for the privy council,dated March 2. 1789,
in which he ftates the following particulars: 1. The
appearance of the fly in Long Bland was firft obler-
ved in 1779* We muft fuppofe this to be meant
that
Heflian
Fly.
H E S. [4
'Heffian tliat its deftructive efFefts becarne 'tben fii-ft percep-
I tible for it feems undoubtedly to have been known
in the year 1*776. 2. The opinion of Colonel Mor¬
gan, that it was imported by the Hcfiians, feems to be
•erroneous, as no fuch infect can be found to exilt in
Germany or any other part of Europe. 3. Since its
firft appearance in Long Illand it has advanced at the
rate of 13 or 20 miles a-year, and neither waters nor
mountains have impeded its progrefs. It was feen
eroding the Delaware like a cloud, from the Fall’s
Towndiip to Makefield 5 had reached Saratoga 200
miles from its fird: appearance, infefting the counties
ot Middlelex, Somerfet, Huntington, Morris, SulTex,
the neighbourhood of Philadelphia, all the wdreat coun¬
ties of Connedlicut, &c. committing the mod dread¬
ful ravages; attacking wheat, rye, barley, and timothy-
grafs. 4. The Americans who have fuffered by this
infeft, fpeak of it in terms of the greateft horror. In
Colonel Morgan’s letter to Sir John Temple, he ufes
the following expredions. “ Were it to reach Great
Britain, it would be the greateft fcourge that idand
ever experienced 5 as it multiplies from heat and moi-
flure, and the moil intenfe froils have no effeft on the
egg or aurelia. Were a fmgle ftrawr, containing the
infedl, egg, or aurelia, to be carried and fafely depo-
dted in the centre of Norfolk in England, it 'would
multiply in a few years, fo as to deftroy all the wheat
and barley crops of the whole kingdom. There can¬
not exid: fuch an atrocious villain as to commit fuch
an a6I intentionally. 5. No fatisfaftory account of
the mode in which this infedl is propagated has hither¬
to been obtained. Thofe which fay that the eggs are
depofited on the ftalk from fix or eight to 50, and by
their growth comprefs and hinder the ftalk from grow¬
ing, are evidently.erroneous, and the authors of them
have plainly miftakeu the animal kfelf for its eggs. It
« fufincient to remember, that eggs do not grow or
increafe in bulk, to prove that what they obferved
was not eggs. 6. The landholder’s opinion, that the
eggs are depofited on the ripe graL s of wrheat, though
contradicted by Colonel Morgan, is not difproved, as
the colonel advances no argument againft it. 7. A
letter dated New York, September 1. 1786, fays, that
the eggs are depofited on the young blade, refembling
what we call a Jly-blow in meat •, very fmall, and but
one in a place : but this, though the only natural mode
of accounting for the appearance of the infedt, had it
been trud, mud: undoubtedly have been confirmed by
numbers of obfervations. 8. Even though this Ihould
be found hereafter to be the cafe, there wall ftill re¬
main a danger of the aurelias being beaten off by the
flail from the draw in threlhing the wheat, and im¬
ported into Britain along with it; the prefence of thefe
flies in barns having been fully proved by the bEferva-
tions of Meffrs Potts and Bond. 9. None of the re¬
medies propofed againft this deftrudlive infedt have
been in any degree effedlual, excepting that of fowing
the yellow-bearded wheat •, the ftraw of wdnch is fuf-
ficiently ftrong to refill the imprelfion of the infedl,
and even if its eggs are depofited upon it, receives little
injury in point of produce in grain: this provides,
howrever, no remedy for the lofs of the barley crop,
nor for that which mull be incurred by fowing the
yellow-bearded wheat on lands better fuited by nature
for the produce of other kinds: it appears alfo that
3
4 ] H E S
this very kind is hable to degenerate, and probably Heffian
from a different caufe than that propofed by Colonel F1y*
Morgan/ viz. the mixture with common wheat. 9. ‘T—”
Though the Agricultural Society at Philadelphia, as
well as Colonel Morgan, have declared their opinions
deciiively, that no danger can aale from wheat import¬
ed into Britain, as the infedl has no immediate con-
neclion with the grain; yet with nearly, if not exadlly
the fame materials before him which thefe gentlemen
were furnilhed with, Sir Jofeph Banks could not avoid
drawing a conclufion diredtly contrary ; and he con¬
cludes his report with the words of Mr Bond in a let¬
ter to the marquis of Caermarthen. “ Satisfadlory as it
would be to my feelings to be able to fay with preci-
fion, that I apprehend no danger of extending the
mifehief by feed, my duty urges me to declare, that
I have not beard or feen any conclufive fadt by which
I could decide on a matter of fuch importance; and
till that teft occurs, the wifdom of guarding againft fo
grievous a calamity is obvious.”
On the 27th of April the fame year, another pa¬
per, by wTay of appendix to the foregoing, w7as given
in by Sir Jofeph Banks. In this he again obferves,
that none of the deferiptions of any European infedt
hitherto publithed anfwer exadlly to the Heffian fly.
In a letter from Mr Bond to the marquis of Caermar¬
then, he mentions another kind of infedl in the ftate
of Maryland, called by wTay of eminence the Jhj ; and
which in feme things refembles the Heffian fly, though
it cannot be accounted the fame. It makes its way
into the mow, and bites the ends of the grain percep¬
tibly, and no doubt depofits its eggs in the grain it-
felf •, fince it has been obferved, that wheat recently
threlhed, and laid in a dry warm place, will foon be
covered with an extreme clammy cruft, which binds
the wheat on the furface together in fuch a way as to
admit its being lifted in lumps; but the wheat beneath
will not be hurt to any confiderable depth. Such is
the quality of this fly, that if the hand be inferted in¬
to the heap affedled by it, wTatery blifters are imme¬
diately raifed ; and the farmers and flaves, riding up¬
on bags of this infedled wdieat, never fail to be feverely
bliftered thereby. “ This infedl (fays he) is called
in Maryland the Revolution J1yy by the friends of the
Britifh government •, but from all I can learn it is not
the fame infedl which originated on Long Bland, and
is called the Hejfian Jly (by way of opprobrium) by
thofe who favoured the revolution. All the papers I
have read on the Heflian fly are very inaccurate, not
to fay contradidlory ; and I am convinced it is by no
means a fettled point at this moment, in what manner
and place the eggs of thefe infedls are depofited. The
policy w'hich induced government to open the ports
being founded on an appearance of a fcarcity of corn,
that evil may be remedied by the admiffion of flour
inftead of grain; and though the countries from whence
the flour is carried will have the advantage of the
manufadlure, ftill that cannot be reckoned as an ob-
jedt, when oppofed in the fcale to an evil of fuch im-
menfe magnitude as the introdudlion of fo deftrudtive
an infedl may occafion. The ravages here are beyond
conception ruinous. Many farmers have had their
crops fo completely cut off as to be left without bread-
corn or even feed-corn. If the meafure of confining
the importation to flour alone ftiould be adopted, great
attention
i
1
H E T [ 455 ] H £ T
Hefythius attention fliould be paid to the quality of the flour ad-
Heterodox ^nto t^e Britifh ports. An infinite deal of the
. ^ wheat of the lafl: harveft is of a ;very wretched qua¬
lity ; and ftratagems will be pracdifed to give an ex-
tenfive vent to fo effential a ftaple of the middle ftates of
America.”
In another letter to the fame nobleman, Mr Bond
expreffes himfelf to the following purpofe. “ I have
not been able to collect any decided information which
fixes the efi'ential point, how far the infect may be
communicated by feed. It is a matter at this time
quite undecided here : nor have I heard or obferved
any very conclufive reafon to fuppofe that the fly makes
its way generally into barns and ricks. A very intel¬
ligent farmer in the county of Bucks, informed me
that it was the prevailing opinion there, and fo I found
it, that the fly did not, either in the field or in the
mow, affedl the grain of the wheat: a neighbour of
his, in threlhing the little wheat he had faved laft har-
veft, obferved the fly rile from the flraw in great num¬
bers wherever it was ftruck by the flail 5 but though
it was at firft prefamed that the fly had infinuated it-
felf into the mow for the purpofe of depofiting its eggs
jn the grain or in the ftraw, no trace of the egg
could be difcovered from the appearance of any mucus
or duft, either in the grain or in the ftraw ; hence
it was inferred that all the mi (chief was done in the
field.”
HESYCHIUS, the mofl: celebrated of all the an¬
cient Greek grammarians whofe works are now extant,
was a Chriftian 5 and, according to fome, the fame
with Hefychius patriarch of Jerufalem, who died in
609. He wrote a Greek lexicon; which, in the opi¬
nion of Cafaubon, is the moil learned and ufeful work
of that kind produced by the ancients. Schrevelius
publifhed a good edition of it in 1668, in qto, with
notes ; but the bell is that of John Alberti, printed at
Leyden in 1746, in two vols folio.
HETERIARCH, H^iteriarcHa, in antiquity,
an officer in the Greek empire, whereof there were
two fpecies •, the one called fimply heteriarch, and the
other great heteriarch, who had the direction of the
former.
The work is Greek, formed of the Greek
focius, “ companion, ally,” and impcrium,
“ command.” Their principal function was to com¬
mand the troops of the allies j befides which,, they
had fome other duties in the emperor’s court, defcribed
by Codin, Be Officiis, cap. 5. N° 30, 31, 32, 37.
HETEROCLITE, Heterocliton, in Grammar,
an irregular or anomalous word, which either in de-
clenfion, conjugation, or regimen, deviates from the
ordinary rules of grammar. The word is Greek, ers?a-
’cAirav ; formed of fnge; alter, “ another, different,” and
xAnw, “ I decline.”
Heteroclite is more peculiarly applied to nouns which
v.iry or are irregular in point of declenfion ; having
fewer cafes, numbers, &c. than ordinary ; or that are
of one declenfion in one number, and another in ano¬
ther : as Hoc vas, vajis ; hcec vafa, vaforum.
HE1 ERODOX, in Polemical ‘Theology, fomething
that is contrary to the faith or doctrine eftabliffied in
the true church. The word is formed of the Greek
higodofa; a compound of mga? “ alter,” and opi¬
nion.” Thus, we fay a heterodox opinion, a heterodox Hetera-
divine, &c. The word Hands in oppofition to orthodox. gene'ty
HETEROGENEITY, \n Phyfics, the quality or HeJiria<
difpofition which denominates a thing heterogeneous. 1
The word is alfo ufed for the heterogeneous parts
themfelves: in which fenfe, the heterogeneities of a
body are the fame thing with the impurities thereof.
HETEROGENEOUS, or Heterogeneal, liter¬
ally imports fomething of a different nature, or that con
fifts of parts of different or diffimilar kinds \ in oppofition
to homogeneous. The word is Greek ; formed of
alter, “ different,” and ysv«? genus, “ kind j” q. d. com-
pofed of different kinds of parts.
Heterogeneous Light, is by Sir Ifaac Newton faid
to be that which confifts of rays of different degrees of
refrangibility. Thus the common light of the fun or
clouds is heterogeneous, being a mixture of all forts of
rays.
Heterogeneous Nouns, one of the three variations
in irregular nouns j or fuch as are of one gender in the
fingular number, and of another in the plural.—Hete¬
rogeneous, under which are comprehended mixed nouns,
are fixtold. 1. Thofe which are of the mafculine
gender in the fingular number, and neuter in the plu¬
ral ; as, hie tartar us, luxe tartar a. 2. Thofe which are
rnafeuline in the fingular number, but mafculine and
neuter in the plural ; as, hie locus, hi loci et hcec loca.
3. Such as are feminine in the fingular number, but
neuter in the plural 3 as, hcec carbafus, et hcec carbafa.
4. Such nouns as are neuter in the fingular number,
but mafculine in the plural 3 as, hoc coslum, hi cadi.
5. Such as are neuter in the fingular, but neuter and
mafculine in the plural 3 as, hoc rajlrum, hi rajlri, et
hcec rajlra. And, 6. Such as are neuter in the fingu¬
lar, but feminine in the plural number; as, hoc epulum,
lice epulce.
Heterogeneous Quantities, are thofe which are of
fuch different kind and conlideration, as that one of
them, taken any number of times, never equals or ex¬
ceeds the other.
_ Heterogeneous Surds, are fuch as have different ra¬
dical figns 3 as >Jaa, and 3*Jbb; ^9, and
HETEROSCII, in Geography, a term of relation,
denoting fuch inhabitants of the earth as have their
fliadows falling but one way, as thofe who live between
the tropics and polar circles 5 whofe ffiadows at noon
in north latitude are always to the northward, and in
fouth latitude to the fouthward.
HETH, the father of the Hittites, was the eldefi:
fon of Canaan (Gen. x. 15.), and dwelt fouthward of
the promifed land, at Hebron or thereabouts. Ephron,
an inhabitant of Hebron, w-as of the race of Heth*
and this whole city in Abraham’s time was peopled
by the children of Heth. There are fome who main¬
tain that there was a city called Heth, but we find no
footfteps of it in the Scripture.
HETRURIA, and Etruria, a celebrated country
of Italy, at the weft of the Tyber. It originally con¬
tained 12 different nations, wffiich had each their re-
fpeeftive monarch. Their names were Veientes, Clu-
fini, Perufini, Cortonenfes, Arretini, Vetuloni, Volater-
rani, Rufellani, Volfcinii, Tarquinii, Falifci, and Cse-
retani. Phe inhabitants were particularly famous for
their fuperftition and ftncl confidence in omens, dreams,
auguries^
«
c
/
Hevxi
It
Hewfon.
E X
Properties of tlie Blood, Hexacnord
and tire Lymphatic Syttem, 2 vols 5 and diluted with HeJjpIa<
Di Monro the difcovery of the lymphatic iyitem ot  /
vefiels m oviparous animals. He died m 1
HEXACHORD, in ancient mufic, a concord call¬
ed bv the moderns zjtxth.
HEXAGON, in Geometry, a figure of fix fides and
angles; and if thefe fides and angles are equal, it is call¬
ed a regular hexagon.
HEXAHEDRON, in Geometry, one of the five
platonic bodies, or regular folids, being the fame with
ci cube*
HEXAMETER, in ancient poetry, a kind of verfe
confifting of fix feet •, the firit four of which may be
indifferently either fpondees or daftyles •, the filth is
generally a daftyl, and the fixth always a fpondee. Sucn
is the following verfe of Horace :
1 23
Jut pro\leJfe vo\lunt, aut\ dele\Bare po\etce
HEXAMILION, Hexamilt, or Hcxamilmm, a
celebrated wall, built by the emperor Emanuel in 1413
the ifthmus of Corinth. It took its name Irom
H E W [ 4SC 1 .. . H
auguries, &c. They all [.rovcu powerful and refolUte He wrote Inquiries into the
enemies to the rifing empire of the Romans, and were
t conquered only after much effufion of blood.
HEV7EI, in Ancient Geography, one of the feven
tribes who occupied Canaan *, a principal and numerous
people, and the fame with the KadmonA, dwelling at
the foot of Hermon and part of Libanus, or between
Libanus and Hermon (Judges ni. 3.). J o that Loch-
art refers the fables concerning Cadmus and his wire
Harmonia, or Hermonia, changed to ferpents; the
Hevi denoting a wild beaft, fuch as is a ferpent. Cad¬
mus, who is^ faid to have carried the ufe of letters to
Greece, feems to have been a Kadmonsean ; of whom
the Greeks fay that he came to their country from
Phoenicia. . • ,
HEUCHERA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs. See Botany Index.
HEVELIUS, or HEVELKE,. 'John, an eminent
aftronomer, was born at Dantzic in 1611. H_ iludie
in Germany, England, and France, and every where
obtained the elleem of the learned. He was the hrit
that difeovered a kind of libration of the moon, and
made feveral important obfervations .on the other
planets. He alfo difeovered feveral fixed liars, which he
named the firmament of Sohiefli, in honour of John III.
king of Poland. His wife was alio well ikilled in
afironomy, and made a part of the obfervations pub-
lilhed by her hulband. In 1673 he_ publilhed a de-
feription of the inftruments with which he made his
obfervations, under the title of Machina Calf is : and
in 1679 he publiihed the fecond part of this work*,
but in September the fame year, while he was at a feat
in the country, he had the misfortune to have his houle
at Dantzic burnt down. By this calamity he is laid
to have fuftained a lofs of feveral thoufand pounds ;
having not only his obfervatory and all his valuable in-
.ftruments and apparatus deftroyed, but alfo a great
number of copies of his Machina Ccelejlis ; which acci¬
dent has made this fecond part very fcarce, and conle-
nuehtly very dear. In the year 1690 were puDiilhed
Finnamentum Sobiefcianum and Prodromus aftronomicce
ct novee tabula folares, una cum cat a logo fix arum, m
ivhich he lays down the neceffary preliminaries for taking
an exaft catalogue of the liars. But both thefe works
are pofthumous : for Hevelius died m 1687, on his
birth-day, aged 76. He was a man greatly efteemed
by his countrymen, not only on account of his great
reputation and Ikill in aftronomy, but as a very excel¬
lent and worthy magiftrate. He was madd a burgo-
mafter of Dantzic ; which office he is faid to have exe- _ comam...* — —,  
cuted with the utmoft integrity and applaule. He was c0’ iled and& publiffied bv Origen, with a view ot
alfo very highly dleemed by foreigners ; and not only > F ^ text from future corruptions, and
by thofe Ikilled in afironomy and the fciences, but y J. , f t had been already introduced.
over njt.   _ , „ .f.
%fix, and ftiXiev, which in the vulgar Greek figmhes a
mile, as being fix miles long.
The defign of the hexamilion was to defend Pelopon-
nefus from the incurfions of the barbarians. Amurath II.
having raifed tne liege of Conftantinople m the year
1424, demolilhed the hexamilium, though he had before
concluded a peace with the Greek emperor. I he Ve¬
netians reitored it in the year 1463, by 30,000 work¬
men, employed for 15 days, and covered by an army
commanded by Bertoldo d’Efte general of the land
forces and Louis Laredano, commander ot the lea.—
The Infidels made feveral attempts upon it 5 but were
repulfed, and obliged to retire from the neighbourhood
thereof: but Bertoldo being killed at the Age of
Corinth, which was attempted foon after, Bertino Cai-
cinato, who took on him the command of the army,
abandoned, upon the approach of the beglerbeg, both
the fiege and the defence of the wall which had coil
them fo dear *, upon which it was finally demollfhed.
HEXANDRIA, in Botany, (from \lJtx, and
a man); the name of the fixth clafs in Linnaeus’s
fexual method, confifting of plants with hermaphrodite
flowers, which are furniffied with fix ffamma or male
organs, that are of an equal length. See Botany
HFXAPLA f formed of i%fix, and I open, l
unfold), in church-hiftory, a Bible difpofed in fix co¬
lumns *, containing the text, and divers verfions there¬
by thofe Ikilled in afironomy — - - . -
foreign princes and potentates : as appears abundant y
from a colleftion of their letters which was printed at
Dantzic in the year 1683. TT • , n
HEUSDEN, a ftrong town of the United 1 ro-
vinces, in Holland, feated on the river Maefe, among
marffies, with a handfome caftle, in E. Long. 5. 3.
N.Lat. 51.47. . .
HEWSON, William, a very ingenious anatomilt,
was born in 1739. He became affiftant to _Dr Hunter,
and was afterwards in partnerlhip with him *, but on
their difagreement, read anatomical le&ures at his own
boufe (in which he was feconded .by Mr Falconer),
to correct thofe that had been already introduced.
Eufebius, Hift. Eccl. lib. vi. cap. 16. relates, that
Origen, after his return from Rome under Caracalla,
applied himfelf to learn Hebrew, and began to colled
the feveral verfions that had been made of the facred
writings, and of thefe to compofe his letrapia and
Hexapla 3 others, however, will not allow him to have
begun till the time of Alexander, after he had retired
into Paleftine, about the year 231. . ,
To conceive what this Hexapla was, it muff be ob-
ferved, that, befides the tranflation of the facred wn-
tings, called the Septuagint, made under Ptolem^Ph.-
HEX [ 457 ] HEY
Hesapla. ladelphu% above 280 years before Chrift, the Scripture
had bee 1 iince trandated into Greek by other interpre¬
ters. The firft of thofe verfions, or (reckoning the
Septuagint) the fecond, was that cf Aquila, a profe-
lyte Jew, the firft edition of which he publifhed in the
1 2th year of the emperor Adrian, or about the year
of Chrift 1 28 ; the third was that of Symmachus, pub-
lilhed, as is commonly fuppofed, under Marcus Aure¬
lius, but, as fome fay, under Septimius S^verus, about
the year 200 *, the fourth was that of Theodotion,
prior to that of Symmachus, under Commodus, or
about the year I'Jy. Thefe Greek verfions, fays Dr
Kennicott, were made by the Jewrs from their corrupt¬
ed copies of the Hebrew, and were defigned to ftand
in the place of the Seventy, againft which they w'ere
prejudiced, becaufe it feemed to favour the Chriftians.
The fifth wTas found at Jericho, in the reign of Cara-
calla, about the year 217; and the fixth was difcover-
ed at Nicopolis, in the reign of Alexander Severus,
about the year 228 : laftly, Origen himfelf recovered
part of a feventh, containing only the Pfalms.
Now' Origen, who had held frequent deputations
wdth the Jews in Egypt and Paleftine, obferving that
they ahvays objedted againft thofe palfages of Scrip¬
ture quoted againfl: them, and appealed to the Hebrew
text ; the better to vindicate thofe paflages, and con¬
found the Jew's by Ihowing that the Seventy had given
the lenfe of the Hebrew, or rather to ihow by a num¬
ber of different verfions what the real fenfe of the Pie-
brew was, undertook to reduce all thefe feveral verfions
into a body along with the Hebrew text, fo as they
might be ealily confronted, and afford a mutual light
to each other.
He made the Hebrew text his ftandard : and allowr-
ing that corruptions might have happened, and that the
old Hebrew copies might and did read differently, he
contented himfelf with marking fuch words or fenten-
ces as w’ere not in his Hebrew text, nor the later Greek
verfions, and adding fuch words or fentences as were
omitted in the Seventy, prefixing an afterilk to the ad¬
ditions, and an obelilk to the others.
In order to this, he made choice of eight columns :
in the firft he gave the Hebrew text in Hebrew cha-
radlers ; in the lecond the fame text in Greek charac¬
ters ; the reft were filled with the feveral verfions above-
mentioned ; all the columns anfw?ering verfe for verfe,
and phrafe for 'phrafe j and in the Pfalms there W'as a
ninth column for the feventh verfion.
This work Origen called Hexa/>/a,q. d.fex-
tuple, or work of fix columns, as only regarding the
firft fix Greek verfions. See Tetrapla.
Indeed, St Epiphanius, taking in likewdfe the two
oolumns of the text, calls the work Ociap/a, as confift-
ing of eight columns.
'Phis celebrated work, which Montfaucon imagines
confifted of fitty large volumes, perilhed long ago,
probably with the library at Ctefarea, where it was
preferved, in the year 653 5 though feveral of the an¬
cient wniters have preferved us pieces thereof: parti¬
cularly St Chryioftom on the Pfalms, Philoponus in
his Plexameron, &c. Some modern writers have ear-
neftly endeavoured to colleft fragments of the Hexa-
pla, particularly Flaminius Nobilius, Drufius, and F.
Montfaucon, in two folio volumes, printed at Paris in
Vox*. X. Part II.
HEXASTYLE, in ArckiteBurei a building with Hexaftyle
fix columns in front. II.
HEXHAM, a town of Northumberland, fituated ,
near the conflux of the north and fouth Tyne. It is
commonly fuppofed to be the Alexodunum of the Ro¬
mans, where the firft cohort of the Spaniards were in
garrifon. It w^as made a bifliop’s fee by Etheldreda,
wife of King Egfred, in the year 675. Its firft bi-
fliop St Wilfred built here a moft magnificent ca¬
thedral and monaftery, and it was poffeffed by feven
bifhops fucceftively 5 but being very much infeited by
the Danes, the fee was removed to York. The towti
and priory were deftroyed by the Scots in 1296, and
pillaged again in 1346. There was a remarkable and
bloody battle fought near this town between the
houfes of Lancafter and York, wherein the former
were defeated, chiefly by the extraordinary bravery
and condudl of John Nevil, Lord Montacute, who w^as
for that reafon created earl of Northumberland. The
prefent town is not populous, and the ftreets are nar¬
row, with ill-built houfes. The market-place, near
the centre of the town, is a fpacious fquare, and is fup-
plied by a fountain with water. Among the remains
of ancient ftruttures is a gateway of ancient architec¬
ture, leading to the priory, but of a much older date.
I here are twm ancient towers in the town, one. of
wffich is ufed as a feftions-houfe, and was formerly an
exploratory tower; the other is on the top of a hill
tow-ards the Tyne, of remarkable architedlure, which
has been much higher than at prefent, and has two
dungeons within it, befides feveral chambers wdth very
little narrow wdndows. The towm has a charity or gram-
mar-fchool. It was in 1571 annexed to the county
of Cumberland : but only in civil matters; for its ec-
clefiaftical jurifdi<ftion is not the fame wdth the reft of
the county, it being ftill a peculiar belonging to the
archbilhop of \ ork ; and the common people ftill call
the neighbouring county Hexhamfliire. It is a corpo¬
ration governed by a bailiff.
HEYDON, a fmall well-built town in the eaft rid¬
ing of Yorkfliire, in that part called Holderne[[e, feat-
ed on a river that falls into the Humber. It has now
but one church, though there are the remains of two
more ; and had formerly a confiderable trade, which is
now loft, on account of its being fo near Hull. It
fends two members to parliament. W. Lon? o c r
N. Lat. 53, 46. ^ * 55‘
Heydon, 'John, who fometimes affumed the name
of Eugenius Tkeodidafius, was a great pretender to Ikill
in the Roficrucian philofophy and the celeftial figns,
in the reign of King Charles I.; and wrote a confider¬
able number of chemical and aftrological works, with
very fingular titles. This ridiculous author was ’much
relorted to by the duke of Buckingham, who was in¬
fatuated with judicial aftrology. He employed him
to calculate the king’s and his own nativity, and was
atmred that his liars had promifed him great things.
.The duke alfo employed Heydon in fome treafonable
and feditious pradices, for which he was fent to the
Tower. He loft much of his former reputation by tell¬
er ^ Cronwell and Thurloe, who went to him
di1 guiled like cavaliers, that Oliver would infallibly be
hanged by a certain time ; this period, however, he out-
lived leverai years.
HEYLIN, Dr Peter, an eminent Englilh writer
3 M was’
-1
HEY [45
Heywood. was born, at Burford, in Oxfordihire, in 1600.. He
fludied at Hart Hall, Oxford j where he took his de¬
grees in arts and divinity, and became an able geogra¬
pher and hiftorian. He was appointed one of the chap¬
lains in ordinary to King Charles I., was prefented to
the reftory of Hemingford in Huntingdonfhiie, made
a prebendary of Weftminfter, and obtained feveral other
livings : but of thefe he was deprived by th6 parlia¬
ment, who alfo fequeftrated his ellate } by which means
he and his family were reduced to great neceflity.
However, upon the relloration, he was retlored to ns
fpiritualities •, but never rofe higher than to be fub-
bean of Wellminfter. He died in 1662 j and was in¬
terred in St Peter’s church in Weftminfter, where he
had a neat monument eredled to his memory. His
writings are very numerous: the principal of wine
are, 1. Microcoftnus, or a defeription of the Gieat
World. 2. Cofmagraphia. 3. The hiftory of St George.
4. Ecclefia Vindicata, or the church of England Juftt-
iued. 5. Hiftorical and Mifcellaneous I rafts, &c.
HEY WOOD, John, an Englifli dramatic poet,
was born at North-Mims, near St Alban’s m Hert-
fordfhire, and educated at Oxford. From thence ne
retired to the place of his nativity; where he had the
pood fortune to become acquainted with Sir T homas
More, who, it feems, had a feat in that neighbourhood.
This patron of genius introduced our comic poet to the
princefs Mary, and afterwards to her father Henry,
who, we are told, was much delighted with his wit and
{kill in mufic, and by whom he was frequently reward¬
ed. When his former patronefs, Queen Mary, came
to the crown, Heywood became a favourite at court,
and continued often to entertain her majefty, exera/mg
his fancy before her, even to the time that Jbe lay tangmjh-
intr on her deathbed. On the acceflion of Elizabeth being
a zealous Papift, he thought fit to decamp, with other
favourites of her deceafed majefty. He fettled at Mech¬
lin in Flanders, where he died in the year 1565.—John
Heywood was a man of no great learning, nor were his
poetical talents by any means extraordinary ; but he
poffeffed talents of more importance in the times m
which he lived, namely, the talents of a jefter. He
wrote feveral plays', 500 epigrams A Dialogue in
verfe concerning Englijh Proverbs ; and The Spider and
Fly, a Parable, a thick 4to. Before the title of this
laft work is a whole-length wooden print of the author
who is alfo reprefented at the head of every chapter m
the book, of which there are 77-—He left two Ions,
who both became Jefuits and eminent men : viz. Jxliis
Heywood, who continued fome time at Florence under
the patronage of Cardinal Polo, and became fo good a
mailer of the Italian tongue, as to write a treatfte m
-to language, entitled 7/Mono; he died at Louvain
,bout the year 1572- His other fon was Jalper Hey-
wood, who was obliged to refign a fellowftup at Ox¬
ford on account of his immoralities : he tranllated
three tragedies of Seneea, and wrote various poems and
devifes *, fome of which were printed in a volume enti¬
tled The Paradife of Dainty Devifes, 4to, 1573. He
died at Naples in 1597. . , . -
Heywood, F.h%a, a voluminous novel w7nter} 01
whom no more is knbwn than that her father was a
tradefman, and that (he was born about the year 1696.
Xu the early part of her life, her pen, whether to gra-
8 ] H 1 C.
tify her own difpofition or the prevailing tafte, dealt
chiefly in licentious tales, and memoirs of perfonal fcan-
dal : the celebrated Atalantis of Mrs Manley ferved  
her for a model \ and The Court of Carimania, The
new Utopia, with fome other pieces of a like nature,
were the copies her genius produced. She alfo attempt¬
ed dramatic writing and performance, but did not fuc-
ceed in either. Whatever it was that provoked the re-
fentment of Pope, he gave full Tcope to it by diftin-
guithing her as one of the prizes to be gained in the
games introduced m honour of Dullnefs, in his Dun-
ciad. Neverthelefs, it feems undeniable, that there is
much fpirit, and much ingenuity, in her manner of
treating fubjefts, which the friends of virtue may per¬
haps wifti Ihe had never meddled with at all. But,
whatever offence ihe may have given to delicacy or
morality in her early works, (he appears to have been
foon convinced of, and endeavoured to atone for in
the latter part of her life 5 as no author then appear¬
ed a greater advocate for virtue. Among her ripeV
produftions may be fpecified, The Female Spectator,
4 vols ; The Hiftory of Mifs Betty Thoughtlefs, 4 vols.
Jemmy and Jenny JeJfamy, 3 vols ; The inviftble Spy,
3 vols; with a pamphlet, entitled A prefent for after-
vant maid. She died in 1759*
H1AMEN, or Emouy. See Emouy.
HIATUS, properly fignifies an opening, chafm, or
gap; but it is particularly applied to thofe verfes where
one word ends with a vowel, and the following word
begins with one, and thereby occaiions the mouth t(i
be more open, and the found to be very harih.
The term hiatus is alfo ufed in fpeaking of manu-
feripts, to denote their defefts, or the parts that have
been loft or effaced.
HIBISCUS, Syrian mallow, a genus of plants
belonging to the monodelphia clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 37th order, Column feme.
See Botany Index. %
HICETAS of Syracufe, an ancient philolopher and
aftronomer, who taught that the fun and liars were
motionlefs, and that the earth moved round them. 1 his
is mentioned by Cicero, and probably gave the firft
hint of the true fyftem to Copernicus. He flounftied
344 B. C. . . r
HICKES, George, an Englilh divine of extraordi¬
nary parts and learning, was born in 1642. In i68f
he was made king’s chaplain, and two years after dean
of Worcefter. The death of Charles II. Hopped his
farther preferment ; for though his church principles
were very high, he manifefted too much zeal agamft
Popery to be any favourite with James II. On the
revolution, he with many others was deprived for relu-
fing to take the oaths to King William and Queen
Mary ; and foon after, Archbiftiop Sancroft and his col¬
leagues confidering howto maintain epifcopal lucceffion
among thofe who adhered to them, Dr Hickes earned
over a lift of the deprived clergy to King James ; and
with his fanftion a private confecration was performed,
at which it is fcid Lord Clarendon was prefent. Among
others Dr Hickes was confecrated fuffragan biftiop ot
Thetford, and died in 1715.-^ ytxojt x. lnjhtutiones
Grammaticce Anglo-Saxomem, et Mccfb-Gothicm. 2. An¬
tigua literatura feptentrionalis. 3. Two treatifes, one
of the Chriftian priefthood, the other of the dignity of
Hlameff
II
Hickes.
Hickup
II
Hidalgo.
HID [ 459 .] HID
4. Jdvian, or an anfwer to Julian morial, liave always been held and reputed as Ilidal- Hidalgo-
the epifcopal order,
the apoftate. 5. Sermons $ with many temporary con-
, troverfial pieces on politics and religion.
HICKUP, or Hiccough, a fpafmodic affedion of
the ftomach, cefophagus, and mufcles fubfervient to de¬
glutition, arifing fometimes from fome particular injury
done to the ftomach, oefophagus, diaphragm, &.c. and
fometimes from a general affe&ion of the nervous fyf-
tem. See Medicine Index.
HIDAGE (Hidagium), was an extraordinary tax
payable to the kings of England for every hide of
land. This taxation was levied not only in money,
but in provifion, armour, &c. ; and when the Danes
landed in Sandwich in 994, King Ethelred taxed all
his lands by hides •, fo that every 310 hides found one
{hip furniftied, and every eight hides furnilhed one jack
and one faddle, to arm for the defence of the kingdom,
&c. Sometimes the word hidage was ufed for the
being quit of that tax ; which was alfo called htdegi/d;
and interpreted, from the Saxon, “ a price or ran-
fom paid to fave one’s Ikin or hide from beating.”
HIDALGO, in modern hiftory, a title given in
Spain to all who are of a noble family.
The Hidalgos claim a defcent from thofe valiant fol-
diers who retired into Caftile, and the mountains of
Afturias, and other remote parts of Spain, on the in-
vafion of the Moors, where having fortified themfelves,
they fucceffively defcended into the plains, in propor¬
tion to the fuccefs of their arms ; from the notoriety
of their perfons, or the lands they became pofleffed of,
they acquired the appellation of Hidalgos notorios, Hi¬
dalgos de folar conocido, or de cafa folariega. Of thefe,
according to Hernando Mexia, there are three forts 5
the firft being lords of places, villages, towns or
caftles, from whence they took their furnames, as the
Guzmans, Mendozas, Laras, Guivras, and others; the
' fecond, who recovered any fortrefs from the Moors, as
the Ponces of Leon, and others j and the third fort from
the places where they refided, or held jurifdiflion, as
Rodrigo de Navarez was called of Antequara, from
being alcayde there. But this definition is not
confidered as exaft or conclufive by Otalora, another
civilian, who fays that the true meaning of Hidalgos
de folar conocido is explained by the laws of Caftile to
be a well known manfion or poffeflion, the nature of
which is particularly explained in the laws of Parditas,
lib. 5. tit. 35. which defcribe three forts of tenures,
called Devifa, Solariega, and Behetria. By the firft,
lands are devifed by the anceftor ; folar is a tenure
upon another perfon’s manor, and obliges the owner
to receive the lord of the fee when neceflity obliges
him to travel; and Behetria is in the nature of an allo¬
dium. In proportion as thefe Aborigines gained ground
on the Moors, and increafed in their numbers, many
.private perfons diftinguifhed themfelves by their valour,
and obtained teftimonies of their fervices called cartas
demercedy which ferved them as a foundation of their
birth and good defcent, without which documents
their pofterity could not make it appear •, and if from
a lapfe of time, or other unavoidable accidents, fuch
proof (hould happen to be loft or deftroyed, the law
affords them a remedy under thefe circumftances, by
a declaration importing, that fuch perfons as are fup-
pofed to have had fuch certificates, may be relieved
by making it appear that their anceftors, time imme-
gos, and enjoyed the privileges of fuch, from a ftrong
prefumption in their favour} the poffeflion of land
having equal force to any other document $ which is
fully fet forth in the Pragmatica of Cordova. To thefe
executory letters are granted, cartas executonas, ex-
preflive of their privileges j and for the better regu¬
lation of thefe matters, proper officers are appointed
in the chancery courts, called alcaldes de lor hidalgos,
who ought to be hidalgos themfelves, and hold jurif-
di&ion in thefe cafes, and no others •, but even here
innovations have taken place •, for as thefe grants flow
from the fovereign, who is the fountain of honour,
fome a!re declared Hidalgos de fangrc, by right of
defcent, and others de privilcgio, or by office, in which
the will of the fovereigns has made amends for any
deficiency of blood.
There is a fet of people near Segovia, at a place
called Zamarramala, who are exempt from tribute on
account of the care they take in fending proper
perfons every night to the caftle of Segovia to keep
centinels j one cries out, Vela, vela, hao, and the-other
blows a horn, from whence they have been titled hi¬
dalgos by the horn. In Catalonia thofe gentlemen who
are ftyled Hombre de Pareja, are confidered the fame as
hidalgos in Caftile, and were fo called from the word
parejar, to equip, this name being given as a diftinftion
by Borela the fourth count of Barcelona, at the fiege
of that city, in 965, who fummoning all his vaffals
to come to his afliftance againft the Moors, nine hun¬
dred horfemen well mounted and equipped joined him,
and with their aid he took the city ; and this appella¬
tion has been given in honourable remembrance of this
loyal a&ion.
Thefe noble hidalgos enjoy many privileges and
diftin&ions; of which the following are the prin¬
cipal :
1. The firft and greateft privilege which they hold
by law, is to enjoy all polls of dignity and honour in
the church and ftate, with liberty, when churchmen,
of having a plurality of benefices. They are qualifi¬
ed for receiving all orders of knighthood, and are to
be preferred in all embaflies, governments, and public
commiflions.
2. When they are examined as witneffes in civil and
criminal cafes, their depofitions are to be taken in their
own houfes, without being obliged to quit them to go
to thofe of others.
3. In all churches, proceflions, and other public a61s
or affemblies, they are to have the next place of ho¬
nour and precedency after the officers of juftice, con¬
forming themfelves to particular cuftoms.
4. They are not obliged to accept of any chal¬
lenge for combat, fuppofing fuch were allowed of, but
from thofe who are their equals.
5. Though it is forbidden to guardians to purchafe
the eftates of minors, this does not extend to Hidal¬
gos, in whom the law does not fuppofe any fraud, and
they may purchafe them publicly.
6. They are permitted to be feated in courts of
juftice in prefence of the judges, from the refpeft and
honour due to them. They have alfo feats in the
courts of chancery, in confideration of their birth,
which gives them a right to be near the perfons of
princes.
3 M 2 7. Their .
HID- [
7. Their perfons are free from arrefl: for debt, nor
can any attachment be laid on their dwelling-houfes,
furniture, apparel, arms, horfes, or mules in immedi¬
ate ufe : nor can they make a ceffion of their ellates,
nor be diftrefled in fuits of law, farther than their cir-
cumftances will admit of, but are to be allowed a rea-
fonable and decent maintenance for their fupport.
8. In cafes of imprifonment for criminal matters,
they are to be treated differently from others. They
are generally confined to their own houfes with a lafe-
guard, or under arreff upon their honour, or allowed
the city or town they live in, and in particular cafes
460 ] HIE
her rank, but conveys her titles to her hufband, who HiJe
holds them in right of his wife. Hiera oils
Thefe are the general privileges which the Hidalgos , ^ ^
enjoy; there are fome others of lefs confequence, ; s well
as particular grants to certain perfons and families. An
ancient and ridiculous cultom is faid to be obferved by
noble ladies who are widow's of plebeians, in order to
recover their birthright, for which purpofe they carry
a pack faddle on their Ihoulders to their hufband’s
grave, then throwing it down and linking it three
times, fay, ‘ Villein, take thy villeiny, for I will abide
by my nobility and then they recover their privileges
are fent into caftles.
9. When punilhments are inflidled for criminal cafes,
they are to be lefs fevere to them than to others, as
they are not to fuffer ignominious punilhments, fuch
as public (hame, whipping, gallies *, nor are they to be
hanged, but beheaded, excepting in cafes of treafon
or herefy. In cafes that do not imply a corporal punilh-
ment but a pecuniary one, they are treated with more
rigour, and pay a larger fine than others.
10. They are not to be put to the rack or torture,
excepting for fuch heinous crimes as are particularly
fpecified by the laws. „
11. When there are title-deeds or other writings or
papers in which two or more perfons have an equal
right or property, and require a particular charge, they
are to be given up by preference to the cuftody of an
Hidalgo, if any of the parties are fuch.
12. The daughter of an Hidalgo enjoys every pri¬
vilege of her birth, though married to a commoner •,
and a woman "who is not an Hidalgo enjoys alx thefe
privileges when Ihe is a widow*, following the lortune
of her hulhand.— But if the widow is an Hidalgo, and
the late hulhand was a commoner, hie falls into the
hate of her hulband after his death, though Ihe had the
privileges of her birth during his life.
j^. Thev are free from all duties, called H*echos^ Pe-
didos, Monedas, Marteniegas, Contribuciones, as well
royal as civil, and all other levies of whatever kind
they may be, with a referve for fuch as are for the pub¬
lic benefit, in which they are equally concerned, fuch
as the repairing the highways, bridges, fountains, walls,
dehruftion of locuhs, and other vermin.
j ^ They are free from perfonal fervice, and from
going to the wars, excepting when the king attends
in perfon ; even then they are not to be forced, but
invited, and acquainted that the royal llandard is dil-
played.
15. No perfons whatever can be quartered upon, or
lodged in their houfes, except when the king, queen,
prince or infantes are on the road, as in fuch cafes even
the houfes of the clergy are not exempt.
16. They cannot be compelled to accept of the o.-
fice of receiver or the king’s rents, or any other em¬
ployment which is confidered as mean and derogatory
to their dignity and rank.
17. By a particular cuftom confirmed by royal au¬
thority, in that part of Cafiile beyond the Ebro, ba-
ftards fucceed to their parents, and enjoy their honours,
contrary to the royal and common law.
18. If a lady, who marries a commoner, Ihould be
a queen, duchefs, marchionefs, or countefs (for they
have no barons in Caftile), Ihe not only does not ].Q;e
again.
HIDE, the Ikin of bealls ; but the word is particu¬
larly applied to thofe of large cattle, as bullocks, cows,
horfes, &c.
Hides are either raw or green, juft as taken off the
carcafe ; failed, or feafoned with fait, alum, and fait-
petre, to prevent their boiling ; or curried and tanned.
See Tanning.
Hide of Land, wTas fuch a quantity of land as might
be ploughed with one plough within the compafs of a
year, or as much as would maintain a family j fome
call it 60, fome 80, and others 100 acres.
HIDE-Bound, a difeafe in the {kin of horfes. See
Farriery.
HIERACIUM, HAWKWEED, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the fyngenefia clafs •, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 49th order, Compojitce. See
Botany Index.
HIERACITES, in church-hi ftory, Chridian he¬
retics in the third century ; fo called from their leader
Hierax, a philofopher of Egypt; who taught that
Melchifedeck was the Holy Ghod, denied the refur-
redtion, and condemned marriage.
H1ERAN0SIS, or Morbus Sacer. See Medi¬
cine Index.
HIERA picra. See Pharmacy Index.
HIERAPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Phrygia, abounding in hot fprings; and having its name
from the number of its temples. There are coins exhi¬
biting figures of various gods who had temples here.
Of this place was Epidletus the Stoic philofopher.—It
is now called Pambouk; and is fituated near the Scam-
ander, on a portion of Mount Mefogis, didant fix miles
from Laodicea.— Its file appears at a didance as a white
lofty cliff 5 and upon arriving at it, the view which it
prefents is fo marvellous (fays Dr Chandler), that the
defeription of it, to bear even a faint refemblance, ought
to appear romantic. Dr Chandler’s defeription is as
follows :
“ The vad Hope which at a didance we had taken Tra-vcU in
for chalk, was now beheld with wonder, it feeming an^>Mw’r*
immenfe frozen cafcade, the furface wavy, as of water ^
at once fixed, or in its headlong courfe fuddenly petri- .
lied. Round about us were many high, bare, dony
ridges; and clofe by our tent, one with a wide bafis,
and a dender rill of water, clear, foft, and warm, run¬
ning in a fmall channel on the top. A woman was
walking linen in it, with a child at her back ; and. be¬
yond were cabins of the Turcomans, danding didindl,
much neater than any we had feen, each with poultry
feeding, and a fence of reeds in front.
“ It is an old obfervation, that the country about the
Maeander,
HIE [ 461 ] HIE
Hierapolis. Maeander, the full being light and friable, and full of
falts generating inflammable matter, was undermined by
fire and water. Hence it abounded in hot fprings,
which, after paffing under-ground from the refervoirs,
appeared on the mountain, or were found bubbling up
in the plain or in the mud of the river : and hence it
was fubjeft to frequent earthquakes*, the nitrous vapour
comprefled in the cavities, and fublimed by heat for fer¬
mentation, burfting its prifon with loud explofions, agi¬
tating the atmofphere, and fhaking the earth and wa¬
ters with a violence as extenfive as deftruflive 5 and
hence, moreover, the peftilential grottoes, which had
fubterraneous communications with each other, derived
their noifome effluvia j and ferving as fmaller vents to
thefe furnaces or hollows, were reparded as apertures of
hell, as pafiages for deadly fumes rifing up from the
realms of Pluto. One or more of the mountains per¬
haps has burned. It may be fufpeded, that the fur-
face of the country has in fome places been formed from
its own bowels: and in particular, it feems probable, that
the hill of Laodicea was originally an eruption.”
“ The hot waters of Hierapolis have produced that
moft extraordinary phenomenon, the cliff, which is one
entire incruftation. They were anciently renowned for
this fpecies of transformation. It is related, they chan¬
ged fo eafily, that being conduced about the vineyards
and gardens, the channels became long fences, each a
fingle 'ftone. They produced the ridges by our tent.
The road up to the ruins, which appears as a wide and
high caufeway, is a petrification ; and overlooks many
green fpots, once vineyards and gardens, feparated by
partitions of the fame material. The furface of the flat,
above the cliff, is rough with done and with channels,
branching out in various directions, a large pool over¬
flowing and feeding the numerous rills, fome of which
fpread over the Hope as they defcend, and give to the
w hite ftony bed a humid look, refembling fait or driven
fnow when melting. This cruft, which has no tafte or
Kbit cruft fmell, being an alkaline fubftance, will ferment with
ac^s ’ anc^ Picerini relates, that trial of it had been
made with fpirit of vitriol. The waters, though hot,
were ufed in agriculture.
“ Tamerlane, when he invaded this country, en¬
camped for the fummer at Tanguzlik, where many of
his men were deftroyed by drinking of a fpring which
ftagnated and petrified. The Turkifh name Pambouk
fignifies ; and, it has been faid, refers to the white-
nefs of the incruftation.
“ The fhepherd-poet of Smyrna, after mentioning a
cave in Phrygia facred to the Nymphs, relates, that
there Tuna had once defcended from the fky to En-
dymion, while he wTas fleeping by his herds •, that marks
of their bed w-ere then extant under the oaks ; and that
in the thickets around it the milk of cows had been
fpilt, which men ftill beheld w'ith admiration (for fuch
was the appearance if you faw it very far off) *, but that
from thence flowed clear or w^arm water, w’hich in a
littie while concreted round about the channels, and
formed a ftone pavement. The writer defcribes the
cliff of Hierapolis, if I miftake not, as in his time ; and
has added a local ftory, current when he lived. It was
the genius of the people to unite fiftion with truth $
and, as in this and other inftances, to dignify the
tales of their mythology with fabulous evidence taken
jrom the natural wonders in which their country abound- HierapoKs.
“ We afcended in the morning to the ruins, which
are on a flat, paffing by fepulchres with infcriptions, and
entering the city from the eaft. We had fbon the
theatre on our right hand, and the pool between us anct
the cliff. Oppofite to it, near the margin of the cliff,-
are the remains of an amazing ftrufture, once perhaps
baths, or, as we conjedfured, a gymnafium \ the huge
vaults of the roof ftriking horror as we rode underneath.
Beyond it is the mean ruin of a modern fortrefs ; and
farther on are maflive walls of edifices, feveral of them
leaning from their perpendicular, the ftones diftorted,
and feeming every moment ready to fall; the effetfts
and evidences of violent and repeated earthquakes. In
a recefs of the mountain on the right hand is the area
of a ftadium. Then again fepulchres fucceed, feme
nearly buried in the mountain-fide, and one, a fquare
building, with an infeription in large letters. All thefe
remains are plain, and of the ftone created by the wa¬
ters. The fite has been computed about two hundred
paces wide and a mile in length.
“ After taking a general furvey, we returned to the
theatre, intending to copy infcriptions, and examine
more particularly as we changed our ftation. We found
this a very large and fumptuous ftrufture, and the leaft
ruined of any we had feen. Part of the front is Hand¬
ing. In the heap which lies in confuiion, are many
fculptures well executed in baffo relievo: with pieces of
architrave inferibed, but disjoined; or fo encumbered
with maffive marbles, that we could colletl from them
no information. The character is large and bold, with
ligatures. The marble leats are ftill unremoved. The
numerous ranges are divided by a low femicircular wall,
near mid way, with infcriptions on the face of it, but
moft illegible. I copied a ftrort but imperfeft one, in
which Apollo Archegetes or The Leader is requefted
to be propitious. In another compartment, mention is
made of the city by its name Hierapohs; and on a third
is an encomium in verfe, which may be thus tranflated,
“ Hail, golden city Hierapolis, the fpot to be preferred
before any in wide Alia ; revered for the rills of the
Nymphs ; adorned with fplendor.” The Nymphs pre-
lided over fprings and fountains.
“After attentively viewing them, and confidering their
height, width, and manner of arrangement, I am incli¬
ned to believe, that the ancient Aiiatics fat at their plays
and public fpeftacles like the modern, with their legs
croffed or gathered under them ; and it is probable up¬
on carpets.
“ The waters of Hierapolis were furprifingly attem¬
pered for tinging wool, with a colour from roots rival¬
ling the more coftly purples; and were a principal fource
of the riches of the place. The company of dyers is
mentioned in the infeription on the fquare building
among the fepulchres. The heroum or monument was
to be crowned by them with garlands or feftoons q-f-
flowers, The fprings flowed fo copioufiy, that the city
was full of fpontaneous baths; and Apollo, the tutelar
deity of the Hierapolitans, with iEfculapius and Hy-
giea, on their medals, bear witnefs to the medicinal vir¬
tues which they pouefs. The people, in fome of their
infcriptions, are ftyled the mojifplsndid^ and the fenate-
the mqflpowerful.
%
“ The-
HIE [ 462 ] HIE
’Hlerapolis <{ The pool before the theatre has been a bath,
II and marble fragments are vifible at the bottom of
4 '^rCh’ . the water, which is perfectly tranfparent, and of a bri¬
ny tatte.
“ Hierapolis was noted, befides Its hot waters, for a
plutonium. This was an opening in a fmall brow of
the adjacent mountain, capable of admitting a man, and
very deep, with a fquare fence before it, inclofing about
half an acre ; which fpace wTas filled with black thick
mill, fo that the bottom could be fcarcely difcerned.
The air, to thofe who approached it, was innocent on
the outfide of the fence, being clear of the mift in fe-
rene weather, it remaining then within the boundary j
but there death abode. Bulls, as at Nyfa, dropt down,
and were dragged forth without life •, and fome fpar-
rows which Strabo let fiy inftantly fell fenfelefs. But
eunuchs, the priefts of Magna Mater, or Cybele, could
go in quite to the aperture, lean forward, or enter it
unharmed j but they held their breath, as their vifages
tefiified, and fometimes until in danger of fuflfocation.
Strabo, the relater, was in doubt whether all eunuchs
-could do this, or only they of the temple j and whether
they were preferved by Divine Providence, as in cafes
of enthufiafm, or were polfelfed of fome powerful an¬
tidotes. But it is likely this mift was the condenfed
fleam of the hot rvaters, made noxious by the qualities
of the foil} and that the whole fecret of the priefts con¬
futed in carrying their faces high in the air, as another
fpe61ator has obferved they always did and in avoid¬
ing refpiration when they Hooped. 1 had hoped the
defcription of this fpot would have enabled me to find
it, but I fearched about for it unfuccefsfully.
“ We defcended to our tent at the approach of even¬
ing by a fteep track down the cliff, beginning beyond
the pool, in which we alfo bathed with pleafure, on the
fide next the gymnafium. Our way was often rough and
ilippery, refembling ice, and our horfes with difficulty
preierved their footing. When arrived at our tent, I
renewed my inquiries for the plutonium j and an old
Turk, with a beard as white as fnow, told me he knew
the place, that it was often fatal to their goats; and
accounting for the effecl, laid, it was believed to be
the habitation of a daemon or evil fpirit. We afcended
again early in the morning to the theatre, where he had
promifed to join us; and a live fowl wras intended to
be the martyr of experiment.” But our author was
Interrupted by fome banditti, and obliged to leave Hie¬
rapolis in hafte.
HIERARCHY, among divines, denotes the fubor-
dination of angels.
Some of the rabbins reckon four, others ten, orders
or ranks of angels j and give them different names
according to their different degrees of power and
knowledge.
Hierarchy, likewife denotes the fubordination of
the clergy, ecclefiaftical polity, or the conftitution and
government of the Chriftian church confidered as a fo-
ciety.
HIERES, tWname of fome fmalliflands lying near
the eoaft of Provence in Ttance, oppofite to the towns
of Hieres and Toulon, where the Engliffi fleet lay many
months in 1744, and blocked up the TWch and Spa-
nlfh fleets in the harbour of Toulon.
Hieres, a town of Provence in France, feated on the
Mediterranean fea, It is a pretty little town* and was
formerly a colony of the Marfiliansj and pilgrims ufed Htero
to embark here for the holy tland. But its harbour be- H.
ing now choaked up, it is confiderable only for its fait-
works. E. Long. 6. 13. N. Lat. 43. 7. y—
HIERO I. and II. kings of Syracufe. See Syra¬
cuse.
HIEROCLES, a cruel perfecutor of the Chri-
ftians and a violent promoter of the perfecution under
Dioclefian, flouriftied in 302. He wrote fome books
again ft the Chriftian religion $ in which he pretends
fome inconfiftencies in the Holy Scriptures, and com¬
pares the miracles of Apollonius Tyameus to thofe of
our Saviour. He was refuted by Laflantius and Eu-
febius. The remains of his works were collected into
one volume odtavo, by Biihop Pearfon •, and publiflied
in 1654, with a learned differtation prefixed to the
work.
HlEROCLES, a Platonic philofopher of the fifth cen¬
tury, taught at Alexandria, and was admired for his elo¬
quence. He wrote feven books upon Providence and
Fate : and dedicated them to the philofopher Olympio-
dorus, who by his enjbaflies did the Romans great fer-
vice under the emperors Honorius and Theodofius the
younger. But thefe books are loft, and we only know
them by the extra&s in Photius. He wrote alfo a Com¬
mentary upon the golden verles of Pythagoras j which
is ftill extant, and has been feveral times publilhed with
thofe verfes.
HIEROGLYPHICS, in antiquity, myftical cha-
rafters, or fymbols, in ufe among the Egyptians, and
that as well in their writings as infcriptions ; being the
figures of various animals, the parts of human bodies,
and mechanical inftruments. The word is compofed
of the Greek facer, “ holy,” and yXvtpiiv failpere,
“ to engrave',” it being the cuftom to have the walls,
doors, &c. of their temples, obelilks, &c. engraven with
fuch figures.
Hieroglyphics are properly emblems or figns of divine,
facred, or lupernatural things \ by which they are di-
ftinguilhed from common fymbols, which are figns of
fenfible and natural things.
Hermes Trifmegiftus is commonly efteemed the in¬
ventor of hieroglyphics : he firft introduced them into
the heathen theology, from whence they have been
tranfplanted into the Jewifti and Chriftian.
Sacred things, fays Hippocrates, Ihould only be
communicated to facrcd perfons. Hence it was that
the ancient Egyptians communicated to none but their
kings and priefts, and thofe who wrere to fucceed to
the priefthood and the crown, the fecrets of nature,
and the fecrets of their morality and biftory ; and this
they did by a kind of cabbala, which, at the fame
time that it inftru&ed them, only amufed the reft of
the people. Hence the ufe of hieroglyphics, or myftic
figures, to veil their morality, politics, &c.^ from pro¬
fane eyes. This author, it may be obferved, and
many others, do not keep to the precife character.o.f a
hieroglyphic, but apply it to profane as well as divine
things.
Hieroglyphics are a kind of real chara&er, which
do not only denote, but in fome meafure expref^,
the things. Thus, according to Clemens Alexandri-
nus, Strom, v. a lion is the hieroglyphic of ftrength
and fortitude ; a bullock, of agriculture $ a borfe, of
liberty ; a fphinx, of fubtilty, &c.
Such
HIE [ 463
Hierogly- Such Is the opinion that has generally been embraced,
both by ancient and modern writers, of the origin and
~ ufe of hieroglyphics. It has been almoft uniformly
maintained, that they were invented by the Egyptian
prieds in order to conceal their wifdom from the know¬
ledge of the vulgar-, but the late BHhop Warburton
hath, with much ingenuity and learning, endeavoured
to (how that this account is erroneous.
According to this writer, the firft kind of hiero¬
glyphics were mere pi&ures, becaufe the molt natural
way of communicating our conceptions by marks or
figures was by tracing out the images of things; and
this is aftually verified in the cafe of the Mexicans,
whofe only method of writing their laws and hiftory
was by this picture-writing. But the hieroglyphics
invented by the Egyptians were an improvement on
this rude and inconvenient effay towards writing, for
they contrived to make them both pictures and cha¬
racters. In order to effeCt the improvement, they
were obliged to proceed gradually, by firft making
]
H I E
the principal circumftance of the fubjeCt Hand for the
whole as in the hieroglyphics of Horapollo, which
reprefent a battle of two armies in array by two hands,
one holding a fliield and the other a bow : then put¬
ting the inftrument of the thing, whether real or me¬
taphorical, for the thing itfelf, as an eye and fceptre-to
reprefent a monarch, a {hip and pilot the governor of
the univerfe, &c.: and finally, by making one thing
ftand for or reprefent another, where their obfervations
of nature or traditional fuperftitions led them to difcover
or imagine any refemblance: thus, the univerfe was
defigned by a ferpent in a circle, whofe variegated fpots
denoted the ftars ; and a man who had nobly furmount-
ed his misfortune was reprefented by the Ikin of the hy¬
aena, becaufe this was fuppofed to furnilh an invulner¬
able defence in battle.
The Chinefe writing, he obferves, was the next
kind of improvement in the ufe of hieroglyphics. The
Egyptians joined charafteriftic marks to images ; the
Chinefe threw out the images and retained only the
contraCled marks, and from thefe marks proceeded let¬
ters. The general concurrence of different people in
this method of recording their thoughts can never be
fuppofed to be the effeCt of imitation, finifter views, or
chance ; but muft be confidered as the uniform voice of
nature fpeaking to the rude conceptions of mankind :
for not only the Chinefe of the Eaft, the Mexicans of
the Weft, and the Egyptians of the South, but the
Scythians likevvife of the North, and the intermediate
inhabitants of the earth, viz. the Indians, Phoenicians,
Ethiopians, &c. ufed the fame way of writing by pic¬
ture and hieroglyphic.
The bilhop farther {hows, that the feveral fpecies of
hieroglyphic writing took their rife from nature and
neceftity, and not from choice and artifice, by tracing
at large the origin and progrefs of the art of fpeech.
He proceeds to Ihow how in procefs of time the Egyp¬
tian hieroglyphics came to be employed for the vehicle
of myftery. They ufed their hieroglyphics two ways;
the one more fun pie, by putting the part for the whole,
which wasithe curiologic hieroglyphic j and the other
more artificial, by putting one thing of refembling
qualities for another, called the tropical hieroglyphic ;
thus the moon was fometimes reprefented by a half
circle and fometimes by a cynocephalus. They em¬
ployed their proper hieroglyphics to record openly and Hieroglyi
plainly their laws, policies, public morals, and hiftory, plucs>
and all kinds of civil matters : this is evident from their
obelilks, which are full of hieroglyphic characters, de- —y——J
ligned to record lingular events, memorable aftions,
and new inventions and alfo from the celebrated in-
fcription on the temple of Minerva, at Sais, where an
infant, an old man, a hawk, a fifti, and a river-horfe, ex-
prefled this moral fentence : “ All you who come into
the world and go out of it, know this, that the gods
hate impudence.” However, the tropical hierogly¬
phics, which were employed to divulge, gradually pro¬
duced fymbols which were defigned to fecrete or con¬
ceal : thus Egypt was fometimes exprefled by the cro¬
codile, fometimes by a burning cenfer with a heart
upon it ; where the fimplicity of the firft reprefen-
tation and the abftrufeneis of the latter Ihow, that
the one was a tropical hieroglyphic for communica¬
tion, and the other a tropical fymbol invented for
fecrecy.
Enigmatic fymbols were afterwards formed by the
afiemblage of different things, or of their properties
that were lefs known j and though they might have
been intelligible at firrt ; yet when the art of writing
was invented, hieroglyphics were more generally dif-
ufed, the people forgot the fignification of them, and
the priefts, retaining and cultivating the knowledge of
them becaufe they were the repofitories of their learn¬
ing and hiftory, at length applied them to the purpofe
of preferving the fecrets of their religion.
Symbols were the true original of animal-worlhip in
Egypt, as Sir John Marfham conjedtures, Can. Chron.
p. 58. becaufe in thefe hieroglyphics was recorded the
hiftory of their greater deities, their kings, and law¬
givers, reprefented by animals and other creatures.
The fymbol of each god was well known and familiar
to his worftiippers, by means of the popular paintings
and engravings on their temples and other facred mo¬
numents j fo that the fymbol prefenting the idea of
the god, and that idea exciting fentiments of religioil^
it was natural for them, in their addreffes to any par¬
ticular god, to turn to his reprefentative mark or fym¬
bol ; elpecially when we confider farther, that the
Egyptian priefts feigned a divine original for hierogly¬
phic charadlers, in order to increafe the veneration of
the people for them. Ihefe would of courfe bring
on a relative devotion to thefe fymbolic figures, which,
when it came to be paid to the living animal, would
foon terminate in an ultimate worfliip.
Another confequence of the facrednefs of the hiero¬
glyphic characters was, that it difpofed the more fu~
perftitious to engrave them on gems, and wear them
as amulets or charms. This magical abufe feems not
to have been much earlier than the eftablilhed worfhip
of the god Serapis, which happened under the Ptole¬
mies, and was firft brought to the general knowledge
of the world by certain Chriftian heretics and natives
of Egypt, who had mixed a number of Pagan fuper¬
ftitions with their Chriftianity. Thefe gems, called
abraxas, are frequently to be met with in the cabinets
of the curious, and are engraven with all kinds of
hieroglyphic characters; To thefe abraxas-fucceed the
talifmans.
HIEROGR AMMATISTS, ( Hierogrammateiy,
i.e. holy regi/lers, were an order of priefts among the
ancient
H I E
Kierortun- ancient Egyptians, who prefided over learning, and re-
cy ligion. They had the care of the hieroglyphics,, and
Hierophan- were expofitors of religious doffrines and opinio^ns.
tes. They were looked upon as a kind of prophets} and it
is pretended, that one of them predidfed to an Egyp¬
tian king, that an Ifraelite (meaning Mofes), eminent
for his qualifications and atchievements, would leflen
and deprefs the Egyptian monarchy.—The hierogram-
matei wTere always near the king, to affift him with
their informations and counfels. The better to fit
them for this, they made ufe of the fkill and know¬
ledge they had acquired in the flars and the motions
of the heavenly bodies, and even of the writings of
their predeceffors, wherein their functions and duties
were delivered. They were exempted from all civil
employments, were reputed the fir ft perfons in dignity
next the king, and bore a kind of feeptre in form of a
ploughlhafe.- After Egypt became a province, of
the Roman empire, the hierogrammatei funk into
neglect. . „
HIEROMANCY, in antiquity, that part of divi*
ration which predicted future events from obfeiving
the various things offered in facrifice4 See Divina¬
tion and Sacrifice.
HIEROMNEMON, among the ancient Greeks,
fignified a delegate chofen by lot, and lent to the
great council of the Amphi&yons, where he. was to
take care of wdrat concerned religion. The hieromne-
monies wrere reckoned more honourable than the other
members of that affembly, the general meetings of
tvhich were always fummoned by them, and their
names were prefixed to the decrees made by that
council.
HIEROMNEMON (compofed of “ facred,” and
pivYipuv “ one who advertifes or puts in mind of), _ an
officer in the ancient Greek church, whofe principal
fundion was to ftand behind the patriarch at the fa-
«iranients, ceremonies, &c. and {how him the prayers,
bfalms, &c. which he was to rehearfe. He alfo clo¬
thed the patriarch in his pontifical robes, and affigned
the places of all thofe who had a right to be around
him wdren feated on his throne) as the mafter of the
ceremonies now' does to the pope.
HIERONYMUS. See Jerome.
IJIEROPHANTES, or Hierophanta, (from
Upoi /io/y, and (pouvopou I appearin antiquity, a prieft
among the Athenians.
The hierophantes W'as properly the chief perfon that
officiated in the Eleufinia, that great folemmty facred
to Ceres. _ ,
This office was firft executed by Eumolpus, and
continued in his family for 1200 years, though when
any perfon was appointed to this dignity he was requi¬
red always to live in celibacy.
St Jerome fays, that the hierophantes extinguilhed
the fire of luft by drinking cicuta or the juice of hem¬
lock, or even by making themfelves eunuchs* Apol-
lodorus obferves, that it was the hierophantes who in-
ilrufted perfons initiated into their religion in the
myfteries and duties thereof, and that it w'as hence he
derived his name : for the fame reafon he was called
firophetes, “ the prophet.” He had officers under him
'to do the fame thing, or to affift him therein, who
were alfo called prophetes and exeges, i. e. “ explainers
of divine things.”
464 ] HI G
To the hierophantes it belonged to drefs and adorn H e’--ihy.
the ftatues of the gods, and to bear them in proceffions * *
and folemn ceremonies. Highgate.
HIEROPHYLAX, an officer in the Greek church —^,
who was guardian or keeper of the holy utenfils, veft-
ments, &c. anfwering to our facriita or veftry-keeper.
HIGH, a term or relation, importing one thing’s
being fuperior or above another : thus we fay, a htg/i
mountain, the high court of parliament, high relievo,
&c.
High, in mufic, is fometimes ufed in the fame fenie
wdth /oud, and fometimes in the fame fenfe with acute.
High Dutch, is the German tongue in its greateft
purity, &c. as fpoken in Mifnia, &c.
High Operation, in chirurgery, is a method of ex-
tradling the ftone ; thus called, becaufe the ftone is
taken out at the upper part of the bladder. See Sur¬
gery.
High Vlaces, were eminences on which the heathens
ufed to worlhip their gods, chofen for that purpole as
being fuppofed to be nearer heaven their conftant reii-
dence. The Jews are frequently blamed for their at¬
tachment to high-places, after the manner of the Gen¬
tiles j though their profeuchec were frequently upon
mountains with groves planted about them. v\ here
high-places are reprobated in feripture, therefore, we
fhould underftand them as abufed and proftituted to
idolatrous purpofes. Before the temple was built,
there was indeed nothing in the high-places very con¬
trary to the law, provided God only was adored there,
and that no incenfe or viftims wmre offered to idols.
Under the judges they feem to have been tolerated •,
and Samuel offered facrifices in feveral places befides
the tabernacle, where the ark was not preient. Even
in David’s time, they facrificed to the Lord at Shilo,
Jerufalem, and Gibeon ; but after the temple was
built, and a place prepared for the fixed fettlement of
the ark, it was no more allowed of to facrifice out of
Jerufalem. Solomon, in the beginning of his reign,
went a pilgrimage to Gibeon} but from that time we
fee no lawful facrifices offered out of the temple.
High Priejl. See Pontifex and Priest.
High Way, a free paffage for the king’s fubjefts:
on which account it is called the king's high way,
though the freehold of the foil belong to the owner of
the land. Thofe ways that lead from one town to an¬
other, and fuch as are drift or cart ways, and are for
all travellers in great roads, or that communicate with
them, are high wrays only} and as to their reparation,
are under the care of furveyors.
HIGH-WAY-MEN, are robbers on the high way \
for the apprehending and taking of whom, a reward
of 40I. is given by the ftatute of 4 and 5 W. and M. to
be paid within a month after convi&ion by the theriff
of the county ; to which the ftatute 8 Geo. II. cap. 6.
fuperadds 1 oh to be paid by the hundred indemnified
by fuch taking.
' HIGHAM FERRERS, an ancient borough of North-
amptonftiire in England, which has its name from the
family of the Ferrers, to whom it formerly belonged,
and who had a caftle in its neighbourhood. It fends
one member to parliament. E. Long. 1. 40. N. Lat.
52. 2o.
HIGHGATE, a village five miles north of Lon¬
don. It has its name from its high lituation, and trom
2
h I G [ 46s ] H I G
Hig-Mand- a gate fet up there about 400 years ago, to receive
L eis‘ toll for the bifhop of London, when the old miry road
from Gray’s-Inn lane to Barnet wras turned through
the biilrop’s park. There wras a hermitage where the
fchapel now Hands j and one of the hermits earned a
caufeway to be made between Highgate and Iflington,
with gravel dug out of the top of the hill, where there
is now a pond. Near the chapel, in 1562, lord chief
baron Cholmondely built and endowed a free fchool,
which was enlarged in 1570 by Edwin Sandys bilhop
of London.— This village is a noted and airy retirement
for the gentry and wealthy citizens *, and is a place of
good accommodation, beiides its affording a delightful
and pieafant prolpedt over the city and adjacent coun-
try.
HIGHLANDERS, a general appellation for the
inhabitants of the mountainous parts of any country.
In Britain, the name is appropriated to the people
who inhabit the mountainous parts of Scotland, to the
north and noith-well, including thofe of the Hebrides
or Weftern illes.— They are a branch of the ancient
Celtas , and undoubtedly the defeendants of the firit
inhabitants of Britain, as appears from the many mo¬
numents of their language Hill retained in the mofl an¬
cient names of places in all parts of the illand. The
Highlanders, or, as they are often termed by ancient
authors, the Caledonians, were always a brave, warlike,
and hardy race of people ; and, in the remoteH times,
feem to have pefieffed a degree of refinement in fenti-
ment and manners then unknown to the other nations
that furrounded them. This appears not only from
their own traditions and poems, but alfo from the
teHimony of many ancient authors. This civilization
was probably owing in a great mealure to the order
of the bards, or Druids, and fome other inHitutions
peculiar to this people,
The ancient Highlanders lived in the hunting Hate
till fome time after the era of Fingal, who was one of
their kings towards the clofe of the third century. For
fome ages after that, they turned their chief attention
to the pailoral life, which afforded a lefs precarious
lubfiflence. Till of late, agriculture in moil parts of
the Highlands made but little progrefs.
Ihe Highlanders always enjoyed a king and go¬
vernment of their oum, till Kenneth 1YTAlpine (anno
#45)> having fubdued the Pi&ifh kingdom,
transferred thither the feat of royalty. This event
proved very unfavourable to the virtues of the High¬
landers, which from this period began to decline.
The country, no longer awed by the prefence of the
foyereign, fell into anarchy and confufion. The chief¬
tains began to extend their authority, to form fa&ions,
and to foment divifions and feuds between contending
clans. The laws were either too feeble to bind them,
or too remote to take notice of them. Hence fprung
all thole evils which long difgraced the country, and
dilturbed the peace of its inhabitants. Robbery or
plunder, providing it was committed on any one of an
advene clan or tribe, was countenanced and authorifed j
and their reprifals on one another were perpetual.
I hus quarrels were handed down from one generation
to another, and the whole clan were bound in honour
to efpoufe the caufe of every individual that belonged
to it. By this means the genius of the people was
greatly altered j and the Highlanders of a few apes
Vol. X. Part II.
back were almoft as remarkable for their irregular and Highland-
diforderly way of life as their predeceffors were for. ers .
their civilization and virtue. It is from not attending y
to this diHinftion between the ancient Highlanders and
their poHerity in later times, that many have doubted
the exiflence of thofe exalted virtues aferibed by their
poets to the more ancient inhabitants of the country.
But now that the power of the chieftains is again abo-
lithed, law eflablilhed, and property fecured, the genius
of the people (where it is not hindered by fome other
extraneous caufe) begins again to Ihow itfelf in its ge¬
nuine colours 5 and many of their ancient virtues begin
to fliine with confpicuous luHre. Jultice, generofity,
honelty, friendihip, peace, and love, are perhaps no¬
where more cultivated than among this people. But
one of the HrongeH features which marked the charac¬
ter of the Highlanders in every age, was their hofpita-
lity and benevolence to Hrangers. At night the tra¬
veller was always fure to find a hearty welcome in
whatever houfe he fliould go to j and the hoH thought
himielf happier in giving the entertainment than the
gueH in receiving it. Even with regard to their ene¬
mies, the laws of hofpitality wTere obferved with the
molt facred regard. They who fought againH each
other in the day, could in the night feaft, and even
lleep together, in the fame houfe. From the fame
principle, they were, in moH other cafes, fo faithful
to their trull, that they rarely betrayed any confi¬
dence repofed in them. A promife they thought as
binding as an oath, and held it equally inviolable and
facred.
The Caledonians in all ages have been much addicted
to poetry and mufic. The poems of Otfian, fo uni-
verfally repeated, and fo highly edeemed by every
Highlander, are a flrong proof of the early proficiency
of this people in the poetical art. Even to this day,
notwithdanding the many difadvantages they labour
under, the mofl illiterate of either fex difeover fre¬
quently a genius for poetry, which often breaks forth
in the mofl: natural and Ample ftrains, when love, grief,
joy, or any other fubjedl of fong, demands it. Where-
ever their circumflances are fo eafy as to allow them
any refpite from toil, or any cheerfulnefs of fpirits, a
good portion of their time, eipecially of the winter-
nights, is ftill devoted to the fong and tale. This
laft fpecies of compofition is chiefly of the novel-kind,
and is handed down by tradition like their poems.
It was the work of the bards j and proved, while they
exifled, no contemptible entertainment. But fmee
the extin£lion of that order, both the Gaelic poems and
tales are in a great meafure either loft or adulterated.
—The genius and chara&er of the Gaelic poetry is
•well known. It is tender, Ample, beautiful, and
fublime.
Among the ancient Highlanders, the harp was the
chief inftrument of mufic. It Anted the mildnefs of
their manners, and was well adapted to the peace and
quiet which they enjoyed under their own kings. In
a later period, however, when the conftant quarrels of
their chiefs, and the endlefs feuds of contending clans,
turned all their thoughts to war, it was forced to give
place to the bag-pipe, an inftrument altogether of the
martial kind, and therefore well fuited to the ftate of
the country at that time. But ever Ance the caufe
which had brought this inftrument in vogue has ceafed
3 N to
Highland¬
ers.
H I G [466
to operate, the attention to it has been on the decline •,
fo that the harp, with very little encouragement, might
again refume the feat from which it was once expelled.
„The mod, and efpecially the oldeft of the High¬
land mufic, having been compofed to the harp, is of
a foft, tender, and elegiac call, as belt fuited to the
p-enius of that initrument. Thefe pieces are generally
expreflive of the paffions of love and grief. Other
pieces, which were compofed in their Hate of w7ar,
and adapted to a different inftrument, are altogether
bold and martial. And many are of a fprightly and
cheerful call, the offspring of mirth, and the fport of
fancy in the feafon of feftivity. Many of thefe Lft
are of the chorus kind : and are fung in almofl all the
exercifes in which a number of people are engaged,
fuch as rowdng, reaping, fulling, &c. Phe time of
thefe pieces is adapted to the exercifes to which they
are refpeaively fung. They greatly forward the work
and alleviate the labour. The particular mufic which
generally ufed by the Highlanders in their dances
]
H I G
is well known by the name of Strathfpey reels.
Xhe language of the Highlanders is llill the Gaehc j
which, with many of their cufloms and manners, has
been fecured to them by their mountains and faftneffes,
amidft the many revolutions which the reft of the
ifiand has undergone in fo long a courfe of ages. The
Gaelic feems to be the oldeft and pureft dialed! which
remains of the Celtic, as appears from its approach*
ino- the neareft to the names of places, &c. which that
language left in moft countries where it prevailed, and
from its moft obvious affinity to thofe tongues, ancient
or modern, which have been in any meafure derived
from the old Celtic. The Gaelic has all the marks of
an original and primitive language. Moft of the words
are expreflive of feme property or quality of the ob-
iedls which they denote. This, together with the
variety of its founds (many of which, efpecially ot
thofe that exprefs the foft and mournful paffions, are
peculiar to itfelf), renders it highly adapted for poetry
It is generally allowed to have been the language oi
court; in Scotland, till the reign of Malcolm Canmore.
The Gaelic epithet of Can-more, or ‘4 large_ head,”
by which this king is diftinguithed, feems to intimate
fo much. In feme particular parliaments at leaft, it
was fpoken much later, as in that held by Robert the
Bruce at Ardchattan. That it has been formerly a
good deal cultivated, appears from the ftyle and com¬
plexion of its poems and tales, and from feveral. an¬
cient MSS. that have come down to the prefent time.
To ftrangers the Gaelic has a forbidding afpeft, on ac¬
count of the number of its quiefeent confonants (which
are retained to mark the derivation of words and their
variation in cafe and tenfe), but its found is abun¬
dantly mufical and harmonious j and its genius ftrong
and mafeuline. Its alphabet confifts of 18 letters, ot
which one is an afpirate, 1 2 are confonants, and five
are vowels.
The Highlanders are beginning of late to apply
to learning, agriculture, and efpecially to commerce,
for which their country, everywhere indented with
arms of the fea, is peculiarly favourable. Cattle is
the chief ftaple of the country j but it produces more
grain than would fupply its inhabitants, if fo much
of it were not confumed in whitky. The natives are
beginning to avail themfelves of their mines, woods,
wool, and filheries1, and by a vigorous application, with Highmore.^
the due encouragement of government, may become a v "'"
profperous and uleful people.
The Highlanders are of a quick and penetrating ge¬
nius, ftrongly tin6fured ■ with a curiofity or thirl! of
knowledge, which difpofes them to learn any thing
very readily. They are adlive and induftrious, where
oppreffion does not difeourage them by fecluding even
the hope of thriving. They are remarkably bold and
adventurous, which qualifies them for being excellent
feamen and foldiers. They are generally of a middle
fize, rather above it than otherwife; their eyes are
brifk and lively, their features diftinftly marked, and
their perfons tight and wTell made. I heir countenance
is open and ingenuous, and their temper frank and
communicative.
HIGHMORE, Jc^RFH, Efq. an eminent painter,
was boin in the panfh of St James's, Garlickhithe,
London, June 13. 1692, being the third fon of Mr
Edward Highmore, a coal-merchant in Thames-ftreet.
Having fuch an early and ftrong inclination to paint¬
ing, that he could think of nothing elfe with pleaiure,
his father endeavoured to gratify him in a propolal to
his uncle, who was ferjeant-painter to King William,
and with whom Mr (afterwards Sir James) Thornhill
had ferved his apprenticelhip. But this was afterwards
for good reafons declined, and he was articled as clerk
to an attorney, July 18th 1707-, but fo much again!!,
his own declared inclination, that in about three yeais
he began to form refolutions of indulging his natural
difpoliticn to his favourite art, having continually em¬
ployed his leifure hours in defigning, and in the ftudy
of geometry, perfpedlive, architedlure, and anatomy,
but without any inftrudlors except books. He had
afterwards an opportunity of improving himfelf in ana¬
tomy, by attending the ledftures of Mr Chefelden, be-
fides entering himfelf at the painters academy in
Great Oueen-ftreet, where he drew 10 years, and
had the honour to be particularly noticed by Sir God¬
frey Kneller, who diftinguiffied him by the name of
“ the Young Lawyer.” On June 13th 17I4>
clerkffiip expired j and on March 26th lytji .^e'
gan painting as a profeftion, and fettied in the C1)y*
In the fame year Dr Brook Taylor publilhed his “ Li¬
near Perfpedtive: or, a new method of reprefenting
juftly all manner of objeas as they appear to the eye in
all fituations.” On this complete and univerfal theory
our artift grounded his fubfequent praaice *, and it has
been generally allowed, that few, if any, of the proiel-
fion at that time wTere fo thorough mafters of that ex¬
cellent but intricate fyftem. In 1716, he ^married
Mifs Sufanna Hiller, daughter and heirefs of Mr An¬
thony Hiller of Effingham in Surrey a young lady
in every refpedl worthy of his choice. For Mr. Chefe.l-
den’s “ Anatomy of the Human body,” publiffied in
1722, he made drawings from the real fubjediS at the
time of diffedlion, two of which were engraved for
that work, and appear, but without his name, in tables
xii. and xiii. In the fame year, on the exhibition of
« The Confcious Lovers,” written by Sir Richard
Steele, Mr Highmore addreffed a letter to the author
on the limits of filial obedience, pointing out a mate¬
rial defedf in the charadler of Bevil, wdth that clear-
nefs and precifion for which, in converfation and wri¬
ting, he was always remarkable, as die pencil by no
means
H I G
[ 467 ]
H I G
Highmore, means engroffed his whole attention. His reputation
'—-v 1 and bufinefs increafing, he took a more confpicuous
ftation, by removing to a houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn
Fields, in March 1723-45 and an opportunity foon of¬
fered of introducing him advantageoufly to the nobi¬
lity, &c. by his being defired, by Mr Pine the en¬
graver, to make the drawings for his prints of the
knights of the bath, on the revival of that order ia
1725. In confequence, feveral of the knights had their
portraits alfo by the fame hand, fome of them whole
lengths 5 and the duke of Richmond, in particular,
was attended by his three efquires, with a perfpec-
tive view of King Henry Vllth’s chapel. This capi¬
tal pifture is now at Godwood. And our artift was
fent for to St James’s by George I. to drawT the late
duke of Cumberland, from which Smith fcraped a mez-
zotinto.
In 1728, Mr Hawkins Browne, then of Lincoln’s-
Jnn, who had ever a juft fenfe of his talents and abili¬
ties, addreifed to him a poetical epiftle “ On Defign
and Beauty 5” and, fome years after, an elegant Latin
Ode, both now collefted in his poems. In the fum-
mer of 1732, Mr Highmore vifited the continent, in
company with Dr Pemberton, Mr Benjamin Robins,
and two other friends, chiefly with a view of feeing the
gallery of pidlures belonging to the eleftor Palatine at
Duffeldorp, colle&ed by Rubens, and fuppofed the
heft in Europe. At Antwerp alfo he had peculiar
pleafure in contemplating the works of his favourite
mafter. In their return they vifited the principal
towns in Holland. In 1734, he made a like excurfion,
but alone, to Paris, where he received great civilities
from his countrymen then there, particularly the duke
of Kingfton, Dr Hickman (his tutor), Robert Knight,
Efq. (the late caflrier), &c. Here he had the fatis-
faftion of being (hown, by Cardinal de Polignac, his
famous group of antique ftatues, the court of Lyco-
medes, then juft brought from Rome, and fince pur-
chafed by the king of Pruflia, and deftroyed at Char-
lottenbourg in 1760 by the Ruffians. In 1742, he
had the honour to paint the late prince and princefs
of Wales for the duke of Saxe Gotha; as he did fome
years after the late queen of Denmark for that court.
The publication of “ Pamela,” in 1744, gave rife to
a fet of paintings by Mr Highmore, which were en¬
graved by two French engravers, and publifhed by
fubfcription in 1745. In the fame year he painted
the only original of the late General Wolfe, then about
18. His Pamela introduced him to the acquaintance
and friendfhip of the excellent author whole pifture
he drew, and for whom he painted the only original
of Dr Young. In 1750 he had'the misfortune to lofe
his wife. On the firft inftitution of the academy of
painting, fculpture, &c. in 1753, he wras elefted one
of the profeflbrs 5 an honour which, on account of
his many avocations, he defired to decline. In 1754
he publilhed “ A critical examination of thofe two
Paintings [by Rubens] on the Ceiling of the Ban-
queting-houfe at Whitehall, in which Archite&ure
is introduced, fo far as relates to Perfpedlive 5 to¬
gether with the Difcufiion of a Queftion which has
been the Subjeft of Debate among Painters print¬
ed in 410. In the folution of this queftion, he pro-
^ed thcjt Rubens and feveral other great painters
were miftaken in the pra&ice, and Mr Kirby and fe- Highmore,
veral other authors in the theory. And in the 17th
volume of the “ Monthly Review,” he animadverted
(anonymoufly) on Mr Kirby’s unwarrantable treat¬
ment of Mr Ware, and detefted and expofed his er¬
rors, even when he exults in his own fuperiof fcience.
Of the many portraits which Mr Highmore painted,
in a large prattice of 46 years (of which feveral have
been engraved), it is impoflible and ufelefs to difcufs
particulars. Some of the moft capital in the hiftorical
branch, which w^as then much lefs cultivated than it is
at prefent, fliall only be mentioned, viz. “ Hagar and
Ilhmael,” a prefent to the Foundling-hofpital : “ The
good Samaritan,” painted for Mr Shepherd of Camp-
fey Alh : “ The finding of Mofes,” purchafed at his
fale by Colonel (now General) Lifter: “ The Harlowe
family, as defcribed in Clarilfa,” now in the poffeflion
of Thomas Watkinfon Payler, Efq. at Heden in Kent:
“ Clariffa,” the portrait mentioned in that work :
“ The Graces unveiling Nature,” drawn by memory
from Rubens : “ The Clementina of Grandifon, and
the queen mother of Edw'ard IV. with her younger
fon, &c. in Weftminfter-abbey the three lalt irrthc
pofleffion of his fon.
In 1761, on the marriage of his daughter to the
reverend Mr Duncombe, fon to one of his oldeft
friends, he took a refolution of retiring from bufinefs,
and difpofing of his colle&ion of pictures, which he did
by auftion, in March 1762, and foon after removed to
his fon-in-lawr’s at Canterbury, where he palfed the re¬
mainder of his life wdthout ever revifiting the metro¬
polis. But though he had laid down the pencil, he
never wanted employment : fo aftive and vigorous w^as
his mind, that, with a conftitntional flow of fpirits,
and a relilh for inftruftive fociety, he was never lefs
“ alone than when aloneand, befides his profeflion-
al purfuits above mentioned, to philofophy, both na¬
tural and moral, and alfo divinity, he laudably dedica¬
ted his time and attention. No man had more clear-
nefs and precifion of ideas, or a more ardent defire to
know the truth 5 and, when known, confcientioufly
to purfue it. With ftrong paflions, ever guided by
the ftri&eft virtue, he had a tender, fufceptible heart,
always open to the diftrefs of his fellow-creatures, and
always ready to relieve them. His capital work of
the literary kind w^as! his “ Practice of perfpe&ive, on
the principles of Dr Brook Taylor, &c.” written
many years before, but not publilhed till 1763, when
it was printed for Nourfe, in one vol. qto. This not
only evinced his fcientific knowledge of the fulqeft,
but removed, by its perfpicuity, the only objedHon
that can be made to the fyftem of Dr Taylor. It ac¬
cordingly received, from his friends and the intelligent
public, the applaufes it deferved. In 1765 he pub-
liflied (without his name) Obfervations on a Pamph¬
let entitled, “ Chriftianity not founded on Argument 5”
in which, after ftiowing that it is a continued irony,
and lamenting that fo ample a field (hould be offered
the author of it for the difplay of his fophiftry ; he
gives up creeds, articles, and catechifms, as out-works
raifed by fallible men, and, confining himfelf to the de¬
fence of the gofpel, or citadel, fhowrs, that pure primi¬
tive Chriftianity, though affaulted by infidels, will ever
remain impregnable. His opinion of Rubens may be
3 N 2 feen
H I G
ilighmore.leen in the Gentleman’s Magazine for p. 353,
Highneft. un(jer title of “ Remarks on lome paflages in Mr
^ Webb’s inquiry into the Beauties of painting, &c.”
In the lame year he publilhed, with only his initials,
“ J. H.” two fmall volumes of “ Ellays, moral, religi¬
ous, and and mifcellaneous 5 with aTranllation in prole
of Mr Browne’s Latin Poem on the Immortality of the
Soulfelefled from a large number written at his lei-
fure, at different periods of life. “ As fuch (lays Dr
Hawkefworth) they do the author great credit. rihey
are not excurfions of fancy, but efforts of thought, and
indubitable indications of a vigorous and adtive mind.”
In the Gentleman’s Magazine for 17^9> P'
communicated “ A natural and obvious Manner of
condrucfing Sun-dials, deduced from the Situation
and Motion of the Earth with refpedl to the Sun,”
explained by a fcheme. And in that for 177^1 P* 52^»
his remarks on colouring, fuggelled by way of a note
on the “ Epiftle to an eminent Painter,” will Ihow
that his talents were by no means impaired at the age
of 86. Indeed he retained them to the laft, and
had even ftrength and fpirits fulficient to enable him to
ride out daily on horfeback the fummer before he died.
A ftrong conlfitution, habitual temperance, and con-
ifant attention to his health in youth as well as in age,
prolonged his life, and preferved his faculties to his
88th year, when he gradually ceafed to breathe, and,
as it were, fell alleep on March 3. 1780. He was in¬
terred in the fouth aille of Canterbury cathedral, lea¬
ving one fon, Anthony, educated in his own profelfionj
and a daughter, Sufanna, mentioned above.
His abilities as a painter appear in his works, which
will not only be admired by his contemporaries, but
by their pollerity j as his tints, like thofe of Rubens
and Vandyck, inftead of being impaired, are improved
by time, wThich fome of them have now withftood
above 60 years. His idea of beauty, when he indul¬
ged his fancy, was of the highelt kind j and his know¬
ledge of perfpedlive gave him great advantages in fa¬
mily-pieces, of which he painted more than any one of
his time. He could take a likenefs by memory as
well as by a fitting, as appears by his picture of the
duke of Lorrain (the late emperor), which Faber en¬
graved j and thofe of King George II. (in York-af-
iembly-room) j Queen Caroline, the two Mifs Gun¬
nings, &c. Like many other great painters, he had
“ a poet for his friend,” in the late Mr Browne ; to
which may be added a poem addreffed to him in 17 26,
by the reverend Mr Bunce, at that time of Trinity-
hall, Cambridge, who fucceeded Mr Highmore, and
in 1780 was vicar of St Stephen’s near Canterbury.^
HIGHNESS, a quality or title of honour given
to princes.—The kings of England and Spain had
formerly no other title but that of highnefs \ the firlt
till the time of James I. and the fecond till that of
C arles V. The petty princes of Italy began firft to
be complimented with the title of highnefs in the year
1630.—The duke of Orleans aflumed the title of royal
highnefs in the year 1631, to diftinguith himfelf from
the other princes of France.
The duke of Savoy, afterwards king of Sardinia, bore
the title of royal highnefs, on account of his preten-
fions to the kingdom of Cyprus.-—It is faid that duke
only took the title of royal highnefs, to put himfelf
[ 468 J H I L
above the duke of Florence, who was called great duke;
but the great duke afterwards aflumed the title of royal
highnefs, to put himfelf on a level with the duke of
Savoy.
The prince of Conde fir ft took the title of mof ferene
highnefs, leaving that of fimple highnefs to the natural
princes.
HILARIA, in antiquity, feafts celebrated every
year by the Romans on the 8th of the kalends of
April, or the 25th of March, in honour of Cybele the
mother of the gods.
The hilaria were folemnized with great pomp and
rejoicing. Every perfon drelfed bimfelf as he pleafed,
and took the marks or badges of wdiatever dignity or
quality he had a fancy for. The ftatue of the god-
dels was carried in proceffion through the ftreets ol the
city, accompanied by multitudes in the moft fplendid
attire. The day before the feftival wTas fpent in tears
and mourning. Cybele reprefented the earth, which
at this time of the year begins to feel the kindly
Hilaria
warmth of the Ipring 5 fo that this ludden tranfition
from lorrow to joy was an emblem of the viciilitude of
the feafons, which lucceed one another.
The Romans took this feaft originally from the
Greeks, who called it q. d. afcenfus; the eve
of that day they fpent in tears and lamentations, and
thence denominated it KX'rxZxtns, defcenjus.
Afterwards, the Greeks took the name from
the Romans ; as appears from Photius, in his extradl
of the life of the philofopher Ifidore.
Cafaubon maintains, that befide this particular figni-
fication, the wwd hilaria was alfo a general name for
any joyful or feftival day, whether public or private
and domeftic. But Salmafius does not allow of this. ^ »
Triftan, tom. i. p. 482, diftinguifhes between hilaria
and hilarise. The former, according to him, rvere
public rejoicings j and the latter, prayers made in
confequence thereof; or even of any private feaft or
rejoicing, as a marriage, &c. rIhe public lafted feve-
ral days j during which, all mourning and funeral ce¬
remonies wTere fufpended.
HILARIUS, an ancient father of the Chriftian
church, who fiourifhed in the 4th century. He wTas
born, as St Jerome informs us, at Poidliers, of a good
family j who gave him a liberal education in the Pa¬
gan religion, and which he did not forlake till he
was arrived at maturity. He wras advanced to the bi-
fhopric of Poiaiers in the year 355, according to Ba¬
ronins : and became a moft zealous champion for the
orthodox faith, particularly againft the iirians, who
were at that time gaining ground in France. He af-
fembled feveral councils there, in which the determi¬
nations of the (ynods of Rimini and Seleucia wrere con¬
demned. He wrote a treatife concerning fynods j and
a famous work in 12 books on the Trinity, which is
much admired by the orthodox believers. He died in
the latter end of the year 367. His works have been
many times publilhed •, but the laft and bed edition of
them was given by the Benediflines at Paris in 1693.
HILARODI, in the ancient mufic and poetry, a
fort of poets among the Greeks, who wrent about fing-
ing little gay poems or fongs, fomewhat graver than
the Ionic pieces, accompanied w'ith fome inftrument.
From the ftreets they were at laft introduced into
tragedy.
H I L [ 469 ] H I L
Hilary tragedy, as the magodi were into comedy. They
!i appeared dreffed in white, and were crowned with
Hl11' , gold. At firft they wore ihoes 5 but afterwards they
aftumed the crepida, being only a foie tied over with a
ftrap.
HILARY-term. Term.
H1LDESHEIM, a fmall diftridl of Germany, in
the circle of Lower Saxony. It lies between the du¬
chies of Lunenburg and Brunfwick \ and may be about
♦ 25 miles from eaft to weft, and 36 from north to fouth.
It is watered by the rivers Leine and Innerfty. The
(oil is fertile 5 and its principal places are Peine, Sar-
iled, Bruggen, and Alveld. Hildeftieim, from whence
. it takes its name, is governed as an imperial city. Its
bilhop is now elector of Cologne.
Hildesheim, a ftrong city of Germany, in Lower
Saxony, with a Roman Catholic biftiop’s fee, whofe
bifnop is fovereign. It is a free imperial city, though
in lome things dependent on the biihop. It is a large
town, well built and fortified. It is divided into the
Old Town asd the New, which have each their fepa-
rate council. It is feated on the river Irneft, in E. Long.
10. o. N. Lat. 52. 17.
HILL, a term denoting any confiderable eminence
on the earth’s furface. It is fometimes fynonymous
with the word mountain; though generally it denotes
only the leffer eminences, the word mountain being
particularly applied to the very largeft. See Moun¬
tain, Geology Index.
Hill, Aaron, a poet of confiderable eminence,
the fon of a gentleman of Malmefbury-abbey in Wilt-
ftiire, was born in 1685. His father’s imprudence having
cut off his paternal inheritance, he left Weftminfter
fchool at 14 years of age j and embarked for Conftan-
tinople, to vifit Lord Paget the Engliftr ambaffador
there, who was his diftant relation. Lord Paget recei¬
ved him with furprife and pleafure, provided him a tu¬
tor, and fent him to travel: by which opportunity he
:<aw Egypt, Paleftine, and a great part of the eaft j and
returning home with his noble patron, vifited moft of
the courts of Europe. About the year 1709, he pub-
lilhed his firft poem entitled Camillus, in honour of the
earl of Peterborough who had been general in Spain \
and being the fame year made mafter of Drury-lane
theatre, he wrote his firft tragedy Elfred, or the Fair
Inconrtant. In 1710, he became mafter of the opera-
houfe in the Hay-market} when he wrote an opera
called Rinaldo, which met with great fuccefs, being
the firft that Mr Handel fet to mufic after he came to
England. Unfortunately for Mr Hill, he was a pro-
jedftor as well as poet, and in 1715 obtained a patent
for extradting oil from beech-nuts; which underta¬
king, whether good or bad, mifcarried after engaging
three years of his attention. He was alfo concerned in
the firft attempt to fettle the colony of Georgia ; from
which he never reaped any advantage 5 and in 1728 he
made a journey into the Highlands of Scotland, on a
fcheme of applying the woods there to fhip-building j
in which alfo he loft his labour. Mr Hill feems to have
lived in perfedl harmony with all the writers of his
time, except Mr Pope, with whom he had a fliort pa¬
per-war, occafioned by that gentleman’s introducing
him in the Hunciad, as one of the competitors for the
prize offered by the goddefs of Hullnefs, in the follow¬
ing lines:
“ Then Hill effay’d j fcarce vanifil’d out of light,
“ He buoys up inftant, and returns to light;
“ He bears no token of the fabler ftreams,
“ And mounts far off among the Swans of Thames.,r
This, though far the gentleft piece of fatire in the whole
poem, and conveying at the fame time an oblique
compliment, roufed Mr Hill to take foine notice of it *,
which he did by a poem written during his peregrina¬
tion in the north, entitled, t; The Progrefs of Wit, a
Caveat for the ufe of an eminent waiter j” which he
begins with the foilowdng eight lines, in which Mr
Pope’s too w’ell-known difpofition is elegantly, yet very
feverely, charadlerized :
“ Tuneful Alexis on the Thames’ fair fide,
“ The Ladies play-thing and the Mufes pride ‘y
“ With merit popular, with wit polite,
“ Eafy tho’ vain, and elegant tho’ light}
“ Defiring and deferving others praife,
“ Poorly accepts a Fame he ne’er repays :
“ Unborn to cherifli, fneakingly approves:
“ And wTants the foul to fpread the worth he loves.”
The fneakingly approves, in the laid couplet, Mr Pope
was much aft'efted by •, and indeed through their whole
controverfy afterwards, in which it was generally
thought that Mr Hill had much the advantage, Mr
Pope feems rather to exprefs his repentance by denying
the offence, than to vindicate himfelf fuppofing it to
have been given. Befides the above poems, Mr Plill,
among many others, wrote one, called The northern ftar,
upon the aftions of Czar Peter the Great 5 for which
he was feveral years afterwards complimented wdth a
gold medal from the emprefs Catharine, according to
the Czar’s defire before his death. He likewife alter¬
ed fome of Shakefpeare’s plays, and tranflated fome of
Voltaire’s. His laft prodwftion was Merope ; which
was brought upon the ftage in Drury-lane by Mr Gar¬
rick. He died on the 8th of February 1749, as it
is faid, in the very minute of the earthquake j and af¬
ter his deceafe four volumes of his works in profe and
verfe were publilhed in o£tavo, and his dramatic works
in two volumes.
Hill, Sir John, a voluminous writer, was originally
bred an apothecary, but his marrying early, and without -
a fortune, made him very foon look around for other re-
fources than his profeflion. Having, therefore, in his
apprenticeftiip, attended the botanical lectures of the
company, and being poffeffed of quick natural parts, he
foon made himfelf acquainted with the theoretical as
well as practical parts of botany : from whence be¬
ing recommended to the late duke of Richmond and
Lord Petre, he was by them employed in the infpec-
tion and arrangement of their botanic gardens. Aflilt-
ed by the liberality of thefe noblemen, he executed a
fcheme of travelling over the kingdom, to colledt
the moft rare and uncommon plants •, which he after¬
ward publiftied by fubfcription : but after great re-
fearches and uncommon induftry, this undertaking turn¬
ed out by no means adequate to his expe&ation. The
ftage next prefented itfelf, as a foil in which genius
might Hand a chance of flouriftiing : but after two or
three unfucceftful attempts, it was found he had no
pretenfions either to the fock or bufldn : which once
more reduced him to his botanical purfuits, and hH
bufmefs -
H I L [ 470 ] H I N
Hill, bufinefs as an apothecary. At length, about the year
, 1746, he tranflated from the Greek, a fmall tratf writ¬
ten by Theophraftus, on Gems, which he publiihed by
fubfcription •, and which, being well executed, procured
him friends, reputation, and money. Encouraged by
this, he engaged in works of greater extent and import¬
ance. The firft he undertook was A General Natural
Hiftory, in 3 vols folio. He next engaged, in conjunc¬
tion with George Lewns Scott, Etq. in furnifhing a
Supplement to Chambers’s Di£lionary. He at the
fame time ftarted the Britilh Magazine •, and while he
w’as engaged in a great number of thefe and other
works, fome of which Teemed to claim the continued
attention of a whole life, he carried on a daily effay,
under the title of Infpedlor. Amidll this hurry of
bufinefs, Mr Hill was fo laborious and ready in all
his undertakings, and was withal fo exa£l: an econo-
mift of his time, that he fcarcely ever milled a public
amufement for many years : wEere, w’hile he relaxed
from the feverer purfuits of ftudy, he gleaned up arti¬
cles of information for his periodical w'orks. It wrould
not be eafy to trace Mr Hill, now Dr Hill (for he
procured a diploma from the college of St Andrew’s),
through all his various purfuits in life. A quarrel he
had with the Royal Society, for being refufed as a
member, which provoked him to ridicule that learned
body, in A Review of the Works of the Royal Society
of London, 4to, 1751 ; together with his overwriting
himfelf upon all fubjefts w ithout referve; made him
link in the eftimation of the public nearly in the fame
pace as he had afcended. He found as ufual, however,
refources in his own invention. He applied himfelf to
the preparation of certain fimple medicines: fuch as
the offence of water-dock, tincture of valerian, bal-
fam of honey, &c. The well-knowm fimplicity of
thefe medicines made the public judge favourably of
their effefts, infomuch that they had a rapid fale, and
once more enabled the dodtor to figure in that ftyle
of life ever fo congenial to his inclination. Soon
after the publication of the firft of thefe medicines,
he obtained the patronage of the earl of Bute, through
whofe intereft he acquired the management of the
royal gardens at Kew, with an handfome falary : and
to w ind up the whole of an extraordinary life, having,
a little before his death, feized an opportunity to intro¬
duce himfelf to the knowledge of the king of Sweden,
that monarch inverted him with one of the orders of
his court, which title he had not the happinefs of en¬
joying above twro years. He died toward the clcfe of
the year 1775.
HILLEL, fenior, of Babylon, prefident of the
fanhedrim of Jerufalem. He formed a celebrated fchool
there, in w hich he maintained the oral traditions of the
Jews againft Shamai, his colleague, whofe difciples ad¬
hered only to the written law j and this controverfy
gave rife to the fefls of Pharifees and Scribes. Pie was
likewife one of the compilers of the Talmud. He alfo
laboured much at giving a correct edition of the fa-
cred text ; and there is attributed to him an ancient
manufcript bible, which bears his name. He flourifhed
about 30 years B. C. and died in a very advanced age.
Hillel, the nafx, or prince, another learned Jew,
the grandfon of Judas Hakkodeih, or the Saint, the
author of the Milhna, lived in the fourth century. He
-xompofed a cycle $ and wTas one of the principle doc-
1
tors of the Gamara. The greateft number of the Hiifia
Jewiih writers attribute to him the correft edition of
the Hebrew text which bears the name of Hi/lel, which ■ y'
wre have already mentioned in the preceding article.
There have been feveral other Jewifh writers of the
fame name.
HILLI A, a genus of plants belonging to the hex-
andria clafs *, and in the natural method ranking wuth
thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
HILLSBOROUGH, a borough, fair, and poft-
towm, in the county of Down, and province of Ulfter,
69 miles from Dublin. Plere is a fine feat of the earl
of Hilllborough. The town is pleafantly fituated and
almoft new built, in view of Lilburn, Belfaft, and Car-
rickfergus bay } the church is magnificent, having an
elegant fpire, as lofty as that of St Patrick’s in Dublin,
and feven painted window's, plere is an excellent inn,
and a thriving manufa&ure of muflins. It has three
fairs, and fends two members to parliament. This place
gives title of earl to the family of Hiilihorough. N.
Lat. 54. 30. W. Long. 60. 20.
HILUM, among botanifts, denotes the eye of a
bean.
HIMERA, in Ancient Geography, the name of twro
rivers in Sicily •, one running northw’ards into the Tuf-
can feaf now called Fiume di Termini; and the other
fouthwards into the Libyan *, dividing Sicily into twro
parts, being the boundary between the Syracufans to
the eaft and Carthaginians to the weft; not rifing from
the fame, but from different fprings.
HlMERA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Sicily,
at the mouth of the Himera, which ran northwards,
on its left or weft fide : A colony of Zancle : after¬
wards deftroyed by the Carthaginians (Diodorus Sicu¬
lus).
HIMERENSES THERM.®, in Ancient Geography,
a town of Sicily, on the eaft fide of that Himera which
runs to the north. After the deftru&ion of the town
of Himera by the Carthaginians, fuch of the inhabi¬
tants as remained, fettled in the fame territory, not far
from the ancient town. Now Termini. Made a Ro¬
man colony by Auguftus.
HIN, a Hebrew' meafure of capacity for things li¬
quid, containing the fixth part of an ephah, or one
gallon two pints Engliih meafure.
HINCKLEY, a market-town of Leicefterihire,
built on a rifing ground, nearly on the borders of Lei-
cefterfture, from which it is Separated by the Roman
Watling-ftreet road. It is diftant from Coventry and
Leicefter 15 miles each, and 102 from London. It
has been much larger than it is at prefent, the back
lanes between the orchards having evidently been ftreets
originally, and the traces of the town-wall and ditch
are in many places yet vifible. There are veftiges of
two Roman works, viz. the mount near the river, and
the ruins of a bath near St Nicholas church, where
teffelated pavements have been dug up. The Jewry
wall is faid to have been the temple of Janus. The
caftle was inhabited by John of Gaunt j but is now no
more, the fcite being converted into garden-ground,
the caftie-hill confiderably lowered, and a gentleman’s
houfe erefted on the fpot in 1770. The fteeple of the
prefent church was built with fome of the ftones of
the caftle. The town is now divided into the borough,
and
H I N [ 471 ] H I N
Hind and the bond without the liberties. It has a good
U market on Mondays, and a fair in Auguft. The chief
« m^00s- manufadure is ftockings and fine ale. The town is
laid to contain about 750 houfes. There are two
churches, one chapel, and a place of worlhip for the
Roman Catholics, befides four meeting-houfes. The
church is a neat large old ftru&ure with a modern
tower and a Ipire, the body of it was built in the 13th
century, and near it are three mineral fprings. This
town is faid to be the middle and higheft ground in
England ; and from it 50 churches may be feen, be¬
fides gentlemen’s feats. It received great damage by a
fire September 5. 1728.
HIND, a female flag in the third year of its age.
See Ckrvus, Mammalia Index.
HINDON, a fmall town of Wiltfinire in England,
which fends two members to parliament. It is fituated
in E. Long. 2. 14. N. Lat. 51. 12.
HINDOOS, or Gentoos, the inhabitants of that
part of India known by the name of Hindqjlan or the
Mogul's empire^ who profefs the religion of the Bra-
mins, fuppofed to be the fame with that of the an¬
cient Gymnofophifts of Ethiopia.
From the earlieft period of hiftory thefe people feem
to have maintained the fame religion, laws, and cuf-
toms, which they do at this day : and indeed they and
t the Chinefe are examples of perfeverance in thefe re-
Tlieir divi-fpe£ls altogether unknown in the weftern world. In
fions into tJme Gf Diodorus Siculus they are faid to have
cafts* °r keen divided into feven calls or tribes : but the inter-
courfe betwixt Europe and India was in his time fo
fmall, that we may well fuppofe the hilforian to have
been miflaken, and that the fame tenacity for which
they are fo remarkable in other refpedls has manifelled
itfelf alfo in this. At prefent they are divided only
into four tribes j I. The Bramin j 2. The Khatry ;
3. The Bhyfe ; and, 4. The Soodera. All thefe have
diftinft and feparate olhces, and cannot, according to
their laws, intermingle with each other; but for cer¬
tain offences they are fubjeff to the lofs of their caff,
which is reckoned the higheft punilhment they can
fuffer ; and hence is formed a kind of fifth call named
Panars on the coaft of Coromandel, but in the Shan-
fcrit or facred language Chandalas,. Thefe are efteem-
ed the dregs of the people, and are never employed
but in the meaneft offices. There is befides a general
divifion which pervades the four calls indifcriminately
and which is taken from the worlhip of their gods
Vijhnou and Skeevah; the worlhippers of the former
being named Vijhnou-bukht; of the latter Sheevah-
huhht.
Of thefe four calls the Bramins are accounted the
foremoft in every refpedl 5 and all the laws have fuch
an evident partiality towards them, as cannot but in¬
duce us to fuppofe that they have had the principal
hand in framing them. They are not, however, al¬
lowed to affume the fovereignty ; the religious cere¬
monies and the inftrudlion of the people being their
peculiar province. They alone are allowed to read the
Veda or facred books', the Khatnes, or call next in
dignity, being only allowed to hear them read j while
the other two can only read the Sajlras or commenta¬
ries upon them. As tor the poor Chandalas, they
dare not enter a temple, or be prefent at any religious
seremony.
In point of precedency the Bramins claim a fupe- Hindoos,
riority even to the princes ; the latter being chofen v ~
out of the Khatry or fecond call. A rajah will receive
with refpedl the food that is prepared by a Bramin,
but the latter will eat nothing that has been prepared
by any member of an inferior caft. The punifhment
of a Bramin for any crime is much milder than if he
had belonged to another tribe ; and the greateft crime
that can be committed is the murder of a Bramin.
No magiftrate muft define the death of one of thefe fa¬
cred perfons, or cut off one of his limbs. They muft
be readily admitted into the prefence even of princes
whenever they pleafe : when paffengers in a boat, they
muft be the firft to enter and to go out ; and the wa¬
terman muft befides carry them for nothing; every
one who meets them on the road being likewife obliged
to give place to them.
All the priefts are chofen from among this order,
fuch as are not admitted to the facerdotal funflion be¬
ing employed as fecretaries and accountants. Thefe
can never afterwards become priefts, but continue to
be greatly reverenced by the other cafts.
The Khatry or fecond caft are thofe from among
whom the fovereigns are chofen.—The Bhyfe or Ba¬
nians, who conflitute the third call, have the charge
of commerical affairs; and the Soodera, or fourth call,
the moft numerous of all, comprehend the labourers
and artifans. Thefe laft are divided into as many
claffes as there are followers of different arts ; all the
children being invariably brought up to the profeflion
of their fathers, and it being abfolutely unlawful for
them ever to alter it afterwards.
No Hindoo is allowed to quit the caft in which he
was born upon any account. All of them are very
fcrupulous with regard to their diet; but the Bra¬
mins much more fo than any of the reft. They eat
no flefh, nor (bed blood 5 which we are informed by
Porphyry and Clemens Alexandrinus was the cafe in
their time. Their ordinary food is rice ai'id other
vegetables, dreffed with ghee (a kind of butter melted
and refined fo as to be capable of being kept for a long
time), and feafoned with ginger and other fpices.
The food which they moft efteem, however, is milk,
as coming from the cow j an animal for which they
have the moft extravagant veneration, infomuch that
it is enabled in the code of Gentoo laws, that any one
who exa£ls labour from a bullock that is hungry or
thirfty, or that (hall oblige him to labour when fa¬
tigued or out of feafon, is liable to be fined by the ma-
giftrates. The other cafts, though lefs rigid, abtlain
very religioufly from what is forbidden them j nor will
they eat any thing provided by a perfon of an inferior
call, or by one of a different religion. Though they
may eat fome kinds of fiefh and filh, yet it is counted a
virtue to abftain from them all. None of them are al¬
lowed to tafte intoxicating liquor of any kind. Quin¬
tus Curtius indeed mentions a fort of wine made u(e of
by the Indians in his time; but this is fuppofed to have
been no other than toddy, or the unfermented juice of
the cocoa nut. This when fermented affords a fpirit
of a very unwholefome quality j but it is drunk only by
the Chandalas and the lower clafs of Europeans in the
country. . So exceedingly bigotted and fuperftitious-
are they in their abfurd maxims with regard to meat -
and drink, that fome feapoys in a Britifh Ihip having
expended*
H I N
Of the reli
gion of the
Hindoos.
Hindoos, expended all the water appropriated to
' would have fullered themfelves to perilli for thirft ra¬
ther than tafle a drop of that which was ufed by the
Ihip’s company.
The religion of the Hindoos, by which thefe maxims
are inculcated, and by which they are made to differ fo
much from other nations, is contained in certain books
named Veda, Vedams, or Beds^ written in a language
called Shanfcrit, which is now known only to the learn¬
ed among them. The books are fuppofed to have
been the work not of the fupreme God himfelf, but of
an inferior deity named Brimha. They inform us, that
Brama, or Brahma, the fupreme God, having created the
world by the word of his mouth, formed a female dei¬
ty named Bawaneij, who in an enthufiafm of joy and
praife brought forth three eggs. From thefe were
produced three male deities, named Brimha, Vifhnou,
and Sheevah. Brimha was endowed with the power
of creating the things of this world, Vilhnou with
that of cherilhing them, and Sheevah with that of re-
ilraining and correfting them. Thus Brimha became
the creator of man j and in this charafter he formed
the four calls from different parts of his own body,
the Bramins from his mouth, the Khatry from his
arms, the Banians from his belly and thighs, and the
Soodera from his feet. Hence, fay they, thefe four
different calls derive the different offices affigned them j
the Bramins to teach •, the Khatry to defend and go¬
vern j the Banians to enrich by commerce and agricul¬
ture ; and the Soodera to labour, ferve, and obey.
Brama himfelf endowed mankind with paffions, and un-
derltanding to regulate them 5 while Brimha, having
created the inferior beings, proceeded to write the
Vedams, and delivered them to be read and explained
by the Bramins.
The religion of the Hindoos, though involved in fu-
perflition and idolatry, feems to be originally pure >
inculcating the belief of an eternal and omnipotent Be¬
ing ; their fubordinate deities Brimha, Vifhnou, and
Sheevah, being only reprefentatives of the wifdom,
goodnefs, and power, of the fupreme God Brama.
All created things they fuppofe to be, types of the at¬
tributes of Brama, whom they call the principle of truth,
the fpirit of wifdom, and the fupreme being ; fo that it is
probable that all their idols were at firfl only defigned
to reprefent thefe attributes.
There are a variety of fedls among the Hindoos :
two great clalfes we have mentioned already, viz. the
worfhippers of Vifhnou, and thofe of Sheevah *, and
thefe diflinguifh themfelves, the former by painting
their faces with an horizontal line, the latter by a per¬
pendicular one. There is, however, very little diffe¬
rence in point of religion between thefe or any other
Hindoo fefls. All of them believe in the immortality
of the foul, a flate of future rewards and punifnments,
and tranfmigration. Charity and hofpitality are in¬
culcated in the flrongefl manner, and exifl among them
not only in theory but in practice. “ Hofpitality
(fay they) is commanded to be exercifed even towards
an enemy, when he cometh into thine houfe ; the tree
doth not withdraw its ffiade even from the wood-cut¬
ter. Good men extend their charity even to the vileil
animals. The moon doth not withhold her light even
from the Chandala.” Thefe pure doclrines, however,
are intermixed with fome of the vilefl and mofl abfurd
[ 472 ] H I N
their ufe, fuperflitions ; and along with the true God they wor- Hindoos.
ffiip a number of inferior ones, of whom the principal v 1
are : 4
x. Bawaney, the mother of the gods, already men-Account of
tioned. and fuperior to all but Brama himfelf} but all the'r Pr‘.n*
ties.
Different
Tedts.
the other goddeffes are reckoned inferior to their godsJ;‘Pa
or lords.
2. Brimha, in the Shanfcrit language faid to mean
“ the wifdom of God and who is fuppofed to fly on
the wings of the hanfe or flamingo ; an image of which
is conflantly kept near that of the god in the temple
where he is worlhipped. He has a crown on his head,
and is reprefented with four hands. In one of thefe
he holds a feeptre, in another the facred books or Ve-
dam, in the third a ring or circle as the emblem of
eternity, fuppofed to be employed in affifling and pro-
tedling his Works.
3. Serafwatej, the goddefs or wife of Brimha, pre-
fides over mufic, harmony, eloquence, and invention.
She is alfo faid to be the inventrefs of the letters called
Devanagry, by which the divine will was firil promul¬
gated among mankind. In the argument of an hymn
addreffed to this goddefs, fhe is fuppofed to have a
number of inferior deities adling in fubordination to
her. Thefe are called Rags, and prefide over each
mode, and likewife over each of the feafons. Thefe
feafons in Hindoflan are fix in number; viz. 1. The
Seefar, or dewy feafon. 2. Heemai, or the cold fea-
fon. 3. Vafant, the mild feafon or fpring. 4. Grefsh-
ma, or the hot feafon. 5. Varfa, the rainy feafon.
6. Sarat, the breaking up or end of the rains.
The Rags, in their mufical capacity, are accompa¬
nied each with five Ragnies, a kind of female deities or
nymphs of harmony. Each of thefe has eight fons or
genii; and a diflindl feafon is appointed for the mufic
of each rag, during which only it can be fung or play¬
ed ; and this at diflindl or dated hours of the day
or night. A feventh mode of mufic belonging to
Deipec, or Cupid the inflamer, is faid once to have ex-
illed, but now to be loll; and a mufician, who attempt¬
ed to reflore it, to have been confumed with fire from
heaven.
4. Viflmou, the mofl celebrated of all the Indian
deities, is fuppofed to fly or ride on the garoora, a
kind of large brown kite, which is found in plenty in
the neighbourhood ; and on which Viflmou is feme-
times reprefented as fitting ; though at others he is
reprefented on a ferpent with a great number of diffe¬
rent heads. At fome of his temples the Bramins
accuflom all the birds they can find, of the fpecies
above mentioned, to come and be fed ; calling them
by linking upon a brafs plate. This deity is faid to
have had ten different incarnations to deflroy the giants
with which the earth wTas infeiled ; and in thefe he is
reprefented in as many different figures, all of which
are to the lafl degree fantaflic and monflrous. His
common form is that of a man with four hands, and a
number of heads fet round in a circle, fuppofed to be
emblems of omnifcience and omnipotence. In his firft
incarnation he is reprefented as coming out of the
mouth of a fifh, with feveral hands containing fwords,
&c. In another he has the head of a boar with mon-
ftrous tufks, beating a city in the air, and Hands upon
a vanquifhed giant with horns on his bead. In others
of his incarnations, he has the head of a horfe or other
animals.
H I N L 473 3 H I N
ISindoos. ajiimals, with a great number of arm's brandiiiing
' fwords, &c.
In fome parts of his charader this deity is repre-
fented not ars a deftroyer, but a preferver of mankind ;
and he is then diftinguiihed by the name of Hary,
Birtiop Wilkins defcribes an image of him in this cha-
ra£ter at a place named Jehan-queru, a fmall rocky illand
of the Ganges in the province of JBahar. This image is
of a gigantic lize, recumbent on a coiled ferpent,
■whofe numerous heads are twilled by the artill into a
kind of canopy over the lleeping god, and from each
of its mouths iffues a forked tongue, as threatening de-
ifru£lion to thofe who (hould dare to approach.
5. Shee-vah is reprefented under a human form,
though frequently varied, as is alfo his name ; but he
is moll frequently called Shcevah and Mahadeg. In
his dellroying charafter he is reprefented as a man
with a fierce look, and with a fnake twilled round his
neck. He is thought to prelide over good and evil
fortune, in token of which he is reprefented with a
crefcent on his head. He rides upon an ox.
6. Vikrama, the god of vidlory, is faid to have had
a particular kind of facrifice offered to him, fomewhat
like the fcape-goat of the Jews, viz. by letting a horfe
loofe in the forell, and not employing him again.
7. Yatn Rajah, or Darham Rajah, is reprefented as
the judge of the dead, and ruler of the infernal regions,
in a manner fimilar to the Minos and Pluto of the an¬
cient Greeks. He is the fon of Sour, “ the fun,” by
Bi/oohama daughter of the great architedl of the hea¬
venly manlions, and patron of artificers. He rides
upon a buffalo, with a fceptre in his hand, having two
aflillants, Chiter and Gopt; the former of whom re¬
ports the good, and the latter the bad a£lions of men.
Thefe are attended by two genii, who watch every in¬
dividual of the human race 5 Chiter’s fpy being on
the right, and Gopt’s on the left. The fouls of
deceafed perfons are carried by the jambouts or mef-
fengers of death into the prefence of Darham, where
their adlions are inllantly proclaimed, and fentence paf-
fed accordingly. The infernal manfions are named by
the Hindoos Narehha, and are divided into a great
number of places, according to the degrees of punilh-
ment to be endured by the criminal •, but eternal pu-
nilhment for any offence is fuppofed to be inconfiltent
wfith the goodnefs of God. Inltead of this, the Hin¬
doos fuppofe, that after the fouls of the wicked have
been punilhed long enough in Narekha, they are fent
back into the world to animate other bodies either of
men or bealls, according to circumltances. Thofe
who have lived a life partly good and partly-bad, are
likewife fent back to this wrorld ; and thefe trials and
tranfmigrations are repeated till they be thoroughly
purged of all inclination to fin. But as for thofe holy
men who have fpeat their lives in piety and devotion,
they are inftantly conveyed by the genii to the man-
lions of celeftial blifs, where they are abforbed into the
univerfal fpirit •, a ftate, according to every idea we
can form, equivalest to annihilation !
8. Krifhen and the nine Gopia, among the Hindoos,
correfpond with Apollo and the nine mufes of the
Greeks. I his deity is reprefented as a young man
fometimes playing on a flute. He has a variety of
names, and is fuppofed to be of a very amorous com¬
plexion, having once refided in a diffridt named Birge,
Vol. X. Part II.
where he embraced almoff all the women in the coun- Hindoas.
try. From his refidence here, or from thefe amorous
exploits, he is fometimes called Birge-put.
9. Kanuc-dcva, the god of love, is laid to be the fon
of Maya, or the general attradlive power 5 married to
Retty, or slffeEiion. He is reprefented as a beautiful
youth, fometimes converfing with his mother or con-
lort in his temples or gardens $ at other times riding
on a parrot by moonlight : And Mr Forfler informs us,
that on the taking of Tanjore by the Englifli, a cu¬
rious pifture wTas found, reprefenting him riding on
an elephant, the body of which was compcfed of feven
young women twilled together in fuch a manner as to
reprefent that enormous animal. This is fuppofed to
be a device of a fimilar nature with that of the Greeks,
wdro placed their Eros upon a lion ; thus intimating,
that love is capable of taming the fierce!! of animals.
'The bo\v of this deity is faid to be of fugar-cane, or
of flowers, and the firing of bees : he has five arrows,
each of them tipped wuth an Indian bloffom of an
heating nature. His enfign is a filh on a red ground,
carried by the foremofi of his attendant nymphs or
dancing girls.
10. Lingam, correfponding to the Priapus or Phal¬
lus of the ancients, is worfliipped by the Hindoos in
order to obtain fecundity. This deity is adorned the
more fervently, as they depend on their children for
performing certain ceremonies to their manes, which
they imagine will mitigate their puniihment in the
next world. The devotees of the god go naked, but
are fuppofed to be fuch fandlified perfons, that women
may approach them without any danger. They vow
perpetual chafiity j and death is the confequence of a
breach of their vow. Hulhands whofe waves are bar¬
ren invite them to their houfes, where certain cere¬
monies, generally thought to be effedtual, are per*
formed.
Befides thefe, there is a number of other gods whofe
charadler is lefs eminent ; though it feems not to be
afeertained diftindlly, even by the Hindoos themfelves,
what particular rank each deity holds with refpedl
to another. Some of thefe deities arc, 11. Narcd,
the fon of Brimha, and inventor of a fretted inftru-
ment named Vene. 12. Lechmy, the goddefs of plen¬
ty, and wife of Vifhnou. 13. Gowry, Ka/q, from
Ka/a “ time j” the wife of Sheevah, and goddefs of
defirudlion. 14. Varoona, the god of the feas and
waters, riding on a crocodile. 15. Vayoo, the god
of the winds, riding on an antelope with a fabre in
his hand. j6. Agnee, the god of fire, riding on
a ram. 17. Vafoodka, a goddefs reprefenting the
earth. 18. Pakreety, or nature, reprefented by a beau¬
tiful young woman. 19. Sour or Shan, the fun 5 call¬
ed alfo the king of the liars and planets, reprefented
as. fitting in a chariot drawn by one horfe, fometimes
with feven and fometimes with twelve heads. 20.
Sangia, the mother of the river Jumna, and wife of the
fun. 21. Chandava, the moon, in a chariot drawn by
antelopes, and holding a rabbit in her right hand.
22. Vreekafpaty, the god of learning, attended by beau-
tiful young nymphs, named Veedyadhares, or profeffors
of fcience. 23. Ganes, the god of prudence and poli¬
cy, worfliipped before the undertaking of any thing of
confequence. 24. Fame, reprefented by a ferpent with
a great number of tongues ; and known by feveral
3 O names-.
Hindoos.
Their de¬
migods.
Manner of
worfhip.
7
Their de
',’9’tees.
H I N
ftames. 25. Deirma-deva, the w
times reprefented by a white bull. 26. Virfavana or
Cobhair, the god of riches, reprelented by a man riding
on a white horfe. 27. Dhan-wuntanj, the god of me¬
dicine.
Belides thefe fupreme deities, the Hindoos have a
number of demigods, who are fuppofed to inhabit the
air, the earth, and the waters, and in fliort the whole
world j fo that every mountain, river, wood, town,
village, See. has one of thefe tutelar deities, as was the
cafe among the weilern heathens. By nature thefe
demigods are fubjecl to death, but are fuppofed to
obtain immortality by the ufe of a certain drink named
Amrutt Their exploits in many initances refemble
thofe of Bacchus, Hercules, Thefeus, &c. and in a
beautiful epic poem named Raney an, we have an ac¬
count of the wrars of Ram, one of the demigods, with
Ravana tyrant of Ceylon.
All thefe deities are worfliipped, as in other coun¬
tries, by going to their temples, failing, prayers, and
the performance of ceremonies to their honour. They
pray thrice a day, at morning, noon, and evening,
turning their faces towards the eaft. They ufe many
ablutions, and, like the Pharifees of old, they always
waih before meals. Running water is alw7ays preferred
for this purpofe to fuch as ilagnates. Fruits, flowers,
incenfe, and money, are offered in facrifice to their
idols j but for the dead they offer a kind of cake
named Peenda ; and offerings of this kind always take
place on the day of the full moon. Nothing fanguinary
ts known in the wTorihip of the Hindoos at prefent,
though there is a tradition that it was formerly of this
kind*3; nay, that even human facrifices were made ufe
of: but if fuch a cuflom ever did exift, it muff have
been at a very diftant period. Iheir facred v/ritings in¬
deed make mention of bloody facrifices of various kinds,
not excepting even thofe of the human race : but fo
many peculiarities are mentioned with regard to the
proper vi&ims, that it is almoft impoffible to find them.
The only inftance of bloody facrifices we find on re¬
cord among the Hindoos is that of the buffalo to Ba-
waney, the mother of the gods.
Among the Hindoos there are two kinds of wor-
fhip, diftinguiffied by the name of the worfhip of the
inv'Jible God and of idols. The wmrihippers of the in-
vifible God are, ftri&ly fpeaking, deifts : the idolaters
perform many abfurd and unmeaning ceremonies, too
tedious to mention, all of which are conduced by a
bramin ; and during the performance of thefe rites,
the dancing w’omen occafionally perform in the court,
linging the praifes of the deity in concert with various
inftruments. All the Hindoos feem to wrorfhip the
fire; at leaft they certainly pay a great veneration to
It. Biftiop Wilkiss informs us, that they are enjoined
to light up a fire at certain times, which muff be pio-
duced by the fridlion of tw7o pieces of wood of a par¬
ticular kind 5 and the fire thus produced is made ufe
of for confuming their facrifices, burning the dead, and
in the ceremonies of marriage.
Great numbers of devotees are to be met with every
where through Hindoftan. Every caff is allowed to
affume this way of life excepting the Chandalahs, who
are excluded. Thofe held moft in efteem are named
Seniajfes and Jogeys. The former are allowed no other
Hindoo*.
t 474 ] H I N
god of virtue, fome- clothing but what fuffices for covering their nakednefs,   
nor have they any worldly goods befides a pitcher and “
ftaff} but though they are ftriftly enjoined to medi¬
tate on the truths contained in the facred writings,
they are exprefsly forbidden to argue about them. They
muff eat but once a day, and that very fparingly, of
rice or other vegetables j they muff alfo Ihow the moil
perfeef indifference about hunger, thirff, heat, cold,
or any thing whatever relative to this world •, looking
forward with continual defire to the reparation of the
foul from the body. Should any of them fail in this
extravagant felf-denial, he is rendered fo much more
criminal by the attempt, as he negledled the duties of
ordinary life for thofe of another which he was not
able to accompliffn The Jogeys are bound to much
the fame rules, and both lubjedt themfelves to the
moft extravagant penances. Some wall keep their
arms conftantly ftretched over their heads till they
become quite withered and incapable of motion ;
others keep them croffed over their breaft during life- j
while others, by keeping their hands conftantly (hut,
have them quite pierced through by the growth of
their nails. Some chain themfelves to trees or parti¬
cular fpots of ground, which they never quit 5 others
refolve never to lie down, but fleep leaning againft a
tree : but the moft curious penance perhaps on record
is that of a Jogey, w7ho meafured the diftance between
Benares and Jaggernaut with the length of his body,
lying down and rifing alternately. Many of thefe en-
thufiafts will throw themfelves in the way of the cha¬
riots of Vifhnou or Sheevah, which are fometimes
brought forth in proceffion to celebrate the feaft ot a
temple, and drawn by feveral hundreds of men. Thus
the wretched devotees are in an inftant cruihed to
pieces. Others devote themfelves to the flames, in
order to fliow their regard to fome of their idols, or
to appeafe the wrath of one whom they fuppofe to be
offended.
A certain fet of devotees are named Pandarams ; and
another on the coaft of Coromandel are named Cary-
Patra Pandarams. The former rub themfelves all oyer
with cow-dung, running about the country finging
the praifes of the god Sheevah whom they worlhip.
The latter go about afldng charity at doors by ftriking
their hands together, for they never fpeak. They
accept of nothing but rice j and when they have got as
much as will fatisfy their hunger, never give thera-
felves any trouble about more, but pafs the reft of the
day in the (hade, in a ftate of fuch fupiim indolence as
fcarcely to look at any objedt whatever. 1 he Tadinums
are another fet of mendicants, who fing the incarna¬
tions of Viftmou. They have hollow brafs rings round
their ancles, which they fill with pebbles j fo that they
make a confiderable noife as they walk ; they beat like-
w7ife a kind of tabor. _ _ 8
The greateft Angularity in the Hindoo religion Mildnefs of
however, is, that fo far from perfecuting thofe of a the Hindoo
contrary perfuafion, which is too often the cafe withrellglon*
other profeffors, they abfolutely refufe even to admit
of a profelyte. They believe all religions to be equally
acceptable to the Supreme Being •, afligmng as a rea- ^
fon, that if the Author of the univerfe preferred one
to another, it would have been impoflible for any other
to have prevailed than that which he approved. Every
religion.
II I N
[ 475 1
H I N
Hindoo?.
Their mar.
xi3gM.
religion, therefore, they conclude to be adapted to the
country where it is eftabliihed } and that all in their
original purity are equally acceptable.
Among the Hindoos, marriage is confidered as a re¬
ligious duty ; and parents are ftri£Uy commanded to
marry their children by the time they arrive at eleven
years of age at fartheft. Polygamy is allowed ; but
this licence is feldom made ufe of unlefs there (hould
be no children by the firft wife. In cafe the fecond
wife alio- proves barren, they commonly adopt a fon
from among their relations.
The Hindoos receive no dower with their wives j
but, on the contrary, the intended hufband makes a
prefent to the father of his bride. Neverthelefs, in many
cafes, a rich man will choofe a poor relation for his
daughter j in which cafe the bride’s father is at the ex-
peuce of the wedding, receives his fon-in-law into his
houfe, or gives him a part of his fortune. I he bride¬
groom then quits the dwelling of his parents with cer¬
tain ceremonies, and lives with his father-in-law. Many
formalities take place between the parties even after the
match is fully agreed upon ; and the celebration of the
marriage is attended with much expence $ magnificent
proceflions are made, the bride and bridegroom fitting
in the fame palankeen, attended by their friends and re¬
lations ; fome riding in palankeens, ibme on horfes, and
others on elephants. So great is their vanity indeed
on this occafion, that they will borrow or hire numbers
of thefe expenfive animals to do honour to the cere¬
mony. The rejoicings lad feveral days; during the
evenings of which, fire-works and illuminations are dif-
played, and dancing-women perform their feats j the
whole concluding with alms to the poor, and prelents
to the bramins and principal guefls, generally confid¬
ing of fhawls, pieces of muffin, and other cloths. A
number of other ceremonies are performed when the
parties come of age, and are allowed to cohabit toge¬
ther. The fame are repeated when the young wife be¬
comes pregnant j when (he pafies the feventh month
without any accident 5 and when Ihe is delivered of her
child. The relations affemble on the tenth day after
the birth, to adid at the ceremony of naming the child ;
but if the bramins be of opinion that the afpe61 of
the planets is at that time unfavourable, the ceremony
is delayed, and prayers offered up to avert the misfor¬
tune. When the lucky moment is difcovered, they fill
as many pots wfith water as there are planets, and offer
a facrihce to them j afterwards they fprinkle the head
of the child with water, and the bramin gives it fuch
a name as he thinks bed adapted to the time and cir-
cumdances $ and the ceremony concludes with prayers,
prefents to the bramins, and alms to the poor. Mo¬
thers are obliged to fuck’9 vtheir own children j nor
can this duty be difpenfed with except in cafe of
ficknefs. New ceremonies, with prefents to the bra¬
mins, take place, when a boy comes of age to receive
the dring which the three fird cads wear round their
waid.
Boys are taught to read and write by the bramins,
of children. w^° keep fchools for that purpofe throughout the coun¬
try. They ufe leaves indead of books, and write with
a pointed iron indrument. The leaves are generally
chofen of the palm-tree, which being fmooth and hard,
and having a thick fubdance, may be kept for almod
any length of time, and the letters are not fubje£l to
10
Education
grow faint or be effaced. The leaves are cut into flips ^ Hind-os, ^
about an inch broad, and their books confid of a num- y "M~ J
ber of thefe tied together by means of a hole in one
end. Sometimes the letters are rubbed over with a
black powder, to render them more legible. When
they wuite upon paper, they make ufe of a fmall reed.
Sometimes they are initiated in writing by making
letters upon fand drewed on the floor } and they are
taught arithmetic by means of a number of fmall peb¬
bles. The education of the girls is much more limited $
feldom extending farther than the articles of their re¬
ligion. 1 r
Among thefe people the cudom of burning the dead Barbarous
prevails univerfally j and the horrid practice of wivescuftom of
burning themfelves along with their deceafed hufbands^urnin?
was formerly very common, though now much lefs fo. themfelYe3.
At prefent it is totally prohibited in the Britilh domi¬
nions 5 and even the Mohammedans endeavour to dif-
countenance a practice fo barbarous, though many of
their governors are accufed of conniving at it through
motives of avarice. At prefent it is mod common in
the country of the Rajahs, and among women of high
rank.
This piece of 'barbarity is not enjoined by any law
exiding among the Hindoos } it is only faid to be ftro-
per, and rewards are promifed in the next world to thof*:
who do fo. But though a wife choofes to outlive her
hufband, (he is in no cafe whatever permitted to marry
again, even though the marriage with the former had
never been completed. It is unlawful for a woman to
burn herfelf if die be with child at the time of her huf-
band’s deceafe, or if he died at a didance from her. In
the latter cafe, however, die may do fo if die can pro¬
cure his girdle or turban to be put on the funeral pile
along wfith her. Thefe miferable enthufiads, who de¬
vote themfelves to this dreadful death, fuffer with the
greated condancy ; and Mr Holwel gives an account
of one who, being told of the pain die mud fuffer
(with a view to diffuade her), put her finger into the fire
and kept it there for a confiderable time ; after which
die put fire on the palm of her hand, with incenfe up¬
on it, and fumigated the bramins who were prefent.
Sometimes a chapel is erefted on the place where one
of thofe facrifices has been performed ; fometimes it is
inclofed, flowers planted upon it, and images fet up.—
In fome few places the Hindoos bury their dead •, and
fome women have been known to fuffer tbemfelves to
be buried alive with their deceafed hufbands: but the
indances of this are dill more rare than thofe of burn¬
ing.—No woman is allowed any inheritance among
the Hindoos; fo that if a man dies without male iffue,
his edate goes to his adopted fon or to his neared re¬
lation. 12
The Hindoos, though naturally mild and timid, will Tnftances of
on many occafions meet death with the mod heroic in-,ieroifIIj
trepidity. An Hindoo who lies at the point of death, ^j,n{f00S1C
will talk of his deceafe wfith the utmod compofure j
and if near the river Ganges, will defire to be carried
out, that he may expire on its banks. Such is the ex-
Cedive veneration they have for their religion and cu-
doms, that no perfon wfill infringe them even to pre-
ferve his own life. An Hindoo, we are told, being ill
of a putrid fever, was prevailed upon to fend for an Eu¬
ropean phyfician, who prefcribed him the bark in wfinej
but this was refilled wfith the greated obdinacy even
1 O 2 to
H I N
[
Hindoos.
}3
Their gene-
ral £< arac-
ter.
* 14
/Lrrefs of the
to the very iaft, though the governor hirufelf joitred in
his folicitations, and in other matters had a coniiderable
influence over him. In many inftances thefe people,
both in ancient and modern times, have been known,
when clofely beiieged by an enemy whom they could
not refill, to kill their wives and children, let fire to
their houfes, and then violently rulh upon their adver-
laries till every one was deftroyed. Some Seapoys,
in the Brithh fcrvice, having been concerned in a mu¬
tiny, were condemned to be blown away from the mouths
of cannon. Of th.ele lome were grenadiers, who cried
*ut, that as they had all along had the poll of honour,
they favv no reafon why they fhould be denied it now j
and therefore delired that they might be blown away
rirft. This being granted, they walked forward to the
guns with compoiure, begged that they might be fpa-
red the indignity of being tied, and, placing their breads
clofe to the muzzles, were fhot away. The com¬
manding officer was fo much affeCled with this in*
fiance of heroifm, that he pardoned all the reft.
In ordinary life the Hindoos are cheerful and lively j
fond of converfation and amufements, particularly dan¬
cing. They do not, however, learn or praftife dancing
themfelves, but have women taught for the purpofe j and
in beholding thefe they will fpend whole nights. They
diiapprove of many parts of the education of European
ladies, as iuppofing that they engage the attention too
much, and draw away a woman’s affedlion from her
hufband and children. Hence there are few women in
Hindoflan who can either read or write. In general
they are finely fhaped, gentle in their manners, and have
foft and even mufical voices. The women of Kalhmere,
according to Mr Forfler, have a bright olive com¬
plexion, fine features, and delicate fhape ; a pleafing
freedom in their manners, without any tendency to im-
modefiy.
The drefs of the modefl women in Hindoflan con-
fids of a clofe jacket, which covers their breads, but
perfe£l!y fliows their form. The deeves are tight, and
reach half way to the elbows, with a narrow border
painted or embroidered all round the edges. Indead
of a petticoat, they have a piece of white cotton cloth
wrapped round the loins, and reaching near the ancle
on the one fide, but not quite fo low7 on the other. A
wide piece of muflin is thrown over the right fhoulder ^
which, pading under the left arm, is eroded round the
middle, and hangs down to the feet. The hair is ufu-
ally rolled up into a knot or bunch towards the back
part of the head ; and fome have curls hanging before
and behind the ears. They wear bracelets on their
arms, rings in their ears, and on their fingers, toes,
and ancles j with fometimes a fmall one in their no-
flril.
The drefs of the dancing women, who are likewife
votaries of Venus, is very various. Sometimes they
wear a jama, or long robe of wrought mudin, or gold
and filver tidue *, the hair plaited and hanging down be¬
hind, with fpiral curls on each fide of the face. They
■are taught every accompli fhment which can be fuppo-
fcd to captivate the other fex; form a clafs entirely dif¬
ferent from the red of the people, and live by their own
rules. Their clothes, jewels, and lodging, are confider-
td as implements of their trade, and mud be allowed
them in cafes of confifcation for debt : They may drink
fuirituous liquors, and eat any kind of meat except
476 ] H I N
beef: Their dunce* are find to referable pretty exactly Hindoos*
thofe of the ancient Bacchanalians reprefented in feme "" ^
of the ancient paintings and has reliefs. In fome of
their dances they attach gold and filver bells to the
rings of the fame metals they wear on their ancles. r5
'['he men generally lliave their heads and beards, Dre& of tha
leaving only a pair of fmall whilkers and a lock on themen*
back part of their head, which they take great care to
preferve. In Kalhmere and fome other places, they let
their beards grow to the length of two inches. Hiey
wear turbans on their heads •, but the Bramins who
officiate in the temples commonly go with their heads
uncovered, and the upper part of the body naked :
round their fhoulder they hang the facred firing called
Zennar, made of a ki id of perennial cotton, and com-
pofed of a certain number of threads of a determined
length. The Khatries wear allb a firing of this kind,
but compofed of fewer threads; the Bhyfe have one
with flill fewer threads, but the Sooderas are not al¬
lowed to wear any firing. The other drefs of the Bra¬
mins confifls of a piece of white cotton cloth wrapped
about the loins, defeending below the knee, but lower
on the left than on the right fide. In cold weather
they fometimes put a red cap on their heads, and wrap
a fhawl round their bodies.—The Khatries, and moll
other of the inhabitants of this country, wear alfo pie¬
ces of cotton cloth wrapped round them, but which co¬
ver the upper as well as the lower part of the body.
Ear-rings and bracelets are worn by the men as well as
women : and they are fond of ornamenting themfelves
with diamonds, rubies, and other precious llones, when
they can procure them. They wear flippers on their
feet of fine woollen cloth or velvet, frequently fembroi-
dered with gold and filver 5 thofe of princes being fome¬
times adorned with precious ftones. The lower daffes
wear fandals or flippers of coarfe woollen cloth or lea¬
ther. Thefe flippers are always put off on going into
any apartment, being left at the door, or given to an
attendant \ neverthelefs the Hindoos make no com¬
plaints of the Europeans for not putting off their ffioes
when they come into their houfes, which muff certainly
appear very uncouth to them.
Hindoo families are always governed by the eldeft
male, to whom great refpeft is fhevvn. Filial venera¬
tion is carried to fuck an height among them, that a
fon will not fit down in the prefence of his father until
ordered to do fo: and Mr Forfter obferves, that during
the whole time of his refidence in India, he never faw
a dived inftance of undutifulnefs to parents; and the
fame is related by other writers. ^
The houfes of the Hindoos make a worfe appearance-pheir
than could be fuppofed from their ingenuity in other houfes.
refpeds. In the fouthern parts of the country, the
houfes are only of one ftory. On each fide of the door,
towards the ftreet, is a narrow gallery covered by the
Hope of the roof which projeds over it, and which, as
far as the gallery extends, is fupported by pillars of
brick or wood. The floor of this gallery is raifed about
20 inches above the level of the ftreet, and the porters,
or bearers of palankeens, with the foot foldiers named
Peons, who commonly hire themfelves to noblemen, of¬
ten lie down in this place. This entrance leads into a
court, which is alfo furrounded by a gallery like the for¬
mer. On one fide of the court is a large room, on a
level with the floor of the gallery j open in front, and
fpread
H I N
[ 477 ]
H I N
Hir.does.
17-
Learning
of the Bra-
mins.
IS
Metaphy-
_ 19
THieir aftro-
ivorry.
fpread with mats and carpets covered with white cotton
cloth, where the matter of the houfe receives vifits and
tranfadls bufinefs. From this court there are entrances
by very fmall doors to the private apartments. In the
northern parts, houfes of two or three ttories are com¬
monly met with. Over all the country alfo we meet
with the ruins of palaces, which evidently fliow the
magnificence of former times.
The Bramins of India were anciently much cele¬
brated for their learning, though they now make a very
inconfiderable figure in comparifon with the Europeans.
According to Philoftratus, the Gymnofophitts of Ethi¬
opia were a colony of Bramins, who, being obliged to
learve India on account of the murder of their king near
the banks of the Ganges, migrated into that country.
The ancient Bramins, however, may juftly be fuppo-
fed to have cultivated fcience with much greater fuccefs
than their defendants can boaft of, confidering the rui¬
nous wars and revolutions to which the country has
been fubje&ed. Metaphyfics, as well as moral and na¬
tural philofophy, appear to have been well underftood
among them ; but at prefent all the Hindoo knowledge
is confined to thofe whom they call Pundits, “ doctors
or learned men.” Thefe only underftand the language
called Shanfcrit or Sanfcrit, (from two words fignify-
ing perfection) j in which the ancient books were writ¬
ten.
The metaphyfics of the Brarains is much the fame
with that of fome ancient Greek philofophers. They
believe the human foul to be an emanation from the
Deity, as light and heat from the fun. Gowtama, an
ancient metaphyfician, diftinguilhes two kinds of fouls,
the divine and vital. The former refembles the eternal
fpirit from which it came, is immaterial, indivilible, and
without pattions ; the vital foul is a fubtile element
which pervades all things, diftinft from organifed mat¬
ter, and which is the origin of all our defires. The
external fenfes, according to this author, are reprefen-
iations of external things to the mind, by which it is
furnilhed with materials for its various operations ; but
unlefs the mind aitt in conjumttion with the fenfes, the
•peration is loft, as in that abfence of mind which takes
place in deep contemplation. He treats likewfife of
reafon, memory, perception, and other abtlradt fubje&s.
He is of opinion, that the wrorld could not exift without
a firft caufe ; chance being nothing but the effeft of an
unknowm caufe : he is of opinion, however, that it is
folly to make any conjeftures concerning the beginning
or duration of the world. In treating of providence,
he denies any immediate interpofition of the Deity j
maintaining, that the Supreme Being having created
the fyftem of nature, allowed it to proceed according to
the laws originally impreffed upon it, and man to follow
the impulfeofhis own defires, rettrained and condu&ed
by his reafon. His doiftrine concerning a future ftate
is not different from what we have already ftated as the
belief of the Hindoos in general. According to Bifhop
Wilkins, many of them believe that this world is a ftate
of rewards and puniftiments as well as of probation j
and that good or bad fortune are the effecfts of good or
evil adlions committed in a former ftate.
The fcience for which the Bramins,. however, were
moft remarkable, is th,at of aftronomy ; and in this their
progrefs was fo great, as even yet to furniih matter of
admiration tp the moderns.—The Europeans firff , be¬
came acquainted with the Indian aftronomy in l(S8 ;, Hindoos,
from a Siamefe MS. containing rules for calculating the
places of the fun and moon, brought home by M. Lou-
bere the French ambaffador at Siam. The principles
on which the tables in this MS. were founded, however,
proved to be fo obfcure, that it required the genius of
Caftini to inveftigate them. The miflionaries after¬
wards fent over two other fets of tables from Hindo-
ftan; but no attention was paid to them till M. le Gen-
til returned from obferving the tranfit of Venus in
1769. During the time of his ftay in Hindoftan, the
Bramins had been much more familiar with him on ac¬
count of his aftronomical knowledge, than they ufually
were with Europeans; and he thus had an opportunity
of obtaining coniiderable infight into their methods of
calculation. In confequence of this inftruflion he pub- &d‘n. VhlK
lilhed tables and rules, according to the Indian method, Tranfi
in the academy of fciences for 1772 ; and in the expla¬
nation of thefe M. Bailly has employed a whole vo¬
lume. The objefls of this aftronomy, according to Mr
Playfair, are, 1. Tables and rules for calculating the
places of the fun and moon. 2. Of the planets. 3. For
determining the phafes of eclipfes. They divide the
zodiac into 27 conftellations, probably from the motion
of the moon through it in 27 days ; and to this lunar
motion the Profeffor afcribes the general divifion of time
into weeks, which has prevailed fo univerfally through¬
out the world,. The days of the week were dedicated
to the planets, as by the ancient heathens of the weft,
and in precifely the fame order. The ecliptic is divid¬
ed into figns, degrees, and minutes, as with us : and
indeed their calculations are entirely fexagefimal, the
day and night being divided into 60 hours; fo that each
of their hours is only 24 of our minutes, and each of
their minutes 24 of our feconds.
The requifites for calculating by the Indian tables
are, 1. An obfervation of the celeftial body in fome
part moment of time, which- is commonly called the
Epoch of the tables. 2. The mean rate of the pla-
net’s motion. 3. The correction on account of the
irregular motion of the body, to be added or fubtraft-
ed from the mean place, according to circumftances.
They calculate the places of the fun and moon, not
from the time of their entrance into Aries, but into the
moveable Zodiac. Thus the beginning of the year is
continually advancing with regard to the feafons ; and
in 24,000 years will have made, the complete round.
The mean place of the fun for any time is deduced on
the fuppofition that 800. years- contain 292,207 days;
from whence, by various calculations, the length of the
year comes out only x' 53" greater than that of De la
Caille; which is more accurate than any of our ancient
aftronomical tables. In the equation of the fun’s
centre, however, they commit an error of no lefs than
16' : But Mr Playfair is of opinion that this cannot be
afcribed wholly to their inaccuracy, as there was a
time when their calculation approached very near the
truth ; and even at prefent the error is lefs than it ap¬
pears to be.
The motions of the moon are deduced from a cycle
of 19 years ; during which (he makes nearly 235 revo¬
lutions ; and which period conftitutes the famous cycle
fuppofed to have been invented by Meton the Athe¬
nian aftronomer, and from him called the Metonic Cy¬
cle. They are likewife furprifingly exatt in calcula¬
ting:
H I N [ 478 ] HIM
Hindoos, ting tlie moon’s apogee and fome of the inequalities of
 v her motion •, they know the apparent motion of the
fixed ftars eaAward, and the Siamefe tables make it
only four feconds too quick } which ftill (hows a great
accuracy of calculation, as Ptolemy the celebrated
aftronomer made an error of no lefs than 14 feconds in
calculating the fame thing. M. Caffini, however, in¬
forms us, that thefe tables are not calculated for the me¬
ridian of Siam, but for a place 180 15' to the welt-
ward of it, which brings us very near the meridian of
Benares, the ancient feat of Indian learning. Phis
likewife agrees with wdiat the Hindoos call their firft
meridian, wdiich paffes through Ceylon, and the banks
of the river Remananur. It muft be obferved, how¬
ever, that the geography of the Hindoos is much more
inaccurate than their aftronomy.
The date of the Siamefe tables is not very ancient 5
and that of the table above mentioned fent from Hin-
doflan by the miflionaries is ffill more modern. Thefe,
however, are written in fuch an enigmatical manner,
that the miffionary who fent them was unable to tell
their meaning j and Mr Playfair fuppofes that even the
Bramins themfelves were ignorant of it. Neverthelefs
they were deciphered by M. le Gentil j who thinks
that they have the appearance of being copied from in-
fcriptions on ftone. The minutes and feconds are not
Tanged in vertical columns, but in row's under one ano¬
ther, and without any title to point out their meaning
or connexion.
The tables of Trivalore are among the mod remark¬
able of all we are yet acquainted with. Their date,
according to Mr Playfair, coxrefponds with the year
3102 B. C. thus running up to the year of the world
902, when Adam wTas fliil in life. 1 his era is famous
in Hindoftan, under the name of Ca/yougham: and as
this extraordinary antiquity cannot but create fome fuf-
picion, Mr Playfair has been at fome pains to determine
whether it h real or fk'litious, i. e. whether it has been
determined by aftual obfervation, or derived by calcu¬
lation from tables of more modern date. The refult of
his labours is, that we are to account the Calyougham
as determined by oblervation j and that had it been
otherwife, we muft have been furniftied with infallible
methods of dete&ing the fallacy. His reafons for this
opinion are,
* l. The talk would have been too difficult, even for
modern aftronomers, to make the neceftary calculations
without taking into account the difturbances arifing
from the aftion of the heavenly bodies upon one ano¬
ther, and with which we cannot fuppofe the ancient
aftronomers to have been equally well acquainted with
the moderns. By reafon of thefe variations, as well
as from the fmall errors unavoidable in every calcula¬
tion, any fet of aftronomical tables will be found pro-
digioufly inaccurate wdien applied to any period very
far diftant from the time of obfervation. Plence, fays
our author, “ it may be eftabliffied as a maxim, that if
there be given a fyftem of aftronomical tables, founded
on obfervations of an unknown date, that date may be
found by taking the time when the tables reprefent the
celeftial motions moft exaftly.” This indeed might be
done, provided we were furniffied with any fet of per-
fe£Uy accurate tables with wdnch w'e could compare
the fufpe&ed ones j and Mr Playfair thinks it “ a very
r-eafonable poftulatum,” that our moderp aftronomical
3
tables, though not perfe&ly accurate, are yet capable Hindoo*,
of determining the places of the celeftial bodies with- v ",UJ
out any lenfible error for a longer period than that of
the Calyougham.
2. By calculation from our modern tables, it appears
that the place of the liar Aldebaran, at the commence¬
ment of the Calyougham, differs pnly 53' from what
the Indian tables make it. He thinks this coincidence
the more remarkable, as the Bramins, by realon of
the inaccuracy of their own date, would have erred by
four or five degrees, had they calculated from their moil
modern tables dated in 1491.
3. At the commencement of this epoch (which ac¬
cording to M. Bailly, happened at midnight between
the 17th and 18th of February 3 1 o 2 B. C. the fun
was in 10s 30 38' 13" by the Indian tables. But
the mean longitude of the iun, according to the tables
of M, de la Caille, for the lame time, comes out to
be only 10s i° 5’ 5 7", fuppofing the preceffion of
the equinoxes to have been the fame at that tii»e as
now. M. de la Grange, however, has demonftrated,
that, in former ages, the preceffion of the equinoxes
was lefs than at prefent ; whence there arifes an equa¬
tion of i° 45' 22" to be added to the fun’s place al¬
ready mentioned 5 and thus it will differ only 47 from
the radical place in the tables of Trivalore. Notwith-
ftanding this reafoning, however, Mr Playfair thinks
that no ftrefs is to be laid upon this argument, as it de¬
pends on the truth of a conjeftureof M. Bailly that the
place of the fun above mentioned was not the mean but
the true one.
4. The mean place of the moon at Benares, calcula¬
ted from Mr Mayer’s tables, for the 18th of February
3102 B. C. will be to* 0° 51' 16", provided her mo¬
tion bad all that time been equable : but the fame aftro¬
nomer informs us, that the motion of the moon is fub-
jeft to a fmall but uniform acceleration, about 9" in
100 years ; which, in an interval of 4801 years, muft
have amounted to 50 45' 44" ; which added to the
preceding, gives ics 6° 37' for the true place of the
moon at the commencement of the Calyougham. Now
the place of this luminary, at that time, by the tables
of Trivalore, is 10s 6° the difference is lefs than two-
thirds of a degree, which, for fo remote a period, and
confidering the acceleration of the moon’s motion, for
which no allowance could be made in an Indian calcu¬
lation, is a degree of accuracy that nothing but adlual
obfervation could have produced.—This conclufion is
confirmed by a computation of the moon’s place from
all the tables to which the Indians could have any ac-
cefs, and of which the enormous errors w’ould inftantly
{how the deception. Thus, by the tables of Ptolemy,
the place of the fun would be io° 21' 15" greater ; and
that of the moon 1 x° 52' 7" greater than has juft been
found from the Indian tables. By thofe of Ulug Beg,
the place of the fun would be i° 30', and that of the
moon 6°, different from what it is by the Indian tables {
and in like manner our author (hows that the Indian
calculations could not be derived from any other fet of
tables extant. In like maimer, he (hows that, with re¬
gard to the mean place of the moon, there is a coinci¬
dence for a period of more than 4000 years between
the tables of Mayer and thofe of India named Chrifna-
bouram ; which, though they bear a more modern date
than thofe of Trivalore, are thus probably more ancient.
“ Front
H 1 N [ 479 1 H I N
Hindoes. “ From this remarkable coincidence (fays Mr Playfair),
u', v1 we may conclude, with the higheft probability, that at
leaft one fet of thefe obfervations on which the tables
are founded, is not lefs ancient than the era of the Ca-
lyougham : and though the poffibility of their being
feme ages later than that epoch is not abfoiutely ex¬
cluded, yet it may, by ft riff mathematical reafoning,
be inferred, that they cannot have been later than 2000
years before the Chriftian era.
5. Since the time that M. Bailly wrote, every argu¬
ment refpedling the acceleration of the moon’s motion
has become more worthy of attention, and more con-
clufive. For that acceleration is no longer a mere em¬
pirical equation introduced to reconcile the ancient ob¬
fervations with the modern, nor a fa<ft that can only be
accounted for by hypothetical caufes, fuch as the refift-
ance of the ether, or the time neceffary for the tranf-
miflion of gravity j but a phenomenon which M. de la
Place has with great ability deduced from the principle
of univerfal gravitation, and ftiown to be neceffarily
connefted with the changes of eccentricity in the earth’s
orbit difeovered by M. de la Grange : fo that the ac¬
tion of the moon is indirectly produced by the action
of the planets, which alternately increafing and dimi-
niftung this eccentricity, fubjedts the moon to different
degrees of that force by which the fun difturbs the
time of her revolution round the earth. It is there¬
fore a periodical inequality, by which the moon’s mo¬
tion, in the courfe of ages, will be as much retai'ded
as accelerated 5 but its changes are fo flow, that her
motion has been conftantly accelerated, even for a much
longer period than that to which the obfervations of
India extend. —To M. de la Grange alfo we are in¬
debted for one of the moft beautiful of the difeoveries
in phyfical aftronomy, viz. That all the variations in
our fyftem are periodical 5 fo that, though every thing,
almoft without exception, be fubjedt to change, it will,
after a certain interval, return to the fame ftate in
which it is at prefent, and leave no room for the intro-
dudlion of diforder, or of any irregularity that might
conftantly increafe. Many of thefe periods, however,
are of vaft duration. A great number of ages, for in-
ftance, muft elapfe, before the year be exadlly of the
fame length, or ^he fun’s equation be of the fame mag¬
nitude, as at prefent. An aftronomy, therefore, which
profeffes to be fo ancient as the Indian, ought to differ
confiderably from ours in many of its elements. If, in¬
deed, thefe differences are irregular, they are the ef¬
fects of chance, and muft be accounted errors ; but if
they obferve the laws which theory informs us they do,
they muft be held as the moft undoubted marks of au¬
thenticity.
6. Neither thefe tables of Trivalore, nor the more
ancient ones of Chrifnabouram, are thole of the great-
eft antiquity in India. The Bramins conftantly refer
to an aftronotny at Benares, which they emphatically
ftyle the ancient; and which, they fay, is not now un-
derftood by them, though they believe it to be much
20 more accurate than that by which they calculate.
Conclufions From thefe and other fimilar arguments, PTr Playfair
fl>irMcon-y’draWS the ^ollowing conclufions with refpedt to Indian
cerning the ahronomy- The obfervations on which it is founded,
IndiarTa- were made more than 3000 years before the Chriftian
ftronoroy, era ; and, in particular, the places of the fun and
moon? at the beginning of the Calyougham, were de¬
termined by atftual obfervation. 2. Though the aftro- H'mcfnos;
nomy now in the hands of the Bramins is fo ancient in
its origin, yet it contains many rules and tables that are
of later conftrudlion. 3. The bafts of their four fyftems
of aftronomical tables is evidently the fame. 4. The
conftrueftion of thefe tables implies a great knowledge
of geometry, arithmetic, and even the theoretical part 2I
of aftronomy. All this, however, we find contravert-controvert*,
ed, or at leaft rendered fomewhat doubtful, by William6^ by
Marfden, Efq. who has written a paper on the chrono-
logy of the Hindoos in the Philofophical Tranfaftions
for j 790. “ The Kalee Toog (fays he), or principal
chronological era, began in the year 3102 B. C. ac¬
cording to the common method of computation, or in
3101 according to the aftronomical method, on the
x 8th of February, at funrife ; or at midnight, accord¬
ing to different accounts, under their firft meridian of
Lauka. At that period it is faid to be afferted by their
aftronomers, that the fun, moon, and all the planets,
were in conjunftion according to their mean places.
The reality of this fa£t, but with confiderable modifica¬
tion, has received a refpeftable famftion from the writ¬
ings of an ingenious and celebrated member of the
French academy of fciences, who concludes that the
a&ual obfervation of this rare phenomenon, by the Hin¬
doos of that day, was the occafton of its eftablifliment
as an aftronomical epoch. Although M. Bailly has
fupported this opinion with his ufual powers of reafon¬
ing, and although abundant circumftances tend to prove
their early Ikill in this fcience, and fome parts of the
mathematics connefted with it ; yet we are conftrained
to queftion the verity or poffibility of the obfervation, and
to conclude rather that the fuppofed conjunflion was, at
a later period, fought for as an epoch, and calculated
retrofpeftively. That it was widely mifcalculated too,
is fufficiently evident from the computation which M.
Bailly himfelf has given of the longitudes of the pla¬
nets at that time, when there was a difference of no
lefs than 730 between the places of Mercury and Ve¬
nus. But fifteen days after, when the fun and moon
were in oppofition, and the planets far enough from
the fun to be vifible, he computes that all, except Ve¬
nus, were comprehended within a fpace of 170; and
on this he grounds his fuppofition of an a&ual obferva¬
tion.
“ In their current tranfaflions the inhabitants of the
pewinfula employ a mode of computation of a different
nature, which, though not unknown in other parts of
the world, is confined to thefe people among the Hin¬
doos. This is a cycle, or revolving period, of 60 folar
years, which has no farther correfpondence with their
other eras than that of their years refpeftively commen¬
cing on the fame day. Thofe that conftitute the cycle,
inftead of being numerically counted, are diftinguilhed
from each other by appropriate names, which in their
epiftles, bills, and the like, are inferted as dates, with
the months, and perhaps the age of the moon annexed j
but in their writings of importance and record, the
year of Salaban (often called the Saba year) is fuper-
added 5 and this is the more effential, as I do not find
it cuftomary to number the cycles by any progrefiive
reckoning. In.their aftronomical calculations we ob¬
ferve, that they fometimes complete the year of their
era by multiplying the number of cycles elapfed, and
adding the complement of the cycle in which it com¬
menced .
H 1 N [ 480 ] H I N
H^ndoas. menced, as welt as die years of tlie current cycle ; but
-—V—from hence we are led to no iatisfa&ory conclufion con¬
cerning this popular mode of eftimating time. The
prefumption is in favour of its being more ancient than
their hiftorical epochs. The prefent cycle, of which
43 complete years expired in April 1790,^ began in
1747, writh the year of Salaban 1669, and of the grand
era 4848. M. le Gentil, to whom Europe is chiefly
indebted for what is known of Hindoo aftronomy, has
fallen into an unaccountable error with regard to the
years of this cycle, and their correfpondence with thole
of the Kalee Toog, as appears by the comparative ta¬
ble he has given of them, and other paflages of his
work. He feems to have taken it for granted, without
due examination, that the years 3600 of the latter mull;
have been produced by the multiplication of tne cycle
of 60 into itfelf; and confequently that the firfl: year of
this grand era mult likewile have been the firfl: of the
cycle. But tjiis is totally inconfiftent with the fa£t •, the
jKalee Yoog began the 13th year of the cycle of 60 ;
and all the reafoniwg founded on the felf-produ£tion
and harmony of thefe periods muft fall to the
ground.”
From what Mr Marfden here fets forth, it is plain
that we mult make very confiderable abatements in our
confidence of the extreme antiquity of the Hindoos
oblervations. Indeed we can fcarce conceive a poflibi-
lity of reconciling fuch extravagant antiquity with the
authentic hiitories of which we are polTefied, or with
thofe of Scripture. The want of an ancient hiftory of
Hindoltan leaves us indeed in the dark, and gives room
for ingenious and fpeculative men to indulge themfelves
in marvellous reveries concerning their antiquity. But
the flood, we know, which if it exilted at all, could
* See the not be but general over the whole earth *, muft have
article deftroyed every monument pf art and fcience •, and it is
JJeluge. furely more reafonable to believe, that M. le Gentil,
or the molt learned man in the prefent age, has' been
miftaken (even though we fliould not be able to deter¬
mine the particular manner), than at once to deny the
•authenticity of all hiftory both facred and profane, and
attempt to evade evidence which no power of reafonmg
can ever fet afide.
» I. It is, however, undeniable, that the progrefs of the
■ofthe Hin- Hindoos in geometry as well as aftronomy has been
tloos in very grefat in ancient times. Of this a moft remarkable
geometry, jnftance is given by Mr Playfair, in their finding out
the proportion of the circumference of a circle to its
diameter to a great degree of accuracy. This is deter¬
mined, in the Jyeen Jkbery, to be as 3927 to 1250,
and which, to do it arithmetically in the fimpleft man¬
ner pofiible, would require the infeription of a polygon
of 768 lides •, an operation which cannot be performed
without the knowledge of fome very curious properties
of the circle, and at leaft nine extractions of the Iquare
root, each as far as ten places of decimals. This pro¬
portion of 1250 to 3927 is the fame with that of 1 to
3.1416 ; and differs very little from that of 113 to 355
difeovered by Metrus. He and Vieta were the firlt
who furpaffed the accuracy of Archimedes in the folu-
tion of this problem •, and it is remarkable that thele
two mathematicians flourilhed at the very time that the
Ayeen Akbery was compofed among the Hindoos. In
geography, however, they are much deficient •, and it
w very difficult to find out the. true lituation of the me-
3
ridians mentioned by their authors from what they have HIn<!o#i.
faid concerning them. ‘ v" *
The art of painting among the Hindoos is in an im- p ■
perfect ftate •, nor are there any remains of antiquity fculptufe,
which evince its ever being more perfeil than it is juft See.
now. Their principal defeat is in drawing, and they
leem to be almoft totally ignorant of the rules of
perfpeftive. They are much better Ikilled in colouring,
and fome of their pictures are finilhed with great
nicety. Their fculptures arc likewife rude, and greatly
refemble thofe of the Egyptians. They feem to follow
no regular rules in architecture : their temples indeed
are filled with innumerable columns, but moft of thern
without any juft ftiape or proportion. They are princi¬
pally remarkable for their immenfe fize, which gives
them an air of majefty and grandeur. 24
The mufic of the Hindoos is but little known to MufiC.
Europeans ; and the art feems to have made but little
progrefs among them in comparifon with what it has
done in the weftern countries ; though fome of the In¬
dian airs are faid to be very melodious. Their mufical
inftruments are very numerous : in w7ar they ufe a kind
of great kettle-drum named nagar, carried by a camel,
and fometimes by an elephant. The dole is a long
narrow drum flung round the neck $ and the tam-tam
is a flat, kind of drum refembling a tabor, but larger
and louder. They ufe alfo the cymbal, which they
name talan ; and they have various forts of trumpets,
particularly a great one named tary, which emits a
moft doleful found, and is always ufed at funerals, and
fometimes to announce the death of perfons of diftinc-
tion. 25
The jugglers among the Hindoos are fo expert,
many of the miffionaries have aferibed their tricks to chantejs
fupernatural power } and even fo late a traveller as ferpents.
Mr Grofe feems to be not of a very different opinion *. * See Or-
Like the Egyptians, they feem to have the powder of*fl/*
difarming ferpents of their poifon, and there are many
ftrollers who go about with numbers of thefe animals
in bags, having along with them a fmall bagpipe call¬
ed magouty, which they pretend is ufeful to bring them
from their lurking places. They take the ferpents,
though of the moft poifonous kinds, out of the bags
with their naked hands, and throw them on the ground,
where they are taught to rear and move about to the
found of their mufic. They fay that this is accomplilh-
ed by means of certain incantations. 26
The ufe of fire-arms appears to have been of great Antiquity
antiquity in India. They are prohibited by the code
of Gentoo laws, which is certainly of a very ancient 8
date. The phrafe by which they are denominated is
ag nee after, or weapons of fire } and there is aho men¬
tion made of Jhet-agnee, or the weapon that kills an
hundred men at once. It is impoffible to guefs at the
time when thofe weapons were invented among the
Hindoos 5 but we are certain, that in many places of .
the eaft, which have neither been frequented by Mo¬
hammedans nor Europeans, rockets are almoft univer-
fallv made ufe of as weapons of war. The Hindoo
books themfelves aferibe the invention of fire-arms to
Baejhkookerma, wffio formed all the weapons made ufe
of in a war betwixt the good and evil fpirits. Fire¬
balls, or blue lights, employed in befieged places in
the night-time, to obferve the motions of the befiegers,
are met with everywhere through Hindoftan, and are
conftrn&ed
Hindoos.
t 27.
Ingenuity
in various
arts.
aS
Culture of
rice.
H IN [48
c-onftiuiSed in full as great perfe£lion as in Europe.
Fireworks alfo are met with in^great perfc&ion •, and,
from the earlieit ages, Irave conftituted a principal
article of amufement among the Hindoos. Gunpowder,
or a compoiition fomewhat refembling it, has been
found in many other places of the eaft, particularly
China, Pegu, and Siam j but there is reafon to be¬
lieve that the invention came originally from Hindo-
flan. Poifoned weapons of all kinds are forbidden in
this country.
J he Hindoos are remarkable for their ingenuity in
all kinds oi handicraft 5 but their utenfils are fimple,
and in many refpeds inconvenient, fo that incredible
labour and patience are neceflary for the accomplilh-
ment ol any piece of work j and for this the Hindoos
are very remarkable. Lacquering and gilding are ufed
all over the country, and mutt have been ufed in very
early ages $ though in fome places the lacquering is
brought to much greater perfection than in others.
^1 he principal article of food throughout all Hindo-
ftan is nee, and of confequence the cultivation of it
forms the principal object of agriculture. In this the
molt important requifite is plenty of water j and when
there happens to be a fcarcity in this refpeCt, a famine
mult be the confequence. To prevent this as far as
poffible, a valt number of tanks and water-courfes are
to be met with throughout the country, though in
fome places thefe are too much neglected, and gra-
oually going to decay. After the rice is grown to a
certain length, it is pulled up, and tranfplanted into
fields of about 100 yards fquare, feparated from each
other by ridges of earth ; which are daily fupplied with
water let in'upon them from the neighbouring tanks.
When the w ater happens to fall below the level of the
channels made to receive it, it is raifed by a finiple ma¬
chine named picoti, the conflrudlion of which is as fol¬
lows. A piece of timber is fixed upright in the ground,
and forked fo as to admit another piece to move tranf-
verfely in it by means of a ftrong pin. The tranfverfe
timber is Hat on one fide, and has pieces of wrood acrofs
it in the manner of fteps. At one end of this timber
there is a large bucket, at the other a weight. A
man walking down the fteps throws the bucket into
the well or tank ; by going up, and by means of the
weight, he raifes it j and another perfon Handing be¬
low empties it into a channel made to convey the wrater
into the fields. The man wrho moves the machine may
i’upport himfelf by long bamboos that are fixed in the
way of a railing from the top of the piece of upright
timber towards the wTall.
A number of other kinds of grain are to be met with
in Hindoftan, but.W'heat is not cultivated farther fouth
than 18° latitude. It is imported, however, to every
Account of part of the country by the Banjaries. Thefe are a fet
the Banja- Qf people belonging to no particular call, who live in
tents, and travel in feparate bodies, each of which is
governed by its own particular regulations. They fre¬
quently vifit towns on the fea-coaft, with bullocks load¬
ed with wheat and other articles j carrying aw7ay in ex¬
change fpices, cloths, but efpecially fait, which they
carry into the inland parts of the country. Some of
their parties have feveral thoufands of oxen belonging
to them. ’I ney are rarely molefted, even in time of
war, other wife than by being fometimes prefled into the
fervice of an army to carry baggage or proviflons; but
VOL. X. Part II.
29
i ] H I N
for this they are paid, and difmifled as foon as the fer- Hlndoftan.
vice is over. The Hindoos themfelves are prohibited v—
from going out of the country, under the fevereft of all
penalties, that of lofing their caft.—Notwithftanding
this, howTever, it is certain that they do fettle in foreign
parts in the character of merchants and bankers. Per¬
haps thefe may have a toleration from the principal
Bramin, or there may be an exemption for people of
their profeifion ; but this is not knowm. At any rate,
wherever they go, they appear inviolably attached to
their religious ceremonies, andrefufe to eat what is pro- 3Q
hibited to them in their own country. The Ryots, or Miferable
people who cultivate the ground, are in many places in ^ate °f the
the molt miferable fituation 5 their only food being Hhband-
fome coarfe rice and pepper, for which they are obliged men’
to endure all the inclemencies of a burning fun, and the
inconveniencies which attend alternately wading in
water and walking with their bare feet on the ground
heated intenfely by the folar rays; by wrhich they
are frequently bliltered in a miferable manner. All
this, however, they fubmit to with the utmofl pa¬
tience, and without making any complaint, expelling
to be releafed from their fufferings by death ; though
even then their religion teaches them to hope for
nothing more than what they call abforption into the ef-
fence of the Deity ; a Hate almoft fynonymous with what
we call annihilation.
HINDOSTAN, a celebrated and extenfive coun¬
try of Afia, bounded on the north by Great and Little
I hibet j on the fouth, by the hither peninfula of In¬
dia, part of the Indian fea, and bay of Bengal; on
the weft, by Perfia ; and on the eaft, by Thibet, and
the farther peninfula. It is fituated between 84° and
1020 of eaft longitude, and between 210 and 36° of
north latitude; being in length about 1204 miles,
and in breadth 960 ; though in fome places much
lefs. r
I his country was in early times diftinguifhed among Derivation
the Greeks by the name of India, the moft probable ^ tllc
derivation of which is from Hind the Perfian name.1131116.
We are aflured by Mr Wilkins, that no fuch words
as Hindoo or Hind of an exift in the Sanfcrit or learned
language of the country ; in which it is named bharata,
a word totally unknown to Europeans. The firft ac¬
counts we have of Hindoftan are from Herodotus,
who lived 113 years before the expedition, of Alexan- 2
der the Great. His accounts, however, convey very Herodo .
little information, as he appears only to have heard oftus 5 ac~
-1 ^ L1 - count of
the. weftern part of the country, and that on account India
of its being tributary to Perfia. He informs us, that
Darius Hyftafpes, about 508 B. C. had fent Scylax
of Caryandra to explore the river Indus. He fet fail
from- Cafpatyrus, a town near the fource of the Indus,
and the territories of Paciya (which Major Rennel fup-
pofes to be the modern Pehhe/y'), and continued his
courfe eaftward to the fea ; then altering his courfe to
the weft, he arrived at that place where the Phoenicians
had formerly failed round the continent of Africa ; af¬
ter which Darius fubdued the Indians, and became ma¬
iler of that fea. The northern inhabitants of India, he
fays, refembled the Baftrians in their manners, and
were more valiant than the reft j thofe far to the fouth-
ward were as black as the Ethiopians, killed no ani¬
mals, but lived chiefly upon rice j and clothed them¬
felves with cotton. By the expedition of Alexander,
3 P the
H I N [ 482 ] H I N
Hiv.doiUn. the Greeks acqu'ired a little more knowledge of the
1 country of Hindoftan, though he did little elfe than
. un w march over the tradls defcrihed by Herodotus. He
ledge of was informed of the exiftence of tne river Ganges,
the Gietks which had not been known to Herodotus •, and the
augmented j»ory 0f }-.is fuppofing that he had difcovered the icurce
by Alex- Gf t^e Nilej when near the head of the Indus, is well
peditbn!*" known, as well as his furprife and confternation when
he arrived at the mouth of that river, on account of
the high tides. Major Rennei is of opinion that both
thefe ilories are falfehoods. He thinks it is impofiible
that Alexander could have been ignorant of the writ¬
ings of Herodotus, who gave an account of the difco-
veries of Scylax 5 and with regard to the other circum-
llance he exprefles himfelf as follows. “ I he (lory of
Alexander’s furprife at feeing the tides in the Indus,
appears to me equally improbable •, feeing that the fame
Herodotus, book iii. fpeaks very particularly of the
tides in the Red fea, and dcfcribes them as being not
only drong, but ebbing and flowing every day. (lhat
mod intelligent and ingenious traveller M. Volney in¬
forms us, that the tide ebbs and flow's three feet and a
half at Suez). Arrian takes no notice of the tides un¬
til Alexander’s fleet had arrived near the mouth of the
river. It is true, the tide in the Indus does not go up
fo high as in other rivers of equal bulk, and that run
on fo fmall* a defcent •, but neverthelefs, as the tide is
perceptible at 50 or 60 miles above the river’s mouth,
we may conclude, that it could hardly efcape the no¬
tice of Alexander and his people in their voyage from
Pattala to the fea, fuppoling they had not been apprifed
of the circumftance. Befides, Arrian’s account of the
tide which did fo much mifchief to the fleet, is defcrip-
tive of the bore, or hidden influx of the tide, in a body
of water elevated above the common iurface of the fea,
fuch as occurs in the Ganges, &c. He fays, thme
fliips which lay upon the fand were fwept away by the
fury of the tide ; while thofe that ftuck in the mud
were fet afloat again without any damage. To the ge¬
nerality of readers no reafon will appear why the cir-
cumftances of the fliips Ihould be different in the mud
and on the fand : the fa& is, that the bottoms of chan¬
nels'in great rivers are muddy, while their (hallows are
formed of fand ; and it is the nature of the bore to
take the (horteft cut up a river, inftead of following
the windings of the channel} confequently it muff crofs
the fand banks it meets in its way, and will alfo prove
more deftruftive to whatever it meets with a-ground
than what is a-float.” For an account of the exploits
of Alexander in Hindoffan, fee the article Mace-
4 :D0N-
Hiftory The Grecian expedition into India foon excited
fiom the ^ general curioffty m the Europeans to become ac-
Alexander quainted with a country fo wealthy and fo remote. Me-
to that of gafthenes, the ambaffador of Seleucus, redded long at
the Mogul Palibothra the capital of an Indian nation, and from
Moham- ^jm t]le anc;ent writers learned moll of what they knew
medans. conCerning that part of the world. He lived about 360
years before the Chriftian era, and kept a journal during
the time he redded in India.
For fome ffiort time the weftern provinces of India
eontinued fubjedl to the Syrian empire founded by Se¬
leucus; but he quickly ceded thefe diftant countries
to one Sandrocottus, who gave him only 500 elephants
in exchange. Scon after this the province of Eac-
tria likewife became independent; and thus the con- Hlndoftm,
neftion betwixt India and the weilern parts of the world ^
Was entirely diflolved, and wre are almoft entirely igno¬
rant of the tranfaiffions of that country till the time of
the Mohammedan conqueff. That the extendve country
we now call Hindojlan was divided among many different
nations, w^e have no reafon to doubt 5 but Major Ren¬
nei is of opinion, that however this- might be the cafe,
there was generally a large empire or kingdom, which
occupied the principal part of that immenfe valley
through which the Ganges takes its courfe 5 the capi¬
tal of which has fluftuated between Delhi and Patna,
as the limits of the empire have varied. This was
named the kingdom of the Praflj or Gangaridce in the
times of Alexander and Megafthenes. Major Rennei
is of opinion that it extended weftward to the Panjab
countrv ; and he alfo thinks it probable that the capi¬
tal named Palibothra flood on the fame fpot which is
now occupied by the city of Patna. The kingdom,
according to this fuppofition, would occupy part of
Bengal •, and he thinks that it could not be lefs than
that of France. It was on the borders of this king¬
dom that Alexander’s army mutinied and refufed to
proceed any farther. Arrian informs us, that the people
were rich, excellent foldiers, and good hulbandmen;
that they were governed by nobility, and that their
rulers impofed nothing harfli upon them.
The Hindoos themfelves pretend to an extravagant ancient-
antiquity ; but w'e are informed by Major Rennei, that
“ there is no known hiftory of Hindoftan (that refts crecjjle(i.
on the foundation of Hindoo materials or records) ex¬
tant before the period of the Mohammedan conquefts ^
for either the Hindoos kept no regular hiftories, or
they were all deftroyed, or fecluded from common eyes
by the Pundits. We may judge of their traditions by
that exifting concerning Alexander’s expedition 5 which
is, that he fought a great battle with the emperor of
Hindoftan near Delhi, and though viftorious, retired
to Perfta acrofs the northern mountains 5 fo that the
remarkable circumftance of his failing down the Indus,
in which he employed many months, is funk altoge¬
ther. And yet, perhaps, few events of ancient times
reft on better foundations than this part of the hiftory
of Alexander, as appears by its being fo highly cele¬
brated, not only by contemporaries, but by feveral of
the mod eminent authors for fome centuries following.
The only traces ef Indian hiftory wTe meet with are in
the Perffan hiftorians. In the beginning of the 17th
century, Mohammed Feriflita compofed a hiftory of
Hindoftan, moll of which was given in that of Colonel
Dow, publiflied upwards of 30 years ago *, but with
regard to^the early part of it, Major Rennei is of opinion
that it cannot at all be depended upon. 6
The authentic hiftory of Hindoftan commences with Expeditions
the conquefts of Mahmud or Mahmodd Gazni, about®*'
the year 1000. Plis kingdom had arifen out of that i;'t0
of the Saracens, who under the khaliff A1 Walid had
extended their conquefts immenfely both to the eaft
and weft. Mahmud wras the third from Abiftagi a
governor of Khorafan, who had revolted from the king
of Buckharia. He poffefled great part of that coun¬
try formerly known by the name of Baclrta. Gazni,
Gazna, or Ghizni, was the capital ; a city which flood
near the fource of the Indus, though Balkh likewife
claimed this honour, Subailagi, the father of Mah¬
mud,
H I N
[ 483 ] H I N
Hindoftati. mud, liad projefted tlie conqueft ot the weftern part
' v ' of India •, but dying before he could put his defigns
in execution, Mahmud took upon himfelf the conduct
of the expedition j but previous to his invafion of In¬
dia, he ftrengthened himfelf by the conqueft of the
whole of the ancient Bactria. His firft invafion took
place in the year 1000; during which he made no
farther progrefs than the province of Moultan. 1 hat
part of the country was inhabited by the Kuttry and
Rajpoot tribe, the Malli and Catheri of Alexander,
who ftiil retained their ancient fpirit, and made a very
flout refiftance to the armies of that furious enthufiaft.
As he was prompted to this undertaking no lefs by a
defire of exterminating the Hindoo religion than by
that of qonqueft, a league was at laft formed againft
him among all the Indian princes from tire banks of
the Ganges to the Nerbudda. 'Iheir allied forces,
however, were defeated, and the year 1008 was mark¬
ed by the deftnnftion of the famous temple of Nagii-
cut in the Panjab country. Having fatiated himfelf
with plunder on this occafion, Mahmud returned to
his own country ; but in 1011 invaded Hindoftan once
more, deftroying Tanafar a city on the weft of Delhi,
and a more celebrated place of worfhip than Nagracut
itfelf. Delhi was reduced on this occafion } and in
feven years after Canoge was taken •, the temples of
Matra or Methura, the Methora of Pliny, a city of
great antiquity, and remarkable for a place of worfhip
near Agra, were likewife demolifhed } but he failed in
his attempts on the Rajpoots of Agimere, either through
their own valour or the ftrength of their country. His
twelth expedition took place in the year 1024, when
he deftroyed the celebrated temple of Sumnaut in the
peninfula of Guzerat, adjoining to the city of Puttan
on the fea-coaft, and not far from the ifiand of Diu,
now in the hands of the Portuguefe. In this expedi¬
tion he proved very fuccefsful, reducing the whole
peninfula of Guzerat. with many cities, the temples of
which he conftantly deftroyed •, and indeed feemed no
lefs pleafed with the overthrow of the Hindoo religion
than with the conqueft of the country. At his death,
which happened in 1028, he was poffeffed of the eaft-
ern and by far the largeft part of Perlia, and nominal¬
ly of all the provinces from the weftern part of the
Ganges to the peninfula of Guzerat } as well as thofe
lying between the Indus and the mountains of Agi¬
mere ; but the Rajpoots in that country ftiil preferved
their independency, which they have done all along,
7 even to the prefent time. »
Divifion of In the year 1158 the empire of Gazna fell to pieces
the empire from the fame caufe$ by which other large and un-
and"various wieldy ftates have been deftroyed. The weftern and
conqu^ftT5 largeft part, which ftill retained the name of Gazna,
in Hindof- was feized upon by the family of Gaurides, fo na-
tan by dif- me(] from Gaur or Ghor, a province beyond the In¬
herent ad- dian caucafus • while thofe contiguous to both fhores
tUr£ of the Indus were allowed to remain in the poffeffion
of Chufero or Cufroe, whofe capital was fixed at Ta-
hore. In 1184 the pofterity of this prince were dri¬
ver. out of their territories by the Gaurides *, by which
means the Mohammedans became neighbours to the
Hindoos, and in a ftiort time began to extend their
dominidns to the eaftward. In 1194 Mohammed Go-
ri penetrated into Hindoftan as fair as Benares, and
repeated the fame fcenes of devaftation which had for¬
merly taken place under Mahmud Gazni. At this pe- Hindoftan.
riod Major Rennel is of opinion, that the purity of the 'v '
language of Hindoftan began to decline, and conti¬
nued to do fo till it became what it is at prefent 5 the
original dialect being what is called the Sanfcrit, and
which is now a dead language. Mohammed Gori al-
fo reduced the fouthern part of the province of Agi¬
mere, and the territory to the fouth of the river Jum¬
na, taking poffeftion of the ftrong fortrefs of Gualior.
After his death in 1205, the empire of Gazna was
again divided •, and the Patan or Afghan empire was
founded by Cuttub, who had the Indian part, the Per-
fian remaining to Eldoze. Cuttub fixed his imperial
refidence at Delhi; and in 1210 the greateft part of
Hindoftan Proper w as conquered by the emperor Al-
tumifti, the fucceffor of Cuttub. After his time the
government of Bengal w’as always beftow^ed upon one
of the reigning emperor’s fons ; and during his reign
the bloody conqueror .lengbiz Khan put an end to the
other branch of the Gaznian empire, known by the
name of Kharafm ; of which revolution an account is
given under the article Gazna ; but Plindoftan was at g
that time left undifturbed. In 1242 the Moguls began Firft inva-
to make irruptions into Hindoftan, but did not at this hon of the
time make any permanent conqueft. The country' °2U 5'
was now in much the fame ftate in which it had been
before the invafion of the Mohammedans, viz. divided
into a great number of ftates tributary to the empe¬
ror, but in a great meafure independent ; and which
did not fail to revolt whenever a favourable opportu¬
nity offered. The kingdom of Malwa, which had
been reduced by Cuttub in 1 205, ftiook off the yoke
in the year 1 265, and the Rajpoots were on every oc¬
cafion ready to revolt, notwfithftanding that their coun¬
try lay in the neighbourhood of the capital. The
moft dreadful mafiacres, rebellions, and confufion, now
took place, which, from that period almoft to the time
that the Britifh government commenced, made up the
biftory of Hindoftan. The empire being parcelled
out among a fet of rapacious governors, the people
were reduced to the laft degree of mifery, and were at
laft fo far mifled as to imagine that it was their intereft
to take up arms, in order to render thefe governors in¬
dependent. Had the emperors of Hindoftan confulted
their true intereft, they would have given up the pro¬
vinces which lay beyond the upper part of the Indus
and the deferts of Agimere; as thefe formed a bar¬
rier which could not eafily be paffed by any invader.
By negleding this precaution, however, they at laft:
gave an opportunity to the Moguls to penetrate into
their country ; and thefe, after feveral invafions, be¬
came at laft fo formidable, that they were permitted by
the emperors, in the year 1292, to fettle in the coun¬
try. At this time the reigning emperor was Ferofe II.
of the tribe of Chilligi or Killigi, fo named from Kil- 9
lige near the mountains of Gaur ; and in 1293 this The^coun-
emperor projefted the conqueft of the Deccan; by which*rayn°con_ec‘
was meant at that time all the territory lying to the quered.
fouthward of the Nerbudda and Mahanada and Cat-
tack rivers ; an extent of dominion almoft equal to all
that he already poffeffed in Hindoftan. Ferofe wms
incited to attempt this by the riches of one of the
princes of Deccan ; and the perfon who propofed it
was one Alla, governor of Gurrah, a country nearly
bordering upon that which he was about to invade.
3 P 2 Alla,
H I N [ 484 ] H r N
Hmdollan. Alla, having accomplilhed his undertaking, during 139S. His cohqueli was eafy, and his behaviour fuch Hindoltan.
wmch he amaffed an incredible quantity of treafure, as rendered him worthy of the name by which he is 1 
depofed and murdered the emperor, affuming to him- yet known in Hindoftan, “ the dettroying prince.”
ielf the fovereignty of Hindoftan. . He then began a After having brought into captivity a vaft number of
new plan of conqueft ; and the firft inftance of his luc- the poor inhabitants, he caufed a general maflacre to
cefs was tlm reduction of Guzerat, a ftrong fprtrefs, be commenced left they ftiould join the enemy in cafe
which had hitherto remained independent, and, while of any fudden emergency j and in confequence of this
it continued fo, was a ftrong obftacle to his defigns cruel order, upwards of 100,000 were put to death in
upon the Deccan. He next reduced Rantanpour and one hour. In the beginning of the year 1599 he was
Cheitore, two of the ftrongeft iorts in the Rajpoot met by the Indian army, whom he defeated with great
•country. In 1303 the city of Warangole, capital of flaughter, and foon after made himfelf mafter of the
a kingdom pf the Deccan named Tellingana, was re- imperial city of Delhi. At this time the capital con¬
duced 3 but in the midft of thefe conquefts the Moguls fifted of three cities, named Old Delhi, Seyri, and Je-
invaded the country from an oppoftte quarter, and plun- han Penak. Seyri was furrounded with a wall in the
dered the fuburbs of Delhi. Notwithftanding this form of a circle ; and Old Delhi was the fame, but
hecK the emperor reiumed his plan of conqueft ; the much larger, lying to the fouth-weft of the other,
remainder of Malwa was fubdued ; and in 1306 the Thefe two were joined on each fide by a wall : and the
< onqueft of the Deccan was again undertaken. 1 he third, which was larger than the other two, lay be-
conduft of the war was now committed to Cafoor j tween them. As the city made no refiftance, there
who not only carried his army into Dowlatabad, but, could not be a pretence for ufing the inhabitants with,
m 1310,. penetrated into the Carnatic alio. I he ex- any cruelty : and thus matters paifed on quietly till the
tent of his conquefts in that country is not known j and 12th of January, when the Tartar foldiers infulted
indeed his expeditions feem to have been made with a fome of the inhabitants at one of the gates. The
a iew rather to plunder than to atchieve any permanent Emirs were ordered to put a flop to thele diforders,
conqueft. I he quantity of riches he amafled was lo but found it impoftible. The Sultanas, having a curi-
great, that the foldiers are faid to have carried away ofity to lee the rarities of Delhi, and particularly a
only the gold, leaving lilver behind them as too cum- famous palace adorned with 1000 pillars built by an
berfome. As the treafure carried off on this occafion ancient Indian king, went in with all the court ; and
had been accumulating for a number of ages, it is pro- the gate being thus left open for every body, above
oable that the country had long remained in a ftate of 15,000 foldiers got in unperceived. But there was a
tranquillity.. . _ far larger number of troops in a place between the ci-
Cafoor ftill proceeding in his conquefts, ravaged a ties above mentioned, who committed fuch diforders,
fecond time, the. northern part of the Deccan, and that an inlurredfion commenced ; fome of the inha-
oniiged tne inhaoitants of Jellmgana and the Carnatic bitants attacking them, while others, in defpair, let
to become tributary to him. Rebellions took place fire to their houfes, and burnt themfelves with their
m 1322 j but the country was again reduced in 1326, wives and children. The foldiers, taking advantage of
and the whole Carnatic ravaged from one fea to the this confufion, pillaged the houfes j while the diforder
other. J- |hs year Alla died, and his fucceflors, not was augmented by the admiffion of more troops, who
10 being poftelfed of his abilities, were unable to retain feized the inhabitants of the neighbouring cities that
?nVf0fi5nnd?e dominions he had left- Under the emperor Mo- had fled to Delhi for fhelter. The Emirs caufed the
throughout , med Iir- the PeoPleof tlie Deccan again revolt- gates to be fhut; but they were quickly opened by
the whole ed’ ,and dro^e the Mohammedans fo completely out of the foldiers, who rofe in arms againft their officers ;
empire. t»ele countries, that nothing remained to them but fo that, by the morning of the next day, the whole
the fottrefs of Dowlatabad. In 1344 the city of Bif- army had entered, and the city was totally deftroyed.
nagar, properly Bijinagur, was founded by Belaldeo Some foldiers carried off no fewer than 150 ilaves,
the king of Deccan, who had headed the inhabitants men, women, and children ; nay, fome of their boys’
m their late revolt. . Mahon!med in the mean time at- had 20 Haves a-piece to their (hare. The other fpoils
tempted to extend his dominions towards the eaft j but in jewels, plate, and manufaffures, were immenfe j for
while he employed himfelf in this, many provinces were the Indian women and girls were all adorned with pre-
loft by rebellions in Bengal, Guzerat, and the Panjab. cious ftones, and had bracelets and rings on their hands,
IBs fucceffor Ferofe III. who afeended the throne in feet, and even toes, fo that the foldiers were loaded
1351, feemed more defirous of improving the remains with them. On the 15th the Indians attempted to de-
of. his empire than of extending it •, and, daring his fend themfelves in the great mofque of Old Delhi ; but
icign, which continued for 37 years, agriculture and being attacked by the Tartars, they were all flaughter-
tne arts were the favourite objefts of his purfuit. Af- ed, and towers ere£led. A dreadful carnage now en-
~er his death, in 1388, a rebellion and civil war took fued throughout the whole city, though feveral days
place, and continued, for fevera.l years; and matters elafped before the inhabitants could be forced to quit
were brought to a crifis in the time of Mahmud III. . it entirely j and as they went, the Emirs took many of
who iucceeded to. the throne in 1393 j and, during them into their fervice. The artifans were alfo diitri-
ns time, the empire of Hindoftan exhibited the fin- buted among the princes and commanders, all but the
11 ^ gnlar circumftance of two emperors refiding in the mafons, who were referved for the emperor, in order to
-oonq^ei 1 iame capital, and in arms againft each other. While build him a large ftone mofque at Samarcand.
fa c res of" ^Uers remained in this fituation, Tamerlane, after After this terrible devaftation, 'lamerlane marched
Tamerlane. having fubdued all the weftern part of Tartary and into the different provinces of Hindoftan, everywhere
Afia, turned his arms againft Hindoftan in the year defeating the Indians who oppofed him, and llaughter-
ing
H I N [ 4S5 ] H I N
Hindoftan. ing tlie Ghebrs or worfhippers of fire. Oil the 25th merely that there was no a&ual rebellion. The fi'rfi: Hindoftan.
v March he retired, and thus fet the miferable iniia- years of his reign were fpent in reducing the provinces
b;tants free from the moft bloody conqueror that had which had revolted from Agimere to Bengal} and the
ever invaded them. He did not, however, difirarb the obedience of thefe he took care to fecure as well as
fucceffion to the throne, but left Mahmud in quiet poffible by a careful choice of governors; particularly
pcfiefiion of it, referving to himfelf only that of the by an unlimited toleration in religious matters, and an
Panjab country. The death of Mahmud, which hap- attention to the rights and privileges of the people. In
pened in 1413, put an end to what is called the Patan 1585, he refolved to invade the'Deccan, which had hi-
dynafly, founded by Cuttub in 1205. He rvas fuc- therto refitted the power of the Mogul princes. The
cceded by Chizer, who derived his pedigree from the war continued for 20 years; during all which time no
impoftor Mohammed, and his pofterity continued to farther progrefs was made than the reduftion of the
enjoy it till the year 1450; when Belloli, an Afghan weftern part of Berar, Candeitti, Teliingana (a divifion
of the tribe of Lodi, took poffeflion of it, the reigning of Golconda), and the northern part of Amednagur j
prince Alla II. having abdicated the government. Un- the capital of which, named alfo Amednagur, w'as taken
der him all Hindoftan was divided into feparate dates ; in 1601, after a long and bloody fiege, and an unfuccef-
and a prince, whcfe title was the hing of the eaf, who ful attempt of the princes of the Deccan to relieve it. I3
refided at jhonpour in the province of Allahabad, Under his fucceflbr Jehan Guire, the projeft was but Bad con-
became fo formidable, that the king of Delhi had only faintly carried on; the empire was ditturbed by the re-1?11^ of hi»
a fhadow of authority remaining to him. A confi- hellion of Shah Jehan the emperor’s fon ; and the inttu-laccen'ors*
derable part of the empire, however, was recovered by ence of Noor Jehan his miftrefs perplexed the councils
the fon of Belloli ; who, in the year 1501, fixed his of the nation. In this prince’s reign Sir Thomas Roe,
royal refidence at Agra. During his reign the Portu- the firft Englifh ambaffador, arrived at the court of Hin-
guefe firft accomplilhed the paffage to India by the doftan. The Portuguefe had no-w acquired confiderable
Cape of Good Hope, but they had no connexion with poffeflions in Guzerat aud Bengal, but only thofe in the
any other part of Hindoftan than fome maritime places former provinces attra&ed the attention of "the court; fo
in the Deccan which had always been independent of that the Perfian hiftorian takes no notice of thofe in
the court of Delhi. In 1516, during the reign of Bengal. In the reign of Shah Jehan, who fucceeded
Ibrahim II. matters fell into fuch confufion that Sul- his father Jehan Guire in 1627, the conquelt of the
tan Baber, a defcendant of Tamerlane, found means Deccan was more vigoroufly puttied than before ; and
to conquer a very conliderable part of the empire. the war was carried on in fuch a deftru&ive manner,
His firft expedition took place in the year 1518 ; and that moft of the princes in thofe parts were fain to make
the year 1525 he made himfelf matter of Delhi. In his fubmiftion to the emperor. During this reign a war
laft invafion he is faid to have brought with him only took place with the Portuguefe, which ended in the ex-
10,000 horfe; having been furnilhed with the reft pulfion of the latter from Hoogly on the Ganges. In
by the dilaffected fubjecfs of the emperor. During his private chara&er Shah Jehan was a very debauched
the five years that he reigned, his chief employment and wicked prince, which gave occaiion to one of his
was the reduction of fome of the eaftern provinces; fons named Aureng-Ab, or Aureng-%ebe, to dethrone him. I4
but he had not time to compofe the difturbances which This prince attained his end by a train of deep hypo- The empire-
took place throughout of the whole of his dominions. crify and diffimulation ; covering his ambition with ar,!ifed t0 its'
On his death the feeds of rebellion, which Baber had pretence of religion, and under that pretence commit- £reatcft
not been able to exterminate, produced fo many re- ting the greateft crimes. He engaged in a war with ^Ifen ^
volts and infurreftions, that his fon Humaioon, though two of his brothers, both of whom he defeated by un- zebet"1'
a prince of great abilities and virtue, was driven from forefeen accidents, when he himfelf feemed to be on
the throne, and obliged to take thelter among the Raj- the brink of deftruftion. Having at laft got them in*
pool princes of Agimere, where he lived in great to his power, he put them both to death, and then la-
diftrefs. During the time of his exile his fon Ack- mented their misfortunes. One of his brothers who
bar was born, whom Mr Rennel looks upon to be affifted him, was rewarded firft with imprifonment, and
one of the greateft princes^ that ever fat on the throne then with death. By the year 1660, he had attained
of Hindoftan. I he lovereignty was held in the mean full pofleffion of the fovereignty, and from that time
time by an -ufurper, named Sheerkhan, who in 1545 to tbe 7ear 1678 there reigned "a profound tranquil-
was killed at the fiege of Cheitore, and buried in lity throughout the whole empire. In the latter part
a magnificent maufoleum, of which Mr Hodges has of his reign he undertook the conqueft of the Deccan,
exhibited a drawing in this country. His territories, to which he was fuppofed to be incited by the refolu-
at the time of his death, extended from the Indus to tion and growing power of Sevagee,. the founder of the
Bengal; but fo unfettled was the government, that Mahratta ftate ; and who, in that characfer, appeared
alter his deceafe no fewer than five fovereigns appeared almoft as a rival to Aureng-zebe himfelf. Having
in the fpace of nine years. This induced a ftrong party quelled a rebellion of the Patans, who lived beyond the
in Hindoftan to recal Humaioon; but he lived only Indus, he perfecuted the Hindoos to fuch a degree.
1 in*2 f °ne >cara^er h‘s return. that the Rajpoot tribes in Agimere commenced a war
Ackbar, a Humaioon was fucceeded by his fon Ack- againft him. On this occafion he headed his armies
great ’ at jhat time only 14 years of age. During his alio in perfon ; but having the misfortune to be hem-
prince. lOI1g reign of 51 years, he eftabliflied the empire on a med in among the mountains, he would certainly have
more lure foundation than it had probably ever been been taken prifoner, had not the enemy thought pro-
before ; though even at this time Mr Rennel is of opi- per to allow him to efcape. They allowed alfo the
nion, that all the tranquillity enjoyed by the people was emprefs to make her efcape, after fhe had been aftually,
taken;
H I N
[ 486 ]
H I N
Hind oft an. taken. In 1681 he renewed his mcunions into that
1 vJ country, took and deftfoyed Checlure, committing
other devaluations, and everywhere detlroying the Ii.n-
doo temples and objefls of worfhip j but notwithftand-
ing all his efforts, he was at laft obliged to abandon his
enterprise, and allow them to remain in peace. From
the year 1678 to the time of his death in 1707? ‘i1-
is faid to have been chiefly employed in the Deccan,
the greatefl part of which he reduced, and for the lalt
five years of bis life is faid to have been actually em¬
ployed in the field. This long abfence from his capi¬
tal could not but be productive of bad confequences.
Rebellions broke out in various parts of the empire ■,
and during this period, the Jats or Jauts firit made
their appearance in the province of Agra. I hey were
at firft only a fet of banditti •, but have fince grown to
be a very confiderable ftate, and once were of fome
confequence in Upper Hin,doftan. After tne 10th
year of Aureng-zebe’s reign, however, we know very
little of his tranfaCtions, as he would not allow any hi-
ftory of it to be written. At the time of his death the
empire extended from the 10th to the 35^n degree of
latitude, and almoft as many degrees in longitude.
44 His revenue (fays Major Rennel) exceeded 35 mil¬
lions of pounds Sterling, in a country where the pro¬
ducts of the earth are about four times as cheap as in
England. But fo weighty a fceptre could be wielded
only by a hand like Aureng-zebeV, and we accordingly
find, that in a courfe of 50 years after his death, a uc-
ccflion of weak princes and wicked minifters reduced
this aftonifhing empire to nothing.”^
Aureng-zebe left four fonsj Maufuro, afterwards em¬
peror, under the title of Bahader Shah j Azcm, Kaum
Bufh, and Acbar, who had been obliged to fly to Per-
fia 30 years before on account of his having engage
in rebellion againft his father. A civil war inftantly
commenced between Azem and Maufum 5 the event o
which was decided in a great battle, where 300,000
combatants were brought into the field on each fide.
In this battle Azem was defeated and killed •, aftei
which Maufum afcended the throne by the title of Ba¬
hader Shah. He was a prince of confiderable abilities j
but the diforders of the empire were already rifen to
fuch an height, that during his Ihort reign of five
years, he found it impoffible to compofe them, tie
was firft engaged in wTar with his brother Kaum Bulb,
whom he alfo’defeated and killed ; after which his at¬
tention was engaged by the Seiks, a newr let of religion-
ifts, who, during the reign of Shah Jehan, had fileut-
ly eftablilhed themfelves along the foot of the eaftern
mountains. They now appeared in arms in the pro¬
vince of Lahore, and ravaged the whole country from
thence to the banks of the Jumna. The emperor march¬
ed againft thefe adverfaries in perfon, and with great
difficulty brought them under fubjeCtion. He then
took up his refidence at Lahore, where he died after
a ftiort illnefs, without having ever vifited the imperial
cities of Agra or Delhi.
After the death of Bahader Shah the empire was
again contefted among his four fons. Of thefe the fe-
cond, named Azem Oothaun, took poffeffion ol the
treafures; but was oppofed by his three brothers, who
agreed to divide the empire among them. Azem was
defeated and killed in a battle, gained chiefly by the
vqlour and condu6l of the youngeft named Shah 'jehan ;
*3
Its quick
decline un¬
der his fuc-
■ceflbrs.
wflro feemed refolved to abide by the agreement, and as Hinfloflan.
a proof of his fincerity, ordered the treafures to be di- 'V"
vided. This was prevented by the intrigues of Zool-
fecar-khan, an omrah in high trull. A new civil war
commenced, in which Jehan Shah was killed. The
two remaining brothers tried their fortune in a third
battle, which left Jehauder, the eldeft, in pofleliion of
the throne. In nine months he was dethroned by Fe-
rakfere, or Furrokfere, fon to the deceafed Azem Oo-
ftiaun 5 having, during his Ihort reign, difplayed almoft
unparalleled meannefs of fpirit.
This revolution was accompliftied by the aftiftance
of two brothers, HouiTein Ali Khan and Abdoolla
Khan, who had extenfive governments in the eaftern
provinces. The calamities of the empire were not at
all abated during this reign. In 1713 the Seiks
appeared again in arms; and in i 716 were grown fo
formidable, that the emperor himfelf was obliged to
march againft them ; but we are totally ignorant of the I5
particulars of this campaign. About tins time the Firman
Englilh Eaft India company obtained the famous F/r-^nted to^
man or grant, by which their goods of export and im- dia com-
port were exempted from duties or cuftoms *, which pany.
was regarded as the company’s commercial charter in
India, while they flood in need of protection from the
priaces of that country.
Ferokfere was depofed, and his eyes put out, by the
two brothers who had raifed him to the throne ; and in
the ccurfe of the fame year two other emperors, whom
they afterwards fet up, were depofed and murdered ;
and thus, in eleven years after the death of Aureng-
zebe, x 1 princes of his line, who had either mounted
the throne, or been competitors for it, were extermi¬
nated, while the government declined with fuch rapi¬
dity, that the empire feemed ready to be difmembered
to a greater degree than it had even been before the
invafion of Tamerlane. In 1718,, the two brothers
raifed to the throne Mohammed Shah, the grandfon
of Bahader Shah ; but this prince having got fufficient
warning by tbe fate of his predeceffors, took care to
rid himfelf of thefe powerful lubjefts, though this could
not be accomplilhed without a civil war. New ene¬
mies, however, ftarted up. Nizam-al-Muluk, viceroy
of the Deecam, had been for fome time augmenting
his power by every poffible method, and was evidently
afpiring at independence. Having received fome af¬
fronts from the two brothers, who for fome time had
ruled every thing with an abfolute fway, he thought
proper to retire to his government. In 1722 he was
invited to court, and offered the place of vizier or prime
minifter, but declined accepting it, while the growing
and formidable power of the Mahrattas furniffied him
with a pretence for augmenting his army. At laft;,
having by the year 1738 attained a fufficient degree
of {Length to accompliih his purpofes, and confident
of his having a large party at court, he came thither
attended by a great body of armed followers. Find¬
ing, however, that the intereft of the emperor was ftill
too powerful for him, he invited the celebrated Perfian T7
ufurper Nadir Shah, commonly known by the name Inv (ion 0/
of Khouli Khan, to invade Hindoftan. The invitation N3*dir
was accepted, and Nadir entered the country without ',ha ’
oppofition. The imperial general Douran being killed
in a fkirmiftx, no decifive engagement took place ; and
the Perfian chief, though far advanced into Hindoftan,
vet
H I N [ 4S7 ] H I N
ili; doftan. yet looked upon matters to be fo uncertain, that he
v v—— offered to evacuate the country and retire for 50 lacks
of rupees, about half a million fterling. The intrigues
of the Nizam and his party hindered the emperor front
complying with this moderate demand 5 inflead of
which he abfurdly threw himfelf upon the ufarper’s
mercy, who then took poffeffion of Delhi, demanding
a raniom of 30 millions fterling. At an interview with
the emperor, he fcverely reprimanded him for his m;i-
condudt; however, he told him, th'at as he was of the
race of Timur (Tamerlane), who had not offended the
reigning family of Perfia, he would not take the em¬
pire from him •, only as he had put him to the trouble
of coming fo far to lettle his affairs, he initfted that his
expences Ihould be paid. The unfortunate emperor
made no anlwer to this fpeech •, but Nadir took care
to enforce the latter part of it. Some time after the
departure of the emperor, Nadir went to the camp to
pay him a vifit •, where he feized upon 200 cannon,
with fome treafure and valuable effects, fending them
off immediately to Candahar. He then marched back
to Delhi, where a mob arofe about the price of corn.
As Nadir Shah was endeavouring to quell it, a mufket
was delignedly fired at him, by which he narrowly el-
18 caped being killed. Exafperated at this, he command-
inhabitants ecl an indifcriminate maffacre to be made, which his
cruel foldiers inftantly put in execution with the greateft
L 'alacrity, and ( 20,000, or, according to others, 150,000,
of the miferable inhabitants were ilaughtered without
mercy. This was followed by a feizure of all the
jewels, plate, and valuable articles which could be
found, befides the exadion of the 30 millions, which
was done with the utmoft rigour j infomuch that many
of the inhabitants chofe rather to put an end to their
own lives than to bear the torments to which they
were fubje&ed in cafe of inability to pay the fum im-
pofed upon them. During thefe horrid fcenes, Nadir
caufed the marriage of his fon to be celebrated with a
grand daughter of Aureng-zebe •, and after having ex¬
torted every thing which he demanded, at laft took
leave of the emperor with every mark of friendship.
He put the crown upon his head with his own hands ‘7
and after having given him fome falutary advice rela¬
tive to the government of his empire, he fet out from
Delhi on the 6th of May 1739.
By this invafion the empire fuftained prodigious lofs.
Since the arrival of Nadir in Hindoftan, about 200,000
people had been deffroyed, and goods and treafure car¬
ried off to the amount of 125 millions fferling. Mo¬
hammed had ceded to the ufurper all the provinces of
Hindoftan fituated to the weft of the Indus. His de¬
parture left the Nizam in poffedion of all the remain¬
ing power of the empire, which he inftatly made u!e
of to eftablilh himfelf in the fovereignty of the Deccan.
The province of Bengal had already become indepen¬
dent under Aliverdy Cawn, in the year 1738 ; and not
long after, it was invaded by a vaft army of Mahrattas
under fancftion of the emperor’s name •, who being un¬
able to fatisfy them in the arrears of tribute be had
been obliged to confent to pay, fent them into Bengal
to colleft for themfelves. About the fame time, the
Rohillas, a tribe from the mountains which lie between
India and Perfia, eretfted an independent ftate on the
eaft of the Ganges, within 80 miles of Delhi.
The total diffolution of the empire feemed now to
TO
Miferable
ftate of
Hindo'tan
after his
departure.
be fall approaching. In the confuiion which took Hindoftan.
place after the murder of Nadir Shah, Abdallah, one ' v
of his generals, feized upon the eaftern part of Perfia,
and the adjoining provinces of India, which had been
ceded to Nadir by Mohammed Shah 5 which he formed
into a kingdom ftill known by the name of Canda¬
har or Ahdcdli; of which a more particular account is
given in the fubfequent part of this article.
This year Mohammed Shah died, after a reign of
29 years-, which, conlidering the fate of his immediate
predeceffors, and the anarchy univerfally prevalent-
throughout Hindoftan, muft be accounted very won¬
derful. He was fucceeded by his fon Ahmed Shah }
during whofe reign, which lafted about fix years, the
total divifion of the remainder of the empire took
place. Nothing now remained to the family of Ta¬
merlane but a fmall trach of territory round the city of
Delhi, now no longer a capital, and expofed to the re¬
peated depredations of invaders, with confequent maf-
facres and famines. The laft army which could with
propriety be termed imperial, was defeated by the Ro-
billas in 1749 ; by which their independence was fully
eftabliihed jn the eaftern parts of the province of Del¬
hi. The Jauts, or .Tats, a Hindoo tribe, eftablifhed
themfelves in the province of Agra ; the Deccan and
Bengal were feized upon by their viceroys, Nizam and
Aliverdy. Oude was feized on by Seifdar Jang (fa¬
ther to the late Sujah D owl ah) -, Allahabad by Moham¬
med Kooli. Malwa was divided between the Poonah
Mahrattas and feveral native princes and Zemindars :
Agimere reverted of courfe to its ancient lords, the Raj ¬
poot princes; and the Mahrattas, in addition to their
proper fhare of Malwa, poffeffed the greateft part of
Guzerat, Berar, and Oriffa; befides their ancient do¬
minions in the Deccan. Thefe people werp^now be¬
come fo powerful, that they were courted
and employed by the contending parties, like the Swifs-
in Europe; with this difference, that the Swifs are paid
by thofe who employ them, whereas the Mahrattas al¬
ways take care to pay themfelves. Abdalla having
eftablifhed his empire in the manner above related, en¬
tered Lahore and Moultan, or the Panjab, with a view
to conqueft. “ The whole country of Hindoftan was
in commotion (fays Major Rennel) from one entrance
to the other, each party fearing the machinations of
attacks of the other ; fo th^t all regular government
was at an end, and villainy was praclifed in every form.
Perhaps in the annals of the world it has feldom hap.
pened that the bonds of government were fo fuddenly
diffolved, over a portion of country containing at leaf!
60 millions of inhabitants. 20
In 1748 the Nizam died at the age of 104, and was P‘rft inter.-
fucceeded by his fon Nazirjung, to the prejudice of his|^re”fe ot^
eldeft brother Gazi, vizier to the nominal emperor. ar(j
The conteft that followed on this occafion for the in the af-
throne of the Deccan, and nabobfhip of Arcot, firft fairs of
engaged the Erench and Englifii as auxiliaries on 0p-H‘rd°ftar!i'
polite fides. This was followed by a long feries of ho-
ftilities, which terminated in the total expulfion of the
French from Hindoftan, the entire humiliation of the
Mogul, and his being reduced to the ftate of depen¬
dence on the Englifh Eaft India company; together with
the fubjeffion of a vaft trad of country to the latter.
Thefe tranfaclions have occafioned very conuderable
revolutions, not only in the country properly called-
Hindojlan^
H I N [4
Hindoftan. Hindojlan, but in other places of that extenfive tra6t
' ^ ' called the Eaji Indies : for an account of which, and of
2i lome later revolutions, fee the article India.
Different The vail country of Hindoftan, before the revolutions
powers alluded to, was divided among the following powers,
whidfHin 1' iimur Shah, fon of Ahmed Shah, or Abdallah,
doftan is poffeiTed an extent of territory to the north-weft ward
divided. before we come to the river Indus. This country, ex¬
tending all the way betwixt India and Perfia, is known
by the name of Duran, or 'Duran ; and was poffelled
by the Afghans, of whom Abdallah became the fove-
reign. He was defcended from an illuftrious family $
and having the misfortune of being taken frifoner by
Huffein Khan, theh chief of Candahar, along with
his brother Zulfecur Khan, they were releafed by
the celebrated Nadir Shah in his paflage through that
country to Hindoftan ; but a$ that conqueror ftill
looked upon them with a jealous eye on account of
their great influence wuth their countrymen, both wrere
fent to Mazandaran in Perlia. Plere Zalfecur Khan,
the brother of Achmed, died 5 and, fome time after,
we find the latter promoted to the command of a body
of Afghan cavalry in the Perfian army. He continued
attached to the interefts of Nadir while that conqueror
lived 5 and even attempted, though ineffedlually, to
revenge his death. Proving unfuccefsful in this at¬
tempt, he returned to his own country; and, arriving
at Candahar, was faluted chief of the Afghans. In
the courfe of a few months he became mafter of all
the countries which the Mogul had been obliged to
cede to Nadir Shah; and, encouraged by the diftradled
ftate of the affairs of Hindoftan at that time, he crofted
the Indus, and plundered the country to the fouth-
eaft. An indecifive battle fought with the Indian
army under the command of the prince royal and
vizier, in which the latter was killed, obliged Ahmed
to return to his owm territories ; but he foon undertook
another expedition, in which he conquered the pro¬
vince of Lahore. In 1755 he returned ; and after
flaying fome time at Lahore, marched to Delhi the
Capital, having been invited thither, as was fuppofed,
by the Mogul himfelf, in order to get rid of the ty¬
ranny of his vizier. The latter vras accordingly de-
ferted in a battle by orders of the emperor, and obli¬
ged to lurrender himfelf prifoner ; but inftead of be¬
ing put to death, he had the addrefs to ingratiate
himfelf with the conqueror; and the unfortunate Al-
lumghire, the Mogul, was obliged to fubmit to be
ruled by him as before. Ahmed took care to indem-
jiify himfelf for his trouble, by laying the city of Delhi
under a heavy contribution; and having ftaid for about
a month, during which time he concluded a marriage
betwixt his fon Timur and the emperor’s niece, he
marched againft a tribe of Hindoos named the Jauts,
and conquered the greateft part of the province of
Agra. In this expedition he furprifed the city of
Matra, famous for being the birth-place of Krijloen,
the Apollo of the Hindoos; and facrificed to the Gopia,
the mufes of the country. He failed in his attempt
to furprife Agra through the refolution of Fazil Cawn
the governor; after which he led back his troops to
Delhi, where he married the daughter of Mohammed
Shah the late emperor, whom Allumghire had in vain
iblicited for himfelf.
Having fettled his fon Timur in the government of
8 ] H 1 N
Lahore, Ahmed quitted Hindoftan, and returned to llindoftan.
his dominions, where he found every thing in confu- '—
fion. Timur, who during his father’s abfence had
been frequently difturbed by the Seiks, a tribe of Hin¬
doos who profefs deifm, was in 1760 driven out by a
vaft army of Mahrattas commanded by Ragonaut Row
the Peilhwa’s brother, of whom fo much mention has
already been made. Next year, however, Ahmed
crofted the Indus, and eafily recovered his former ter¬
ritories ; foon after which he became head of a league
formed among fome of the Indian princes, in order to
oppofe the overgrown power of the Mahrattas. In
this enterprife he proved fuccefsful; and overthrew the
Mahrattas in a decifive and very bloody battle, in
which more than 50,000 of then’i were killed on the
fpot. The purfuit lafted feveral days, and their vaft
army was totally difperfed ; Ahmed being every
where received with acclamations as the deliverer of
the faithful. In 1762 he again crofted the Indus, with
a view7 to conquer, or rather to exterminate, the Seiks,
\vhofe incurfions had become very troublefome, and
even dangerous to his kingdom. Having defeated
their army, and forced them to take refuge in the
woods and ftrong holds, he fet a price on the heads of
all thofe w7ho profeffed their tenets; and that with
fuch fuccefs, that heaps of them are faid to have been
piled up in all the principal towns in thefe parts. At
laft, hearing that they had affembled in great numbers
to celebrate an annual feftival, he marched wdth an
army to furprife them. The Seiks, how7ever, were
well provided for his reception, and an obftinate battle
enfued. During the time of the engagement an eclipfe
of the fun happened, which, though difregarded by
the Seiks, greatly difmayed the fuperftitious Moham¬
medans. Ahmed was therefore defeated ; and though
he frequently returned, was never able thoroughly to
fubdue that people. At laft, having been long afftift-
ed with an ulcer in his face, he died on the 15th of
July 1773, at a place name Kohtoba, among the
mountains of Candahar, to which he had retired for
the fake of coolnefs, and was fucceeded by his fon
Timur, w7ho ftill continues to enjoy the fovereignty.
The dominions of this prince extend a very conlider-
able w7ay to the nortlward of the Indus, but he pof-
feffes nothing in Hindoftan befides the province of
Kaftimire.
2. The Seiks inhabit a country on the other fide of
the Indus, and making part of Hindoftan properly fo
called. They derive their origin from a Hindoo named
Nanuck of the call of Khatry. His father, named
Baba Ca/oo, poffeffed a fmall diftricl in the province of
Lahore named Tehandi, where Nanuck w7as born in
the year 1470. Like other founders of new feds or
nations, he is faid during his infancy to have given
many indications of his future fuperiority to the reft
of mankind. He feems, however, to have received
no farther education than what was common to young
men of his call, viz. reading, writing, and arithmetic,
and hearing the faftras or commentaries on the facred
books. In his early youth he was married to a wToman
of his own call, by wdiom he had tw-o fons. Being a
convert to the worfliip of the Invifible, or deifm, he
accuftomed himfeli to declaim againft the folly of wor-
(hipping idols, and the impiety of paying adoration to
any but the Supreme Being. At the age of 25 he left
H I N [ 4S9 1 H I N
>{lan. his family to vifit Bengal and the eaftern parts of Hin-
doldan ; in a fecond journey he vifited the fouthern, and
in a third he went as far as Periia and Arabia. On
his return from this laid journey, he expreifed a deiire
of remaining in his native country; and was furnithed,
according- to his wilh, with a piece of ground on the
banks of the river Bavy, about 80 miles north-eaftward
from the city of Lahore. Here he took up his reli-
dence for the reft of his days 5 and choofmg to be free
from the cares of this world, he dwelt at a diftance
from his wife and children, who came occaiionally to
viiit him. Having acquired great reputation for his
piety, wifdom, and learning, he died at the age of 70 $
and fmce his death the place of his abode has obtained
the name of Dihra Daira, or “ the place of worlhip.”
His eideft fon founded a lebt of devotees named Nanuck
Shoiy; but his fecond employed himfelf in the uiual oc¬
cupations of mankind. On account of the oppreffion
of the Mohammedan governors, however, he removed
from Telvandi, the eftate of his anceftors, and fettled at
Kartarpour, which his defcendants itill poffefs. They
are refpecfed by the Seiks on account of their being the
pofterity of Nanuck, but are not held in any veneration
on a religious account.
The doclrines of Nanuck were taught by a favourite
difciple of his named Lhina, but on whom he beftowed
on his death-bed the appellation of Angud. By him
the doctrines of the feet were collected in a work
•named Pot/iy, or “ the book” ; and an hiftory of the
life of Nanuck himfelf was given in another named
Jenum Sakky. Both thefe were written in a particular
kind of character called Gour Mouekty, and faid to have
been invented by Nanuck himfelf. Angud named for
his fuccelfor another difciple called Amerd'jfs ; and this
method of continuing the fucceifton feems to have been
pradtifed as long as the difciples continued to own one
fupreme chief.
For many years the Seiks lived in peace, and gained
the good-will of the Mohammedan governors by their
quiet aud inoffenfive behaviour. By degrees their
numbers and their power greatly increafed, but in
proportion to their good fortune, they feem to have
loft their virtue \ fo that their gourous, or chiefs,, who
had hitherto borne the charaHer of apoftles, at laft
flood forth as military leaders. The firlt of thefe was
named Taigh, whofe fucceffor, named Govand Sing,
was the tenth and laft of th^ gourous. He engaged in
a rebellion againft the government; but was at laft
obliged to fubmit, and even attended the emperor
Bahader Shah in perfon. At laft he was affaflinated
by a Petan foldier, not without a fufpicion of the
emperor himfelf being concerned. As he did not
name a fucceflbr, his followers chofe a chief for them-
felves named Banda, who foon began to make depre¬
dations on his neighbours ; but being at laft taken pri-
foner, and fent to Delhi with his family and many of
his countrymen, they were all put to an ignominious
death. By this execution the Seiks were fo much ex-
afperated, that they fwore eternal vengeance againft
the Mohammedans, and have ever iince manifefted a
moft implacable hatred againft them. Taking advan-
tage of the diftraflion of the Mogul empire by the
invafion of Nadir Shah, they conquered feveral pro¬
vinces. Wherever they came they threw down the
mofques, and obliged every one to quit the country
Vol. X. Part II.
who refufed to embrace their tenets. The war with H
Ahmed Shah has been already mentioned. Since his
death they have recovered all the territories they loft
during their conteft with him ; and now poffefs the
greateft part of Moultan, as well as feveral diilrifts in
the province of Delhi 5 including in their territones
the whole of that rich country named the Panjab, on ac¬
count of five rivers which defeend from the northern
mountains, and inclofe or iriterfedft it, running after¬
wards into the Indus.
The Seiks, as has already been mentioned, worfhip
one God ; but without image, or believing in any me¬
diator. They eat all kinds of meat except beef; fpa-
ring the black cattle, in all probability, on account of
their utility. Pork is very generally eaten, probably
on account of its being forbidden by the Mohamme¬
dans. They are commonly dreiTed in blue, a colour
reckoned unlucky by the other Hindoos. Their drefs
confifts of blue trowfers of cotton, a fort of plaid ge¬
nerally chequered with blue and thrown over the right
fhoulder, with a blue turban. J heir government is
lodged in an affembly of different chiefs ; but, who, as
individuals, are independent of one another, and have
feparate territories. They meet annually, or oftener
if occafton requires, at a place called Antberfer, which
is held in a kind of religious veneration where there
is a large tank lined with granite, and furrounded with
buildings, and beautifully ornamented. Their force is
very confiderable, amounting to no fewer than 200,000
cavalry. However, they can feldom be brought to
aft in concert, unlefs the whole nation be threatened
with fome imminent danger. They are a ftrong hardy
race of men, and capable of bearing much fatigue j
and fo expert in war, that of late aimoft all the neigh¬
bouring countries have been laid under contribution
by them, feveral petty chiefs having confented to pay
them a fmall annual tribute in order to avoid their in-
curlions. When in the field, none but the principal
officers have tents, and thofe extremely final], fo that
they may be 11 ruck and tranfported w-ith the greater
quicknefs and facility. In cold weather the foldiers
wrap themfelves during the night in a coarfe blanket,
which in the time of marching is folded and carried
on their horfe. Their country is well cultivated, po¬
pulous, and abounding in cattle, particularly horfes,
which are reckoned the belt in all Hindoftan. This
may probably be owing to the ftuds which were for¬
merly eftablilhed in different places of the province of
Lahore on account of the Mogul himfelf. Stallions
were fent thither from Perfia and Arabia, and there
was a fixed order to fend to the ftuds in Lahore all
fuch Arabian and Perfian horfes as by any accident
ihould be rendered unfit for mounting. NotwithHand¬
ing their deiftn, the Seiks are faid to have a fuperfti-
tious veneration for their fvvord ; infomuch, that before
one of them will eat with a perfon of another religion,
he draws his fword, and palling it over the victuals,
repeats fome words of prayer, after which he will
freely partake of them. Contrary to the praHice
of all the other Hindoos, they diilike the fmoking
of tobacco •, but many of them finoke and chew
bang, which fometimes produces a degree of intoxi¬
cation.
3. The provinces of Delhi have, in the courfe of a
few years, frequently changed their mailers, but have
3 Q. fcarce
H I N
[ 49° ]
H I N
Hintloft an.
fcarce at any period during that time been under the
authority of the fovereign. Their laid governor was
named Nadjiff Khan, under the title of generalidimo
of the emperor. He was involved in the ruin of Mo¬
hammed Kouly Khan, coufm to Soujah al Dowlah :
after which he went to Caffim Aly Khan nabob of
Bengal ; after whofe expuliion he retired with a party
of horfe to Bundelcund into the fervice of Rajah Coman
Sing. He next joined the Englifh •, and at laid became
the general of Shah Allum. With a body of Englilh
feapcys who had been put under his command, and
fome other troops whom he had taken into his fervice,
he fubdued the countries near Delhi, conquered almolb
ail the territories of the Jauts, reducing the cities of
Agra, Dieg, and other principal towns. Thefe con-
queils were indeed effefled in the name of the Mogul,
but he derived little benefit from them •, Nadjiff being
the real mailer, and keeping poffeffion of them till his
death, which happened in 1782: and fince that time
the countries we fpeak of have been involved in a fcene
of continual anarchy and bloodfhed.
4. Next to the provinces of Delhi are the dominions
of the independent rajahs, ■whofe dominions lie conti¬
guous to one another. The principal are thofe oi
Joinagar or Jaypour, Joadpour or Marwar, Oudiapour
or Chitore, and Jefalmire. Thefe countries are under
a kind of feudal conffitution, and every village is ob¬
liged to furnilh a certain number of horfemen at the
fihorteft warning. The people are brave, hardy, and
very much attached to their refpeclive chiefs 5 and their
army is very formidable, amounting when collefted to
about 150,000 horfemen.
5. The Jauts were a tribe who followed the occu¬
pation of agriculture in the northern part of Hindof-
tan. About 40 years ago they were formed into a
nation by Tackou Souragemul, proprietor of an in-
confiderable dillriiff. After making himfelf mailer of
all the countries dependant on Agra, of the town it-
felf, and many other important places, he was killed
in battle with Nadjib ul Dowlah, the Rohilla chief, in
1763. Since that time the power of this people has
been fo much reduced by domeftic contentions and
foreign wars, that the prefent rajah poffeffes only a
ffrong town named Bartpoor, with a fmall diilrift
around it. The Jauts, however, it is faid, are now
manifeiling a martial difpofition, and thus may poffibly
be foon in a condition to recover their former extent
of territory.
6. The mod confiderable of all the Hindoo powers
are the Mahrattas, with whom the Europeans firil
became acquainted in their original territories of Ma¬
labar. The firil of their chiefs was named Seeva, or
Seeva-jee ; who is faid to have been defcended from the
ancient Hindoo emperors, and whofe father was lord
of a fmall dillrift, for which he paid tribute to the
Mohammedan king of Viziapour. For fome reafon,
unknown to us, he was at laft arrefted by order of
that king, and died in confinement; but his fon
Seeva-jee took up arms in defence of his country, and
made himfelf mailer of feveral important places, with
a confiderable tra£l of territory, which were afterwaru*
ceded to him by the queen-regent, the king of Vizia¬
pour having died foon after the commencement of the war.
Seeva-jee having thus eftablifhed himfelf, foon became
formidable to his neighbours, Many of the Hindoo
princes put themfelves under his protection, and he at Hindoftan.
length ventured to make war upon the emperor Aureng- " " ~v J
zebe. In this he proved unfuccefsful, was taken prifoner,
and carried to Delhi. Having found means, however, to
make his efcape, he quickly recommenced hollilities;
and the emperor, who was now far advanced in life,
thought proper to come to an accommodation with fo
troublefome an enemy. On this occafion the Mahrat¬
tas pretend that their prince obtained a grant of 10 per
cent, on all the revenues of the Deccan ; which has
often ferved as a pretence to invade that country, and
levy contributions on the fouthern nabobs. Since that
time the Mahrattas have become fo powerful, that all
the princes of Hindollan are alarmed when they put
themfelves in motion. Their territories extend about
xooo miles in length and 700 in breadth •, and they
are governed by a number of feparate chiefs, all of
whom acknowledge the Ram Rajah as their fovereign,
and all except Moodajee Booilah acknowledge the
Pailhwa as his vicegerent. The capital of the fovereign
was Sattarah ; but the Pailhwa generally refides at
Poonah, one degree to the fouthward, and about 100
miles dilfant from Bombay. The country extends
along the coaft nearly 'from Goa to Cambay. On the
fouth it borders on the territories of Tippoo Saib ; on
the call it has thofe of the Nizam and the rajah ot
Berar ; and on the north thofe of the Mahratta chiefs
Sindia and Holkar.
7. The rajah of Berar, befides that country, has
the greateff part of Orixa. His dominions extend
about 60c miles in length from eaft to weft, and 250
from north to fouth. The eaftcrn part of Orixa
extends along the fea-coaft for about 150 Englilh
miles, and divides the Britilh poffeftions in Bengal
from thofe commonly called the Northern Circars. On
the wreft his territories border upon thofe of the Paiih-
wa ; on the fouth, upon thofe of the Nizam, Mahomet
Hyat a Patan chief, Nizam Shah, and Ajid Sing.
The rajah himfelf refides at Nagarpour, about midway
betwixt Calcutta and Bombay.
8. Madajee Sindia has the greateft part of the go¬
vernment of Malva, together with the province of
Candeifh. The remainder is under the government of
Holkar ; who, as well as Sindia, pretends to be de¬
fcended from the ancient kings of Malva. The prin¬
cipal refidence of Sindia is at Ugein near the city of
Mundu, which was once the capital of thefe kings*
Holkar refides at Indoor, a town little more than 30
miles to the weftward of the former. The dominions
of thefe, and fome other princes of fmaller note, ex¬
tend as far as the river Jumma.
The two laft mentioned princes, though properly
Mahrattas, own no allegiance' to the Ram Rajah, or
great chief to whom the main body are nominally lub-
je£t. Some time ago the Mahrattas aimed at the con-
queft of all Hindoftan, and even avowed a defign ot
expelling all the Mohammedan princes-, but their power
was effeftually checked by the Britifti, and their diffen-
fions among themfelves put an end to all Ichemes of that
kind. Still, however, they were ready to watch every
opportunity of invading the territories of their neigh¬
bours ; and their refources being fo conliderable, they
wrere defervedly accounted a very formidable enemy.
The ftrength of their army confifts chietly in cavalry;
and both men and horfe are capable of enduring a great
deal
H I N [ 49> 1
H I
HmJoftan. deal of fatigue. Bodies of 50 or 60,OOO cavalry have
been known to travel 50 miles a day for many days
together j which, coniidering the exceflive heat of the
country, mult certainly appear very furprifing.. The
country abounds very much in hories, and there is one
kind named the Bheemerteddy horfe, which is greatly
elteemed, and fold at a very high price. '1 he com¬
mon horfe of thefe parts is lean and looks ill, but is
abundantly fit for the purpofes of war. The only
weapon ufed by the horfemen is a fabre } in the ufe ot
which they are fo dexterous, that it fs fuppofed tne belt
European huflar would not be more than a match for
a Mahratta horfeman. There are confiderable duds
in every province belonging to the Pailhwa and dif¬
ferent chiefs j and there are likewife many jundis or
great herds of horfes belonging to particular perfons,
who turn thofe they have no occafion for loofe iu the
open plains.
The Mahratta horfemen are dreffed in a quilted
jacket of cotton, which is fuppofed to be one of the
belt defences againlt a fword that can eafily be con¬
trived of equal lightnefs j but the heat of the climate
frequently renders it neceffary to be taken off 1 he
reft of their drefs confilts of a pair of trowfers, and a
kind of broad turban which defcends k>w enough to
cover the neck and Ihoulders. In cafes of emergency
the horfemen carry provifion both for themfelves and
their horfes in fmall bags tied upon the faddles: the
food of the rider confifts only of a few fmall cakes with
a little Hour or rice, and fome fait and fpices ; the
horfe is fed wdth a kind of peas named gram, or with
balls made of the flour of thefe peas mixed with but¬
ter, prepared after a certain manner, and named ghee,
together with fome garlic and hot fpices. Ihefe balls
are given by way of cordial, and have the property of
invigorating the animal after extraordinary fatigue.
Sometimes it is faid that they add a fmall quantity of
bang; a kind of drug which pyffeffes an exhilarating
virtue, and produces fome degree of intoxication.
The Mahratta cavalry feldom make any ufe of tents 5
even the officers frequently have no other accommoda¬
tion than a fmall carpet to fit and lie on •, and a Angle
camel is able to carry the whole baggage of the gene¬
ral. The officers, however, are generally well mount¬
ed, and have fpare horfes in the field.
All the fubjedls and vaffals of the Mahratta princes
are generally ready to follow them into the field ; and
in any cafe in which the honour or intereft of the na¬
tion appears to be concerned, they generally unite in
the common caufe. Before they invade any country,
the general is at great pains to inform himfelf of the
nature and fituation of it; and they have now made
incurfions into fo many different parts of Hindo-
ftan, that there are very few countries there with
which they are not very well acquainted. Iheir great
fobriety, and the fatigue they are capable ot undergo¬
ing, render them very dangerous enemies. In all their
expeditions the foldier firft provides for his horfe, and
then goes to his own meal; after which he lies down
contented by the fide of the animal, and is ready to
mount him at the firft found of the nagar or great
drum. They have their horfes under the moft excel¬
lent management; and by perpetually careffing and
converfing with them, the animals acquire a degree of
docility and fagacity .unknown in other countries.
When on an expedition, the hories are accuftomed to
eat grafs pulled up by the roots, which is laid to be
very nutritive, and to be deftitute of that purgative
quality which belongs to the blade alone. W hen they
make an invafion, the devaftation is terrible ; the cattle
are driven off, the harveft deftroyed, the villages burn¬
ed, and every human creature deftroyed who comes
in their way. Notwithftanding this barbarity in time
of war, however, they are very humane in time ot
peace, living in great harmony among themfelves, and
being always ready to entertain and affift ftrangers.
Many of the cruelties they commit may be juftly reck¬
oned the effedls of retaliation for other cruelties exer-
cifed upon them by their adverfaries. fIhus, in I771*
after having given Hyder Ally a great defeat, they cut
off the ears and nofes of a whole regiment of prifoners,
and in that condition fent them back to their comman¬
der, in return for his having done the fame to a few
prifoners he had taken fome time before.
The revenue of the Paiffiwa is very confiderable ;
being not lefs than ten millions fterling; but after de
du6ting the expence of colledfion, and the expence of
troops kept in readinefs for the fervice of the ftate, it
is fuppofed that he cannot receive more than four
millions. From this again we muft dedudt the ex-
pences of the troops immediately belonging to the
Paiffiwa himfelf, and which may amount to about three
millions fterling ; fo that there remains a furplus only
of one million after paying all the neceffary expences
of government. This neverthelefs has been managed
with fuch economy, that though long and expenfive
wars were carried on after the death of Narrain Row,
the ftate was not only clear of debt, but there was a
furplus of two millions in the treafury, which Rogo-
bah diffipated.
9. The Deccan, as left in 1748 by Nizam al Mulek,
was by far the moft important and extenfive foubadary
or viceroyffiip in the empire. It then furpaffed in fize
the largeft kingdom in Europe ; but fince that time
many provinces have been conquered by the Mahrattas,
and the northern Circars by the Britilh. The poffef-
fions of the Nizam ai'e alfo diminifhed by the ceffion
of the Carnatic to the nabob of Arcot; great part of
the territories of Tippoo Saib ; and many other pro¬
vinces of lefs note. Still, however, the Nizam poffeffes
very confiderable territories ; but his finances are in fuch
a wretched condition, and his provinces fo ill govern¬
ed, that he is accounted a prince of no confequence,
though otherwife he might be reckoned one of the
moft confiderable powers of Hindoftan.
10. The dominions of Tippoo Saib, the fon and fuc--
ceffor of Hyder Ally, are bounded on the north by the
territories of the Pailhwa ; on the fouth by Travancore,
the territory of an independent Hindoo prince ; on the
weft by the fea ; and on the eaft by a great ridge of
mountains, which feparate them from the territories of
the nabob of Arcot. The country lying to the eaftward
of thefe mountains is called the Carnatic Payen Ghat,
and to the weftward the Carnatic Bhal/a Ghat. The
latter belongs to Tippoo Saib ; and the two toge¬
ther make up the country formerly named the Carnatic,
though the name is now reftridted to the Payen Ghat.
—The fituation of the Bhalla Ghat is confiderably
more elevated than the other ; by which means the
temperature of the air is much cooler. On the
3 (£ 2 coal!
Hindoftan.
I
H I N [ 492 ] H
Hindoftan. coaft of Coromar.del there is a pile of ruins called by became an objedf of form
N
22
Govern¬
ment of
Hmdoftan.
2d
Defence of
the Britifh
govern¬
ment in the “
eaft.
the natives Mc/avipatam, and by the Britiih the /even
pagodas. Concerning this there is a tradition, that it
once flood at a coniiderable diftance from the fea,
though moft of the ruins are now covered with water }
and there is likewife a tradition, that- the mountains
we fpeak of once formed the boundary of the ocean.
The revenue and ftrength of Hyder Ally are' laid to
have been greatly exaggerated : the former amounting
to no more than four millions annually, though by his
econr.my and good management he made it anfwer
every purpole both in time of war and peace. He
was at great pains to introduce the European disci¬
pline among his troops ; but notwithstanding all his
endeavours, he was far from being able to make them
cope with the Britifh. The advantages he gained were
owing to his vaft fuperiority in cavalry, and the cele¬
rity of his marches } which would have been counter¬
acted had his adverfaries been poffcffed of a good body
of cavalry •, and it is probable that the event of the war
would have been decided in a fmgle campaign. His
fon Tippoo Saib is faid to have been a man of lefs abilities
than his father, though more violent in his difpofrtion.
Againil this prince hoftilities commenced by the Britifh
in conjundlion with the Mahrattas, between whom an
alliance had been formed. Tippoo Saib himfelf fell a
viClim to his own mifguided bravery at the liege of Se-
ringapatam, which furrendered to the Britifh on the 4th
of May 1799.
With regard to the prefent government of Hin¬
doftan, our limits will not allow us to enter particu¬
larly upon it, nor indeed is it perhaps of any impor¬
tance, as the country is divided into fo many different
■kingdoms, the fovereigns of which, however they may
differ in other refpedls, feem all to agree in defpotifm
and oppreffion of their fubjefts. As a very confider-
able part is now under the dominion of Britain, it
may be neceffary to take fome notice of the behaviour
of our countrymen in that part of the wmrld, efpecially
-as an idea of their excefiive defpotifm and oppreffion
of the natives has of late prevailed fo much, that the
national character has fuffered confiderably by it.
This has arifen partly from the great pains taken to
propagate it, and partly from the ignorance of thofe
among whom the report was circulated ; and the
exaggerated accounts and contentions of the members
of the government themfelves, have contributed no lefs
to confirm and heighten the prejudices of the public.
The Britiih territories in the Eaft Indies were ori¬
ginally under the jurifdiCiion of a governor and 13
members j but this number has fluctuated occafionally
from j 4 to 4, at which it was fixed by act of parlia¬
ment. In this council all matters, whether relating to
peace or war, government or commerce, were debated,
the governor having no other fuperiority than that of
giving the calling vote. In other refpefts the whole
executive powTer wjas lodged in his hands, and all the
eorrefpondence wfith the native princes of India was
carried pn by his means, tire difpatches to them be-
ing figned by him fingly 5 and all the princes and great
men who vifited the prefidency were firft received by
him, and hen introduced to the counfellors. He was
military governor of Fort William, and commander in
chief of the prefidency •, whence, as by his office he
was invefted with a confiderable degree of power, he
envy and jealoufy to the Hindoftan.
members of the council and other confiderable people v__ f
in that part of the world. In confequence of this, the
government xvas divided into two parties, one fiding
with the governor, and the other oppofing him ; in
confequence of wffiich, the debates were frequently car¬
ried on with Inch heat and violence, that the records
of the company are frequently fluffed with nothing but
accounts of the contentions of thefe jarring parties.
This indeed may be looked upon as one of the prin¬
cipal caufes by which the reputation of the Britifh go¬
vernment in the eaftern parts of the world has fuffered j
for as there were very frequently opinions diametri¬
cally oppofite to one another recorded upon the fame
fuojedl, the contending parties in the Britiih parlia¬
ment had always fufficient authority for what they
faid, let them take which fide they would : and thus
the characters of all concerned in the Eait India go¬
vernment wrere, by one perfon or other, fet forth in the
moft opprobrious light.
Another fource of reproach to the Britifh govern¬
ment in India was, that the court of directors in Eng¬
land became infefted with the fame fpirit of party and
contention which pervaded all other departments of
the ftate. Lord Clive and Mr Sullivan were the two
great leaders in thefe party difputes ; and as the in-
tereft of the one or the other prevailed, different per-
fons were appointed to the ad mini fir ati on, and diffe¬
rent meafures adopted. The event of all this vcas,
that whenever a new adminiftration was formed, the
firft objedl was to condemn the meafures of thofe who
had gone before him. Thus, in the year j 764, when
Lord Clive was made governor of Bengal, the newT di-
redlors reprefented the affairs of the company as in the
worft fituation imaginable, from which they could on¬
ly be extricated by the ablities of Clive. On the ar¬
rival of the latter in the eaft, he took care to write
home reports to the fame purpofe, and to condemn in
the moft violent manner every thing that had been
done ; the whole body of the company’s fervants wrere
cenfured indifcriminately wfithout being allowed any
means of defence, as they were in truth ignorant of
the charges brought againft them. When the affairs
of the company w?ere brought under a parliamentary
review- in the year 1774, the government was brought
under a new’ regulation. It now confided of a gover¬
nor-general and four counfellors ; three of whom were
fent from England \ two being military gentlemen of
high rank,, and the third a gentleman employed in the
war-office. On their arrival they proceeded in the
fame manner that Lord Clive had done before them :
they pronounced in the moft decifive manner, that the
company’s affairs wTere in a ruinous ftate •, and that
every fpecies of corruption had been practifed by the
former government. This general accufation, unfup-
ported by any kind of evidence, was the conftant
theme of the difpatches fent by them to England \
and thus has the reputation of the Britiih government
fuffered exceedingly through the unwarrantable liber¬
ties which its own fervants have been allowed to take
with one another. It muft alfo be confidered, that
from the remote fituation of India, and the unavoid¬
able ignorance of its affairs on that account, it was
eafy for any perfon, whofe malicious purpoles it might
fuit, to prejudice the public againft the fervants of the
company
11 I N [ 493 ] H I N
Hindoftan. company to as great a degree as lie pleafed. Hence
' Tome perfons, loured by difappointment, or envious of
the 1’uppofed emoluments of others*, reprefented matters
in fuch an unfair light to their correfpondents in Eng¬
land, that the moil unjult and lhameful charges were
frequently brought againlt innocent perfons, which they
could neither prevent nor defend themfelves againft.
The dreadful famine which took place in Bengal in the
year 1769, offered to thefe malevolent perfons a moil
fruitful lource of calamity; and many individuals were
accufed of having brought on this dreadful calamity,
which arofe entirely from a natural caufe, viz. the fail¬
ure of the rains, and which no human power could have
prevented or removed.
Opinions of this kind have not. only been circulated
through the ifland of Britain in the moll open man¬
ner, but have even appeared in fome very refpeftable
publications. Thus, in Dr Smith’s Treatife on the
Wealth of Nations, when fpeaking of the oppreffion
arifing from monopolies, and comparing their effedls
in different Bates: “ The Englilh company (fays he),
have not yet had time to ellablilh in Bengal fo per-
feblly deftru£!ive a fyltem. The plan of the govern¬
ment, however, has had exa&ly the fame tendency.
It has not been uncommon, I am well allured, for the
chief, that is, the firft clerk of a fadlory, to order a
peafant to plow up a rich field of poppies, and fow it
with rice or fome other grain. The pretence wras to
prevent a fcarcity of provifions •, but the real reafon,
to give the chief m opportunity of felling at a better
price a large quantity of opium he had on hand. Upon
other occafions the order has been reverfed, and a rich
field of rice or other grain has been plowed up to make
room for a plantation of poppies, when the chief faw
that extraordinary profit was to be made by opium.”
To this, however, the following anfw’er has appeared
in a late publication, entitled A ihort Review7 of the
Britiffi government in India. “ The poppy is a plant
which requires a peculiar foil, and particular care in
the culture of it. The medium price of the land on
which it is cultivated is about 11 or 12 rupees a bega/i,
or one-third of an Englilh acre. It is fowmd at the
beginning of October, when the feafon of the perio¬
dical rain expires. The plant begins to be fit for in-
ciiion, in order to extract its juice, of which opium is
made, about the end of December, and continues fo
till March. It requires a dry foil, and can be brought
to maturity only in the dry feafon, wTen the periodical
rains have ceafed. Paddy or rice lands let on a me¬
dium at three rupees a begah. Rice is fowed about
the end of May, juft before the periodical rains com¬
mence. One crop is raifed about the end of Septem¬
ber ; and another, which is the laft, and by far the
greateft, about the end of December. It requires a
foil faturated with water, and lies foaked in it for a
conllderable time. On this account it is fow7ed juft
before the periodical rains commence ; and nine-tenths
of the quantity of rice produced in the company’s pro¬
vinces grow7 in the kingdom of Bengal, which is fo low
and Hat, that the grounds are either overflowed by the
rivers Ganges and Burrampooter, with their tributary
ftreams, or foaked with the rain which falls and Hag-
nates upon them. It is therefore evident, that the foil
and the feafon, which alone can fructify the paddy or
rice, would rot and deitroy the poppy; and it is there¬
fore as evident, that it is utterly imooffible, from the Hindoftan.
nature 6f the two plants, that the one can be plowed ~ v
up to lbwT the other.”
With regard to the adminiftration of the Britilh af¬
fairs in the Rail Indies, it mull alfo be remarked, that
the company now acl in a very different capacity from
what they originally did. From a fociety of mer¬
chants, they are now become fovereigns of the coun¬
try to which they trade. The latter charakder was
quite foreign to them •, and they have accordingly look¬
ed upon that of merchants to be the principal one,
while that of fovereigns was to be only a kind of ap¬
pendage to it. Thus, inftead of adling for the intereft:
of the country they govern, and which as fovereigns
they naturally ought to do, they have added in many
cafes direddly oppoiite to it, which, as merchants, is
alfo their natural intereft. Hence alfb, when the ad¬
miniftration in India did any thing in obedience to the
orders of the directors, which orders being dictated by
merchants, were prejudicial to the interefts of the coun¬
try, that injury has been fometimes unjuftly attributed
to their fervants, who added merely in obedience to the
orders they received. On the other hand, when the
India adminiftration added with the generous fpirit of
fovereigns, they w7ere fometimes blamed by the direc¬
tors, who judged as merchants, and fometimes by the
miniftry, w7ho were al>vays ready upon the fmalleft pre¬
tence to interfere in tdieir affairs.
At the time w;hen the Britilh adminiftration firft
commenced in Hindoftan, the Hindoo governors were
univerfally named rajahs; but though many of the
Hindoo families yet bear that title, it does not appear
to refemble, in any manner of way, our titles of nobi¬
lity, or to be a dignity w7hich can be conferred by any
of the princes, or even by the Mogul himfelf. Hence,
in that part of the w7orld there are no ancient nobility,
the titles being conferred merely by ufurpers, w7ho
have neither right nor title derived from any thing but
violence.
In this country we find the title of ‘zemindar very
common 5 a word compounded of two others, iigni-
fying, in the Periic language, a landholder. It ap¬
pears to have been introduced by the Mohammedans,
and to have been a kind of temporary office, preferi-
bing the performance of certain duties, and requiring
fecurity for the perfonal appearance of the zemindar.
He is obliged to attend the exchequer of the king’s
chief colleftor, at the commencement of every new
year, to fettle his revenues ; and he is not allowed to
enter upon the duties of his office for the year with¬
out a fpecial order for that purpofe. On the death of a
zemindar, the candidate for fucceftion muft petition
the fovereign, engaging himfelf to perform all the fti-
pulated duties, and to pay the cuftomary fees ; nor
can he enter upon his office without a fpecial invefti-
ture. As the zemindars were by virtue of their office
invefted with confiderable power, they foon became
not only very defpotic in their own dominions, but by
degrees began to encroach on the power of the fove¬
reign himfelf. After the irruption of Nadir Shah
every thing wras thrown into confufion : the viceroys
threw7 off obedience to the emperor, the nabobs threw
off all obedience to them, and ufurped their power } at
which time it is probable that tdie zemindars likewife
affumed powers to which they were by no means in-
titfed
H I N [ 494 ] H I N
Hindoilan.
titled from their office. Notwithflanding this, how¬
ever, they were fometimes treated by the Mohammedan
governors as mere revenue-officers, and ufed very harffi-
ly. At feme times there were a fet of people bound
for the zemindars under the title of woodedars; and
thefe had either a joint power with the former, or
were fuperior to them in the collection of the reve¬
nues ; and fometimes they were fuperfeded by officers
appointed immediately by government itfelf, under
the various names of aumi/s, talijilders, or fezawruls.
—The zemindaries are not limited in extent or value }
there being fome in Bengal which yield a revenue as
high as 350,000!. flerling, while others fcarcely amount
to 350I. ; but all the great zemindars, and many of
thefe in middling circumflances, having procured for
themfelves the title of rajah, affeCl much pomp and
(late in their different diftri&s, and keep their inferiors
in as great fubjection as the Mohammedan governors
keep them. Some of them alfo have their power aug¬
mented by being of the Bramin call; ; and by the
reverence fuppofed to be due to religion on that ac¬
count, joined with the power conferred upon them by
the fovereign, they are in general rendered exceedingly
defpotic, with an almoft unlimited authority to plunder
-their tenants; in which they were indulged by the
nabobs, from the motive of plundering them again.
From the confultations of the felect committee in
1769, wre are informed that the zemindars have a
power of levying fines at pleafure 5 that they raife
large fums from duties colleCled in the market 5 and
that they frequently oblige the ryots or hufbandmen
to work for nothing. In ihort, the fame claims made
by the European barons on their vaffals in the times
of the feudal fyftem, are now made by the zemindars
on the common people of Hindoftan. If one of them
is to be married, if he has a child born, if honours are
to be conferred upon him ; nay, if he is even to be
lined for his own mifconducl, the poor ryot muff
always contribute his fliare. Mr Scrofton, in his hi-
flory of Hindoftan, fets forth the fituation of the in¬
habitants in the following wmrds :—“ Unhappily for
the Gentoos, themfelves are made the minifters of op-
preflion over each other •, the Moor-men, haughty,
lazy, and voluptuous, make them, of whom they have
no jealoufy, the minifters of their oppreffion, which
further anfwers the end of dividing them, and prevents
their uniting to fling off the yoke ; and by the ftrange
intoxication of powTer, they are found ftill more rapa¬
cious and cruel than their foreign matters : and what
is more extraordinary, the Bramins ftill exceed the
reft in every abufe of power, and feem to think, if
they bribe God by beftowing a part of their plun¬
der on cows and faquirs, their iniquities wall be par¬
doned.”
From this account of the fituation of the people of
Hindoftan under their native rulers, it is by no means
probable that they could make a worfe exchange by
falling under the jurifdidtion either of the Mohammedans
or Europeans. A notion indeed hath been induftrioufly
propagated, that the Britiffi government has behaved
with the greateft cruelty in colleding the revenues,
and that they have even invented tortures to make the
rich people difeover their treafures 5 but on examining
the matter impartially, the reverfe of this is found to
be true. At the time that the Britiffi government in¬
l
terfered in the affairs of Hindoftan, the provinces were Hindoftan.
found to be in a ruinous ftate, in confequence of the
wars which had taken place in the country. Even in
the moll fettled ftate, and when' the adminiftration was
molt regular, the government w'as altogether defpotic,
and the mode of collecling its revenues extremely ar¬
bitrary ; the puniftiments inflicted very cruel 5 and the
whole fyftem of government fuch as would be reckon¬
ed quite ffiocking in Europe. It is only within thefe
few years that the Britiffi could effedtually interpofe in
behalf of the natives ; and in that ihort time it has
produced a very confiderable reformation. It is cer¬
tain, that the Britifh government has difeouraged op-
preffive meafures as much as poffible ; abolifhed the
cruel modes of puniffiment ufed by the Mohammedans j
and by inftituting a more regular plan of juftice, has
procured eafe and fecurity to the natives, and preferved
them in a ftate of tranquillity altogether unknown to
them before its commencement. Many inftances of
the greateft cruelty exercifed upon the zemindars and
other colledtors are to be met with in the hiftory of
Bengal, written by a native hiftorian, and tranflated by
Gladwin : yet the perfon who exercifed thefe cruel¬
ties was dignified with the titles of the faithfulfervant
of the Empire, and the Glory of the State ; which ffiows
that the people were abfolutely familiarifed with cruel¬
ty, and did not know wffiat it was to be under a lenient
government. Since the Britiffi had the dominion,
matters have been totally reverfed, and the Hindoos,
inflead of being treated with cruelty, perfecuted on
account of their religion, and compelled to renounce
it, have been ufed with at leaft comparative lenity, and
great indulgence has been fliown to them even in their
moft abfurd pra61ices and fuperftitions. When the Bri¬
tiffi government firft accepted of the office of dewanny,
or colle&or of the revenues, it was not in their power
to interpofe with any kind of efficacy for the relief of
the inhabitants; becaufe it wjas at firft thought pro¬
per to allow the taxes to be collected by natives, who
would undoubtedly follow their ancient modes of col-
ledlion. Even at that time, however, the mildnefs of
the Britiffi governors had fome effeft upon the Afia-
tics j fo that the people in general were treated with
more lenity than formerly : and in the year 1772,
when the council of Bengal openly affumed the office
of dewan themfelves, an immediate ftop was put to
all thofe arbitrary and oppreffive methods which had
been formerly in ufe. Formerly fome zemindars had
been flogged even to death, by an jnftrument called a
korah : but from the moment that the Britifh coun¬
cil took the colledtion into their own hands, not only
this inftrument was laid afide, but all kind of corporal
puniffiment 5 by wfliich means the feverity of the
Mohammedan government has been entirely aboliffi-
ed, and no other puniffiments inflidfed in cafes of in-
folvency than fuch as are in ufe in our own country.
Still, however, in fuch extenfive dominions, where a
great {hare of power muft be one way or other com¬
mitted to the natives, it is impoffible but fome arbitrary
a£ts muft be committed, as the natives are always prone
to a<fts of defpotifm whenever they can commit them
with impunity ; but examples of this kind cannot with
any degree of candour be brought as a general charge
againft the Britiffi government in India.—Mr Scrofton
gives the following account of the wretched ftate of
H I N [ 495 ] H 1 N
doltan. the provinces now under the Britidi jurifdiftion at the
"v-~^ time they were ceded to them by the Mogul. “ When
the eovernors of the provinces found the weaknefs of
the Mogul, and each fet up as fovereign in his own
province, although they could not break through thei'e
immutable laws, they invented new taxes under new
names, which doubled or trebled the value of the ori¬
ginal ones, and which the landholder was obliged to
levy upon his tenants. The old flock of wealth for
fome time fupported this ; but when that failed, and
the tenants were flill preffed for more, they borrowed
money of ufurers at an exorbitant intereft ; and the go¬
vernment ftill continuing thefe demands, the lords of
the lands were obliged to do the fame : but as all this
while the value of lands did not increafe, the con-
fequence was, that at laft, unable to pay the interefl
of the mortgages, the rents were feized by rapacious
ufurers. The government finding the revenues fall
fliorter every year, at laft fent colledftors and farmers
of the revenues into the provinces. Thus the lord of
the land was divefted of power over his country, and
the tenants expofed to mercilefs plunderers 5 till the
farmer and manufacturer, finding that the more they
laboured the more they paid, the manufadturer would
work no more, and the farmer would cultivate no more
than was juft fufficient for the fubfiftence of his family.
Thus this once flouriihing and plentiful country has,
in the courfe of a few years, been reduced to fuch mi-
fery, that many thoufands are continually perilhing
through want. The crown lands are ftill worfe off,
let out to the higheft bidder j and the Jagheer lands
alone remain unplundered. Hence that equal dillri-
bution of wealth that makes the happinefs of a people,
and fpreads a face of cheerfulnefs and plenty through
all ranks, has now ceafed ; and the riches of the coun¬
try are fettled partly in the hands of a few ufurers and
greedy courtiers, and the reft is carried out of the
country by the foreign troops taken into pay to main¬
tain the governors in their ufurpations. This unhap¬
py decay the India company has already experienced
in the decay of their trade, and the rile and price of
their manuiadlures ; and will, I fear, experience more
and more annually.”
With regard to the depofitions of the nabobs by the
Britilh, which has been ufed as a great argument
againft the general fpirit of Britilh government in thofe
parts, it muft be remembered, in the firft place,
that thefe nabobs were mere ufurpers, who had not
the leaft title to their dominions, and confequently
could not, in point of right, complain more reafonably
of being deprived of their dominions, than the perfons
from whom they had taken them might do of their in-
juftice in driving them out. Their behaviour in
government alfo was fuch, that it w'as impoffible it
could have fubfifted for any length of time without
the ablolute ruin of the countries they poffeffed. Thus,
in the cafe of Jaftier Aly Cawn, Mr Vanfittart de¬
clared the country to be in fo confufed and im-
poverifhed a ftate, that in all human appearance ano¬
ther month could not have been run through before
he would have been cut off by his own feapoys for
want of pay, and the city become a feene of plunder
and diforder. On this account he was degraded,
though without any of thofe circumftances of cruelty
which generally charahterife the revolutions in this part
of the world. The adminiftration was transferred to Hindoftan-
his fon-in-lavv Meer Coflim j who being an enemy to t—
the Britilh government altogether, a war followed,
terminating in his expulfion. This was followed by
the invafion of Sujah Dowlah, and by feenes of horrid
barbarity and devaftation j when in 1765 Lord Clive
took upon him the office of dewan, or miniiter who fu-
perintends the lands and colledlions of the revenue.
An account of his proceedings has already been given ;
but whatever applaufe be might gain, and in fome
refpebts defervedly at the time, it is now laid with
fome probability, that he raifed the expectations of
the people of England by far too high. The feeds of
the fucceeding evils were already fown. Many fources
of wealth were dried up. Raw iilk, cloths, and other
manufactures, had formerly been exported to Guzerat,
Lahore, and even Ifpahan. This had ceafed on the
invafion of Nadir Shah *, and the influx of wealth from
the European nations had ceafed before the Britifti
government in Bengal had an exiftence. It was com¬
puted that Coffim- Aly Cawn robbed the country of
near five millions Iterling in jewels and fpecie. China,
Madras, and Bombay, were fupplied from Bengal to
the amount of more than two millions •, and feveral
other circumltances befides thefe contributed to dimi-
niffi the riches and opulence of the country. In the
mean time the internal adminiftration of the country
had been extremely defective. The zemindars being
under very little reftraint, aCIed in a very arbitrary
manner within their own diftridls j and the tenants had
no redrefs againft the irnpofitions and exaCIions which
were laid upon them. Meer Coffim appointed aumils
to the collection of the revenues rather than zemindars.
The aumils derive their authority directly from the
perfon wffio has the command of the country for the
prefent time, and confequently are more eafily called
to an account than the zemindars. At laff, how¬
ever, thefe aumils, having obtained too great an in¬
fluence in the country, Lord Clive thought proper to
change the plan of collection. Three natives were
now appointed, in the nabob’s name, to fuperintend
this department j and one Englifh gentleman, through
whom the bufmefs was tranfaCted, had his refidence at
the nabob’s court, and communicated the intelligence
to Calcutta. The principal acting miniiter in this
plan, however, thought proper to change the mode of
collection once more, and to re-appoint the aumils;
in confequence of which the revenue became greatly
diminilhed, and they were befides complained of as
greatly opprefling the people. To remedy thefe evils,
it was firlt propofed by Mr Verelft, to fend fome of
the company’s fervants into the internal parts of the
country with the title of fupervifors : but the defeCts -
of adminiftration were now beyond their pow'er to re¬
medy ; the revenue was not only greatly diminilhed,
but the expence of government exceedingly augmented;
and in the year 1771 the company were alarmed by
accounts that bills had been drawn upon them to the
amount of i,200,00ul. At this time Mr Haftings
was appointed to be governor of Bengal ; and the con-
fuled ftate in which matters were at the commencement
of his adminiftration will eafily appear from the following
cxtraCI of a letter from the government of Bengal, dated
in the month of November 1772.—“ Every zemindary
was left to its own particular cuftoms. The articles-
which >
[ 496 ]
H I N [4
Mindoftan. xvliicli compofed the revenue, the form of keeping the
u—-v— accounts, the computation of time, even the techni¬
cal terms, which ever form the greateft obfcurity in
every fcience, differed as much as the foil and produc¬
tions of the province. The nabobs exadled what they
could from the zemindars and great farmers of the re¬
venue, whom they left at liberty to plunder all below,
referving to themfelves the liberty of plundering them
in their turn, when they were fuppofed to have en¬
riched themfelves with the fpoils of the country. The
mufaddies, who flood between the nabob and zemin¬
dars, and between them and the people, had each
their lhares of the public wealth. Theie profits were
confidered as illegal embezzlements, and therefore were
taken with every precaution which could enfure fecre-
cy ; and being, confequently, fixed by no rule, de¬
pended on the temper, abilities, or power, of each
individual for the amount. It therefore became a duty
to every man to take the moft effedlual meafures to
conceal the value of his property, and evade every in¬
quiry into his conduft; while the zemindars and
other landholders, who had the advantage of long pof-
ieflion, availe4 themfelves of it by complex diviflons of
the lands, and intricate modes of colledlion, to per¬
plex the officers ©f government, and confine the know¬
ledge of the rents to themfelves. The internal ma¬
nagement of each diftridt varied no lefs than that of the
whole province. The lands fubjedl: to the fame col-
ledlion, and intermixed with each other, were fome
held by farm, fome fuperintended by Ihickdors or
agents on the part of the colledlor, and wTere left to
the zemindars themfelves, under various degrees of
controul.” For fome political reafons the company,
though they had acquired the dewanny, had not yet
chofen to affume the executive part of the office them¬
felves, but committed it to the management of natives,
as has already been mentioned, and their plans had
been found extremely defective. By the time that Mr
Haftings had been inverted with the government, the
court of direftors had refolved to change their plan,
and openly affume the office of the dewanny ; and the
rules eftabliffied by that gentleman for the colleftion
of the revenues, his mode of adminirtering juftice, and
his police for the government of the country, are ftill
obferved with very little variation.
The plan for collefting the revenues confifted, in
the firfl place, in rendering the accounts as fimple and
intelligible as poffible •, in the next, in eftablifhing
fixed rules for the colledlion ; and in the third, ma¬
king the mode of them uniform in all parts of the pro¬
vinces ; and in the fourth, providing for the equal ad-
miniftration of juffice. The powrer of the zemindars
was now circumfcribed, and their extortions thoroughly
put a flop to ; many vexatious taxes and tolls were
aboliffied, and a new mode of colledting the cufloms
was ertablifhed, to the great relief of the merchants :
and fo well were all the parts of this plan found to be
adapted to the purpofes they were defigned to anfwer,
that it has hitherto been made the model of all fubfe-
quent regulations.
One great objeftion to the India government is, that
the Engliffi law, which undoubtedly is better calcu¬
lated than any other for fecuring the liberties of the
people, has not yet been adopted in India } whence it
is thought that the company’s fervants have ftill ffiovv-
H I N
ed a difpofftion to opprefs, rather than to relieve, the Kitidoftafi,
oppreffed inhabitants of Hindoftan. But in anfwer to 'r* J
that it is faid, that the difference betwixt the two coun¬
tries is fo great, that there can be no companion be¬
twixt the one and the other, nor can the conftitution
of England be in any degree adapted to that of the
other. The religion, laws, manners, and cufloms, of
both Hindoos and Mohammedans, are fo effentially dif¬
ferent from thofe of this country, that it is impoffible
to affimilate them, fliould ever any thing of the kind
he attempted. The only true method therefore of
judging whether the prefent ftate of Hindoflan is pre¬
ferable to what it formerly was, is to compare it with
what it was under the heft Mogul emperors ; and in
this comparifon it muff certainly appear that the pre¬
ference is greatly in favour of the Britifti adminiftra-
tion. In Major Rennel’s work we are informed, that
during the reign of Ackbar, whom he ftyles “ the glo¬
ry of the honfe of Timur,” the country had never en¬
joyed fo much tranquillity $ “ but this tranquillity
would hardly be deemed fuch in any other quarter of
the world, and muft therefore be underflood to mean
a ftate ffiort of adfual rebellion, or at leaft commotion.”
The fame author, fpeaking of the ftate of the Britilh
empire there, ufes the following words : “ The Ben¬
gal provinces which have been in our actual poffeffion
near 23 years, have, during that whole period, enjoyed
a greater fhare of tranquillity than any other part of
India, or indeed than thofe provinces had ever expe¬
rienced fince the days of Aureng-zebe.” To this wc
may add, that the provinces have not only experienced
a perfedl freedom from external invafions, but likewife
enjoy a degree of internal tranquillity altogether un-
known before, by the fubje&ion and civilization of a
fet of banditti who inhabited the hills of Rajemahl, axd
infelled the travellers who pafled that way ; a wan¬
dering tribe of religious mendicants, who were wmnt to
commit the greatell enormities.
Another advantage which the inhabitants of this
country reap from the Britifh government, is the fecurity
from violence and oppreffion either by their Mohamme¬
dan fuperiors or by one another. Under the article Hin¬
doo we have already mentioned the particular circum-
ftances that thefe people are liable to the punifhment of
lofing their caft from a variety of caufes, and that this
is looked upon by them to be the moft grievous cala¬
mity they can fuffer. The Mohammedan governors
frequently took advantage of their fuperftition in this
refpeft to opprefs them ; and this circumftance alone
frequently produced the moft horrid confufion. In
the inftrufiions given to the fupervifors, Mr \erelft
informs them, that “ it is difficult to determine whe¬
ther the original cuftoms, or the degenerate manners
of the Muflulmans, have moft contributed to confound
the principles of right and w^rong of thefe provinces.
Certain it is (adds he), that almoft every decifion of
theirs is a corrupt bargain with the higheft bidder.
Compenfation was frequently accepted of even for ca¬
pital crimes, and fines became at laft an intolerable
grievance ; nay fo venal were the judges at that time,
that it became at laft a fettled rule to allow each of
them a fourth part of any property in difpute as a
compenfation for his trouble.—It is impoffible to fup-
pofe that fuch monftrous abufes continue under the
Britiftr government: on the contrary we muft readily
believe.
1
H I N [ 497 ] H I N
H'i'.c!oftan. believe, wbat tbe governors themfelves affert, that im*
mediately after the provinces fell under Britilh jurif-
ditdion, both Hindoos and Mohammedans have been
left to the free exercife of their religion, laws, and cu-
fcoms. The Hindoos themfelves acknowledge this,
and are as well pleafed with the mildnefs of the Britifh
government, as they are difpleafed with the fuperftition
and cruelty of tbe Mohammedans. Under the Britilh
government wre cannot fuppofe but that commerce, to
which the inhabitants of this country are fo much ad¬
dicted, will be much more encouraged than by the ava¬
ricious and barbarous Mohammedans. The latter had
impofed lo many reilraints upon trade of all kinds, by
the multitude of taxes collected at the landing-places,
watch-houfes, markets, &c. that it was almoit impof-
fible to carry it on with any advantage. Among other
falutary regulations, however, enacted by the Britilh
government in i']’]!, many of thofe taxes upon com¬
merce were abolithed, and a plan laid for effectually li¬
berating the inhabitants from thofe (hackles by which
tueir commerce had been fo long fettered.—Regard
has alfo been paid to the inftruCtion of the people in
uleful knowledge ; and the feminary eltablilhed at Cal¬
cutta by Sir William Jones, certainly does much ho¬
nour to the founder. Some regard had indeed been
paid to this by the Mohammedan emperors j but at the
time that the Britilh government commenced, thefe
had been entirely negleCted, their endowments re-
lumed by government, and even the buildings fallen
into ruin.
From a comparifon of any government to which the
Hindoos have hitherto been lubjeft, with that of Bri¬
tain, indeed, it is evident that the preference mull be
given greatly in favour of the latter. At the time when
the Britiih firft vifited that country, they were not
under tne jurifdiCfion of their native fovereigns, nor
had they been fo for a long time before. The Moguls
w^ere not only foreigners, but a mod: cruel and deteft-
able race of men $ and it wTas by ufurpations of their
Owm rebellious fubjefts that the anarchy and confufion
was introduced, in which the country was involved for
(o long a time. 1 he Brhilh are foreigners as well as
the Moguls ; but the latter, who profefs the intolerant
fuperftition of Mohammed, fuffer their conduft to be
influenced by it in fuch a manner as to treat the natives
with the utmoft cruelty. The greateft evil perhaps
which refults from the Britiih government is, the ex¬
portation of great funis of money to a foreign coun-
tiy ; but tnis evil, with refpedt to the provinces poflef-
fed by the Britilh, exifted alfo under the Mohammedan
government. The Mogul emperors refided at Delhi,
which is far diftant from the provinces of Bengal, Ba-
har, and Orifia, the territories now poflefled by Bri¬
tain ; fo that the greateft part of the treafure fent to
that capital was totally loft to them. In the time of
Aureng-zebe, the emperor’s tribute amounted to three
millions fterling ; and of this a confiderable part was
fpecie } but fince that time the tribute w7as fixed at only
l,25o,00°l. and even this was a vaft fum j to which if
we add that carried out of the country by commanders
of mercenary troops, who were all foreigners, it is not
unreafonable to fuppofe that under the Mogul govern¬
ment matters were ftill worfe, even in this refpeci than
under that of Britain.
Welhall conclude this apology for the Britifh go-
VOL. X. Part II. S
vemment, with the following extradl from the treatife Hind oft an,
lately quoted, A ftiort Review of the Britilh Govern- " v
ment in India. “ A more deteftable or detefted race
of people never appeared than the Mohammedan con¬
querors of Jndia $ whether we confider the brutality of
their paftions, the bigotry of their religion, the corrup¬
tion of their manners, the barbarity of their education,
or the tyranny of their government ? In all thefe re-
fpefts they w7ere the terror and abhorrence of the Hin¬
doos, whofe country they invaded, and whofe dominion
they ufurped.
“ The fanatic ignorance of the favage caliph, which
dictated his barbarous reafon for deftroying the Alex¬
andrian library, had neither been tutored nor refined by
the Tartar education of Timur and his predeceflbrs.
The fame fuperftitious bigotry which incited the Ara¬
bian caliphs to deftroy the monuments of weftern learn-
ing, likewife impelled the Tartar khans to overthrow'
the religious temples of the eaftern worlhip. At the
commencement of the nth century Mahmood entered
Hindollan, and in the courfe of 12 expeditions he de-
ftroyed the famous temples of Nagracut, Tannafar, Ma-
tra, and Sumnaut. In the latter end of the next cen¬
tury, Mahmood Gori penetrated as far as the city of
Benares, and committed outrages as Mahmood had done *
before at Nagracut and Sumnaut. Tamerlane poflefled
as much of this furious zeal as any of his favage prede¬
ceflbrs ; and if the enthufiafm of this deftruftive reli¬
gion had not occafionally abated among fome of his fuc-
ceffors, they would fcarce have left a Hindoo temple or
prieft in the country they fubdued.
“ .Enough, however, had been done to fix an indeli¬
ble ftain on the memory of thofe intolerant tyrants,
and to make a lafting impreftion on the minds of the
Hindoos, wdio, to the lateft period of the Mogul go¬
vernment, were kept in conftant dread of docftrines,
which, to their apprehenfions, feemed to infpire the
Mohammedans with facrilegious cruelty. Idolatry is
as great an abomination to a Muflulman as it was to
the Jews when they moft ftridftly revered the divine
command which prohibits it; and moft of the Hindoo
ceremonies being confidered by the Mohammedans as
afts of idolatry, and all their pagodas as temples of
idols, a religious principle excited mutual fentiments of
abhorrence and antipathy between the conquerors and
their fubjeas. The reft of the charaaer of the Mo¬
hammedans may be fummed up in the concife and em¬
phatic words of Mr Scrafton, who fays, ‘ their diftin-
guiftiing qualities are perfidy and fenfuality.’
“ But notwithftanding thefe faa*, and that the hif-
tory of their government is a difgufting repetition of
oppreflion, maflacres, and rebellion, the fafhion of the
times has been to praife it, and to reprefent the fitua-
tion of the Hindoos as eafy and happy under it, till
they were difturbed in this peaceful ftate of repofe’ and
fecurity by the Englifti; who have been defcribed
(with unparalleled injuftice) as a fet of rapacious talk-
mailers. It furely requires a very fmall degree of re-
fleflion to perceive, that fuch reprefentations of the two
governments muft, from the very nature of things, be
falfe.
“ The Mohammedan conquerors came into India
from a barbarous region, with minds and manners as
uncultivated as the wilds from which they iffued. The
only notion th§y had of government was abfolute pov/er
3R in
H I N [ 498 ] H I N
TTrndoftan. in the fovereign, and abfolute fubmiilion in the fubjeft.
" ^ The tenets of their religion, fo far from foftening the
ferocity of their nature, ferved only to whet the edge
of their perfecution towards the fuffering Hindoos,
whom they haraffed without mercy, and deftroyed with¬
out remorfe. The Britilh conquerors came from a
country famed for arts and fciences 5 the generous prin¬
ciples of public liberty had been indilled into their
minds from their earlieft infancy : the mild tenets of
Chriilianity cherilhed and commanded every charitable
duty : and they had been taught, by precept and ex¬
ample, to rule with equity, and to obey with freedom.
Can it be fuppofed that under thefe circumllances, the
two nations fhould have totally changed characters on
their coming into India ? That the barbarous and fero¬
cious Tartar Ihould become mild and enlightened 5 that
the cultivated and generous Briton fhould have degene¬
rated into a cruel tyrant ; and that the Britilh gover¬
nors fhould have rendered the lituation of their Hindoo
fubjeCts worfe than it was under the Mogul emperors ?
Reafon revolts at the idea ; and nothing but the ranked;
-prejudice could ever luggeit or adopt it.”
With regard to the geography of this country, Mr
Rennel obferves, that though by the modern Euro¬
peans, Hindoftan has been underftood to mean the trad
fituated between the rivers Indus and Ganges on the
eaft and weft, the mountains of Thibet and Tartary on
the north, and the ocean on the fouth, the extent of
Hindoftan, properly fo called, is much more circum-
fcj'ibed •, and the name ought only to be applied to that
part which lies to the northward of 21° or 22° latitude.
The reputed fouthern boundary of Hindoftan is the
Nerbudda river as far as it goes, and the northern fron¬
tiers of Bengal and Bahar compofe the remainder.
The countries to the fouth of this line are called Deccan
by the Indian geographers, and comprehend about one
half of the territory generally known by the name of
the Mogul Empire. Our author therefore choofes to
diftinguifh the northern part by the name of HindoJIan
Proper; which has indeed the Indus and mountains of
Thibet and Tartary for its weftern and northern boun¬
daries •, but the Burrampooter river is rather to be con-
fidered as the’ eaftern boundary than the Ganges ; the
latter interfering fome of the richeft provinces in the
empire. According to this fuppofttion, Hindoftan
Proper will equal in fize the countries of France, Ger¬
many, Bohemia, Hungary, Switzerland, Italy, and the
Low Countries ; the Deccan and peninfula being about
equal to the Britifh iflands, Spain, and Turkey in Eu¬
rope.
Towards the north, Hindoftan is very cold and bar¬
ren ; but towards the fouth, very hot, and fertile m corn,
rice, fruits, and other vegetables. The northern pro¬
vinces are very mountainous and fandy 5 while the
fouthern are for the moft part level, and well watered
with feveral rivers.
The moft remarkable mountains are thole which
furround it on three fides. Thofe on the weft, feparat-
ing it from Perfia, called, in general, Soleyman Kuy,
or the mountains of So/eyman, are of a vaft height as
well as breadth, and are only palfable in certain places,
through which roads have been made for the fake of
commerce. The chief are thole which lead to Cabul,
Gazna, and Candahar. This great chain of mountains
is inhabited by different nations, the principal of which
are the Afghans, or Patans, and the Baluches, who Hindoftart.
have extended themfelves on the fide of India, as well /—J
as Perfia. The mountains on the north are called A'<z-
grakut, Hima, or Mus Tag, which has an affinity with
Itnaiis, and by other names, which are given alfo in
common to the mountains on each fide, feparating Hin¬
doftan from Thibet. The very profpeift of thefe moun¬
tains is frightful, being nothing but hideous precipices,
perpetually covered with fnow, and not to be crofted
without the greateft danger and difficulty.
The moft remarkable rivers of Hindoftan are the In¬
dus and Ganges. The former is called by the orient
tals, Send, Sind, or Sindi. It rifes in the mountains to
the north or north-eaft of Hindoftan *, whence, after a
long courfe, firft to the fouth and then to the fouth-
weft, it falls into the Perfian fea, below Lower Ban¬
der, by feveral mouths. In its courfe it receives feve¬
ral other large rivers, as the Nilah, Jamal, Behat, and
Lakka.
The Ganges, called in the Indies Ganga, rifes in the
kingdom of Thibet : entering Hindoftan about the
30th degree of latitude, it runs firft fouth-eaftward by
the cities of Bekaner, Minapor, Halabas, Benares, and
Patna, to Rajah Mahl, where it divides into two
branches. The eaftern having palTed by Dakka, the
capital of Bengal, enters the gulf of that name about
Chatigan. The weftern, defending by Koffum-Bazar
and Hughly, falls into the gulf below Chandernagor
towards Pipeli.
Many of the Jewrs and ancient Chriftians believed this
river to be the Pifon, one of the four mentioned in
Scripture as the boundaries of the terreftrial paradife.
The Indians retain the greateft reverence for its waters,
going in crowds from the remoteft parts of the country
to w'afti in them, from a perfuafion that they deface
from all the fpots of fin. The reafon of this is, be-
caufe they imagine this river does not take its fource
from the bofom of the earth, but defcends from heaven
into the paradife of Devendre, and from thence into
Hindoftan. Nothing is more childiffi than the fables
of the Bramins on this fubjedl, yet the people fwallow
them all. The Mogul and prince of Golconda drink
no other water than that of the Ganges : foreigners, on
the contrary, pretend that it is very unwholefome, and
that it cannot be fafely drank till it is firft boiled.
There is a great number of fuperb pagodas on the
banks of the Ganges, which are immenfely rich. At
certain feftivals, there has been fometimes a concourfe
of 100,000 people who came to bathe in it. But what
principally diftinguiffies this river, befides its greatnefr.
and rapidity, is the gold it brings down in its fands and
throw's on its banks j and the precious ftones and pearls
it produces, not only in itfelf, but in the gulf of Ben¬
gal, into which it difcharges its waters, and which
abounds therewith. "I he Chun or Jemma, the Gude-
rafu, the Perfilis, Lakia, and feveral other rivers, dif-
charge themfelves into it during its courfe.
The weather and feafons are, for the general, very
regular in this fpacious country 5 the winds blowing
conftantly for fix months from the fouth, and fix from
the north, with very little variation. ’1 he months of
April, May, and the beginning of June, till the rains
fall, are fo"extremely hot, that the refteftion from the
ground is apt to blifter one’s face ; and but for the
breeze or fmall gale of wind which blows every day,
there-
H I N t 499 ] H I N
Hindoflan. there would be no living in that country for people
^ bred in northern climates 5 for excepting in the rainy
feafon, the coldeft day is hotter there at noon than the
hotteft day in England. However, very furprifing
changes of heat and cold fometimes happen within a
few hours ; fo that a Hiding hot day is fucceeded by a
night cold enough to produce a thin ice on the water,
and that night by a ngon as fcorching as the preceding.
Sometimes, in the dry ieafon, before the rains, the
winds blow with fuch extreme violence, that they carry
vail quantities of dull and fand into the air, which ap¬
pear black, like clouds charged with rain j but fall
down in dry (bowers, filling the eyes, ears, and noftrils
of thofe among whom they defeend, and penetrate eve¬
ry cheft, cabinet, or cupboard, in the houfes or tents,
by the key-hole or crevices.
From Surat to Agra, and beyond, it feldom or never
rains, excepting in one i’eafon of the year : that is, from
the middle of June to the middle of September. Thefe
rains generally begin and end with mod furious (forms
of thunder and lightning. During thefe three months
it rains ufually every day, and fometimes for a week
together without intermiffion : by this means the land
is enriched, like Egypt by the Nile. Although the
land looks before like the barren fands of the Arabian
deferts ; yet, in a few days after thofe (bowers begin to
fall, the furface appears covered with verdure. When
the rainy feafon is over, the (ky becomes perfectly fe-
rene again, and fcarce one cloud appears all the other
nine months: however, a refrefhing dew falls every
night during that dry interval, which cools the air, and
cherilbes the earth.
The produce of Hindoflan is very rich in every kind,
whether it be foffil, vegetable, or animal. Befides
other precious Hones found in it, there is a diamond-
mine at the town of Soumelpur in Bengal. Quarries
of Theban Hone are fo plentiful in the Mogul’s empire,
that there are both mofques and pagods built entirely of
it. Some travellers tell us, there are mines of lead,
iron, and copper, and even filver 5 but thofe of the lad,
if there be any, need not be opened, fince the bullion
of all nations is funk in this empire, which will take
nothing elfe in exchange for her commodities, and pro¬
hibits the exporting it again. They till the ground
with oxen and foot-ploughs, fowing in May and the
beginning of June, that all may be over before the
rains, and reaping in November and December, which
with them are the moH temperate months in the year.
The land is nowhere inclofed, excepting a little near
towns and villages. The grafs is never mowed to make
hay, but cut off the ground, either green or withered,
as they have occafion to ufe it. Wheat, rice, barley,
and other grain, grow here in plenty, and are very
good. The country abounds no lefs in fruits, as pome¬
granates, citrons, dates, grapes, almonds, and cocoa-
nuts *, plums, thofe efpecially called mirabolatis ; plan¬
tains, which in (hape referable a (lender cucumber, and
in tafle excel a Norwich pear 5 mangos, an excellent
fruit, refembling an apricot, but larger •, ananas or pine¬
apples ; lemons and oranges, but not fo good as in
Other countries 5 variety of pears and apples in the
northern parts ; and the tamarind-tree, the fruit of
which is contained in a pod refembling thofe of beans.
There are many other kinds of fruit-trees peculiar to
the countrj. But the valuable trees are the cotton and
mulberry, on account of the wealth they bring the na- Kindoftar
lives from the manufactures of callicoes and (ilks. They
plant abundance of fugar-canes here, as well as tobac- . ,
co j but the latter is not fo rich and flrong as that of
America, for want of knowing how to cure and order it.
Hindoflan affords alfo plenty of ginger, together
■with carrots, potatoes, onions, garlic, and other roots
known to us, befides fmall roots and herbs for fal-
lads} but their flowers, though beautiful to look at,
have no (cent, excepting rofes, and fome few other
kinds.
There is a great variety of animals in this country,
both wild and tame j of the former are elephants, rhi-
nocerofes, lions, tygers, leopards, wolves, jackals, and
the like. The jackals dig up and eat dead bodies,
and make a hideous noife in the night. The rhi¬
noceros is not common in the Mogul’s empire j but
elephants are very numerous, fome 12, 14, or 15 feet
high. There is plenty of venifon and game of feveral
kinds ; as red-deer, fallow-deer, elks, antelopes, kids,
hares, and fuch like. None of thefe are imparked, but
all in common, and may be any body’s who will be at
the pains to take them. Among the wdld animals al¬
fo may be reckoned the mu(k-animal, apes, and mon¬
keys.
Hindoflan affords variety of beads for carriage, as
camels, dromedaries, mules, affes, horfes, oxen, and
buffaloes. Moft of the horfes are white, and many
curioufly dappled, pied, and fpotted all over. The
flefh of the oxen is very fweet and tender. Being very
tame, many ufe them as they do horfes to ride on.
Inftead of a bit, they put one or two fmall firings
through the griftle of the noftrils, and faftening the
ends to a rope, ufe it inftead of a bridle, which is held
up by a bunch of griftly flefli which he has on the fore¬
part of his back. They faddle him as they do a horfe ;
and, if fpurred a little, he will go as fall. Thefe are
generally made ufe of all over the Indies j and with
them only are drawn waggons, coaches, and chariots.
Some of thefe oxen will travel 15 leagues in a day.
They are of two forts ; one fix feet high, which are
rare $ another called dwarfs, which are only three. In
fome places, where the roads are ftony, they (hoe their
oxen when they are to travel far. The buffalo’s (kin
makes excellent buff, and the female yields very good
milk } but their flefti is neither fo palatable nor whole-
fome as beef. The (lieep of Hindoftan have large hea¬
vy tails, and their flefli is very good, but their wool
coarfe.
This country is much infefled with reptiles and in¬
fers j fome of a noxious kind, as fcorpions, fnakes,
and rats ; but the lizards, which are of a green colour,
are not hurtful. Snakes and ferpents, we are told, are
fometimes employed to defpatch criminals, efpecially
fuch as have been guilty of fome atrocious crime, that
kind of death being attended with the moft grievous
torture. The moft troublefome infe<fts in this hot coun¬
ty are flies, mufketoes, and chinches or bugs, the firft
by day, and the others in the night *, when they offend
no lefs by their flench than their bite.
HINE, or Hind, a hufbandman’s fervant. Thus
the perfon who overfees the reft, is called the mailer’s
hine.
HINNOM, or the Valley of Hinnom, in Ancient
Geography, a place that lay to the fouth of Jerufalem.
3 R 2 It
Hinzuan.
H 1 N [ 500 ] HIP
It was alfo called the valley of Tophet, and was remark¬
able for the cruel and barbarous worlhip of the god
Moloch, where parents made their children pafs through
the fire in honour of that idol.
HINZUAN, one of the Comora iflands, lyingbetween
Madagafcar and the continent ol Africa, otherwife called
Anzuame, Anjuan, Juanny, and Johanna. As the ac¬
counts given of it by the abbe Raynal and Major Rooke
feem to contradift each other, we (hall lay before our
readers the fubftance of Sir William Jones’s defcription
of it, by whom the ifland was vifited, and whole re¬
gard to veracity will not be controverted.
It refembles a vaft amphitheatre, of which a general
notion may be formed, by conceiving in the mind a
multitude of hills infinitely diverfified in figure and in
magnitude, thrown together with artlefs fymmetry in
all conceivable pofitions. A feries of mountains forms
the back ground, one of which is pointed, almoft half
a mile above the level of the fea, and not more than
three miles from the fiiore. The whole of them are
richly clothed with fruit trees of exquifite verdure. Be¬
yond this range is another tier, partly barren and partly
verdant. Nearer the fhore there is a vaft multitude of
cliffs, which bring their verdure almoft to the water-
fide. The rows of palm trees with which it abounds,
which give an enchanting beauty, and variety to the
fcene, almoft appear to have been planted by defign.
The north fide of the ifland (hoots out into two
points, which are 26 miles diftant from each other,
with a large bay between them. It is juftly confidered
as a proper place of refrefhment for veffels bound to and
from the Eaft Indies, as it yields limes, lemons, oran¬
ges, and many other valuable antifcorbutics. The
town which is the king’s refidence, is on the eaft fide
of the ifland, which contains no rfiore than about 200
houfes, notwithftanding it is three-fourths of a mile in
length.
The cattle of this ifland are a fort of buffaloes, with
a large hump on their (boulders, which is reported to be
mod delicious eating •, but there are no horfes, affes, or
mules in the ifland. The original natives may be about
7000, who occupy the hills, and carry on defultory
wars with the Arabian interlopers living on the fea
coaft, and about 3000 in number. The expences of
government are defrayed by a tax on 200 villages, but
the three principal towns are exempted. The kingly
power is confidered as eledlive by the principles of the
conftitution •, but the line of fucceflion has not been al¬
tered fince the firft ele61ion of a fultan.
The price of every article is under proper regulations,
and (hips who touch here can be plentifully fupplied
with bullocks, goats, and fowls. The people feem to
be extravagantly fond of titles, and therefore lords,
dukes, and princes are common among them, A duke
will difpofe, in perfon, of the produtt of his own eftate,
which men of a fimilar rank in Europe will only do by
the intervention of agents. The natives are faid to be
indolent, as is the cafe in moft tropical countries, and
negledl the cultivation of that exuberant foil which Pro¬
vidence has bellowed upon them.
There is a facred lake, about half a mile in circum¬
ference, in the interior part of the ifland, about fifteen
miles from the town of Johanna. The wild ducks fre¬
quenting this fequeftered fpot are faid to be worftiipped
by the natives, and confulted as oracles in all affairs of
importance. Thefe people countenance polygamy, and
the keeping of concubines. The men are extremely
jealous, and never admit ftrangers of their own fex to
fee the women. u
The chewing the betel nut prevails greatly in Hin¬
zuan, as in moft eaftern countries, and correfponds to
the European cuftom of fmoking tobacco or taking
fnuff, only with this difference, that the practice is tiill
more general. They are very abfternious as to the ufe
of wine, that article being prohibited by the religion
of Mahomet, and perform the duty of prayer three or
four times a-day. E. Long. 44. 15. S. Lat. 12. 30.
HIP, in the Materia Medic a, the fruit of the dog-
rofe, or wild brier. See Rosa, Botany Index.—This
fruit contains a fouriftr fweetifh pulp j whth a rough
prickly matter inclofing the feeds, from which the pulp
ought to be carefully feparated before it be taken in¬
ternally : the Wirtemberg college obferves, that from a
negledf of this caution, the pulp of hips fometimes occa-
fions a pruritus and uneafinefs about the anus ; and the
conferve of it has been known to excite violent vomit¬
ing. The conferve is the only officinal preparation of
this fruit.
HIPPARCHUS, a great aftronomer, born at Nice
in Bithynia, flourilhed between the 154th and 163d
Olympiads. His commentary upon Aratus’s Phenomena
is (till extant. Rohault was very much miftaken when
he afferted, that this aftronomer wras not acquainted
with the particular motion of the fixed ftars from weft
to eaft, by which their longitude changes. By fore¬
telling eclipfes, he taught mankind not to be frighten¬
ed at them, and that even the gods were bound by
laws. Pliny, who tells this, admires him for making a
review of all the ftars ; by which his defcendants would
be enabled to difcover whether they are born and die,
whether they change their place, and whether they in-
creafe and decreafe.
HIPPIA, a genus of plants belonging to the fynge-
nefia clafs. See Botany Index.
HIPPOBOSCA, or Horse-fly, a genus of in¬
fers, belonging to the order of diptera. See Entomo¬
logy Index.
HIPPOCAMPUS, or Sea-horse, a fpecies of fi(h
belonging to the genus fyngriathus. See Syngnathus,
Ichthyology Index.
Hip
il
ippocaf-
tanum.
HIPPOCASTANUM, or common horfe-chefnut.
See zEsculus, Botany Index.—It may be here add¬
ed, that from feveral experiments in the French Me-
moires d'Agriculture, it appears that the fruit of the
horfe-chefnut affords a wholefome nouriftiment for cat¬
tle, and may even be employed with fuccefs for fatten¬
ing them. It is faid to render the tallow of thofe fat¬
tened with it particularly firm. The milk yielded by
cows fed upon it, is alfo faid to be thicker and richer
than that produced from any other kind of food.—The
fruit of this tree has been likewife ufed as food for (heep
and poultry, and as foap for walking. It was much
employed in powder as a fternutatory by an itinerant
oculift, and has been recommended by fome others in
certain dates of ophthalmia, headach, &.c. in which
errhines are indicated. Its effedls as a fternutatory may
alfo be obtained by ufing it under the form of infufion
or decodlion drawn up into the noftrils. And it is en¬
tirely with a view to its errhine power that it is now in¬
troduced into the pharmacopoeia of the Edinburgh col¬
lege.
HIP r 5°' ] HIP
Hippocen- lege. But befides this, the bark has alfo been repre-
taur fented by fome as a cure for intermittent fevers •, and
. II it is probably with this intention that this part of the
1 ra* hippocailanum is introduced as an officinal article in the
< Pharmacopoeia Roffica.
HIPPOCENTAUR (formed of “ horfe,”
Kirrw, pungo, “ I fpur,” and “ bull”), in anti¬
quity, a fabulous monfter, fuppofed to be half horfe
and half man.
What gave occaiion to the fable was, that a people
of Theflaly, inhabiting near Mount Pelion, became
thus denominated, becaufe they were the fir ft that
taught the art of mounting on horfeback } which occa-
fioned lome of their neighbours to imagine, that the
horfe and man made but one animal.
ilfhe hippocentaurs fhould feem to have differed from
the centaurs, in this, that the latter only rode on bul¬
locks, and the former on horles, as the names them-
felves intimate.
HIPPOCRAS, a medicinal drink, compofed of
wine, with fpices and other ingredients infilled there¬
in j much ufed among the French by way of a cordial
dram after meals.
There are various kinds of hippocras, according to
the kind of wine and the other additional ingredients
made ufe of; as white hippocras, red hippocras, claret-
hippocras, ftrawberry hippocras, hippocras without
wine, cyder hippocras, &c.
That dire£led in the late London Difpenfary, is to
be made of cloves, ginger, cinnamon, and nutmegs,
beat and infufed in canary with fugar ; to the infufion,
milk, a lemon, and fome Hips of rofemary, are to be
put, and the whole drained through a fiannel. It is re¬
commended as a cordial, and as good in paralytic and
all nervous cafes.
HIPPOCRATIA, a genus of plants belonging to
the triandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
with thole of which the order is doubtful. See Bota¬
ny Index,
HIPPOCRATES, the greateft phyfician of anti¬
quity, was born in the illand of Cos in the Both Olym¬
piad, and flourilhed at the time of the Peloponnefian
war. He was the firft that we know of who laid dowm
precepts concerning phyfic •, and, if w7e may believe the
author of his life, who goes under the name of Soranus,
drew7 his original from Hercules and ./Efculapius. He
was firft a pupil of his own father Heraclides, then of
Herodicus, then of Gorgias of Leontinum the orator,
and, according to fome, of Democritus of Abdera.
After being inftructed in phyfic, and in the liberal arts,
and lofing his parents, he left his own country, and
pradlifed phyfic all over Greece j wffiere he was fo
much admired for his Ikill, that he was publicly fent
for with Euryphon, a man fuperior to him in years, to
Perdiccas king of Macedonia, wTho was then thought
to be confumptive. But Hippocrates, as foon as he ar¬
rived, pronounced the difeafe to be entirely mental, as
in truth it was. For upon the death of his father A-
lexander, Perdiccas fell in love with Philas, his father’s
miftrefs : and this Hippocrates difcerning by the great
change her prelence always wrought upon him, a cure
was foon effedled.
. Being intreated by the people of Abdera to come and
cure Democritus of a fuppofed madnefs, he went $ but,
upon his arrival, inftead of finding Democritus mad,
he found all his fellow citizens fo, and Democritus the Hippo
only wife man among them. He heard many ledlures, ^ I
and learned much philofophy from him j which has
made Cornelius Celfus and fome others imagine, tnat -■—v
Hippocrates was the difciple of Democritus, though it
is probable they never law each other till this interview
which was occafioned by the Abderites. Hippocrates
had alfo public invitations to other countries. 1 bus,
when a plague invaded the Illyrians and Paeonians, the
kings of thofe countries begged him to come to their
relief: he did not go j but learning from the meffen-
gers the courfe of the winds there, he concluded that
the diftemper would come to Athens •, and foretelling
what would happen, applied himfelf to take care of the
city and the ftudents. He was indeed luch a lover of
Greece, that when his fame had reached as far as Per-
lia, and upon that account Artaxerxes had intreated
him by his governor of the Hellefpont, with a pro-
mife of great rewards, to come to him, he refufed to
go. He alfo delivered his own country from a war
with the Athenians, that was juft ready to break out,
by prevailing with the Theffalians to come to their af-
fiftance, for which he received very great honours
from the Coans. The Athenians alfo conferred great
honours upon him : they admitted him next to Her¬
cules in the Eleufinian ceremonies 5 gave him the free¬
dom of the city ; and voted a public maintenance for
him and his family in the prytaneum or council-houfe
at Athens, where none were maintained at the public
charge, but fuch as had done public fervice to the ft ate..
He died among the Lariffaeans, fome fay in his 90th
year, fome in his 85th, others in his 104th, and I'ome
in his 109th. The beft edition of his works is that
of Foelius in Greek and Latin. Hippocrates wrote in
the Ionian dialed!. His aphorifms, prognoftics, and all
that he has written on the fymptoms of difeafes, juftly
pafs for mafterpieces. See Hi/lory of Medicine.
HIPPOCRENE, in Ancient Geography, a foun¬
tain of Mount Helicon, on the borders of Boeotia, fa-
cred to the mufes. Some, as Ovid, make Hippocrene
and Aganippe the fame. See Aganippe.
HIPPOCREPIS, COMMON HORSE-SHOE VETCH, a
genus of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs ; and
in the natural method ranking under the 3 2d order,
Papi/ionaceev. See Botany Index.
HIPPODROME, Hippodromus (compofed of
isi-TT-es “ horfe,” and “ courfe,” of the verb
'Sfiu.u curro, “ I run”'), in antiquity, a lift or courfe
wherein chariot and horfe races were performed, and
horfes exercifed.
The Olympian hippodrome or horfe-courfe w7as a
fpace of ground of 6od paces long, furrounded with a
wall, near the city Elis, and on the banks of the ri¬
ver Alpheus. It was uneven, and in fome degree ir¬
regular, on account of the fituation ; in one part was
a hill of a moderate height, and the circuit was adorn¬
ed with temples, altars, and other embellifhments. See
Stadium. There is a very famous hippodrome at
Conftantinople, which was begun by Alexander Seve-
rus, and finimed by Conftantine. This circus, called
by the Turks atmeican, is 400 paces long, and above
100 paces wide. At the entrance of the hippodrome
there is a pyramidal obelilk of granite in one piece,
about 50 feet high, terminating in a point, and charged,
with hieroglyphiQS, The Greek and Latin inferip-
tious
Hippoglof
fus
TP [502
that it was erected by Theodo-
H
lions on its bafe {how
lius •, the machines that were employed to raife it are
reprefen ted upon it in baflb-relievo. We have fome
veitiges in England of the hippodromus, in which the
ancient inhabitants of this country performed then-
races ; the molt remarkable is that near Stonehenge,
which is a long tra£l of ground, about 350 feet or
200 druid cubits wide, and more than a mile and three
quarters, or 6oco druid cubits, in length, inclofed quite
round with a bank of earth, extending diredly eaft
and weft. rlhe goal and career are at the eaft
end. I he goal is a high bank of earth, raifed with
a Hope inwards, on which the judges' are fuppo-
fed to have fat. The metse are twTo tumuli, or fmall
barrow-s, at the wreft end of the courfe. Thefe hip¬
podromes were called in the language of the country
rhedagua, the racer rhedagwr, and the carriage rhcda,
from the Britiih word rhedeg “ to run”. One of thefe
hippodromes, about half a mile to the fouthward of
Leicefter, retains evident traces of the old name rhe-
dagua, in the corrupted one of rawdikes. There is
another of thefe, fays Dr Stukeley, near Dorchefter;
another on the banks of the river Lowther, near Pen¬
rith in Cumberland j and another in the valley, juft
ivithout the town of Royfton.
HIPPOGLOSSUS, a {pecies of filh belonging to
the genus Pleuronectes, which fee in Ichthyology
Index.
HIPPOLYTUS, a fon of Thefeus and Hippolyte,
famous in fabulous hiftory for his virtue and his misfor¬
tunes. His ftepmother Phaedra fell in love with him,
and when he refufed to pollute his father’s bed, ftie ac-
cufed him to Thefeus of offering violence to her per-
fon. Her accufation was readily believed, and The¬
feus intreated Neptune to puniftr the incontinence of
his fon. Hippolytus fled from the refentment of his
father j and as he purfued his wray along the fea Ihores,
his horfes were fo frightened at the noife of fea calves
which Neptune had purpofely fent there, that they ran
among the rocks till his chariot was broken and his
body torn to pieces. Temples were raifed to his me¬
mory, particularly at Troezene, where he received di¬
vine honours. According to fome accounts, Diana
reftored him to life.
HIPPOMANE, the manchineel-tree ; a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs •, and in
the natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tri-
coccce. See Botany Index.
HIPPOMANE S, a fort of poifon, famous among
the ancients as an ingredient in amorous philters or
love-charms. The word is Greek com-
pofed of <V7r«f “ a horfe,” and /axvm u fury or madnefs.”
Authors are not agreed about the nature of the
hippomanes. Pliny defcribes it as a blackifh caruncle
found on the head of a new born-colt $ which the dam
bites off and eats as foon as {he is delivered. He adds,
that if fhe be prevented herein by any one’s cutting it
off before, {he will not take to, nor bring up the
young. Virgil, and after him Servius and Columella,
delcribe it as a poifonous matter trickling from the pu¬
dendum of a mare when proud, or longing for the
horfe. At the end of Mr Bayle’s Diftionary is a very
learned differtation on the hippomanes, and all its vir¬
tues both real and pretended.
] H 1 R
HIPPONAX, a Greek poet, born at Ephefus 540
years before the Chriftian era. He cultivated the
fame fatirical poetry as Archilochus,' and was not in-,
ferior to him in the beauty or vigour of his lines. His
fatirical raillery obliged him to fly from Ephefus. As
he was naturally deformed, two brothers, Buphalus
and Anthermus, made a ftatue of hhn 5 which, by the
uglinefs of its features, expofed the poet to univerfal
ridicule. Hipponax refolved to revenge the injury ;
and he wrrote fuch bitter invedtives and fatirical lam¬
poons againrt them, that they hanged themfelves in
defpair. (Cic. ad Tamil. vii. ep. 24.).
HIPPOPHAE, sea-buckthorn : a genus of plants
belonging to the dioecia clafs; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 16th order, Gahjcifiorce. See
Botany Index.
HIPPOPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, a people
of Scythia, fo called from their living on horfe-fle/h }
the fare at this day of the Tartars their defcendants.
Alfo a people of Perfia (Ptolemy).
HIPPOPODES, Hippopedes, or Hippopodice,
compoied of /Vttos horfe, and f00^ in the ancient
geography, an appellation given to a certain people
lituated on the banks of the Scythian fea, as being fup-
poied to have had horfes feet. The hippopodes are
mentioned by Dionyfius, Geogr. v. 310. Mela, lib. iii.
cap. 6. Pliny, lib. iv. cap. 13. and St Auguftine, De
Civit. lib. xvi. cap. 8. But it is conjeftured, that they
had this appellation given them on account of their
fwiftnefs or lightnefs of foot. Mr Pennant fuppofes
them to have been the inhabitants of the Bothnian
gulf, and that they were the fame fort of people as
the Finm Lignipedesol Olaus. They wore fnow-lhoes $
which he thinks might fairly give the idea of their be¬
ing, like horfes, hoofed and {hod.
HIPPOPOTAMUS, the RIVER-HORSE; a genus
of quadrupeds belonging to the order of beiluas. See
Mammalia Index.
HIPPURIS, mare’s-tail, a genus of plants be-
longing to the monandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 15th order, Inundatce. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HIRAE.A, a genus of plants belonging to the decan-
dria clafs. See Botany Index.
HIRAM, a king of Tyre, contemporary with Solo¬
mon, whom he fupplied with cedar, gold, filver, and
other materials for building the temple. He died 1000
years B. C.
Hiram of Tyre, an artift wrho aflifted in the con-
ftruflion of Solomon’s temple, and other public build¬
ings at Jerufalem, flouriftied 1015 B. C.
HIRCANIA, in Ancient Geography. See Hyr-
cania.
HIRCPI-horn, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the lower Rhine, with a ftrong caftle. It is feat-
ed on the fide of a hill on the river Neckar, and be¬
longs to the ele£lor Palatine. E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat.
49. 28.
HIRCUS, in Afronotny, a fixed ftar of the firft mag¬
nitude, the fame with Capella. It is alfo made ufe of by
forae writers for a comet, encompaffed as it were with a
mane, apparently rough and hairy.
HIRE, Philip de la, a French mathematician and
aftronopaer of eminence, was born at Paris in the year
1643,
Hipponax
If
Hire.
H 1 R [ 503 - HIS
re 1640. His father, who was painter to his majefty, de-
hf Id to bring him up to the fame occupation, taught
,e him drawing and fuch parts of the mathematics as are
intimately conne&ed v\Tith it. At the age of 20 he took
a journey into Italy, to enlarge his knowledge of his
favourite art, in which country he relided for about four
years. The ftudy of the mathematics afterwards occu¬
pied all his attention, which he continued to profecute
on his return to his native city j and the publication of
fome works having procured him fo high a reputation,
he was chofen a member of the Academy of Sciences in
the year 1678.
When the celebrated minifter Colbert conceived the
defign of conftrudting a better map of France than any
at that time to be met w’ith, De la Hire was nominated
in conjunflion with Picard, to make the neceifary obfer-
vations, which engaged his attention for fome years in
different provinces. But befides the chief objedt of his
journies, he pholofophized upon every thing that occur¬
red to him, in a particular manner on the variations of
the magnetic needle, on refrattions, and the height of
mountains as afeertained by the barometer.
In the year 1683 he was employed in continuing the
meridian line which had been begun by Picard in 1669.
He continued it fromTaris towards the north, and Caf-
fxni carried it on towards the fouth ; but on the death
of Colbert, which happened the fame year, the work
tvas laid afide in an unfiniihed date. He was afterwards
employed, in conjundion with other eminent philofo-
phers, in taking the neceffary levels for the grand aque-
duds which Louis XIV. was about to make.
The works which have been publifhed by De la Hire
are very numerous; and as he was profeifor of the Royal
College and Academy of Architedure, he muff have
been conftantly employed. He had the politenefs, cir-
cumfpedion, and prudence of Italy, which made him
appear too referved in the effimation of his verfatile coun¬
trymen, yet he was regarded by all as an honeft, difin-
tereffed man. He died in the year 1718, at the great
age of 78.
He publiihed Traite de Mechanique ; Nouvel/e Me¬
thods en Geometric pour les Sections des Superficies Co-
niques et Cylindriques ; De Cycloide ; Nouvcaux E/emens
des Sections Comques ; les Lieux Geomctriques ; la Con-
fruclion ou EffeBion des Equations ; La Gnomoniquc,
and feveral others of lefs importance. That which gain¬
ed him the greateft reputation all over Europe, was his
SeBiones Conicce in novem hbros difributce, conffdered
by the beft judges as an original work.
HIRING, in Lave. See Borrojving and Hiring.
HIRPINI, in ydncient Geography, a people of Italy,
next to the Samnites, to the fouth-eaff, and defeendants
from them ; fituated to the north of the Picentini, and
to the weft of the Apuli, having on the north the
Apennine and a part of Samniutn. Their name is from
Hirpus, a term denoting a wolf in their language ; ei¬
ther becaufe under the condud of this animal the colo¬
ny was led and fettled, according to Strabo ; or becaufe,
like that prowling animal, they lived on plunder, accord¬
ing to Servius.
HIRSBERG, a town of Silefia, in the territory
of Jauer, famous for its mineral baths. It is feat-
ed on the river Bofar, in E. Long. 17. 30. N. Lat.
5°- 5°-
HJRSCHFELD, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper Rhine, and capital of a principality of Hi
the fame name, depending on a famous abbey which
was fecularized in favour of the houfe of CalTel. It is
feated on the river Fulda, in E. Long. 9. 52. N. Lat.
51. 46. ^
HIRTELLA, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs ; and in the natnral method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany
Index.
HIRUDO, the leech ; a genus of infeds belonging
to the order of yermes inteffina. See Helminthology
Index.
HIRUNDO, a genus of birds belonging to the order
of pafferes. See Ornithology Index.
HI SPA, in Zoology, a genus of infeds belonging
to the order coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
HISPAL1S, a town of Baetica, in the Farther
Spain ; an ancient mart or trading town on the Baetis,
navigable quite up to it for fhips of burthen, and thence
to Corduba for river barges. Called Colonia Romulen-
fs. It had alfo a conventus juridicus, acourt of juffice
or affizes, (Pliny). Now called Seville. W. Long. 6.
N. Lat. 37.
HISPAN1A, called Hefperia Ultima, (Horace),
becaufe the weftmoft part of Europe ; alfo Iberia, from
the river Iberus. Its name Hifpania, or Spania, (Greek)
is of Phoenician original, from its great number of
rabbits : the Phoenicians, who fettled feveral colonies
on the coart,' calling it Spanjah from thefe animals.
It has the fea on every fide, except on that next to
Gaul, from which it is feparated by the Pyrenees.
The Romans at firft divided it into the Farther and-
Hither Spain, under two praetors. In that ftate it
continued down to Auguffus; who divided the Farther
Spain into Ba^tica, which lie left to the people to be
governed by a proconful; and into Lufitania, which
he added to his own provinces; calling the Hither
Spain Tarraconenfs. Hifpania was a country celebrated
for its fertility, of which it has greatly fallen ftiort in
modern times. The people were of a warlike turn,
(Strabo) ; and their bodies being formed for bardlhips
and labour, they ever preferred war to peace, and were
remaikably prodigal of life (Juftin, Sil. Italicus). Spain
has produced feveral great men, both in a literary and
a political capacity. See Spain.
HISPANIOLA, called alfo St Domingo, the
largeft of the Antilles or Caribbee iflands, extending
about 420 miles from eaft to weft, and 120 in breadth
from north to fouth ; lying between 170 37' and 20° of
N. Lat. and between 67° 35' and 740 15' W. Lone.
The climate is hot, but not reckoned unwholefome ;
and fome of the inhabitants are faid to arrive at the
age of 1 20. It is fometimes refreflied by breezes and
rains ; and its falubrity is likewife in a great meafure
owing to the beautiful variety of hills and valleys,
woods- and rivers, which everywhere prefent them-
felves. It is indeed reckoned by far the fineft and
moil pleafant iiland of the Antilles, as being the beft
accommodated to all the purpofes of life when duly
cultivated.
’rhis ifiand, famous for being the earlieft fettlement
of the Spaniards in the new world, w’as at firrt in high
eftimation for the quantity of gold it fupplied': this
wealth diminfthed with the inhabitants of the country,,
whom they obliged to dig it out of the bowels of the
earth;
H I S
f 5<H ]
H I S
tlifpaniola eaitli j and the fource of it was entirely dried up, when
l"‘"1 they were exterminated, which was quickly done by a
feries of the molt Ihocking barbarities that ever dif-
graced the hitfory of any nation. Benzoni relates, that
of two millions of inhabitants, contained in the ifland
when difcovered by Columbus in 1492, fcarce 153
were alive in 1545. A vehement deiire of opening
again this fource of wealth infpired the thought of get^
ting (laves from Africa ; but, beiides that thefe were
found unfit for the labours they were deftined to, the
multitude of mines, which then began to be wrought
on the continent, made thofe of Hifpaniola no longer
of any importance. An idea now fuggefied itleif,
that their negroes, which were healthy, ftrong, and
patient, might be ufefully employed in huthandry 5 and
they adopted, through necefhty, a rvife refolution,
which, had they known their own intereft, they would
have embraced by choice.
The produce of their induftry was at firft extreme¬
ly fmall, becaufe the labourers were few. Charles V.
who, like mod fovereigns, preferred his favourites to
every thing, had granted an exclufive right of the
Have-trade to a Flemiih nobleman, who made over his
privilege to the Genoefe. Thofe avaricious republi¬
cans conduced this infamous commerce as all mono¬
polies are conducted } they refolved to fell dear, and
they fold but few. When time and competition had
fixed the natural and neceflary price of Haves, the
number of them increafed. It may-eafily be imagin¬
ed, that the Spaniards, who had been accuftomed to
treat the Indians as beads, did not entertain a higher
opinion of thefe negro Africans, whom they fubditu-
' ted in their place. Degraded dill farther in their
eyes by the price they had paid for them, even reli¬
gion could not redrain them from aggravating the
weight of their fervitude. It became intolerable, and
thefe wretched daves made an effort to recover the un¬
alienable rights of mankind. Their attempt proved
unfuccefsful; but they reaped this benefit from their
defpair, that they were afterwards treated with lefs in¬
humanity.
This moderation (if tyranny cramped by the ap-
prehenfion of revolt can deferve that name)was attend¬
ed with good confequences. » Cultivation was purfued
with fome degree of fuccefs. Soon after the middle
of the 16th century, the mother country drew annu¬
ally from this colony ten millions weight of fugar, a
large quantity of wood for dyeing, with tobacco, cocoa,
cadia, ginger, and cotton, in abundance. One might
imagine, that fuch favourable beginnings would give
both the defire and the means of carrying them further j
but a train of events, more fatal each than the other,
ruined thefe hopes.
The firft misfortune arofe from the depopulation of
the ifland. The Spanifti conquefts on the continent
ftiould naturally have contributed to promote the fuc¬
cefs of an ifland, which nature feemed to have formed
to be the centre of that vaft dominion arifing around
it, to be the ftaple of the different colonies. But it
fell out quite otherwife : on a view of the immenfe
fortunes railing in Mexico, and other parts, the richeft
inhabitants of Hifpaniola began to defpife their fet-
tlements, and quitted the true fource of riches, which
is on the furface of the earth, to go and ranfack the
bowels of it for veins of gold, which are quickly eX-Tifpani©l'a.
haufted. The government endeavoured in vain to put '
a flop to this emigration *, the laws were always either '
artfully eluded, or openly violated.
The weaknefs, which was a neceffary confequence
of fuch a conduft, leaving the coafts without defence,
encouraged the enemies ot Spain to ravage them, liven
the capital of this illand was taken and pillaged by that
celebrated Englilh failor, Sir Francis Drake. The
cruizers of lefs confequence contented themfelves with
intercepting veffels in their paffage through thofe lati¬
tudes, the beft known at that time of any in the new
world. To complete thefe misfortunes, the Caftilians
themfelves commenced pirates. They attacked no (hips
but thofe of their own nation ; which were more nth,
worfe provided, and worfe defended, than any others.
The cuftom they had of fitting out (hips clandeflinely,
in order to procure (laves, prevented them from being
known j and the afliftance they purchared fro n the
drips of war, commiflioned to protect the trade, i ifured
to them impunity.
The foreign trade of the colony was its only refource
in this diftrefs ; and that was illicit: but as it conti¬
nued to be carried on, notwithflanding the vigilance
of the governors, or, perhaps, by their connivance,
the policy of an exafperated and fhort-fighted court
exerted itfelf in demoliftiing moft of the fea-ports,
and driving the miferable inhabitants into the inland
country. This a6t of violence threw them into a (late
of dejedlion 5 which the incurfions and fettlement of
the French on the ifland afterwards carried to the ut-
moft pitch. The latter, after having made (bme un¬
fuccefsful attempts to fettle on the ifland, had part of
it yielded to them in 1697, and afterwards enjoyed by
far the bell (hare.
Spain, totally taken up with that vaft empire which
(he had formed on the continent, ufed no pains to dif-
fipate this lethargy. She even refufed to liflen to the
folicitations of her Flemilh fubje&s, who earneilly prefs-
ed that they might have permiflion to clear thofe fer¬
tile lands. Rather than run the ri(k of feeing them
carry on a contraband trade on the coafts, (lie chofe to
bury in oblivion a fettlement which had been of confe¬
quence, and was likely to become fo again.
This colony, which had no longer any intercourfe
with the mother country but by a Angle (hip of no
great burthen, that arrived from thence every third year,
confided, in 1717, of 18,410 inhabitants, including
Spaniards, meftees, negroes, or mulattoes. The com¬
plexion and charailer of thefe people differed according
to the different proportions of American, European,
and African blood they had received from that natural
and tranfient union which reftores all races and condi¬
tions to the fame level. Thefe demi-favages, plunged
in the extreme of (loth, lived upon fruits and roots,
dwelt in cottages without furniture, and moft of them
without clothes. The few among them, in whom in¬
dolence had not totally fuppreffed the fenfe of decency
and tafte for the conveniencies of life, purchafed clothes
ef their neighbours the French in return for their
cattle, and the money fent to them for the maintenance
of two hundred foldiers, the priefts, and the government.
In the year 1788, the revolutionary principles which
began to agitate Europe, made their way to the Weft
Indies.
2
HIS C 505 1 HI S
TIlfpantola. Indies. Toe French nffociation for abolifhing the Have
'■■■' » trade, called Amis dcs Noirs, kept up a correi’pondence
with fuch rich Mulattoes as had come to France for
their education, $.nd its members laboured to convince
them that there was neither civil nor political diiHnftion
between them and tire white people. Thefe ideas were
ftrengthened by the celebrated declaration of the na¬
tional affembly, that ail men are born and continue
free, pofleffing equal rights. The confequence was,
that the Mulattoes of Hilponiola broke out into open
rebellion, but for want of unity of defiga they were
loon overpowered.
This fpirit, however, dill continued to exert itfelf,
and the affembly of France having avow-ed its defign
not to interfere with the internal affairs of the colony,
.difcontent and remonltrances were exhibited by the
faftious friends of the negroes. They epnlidered this
as countenancing the African trade, and an acknow¬
ledgement that the planters were not colonills, but in¬
dependent people. This idea ffruck the colonifts them-
felves, for by a decree they debarred the king’s dele¬
gate from having a negative on any of their future
adts. Fhe Amts des Noirs, in the mean time, exerted all
their influence to kindle and cheriih a Ipirit of rebel¬
lion in the minds of the people of colour j for which
purpofe they carefully taught one James Oge, then re¬
ading at Paris, the dodtrines of equality and the rights
of man, urged him to return to St Domingo, place him-
ielf at the head of his people, and relcue them from
the oppreflion of the whites, pledging themfelves to
procure arms and ammunition for him in America, that
the affair might be kept as profound a fecret as polli-
ble. He accordingly fet fail for New England in July
17905 but all the vigilance of the parties concerned
could not deceive the government of France, and his
portrait was fent to St Domingo before him. He made
the illand in Odfober, and declared loon after by virtue
of a manifeffo, that if the privileges of the whites were
not conferred on all without difcrimination, he wTould
inftantly take up arms to obtain them by force. With
a fmall detachment of 200 men he maffacred all the
white people that came in his way, as well as all thofe
of his own colour who refufed to join him. This little
army was very foon fubdued, and their mifguided leader
was punifhed as a traitor.
The French national affembly decreed that every
perfon 25 years old and upwards, if he poffeffed proper¬
ty, and had lived two years in the colony, and paid
taxes, fliould be pennitted to eledt the members of the
colonial affembly, on which account the people of colour
inferred, that this privilege was beftowed upon them. It
is uncharitable to believe that this was the intention of
the national aflembly 5 but Gregoire and others carried
their favourite point, that Mulattoes born of free pa¬
rents might not only eledt their own reprefentatives,
but alfo lit as members in the colonial affemblies. In
ccnfequence of this meafure, all the white -people fell
vidtims to the indignation of the people of colour. The
negroes were now fully determined to recover their li¬
berty. ^ On the 23d of Auguft 1791, the people in the
town of the. Cape wrere informed that the Haves in the
adjacent parifhes had revolted, a report which was too
foon confirmed by the arrival of thofe who had efeaped
the maffacre. Hoftilities commenced between the two
parties, and terminated with the lofs &x 2000 white peo-
Vol. X. Part II.
pie, while not fewer than 10,000 Mulattoes and Ne-H’fpaniola.
groes perilhed by famine and the fword, and feveral w~—*Y~" 1
hundreds by the hands of the executioner.
The news of thefe tranfadlions having reached Paris,
the members of the affembly were perfuaded that they
had carried their principles of equality by much too
far, and they repealed their celebrated decree which
had placed the people of colour on a footing with the
whites. Commifiioners (three in number) were fent
to reilore peace between the whites and Mulattoes, but
as two of them were men of infamous charafters, and in¬
capable of extinguifhing the flames of rebellion, they re¬
turned to France, without being able to accomplifh the
object of their million.
The Amis des Noirs having again acquired the fupe-
riority in the national affembly, Santhonax, Polverel,
and Ailhaud with 6000 men from the national guards,
were ordered for St Domingo. The governor of the
illand perceiving that thefe commiflioners took all the
authority on themlelves, and refolved to reduce him to
a cypher, he remonftrated againif their proceedings, in
conlequence of which he was immediately arreiled, and
fent a ftate prifoner to France. The commillioners after-
wards difagreeing among themfelves, Ailhaud was dif-
mifled from their councils.
Unfuccefsful attempts wrere made by the Britilh go¬
vernment to fubdue the commiflioners and their adhe¬
rents 5 but after performing prodigies of valour, the
troops of Britain were compelled to relinquilh the illand,
more perhaps by difeafe than the fword of the enemy.
The chief government of it then fell into the hands of
Touffaint IPOuverture, by whom it W’as converted into
an independent republic, the fupreme authority over
which he continued to hold till the figning the prelimir*
naries of peace in 1801.
When this event took place, Bonaparte, with the.
confent of the Britilh government, fent a fleet from
Breft, with a confiderable army under the command of
General Le Clerc, who, after various a&ions at length
fubdued Touffaint 5 and, notwithftanding that French
general pledged himfelf for his fafety, he was in a Ihort
time fent prifoner to France, where he foon after died,
or, according to conjectures not very improbable, was
put to death by order, or with the connivance, of the
ruler of that kingdom.
The French troops under General Rochambeau be¬
ing obliged to evacuate Hifpaniola, the freedom and
independence of the illand were proclaimed by the con¬
quering chief, Dcffalines, who allured all thofe who
were willing to remain in it, of his cordial protection,
and allowing fuch as were fo inclined freely to depart
with the French army. The fucceffes which attended
the arms of this black chief, and the goodnefs of the
caufe in.which he fought, were very much tarnilhed by
the horrid maffacres of the white people, w hich he not
only countenanced, but attended in perfon. Attempts
to negociate wdth Deffalines were made by the Britilh
government, but without effeft, his demands were fo ex¬
travagant which he held out as the balls ; but his army
was in fuch a forlorn condition, as to create no appre-
henfions of danger from fuch an enemy. After this,
however, Deffalines experienced a fignal defeat on the
plain of St Charles from General Ferrand, when 1 200
of his men w7ere found dead on the field, and himfelf
obliged to retire towards the Cape.
3 S
St
HIS [ 506 ] HIS
Hifpaniola. St Domingo was afterwards denominated Hayti, of
which Jacques Deffalines was cliofen the firft emperor.
It was declared a free, fovereign, and independent date,
and llavery was abolilhed. The citizens were pro¬
nounced brothers at home, equal in the eye of the law;
and it was declared that one man could enjoy no advan¬
tages over another, but fuch as might originate from ler-
vices done to the caufe of liberty and independence.
Such as emigrate are to forfeit ever after the title of
citizen of Hayti, and alfo if they are found deferving
of dilgraceful punilhments. Every citizen mud; have
ibme mechanic art, and no white man is to be permit¬
ted to let a foot upon the ifland with the title of a pro¬
prietor. All diftindtion of colour was ordered to ceafe,
and the people of Hayti to be ever after known by the
generic title of B/acks.
The empire of Hayti is one and indivifible, and its
territory diftributed into fix military divifions. The
illands of Samana, La Tortu, La Gonave, Les Caye-
mites, La Saone, L’llle a Vache, and other adjacent
jflands, are to be confidered as integral parts of this
empire.
HIST
HISTORY, in general, fignifies an account of
fome remarkable fabls which have happened
in the world, arranged in the true order in which they
actually took place, together with the caufes to which
they were owing, and the different effedts they have
produced as far as can be difeovered.—The word is
Greek, 'lco^icc ; and literally denotes a fearch of curi¬
ous things, or a defire of knowing, or even a rehear-
fal of things wTe have feen ; being formed from the
verb Tfogey, w’hich properly fignifies to know a thing by
having leen it. But the idea is now much more ex-
tenfive, and is applied to the knowledge of things ta¬
ken from the report of others. The origin is from
the verb irvf.it, “ I know ; ” and hence it is, that
among the ancients feveral of their great men wTere
called polijJuJIores, i. e. perfons of various and general
knowledge.
Sometimes, however, the word liiflory is ufed to
fignify a defeription of things, as well as an account
of fadls. Thus Theophraftus calls his work in which
he has treated of the nature and properties of plants,
an hijlonj of plants ; and w7e have a treatife of Ariftotle,
intitled an Itiflory of animals; and to this day the de-
feriptions of plants, animals, and minerals,^are called by
j the general name of natural hi/lory.
Hiftory But what chiefly merits the name of hiftory, and
how divi- what is here confidered as fuch, is an account of the
dcd. principal tranfadlions of mankind fince the beginning
of the wTorld ; and which naturally divides itfelf into
two parts, namely, civil and ecclejiajlical. The firft
contains the hiftory of mankind in their various rela¬
tions to one another, and their behaviour, for their own
emolument, or that of others, in common life ; the fe-
cond confiders them as adling, or pretending to aft,
in obedience to what they believe to be the will of the
Supreme Being.—Civil hiftory, therefore, includes an
account of all the different ftates that have exifted in
The emperor is commander in chief of the army, and Hifter,.
the emprefs is to have a fixed annual allowance after the Hirtorio-
deceafe of the emperor, as princefs dowoger. LawTs are , graPhfcr'7
made, fealed and promulgated by the emperor ; and he
appoints at his pleafure ail counfellors of ftate, generals,
and other agents of the empire, fea officers, judges, and
other public funftionaries. The houfe of every citizen
is by the law declared to be his afylum; marriage is de¬
clared a civil rite, divorce is allowed, all religious opi¬
nions tolerated, and good faith in commercial tranfac-
tions is to be religiouily maintained. The conftitution
was accepted at the imperial palace on the 20th of May
1805 by the emperor Jacques Deffalines, and he pro-
mifed to defend it to the laft breath of his life.
HISTER, a genus of the coleoptera order of infefts.
See Entomology Index.
HISTORIOGRAPHER, a profeffed hiftorian, or
writer of hiftory. See the next article.
The hiftoriographer to his majefty is an officer un¬
der the lord chamberlain ; his falary 200I. per annum.
Thel e is an office of the fame kind in Scotland, with the
fame falary.
DRY.
the world, and likewife of thole men who in diffe¬
rent ages of the world have moft eminently di-
ftinguifhed themfelves either for their good or. evil ac¬
tions. This laft part of civil hiftory is ufually termed
Biography.
Hiftory is now confidered as a very confiderable
branch of polite literature : few accomplifhments are
more valued than an accurate knowledge of the hifto-
ries of different nations ; and fcarce any literary pro-
duftion is more regarded than a well-written hiftory
of any nation. 2
With regard to the ftudy of hiftory, we muft con-of the
fider, that all the revolutions which have happened indyofhi-
the world have been owing to two caufes. 1. The^ory'
connexions between the different ftates exifting toge¬
ther in the world at the fame time, or their different
fituations with regard to one another ; and, 2. The
different charafters of the people who in all ages
conftituted thefe ftates, their different geniufes and
difpolitions, &c. by which they were either prompted
to undertake fuch and fuch aftions of themfelves, or
were eafily induced to it by others. The perfon who
would ftudy hiftory, therefore, ought in the firft place
to make himfelf acquainted with the ftate of the world
in general in all different ages ; what nations inhabited
the different parts of it ; wmat their extent of territory
was ; at what particular time they arofe, and when
they declined. He is then to inform himfelf of
the various events which have happened to each par¬
ticular nation ; and, in fo doing, he will difeover
many of the caufes of thofe revolutions, which before
he only knew as fafts. Thus, for inftance, a per¬
fon may know the Roman hiftory from the time of
Romulus, without knowing in th* leaft why the city
of Rome happened to be built at that time. This
cannot be underftood without a particular knowledge
of the former ftate of Italy, and even of Greece and
Alia;,.
Sea. I. H I S T
Civil Afia j feeing the origin of the Romans is com-
, ^lftoi'y- , monly traced as high as ./Eneas, one of the heroes
of Troy. But when all this is done, which indeed
requires no fmall labour, the hillorian hath yet to
fludy the genius and difpofitions of the different na¬
tions, the charatters of thole who were the principal
diredlors of their aflions, whether kings, minifters,
generals or priafts 5 and when this is accomplilhed,
he will diicover the caufes of thofe tranfadlions in the
different nations which have given rife to the great
revolutions above mentioned : after which, he may
affume the charadder of one who is perfectly verfed in
hiilory.
Ihe firft outline of hiftory, as it may be called, is
moft eaffly obtained by the infpection of an hifforical
chart j and that iubjoined to the prefent treatife will
anfwer the purpofe as well as any. Along with this
it will be proper to perule a Ihort abridgment of ge¬
neral hiftory, from the creation of the world to the pre-
rent time ; but in this wray there have been but very
few attempts attended with any tolerable fuccefs. The
Jollowing is colledled from refpedlable authorities,
and may ferve to help the ideas of the reader on this
fubjed.
Sect. I. Civil llijlory.
History, though feemingly incapable of any natu¬
ral divilion, will yet be found, on a nearer infpedion,
to refolve itfelf into the following periods, at each of
which a great revolution took place, either with re-
3 gard to the whole w'orld, or a very conliderable part
Civil hifto- of it. 1. The creation of man. 2. The flood. 3. The
wded7 dl’ begin™S .oi: Profane hiftory, i. e. when all the fabu¬
lous relations of heroes, demi-gods, &c. were ex¬
pelled from hiftorical narrations, and men began to
relate fads with fome regard to truth and credibility.
4. The conqueft of Babylon by Cyrus, and the de-
ftrudion of the Babylonian empire. 3. The reign of
Alexander the Great, and the overthrow of the Perfian
empire. 6. The deftrudion of Carthage by the Ro¬
mans, when the latter had no longer any rival capable
of oppofing their deiigns. 7. The reign of the emperor
Irajan, when the Roman empire was brought to its
utmoft extent. 8. ihe divilion of the empire under
Conftantine. 9. The deftrudion of the weftern empire
by the Heruli, and the fettlement of the different Euro¬
pean nations. 10. The rife of Mahomet, and the con-
quefts of the oaracens and Turks, ji. The crufades,
and all the fpace intervening between that time and*
the prefent.
Concerning the number of years which have elapfed
flnce the creation of the world, there have been many
difputes.. The compilers of the Univerfal Hiftory de¬
termine it to have taken place in the year 4305 B. C. fo
that, according to them, the world is now' (1806) in the
oiiilIi year of its age. Others think it w7as created
ssr only 4000 years B. C. fo that it hath not yet attained
count<ofC* ^ 6o0Oth >ear- Be th5s. as it will, however, the
the crea- w‘1°ie account of the creation refts on the truth of the
tionthe Mofaic hiftory; and this we muft of neceftity ac-
only pro- cept, becaufe we can find no other which does not
* e °ae‘ .either abound with the groffeft abfurdities, or lead us
into abiolute darknefs. I he Chinefe and Egyptian
pretenfions to antiquity are fo abfurd and ridiculous,
O It Y.
507
that the bare reading muft be a fufficient confutation Civil
of them to every reafonable perfon. See the articles, Bdory. ^
China and Egypt. Some hiftorians and philofophers '
are inclined to difcredit the Mofaic accounts, from the
appearances of volcanoes, and other natural pheno¬
mena : but their objedtions are by no means fufficient
to invalidate the authority of the facred waitings; not
to mention that every one of their own fyftems is
liable to inliiperable objections. See Geoeogy. It
is therefore realonable for every perfon to accept of
the Mofaic account of the creation as truth : but an
hiftorian is under an abfolute neceftity of doing it, be¬
caufe, without it, he is quite deftitute of any ftandard
or fcale by which he might reduce the chronology of
different nations to any agreement; and, in ihort,
without receiving this account as true, it would be in a
manner impoflible at this day to write a general hiftory
of the world.
1. The trafifaclions during the firft period, viz. from
the creation to the flood, are very much unknown, no-^^^
thing indeed being recorded of them but what is to be the fioqds
found in the firft lix chapters of Genefis. In general,
we know, that men w7ere not at that time in a favage
ftate ; they had made fome progrefs in the arts, had
invented mufic, and found out the method of working
metals. They feem alfo to have lived in one vaft com¬
munity, without any of thofe diviftons into different na¬
tions which have fince taken place, and which evident¬
ly proceeded from the confufion of languages. The
moft material part of their hiftory, however, is, that
having once begun to tranfgrefs the divine commands,
they proceeded to greater and greater lengths of wick-
ednefs, till at laft the I3eity thought proper to fend
a flood on the earth, which deftroyed the whole hu¬
man race except eight perfons, viz. Noah and his fa¬
mily. This terrible cataftrophe happened, according
to the Hebrew7 copy of the Bible, 1636 years after
the creation ; according to the Samaritan copy 1307.
For the different conjeftures concerning the natural
caufes of the flood, fee the article Deluge. <?
2. For the hiftory of the fecond period we muft: again From the
have recourfe to the Scriptures, almoft as much asfloodt?thc
for that of the firft. We now find the human race re- ^ prof^/^
duced to eight perfons, poffeffed of nothing but what hiftory. ^
they had faved in the ark, and the whole world to be
ftored with animals from thofe which had been prefer-
ved along with thefe eight perfons. In what country
their original fettlement was, no mention is made. The
ark is fuppofed to have refted on JVIount Ararat in Ar¬
menia * ; but it is impoftible to know whether Noah * See
and his fons made any flay in the neighbourhood o{Ararat<
this mountain or not. Certain it is, that, fome time
after, the whole or the greateft part of the human
race were affembled m Babylonia, where they engaged
m building a tower. This gave offence to the Deity ;
fo that he punifhed them by confounding their lan¬
guage ; whence the divifion of mankind into different
nations.
According to a common opinion, Noah when dying
Jeft the whole world to his fons, giving Afia to Shem, 7
Africa to Ham, and Europe to Japhet. But this hathNations
not the leaft foundation in Scripture. By the moftfiefcende<!
probable accounts, Corner the fan of Japhet was the fa- ph™ Ja‘
ther of the Gomerians or Celtes; that is, all the bar¬
barous nations wdio inhabited the northern parts of
3 S ^ Europe,
s
FrotnShem
From Ham.
10
Foundation
of the king¬
doms of
Babylonia,
Afl j ria,
6c c.
HIST
Europe, under the various names of Gauls, Cimbrians,
GotliS) &c. and who alfo migrated to Spain, where they
were called Ce/tiberians. From. Magog, Mefhech, and
Tubal, three of Gomer’s brethren, proceeded the Scy¬
thians, Sarmatians, Tartars, and Moguls. The three
other fons of Japhet, Madai, Javan, and Tiras, are faid
to have been the fathers of the Medes, the lonians,
Greeks and Thracians.
The children of Shem were Elam, Afhur, Arphaxad,
Lud, and Aram. The firft fettled in Perfia, where
he w’as the father of that mighty nation: The defcen-
dants of Alhur peopled Affyria (now Curdejlan)'. Ar¬
phaxad fettled in Chaldea. Lud is fuppofed by Jo-
lephus to have taken up his refidence in Lydia j
though this is much controverted. Aram, writh more
certainty, is thought to have fettled in Mefopotamia
and Syria.
The children of Ham were Cufh, Mizraim, Phut,
and Canaan. The firll is thought to have remain¬
ed in Babylonia, and to have been king of the fouth-
eaflern parts of it, afterwards called Khuzejlan. His
defcendants are fuppofed to have removed into the
callern parts of Arabia ^ from whence they by degrees
migrated into the correfponding part of Africa. The
fecond peopled Egypt, Ethiopia, Cyrenaica, Libya,
and the reft of the northern parts of the fame conti¬
nent. The place where Phut fettled is not known :
but Canaan is univerfally allowed to have fettled in
Phoenicia ; and to have founded thofe nations who in¬
habited Judea, and were afterwards exterminated by
the Jews.
Almoft all the countries of the world, at leaf! of the
eaftern continent, being thus furnilhed with inhabi¬
tants, it is probable that for many years there wmuld
be fewr or no quarrels between the different nations.
The paucity of their numbers, their diftance from one
another, and their diverfity of language, would contri¬
bute to keep them from having utuch communication
with each other. Hence according to the different
circumftances in which the different tribes wrere placed,
fome would be more civilized and others more barba¬
rous. In this interval alfo the different nations pro¬
bably acquired different charaflers, which afterwards
they obftinately retained, and manifefted on all occa-
lionsj hence the propenfity of fome nations to monar¬
chy, as the Afiatics, and the enthufiaftic delire of the
Greeks for liberty and republicanifm, &c.
The beginning of monarchical government wras very
early ; Nimrod the fon of Cufh having found means to
make hirnfelf king of Babylonia. In a ftiort time A-
Ihur emigrated from the new kingdom; built Nineveh,
afterwards capital of the Affyrian empire; and two
other cities, called Rezen and Rehoboth, concerning
the fituation of which we are now much in the dark.
Whether Athur at this time fet up as a king for him-
felf, or whether he held thefe cities as vaffal to Nim¬
rod, is now unknown. It is probable however, that
about the fame time various kingdoms were founded in
different parts of the world ; and which were great or
fmall according to different circumftances. Thus the
Scripture jnentions the kings of Egypt, Gerar, Sodom,
Gomorrha, &c. in the time of Abraham ; and we
may reafonably fuppofe, that thefe kings reigned over
nations which had exifted for fome confiderable time
before.
O R Y. Sea.L
The firft confiderable revolution we read of Is the Civil
migration of the Ifraelites out of Egypt, and their K>ft°ry-
eftablilhment in the land of Canaan. For the hiftory of
thefe tranfaftions we muft refer to the Old Teftament,Migratioia
where the reader will fee that it was attended with of the If-
the moft terrible cataftrophe to the Egyptians, andr.ael‘tes
with the utter extermination of fome nations, the de-ho‘“
fcendants of Ham, who inhabited Judaea. Whether^^’
the overthrow of Pharaoh in the Red fea could af-
fe£l the Egyptian nation in fuch a manner as to de¬
prive them of the greateft part of their former learning,
and to keep them for fome ages after in a barbarous
ftate, is not eafily determined ; but unlefs this was the
cafe, it feems exceedingly difficult to account for the
total filence of their records concerning fuch a re¬
markable event, and indeed for the general confufion
and uncertainty in which the early hiftory of Egypt is
involved. The lettlement of the Jews in the promifed
land of Canaan, is fuppofed to have happened about
1491 B. C. iz
For near 200 years after this period, we find no Hiftory of
accounts of any other nations than thofe mentioned in ^ie <-5rce^s*
Scripture. About 1280 B. C. the Greeks began to
make other nations feel the effetffs of that enterprifing
and martial fpirit for which they were fo remarkable,
and which they had undoubtedly exercifed upon one
another long before. Their firft enterprife was an in-
vafion of Colchis (now' Mingrelia), for the fake of the
golden fleece. Whatever was the nature of this ex¬
pedition, it is probable they i'ucceeded in it; anc^ it
is likewife probable, that it was this fpecimen of the
riches of Afia wffiich inclined them fo much to Afiatic
expeditions ever after. All this time wm are totally
in the dark about the ftate of Afia and Africa, except
in fo far as can be conjediured from Scripture. The
ancient empires of Babylon, Affyria, and Perfia, pro¬
bably ftill continued in the former continent, and Egypt
and Ethiopia feem to have been conliderable kingdoms
in the latter.
About 1184 years B. C. the Greeks again diftin-
guiffied themfelves by their expedition againrt Troy, a
city of Phrygia Minor; wffiich they plundered and
burnt, maffacring the inhabitants wuth the moft unre¬
lenting crudity. Atneas, a Trojan prince, efcaped with
fome follow7ers into Italy, where he became the remote
founder of the Roman empire. At this time Greece
was divided into a number of fmall principalities, moft
of which feem to have been in fubjedtion to Agamem¬
non king of Mycenae. In the reign of Atreus, the
father of this Agamemnon, the Heraclidae, or deicen-
dants of Hercules, who had been formerly banilhed by
Euryftheus, were again obliged to leave this country.
Under their champion Hyllus they claimed the king¬
dom of Mycenm as their right, pretending that it be¬
longed to their great anceftor Hercules, who was un-
juftly deprived of it by Euryftheus f. The contro- j '^e
verfy was decided by fingle combat; but Hyllus being
killed, they departed, as had been before agreed, under
a promife of not making any attempt to return for jo
years. About the time of the Trojan war, alfo, we find
the Lydians, Myfians, and fome other nations of Afia
Minor, firft mentioned in hiftory. The names of the
Greek ftates mentioned during this uncertain period
are, 1. Sicyon. 2. Leleg. 3. Meffina. 4. Athens.
5. Crete, 6. Argos. 7. Sparta. 8. Pelafgia.
9. Theffaly.
Seal. .HISTORY. 509
Civil 9. Tlieffaly. 10. Attica. n. Phocis. 12. Locris.
Hiftoiy. Ozela. 14. Corinth. 15. Eleufina. 16. Elis.
U‘’”'v ' 1 j. Pilus. 18. Arcadia. 19. Egina. 20. Ithaca.
21. Cephalone. 22. Phthia. 23. Phocidia. 24.
Ephyra. 25. Eolia. 26. Thebes. 27. Calilta. 28.
Etolia. 29. Doloppa. 30. Oechalia. 31. Mycenae.
32. Euboea. 33. Mynia. 34. Doris. 35. Phera.
36. lola. 37. Trachina. 38. Thrafprocia. 39. Myr-
midonia. 40. Salamine. 41. Scyros. 42. Hype-
ria or Melite. 43. The Vulcanian hies. 44. Megara.
45. Epirus. 46. Achaia. 47. The hies of the Egean
fea. Concerning many of thefe we know nothing
belides their names : the moft remarkable particulars
concerning the reft may be found under their refpec-
j. live articles.
Of the About 1048 B. C. the kingdom of Judea under
Jews. King David approached its utmoft extent of power. In
its moft ftourilhing condition, however, it never was
remarkable for the largenefs of its territory. In this
refpeft it fcarce exceeded the kingdom of Scotland j
though, according to the accounts given in fcripture,
the magnificence of Solomon was fuperior to that of
the moft potent nipnarchs on earth. This extraordina¬
ry wealth was owing partly to the fpoils amaffed by
King David in his conquefts over his various enemies,
and partly to the commerce with the Eaft Indies
which Solomon had eftabliftied. Of this commerce he
owed his fhare to the friendftiip of Hiram king of
Tyre, a city of Phoenicia, whofe inhabitants were now
the moft famed for commerce and fkill in maritime af¬
fairs of any in the whole world.
After the death of Solomon, which happened about
975 B. C. the Jewifh empire began to decline ; and
loon after many powerful Hates arofe in different parts
of the world. The difpofition of mankind in general
items now to have taken a new turn, not eafily ac¬
counted for. In former times, whatever wars might
have taken place between neighbouring nations, we
have no account of any extenfive empire in the whole
world, or that any prince undertook to reduce far di-
ftant nations to his fubjeclion. The empire of Egypt
indeed is laid to have been extended immenfely to the
eaft, even before the days of Sefoftris. Of this coun¬
try, however, our accounts are fo imperfecf, that
icarce any thing can be concluded from them. But
now, as it were all at once, we find almoft every nation
aiming at univerfal monarchy, and refufing to fet any
bounds whatever to its ambition. The firft fliock
given to the Jewifh grandeur was the divifion of the
kingdom into two through the imprudence of Reho-
boam. This rendered it more eafily a prey to Shifhak
king of Egypt j who five years after came and pillaged
Jerufalem, and all the fortified cities of the kingdom
of Judah. The commerce to the Eaft Indies was now
difcontinued, and confequently the fources of wealth
in a great meafure flopped ; and this, added to the
perpetual wars between the kings of Ifrael and Judah,
contributed to that remarkable and fpeedy decline
which xs now fo eafily to be ohferved in the Jewifh af¬
fairs.
Whether this king Shifhak was the Sefoftris of pro¬
fane writers or not, his expedition again!! Jerufalem as
recorded in fcripture feems very much to referable the
defultory conquefts afcribed to Sefoftris. His infan¬
try is faid to have been innumerable, compofed of
different African nations; and his cavalry 60,000, with Civil
1200 chariots j which agrees pretty well w ith the , Hiftory- ,
mighty armament afcribed to Sefoftris, and of which v
an account is given under the article Egypt, N° 2.
There indeed his cavalry are faid to have been only
24,000 ; but the number of his chariots is increafed
to 27,000 5 which laft may not unreafonably be rec¬
koned an exaggeration, and thefe fupernumerary cha¬
riots may have been only cavalry ; but unlefs we allow
Sefoftris to be the fame with Shifhak, it feems impof-
fible to fix on any other king of Egypt that can be
fuppofed to have undertaken this expedition in the
days of Solomon.
Though the Jew’s obtained a temporary deliverance
from Shifhak, they w’ere quickly after attacked by new
enemies. In 941 B. C. one Zerah an Ethiopian in¬
vaded Judaea with an army of a million of infantry
and 300 chariots; but wras defeated with great daugh¬
ter by Afa king of Judah, wdio engaged him with ^
an army of 580,000 men. About this time alfo w’eOftheSy-
find the Syrians grown a confiderable people, andrians*
bitter enemies both to the kings of Ifrael and Judah j
aiming in fa£t at the conqueft of both nations. Their
kingdom commenced in the days of David, under Ha-
dadezer, whofe capital w’as Zobah, and who probably
wras at laft obliged to become David’s tributary, after
having been defeated by him in feveral engagements.
Before the death of David, however, one Rezon, w’ho
it feems had rebelled again!! Hadadezer, having found
means to make himfelf mafter of Damafcus, erecfted
there a new kingdom, which foon became very power¬
ful. The Syrian princes being thus in the neighbour¬
hood of the two rival Hates of Ifrael and Judah (whofe
capitals w’ere Samaria and Jerufalem), found it an
eafy matter to weaken them both, by pretending to
aflift the one again!! the other ; but a detail of the
tranfadlions between the Jews and Syrians is only to
be found in the Old Teftament, to wKich we refer.
In 740 B. C. how’ever, the Syrian empire w’as totally
deftroyed by Tiglath Pilefer king of Affyria ; as w’as
alfo the kingdom of Samaria by Shalmanefer his fuc-
ceffor in 721 B. C. The people w’ere either maffacred,
or carried into captivity into Media, Perfia, and the
countries about the Cafpian fea. r.
While the nations of the eaft were thus deftroying Of the
each other, the foundations of very formidable em- Weftern
pires were laid in the weft, which in procefs of time nat‘ona’
were to fwallow up almoft all the eaftern ones. In
Africa, Carthage was founded by a Tyrian colony,
about 869 B. C. according to thofe who aferibe the
higheft antiquity to that city ; but, according to others,
it was founded only in 769 or 770 B. C. In Europe
a very confiderable revolution took place about 900
B. C. The Heraclidae, w’hom we have formerly feen
expelled from Greece by Atreus the father of Aga¬
memnon, after feveral unfuccefsful attempts, at laft
conquered the whole Peloponnefus. From this time the
Grecian Hates became more civilized, and their hi-
ftory becomes lefs obfeure. The inftitution, or rather
the revival and continuance, of the Olympic games, in
776 B. C. alfo greatly facilitated the writing not only
of their hilfory, but that of other nations ■, for as each
Olympiad confifted of four years, the chronology of
every important event became indubitably fixed by re¬
ferring it to fuch and fuch an Olympiad. In 748 B. C„
or .
S'o HIST
Civil or the laft year of the feventh Olympiad, the foun-
i Hl^0l'y- [ dations of the city of Rome were laid by Romulus ;
and, 43 years after, the Spartan date was new model¬
led, and received from Lycurgus thofe laws, bv obl’er-
ving of which it afterwards arrived at fuch a pitch of
X5 fp lender.
^‘ate of the 3. With the beginning of the 28th Olympiad, or
tl-e^b a^n commences the third general period above-
ning1 of the menth°i>ed, when profane hirtory becomes fomewhat
third gene- more clear, and the relations concerning the different
jal period, nations may be depended upon with fome degree of
certainty. The general Hate of the world was at that
time as follows.—The northern parts of Europe were
either thinly inhabited, or filled with unknown and
barbarous nations, the anceftors of thofe who after¬
wards deftroyed the Roman empire. France and
Spain were inhabited by the Gomerians or Celtes.
Italy was divided into a number of petty Hates, ari-
fing partly from Gauliflr and partly from Grecian co¬
lonies ; among whom the Romans had already become
formidable. They were governed by their king Ser-
vius Tullius 5 had increafed their city by the demoli¬
tion of Alba Longa, and the removal of its inhabitants
to.Rome $ and had enlarged their dominions by feve-
ral cities taken from their neighbours. Greece was alfo
divided into a number of fmall Hates, among which
the Athenians and Spartans, being the moH remark¬
able, were rivals to each other. The former had,
about 599 B. C. received an excellent legiflation from
Solon, and wrere enriching themfelves by navigation
and commerce : the latter were become formidable by
the martial inHitutions of Lycurgus j and having con¬
quered Meflina, and added its territory to their own,
were juHly edeemed the moH powerful people in Greece.
The other Hates of mofl confideration were Corinth,
Thebes, Argos, and Arcadia. In Ada great revolu¬
tions had taken place. The ancient kingdom of Af-
fyria was deflroyed by the Medes and Babylonians, its
capital city Ninevah utterly ruined, and the greated
part of its inhabitants carried to Babylon. Nay, the
very materials of which it was built were carried off,
to adorn and give flrength to that Hately metropolis,
which was then undoubtedly the firff city in the world.
Nebuchadnezzar, a wife and valiant prince, now fat
on the throne of Babylon. By him the kingdom of
Judrea was totally overthrown in 587 B. C. Three
years before this he had taken and razed the city of
Tyre, and overrun all the kingdom of Egypt. He
is even faid by Jofephus to have conquered Spain, and
reigned there nine years, after which he abandoned it
to the Carthaginians j but this feems by no means pro¬
bable. The extent of the Babylonian empire is not
certainly known : but from what is recorded of it we
may conclude, that it was not at all inferior even in
this refpedl to any that ever exided j as the feripture
tells us it was fuperior in wealth to any of the fucceed-
ing ones. We know that it comprehended Phoenicia,
Palefline, Syria, Babylonia, Media, and Perfia, and
not improbably India alfo •, and from a confideration
of this vaft extent of territory, and the riches with
whi&h every one of thefe countries abounded, we may
form fome idea of t he wealth and power of this mo¬
narch. When we confider alfo, that the whole Hrength
of this mighty empire was employed in beautifying
the nietropolis, we c annot look upon the wonders of
3
O II Y.
that city as related by Herodotus to be at all incredi
ble. See Babylon j and Architecture, N° 13. As
to what pafied in the republic of Carthage about this
time, we are quite in tne dark j there being a chafm
in its hidory for no lefs than 300 years.
4. J he fourth general period of hiflory, namely,
from the end of tire fabulous times to the conquefi of
Babylon by Cyrus, is very droit, including no more
than 3 I years, j. ins Hidden revolution was occafioned
by the mifeondudt of Evil-merodach, Nebuchadnezzar’s
fon, eves in his father’s life-time. For having, in a
great hunting match on occafion of his marriage, en¬
tered the country of the Medes, and fome of his' troops
coming up at the fame time to relieve the garrifons in
thofe places, he joined them to thofe already with him,
and without the lead provocation began to plunder
and lay wade the neighbouring country. This pro¬
duced an immediate revolt, which quickly extended over
all Media and Perfia. The Medes, headed by Ady-
ages and his fon Cyaxares, drove back Evil-merodach
and his party with great daughter •, nor doth it appear
that they were afterwards reduced even by Nebuchad¬
nezzar himfelf. The new empire continued daily to
gather drength 5 and at lad Cyrus, Adyages’s grand-
ion, a prince of great prudence and valour, being made
generalidirno of the Median and Perfian forces, took
Babylon itfelf in the year 538 B. C. as related under
the article Babylon.
During this period the Romans increafed in power
under the wife adminidration of their king Servius
Tullius, who, though a pacific prince, rendered his
people more formidable by a peace of 20 years than
his predeceffors had done by all their victories. The
Greeks, even at this early period, began to interfere
with the Perfians, on account of the lonians or Gre¬
cian colonies in Alia Minor. Thefe had been fub-
dued by Crtefus king of Lydia about the year 562,
the time of Nebuchadnezzar’s death. Whether the
Lydians had been fubdued by the Babylonidi monarch
or not, is not now to be afeertained j though it is
very probable that they were either in fubjedion to
him, or greatly awed by his power, as before his death
nothing confiderable was undertaken by them. It
is indeed probable, that during the infanity of Nebu¬
chadnezzar, ipoken of by Daniel, the affairs of his king¬
dom would fall into confufion j and many of thofe prin¬
ces whom he formerly retained in fubjedion would fet
up for themfelves. Certain it is, however, that if the
Babylonians did not regard Croefus as their fubjed,
they looked upon him to be a very faithful ally ; info-
much that they celebrated an annual fead in comRic-
moration of a vidory obtained by him over the Scy¬
thians. After the death of Nebuchadnezzar, Croefus
fubdued many nations in Afia Minor, and among the
red the lonians, as already related. They were, how¬
ever, greatly attached to his government; for though
they paid him tribute, and were obliged to furnidi him
with fome forces in time of war, they wTere yet free from
all kind of oppredion. When Cyrus therefore was
proceeding in his conqueds of different parts of the
Babylonidi empire, before he proceeded to attack the
capital, the lonians refufed to fubmit to him, though
he offered them very advantageous terms. But foon
after, Croefus himfelf being defeated and taken pri-
foner, the lonians fent ambaffadors to Cyrus, offering
to
Sea. I.
Fourth pe¬
riod. Hi-
ftory of the
Babylonian,
empire.
18
Of the
Romans,
Greeks,
Lydians,
and Per¬
fians.
Sea. i.
HIST
Civil
Hiftory,
. 19
Tifth gene
ral period.
Hiftory of
the Jew?,
Babyloni-
ans, Egyp¬
tians, See.
to fubrmt cn the terms which had formerly been pro*
pofed. Thefe terms were now refufed •, and the lo-
nians, being determined to refill:, applied to the Spar¬
tans for aid. Though the Spartans at that time
could not be prevailed upon to give their countrymen
any afliftance, they fent ambafiadors to Cyrus with a
threatening meffage ; to which he returned a contemp¬
tuous anfwer, and then forced the lonians to fubmit
at diferetion, five years before the taking of Babylon.
Thus commenced the hatred between the Greeks and
Perfians ; and thus we "fee, that in the two firit great
monarchies the feeds of their dfllrudlion -were fowTn
even before the monarchies themfelves wfre ellablilhed.
For while Nebuchadnezzar was raifing the Babyloniih
empire to its utmoft height, his fon was deftroying
what his father built up 5 and at the very time when
Cyrus rvas eftabliflung the Perlian monarchy, by his
ill-timed feverity to the Greeks he made that warlike
people his enemies, whom his fucceflbrs were by no
means able to refill, and who would probably have
overcome Cyrus himfelf, had they united in order to
attack him. The tranfaclions of Africa during this
period are alrnoft entirely unknown ; though we cannot
doubt that the Carthaginians enriched themfelves by
means of their commerce, which enabled them after¬
wards to attain fuch a confiderable {hare of power.
5. Cyrus having now become mailer of all the eafl,
the Afiatic affairs continued for fome time in a flate
of tranquillity. The Jews obtained leave to return to
their own country, rebuild their temple, and again
eflablifh their worfhip, of all which an account is given
in the facred writings, though undoubtedly they muff
have been in a flate of dependance on the Perfians
from that time forward. Cambyfes the fucceflbr of Cy¬
rus added Egypt to his empire, which had either not
fubmitted to Cyrus, or revolted foon after his death.
He intended alfo to have fubdued the Carthaginians ;
but as the Phoenicians refufed to fupply him with (hips
to fight againfl their own countrymen, he was obliged
to lay this defign afide.
In 517 B. C. the Babylonians finding themfelves
grievoufly opprefled by their Perfian mailers, refolved
to fhake off the yoke, and fet up for themfelves. For
•this purpofe, they took care to ftore their city with all
manner of provifions; and when Darius Hyltafpes, then
king of Perfia, advanced againll them, they took the
moll barbarous method that can be imagined of pre¬
venting an unneceffary confumption of thofe provi-
fions, which they had fo carefully amaffed. Having
collected all the women, old men, and children, into
one place, they flrangled them without dillinffion,
whether wives, fathers, mothers, brothers, or filters j
every one being allowed to fave only the wife he liked
bell, and a maid fervant to do the work of the houfe.
This cruel policy did not avail them : their city was
taken by treachery (for it was impoffible to take it
by force) ; after which the king caufed the walls of
it to be beaten down from 2co to 50 cubits height,
that their llrength might no longer give encouraore-
ment to the inhabitants to revolt. Darius then turned
his arms againfl the Scythians; but finding that ex¬
pedition turn out both tedious and unprofitable, he
direfted his courfe eaflward, and reduced all the coun¬
try as far as the river Indus. In the mean time, the
lonians revolted $ and being alhfled by the Greeks, a
CRY.
war commenced between the two nations, which was
not thoroughly extinguifhed but by the deflruftion of
the Perfian empire in 330 B. C. The lonians, how¬
ever, were for this time obliged to fubmit, after a war
of fix years j and were treated with great feverity by
the Perfians. The conqueft of Greece itfelf was then
projected : but the expeditions for that purpofe ended
moll unfortunately for the Perfians, and encouraged
the Greeks to make reprifals on them, in which they
fucceeded according to their utmofl wilhes 5 and had
it only been pofiible for them to have agreed among
themfelves, the downfal of the Perfian empire would
have happened muchfooner than it did. See Athens,
Sparta, Macedon, and Persia.
In 459 B. C. the Egyplans made an attempt to
recover their liberty, but were reduced after a wmr of
fix years. In 413 B. C. they revolted a fecond time :
and being afhiled by the Sidonians, drew upon the
latter that terrible deflruftion foretold by the prophets j
while they themfelves were fo thoroughly humbled,
that they never after made any attempt to recover their
liberty.
The year 403 B. C. proved remarkable for the re¬
volt of Cyrus againfl his brother Artaxerxes Mnemon j
m which, through his own rafhnefs, he mifearried, and
loft his life at the battle of Cunaxa, in the province of 20
Babylon. Ten thoufand Greek mercenaries, who fervedXenophon”!
in his army, made their way back into Greece, thoughretreat’
furrounded on all fides by the enemy, and in the heart
of a hoflile country. In this retreat they were com¬
manded by Xenophon, who has receded the highefi
praifes on account of his conduft and military {kill in
bringing it to a happy conclufion. Two years after,
the invafions of Agefilaus king of Sparta threatened
the Perfian empire with total deftruftion 5 from which,
however, it was relieved by his being recalled in order
to defend his own country againfl the other Grecian
flates 5 and after this the Perfian affairs continued in a
more profperous way till the time of Alexander. 2r
During all this time, the volatile and giddy temper Hiftory of
of the Greeks, together with their enthufiallic defire die Greekv,
of romantic exploits, were preparing fetters for them¬
felves, which indeed feerned to be abfoiutely neceffary
to prevent them from deilroying one another. A zeal
for liberty w^as what they all pretended ; but on every
occafion it appeared, that this love of liberty was only a
defire of dominion. No Hate in Greece could bear to
fee another equal to itfelf 5 and hence their perpetual
contexts* for pre-eminence, which could not but weaken
the whole body, and render them an eafy prey to an
ambitious and politic prince, who was capable of ta¬
king advantage of thofe divifions. Being all equally
impatient of reflraint, they never could bear to fubmit
to any regular government; and hence their determi¬
nations were nothing but the decifions of a mere mob,
of which they had afterwards almoft conflantly reafon
to repent. Hence alfo their bafe treatment of thofe
eminent men wdiom they ought mod to have honoured-,
as Miltiades, Ariflides, Themiftocles, Alcibiades, So¬
crates, Phocion, &c. The various tranfaftions be¬
tween the Grecian flates, though they make a very
confiderable figure in particular hiftory, make none at
all in a general fketch of the hiftory of the world. We
{hall therefore only obferve, that in 404 B. C. the A-
thenian power was in a manner totally broken by the
taking:
HISTORY.
Sea. I.
taking of their city by the Spartans. In 370 B. C. that
of the Spartans received a fevere check from the Thebans
at the battle of Leuftra ; and eight years after was
ftili further reduced by the battle of Mantinea. Epa-
minondas the great enemy of the Spartans was killed ;
but this only proved a more fpeedy means of fubju-
gating all the dates to a foreign, and at that time
defpicable, power. The Macedonians, a barbarous
nation, lying to the north of the dates of Greece, were
two years after the death of Epaminondas reduced to
the lorved ebb by the Illyrians, another nation of bar¬
barians in the neighbourhood. The king of Macedon
being killed in an engagement, Philip his brother de¬
parted from Thebes, where he had dudied the art of
w:ar under Epaminondas, in order to take polleffion of
his kingdom. Being a man of great prudence and poli¬
cy, he quickly fettled his own affairs ; vanquilhed the
Illyrians; and being no dranger to the weakened dtua-
tion of Greece, began almod immediately to meditate
the conqued of it. The particulars of this enterprile
are related under the article Macedon : here it is luf-
ficient to take notice, that by fird attacking thofe he
was fare he could overcome, by corrupting thole whom
he thought it dangerous to attack, by fometimes pre¬
tending to a did one date and fometimes another, and
by impofing Upon all as bed ferved his turn, he at
lad put it out of the power of the Greeks to make
any reddance, at lead fuch as could keep him from
gaining his end. In 338 B. C. he procured himfelf
to be defied general of the Amphi&yons, or council
of the Grecian dates, under pretence of fettling fome
troubles at that time in Greece •, but having once ob¬
tained liberty to enter that country with an army, he
quickly convinced the dates that they mud all fubmit
to his will. He w'as oppofed by the Athenians and
Thebans j but the intedine wars of Greece had cut oft'
all her great men, and no general was now to be found
capable of oppodng Philip with fuccefs.
The king of Macedon, being now mader of all
Greece, projecled the conqued of Ada. 1 o this he
was encouraged by the ill fuccefs which had attended
the Perdans in their expeditions againd Greece, the
fuccelfes of the Greeks in their invadons, and the re¬
treat of the ten thoufand under Xenophon. All thefe
events fhowed the weaknefs of the Perdans, their vad
inferiority to the Greeks in military fkill, and how ea-
dly their empire might be overthrown by a proper
22 union among the dates.
Conqueft of -Philip was preparing to enter upon his grand dedgn,
Perfia by when he was murdered by fome affaffins. His fon A-
lexander was pofleffed of every quality neceffary for
the execution of fo great a plan ; and his impetuodty
of temper made him execute it with a rapidity un¬
heard of either before or dnce. It mutt be confeffed,
indeed, that the Perdan empire was now ripe for de-
druftion, and could not in all probability have with-
dood an enemy much lefs powerful than Alexander.
The Adatics have in all ages been much inferior to the
European nations in valour and military fkill. They
were now funk in luxury and effeminacy ; and what
was worfe, they feem at this period to have been feized
with that infatuation and diilraftion of councils which
fcarce ever fails to be a forerunner of the dedruSion
of any nation. The Perdan miniders perfuaded their
fovereign to . rejed the prudent advice that was given
3
Alexander.
him, of didreffing Alexander by laying vrnde the coun- Civil
try, and thus forcing him to return for want of provi- Hiftory. ,
dons. Nay, they even prevented him from engaging
the enemy in the mod proper manner, by dividing his
forces •, and periuaded him to put Charidemus the A-
thenian to death, who had promifed with ioo.oco
men, of whom one-third were mercenaries, to drive the
Greeks out of" Ada. In Ihort, Alexander met with
only twro checks in his Perdan expedition. The one
was from the city of Tyre, which for (even months re¬
dded his utmod efforts *? the other was from Memnon
the Rhodian, who had undertaken to invade Macedo¬
nia. The did of thefe obdacles Alexander at lad got
over, and treated the governor and inhabitants with
the utmod cruelty. The other was fcarce felt ; for
Memnon died after reducing fome of the Grecian
illands, and Darius had no other general capable of
conducing the undertaking. The power of the Per¬
dan empire was totally broken by the viftory gained
over Darius at Arbela in 331 B. C. and next year a
total end wms put to it by the murder of the king by
Bedus one of his fubjects. 23
The ambition of Alexander rvas not to be fatisded H,s cony
with the poffedion of the kingdom of Perda, or indeed
of any other on earth. Nothing lefs than the total tions>
fubjedfion of the world itfelf feemed fufficient to him ;
and therefore he was now prompted to invade every
country of which he could only learn the name, whe¬
ther it had belonged to the Perdans or not. In con-
fequence of this dilpodtion, he invaded and reduced
Hyrcania, Badfria, Sogdia, and all that vaft tradt of
country nowr called Buiharia. At lall, having entered
India, he reduced all the nations to the river Hypha-
ds, one of the branches of the Indus. But when he
would have proceeded farther, and extended his con-
quefts quite to the eaftem extremities of Ada, his
troops podtively refufed to follow him farther, and he
w7as conftrained to return. In 323 B. C. this mighty
conqueror died of a fever } without having time to fettle
the affairs of his vaft extended empire, or even to name
his fucceffor. 24
While the Grecian empire thus fuddenly fprung up^i(lory0'!
in the eaft, the rival ftates of Rome and Carthage wrere t^ie K"°"
• 7 • mans*
making condderable advances in the weft. The Ro¬
mans were eftablilhing their empire on the moft folid
foundations; to which their particular dtuation natu¬
rally contributed. Being originally little better than a
parcel of lawlefs banditti, they were defpifed and hated
by the neighbouring ftates. This foon produced wars;
in which, at drft from accidental circumftances, and af¬
terwards from their fuperior valour and condudl, the
Romans proved almoft conftantly vifforious. The jea-
loudes which prevailed among the Italian ftates, and
their ignorance of their true intereft, prevented them
from combining againft that afpiring nation, and crufti-
ing it in its infancy, wTich they might eadly have
done ; while in the mean time the Romans, being kept
in a ftate of continual warfare, became at laft fuch ex¬
pert foldiers, that no other ftate on earth could refill
them. During the time of their kings they had made
a very confiderable figure among the Italian nations ;
but after their expulfion, and the commencement of
the republic, their conquefts became much more rapid
and extenfive. In 501 B. C. they fubdaed the Sabines j
eight years after, the Latins 5 and 111399 B. C. the
city
Seft. I.
Civil
Hiftory.
* See
Rtme.
H I S T
city oi' Veii, tlie ftrongeft in Italy, exceeding Rome it-
1'elf, was taken after a fiege of ten years. But in the
midit of their fucceffes a hidden irruption of the Gauls
had alrnofl: put an end to their power and nation at
once. The city wa’s burnt to the ground in 383 B. C.
and the capitol on the point of being furprifed, when
the Gauls, who were climbing up the walls in the night,
were accidentally difcovered and repulfed*. In a (hort
time Rome w?as rebuilt with much greater fplendor
than before, but now a general revolt and combina¬
tion of the nations formerly fubdued took place. The
Romans, however, Hill got the better of their ene¬
mies j but, even at the time of the celebrated Camil-
lus’s death, which happened about 352 B. C. their
territories fcarce extended fix or feven leagues from
the capital. The republic from the beginning was
agitated by thofe diffenfions which at laid proved its
ruin. I he people had been divided by Romulus into
two claffes, namely Patricians and Plebeians, anfwer-
ing to our nobility and commonalty. Between thefe
two bodies were perpetual jealoufies and contentions j
which retarded the progrefs of the Roman conquefts,
and revived the hopes of the nations they had conquer¬
ed. The tribunes of the people were perpetually op-
pofing the confuls and military tribunes. The fenate
had often recourfe to a didlator endowed with abfolute
power $ and then the valour and experience of the Ro¬
man troops made them victorious ; but the return of
domeftic feditions gave the fubjugated nations an op¬
portunity of lhaking off the yoke. Thus had the
Romans continued for near 400 years, running the
fame round of wars with the fame enemies, and reap¬
ing very little advantage from their conquefts, till at
lalt matters were compounded by chooftng one of the
confuls from among the plebeians j and from this time
chiefly we may date the profperity of Rome, fo that
by the time that Alexander the Great died they
were held in confiderable eftimation among foreign
nations.
The Carthaginians in the mean time continued to
an^ofSi”5’ en”c^ themfelves by commerce j but, being lefs con-
*R< 0 11 verfant in military affairs, wTere by no means equal to
the Romans in power, though they excelled them in
■wealth. A new ftate, however, makes its appearance
during this period, which may be faid to have taught
the Carthaginians the art of war, and, by bringing
them into the neighbourhood of the Romans, proved
the firft fource of contention betwreen thefe two power¬
ful nations. This was the ifland of Sicily. At what
time people were firft fettled on it, is not now to
be afcertained. The firft inhabitants we read of were
called Sicani, Siculi, Lce/lrigones, &c. but of thefe we
know little or nothing. In the lecond year of the
17th Olympiad, or 710 B. C. fome Greek colonies
are faid to have arrived on the ifland, and in a fliort
time founded leveral cities, of which Syracufe was the
chief. Ihe Syracufans at laft fubdued the original
inhabitants : though it doth not appear that the lat¬
ter were ever well affetfled to their government, and
therefore were on all occafions ready to revolt. The
firft confiderable prince, or (as he is called by the
Greeks) tyrant of Syracufe, was Gelon, who obtained
the fovereignty about the year 483 B. C. At what
time the Carthaginians firft carried their arms into Si¬
cily is not certainly known ; only we are allured, that
VOL. X. Part II.
2 5
Of the Caf-
and of Si'
cily.
O R Y.
SRI
they poffeffed fome part of the ifland as early as 505
B. C. For in the time of the firft confuls, the Ro¬
mans and Carthaginians entered into a treaty chiefly in
regard to matters of navigation and commerce 5 by
which it was ftipulated, that the Romans who ftiould
touch at Sardinia, or that part of Sicily which belong¬
ed to Carthage, fliould be received there in the fame
the Carthaginians themfelves. Whence it
Civil
Hiftory.
manner as
appears, that the dominion of Carthage already extend¬
ed over Sardinia and part of Sicily : but in 28 years
after, they had been totally driven out by Gelon ;
which probably was the firft exploit performed by him.
This appears from his fpeech to the Athenian and
Spartan ambaffadors who defired his aftiftance againlt
the forces of Xerxes king of Perfia. The Carthagi
nians made many attempts to regain their polTellions in
this ifland, which occafioned long and bloody wars be¬
tween them and the Greeks, as related under the ar¬
ticles Carthage and Sicily. This ifland alfo proved
the fcene of much (laughter and bloodfhed in the warsi
of the Greeks with one another ||. Before the year ^ ^
323 B. C. however, the Carthagians had made them-anC
(elves mailers of a very confiderable part of the ifland ;
from whence all the power of the Greeks could not
diflodge them. It is proper alfo to obferve, that af¬
ter the deftruftion of Tyre by Alexander the Great,
almoft all the commerce in the weftern part of the
world fell to the (hare of the Carthaginians. Whether
they had at this time made any fettlements in Spain is
not known. It is certain, that they traded to that
country (or the fake of the iilver, in wrhich it was very
rich ; as they probably alfo did to Britain for the tin
with which it abounded. 26
6. The beginning of the fixth period prefents us with s.ixth Pc-.
a ftate of the world entirely different from the pre-!.10(,‘ fHlf
ceding. We now behold all the eaftern part of the ^jacedo- C
world, from the confines of Italy to the river Indus, nian eru-
and beyond it, newly united into one vaft empire, andPive'
at the fame time ready to fall to pieces for want of a
proper head ; the wTeftern world filled with fierce and
favage nations, whom the rival republics of Carthage
and Rome were preparing to enllave as faft as they
could. The firft remarkable events took place in the
Macedonian empire—Alexander, as already obferved,
had not diftinftly named any fucceffor ; but he had
left behind him a victorious, and, we may fay, invin¬
cible army, commanded by moft expert officers, all of
them ambitious of fupreme authority. It is not to be
fuppofed that peace could long be preferved in fuch a
fituation. For a number of years, indeed, nothing was
to be feen or heard of but the moft horrid flaughters,
and wickednefs of every kind, until at laft the mother,
wives, children, brothers, and even fifters, of Alexander
were cut off; not one of the family of that great con-
queror being left alive. When matters were a little
fettled, four new empires, each of them of no fmall
extent, had arifen out of the empire of Alexander.
Caffander, the fon of Antipater, had Macedonia and
all Greece j Antigonus, Afia Minor j Seleucus had
Babylon and the eaftern provinces 5 and Ptolemy
Lagus, Egypt and the w7eftern ones. One of thefe
empires,.however, quickly fell j Antigonus being de¬
feated and killed by Seleucus and Lyfimachus at the
uattle of Ipfus, in 301 B. C. The greateft part of
his dominions then fell to Seleucus j but feveral pro-
3 T vinces
5H
Civil
Hifto-y.
27
Of ihe Ro¬
mans and
Carthagi-
»ians.
HIST
vinces took tke opportunity of thefe confufions to
ihake oif the Macedonian yoke altogether : and thus
were formed the kingdoms of Pontus, Bithynia, Per-
gamus, Armenia, and Cappadocia. The two moft
powerful and permanent empires, however, were thofe
of Syria founded by Seleucus, and Egypt by Ptolemy
Lagus. The kings of Macedon, though they did not
preferve the fame authority over the Grecian Bates
that Alexander, Antipater, and Callander, had done,
yet effectually prevented them from thofe outrages
upon one another, for which they had formerly been
fo remarkable. Indeed, it is fomewhat difficult to de¬
termine, whether their condition was better or worfe
than before they were conquered by Philip •, fmce,
though they were now prevented from deiiroying one
another, they were moff gvievoufly oppreffed by the
Macedonian tyrants.
While the ealtern parts of the world were thus de¬
luged with blood, and the fucceffors of Alexander
were pulling to pieces the empire which he had efta-
bliOied, the Romans and Carthaginians proceeded in
their attempts to enllave the nations of the weft. The
Romans, ever engaged in war, conquered one city
and ftate after another, till about the year 253 B. C.
thev had made themfelves mailers of almoft the whole
of Italy. During all this time they had met only with
a ftngle check in their conquefts, and that was the
invafion of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus. That ambitious
and fickle prince had proje&ed the conqueft of Italy,
which he fancied would be an eafy matter. Accord¬
ingly, in 271 B. C. he entered that country, and
maintained a w^ar with the Romans for fix years, till
at laft, being utterly defeated by Curius Dentatus, he
was obliged to return.
The Romans had no fooner made themfelves mafters
of Italy, than they wanted only a pretence to carry
their arms out of it, and this pretence was foon found
out. Being invited into Sicily to affift the Mamer-
tines againft Hiero king of Syracufe and the Car¬
thaginians, they immediately commenced a war with
the latter, which continued with the utmoft fury for
23 years. The w-ar ended greatly to the difadvantage
of the Carthaginians, chieily owing to the bad con-
du£t of their generals, none of wffiom, Hamilcar Bar¬
cas alone excepted, feem to have been poffefled of any
degree of military fldll j and the ftate had fuffered too
many misfortunes before he entered upon the command,
for him or any other to retrieve it at that time. The
confequence of this war was the entire lofs of Sicily to
the Carthaginians 3 and foon after, the Romans feized
on the ifland of Sardinia.
Hamilcar perceiving that there was now no alter¬
native, but that in a fiiort time either Carthage muft
conquer Rome, or Rome would conquer Carthage,
bethought himfelf of a method by which his country
might become equal to that haughty republic. This
was by reducing all Spain, in wffiich the Carthaginians
had already confiderable poffeffions, and from the
mines of which they drew great advantages. He
had, therefore, no fooner finiihed the war with the
mercenaries, which fucceeded that with the Romans,
than he fet about the conqueft of Spain. This, horv-
ever, he did not live to accomplifii, though he made
great progrefs in it. His fon Afdrubal continued the
war with fuccefs j till at laft the Romans, jealous of
o it y. sea. 1.
his progrefs, perfuaded him to enter into a treaty with Civil
them, by winch he engaged himfelf to make the river H’fta'y-
Iberus the boundary of his conquefts. This treaty "" v ” 7
probably was never ratified by the fenate of Carthage,
nor, though it had, would it have been regarded by
Hannibal, who fucceeded Afdrubal in the command,
and had fworn perpetual enmity with the Romans.
The tranfabtions of the fecond Punic war are perhaps
the moft remarkable which the hiftory of the world
can aiford. Certain it is, that nothing can (how more
clearly the flight foundations upon which the greateft
empires are built. We now fee the Romans, the na¬
tion moft remarkable for their military fldll in the
whole world, and who, for more than 500 years, had
been conftantly viblorious, unable to refill the efforts
of one Angle man. At the fame time we fee this man,
though evidently the firll general in the world, loft
folely for want of a flight iupport. In former times,
the republic of Carthage fupplied her generals in Si¬
cily with hundreds of thoufands, though their enter-
prifes were almoft conftantly unfuccefsful; but now
Hannibal, the conqueror of Italy, was obliged to
abandon his defign, merely for want of 20 or 30,000
men. That degeneracy and infatuation, which never
fails to overwhelm a falling nation, or rather which is
the caufe of its fall, had now infebted the counfels of
Carthage, and the lupplies were denied. Neither was
Carthage the only infatuated nation at this time.—
Hannibal, whofe prudence never forfook him either
in profperity or adverfity, in the height of his good
fortune had concluded an alliance with Philip king of
Macedon. Had that prince fent an army to the af-
fiftance of the Carthaginians in Italy immediately
after the battle of Cannae, there can be no doubt but
the Romans wrould have been forced to accept of that
peace which they fo haughtily refufed j; ; and indeed, { See Car*
this offer of peace, in the midft of fo much fuccefs, istl>agei N°
an inftance of moderation which perhaps does moreI25*
honour to the Carthaginian general than all the mili¬
tary exploits he performed. Philip, however, could
not be roufed from his indolence, nor fee that his own
ruin wTas connefted with that of Carthage. The Ro¬
mans had now made themfelves mafters of Sicily; after
which they recalled Marcellus, with his viblorious ar¬
my, to be employed againft Hannibal } and the con¬
fequence at laft was, that the Carthaginian armies,
unfupported in Italy, could not conquer it, but w'ere
recalled into Africa, which the Romans had invaded.
The fouthern nations feem to have been as blind to
their own intereft as the northern ones. They ought
to have feen, that it wras neceflary for them to preferve
Carthage from being deftroyed ; but inftead of this,
Mafiniffa king of Numidia allied with the Romans,
and by his means Hannibal v:as overcome at the
battle of Zama *, which finiihed the fecond Punic war, *SeeZamtt.
in 1 88 B. C. 2s
The event of the fecond Punic w?ar determined the Of Egypt
fate of almoft all the other nations in the world. All and Syria,
this time, indeed, the empires of Egypt, Syria, and
Greece, had been promoting their own ruin by
mutual wrars and inteftine divifions. I he Syrian
empire was nowr governed by Antiochus the Great,
who feems to have had little right to fuch a title.
His empire, though diminifhed by the defeblion ot
the Parthians, was ftill very powerful 2 and to him
Hannibal.
HIST
Civil
Hiitorv.
29
Of Greece.
Sea. I.
Hannibal applied, after he was obliged to leave
his country, as related under Carthage, N° 152.
Antiochus, however, had not fufficient judgment
to fee the neceffity of following that great man’s
advice j nor would the Carthaginians be prevailed
upon to contribute their alTiftance againlt the nation
which was foon to deftroy them without any provo¬
cation. The pretence for war on the part of the Ro¬
mans wTas, that Antiochus w'ould not declare his
Greek fubje&s in Alia to be free and independent
Hates ; a requifition which neither the Romans nor
any other nation had a right to make. The event of
all wras, that Antiochus w7as everywhere defeated,
and forced to conclude a peace upon very difadvanta-
geous terms.
In Europe, matters wrent on in the fame way *, the
Hates of Greece, weary of the tyranny of the Mace¬
donians, entered into a refolution of recovering their
liberties. For this purpofe w'as framed the Achaean
$ See Greece. League ; but as they could not agree among them-
felves, they at lafl came to the imprudent determination
of calling in the Romans to defend them againH Philip
king of Macedon. This produced a war, in wdiich
the Romans wTere victorious. The Macedonians,
however, w7ere Hill formidable ; and as the intention
of the Romans to enflave the W’hole world could no
longer be doubted, Perfeus, the fucceifor of Philip, re¬
newed the wTar. Through his own cowardice he loll
a decifive engagement, and with it his kingdom, which
fubmitted to the Romans in 167 B. C.
Deftrudlion Macedon being thus conquered, the next Hep was
of Carthage utterly to exterminate the Carthaginians 5 whole re-
rinth °' Pukk'c, notwithllanding the many difaflers that had
befallen it, was Hill formidable. It is true, the Car¬
thaginians were giving no offence j nay, they even
made the moff abjeCt fubmiflions to the republic of
Rome : but all was not fufficient. War was declared
a third time againfl that unfortunate Hate 5 there was
now no Hannibal to command their armies, and the
city was utterly deHroyed 146 B. C. The fame year
the Romans put an end to the liberties they had pre¬
tended to grant the cities of Greece, by the entire de-
31 HruCtion of Corinth. See that article.
Hiftoiy of After the death of Antiochus the Great, the af-
riP and y" ^a'rs Syr’ia and Egypt w-ent on from bad to worfe.
Judaea.
The degenerate princes which filled the thron- s of
thofe empires, regarding only their own pleafures,
either fpent their time in oppreffing their fubieCts, or
in attempting to deprive each other of their dominions,
by which means they became a more eafy prey to the
Jfomans. So far indeed were they from taking any
means to fecure themfelves againH the overgrown
power of that republic, that the kings both of Syria
and Egypt fometimes applied to the Romans as pro-
teclors. Their downfal, however, did not happen
within the period of which we now treat.—-The only
other tranfaction which makes any confiderable figure
in the Syrian empire is the opprefficn of the Jew7s by
Antiochus Epiphanes. After their return from the
Babyloniffi captivity, they continued in fubjedtion to
the Perfians till the time of Alexander.—From that
time they wrere fubjedt to the kings of Egypt or Syria,
as the fortune of either happened to prevail. Egypt
being reduced to a low ebb by Antiochus Epiphanes,
the Jews fell under his dominion 3 and being feverely
O R Y.
treated by him, imprudently ffiowed feme figns of joy
on a report of his death. This brought him againH
them with a powerful army 3 and in 170 B, C. he
took Jerufalem by Horm, committing the molt horrid
cruelties on the inhabitants, infomuch that they were
obliged to bide themlelves in caverns and in boles of
rocks to avoid his fury Their religion was totally
aboliffied, their tempi*, profaned, and an image of
Jupiter Olympius fet up on the altar of burnt-offer¬
ings : wffiich profanation is thought to be the abomina¬
tion of deflation mentioned by the prophet Daniel.
This revolution, however, was of no long continu¬
ance. In 167 B. C. Mattathias reHored the true
worfhip in molt of the cities of Judea j and in 168 the
temple was purified, and the worfliip there reHored by
Judas Maccabaeus. This was folkwed by a long feries
of wars between the Syrians and Jews, in which the
latter were almofl always victorious 3 and before thele
wars were finilhed, the deflruftion of Carthage happen¬
ed, which puts an end to the fixth general period form¬
erly mentioned. _
7. The beginning of the feventh period prefents us Pee
with a view of the ruins of the Greek empire in theriod’, „Ge~
declining Hates of Syria and Egypt 3 both of themlYthe ^
much circumfcribed in bounds. The empire of Syria world,
at firH comprehended all Alia to the river Indus, and
beyond it 3 but in 312 B. C. mofl of the Indian pro¬
vinces wrere by Seleucus ceded to one Sandrocottus, or
Androcottus, a native, who in return gave him 500
elephants. Of the empire of Sandrocottus we know
nothing farther than that he fubdued all the countries
between the Indus and the Ganges 3 fo that from this
time w'e may reckon the greateH part of India inde¬
pendent on the Syro-Macedonian princes. In 250
B. C. however, the empire fuilained a much greater
lofs by the revolt of the Parthians and Badtrians from
Antiochus Theus. The former could not be fubdued ;
and as they held in fubjedtion to them the vaH tradt
which now goes under the name of Perfa, we muH
look upon their defedtion as an irreparable lofs. Whe¬
ther any part of their country wras afterwards recover¬
ed by the kings of Egypt or Syria, is not very certain 3
nor is it of much confequence, fince we are affured
that in the beginning of the feventh period, i. e. 146
B. C. the Greek empires of Syria and Egypt were
reduced by the lofs of India, Perlia, Armenia, Pon-
tus, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Pergamus, &c. The ge¬
neral Hate of the world in 146 B. C. therefore was
as follows. In Alia were the empires of India, Par-
thia, and Syria, witli the leffer Hates of Armenia,
Pontus, &c. above mentioned 3 to which we mud add
that of Arabia, which during the fixth period had
grown into fome confequence, and had maintained its
independency from the days of Iffimael the fon of
Abraham. In Africa were the kingdoms of Egypt
and Ethiopia 3 the Carthaginian territories, now fub-
jeft to the Romans 3 and the kingdoms of Numidia,
Mauritania, and Getulia, ready to be fwallowed up
by the fame ambitious and infatiable power, now that
Carthage was defiroyed, which ferved as a barrier a-
gainH it. Fo the fouth lay fome unknown and bar¬
barous nations, fecure by reafon of their fituation and
inlignificance, rather than their Hrength, or diflance
from Rome. In Europe we find none to oppofe the
progrefs of the Roman arms, except the Gauls, Ger-
3 E 2 mans,
5i 6
HISTORY.
Sea. I.
Civil
Hiftory.
33
ConquelB
of the Ro¬
mans.
mans, and iome Spaniih nations. 'I'hefe were brave
indeed j but through want of military Ikill, incapable
of contending with fuch mafters in the art of war as
the Romans then were.
The Spaniards had indeed been fubdued by Scipio
Africanus in the time of the fecond Punic war : but,
in 155 B. C. they revolted j and, under the conduct
of one Viriathus, formerly a robber, held out for a
long time againll all the armies the Romans could fend
into Spain. Him the conful Ctepio caufed to be
murdered about 138 B. C. becaufe he found it impol-
lible to reduce him by force. The city ol Numantia
defied the whole Roman power for fix years longer ;
till at laft, by dint of treachery, numbers, and perfe-
verance, it was not taken, but the inhabitants, re¬
duced to extremity by famine, fet fire to their houfes,
and periihed in the flames or killed one another,
fo that not one remained to grace the triumph of the
conqueror : and this for the prefent quieted the reft of
the Spaniards. About the fame time Attalus, king
of Pergamus, left by will the Roman people heirs to all
his goods 5 upon which they immediately feized on his
kingdom as part of thofe goods, and reduced it to a
Roman province, under the name of Afia Froper. Thus
they continued to enlarge their dominions on every
fide, without the leait regard to juftice, to the means
they employed, or to the miferies they brought upon
the conquered people. In 122 B. C. the Balearic
iflands, now called Majorca, Minorca, and Ivica, were
fubdued, and the inhabitants exterminated ; and foon
after, feveral of the nations beyond the Alps were ob¬
liged to fubmit.
In Africa the crimes of Jugurtha foon gave this
ambitious republic an opportunity of conquering the
kingdoms of Numidia and Mauritania: and indeed
this is almoft the only w'ar in which we find the Ro¬
mans engaged where their pretenfions had the lead
colour of juflice ; though in no cafe whatever could a
nation fhow more degeneracy than the Romans did on
this occafion. The particulars of this war are re¬
lated under the articles Numidia and Rome. The
event of it v/as the total redudlion of the former about
the year 105 B. C. but Mauritania and Getulia pre-
ferved their liberty for fome time longer.
In the eaft, the empire of Syria continued daily to de¬
cline •, by which means the Jews not only had an op¬
portunity of recovering their liberty, but even of be¬
coming as powerful, or at leaft of extending their do¬
minions as far, as in the days of David and Solomon.
This declining empire was ftill farther reduced by the
civil diffenfions between the two brothers Antiochus
Grypus and Antiochus Cyzicenus 5 during which the
cities of Tyre, Sidon, Ptolemais, and Gaza, declared
themfelves independent, and in other cities tyrants
ftarted up who refufed allegiance to any foreign powrer.
This happened about 100 B. C. *, and 17 years after,
the whole was reduced by Tigranes king of Arme¬
nia. On his defeat by the Romans, the latter redu¬
ced Syria to a province of their empire. The king¬
dom of Armenia itfelf, with thdfe of Pontus, Cappa¬
docia, and Bithynia, foon {hared the fame fate •, Pon¬
tus. the moft powerful of them all, being fubdued
about 64 B. C. The kingdom of Judea alio was re¬
duced under the fame power much about this time.
This ftate owed the lofs of its liberty to the fame
Civil
Hiftory.
caufe that had ruined feveral others, namely, calling
in the Romans as arbitrators between two contending
parties. The two fons of Alexander Jannaeus (H'yr-
canus and Ariftobulus) contended for the kingdom.
Ariftobulus, being defeated by the party of Hyrca-
nus, applied to the Romans. Pompey the Great,
who adled as ultimate judge in this affair, decided it
againft Ariftobulus, but at the fame time deprived
Hyrcanus of all power as a king •, not allowing him
even to affume the regal title, or to extend his terri¬
tory beyond the ancient borders of Judea. To fuch
a length did Pompey carry this laft article, that he
obliged him to give up all thofe cities in Coelofyria
and Phoenicia which had been gained by his predecef-
fors, and added them to the newly acquired Roman
province of Syria.
Thus the Romans became mafters of all the eaftern
parts of the world, from the Mediterranean fea to the
borders of Parthia. In the weft, however, the Gauls
were ftill at liberty, and the Spanifh nations bore the
Roman yoke with great impatience. The Gauls in-
fefted the territories of the republic by their frequent in-
curfions, which were fometimes very terrible 5 and though
feveral attempts had been made to fubdue them, they
always proved infufficient till the time of Julius Caefar.
By h‘m they were totally reduced, from the river
Rhine to the Pyremean mountains, and many of their
nations almoft exterminated. He carried his arms
alfo into Germany and the fouthern parts of Bri¬
tain ; but in neither of thefe parts did he make any
permanent conquefts. The civil wars between him
and Pompey gave him an opportunity of feizing on
the kingdom of Mauritania and thofe parts of Numi¬
dia w'hich had been allowed to retain their liberty.
The kingdom of Egypt alone remained, and to this
nothing belonged except the country properly fo call¬
ed. Cyrenaica wTas bequeathed by wall to the Romans
about 58 B. C. $ and about the fame time the ifland of
Cyprus w7as feized by them without any pretence, ex¬
cept a defire of poffefling the treafure of the king.—
The kingdom of Egypt continued for fome time longer
at liberty j which in fome meafure muft be aferibed
to the internal diflenfions of the republic, but more
efpecially to the amours of Pompey, Julius Caefar,
and Mark Antony, with the famous Cleopatra queen
of Egypt. The battle of Adtium, however, deter¬
mined the fate of Antony, Cleopatra, and Egypt it¬
felf } which laft was reduced to a Roman province
about 9 B. C. 34
While the Romans thus employed all means to re- Origin and
duce the world to their obedience, they were ma- progrefs of
king one another feel the fame miferies at home which ^ars jn
they inflidfed upon other nations abroad. The firftRomet
civil diflenfions took their rife at the fiege of Numan¬
tia in Spain. We have already obferved, that this fmall
city refilled the whole powTer of the Romans for fix
years. Once they gave them a moft terrible and fliame-
ful defeat, wherein 30,000 Romans fled before 4000
Numantmes. Twenty thoufand were killed in the
battle, and the remaining ten thoufand fo Ihut up,
that there was no poflrbility of efcaping. _ In this ex¬
tremity they were obliged to negociate wdth the ene¬
my, and a peace was concluded upon the following
terms: I. That the Numantines fhould fuffer the Romans
to retire pnmolefted j and, 2. I hat Numantia ftiould
maintain
Sea. I. HIST
Civil maintain its independence, and be reckoned among
Iliftory. the Roman allies.—The Roman fenate, with an inju-
* ~v 1 j^|ce an(j ingratitude hardly to be matched, broke this
treatv, and in return ordered the commander of their
army to be delivered up to the Numantines 5 but they
refufed to accept of him, unlefs his army was deliver¬
ed along with him ; upon which the war was renewed,
and ended as already related. The fate of Numantia,
however, was foon revenged. Tiberius Sempronius
Gracchus, brother-in-law to Scipio Africanus the fe¬
re,nd, had been a chief promoter of the peace with the
.Numantines already mentioned, and of confequence
had been in danger of being delivered up to them
along with the commander in chief. This difgrace he
never forgot j and, in order to revenge himfelf, under¬
took the caufe of the plebeians againft the patricians,
by whom the former were greatly oppreffed. He be¬
gan with reviving an old law, which had enabled that
no Roman citizen thould poilefs more than 500 acres
of land. The overplus he defigned to ditlribute among
thofe w'ho had no lands, and to reimburfe the rich out
of the public treafury. This law met with great op-
pofition, bred many tumults, and at laft ended in the
death of Gracchus and the perfecution of his friends,
feveral hundreds of whom were put to cruel deaths
without any form of law.
The diiturbances did not ceafe with the death of
Gracchus. New contefts enfued on account of the
Sempronian law, and the giving to the Italian allies
the privilege of Roman citizens. This laft not only
produced great commotions in the city, but occafioned
' a general revolt of the ftates of Italy againfl the re¬
public of Rome. This rebellion was not quelled with¬
out the utmofl difficulty ; and in the mean time, the
city was deluged wdth blood by the contending factions
of Sylla and Marius •, the former of whom lided wdth
the patricians, and the latter wdth the plebeians. Thefe
difturbances ended in the perpetual didlatorffiip of Syl¬
la, about 80 B. C.
From this time we may date the lofs of the Roman
liberty •, for though Sylla religned his diftatorffiip two
years after, the fucceeding contefts between Caefar and
Pompey proved equally fatal to the republic. Thefe
contefts were decided by the battle of Pharfalia, by
which Caefar became in effedft mafter of the empire in
43 B. C. Without lofs of time he then crofted over
into Africa; totally defeated the republican army in
that continent *, and, by reducing the country of
Mauritania to a Roman province, completed the Ro¬
man conquefts in thefe parts. His viftory over the
fons of Pompey at Munda 40 B. C. fecured him from
any further apprehenfions of a rival. Being there¬
fore foie mafter of the Roman empire, and having all
the power of it at his command, he projefted the great-
elf fchemes j tending, according to fome, not lefs to
the happinefs than to the glory of his country : when
he was aflaffinated in the fenate-houfe, in the 56th year
of his age, and 39 B. C.
Without inveftigating the political juftice of this
aiftion, or the motives of the perpetrators, it is im-
poffible not to regret the death of this great man,
when we contemplate his virtues, and the defigns
which he is faid to have formed : (See Rome). Nor
is it poffible to juftify, from ingratitude at leaft, even
the moft virtuous of the confpirators, when we conft-
35
O R Y.
der the obligations under which they lay to him. x\nd
as to the meafure itfelf, even in the view of expedien¬
cy, it feems to be generally condemned. In fadf, from
the tranfaffions which had long preceded, as well as
thofe w'hich immediately followed, the murder of Cae¬
far, it is evident, that Rome was incapable of pre-
ferving its liberty any longer, and that the people had
become unfit for being free. The efforts of Brutus and
Caffius were therefore unfuccefsful, and ended'in their
own deftruttion and that of great numbers of their
followers in the battle of Philippi. The defeat of the
republicans was followed by numberlefs difturbances,
murders, proferiptions, &c. till at laft Qclavianus, ha-Odtavianus
ving cut off all who had the courage to oppofe him, Puts an en<*
and finally got the better of his rivals by the viftoryt0 rC>
at Adliura, put an end to the republic in the year1
27 B. C.
The deftruftion of the Roman commonwealth pro¬
ved advantageous to the few nations of the world who
ftill retained their liberty. That outrageous defire of
conqueft, which had fo long marked the Roman cha-
ra£ler, now in a great meafure ceafed 5 becaufe there
was now another way of fatisfying the defires of ambi¬
tious men, namely, by courting the favour of the em¬
peror. After the final reduftion of the Spaniards,
therefore, and the conqueft of the countries of Maefia,
Pannonia, and fome others adjacent to the Roman ter¬
ritories, and which in a manner feemed naturally to be¬
long to them, the empire enjoyed for fome time a pro¬
found peace.
The only remarkable tranfaflions which took place
during the remainder of the period of which we treat,
were the conqueft of Britain by Claudius and Agrico¬
la, and the deftruflion of Jerufalem by Vefpafian and
Titus. The war with the Jews began A. D. 67 5 and
was occafioned by their obixinately claiming the city
of Caefarea, which the Roman had added to the pro¬
vince of Syria. It ended in 73, with the molt terrible
deftrudtion of their city and nation j fince which time
they have never been able to affemble as a diftinft peo¬
ple. The fouthern parts of Britain were totally fub-
dued by Agricola about ten years after.
In the 98th year of the Chriftian era, Trajan was
created emperor of Rome ; and being a man of great
valour and experience in war, carried the Roman con¬
quefts to their utmoft extent. Having conquered the
Dacians, a German nation beyond the Danube, and
who had of late been very troublefome, he turned
his arms eaftward j reduced all Mefopotamia, Cbal-
daea, Affyria ; and having taken Ctefiphon, the capi¬
tal of the Parthian empire, appointed them a king,
which he thought would be a proper method of keep¬
ing that warlike people in fubjeftion. After this he
propofed to return to Italy, but died by the way ; and
with his reign the feventh general period above men¬
tioned is concluded. ^
S. The beginning of the eighth period prefents us Eighth pe-
with a view of one vaft empire, in which almoft all the ri°d. Ge-
nations of the world were fwallowed up. This empire n^ra' ftate
comprehended the beft part of Britain, all Spain,
France, the Netherlands, Italy, part of Germany, E-
gypt,_ Barbary, Bildulgerid, Turkey in Europe, Tur¬
key in Afia, and Perfia. The ftate of India at this
time is unknown. The Chinefe lived in a remote part
of the world, unheard-of and unmolefted by the weftern
nations -
HISTORY.
Sea. I.
nations who ft niggled for the empire of the world.
The northern parts of Europe and Afia were filled
with barbarous nations, already formidable to the Ro¬
mans, and who were foon to become more fo. The
vail empire of the Romans, however, had no fooner
attained its utmolt degree of power, than, like others
before it, it began to decline. The provinces of Ba¬
bylonia, Mefopotamia, and AlTyria, almoft inltantly
revolted, and were abandoned by Adrian the fucceffor
of Trajan in the empire. The Parthians having reco¬
vered their liberty, continued to be very formidable
enemies, and the barbarians of the northern parts of
Europe continued to increafe in ftrengtb ; while the
Romans, weakened by inteftine divifions, became daily
lefs able to refift them. At different times, however,
fome warlike emperors arofe, who put a flop to the in-
curfions of thefe barbarians 5 and about the year 215,
the Parthian empire was totally overthrown by the Per-
fians, who had long been fubjeft to them. This revo¬
lution proved of little advantage to the Romans. The
Perfians were enemies ftill more troublefome than the
Parthians had been ; and though often defeated, they
ftill continued to infeft the empire on the eaft, as the
barbarous nations of Europe did on the north. In
260, the defeat and captivity of the emperor Valerian
by the Perfians, with the dilturbances which followed,
threatened the empire with utter deftruftion. Thirty
tyrants feized the government at once, and the barba¬
rians pouring in on all fides in prodigious numbers ra¬
vaged almoft all the provinces of the empire. By the
vigorous conduct of Claudius, Aurelian, Tacitus, Pro¬
bus, and Cams, the empire was reftored to its former
luftre ; but as the barbarians were only repulfed, and
never thoroughly fubdued, this proved only a tempo¬
rary relief. What wTas worfe, the Roman foldiers,
grown impatient of reftraint, commonly murdered thofe
emperors who attempted to revive among them the
ancient military difcipline, which alone could enfure them
victory over their enemies. Under Dioclefian, the dif-
orders were fo great, that though the government was
held by two perfons, they found themfelves unable to
bear the weight of it, and therefore took other two
partners in the empire. Thus was the Roman empire
divided into four parts j which by all hiftorians is faid
to have been produ&ive of the greateft mifchiefs. As
each of thefe four fovereigns wmuld have as many officers
both civil and military, and the fame number of forces
that had been maintained by the ftate when governed
only by one emperor, the people were not able to pay
the fums neceffary for fupporting them. Hence the
taxes and impofts were increafed beyond meafure, the
inhabitants in feveral provinces reduced to beggary,
the land left untilled for want of hands, &c. An end
was put to thefe evils when the empire was again
united under Conftantine the Great ; but in 33° a
mortal blow was given it, by removing the impe¬
rial feat to Byzantium, now Conftantinople, and nyi-
king it equal to Rome. The introduclion and efta-
blifhment of Chriftianity, already corrupted with the
groffeit fuperftitions, proved alfo a moft grievous de¬
triment to the empire. Inftead of that ferocious and
obftinate valour in which the Romans had fo long been
accuftomed to put their truft, they now imagined them¬
felves fecured by figns of the crofs, and other external
fymbols of the Chriftian religion. Thefe they ufed
, I
as a kind of magical incantations, which undoubtedly Civil
proved at all times ineffectual; and hence alfo in fome Hittory.
meafure proceeded the great revolution which took
place in the next period. ^
9. The ninth general period (hows us the decline Ninth pe-
and miferable end of the weftern part of the Roman £>e'“'
empire. We fee that mighty empire, which formerly
occupied almoft the whole world, now weakened bywefterH
diviiion, and furrounded by enemies. On the eaft,empne.,
the Perfians on the north, the Scythians, Sarmatians,
Goths, and a multitude of other barbarous nations,
watched all occafions to break into it ; and mifearried
in their attempts, rather through their own barbarity,
than the ftrength of their enemies. The devaftations
committed by thofe barbarians when they made their
incurfions are incredible, and the relation thocking to
human nature. Some .authors feem much inclined to
favour them ; and even infinuate, that barbarity and
ignorant ferocity were their chief if not their only
faults : but from their biftory it plainly appears, that
not only barbarity and the moft: (hocking cruelty, but
the higheft degrees of avarice, perfidy, and dilregard
to the moft; folemn promifes, wrere to be numbered
among their vices. It was ever a fufticient reafon for
them to make an attack, that they thought their ene¬
mies could not refift: them. Their only reafon for
making peace, or for keeping it, was becaufe their
enemies were too ftrong : and their only reafon for
committing the moft horrid maflacres, rapes, and all
manner of crimes, was becaufe they had gained a vic¬
tory. The Romans, degenerate as they wTere, are yet
to be efteemed much better than thefe favages; and
therefore we find not a (ingle province of the empire
that would fjbmit to the barbarians while the Romans
could poffibly defend them.
Some of the Roman emperors indeed withftood this
inundation of favages •, but as the latter grew daily
more numerous, and the Romans continued to wTeaken
themfelves by their inteftine divifions, they were at
lafi: obliged to take large bodies of barbarians into
their pay, and teach them their military difcipline, in
other to drive away their countrymen, or others who
invaded the empire. This at laft proved its total de-
ftruftion ; for, in 476, the barbarians who ferved in
the Roman armies, and were dignified with the title of
allies, demanded the third part of the lands of Italy as
a reward for their fervices: but meeting with a re-
fufal, they revolted, and made themfelves mafters of
the whole country, and of Rome itlelf, which from
that time ceafed to be the head of an empire of any
confequence.
This period exhibits a moft: unfavourable view of General
the weftern parts of the world : The Romans, from of the
the height of grandeur, funk to the loweft flavery,VTOrlt1,
nay, in all probability, almoft exterminated •, the pro¬
vinces they formerly governed, inhabited by human
beings fcarce a degree above the brutes •, every art
and fcience loft j and the favage conquerors even in
danger of ftarving for want of a fufticient knowledge
of agriculture, having now no means of fupplying
themfelves by plunder and robbery as before. Britain
had long been abandoned to the mercy of the Scots
and Fids 3 and in 450 the inhabitants had called in
the Saxons to their affiftance, whom they loon found
worfe enemies than thofe againft: whom they had im¬
plored
Sea. I.
HIST
Civil plored their aid. Spain was held by the Goths and
Hiftory. Suevians •, Africa (that is, Barbary and Bildulgerid)
1'"¥ v by the Vandals ; the Burgundians, Goths, Franks, and
Alans, had creeled feveral fmall dates in Gaul ; and
Italy was fubiected to the Heruli under Odoacer, who
had taken upon him the title of king of Italy. In the
ead, indeed, matters wore an afpe£t fomewhat more
agreeable. The Roman empire continued to live in
that of Conftantinople, which was fliil very extenlive.
It comprehended all Alia Minor and Syria, as far as
Perfia ; in Africa, the kingdom of Egypt ; and Greece
in Europe. The Perlians were powerful, and rivalled
the emperors of Conftantinople ; and beyond them lay
the Indians, Chinefe, and other nations, who, unheard-
of by the inhabitants of the more weftern parts, enjoyed
peace and liberty.
The Conftantinopolitan empire continued to decline
by reafon of its continual wars with the Perfians, Bul¬
garians, and other barbarous nations ; to which alfo
fuperftition and relaxation of military diicipline largely
contributed. The Perfian empire alfo declined from
the fame caul os, together with the inteftine broils from
which it was feldom free more than that of Conftanti¬
nople. The hiftory of the eaftern part of the world
during this period, therefore, conlifts only of the wars
between thefe two great empires, of which an account
is given under the articles Constantinople and Per¬
sia ; and which w;ere productive of no other confe-
quence than that of weakening them both, and making
them a more eafy prey to thofe enemies who were now
as it were in embryo, but ftiortly about to erect an
empire almoft as extenlive as that of the Greeks or Ro-
39 mans.
Hiftory of Among the weftern nations, revolutions, as might
naturally be expended from the charadler of the people,
fucceeded one another with rapidity. The Heruli un¬
der Odoacer ivere driven out by the Goths under
Theodoric. The Goths were expelled by the Romans ;
and, while the two parties were contending, both were
attacked by the Franks, who carried off an immenfe
booty. The Romans were in their turn expelled by the
Goths : the Franks again invaded Italy, and made
themfelves mailers of the province of Venetia ; but at
laft the fuperior fortune of the emperor of Conftantino¬
ple prevailed, and the Goths were finally fubdued in
553. Narfes, the conqueror of the Goths, governed
Italy as a province of the eaftern empire till the year
568, when Longinus his fuccefibr made confiderable al¬
terations. The Italian provinces had ever fince the
time of Conftantine the Great been governed by confu-
lares, correclores, and prcefides; no alteration having
been made either by the Roman emperors, or the Go¬
thic kings. But Longinus, being invefted with abfo-
lute power by Juftinian, fuppreffed thofe magiftrates ;
- and, inftead of them, placed in each city of note a go¬
vernor, whom he diftinguiflied with the title of duke.
I he city of Rome wras not more honoured than any
other ; for Longinus, having abolifhed the very name
of fenate and confuls, appointed a duke of Rome as well
as of other cities. To himfelf he aflumed the title of
exarch; and, refiding at Ravenna, his government was
flyled the exarchate of Ravenna. But while he was
eftablithing this new empire, the greateft part of Italy
40 was conquered by the Lombards.
Of. France. In France a confiderable revolution alfo took place.
O R Y.
5^9
In. 487, Clovis, the founder of the French mo- Civil
narchy, pofieffed himfelf of all the countries lying be- Biff°ry-
tween the Rhine and the Loire. By force or treach- v ~
ery, he conquered all the petty kingdoms which had
been eretted in that country. His dominions had
been divided, reunited, and divided again ; and were
on the point of being united a fecond time, when the
great impoftor Mahomet began to make a figure in the
world. r
In Spain, the Vifigoths eredled a kingdom ten years Of Spain..
before the conqueft of Rome by the Heruli. This king¬
dom they had extended eaftward, about the fame time
that Ciovis was extending his conquefts to the weft ; fo
that the two kingdoms met at the river Loire. The
confequence of this approach of fuch barbarous conque¬
rors towards each other was an immediate war. Clovis
proved viclonous, and fubdued great part of the coun¬
try of the Viiigoths, which put a final flop to their con¬
quefts on that iide.
Another kingdom had been founded in the weftern
parts of Spain by the Suevi, a confiderable time before
the Romans were finally expelled from that country.
In 409 this kingdom was entirely fubverted by Theo¬
doric king of the Goths ; and the Suevi were fo pent
up in a Imall diftrief of Lufitania and Galicia, that it
feemed impoftible for them to recover themfelves. Du¬
ring the above-mentioned period, however, while the
attention of the Goths was turned another wTay, they
had found means again to eredl themfelves into an in¬
dependent ftate, and to become mafters of confiderably
extended territories. But this fuccefs proved of Ihort
duration. In 584 the Goths attacked them ; totally
deftroyed their empire a fecond time ; and thus became
mafters of all Spain, except fome fmall part which ftill
owned fubjection to the emperors of Conftantinople.
Ot this part, however, the Goths became mafters alfo
in the year 623 ; which concludes the 9th general pe¬
riod.
Africa, properly fo called, had changed its mafters Of Africa-
three times during this period. The Vandals had ex¬
pelled the Romans, and ere£ted an independent king¬
dom, which was at laft overturned by the emperors of
Conftantinople ; and from them the greateft part of it
was taken by the Goths in 620. 4.
10. At the commencement of the tenth general pe-Tenth ge-
riod (which begins with the flight of Mahomet in n.eral
the year 622, from whence his followers date their ^•°n“
era called the Hegira), we fee every thing prepared the Sara--
for the great revolution which was now to take place : eens.
the Roman empire in the weft annihilated ; the Per-
lian empire and that of Conftantinople weakened
by mutual wars and inteftine divifions ; the Indians
and other eaftern nations unaccuftomed to war, and
ready to fall a prey to the firlt invader; the fouthern
parts of Europe in a diltraefted and barbarous ftate;
while the inhabitants of Arabia, from their earlieit
origin accuftomed to war and plunder, and now uni-
ted by the moft violent fuperftition and enthufiaftic de¬
fire of conqueft, were like a flood pent up, and read /
to overwhelm the reft of the world.—The "northern na¬
tions of Europe and Alia, however formidable in after
times, were at prefent unknown, and peaceable, at
leaL with lefpect to their fouthern neighbours; fo that
tneie was in no quarter of the globe any power capa¬
ble of oppofing the conquefts of the Arabs. With
amazing
poral
power
520 HIS T
Civil amazing celerity, therefore, they overran all Syria,
Hiftory. pa]efUne, Perfia, Bukharia, and India, extending their
^ conquelts farther to the eaftward than ever Alexander
had done. On the weft fide, their empire extended
over Egypt, Barbary, and Spain, together with the
iflands of Sicily, Sardinia, Majorca, Minorca, &-C.
and many of the Archipelago iflands •, nor were the
coafts of Italy itfelf free from their incurfions ; nay,
they are even faid to have reached the diftant and bar¬
ren country of Iceland. At laft this great empire, as
well as others, began to decline. Its ruin was very
ludden, and owing to its internal divifions. Mahomet
had not taken care to eftablifh the apoftlefhip in his
family, or to give any particular diredtions about a
< fucceffor. The confequence of this was, that the ca¬
liphate, or fucceflion to the apoftleftup, was feized by
many ufurpers in different parts of the empire ; while
the true caliphs, who refided at Bagdad, gradually loft
all power, and were regarded only as a kind of high-
priefts. Of thefe divifions the Turks took advantage
to eftabliftr their authority in many provinces of the
Mohammedan empire } but as they embraced the fame
religion with the Arabs, and were filled with the fame
enthufiaftic defire of conqueft, it is of little confe¬
quence to diftinguiftr between them •, as indeed it fig-
nified little to the world in general whether the I urks
or Saracens were the conquerors, fince both were cruel,
barbarous, ignorant, and fuperftitious.
Of the While the barbarians of the eaft were thus grafping
Pope's tem-at the empire of the whole world, great difturbances
happened among the no lefs barbarous nations of the
weft. Superftition feems to have been the ruling mo¬
tive in both cafes. The Saracens and Turks conquer¬
ed for the glory of God, or of his apoftle Mahomet
and his fucceffors •, the weftern nations profeffed an
equal regard for the divine glory, but which was only
to be perceived in the refpeft they paid to the pope
and clergy. Ever fince the eftablilhment of Chrifti-
anity by Conftantine, the bifhops of Rome had been
gradually extending their power j and attempting not
only to render themfelves independent, but even to af-
fume an authority over the emperors themfelves. The
deftruftion of the empire was fo far from weakening
their power, that it afforded them opportunities of greatly
extending it, and becoming judges of the fovereigns
of Italy themfelves, whofe barbarity aud ignorance
prompted them to fubmit te their decifions. All this
time, however, they themfelves had been in fubjec-
tion to the emperors of Conftantinople ; but on the
decline of that empire, they found means to get
themfelves exempted from this fubje&ion. J he prin¬
cipal authority in the rcity of Rome tvas then engroff-
ed by the bifliop ; though pf right it belonged to the
duke appointed by the exarch of Ravenna. But though
they had now little to fear from the eaftern empe¬
rors, they were in great danger from the ambition of
the Lombards, who aimed at the conqueft of all Italy.
This afpiring people the biftrops of Rome determined
to check*, and therefore, in 726, when Luitprand
king of the Lombards had taken Ravenna and expel¬
led the exarch, the pope undertook to reftore him.
For this purpofe he applied to the Venetians, who are
now firft mentioned in hiftory as a ftate of any con¬
fequence *, and by their means the exarch was reftored.
Some time before, a quarrel had happened between
%
O R Y.
the pope (Gregory II.) and Leo emperor of the eaft,
about the worthip of images. Leo, rvho it feems,
in the midft of fo much barbarifm, had itill preferved
fome (hare of common fenfe and reafon, reprobated
the worftiip of images in the ftrongert terms, and con-
manded them to be deftroyed throughout his domi¬
nions. The pope, whofe caufe was favoured by the
moft abfurd fuperftitions, and by thefe only, refufed
to obey the emperor’s commands. The exarch of
Ravenna, as a fubjedl of the emperor, was ordered to
force the pope to a compliance, and even to feize or ai-
faflinate him in cafe of a refufal. This excited the
pious zeal of Luitprand to afiift the pope, whom he
had formerly defigned to fubdue : the exarch was firft
excommunicated, and then torn in pieces by the enra¬
ged multitude : the duke of Naples fhared the fame
fate ; and a vaft number of the Iconoc/qfls, or Image-
breakers, as they were called, were flaughtered with¬
out mercy : and to complete all, the fubjedfs of the
exarchate, at the mitigation of the pope, renounced
their allegiance to the emperor.
Leo rvas no fooner informed of this revolt than he
ordered a powerful army - to be raifed, in order to re¬
duce the rebels, and take vengeance on the pope. A-
larmed at thefe warlike preparations, Gregory looked
round for fome power on which he might depend for
protedtion. The Lombards were poffeffed of fuffi-
cient force, but they were too near and too danger¬
ous neighbours to be trufted j the Venetians, though
zealous Catholics, were as yet unable to withftand the
force of the empire *, Spain was overrun by the Sa¬
racens : the French feemed, therefore, the only peo¬
ple to whom it was advifable to apply fot aid j as
they were able to oppofe the emperor, and were likewife
enemies to his edidl. Charles Martel, who at that
time governed France as mayor of the palace, was
therefore applied to j but before a treaty could be
concluded, all the parties concerned w^ere removed by
death. Conftantine Copronymus, who fucceeced Leo
at Conftantinople, not only perfifted in the oppofition
to image-worfhip begun by his predeceffor, but pro¬
hibited alfo the invocation of faints. Zachary, who
fucceeded Gregory III. in the pontificate, proved as
zealous an adverfary as his predeceffor. Pepin, who
fucceeded Charles Martel in the fovereignty of France,
proved as powerful a friend to the pope as his father
had been. The people of Rome had nothing to fear
from Conftantinople j and therefore drove out all the
emperor’s officers. The Lombards, awed by the
power of France, for fome time allowTed the pope to
govern in peace the dominions of the exarchate *, but
in 752, Aftolphus king of Lombardy not only re¬
duced the greateft part of the pope’s territories, but
threatened the city of Rome itfelf. Upon this an ap¬
plication was made to Pepin, who obliged Aftolphus
to reftore the places he had taken, and gave them to
the pope, or, as he faid, to St Peter. The Greek
emperor to whom they of right belonged,. remonftra-
ted to no purpole. The pope from that time became
poffeffed of confiderable territories in Italy j which,
from the manner of their donation, go under the
name of St Peter's Patrimony. It was not, however,
before the year 774 that the pope was fully fecured
in thefe new dominions. This was accomplilhed when
the kingdom of the Lombards was totally deftroyed
Sea. I
Seel. I.
HISTORY.
45
Oeneial
ftate of th
world.
4«
Eleventh
period,
'/he cru-
fades.
by Charlemagne, who was thereupon crowned king
of Italy. Soon after, this monarch made himlelf ma¬
tter of all the Low Countries, Germany, and part of
Hungary ; and in the year 800, was folemniy crown¬
ed by the pope emperor of the weft.
Tims was the world once more divided into three
’ great empires. The empire of the Arabs or Saracens
extended from tbe river Ganges to Spain ; compre¬
hending almoft all of Alia and Africa which has ever
been Jrnown to Europeans, the kingdoms of China
and Japan excepted. The eaftern Roman empire was
reduced to Greece, Afia Minor, and the provinces ad¬
joining to Italy. The empire of the weft, under Char¬
lemagne, comprehended France, Germany, and the
greateft part of Italy. The Saxons, however, as yet
pofteiTed Britain unmolefted by external enemies, though
tne feven kingdoms erected by them were engaged in
perpetual conteils. The Venetians alfo enjoyed a
nominal liberty though it is probable that their ft-
tnation would render them very much dependent on
the great powers which furrounded them. Of all na¬
tions on earth, the Scots and Pifts, and the remote
ones of China and Japan, feem to have enjoyed, from
their fituation, the greateft (hare of liberty ; unlefs, per¬
haps, we except the Scandinavians, who, under the
names of Danes and Normans, were foon to infeft their
fouthern neighbours. But of all tbe European po¬
tentates, the popes certainly exercifed the greateft au¬
thority ; ftnee even Charlemagne himfelf fubmitted to
accept the crown from their hands, and his fucceflbrs
made them the arbiters of their differences.
Matters, however, did not long continue in this
ttate. The empire of Charlemagne was on the death
of his Ion Lewis divided among his three children.
Endlefs difputes and wars enfued among them, till at
laft the fovereign power was feized by Hugh Capet in
987. The Saxon heptarchy was diffolved in 827, and
the whole kingdom of England reduced under one
head. The Danes and Normans began to make de¬
predations, and infeft the neighbouring ftates. The
former conquered the Englifti Saxons, and feized the
government, but were in their turn expelled by the
Normans in 1066. In Germany and Italy the greateft
difturbances arofe from the contefts between the
popes and the emperors. To all this if we add the
internal contefts which happened through the ambition
of the powerful barons of every kingdom, we can fcarce
form an idea of times more calamitous than thofe of
which we now treat. All Europe, nay, all the world,
was one great field of battle 5 for the empire of the
Mahometans was not in a more fettled ftate than that
of the Europeans. Caliphs, fultans, emirs, &c. waged
continual war with each other in every quarter j new
fovereignties every day fprung up, and were as quickly
deftroyed. In Ihort, through the ignorance and barba¬
rity with which the whole world was overfpread, it
feemed in a manner impofiible that the human race
could long continue to exift ; when happily the crufades,
by direfting the attention of the Europeans to one
particular objeft, made them in fome ineafure fufpend
their daughters of one another.
11. The crufades originated from the fuperftition of
the two grand parties into which the world was at that
time divided, namely, the Chriftians and Mahometans.
Both looked upon the fmall territory of Paleftine,
You X. Part II.
Civil
Hiftory.
47
which they called the Holy Land, to be an invaluable
acquilitiou, for which no i’um of money could be an
equivalent ; and both took the moft unjuftifiable me¬
thods to accomplifh their defires. The fuperftition of
Omar the lecond caliph had prompted him to invade
this country, part of the territories of the Greek empe-
ror, who was doing him no hurt ; and now when it had
been fo long under the fubjeiftion of the Mahometans,
a fimilar fuperftition prompted the pope to fend an army
for the recovery of it. The crufaders accordingly
poured forth in multitudes, like thofe with which the
kings of Perfia formerly invaded Greece 5 and their
fate was pretty fimilar. Their impetuous valour at firft,
indeed, carried every thing before them : they reco¬
vered all Paleftine, Phoenicia, and part of Syria, from
the infidels; but their want of conduct foon loft what
their valour had obtained, and very few of that vait
multitude which had left Europe ever returned to their
native countries. A fecond, a third, and feveral other
crufades, were preached, and were attended with a like
fuccefs in both refpefts : vaft numbers took the crofs,
and repaired to the Holy Land 5 which they polluted
with the moft abominable mafl'acres and treacheries, and
from which very few of them returned. In the third
crulade Richard I. of England was embarked, who
feems to have been the belt general that ever went into
the eaft : but even his valour and fkill were not fufii-
cient to repair the faults of his companions; and he
was obliged to return even after he had entirely de¬
feated his ahtagonifts, and was within fight of Jerufa-
lem.
But while the Chriftians and Mahometans were thus ^onquefts
fuperftitioufty contending for a fmall territory in the0^6^0"
wertern parts of Afia, the nations in the more eafterly*U S*
parts were threatened with total extermination. Jen-
ghiz Khan, the greateft as well as the moft bloody
conqueror that ever exifted, now makes his appeai-ance.
The rapidity of his conquefts feemed to emulate thole
ol Alexander the Great ; and the cruelties he com¬
mitted were altogether unparalleled. It is worth ob-
lerving, that Jengbiz Khan and all his followers were
neither Chriftians nor Mahometans, but ftrieft deifts.
For a long time even the fovereign had not heard
of a temple, or any particular place on earth ap¬
propriated by the deity to himfelf, and treated the
notion with ridicule when it was firft mentioned to
him.
The Moguls, over whom Jenghiz Khan affumed the
fovereignty, were a people of Eaft Tartary, divided in¬
to a great number of petty governments as they are at
this day, but who owned a fubje&ion to one fovereign,
whom they called Vang Khan, or the Great Khaia.
Temujin, afterwards Jenghiz Khan, was one of thefe
petty princes; but unjuftly deprived of the greateft part
of his inheritance at the age of 13, which he could not
recover till he arrived at that of 40. This correfponds
with the year 1201, when he totally reduced the re¬
bels *, and as a fpecimen of his lenity caufed 70 of their
chiefs to be thrown into as many caldrons of boiling
water. In 1202, he defeated and killed Vang Khan
himfelf (known to the Europeans by the name of Vraf¬
ter ’John of Hfa') ; and poffefting himfelf of his vaft do¬
minions, became from thenceforward altogether irre-
fiftible. In 1 206, having ftill continued to enlarge his
dominions, he was declared khan of the Moguls and
3 U Tartars:
2
522 HIST
Civil Tartars ; and took upon him the title of 'jenghi'z, Khan,
Hiftory or The mqfl Great Khan of hhans. This was followed
by the reduflion of the kingdom of Hya in China,
Tangut, Kitay, Turkeftan, Karazm (the kingdom of
Gazna founded by Mahmud Gazni), Great Bukharin,
Perlia, and part of India; and all thefe vatl regions
were reduced in 26 years. The devaftations and daugh¬
ters with which they were accomplilhed are unparallel¬
ed, no fewer than 14,470,000 perfons being computed
to have been maffacr^d by Jenghiz Khan during the
laid 22 years of his reign. In the^ beginning of 1227
he died, thereby freeing the world from a molt bloody
tyrant. His fucceffors completed the conqueit of Chi¬
na and Korea j but were foiled in their attempts on
Cochin-China, Tong-king, and Japan. On the welt-
ern fide the Tartar dominions were not much enlarged
till the time of Plulaku, who conquered Media, Ba¬
bylonia, Mefopotamia, Aflyria, Syria, Georgia, Ar¬
menia, and almoit all Afia Minor j putting an end to
the empire of the Saracens by the taking of Bagdad in
1258.
The emoire of Jenghiz Khan had the fate of all
others. Being far too extenfive to be governed by one
head, it fplit into a multitude of fmall kingdoms, as it
had been before his time. All thefe princes, however,
owned allegiance to the family of Jenghiz Khan till
the time of Timur Bek, or Tamerlane. The Turks,
in the mean time, urged forward by the inundation of
Tartars who poured in from the eaft, were forced up¬
on the remains of the Greek empire and at the time
of Tamerlane above mentioned, they had almoft con¬
fined this once mighty empire within the walls of Con-
, ftantinople.
Of Tamer- * In the year 1335, the family of Jenghiz Khan be-
lane. coming extindl in Perfia, a long civil war enfued •, du¬
ring which Timur Bek, one of the petty princes a-
mong which the Tartar dominions were divided, found
means to aggrandize himfelf in a manner fimilar to
what Jenghiz Khan had done about 150 years before.
Jenghiz Khan, indeed, was the model whom he pro-
pofed to imitate ; but it muft be allowed that Timur
was more merciful than Jenghiz Khan, if indeed the
word can be applied to fuch inhuman tyrants. The
plan on which Jenghiz Khan conduced his expedi¬
tions was that of total extermination. For fome time
he utterly extirpated the inhabitants of thofe places
which he conquered, defigning to people them anew
with his Moguls •, and in confequence of this refolu-
tion, he would employ his army in beheading 100,000
prifoners at once. Timur’s cruelty, on the other
hand, feldom went farther than the pounding of 3000
or 400O people in large mortars, or building them
among bricks and mortar into a wall. We muft ob-
ferve, however, that Timur was net a deift, but a
Mahometan, and conquered exprefsly for the purpofe
©f fpreading the Mahometan religion 5 for the Moguls
had now adopted all the fuperftitions and abfurdities
of Mahomet. Thus w?as all the eaftern quarter of the
world threatened anew with the moft dreadful devafta¬
tions, while the weftern nations were exhaufting thexn-
felves in fruitlefs attempts to regain the Holy Land.
The Turks were the only people who feem at this
period to have been gathering lirength, and by their
perpetual encroachments threatened to fwallow up the
O It Y. Sett. 1.
weftern nations as the Tartars had done the eaftern Civil
ones. Hiftory.
In 1362, Timur invaded Bukharia, which he redu-
ced in five years. He proceeded in his conquefts,
though not with the fame celerity as Jenghiz Khan, till
the year 1387, when he had fubdued all Perfia, Arme¬
nia, Georgia, Karazm, and great part of Tartary.
After this he proceeded weftward, fubduing all the
countries to the Euphrates \ made himfelf mafter of
Bagdad ; and even entered Ruflia, where he mllaged
the city of Mofcow. From thence he turned his arms
to the eaft, and totally fubdued India. In 1393, he
invaded and reduced Syria; and having turned his arms
againft the Turks, forced their fultan Bajazet to raife
the fiege of Conftantinople. This brought on an en¬
gagement, in which Bajazet was entirely defeated and
taken prifoner ; which broke the power of the Turks
to fuch a degree, that they vyere not for fome time
able to recover themfelves. At lalt this great con¬
queror died in the year 1405, while on his way to
conquer China, as Jenghiz Khan had done before
The death of Timur was followed almoft immedi-State of the
ately by the diffolution of his empire. Moft of the world fines
nations he had conquered recovered their liberty. t^at ftraer
The Turks had now no further obftacle to their con-
queft of Conftantinople. The weftern nations having
exhaufted themfelves in the holy wars, as they were
called, had loft that infatiable thirft after conqueft
wFich for fo long time pofieffed the minds of men.
They had already made confiderable advances in civili¬
zation, and began to ftudy the arts of peace. Gun¬
powder was invented, and its application to the pur-
pofes @f war already known ; and, though no invention
threatened to be more deftrudtive, perhaps none was
ever more beneficial to the human race. By the ufe of
fire-arms, nations ^re put more on a level with each
other than formerly they were ; war is reduced to a
regular fyftem, which may be ftudied with as much
fuccefs as any other fcience. Conquefts are not now
to be made with the fame eafe as formerly ; and hence
the kft ages of the world have been much *-more quiet
and peaceable than the former ones. In 1453, the
conqueft of Conftantinople by the Turks fixed that
wandering people to one place ; and though now they
poftefs very large regions both in Europe, Afia, and
Africa, an effedlual flop hath long been put to their
further progrefs.
About this time, alfo, learning began to revive in
Europe, where it had been long loft ; and the inven¬
tion of printing, wdrich happened about the fame time,
rendered it in a manner impoftible for barbarifm ever to
take place in fuch a degree as formerly. All nations
of the world, indeed, feem now at' once to have laid
afide much of their former ferocity ; and, though wars
have by no means been uncommon, they have not been
carried on with fuch circumftances of fury and favage
cruelty as before. Inftead of attempting to enrich
themfelves by plunder, and the fpoils of their neigh¬
bours, mankind in general have applied themfelves to
commerce, the only true and durable fource of riches.
This foon produced improvements in navigation ; and
thefe improvements led to the difeovery of many re-
gions formerly unknown. At the fame time, the Eu¬
ropean
*
/
Sea. I.
Civil
Hiftory.
HISTORY.
S2.3
ropean powers, being at lafl thoroughly fenfible that
extenfive conquefts could never be permanent, applied
themfelves more to provide for the fecurity of thofe do¬
minions which they already poflefied, than to attempt
the conqueft of one another : and this produced the po¬
licy to which fo much attention was lately paid, name¬
ly, the preferving of the balance of Europe ; that is,
preventing any one of the nations from acquiring fuffi-
cient ftrength to overpower another.
In the end of the 15th century, the vaft continent
of America was difcovered j and, almoit at the fame
time, the paffage to the Eaft Indies by the Cape of
Good Hope. The difcovery of thefe rich countries
gave a new turn to the ambition of the Europeans.
To enrich themfelves, either by the gold and filver
produced in thefe countries, or by traffic with the
natives, now became the objeft. The Portuguele had
the advantage of being the firft difcoverers of the eaft-
ern, and the Spaniards of the weftern countries. The
former did not negletff fo favourable an opportunity of
enriching themfelves by commerce. Many fettlements
were formed by them in the Eaft India iflands, and on
the continent but their avarice and perfidious beha¬
viour towards the natives proved at laft the caufe of
their total expulfion. The Spaniards enriched them¬
felves by the vaft quantities of the precious metals im¬
ported from America, which were not obtained but by
the moft horrid maflacres committed on the natives,
and of which an account is given under the different
names of the American countries. Thefe poffeflions of
the Spaniards and Portuguefe foon excited other Euro¬
pean nations to make attempts to {hare with them in
their treafures, by planting colonies in different parts of
America, and making fettlements in the Eaft Indies :
and thus has the rage of war in fome meafure been
transferx-ed from Europe to thefe diftant regions •, and,
after various contefts, the Britifh at laft obtained a
great fuperiority both in America and the Eaft Indies.
In Europe the dhly conftderable revolutions which
happened during this period, were, The total expulfion
of the Moors and Saracens from Spain, by the taking
of Grenada in 1491 ; the union of the kingdoms of
Arragon and Caftile, by the marriage of Ferdinand
and ifabella ; and the revolt of the ftates of Holland
from the Spaniards. After much contention and blood-
fhed, thefe laft obtained their liberty, and were decla¬
red a free people in 1609 ; fince which time they have
continued an independent and very confiderable nation
of Europe.
In Afia nothing of importance hath happened fince
the taking of Conftantinople by the Turks. That
continent is now divided among the following nations.
The moft northerly part, called Siberia, extending to
the very extremity of the continent, is under the
power of Ruflaa. To the fouthward, from Afia Mi¬
nor to China and Korea, are the Tartars, formidable
indeed from their numbers, but, by realon of their
barbarity and want of union, incapable of attempting
any thing. The Turks poffefs the weftern part of the
continent, called Afia Minor, to the river Euphrates.
The Arabs are again confined within their own pen-
infula •, which they poffeis, as they have ever done,
without owning fubjection to any foreign power. To
the eaft of Turkey in Afia lies Perfia, now more con¬
fined in its limits than before j and to the eaftward of
Perfia lies India, or the kingdom late of the Mogul, ™vil
comprehending all the country from the Indus to the Iilftorlr*
Ganges, and beyond that river. Still farther to the
eaft lie the kingdoms of Siam, Pegu, Thibet, and
Cochin-China, little known to the Europeans. The
vaft empire of China occupies the moft eafterly part of
the continent 5 while that of Japan comprehends the
iflands which go by that name, and which are fuppo-
fed to lie at no great diftance from the weftern coafts
of America.
Iry Africa the Turks poffefs' Egypt, which they
conquered in 1517, and have a nominal jurifdiciion
over the ftates of Barbary. The interior parts are fill¬
ed with barbarous and unknown nations, as they have
always been. On the weftern coafts are many fettle¬
ments of the European nations, particularly the Bri¬
tifh and Portuguefe j and the fouthern extremity is
poffeffed by the Dutch. The eaftern coafts are almoft
totally unknown. The Afiatic and African iflands are
either poffeffed by the Europeans, or inhabited by fa-
vage nations.
The European nations at the beginning of the 17th
century were Sweden, Mufcovy, Denmark, Poland,
Britain, Germany, Holland, France, Spain, Portu¬
gal, Italy, and Turkey in Europe. Of thefe the Ruf¬
fians, though the moft barbarous, were by far the moft
confiderable, both in regard to numbers and the ex¬
tent of their empire •, but their fituation made them
little feared by the others, who lay at a diftance from
them. The kingdom of Poland, which was firft fet
up in the year 1000, proved a barrier between Ruflia
and Germany ; and at the fame time the policy above-
mentioned, of keeping up the balance of power in
Europe, rendered it probable that no one European
nation, whatever wars it might be engaged in, would
have been totally deftroyed, or ceafed to exift as a di-
ftiinft kingdom. The late difmemberment of Poland,
however, or its partition between the three powers
Ruflia, Hungary, and Pruflia, was a ftep very incon-
fiftent >with the above political fyftem } and it is fur-
prifing with what tamenefs it was acquiefced in by
the other powers. Subfequent circumftances, particu¬
larly the paflivenefs with which the ambitious defigns
of Ruflia againft the Porte have been fo long beheld,
feem to indicate a total derelitlion of that fcheme of
equilibrium, formerly fo wifely, though perhaps fome-
times too anxioufly, attended to.
The revolt of the Britifli colonies in America, it
WTas hoped by the enemies of Britain, would have given
a fatal (hock to her ftrength and wonted fuperiority.
The confequences, however, have been very different.
Thofe colonies, it is true, have been disjoined from
the mother-country, and have attained an independent
rank among the nations. But Britain has had no caufe
to repine at the feparation. Divefted only of a fplen-
did encumbrance, an expenfive and invidious appanage,
Hie has been left to enjoy the undivided benefits of her
native vigour, and to difplay new energies, which pro-
mife her mild empire a long and prosperous duration.
On the other hand, it has been faid, the flame which
was to have blazed only to hier prejudice, has brought
confufion on her chief foe 5 and the ambition and ty¬
ranny of that branch of the houfe of Bour on which has
been long the peft of Europe, now lie humbled in the
duft. The French, indeed, have thus become a nation
3 U 2 of
524 H I S T
Ecclefia- of freemen as rvell as ourfelves, and as well as the A-
Hifr'orv rner*c:ans ? who, by the way, ivere never otherwife, nor
 'y-L- ever knew what oppreffion was except in inificling it
upon their African brethren. But neither is the French
revolution an event which Britons, as lovers of liberty
and friends to the rights of mankind, fhould regret •, or
which, even in a political view, if duly confidered,
ought to excite either their jealoufy or apprehenlion.
I he papal power, too, is declining; and the period
feems to be approaching when the Roman pontiff will
be reduced to his original title of bi/bo/) of Rome.
Such was the language held for fome years during the
progrefs of the French revolution. But the extraordi¬
nary events which have knee occurred, have totally
changed the views and fentiments of mankind. The
fair profpedl of liberty which the friends of humanity
hoped had begun to dawn on France, has quite vanilh-
ed ; and unfortunately the moft powerful defpot, as well
as the moll capricious tyrant, has feated himfelf on the
throne of her ancient kings. The prediction with re¬
gard to the pope was more than verified by this ufurper,
at wdiofe nod the head of the catholic church holds
his authority ; and at this moment (December 1806)
the continent of Europe feems to be threatened wuth uni-
verfal fubjugation to the fame reftlefs and ambitious
power.
Sect. II. Ecclefiajlical Hiforw
5° .
Revolutions The hiftory of religion, among all the different na-
fdcT^'hn t^°nS t^a1: ^aVe ex^e^ t^e vvor^» is a fubjecl no lefs
pen°m ai"’important and intereiling than that of civil hiflory. It
is, hotyever, lefs fertile of great events, affords an ac¬
count of fewer revolutions, and is much more uniform,
than civil hiftory. The reaibn of this is plain. Reli¬
gion is converfant about things which cannot be feen ;
and which of confequence cannot fuddenly and llrong-
ly affeft the fenfes of mankind, as natural things are apt
to do. The expectation of worldly riches can eafily in¬
duce one nation to attack another ; but it is not ealy to
find any thing which will induce a nation to change its
religion. The invifible nature of fpi ritual things, the
.prejudice of habit and of early education, all ftand ki
the way of changes of this kind. Hence the revolu¬
tions in religion have been but few, and the duration of
almoft any religion of longer Handing than the moft ce¬
lebrated empires ; the changes which have happened,
in general, have acquired a long time to bring them
about, and hiftory fcarce affords an inftance of the re¬
ligion of any nation being effentially and fuddenly
changed for another.
With regard to the origin of religion, we muft have
recourfe to the Scriptures ; and are as neceffarily con-
ftrained to adopt the account there given, as we are to
adopt that of the creation given in the fame book ;
namely, becaufe no other hath made its appearance
which feems in any degree rational, or confident with
it felt.—In what manner the true religion given to A-
dam v'as falfified or corrupted by his defeendants before
the flood, doth not clearly appear from Scripture. Ido¬
latry i§ not mentioned : neverthelefs we are affured that
the inhabitants of the world wrere then exceedingly
wicked ; and as their wickednefs did not confift in wor-
ftiioping falfe gods, it may be concluded that they wor¬
shipped none at all; i. e. that the crime of the antedi¬
luvians was deifm or aj^eifm.
O R Y. Sed. II.
After the flood, idolatry quickly made its appear- Ecclefia.
ance ; but what gave rife to it is not certainly known.
This fuperftition indeed feems to be natural to man, H
especially when placed in fuch a fituation that he hath
little opportunity of inftrudfion, or of improving his ra- Origin of
tional faculties. Ibis leems alfo probable from a idolatry*
caution given to the Jews, left, when they looked up
to the fun, moon, and ftars, and the reft of the hoft of
heaven, they ihould be driven to vcorjhip them. The
origin of idolatry among the Syrians and Arabians,
and alfo in. Greece, is therefore accounted for with
great probability in the following manner by the au¬
thor of The Ruins of Balbeck. t“ In thofe uncomfort¬
able delerts, where the day prefents nothing to the
view but the uniform, tedious, and melancholy profpedt
of barren lands, the night difclofes a moft delightful
and magnificent fpeftacle, and appears arrayed with
charms of the moft attractive kind. For the moft
part unclouded and ferene, it exhibits to the wonder¬
ing eye the hoft of heaven in all their variety and glo¬
ry. In the view of this ftupendous feene, the tranfi-
tion from admiration to idolatry was too eafy to unin-
llrudled minds ; and a people whole climate offered no
beauties to contemplate but thofe of the firmament,
would naturally look thither for the objedls of their
worlhip. The form of idolatry in Greece was different
from that cf the Syrians ; which perhaps may be at¬
tributed to that fmiling and variegated feene of moun¬
tains, valleys, rivers, woods, groves, and fountains,
which the tranfported imagination, in the midft of its
pleafing aftonilhment, fuppofed to be the feats of invi¬
fible deities.”
A difficulty, however, arifes on this fuppofition ; for
if idolatry is naturally produced in the mind of unin-
ftrudfed and favage man from a view of the creation,
why hath not idolatry of fome kind or other taken
place among all the different nations of the world ?
This certainly hath not been the cafe ; of which the
moil linking examples are the Perfigns of old, and the
Moguls in more modern times. Both thefe nations
were ft rift deifts; fo that we muft allow fome other
caufes to cctrcur in producing idolatry befides thefe al¬
ready mentioned ; and of thefe caufes an imperfeft and
obfeure notion of the true religion feems to be the moft:
probable.
Though idolatry, therefore, was formerly very pre-General ac-
valent, it neither extended over the rvhole earth, nor count of
were tre fuperftitions of the idolaters all of one kind.the Hea*
Every nation had its refpeftive gods, over which one ^per“
more excellent than the reft was faid to preiide ; yet in ’*
fuch a manner, that this fupreme deity himfelf was con-
trouled by the rigid empire of the fates, or by what
philofophers called eternal necefjity. The gods of the
eaft were different from thofe of the Gauls, the Ger¬
mans, and the other northern nations. The Grecian
divinities differed widely from thofe of the Egyptians,
who deified plants, animals, and a great variety of the
produflions both of nature and art. Each people alfo
had their own particular manner of worlhipping and ap-
peafing their refpeftive deities, entirely different from
the facred rites of other countries. All this variety of
religions, however, produced neither wars nor diffen--
fions among the different nations ; each nation fuffered
its neighbours to follow" their own method of worffiip,
without difeovering any difpleafure on that account.
There,
Sea. II. H / ,s
Ecclefi i- There is nothing furprifing in this mutual toleration,
ftical when we confider, that they all looked upon the world
t Hifto'y- as one great empire, divided into various provinces,
*—■ a certain order of divinities preiid-
ed j for which reafon they imagined that none could
behold with contempt the gods of other nations, or force
grangers to pay homage to theirs.—The Romans exer-
cifed^ this toleration in the moll ample manner ; for
though they would not allow any change to be made
in the religions that were publicly profeffed in the em¬
pire, nor any new form of worfhip to be openly intro¬
duced, yet they granted to their citizens a full liberty
of obferving in private the facred rites of other nations,
and of honouring foreign deities as they thought pro¬
per.
The heathen deities were honoured with rites and
facrifices of various kinds, according to their refpec-
tive natures and offices. Their rites were abfurd and
ridiculous ; while the priefts, appointed to prefide over
this if range worfhip, abufed their authority, by decei¬
ving and impofing upon the people in the groffeil man¬
ner.
5ofre From the time of the flood to the coming of
Chrift, idolatry prevailed among almoif all the nations
the appear- of the world, the Jews alone excepted ; and even
ance of they were on all occaiions ready to run into it, as is
Chrift* evident from their hiftory in the Old Teftament. At
the time of Cbrill’s appearance, the religion of the Ro¬
mans, as well as their empire, extended over a great
part of the world. Some people there wrnre among the
heathens who perceived the abfurdities of that fyftem ;
but being deilitute of means, as well as of abilities, to
eflhhf a reformation, matters went on in their old way.
Though there were at that time various fe£!s of pbilofo-
phers, yet all of them proceeded upon falfe principles,
and confequently could be of no fervice to the advance¬
ment or reformation of religion. Nay, fome, among
■whom were the Epicureans and Academics, declared
openly againft every kind of religion whatever.
Two religions at this time flourifhed in Palefiine,
viz. the .Tewiili and Samaritan ; between whole re-
fpeftive followers reigned the moll violent hatred or
contempt. The difference between them feems to
have been chiefly about the place of worfhip •, which
the Jews would have to be in Jerufalem, and the Sa¬
maritans on Mount Gerizzim. But though the Jews
were certainly right as to this point, they had greatly
corrupted their religion in other refpehfs. They ex¬
pected a Saviour indeed, but they miftook his charac¬
ter •, imagining that he was to be a powerful and war¬
like prince, who fhould fet them free from the Roman
yoke, which they bore with the utmoft impatience.
They alfo imagined that the whole of religion confift-
ed in obferving the rites of Moles, and fome others
which they had added to them, without the leaft re¬
gard to what is commonly called morality or virtue;
as is evident from the many charges our Saviour brings
againft the Pharifees, who had the greateft reputa¬
tion for fanftity among the whole nation. To thefe
corrupt and vicious principles, they added feveral ab¬
furd and fuperftitious notions concerning the divine
nature, invifible pow’ers, magic, &c. w’hich they had
partly imbibed during the Babylonian captivity, and
parly derived from their neighbours in Arabia, Sy¬
ria, and Egypt. The principal feels among them
TORY. 525
were the Essenes or EfTenians, Pharisees, and Sad- Ecclefia.
DUCEES. The Samaritans, according to. the moft ge-
neral opinion, had corrupted their religion ftill more
than the Jews.
When the true religion was preached by the Savi¬
our of mankind, it is not to be wondered at if he be¬
came on that account obnoxious to a people fo deeply
funk in corruption and ignorance as the Jews then
were. It is not here requilite to enter into the par¬
ticulars of the doftrine advanced by him, or of the
oppofition he met with from the Jews 3 as a full
account of thefe things, and likewife of the preach¬
ing of the gofpel by the apoftles, may be found in the
New Teftament.—The rapid progrefs of the Chriftian
religion, under thefe faithful and infpired mini Iters,
foon alarmed the Jews, and raifed various perfecutions
againft its followers. The Jews, indeed, feem at firft
to have been everywhere the chiel promoters of per-
fecution 3 for w>e find that they oflicioufly went from
place to place, wherever they heard of the increafe of
the gofpel, and by their calumnies and falfe fuggeftions
endeavoured to excite the people againft T e a; ties.
The Heathens, however, though at firft they ihowed
no very violent fpirit of periecution againft the Chri-
ftians, foen came to hate them as much as the Jews
themfelves. Tacitus acquaints us with the caufes of
this hatred, when fpeaking of the firft general perfe-
cution under Nero. That inhuman emperor having, as
was fuppofed, fet fire to the city of Rome, to avoid the
imputation of this wickednefs, transferred it on the
Chriftians. Our author informs us that they were al- xacitus'3
ready abhorred on account of their many and enormous account of
crimes. “ The author of this name {Chrijlians) ” lays the firft
he, “ was Christ, who, in the reign of Tiberius, wasP61^*101*
executed under Pontius Pilate, procurator of Judaea. y
The peftilent fuperftition was for a while fuppreffed :
but it revived again, and fpread, not only over Judaea,
where this evil was firft broached, but reached Rome,
whither from every quarter of the earth is conftantly
flowing whatever is hideous and abominable amongft
men, and is there readily embraced and praftifed.
Firft, therefore, were apprehended iuch as openly
avowed themfelves to be of that fe£l 3 then by them
were difeovered an immenfe multitude 3 and all were
convitled, not of the crime of burning Re—?, but
of hatred and enmity to mankind. Their death and
tortures W'ere aggravated by cruel derifion and (port 3
for they were either covered with the ikins of wild
beafts and torn in pieces by devouring dogs, or fallen-
ed to croffes, or wrapped up in combuftible garments,
that, when the day-light failed, they might, like
torches, ferve to difpel the darknefs of the night.
Hence, towards the miferable fufferers, however guil¬
ty and deferving the moft exemplary punithment, com¬
panion arofe 3 feeing they were doomed to periih not
with a view to the public good, but to gratify the
cruelty of one man.”
That this account of Tacitus is downright mifre*
prefentation and calumny, muft be evident to every
one who reads it. It is impoflible that any perfon
can be convi&ed of hatred and enmity to mankind,
without fpecifying a number of iadls by which this
hatred {bowed itfelf. The burning of Rome would
indeed have been a very plain indication of enmity to
mankind 5 but of this Tacitus himfelf clears them,
and.
526 HIST
iicclefia- and mentions no other crime of which they were guil-
^ 15 Probable, therefore, that the only reafon
«■ — v-- ■ oi lbis charge againft the Chriftians, w^as their abfo-
lute rcfufal to have any fhare in the Roman worihip,
or to countenance the abfurd fuperftitions of Paganifm
55 in any degree.
Second per- The perfecution under Nero was fucceeded by ano-
ution. ther under Domitian j during which the apoftle John
was baniflied to Patmos, where he law the vifxons, and
wrote the book called his Reve/ation, which completes
the canon of Scripture. This perfecution commenced
m the 95th year of the Chrilfian era j and John is
fuppofed to have written his Revelation the year after,
or in the following one.
During the firft century, the Chrilfian religion
fpread over a great number of different countries 5 but
as we have now no authentic records concerning the
travels of the apolfles, or the fuccefs which attended
them in their miniliry, it is impoffible to determine
how far the gofpel w7as carried during this period. We
are, however, affured, that even during this early pe¬
riod rany corruptions were creeping in, the progrefs
of which was with difficulty prevented even by the
-apoffles themfelves. Some corrupted their profeffion
by a mixture of Judaifm, others by mixing it with the
oriental philofophy; while others wrere already at¬
tempting to deprive their brethren of liberty, fetting
themfelves up as eminent pallors, in oppofition even to
the apoftles, as we learn from the epilfles of St Paul, and
the third epiftle of St John. Hence arafe the fefts of
the Gnoltics, Cerinthians, Nicolaitans, Nazarenes, E-
bionites, &c. with which the church w7as troubled du¬
ring this centupy.
Concerning the ceremonies and method of worihip
ufed by the Chriftians of the firft century, it is impof-
lible to fay any thing wdth certainty. Neither is the
church order, government, and difcipline, during this
period, afcertained with any degree of exadlnefs. Each
of thofe parties, therefore, which exift at this day,
contends with the greateft earneftnefs for that particu¬
lar mode of worihip wffiich they themfelves have adopt¬
ed and fome of the moft bigotted would willingly
monopolize the wmrd church in fuch a manner as to ex¬
clude from all hope of falvation every one who is not
attached to their particular party. It doth not how¬
ever appear that, excepting baptifm, the Lord’s fup-
per, and anointing the lick with oil, any external ce¬
remonies or fymbols were properly of divine appoint¬
ment. According to Dr Molheim, “ there are feve-
ral circumftances which incline us to think, that the
friends and apoftles of our bleffed Lord either tolerated
through neceffity, or appointed for wife reafons, many
other external rites in various places. At the fame
time, we are not to imagine, that they ever conferred
% upon any perfon a perpetual, indelible, pontifical au¬
thority, or that they enjoined the fame rites in all
churches. We learn, on the contrary, from authentic
records, that the Chriftian wbrlhip w7as from the be¬
ginning celebrated in a different manner in different
places •, and that, no doubt, by the orders, or at leaft
with the approbation, of the apoftles and their difei-
ples. In thofe early times, it was both wife and ne-
ceffary to (how, in the eftabliffiment of outward forms
of worlhip, fome indulgence to the ancient opinions,
O R Y.
sea. II.
manners, and laws, of the refpe&ive nations to whom £cclefia-
the gofpel was preached.” fticai
I he fecond century commences with the third year Hllt0l-Y' ;
of the emperor Trajan. The Chriftians were ftill per- ^
fecuted ; but as the Roman emperors were for the moft Hiftory of
part of this century princes of a mild and moderate feconcl
turn, they perfecuted jefs violently than formerly!centur-v*
Mai cus Aurelius, notwithftanding the elemenev and
philofophy, for which he is fo much celebrated, treated
the Chnftians wTorle than Irajan, Adrian, or even
Sever us himfelf did, wftio was noted for his cruelty.
J his refpite from vigorous perfecution proved a very
favourable circumftance for the fpreading of the Chriftian
religion ; yet it is by no means eafy to point out the
particular countries through which it w7as diffufed. We
are, however, affured, that in the fecond century, Chrift
was w7orffiipped as God almoft through the whole eaft;
as alfo among the Germans, Spaniards, Celtes, and
many other nations : but wffiich of them received the
gofpel in the firft century, and which in the fecond, is
a queftion unanfwerable at this diftance of time. The
writers of this century attribute the rapid progrefs of
Chriftianity chiefly to the extraordinary gifts that
w7ere imparted to the firft Chriftians, and the miracles
which were wrought at their command ; without fup-
pofing that any part of the fuccefs ought to be aferibed
to the intervention of human means, or fecondary cau-
fes. Many of the moderns, however, are fo far from
being of this opinion, that they are walling either to
deny the authenticity of all miracles faid to have been
wrought fince the days of the apoftles, or to aferibe
them to the pow'er of the devil. To enter into the
particulars of this controverfy is foreign to our prefent
purpofe j for which reafon we muft refer to the writers
of polemic divinity, who have largely treated of this
and other points of a fimilar nature.
The corruptions which had been introduced in the Ceremonies,
firft century, and which wrere almoft coeval with Chri-niultiphed.
ftianity itfelf, continued to gain ground in the fecond.
Ceremonies, in themfelves futile and ufelefs, but which
muft be confidered as highly pernicious when joined"
to a religion incapable of any other ornament than the
upright and virtuous condudft of its profeffors, wrere
multiplied for no other purpofe than to pleafe the ig¬
norant multitude. The immediate confequence of this
was, that the attention of Chriftians wras drawn afide
from the important duties of morality ; and they were
led to imagine, that a careful obfervance of the cere¬
monies might make amends for the negleft of moral
duties. I his was the moft pernicious opinion that
could poffibly oe entertained j and w^as indeed the
very foundation of that enormous fyftem of ecclefiafti-
cal power which afterwards took place, and held the
whole world in flavery and barbarifm for many ages.
Another mifehief was the introduclion of myjlcries, iviyfuries
as they w'ere called, into the Chriftian religion fthat is,introduced,
infinuating that fome parts of the worffiip in common
ufe had a hidden efficacy and power far fuperior to
the plain and obvious meaning affigned to them by the
vulgar : and by paying peculiar refpeft to thele myfte-
ries, the pretended teachers of the religion of Jefus' ac¬
commodated their dodlrines to the tafte of their hea¬
then neighbours, whofe religion confifted in a heap of ^
myfteries, of which nobody knew7 the meaning.
I
By
Sea. II.
Etclefia-
ftical
Hiftory.
59 t.
Th i teach¬
ers aiTirme
a power
over the
people.
60
Form of
church go¬
vernment.
6t
Changes
produced
by the in-
ftitution of
councils.
HIS T
By tliefe, and other means of a fimilar kind, the
Chriftian pallors greatly abridged the liberty of their
flock. Being mailers of the ceremonies and myileries
of the Chriftian religion, they had it in their power to
make their followers worfhip and believe whatever they
thought proper ; and this they did not fail to make ufe
of for their own advantage. They perfuaded the peo¬
ple, that the minifters of the Chriftian church fucceed-
ed to the charafter, rights, and privileges, of the Jewifh
priefthood j and accordingly the bilhops conftdered
themfelves as invefted with a rank and character fimi¬
lar to thofe of the high-priefl among the Jews, while
the prefbyters reprefented the priefts, and the deacons
the Levites. This notion, which was firft introduced
in the reign of Adrian, proved a fource of very confi-
derable honour and profit to the clergy.
The form of ecclefiaftical government was in this
century rendered permanent and uniform. One in-
fpe£lor or bifhop prefided over each Chriftian affembly,
to which office he was elected by the voices of the
whole people. To aftift him in his office, he formed
a council of prefbyters, which was not confined to any
llated number. To the biiliops and prefbyters the
minifters or deacons were fubjetl; and the latter were
divided into a variety of clafles, as the different exigen¬
cies of the church required. During a great part of
this century, the churches were independent of each
other; nor were they joined together by affociation,
confederacy, or any other bonds but thofe of charity.
Each affembly was a little ftate governed by its own
laws, which were either enabled, or at leaft approved
of, by the fociety. But in procefs of time all the
Chriftian churches of a province were formed into one
large ecclefiaftical body, which, like confederate ftates,
affembled at certain times, in order to deliberate about
the common interefts of the whole. This inftitution
had its origin among the Greeks ; but in a fhort time
it became univerfal, and fimilar affemblies were form¬
ed in all places where the gofpel had been planted.
Thefe aflemblies, which confifted of the deputies or
commiflioners from feveral churches, were called fynods
by the Greeks, and councils by the Latins 5 and the
laws enabled in thefe general meetings were called ca¬
nons, i. e. rules.
Thefe councils, of which we find not the fmalleft
trace before the middle of this century, changed the
whole face of the church, and gave it a new form } for
by them the ancient privileges of the people were con-
fiderably diminilhed, and the power and authority of
the biftiops greatly augmented. The humility, indeed,
and prudence, of thefe pious prelates hindered them
from affuming all at once the power with which they
were afterwards invefted. At their firft appearance in
thefe general councils, they acknowledged that they
were no more than the delegates of their refpefliye
churches, and that they afted in the name and by the
appointment of their people. But they foon changed
this humble tone; imperceptibly extended the limits of
their authority •, turned their influence into dominion,
their counfels into laws; and at length openly affeited,
that Chrift had empowered them to preferibe to his
people authoritative rules of faith and manners. An¬
other effe£l of thefe councils was the gradual abolition
of that perfedl equality which reigned among all bi¬
ftiops in the primitive times: iot the order and de-
O Pt Y. ' 527
cency of thefe affemblies required, that fome one of Ecclefia-
the provincial biftiops met in council fhould be inveft-
ed with a fuperior degree of power and authority ; and . ' ^ »
hence the rights of metropolitans derive their origin.
In the mean time, the bounds of the church were en- «.
larged ; the cuftom of holding councils was followed
wherever the found of the gofpel had reached; and the
univerfal church had now the appearance of one vaft re¬
public formed by a combination of a great number of
little ftates. This occafioncd the creation of a new or¬
der of ecclefiaftics, who were appointed in different
parts of the world as heads of the church, and whofe
office (it was to preferve the confiftence and union of
that immenfe body, whofe members were fo widely
difperfed throughout the nations. Such was the na¬
ture and office of the Patriarchs; among whom, at
length, ambition, being arrived at its moft infolent
period, formed a new dignity, inverting the bilhop of
Pvome with the title and authority of the Prince of the
Patriarchs. 62
During the fecond century, all the fefls continued Account 0?
which had fprung mp in the firft, with the addition oft.he A‘fce'
feveral others ; the moll remarkable of which were the1105’
jdfcetics. Thefe owed their rife to an error propaga¬
ted by fome doctors of the church, who afferted that
Chrift had eftablilhed a double rule of fanciily and virtue
for two different orders of Chriftians. Of thefe rules,
one was ordinary, the. other extraordinary; the one
of a lower dignity, the other more fublime : the firft
for perfons in the adlive feenes of life-; the other for-
thofe who, in a facred retreat, afpired after the glory
of a celeftial ftate. In confequence of this fyftem,
they divided into two parts all thofe moral doctrines
and inftruSions which they had received either by
writing oc tradition. One of thefe divifions they call¬
ed precepts, and the other counfels. They gave the name
of precepts to thofe laws that were univerfally obliga¬
tory upon all orders of men ; and that of counfels to
thofe which related to Chriftians of a more fublime
rank, who propofed to themfelves great and glorious
ends, and breathed after an intimate communion with
the Supreme Being.—Thus were produced all at once
a new fet of men, who made pretenfions to uncommon
fandlity and virtue, and declared their refolution of
obeying all the precepts and counfels of Chrift, in order
to their enjoyment and communion with God here„
and alfo that, after the diffolution of their mortal bo¬
dies, they might afeend to him with the greater fa¬
cility, and find nothing to retard their approach to the
centre of happinefs and perfection. They looked up¬
on themfelves as prohibited from the ufe of things-
which it was lawful for other Chriftians to enjoy ; fuch
as wine, fleih, matrimony, and commerce. They
thought it their indifpenfable duty to extenuate their
body by watchings, abflinence, labour, and hunger..
They looked for felicity in folitary retreats, and defert
places ; where, by fevere and affiduous efforts of fub¬
lime meditation, they raifed the foul above all external
objecls, and ail femual pleaiures. J.hey were diitin-
guiihed from other Chriftians, not only by the titles
of Afcetics, ’Ztsh^ccioi, ExXocra/, and philofophers, but
a3!o by their garb. In this century, indeed, thofe who
embraced fuen an auilere kind or life, fubmitted them¬
felves to ail tnefe mortifications in private, without
breaking afunder their focial bands, or withdrawing
themfdvas
528 H I S T
Ecclefia- tlicmftlves from mankind ; but in procefs of time they
ITftor rctirevi iiito deferts, and, after the example of the Ef-
i ^ ■ fenes and Therapetitse, they formed theml’elves into
certain companies.
This auttere feft arofe from an opinion which has
been more or lefs prevalent in all ages and in all coun¬
tries, namely, that religion confrlls more in prayers,
meditations, and a kind of fecret intercourfe with
God, than in fulfilling the focial duties of life in afls
of benevolence and humanity to mankind. Nothing
can be more evident than that the Scripture reckons
the fulfilling of thefe infinitely fuperior to the obfer-
vance of all the ceremonies that can be imagined : yet
it fomehow or other happens, that almoft every body
is more inclined to obferve the ceremonial part of de¬
votion than the moral J and hence, according to the
different humours or conffitutions of different perfons,
there have been numberlefs forms of Chriffianity, and
the molt virulent contentions among thofe who pro-
fefled themfelves followers of the Prince of Peace. It
is obvious, that if the moral conduft of Chriltians was
to be made the ftawdard of faith, inftead of fpeculative
opinions, all thefe diviffons mult ceafe in a moment j
but while Chriftianity, or any part of it, is made to
confilt in fpeculation, or the obfervance of ceremonies,
it is impoffible there can be any end of fe£ts or herefies.
No opinion whatever is fo abfurd, but fome people have
pretended to argue in its defence 5 and no ceremony fo
infignificant, but it hath been explained and fan£lified
by hot-headed enthufiafts 5 and hence ceremonies, fedts,
and abfurdities, have been multiplied without number,
to the prejudice of fociety and of the Chriffian religion.
This ihort relation of the rife of the Afcetic fedt will
alfo ferve to account for the rife of any other; fo that
we apprehend it is needlefs to enter into particulars con¬
cerning the reft, as they all took their origin from the
lame general principle varioufly modified, according to
the different difpofitions of mankind.
The Afcetic fedt began firft in Egypt, from whence
it paffed into Syria and the neighbouring countries.
At length it reached the European nations : and hence
that train of auftere and fuperftitious vows and rites
which totally obfeured, or rather annihilated, Chrilti-
anity ; the celibacy of the clergy, and many other ab¬
furdities of the like kind. The errors of the Afcetics,
however, did not Hop here : In compliance with the
doctrines of fome Pagan philofophers, they affirmed,
that it was not only lawful, but even praife-worthy to
deceive, and to ufe the expedient of a lie, in order to
advance the caufe of piety and truth •, and hence the
/)ioi/s frauds for which the church of Rome hath been
f@ notorious, and w ith which Hie hath been fo often and
jultly reproached.
As Chriftians thus deviated more and more from the
true practice of their religion, they became more zea¬
lous in the external profeffion of it. Anniverfary felti-
vals were celebrated in commemoration of the death
and refurredtion of Chrill, and of the effufion of the
Holy Gholt on the apoltles. Concerning the days
Contefts on which thefe feltivals were to be kept, there arofe
conc erning violent contefts. The Aliatic churches in general dif-
ieftivals. fere(i in this point from thofe of Europe •, and towards
the conclufion of the fecond century, Vidtor bifliop of
, Rome took it in his head to force the eaitern churches
to follow the rules laid down by the weltern ones.—
o it y. Sea. 11.
This they abfolutely refufed to comply with : upon Ecdefw-
which Victor cut them off from communion with the ca*
church of Rome 5 though, by means of the interceftion H'!h>ry' ,
of fome prudent people, the difference was made up for
the prefent. g^
During moft of the third century, the Chriftians Third cen«
were allowed to enjoy their religion, fuch as it was,tur.v*
without rnoleftatiou. The emperors Maximinus and
Decius, indeed, made them feel ail the rigours of a
fevere perfecutioa 5 but their reigns were Ihort, and
from the death of Decius to the time of Diocletian
the church enjoyed tranquillity. Thus vaft multitudes
were converted 5 but at the fame time, the dodtrine
grew daily more corrupt, and the lives of profefted
Chriftians more wicked and fcandalous. New ceremo¬
nies were invented in great numbers, and an unaccount¬
able paflion now prevailed for the oriental fuperftitions
concerning demons, whence proceeded the whole train
of exorcifms, fpells, and fears for the apparition of
evil fpirits, which to this day are nowhere eradicated.
Hence alfo the cuftom of avoiding all connedKons
with thofe who were not baptized, or who lay under
the penalty of excommunication, as perfons fuppofed
to be under the dominion of fome evil fpirit. And
hence the rigour and feverity of that difeipline and
penance impofed upon thofe who had incurred, by
their immoralities, the cenfure of the church. Se¬
veral alterations were now made in the manner of
celebrating the Lord’s fupper. The, prayers uied on
this occafion were lengthened, and the folemnity and
pomp with which it was attended were confiderably
increafed. Gold and filver veffels were ufed in the ce¬
lebration } it was thought effential to falvation, and for
that reafon adminftered even to infants. Baptifm was
celebrated twice a-year to fuch as, after a long courfe
of trial and preparations, offered themfelves candidates.
The remiflion of fins was thought to be its immediate
confequence ; while the biffrop, by prayer and impo-
fition of hands, was fuppofed to confer thofe fandtify-
ing gifts of the Holy Ghoft that were neceffary to
a life of righteoufnefs and virtue. An evil demon was
fuppofed naturally to refide in every perfon, who was
the author and fource of all the corrupt difpofitions
and unrighteous aftions of that perfon. The driving
out of this demon was therefore an effential requilite
for baptifm ; and in confequence of this opinion, the
baptized perfon returned home clothed in white gar¬
ments, and adorned with crowns, as facred emblems,
the former of their inward purity and innocence, and
the latter of their viftory over fin and the world.—
Falling began now to be held in more efteem than for¬
merly. A high degree of fandlity was attributed to
this pra£Hce ; it was even looked upon as indifpenfa-
bly neceffary, from a notion that the demons directed
their force chietly againft thofe who pampered them¬
felves with delicious fare, and were lefs troublefome
to the lean and hungry who lived under the feverities
of a rigorous abftinence.—The fign of the crofs alfo
was fuppofed to adminifter a victorious power over all
forts of trials and calamities j and was more efpecially
confidered as the fureft defence againft the fnares and
ftratagems of malignant fpirits j for which reafon, no
Chriftian undertook any thing of moment, without
arming himfelf, as he imagined, with the power of
this triumphant fign. The herefies which troubled
the '
Sea. II.
HISTORY.
ficclefia-
ftical
Hiftoiy.
65
Fourth cen¬
tury.
66
Chriftia-
nity efta-
btiflied by
Conftan-
tine.
67
Increafe of
its corrup¬
tions.
the church during this century, were the Gnostics,
(whofe doftrines were new-modelled and improved by
Manes, from whom they were afterwards chiefly call¬
ed Manicheans'), the Hieracites, Noetians, Sabel-
LIANS, and Novatians \ for a particular account of
which, fee thofe articles.
The fourth century is remarkable for the eftablifh-
ment of Chrilfianity by law in the Roman empire j
which, however, did not take place till the year 324.
In the beginning of the century, the empire was go¬
verned by four chiefs, viz. Dioclefian, Maximian,
Conftantius Chlorus, and Galerius, under whom the
church enjoyed a perfeft toleration. Dioclefian, though
much addicled to fuperftition, had no ill-will againft
the Chriftians j and Conftantius Chlorus, having aban¬
doned polytheifm, treated them wfith condefcenfion
and benevolence. This alarmed the Pagan priefts,
whofe interefts were fo clofely connedled with the
continuance of the ancient fuperflitions j and who
apprehended, not without reafon, that the Chriftian
religion would at length prevail throughout the em¬
pire. To prevent the downfal of the Pagan fuperfti¬
tion, therefore, they applied to Dioclefian and Gale¬
rius Csefar, by whom a moft bloody perfecution was
commenced in the year 303, and continued till 311.
An afylum, however, was opened for the Chriftians in
the year 304. Galerius having dethroned Dioclefian
and Maximian, declared himfelf emperor in the eaft j
leaving ail the weftern provinces, to which great num¬
ber of Chriftians reforted to avoid the cruelty of the
former, to Conftantius Chlorus. At length Galerius,
being overtaken with an incurable and dreadful dif-
eafe, publifhed an edift ordering the perfecution to
ceafe, and reftoring freedom to the Chriftians, whom
he had moft inhumanly oppreffed for eight years.
Galerius died the fame year •, and in a fttort time af¬
ter, when Conftantine the Great afcended the throne,
the Chrifiians were freed from any farther uneafinefs,
by his abrogating all the penal laws againft them j and
afterwards iffuing edifts, by which no other religion
than the Chriftian was tolerated throughout the em¬
pire.
This event, however, fo favourable to the outward
peace of the church, wTas far from promoting its inter¬
nal harmony, or the reformation of its leaders. The
clergy, who had all this time been augmenting their
power at the expence of the liberty of the people, now
let no bounds to their ambition. The bilhop of Rome
was the firft in rank, and diihinguilhed by a fort of
pre-eminency above the reft of the prelates. He fur-
paffed all his brethren in the magnificence and fplen-
dor of the church over which he prefided, in the
riches of his revenues aud polfeflions, in the number
and variety of his minifters, in his credit W’ith the
people, and in his fumptuous and fplendid manner of
living. Hence it happened, that when a new' pontift'
w-as to be chofen by the prefbyters and people, the
city of Rome was generally agitated wdth dilfenfions,
tumults, and cabals, which often produced fatal confe-
q uences. I he intrigues and difturbances w hich pre¬
vailed in that city in the year 366, when, upon the
death of Liberius, another pontiff was to be chofen in
his place, are a fufficient proof of what we have ad¬
vanced. Upon this occafion, one faftion eleifted Da-
mafus to that high dignity j while the oppofite party
Vol. X. Part II.
chofe Urficinus, a
fucceed Liberius.
529
Ectlefia -
flical
Hiflory.
deacon of the vacant church, to
This double election gave rife to
a dangerous fchifm, and to a fort of civil war wdthin
the city of Rome j which wras carried on with the ut-
moft barbarity and fury, and produced the moft cruel
maffacres and defolations. The inhuman conteft end¬
ed in the vitftory of Damafus; but whether his caufe
was more juft than that of Urficinus, is not fo eafily
determined.
Notwithftanding the pomp and fplendour which fur-
rounded the Roman fee, it is certain that the bifhops
of Rome had not yet acquired that pre-eminence of
power and jurifdiiftion which they afterwards enjoyed.
In the ecclefiaftical commonwealth, indeed, they were
the moft eminent order of citizens j but ftill they were
citizens as well as their brethren, and fubjeft, like
them to the laws and edifls of the emperors. All re¬
ligious caufes of extraordinary importance w7ere exami¬
ned and determined either by judges appointed by
the emperors, or in councils affembled for that pur-
pofe j w'hile thofe of inferior moment wrere decided in
each diftrift by its refpedfive biftiop. The ecclefiafti¬
cal law's wTere enadted either by the emperor or coun¬
cils. None of the bilhops acknowledged that they de¬
rived their authority from the permilfion and appoint¬
ment of the biftiop of Rome, or that they were created
biftiops by the favour of the apojlolic fee. On the con¬
trary, they all maintained that they were the ambaffa-
dors and minifters of Jefus Chrift, and that their au¬
thority was derived from above. It muft, however,
be obferved, that even in this century feveral of thofe
fteps were laid by which the bifliops of Rome mounted
afterwards to the fummit of ecclefiaftical pow'er and
defpotifm. This happened partly by the imprudence
of the emperors, partly by the dexterity of the Ro¬
man prelates themfelves, and partly by the inconfide-
rate zeal and precipitate judgment of certain'biihops.
The imprudence of the emperor, and precipitation of
the biftiops, W'ere remarkably difeovered in the follow¬
ing event, which favoured extremely the ambition of
the Roman pontiff. About the year 372, Valentinian
enadled a law, empowering the biftiop of Rome to ex¬
amine and judge other biftiops, that religious difputes
might not be decided by any profane or fecular judges.
The bifliops affembled in council at Rome in 378, not
confidering the fatal confequences that muft arife from
this imprudent law both to themfelves and to the
church, declared their approbation in the ftrongeft
terms, and recommended the execution of it in their
addrefs to the emperor Gratian. Some think, indeed,
that this law empow’ered the Roman biftiop to judge
only the biftiops w ithin the limits of his jurifdidlion ;
others, that his power was given only for a certain
time, and for a particular purpofe. This laft notion
feems the moft probable 5 but ftill this privilege muft
have been an excellent inftrument in the hands of fa^er-
dotal ambition.
By the removal of the feat of empire to Conftanti- Bilhops of
nople, the emperor raifed up, in the biftiop of thisRome aR<l
new metropolis, a formidable opponent to the biftiopConftaRtl-
of Rome, and a bulwark which threatened a vigorouseachVthei
oppofition to his growing authority. For as the em¬
peror, in order to render Conftantinople a fecond
Rome, enriched it with all the rights and privileges,
honours and ornaments, of the ancient capital of the
/ 3 X w'orld j
<5S
H I S T O R Y.
Sea. II.
«9
Form of
church go¬
vernment
eftablilhed
by Con-
flan tine.
world : fo its birhoil, meafui’.ig his own dignity and
rank L r the magnificence of the new city, and 'its
eminence as the refidence of the emperor, affumed an
equal degree of dignity wild the bilhop of Rome, and
claimed a fuperiority over the reft of the epifcopal or¬
der. Nor did the emperors difapprove of thefe high
pretenfions, fince they confidered their own dignity as
connedfed in a certain meafare with that of the bithop
of their imperial city. Accordingly, in a council held
at Conftantinople in the year 381, by the authority
of Theodofius the Great, the bilhop of that city was,
during the abfence of the bilhop of Alexandria, and
again ft the confent of the Roman prelate, placed by
the third canon of that council in the firft rank after
the bilhop of Rome, and confequently above thofe of
Alexandria and Antioch. Nectarius was the firft bi-
ftiop who enjoyed thefe new honours accumulated up¬
on the fee of Conftantinople. His fuccefibr, the cele¬
brated John Chryfoftom, extended ftill farther the
privileges of that fee, and fubmitted to its jurifdicftion
all Thrace, Afia, and Pontus; nor -were ^the fucceed-
ing bilhops of that imperial city deftitute of a fervent
zeal to augment their privileges and extend their do¬
minion. Ey this unexpended promotion, the mold dil-
agreeable effe£ds were produced. The bildiops of Alex¬
andria -were not only filled with the mold inveterate ha¬
tred againld thofe of Conftantinople, but contention was
excited between the biihops of Rome and Conftantino¬
ple ; which, after being carried on for many ages, con¬
cluded at laid in the feparation of the Greek and La¬
tin churches.
Conftantine the Great, in order to prevent civil com¬
motions, and to fix his authority on a liable and folid
foundation, made feveral changes not only in the laws
of the empire, but alfo in the form of the Roman go¬
vernment. And as there were many important reafons
which induced him to fuit the adminiftration of the
church to thefe changes in the civil conftitution, this
necellarily introduced among the bilhops new degrees
of eminence and rank. The four bilhops, of Rome,
Conftantinople, Antioch, and Alexandria, were diftin-
guilhed by a certain degree of pre-eminence over the
reft. Thefe four prelates anfwered to the four prae¬
torian prefefds created by Conftantine; and it is pof-
ftble, that even in this century they were diftinguifhed
by the Jewifh title of patriarchs. After thefe followed
the exarchs, ■who had the infpeftion of feveral pro¬
vinces, and anfwered to the appointment of certain ci¬
vil officers who bore the fame title. In a lower clafs
were the metropolitans, who had only the government of
one province ; under whom were the archbijhops, whole
infpe£dion was confined to certain diftri£ds. In this
gradation the bifoops brought up the rear; but the
fpbere of their authority was not in all places equally
extenlive'j being in feme conliderably ample, and in
others confined within narrow limits. To thefe va¬
rious ecclefiaftical orders we might add that of the
chorepifcopi, or fupeantendents of the country churches ;
but this laid order was in mold places fuppreffed by
the bilhops, with a defign to extend their own autho¬
rity, and enlarge the fphere of their power and jurif-
diddion. The adminiftration of the church itfelf was
divided by Conftantine into an external and internal m-
fpeddion. The latter, which was committed to hitdiops
and councils, related to religious controverfies, the
forms of divine worlhip, the offices of priefts, the vices Ecclefia*.
of the ecclefiaftical orders, &c. The external admi-
niftration of the church the emperor affumed to him-, v ‘ '
felf. This comprehended all thofe things which re¬
lated to the outward ftate and difeipline of the church
it likewife extended to all conteids that Ihould arife be¬
tween the minilders of the church, fuperior as well as
inferior, concerning their pofleffions, their reputation,
their rights and privileges, their offences againld the
laws, &c. but no controverfies that related to matters
purely fpiritual were cognizable by this external in-
fpeddion. In confequence of this artful divifion of the
ecclefiaftical government, Conftantine and his fuccef-
fors called councils, prefided in them, appointed the
judges of religious controverfies, terminated the diffe¬
rences which arofe between the bilhops and the people,
fixed the limits of the ecclefialdical provinces, took
cognizance of the civil caules that fubfiffed between
the minifters of the church, and punithed- the crimes
committed again!! the laws by the ordinary judges ap¬
pointed for that purpofe •, giving over all caules purely
ecclefialdical to the bilhops and councils. But this fa¬
mous divifion ol the adminildration of the church was
never explained with fufficient accuracy ; lo that both
in the fourth and fifth centuries, there are frequent in-
idances of the emperors determining matters purely ec-
cleliaflical, and likewife of bilhops and councils deter¬
mining matters which related merely to the external
form and government of the church.
After the time of Conftantine many additions were Scandalous
made by the emperors and others to the wealth and lives of the
honours of the clergy 5 and thefe additions were fol-cleigy*
lowed by a proportional increafe of their vices and
luxury, particularly among thole who lived in great and
opulent cities. The biffiops, on the one hand, con¬
tended with each other in the mold fcandalous manner
concerning the extent of their refpeddive jurifdicdions j
while, on the other, they trampled on the rights of the
people, violated the privileges of the inferior minilders,
and imitated in their conducd and in their manner of
living the arrogance, voluptuoufnefs, and luxury of
magildrates and princes. This pernicious example was,
foon followed by the feveral ecclefiaftical orders. 1 he
prefbyters, in many places, affumed an equality with
the hi limps in point of rank and authority. Many
complaints are alfo made by the authors of this cen¬
tury about the vanity and effeminacy of the deacons.
Thofe more particularly of the pielhyters and deacons
who filled the firft Rations of thele orders, carried their
pretenfions to an extravagant length, and were offend¬
ed at the notion of being placed on an equality with
their colleagues. For this reafon they not only affu¬
med the titles of arch-prejhyters and arch-dcacons, but
alfo claimed a degree of authority and power much iu-
perior to that which was veiled in the other members
of their refpeddive orders. 71
In the fifth century, the bilhops of Conftantinople l ontefts
having already reduced under their jurifdiflion all
Afiatic provinces, began to grafp at Idill fuither accel-
fions of power. By the 28th canon of the council hdd:ina C.on-
at Chalcedon in 451, it was refolved, that the fameftantinopfe,
rights and honours which had been conferred on the
bilhop of Rome were due to the bilhop of Conftanti¬
nople, on account of the equal dignity and lull re of
the two cities in which thele prelates exercifed their
authority.
Sea. II. HIST
Ecclefia- authority. The fame council confirmed alfo, by a fo-
ftical lemn aft, the bifhop of Conftantinople in the fpiritual
, HatQfy- , government of thofe provinces over which he had
ufurped the jurifdiftion. Leo the Great, bilhop of
Rome, oppoled with vehemence the palling of thefe
laws j and his oppofition was feconded by that of le-
veral other prelates. But their efforts were vain, as
the emperors threw in their weight into the balance,
and thus fupported the decifions of the Grecian bi-
Ihops. In confequence, then, of the decilions of this
famous council, the bilhop of Conltantinople began to
contend obftinately for the fupremacy with the Ro¬
man pontiff, and to crufh the bifhops of Antioch and
Alexandria. About the fame time, Juvenal, bithop
of Jerufalem, attempted to withdraw himfelf and his
church from the jurifdiftion of the bifliop of Ceefarea,
and afpired after a place among the firfl prelates of
the Chriftian world. The high degree of veneration
and eiteem in which the church of Jerufalem was held
among all other Chriftian focieties (on account of its
rank among the apoftolical churches, and its title to the
appellation of mother-church, as having fucceeded the
firit Chriftian alfembly formed by the apoftles), was
extremely favourable to the ambition of Juvenal, and
rendered his projeft much more prafticable than it
would otherwife have been. Encouraged by this, and
likewife by the proteftion of Theodolius the younger,
this afpiring prelate not only affumed the dignity of
patriarch of all Paleftine, a rank jwhich rendered him
independent of all fpiritual authority; but alfo invaded
the rights of the bifhop of Antioch, and ufuvped his
jurifdiftion over the provinces of Phoenicia and Arabia.
Hence arofe a warm conteft between Juvenal and Ma¬
ximus bilhop of Antioch ; which the council of Chal-
cedon decided, by reftoring to the latter the provinces
of Phoenicia and Arabia, and confirming the former
in the fpiritual poffeflion of all Paleftine and in the high
rank which he had aflumed in the church.
In 588, John, bilhop of Conftantinople, furnamed
the Fajier, either by his own authority or that \of the
emperor Mauritius, fummoned a council at Conftanti¬
nople to inquire into an accufation brought againft
Gregory, bilhop of Antioch 5 and upon this occafion
affumed the title of oecumenical or univerfalbijhop. This
title had been formerly enjoyed by the bilhops of Con¬
ftantinople without any offence : but now, Gregory
the Great, at that time bithop of Rome, fufpefting
that John was aiming at the fupremacy over all the
churches, oppofed his claim with the greateft vigour.
For this purpofe he applied by letters to the emperor,
and others, whom he thought capable of aflilting him
in his oppofition ; but all his efforts were without ef-
feft ; and the bilhops of Conftantinople were allowed
to enjoy the difputed title, though not in the fenfe
which had alarmed the Roman pontiff.
Gregory, however, adhered tenacioufly to his pur¬
pofe, railed new tumults and diffenfions among the
clergy, and aimed at nothing lefs than an unlimited fu¬
premacy over the Chriltian church. This ambitious
defign fucceeded in the weft; while, in the eaftern
provinces, ||is arrogant pretenfions were fcarcely refpec-
ted by any but thofe who were at enmity with the bi¬
lhop of Conftantinople. How much the people were
at this time deluded by the Roman pontiffs, appears
frt>m the exprellion of Ennodius, one of the flatterers
o it .Y.
531
of Symmachus (who was a prelate of but ambiguous Ecclefia-
fame), that the Roman pontiff was conftituted judge in
the place of God, which he filled as the vicegerent of , —( 
the Moll High. On the other hand, it is certain, from
a variety of the moft authentic records, that both the
emperors and the nations in general were far from be¬
ing difpofed to bear with patience the yoke or lervi-
tude -ythich the fee of Rome was arrogantly irnpofing
on the whole church. 7a
In the beginning of the feventh century, according Origin of
to the moft learned hiftorians, Boniface III. engaged^16
Phocas, emperor of Conftantinople, to take from the
bilhop of that metropolis the title of oecumenical or"
univerfal bifhop, and to confer it upon the Roman pon¬
tiff j and thus was firlt introduced the fupremacy of the
pope. The Roman pontiffs ufed all methods to main¬
tain and enlarge this authority and pre-eminence, which
they had acquired from one of the moft: odious tyrants
that ever difgraced the annals of hiftory.
In the eighth century, the power of the bilhop of
Rome, and of the clergy in general, increafed prodi-
gioufly. The chief caule of this, befides the fuperfti-
tion of the people, was the method at that time ufed
by the European princes to fecure themlelves on their
thrones. All thefe princes being then employed
either in ufurpation or in felf-defence, aiid the whole
continent being in the moft unfettled and barbarous
condition, they endeavoui-ed to attach warmly to their
interefts thefe whom they confidered as their friends
and clients. For this purpofe they diftributed among
them extenfive territories, cities, and fortreffes, with
the various rights and privileges belonging to them *,
referving only to themfelves the fupreme dominion, and
the military fervice of thefe powerful vaffals. For this
reafon it was by the European princes reckoned a high
inftance of political prudence to diftribute among the
bilhops and other Chriftian doftors the fame fort of
donations which had formerly been given to their ge¬
nerals and clients. By means of the clergy, they
hoped to check the feditious and turbulent fpirits of
their vaffals \ and to maintain them in their obedience
by the influence and authority of their bilhops, whofe
commands were highly refpefted, and whofe fpiritual
thunderbolts, rendered formidable by ignorance, ftruck
terror into the boldeft and moft refolute hearts.
This prodigious acceftion to the opulence and au¬
thority of the clergy in the weft, began at their head,
viz. the Roman pontiff; from whence it fpread gra¬
dually among the inferior facerdotal orders. The bar¬
barous nations who had received the gofpel, looked up¬
on the bilhop of Rome as the fucceifor of their chief
druid or high prieft: and as this tremendous druid
had enjoyed, under the darknefs of Paganifm, a kind
of boundlefs authority ; fo thefe barbarous nations
thought proper to confer upon the chief bilhop the
fame authority which had belonged to the chief druid.
The pope received thefe auguft privileges with great
pleafure ; and left, upon any change of affairs, at¬
tempts Ihould be made to deprive him of them, he
ftrengthened his title to thefe extraordinary honours
by a variety of paffages drawn from ancient hiftory,
and, what is ftill more aftoniihing, by arguments of a
religious nature. This fwelled the Roman druid to
a 1 enormous lize ; and gave to the fee of Rome that
high pre-eminence and defpotic authority in civil and
3X2 political
552
political matters, that were unknown to former ages.
Hilary. ^encej aniong other unhappy ctrcumftances, arofe
>... y~-w that monftrous and pernicious opinion, that fuch per-
fons as were excluded from the communion of the
church by the pontiff himfelf, or any of the bifhops,
thus forfeited, not only their civil rights and advan¬
tages as citizens, but even the common claims and
'privileges of humanity. This horrid opinion, *vhich
was a fatal fource of wars, malfacres, and rebellions
without number, and which contributed more than
any thing elfe to confirm and augment the papal au¬
thority, was borrowed by the clergy from the Pagan
fuperftitions.—Though excommunication, from the
time of Conftantine the Great, was in every part of
the Chriftian world atfended with many difagreeable
effedfs 3 yet its higheft terrors were confined to Europe,
where its afpedt w as truly formidable and hideous. It
acquired alfo, in the eighth century, new acceflions
of terror 3 fo that from that period the excommunica¬
tion pradlifed in Europe differed entirely from that
which was in ufe in other parts of Chriftendom. Ex¬
communicated perfons were indeed confidered in all
places as objedts of hatred both to God and man 3 but
they wrere not, on that account, robbed of the privi-
. leges of citizens, nor of the rights of humanity 3 much
lefs were thofe kings and princes, whom an infolent
bifhop had thought proper to exclude from the com¬
munion of the church, fuppofed to forfeit on that ac¬
count their crowns or their territories. But from this
century it was quite otherwife in Europe. Excom¬
munication received that infernal power which diifolved
all connexions 5 fo that thofe whom the bifhops, or
their chief, excluded from church communion, w'ere
degraded to a level with the beafls. The origin of
this unnatural and horrid power was as follows. On
the converfion of the barbarous nations to Chriftian-
ity, thefe ignorant profelytes confounded the excom¬
munication in ufe among Chriflians with that which
had been pradtifed in the times of Paganifm, and
which was attended with all the dreadful effedls
above mentioned. The Roman pontiffs, on the other
hand, were too artful not to encourage this error 3
and therefore employed all forts of means to gain
credit to an opinion fo w7ell calculated to gratify their
ambition, and to aggrandize in general the epifcopal
73 order.
He becomes The annals of the French nation furnifh us with the
a temporal following inftance of the enormous power which was
prince. at t}jjs t;me veftecl Ju the Roman pontiff. Pepin, who
was mayor of the palace to Childeric III. king of
France, and who in the exercife of that high office
was poffeffed in reality of the royal power and autho¬
rity, afpired to the titles and honours of majefty alfo,
and formed a fcheme of dethroning his fovereign.
For this purpofe he aliembled the bates in 7 1; 1 3 and
though they were devoted to the intetefts of this am¬
bitious ufurper, they gave it as their opinion that the
bifhop of Rome was previoufly to be confulted whether
the execution of fuch a fcheme was lawful or not. In
eonfequence of this, ambaffadors were fent by Pepin
to Zachary, the reigning pontiff, with the follow¬
ing queftion, “ Whether the divine law did not per¬
mit a valiant and warlike people to dethrone a pu-
fillanimous and indolent prince %who was incapable
ef difcharging any of the functions of royalty 3 and to
Sea. 11:
fubftitute in his place one more worthy to rule, and Ecciefia-
who had already rendered moft important fervices to ftical
the Hate r' I he fituation of Zachary, who flood much f Hiftory. ^
in need of the fuccours of Pepin againfl the Greeks ~ v
and Lombards, rendered his anfwer fuch as the ufurper
defired : and when this favourable decifion of the Ro¬
man oracle was publifhed in France, the unhappy
Childeric was flvipped of his royalty without the leall
oppofition 3 and Pepin, without the fmallefl refiflance,
flepped into the throne of his mailer and his fove1-
reign. This decifion was folemnly confirmed by Ste¬
phen II. the fucceffor of Zachary 3 who undertook a
journey into France in the year j C4, in order to fo-
licit affiflance againil the Lombards. The pontiff at
the fame time difiblved the obligation of the oath of
fidelity and allegiance which Pepin had fworn to Chil¬
deric, and violated by his ufurpation in the year 751 3
and to render his title to the crown as facred as pof-
fible, Stephen anointed and crowned him, with his wife
and two ions, for the fecond time. This complaifance
of the pope was rewarded with the exarchate of Ra¬
venna and all its dependencies, as we have already re- ^
lated, See C/v// Hi/lory, N° 44. ftpra ; and Hiilory
of Italy.
In the fucceeding centuries, the Roman pontiffs con- His power
tinned to increafe their power by every kind of artifice inerea*
and fraud which can difhonour the heart of man 5 and,*63'
by continually taking, advantage of the civil diffeniions
which prevailed throughout Italy, France, and Ger¬
many, their influence in civil affairs rofe to an enor¬
mous height. The increafe of their authority in reli¬
gious matters was not lefs rapid. The wifefl and moil
impartial among the Roman Catholic writers acknow¬
ledge, that from the time of Louis the Meek the an¬
cient rules of ecclefiaflical government were gradually
changed in Europe by the counfels and infligation of
the church of Rome, and new laws fubflituted in their
place. The European princes fuffered themfelves to be
diverted of the fupreme authority in religious matters,
which they had derived from Charlemagne 3 the power
of the bifhops was greatly diminiffied, and even the
authority of both provincial and general councils began
to decline. The popes, elated wdth their overgrown
profperity, and become arrogant beyond meafure by
the daily acceffions that were made to their authority,
were eagerly bent upon eftablifhing the maxim, That
the biffiop of Rome was conflituted and appointed by
Jafus Chriil fupreme legiilator and judge of the church
univerfal 3 and that therefore the birtiops derived all
their authority from him. This opinion, which they
inculcated with the utmoft zeal and ardour, was oppo-
fed in vain by fuch as were acquainted with the ancient
ecclefiartical conllitutions, and the government of the
church in the earlier ages. In order to gain credit to
this new ecclefiaftical code, and to fupport the preten-
fions of the popes to fupremacy, it was neceffary to pro¬
duce the authority of ancient deeds, in order to flop the
mouths of luch as were difpofed to fet bounds to their
ufurpations. The biihops of Rome wTere aware of this 3
and as thofe means were looked upon as the moft law¬
ful that tended beft to the accomplifhment of their
purpofes, they employed fome of their moil ingenious
and zealous partifans in forging conventions, ads of
council?, epiilles, and fuch like records, byT which it
might appear, that in the firft ages of the church the
Romaa
H 1 S T O R Y.
Ecclefia-
ftical
Hiftory.
75
Extreme
infolence -■
of the
popes.
Sea. IT. H 1 ,S
Roman pontiffs were clothed with the fame fpiritual
majefty and fupreme authority which they now aifumed.
There were not, however, wanting among the bifhops
fome men of prudence and fagacity, who faw through
thefe impious frauds, and perceived the chains that
were forging both for them and the church. 1 he
French bilhops diilinguiihed themfelves eminently in
this refpeft : but their oppofition was foon quathed j
and as all Europe was funk in the groffeft ignorance
and darknefs, none remained who were capable of de¬
tecting thefe odious impoftures, or difpofed to fupport
the expiring liberty of the church.
This may ferve as a general fpecimen of the charac¬
ter and conduCt of the pretended vicegerents of Jefus
Chrift to the 16th century. In the nth century, in¬
deed, their power feems to have rifen to its utmoit
height. They now received the pompous titles of
Maflers of the World, and Popes, i. e. univerfsl fathers.
They prefided every where in the councils by their le¬
gates, afl'umed the authority of fupreme arbiters in all
controverfies that arofe concerning religion or church-
difcipline, and maintained the pretended rights of the
church againil the encroachments and ufurpations of
kings and princes. Their authority, however, was
confined within certain limits : for, on the one hand, it
was reftrained by fovereign princes, that it might not
arrogantly aim at civil dominion •, and on the other, it
was oppofed by the bithops themfelves, that it might
not arife to a fpiritual defpotilm, and utterly deftroy
the privileges and liberty of fynods and councils. From
the time of Leo IX. the popes employed every me¬
thod w'hich the moft artful ambition could fuggeft to
remove thofe limits, and to render their dominion both
defpotic and univerfal. They not only afpired to the
charader of fupreme legiflators in the church, to an
unlimited juril'diftion over all fynods and councils whe¬
ther general or provincial, to the foie dilfribution of
all ecclefiaftical honours and benefices, as divinely au-
thorifed and appointed for that purpofe *, but they car¬
ried their infolent pretenfions fo far, as to give them¬
felves out for lords of the univerfe, arbiters of the fate
of kingdoms and empires, and fupreme rulers over the
kings and princes of the earth. Hence we find inftan-
ces of their giving away kingdoms, and loofing fub-
jeffs from their allegiance to their fovereigns ; among
which the hilfory of John king of England is very re¬
markable. At laft they plainly aflumed the whole
earth as their property, as well where Chriftianity was
preached as where it was not *, and therefore, on the
difcovery of America and the Eaft Indies, the pope,
by virtue of this fpiritual property, granted to ihe Por-
tuguefe a right to all the countries lying eaflward, and
to the Spaniards all thofe lying to the weft ward, of
Cape Non in Africa, w’hich they were able to conquer
by force of arms •, and that nothing might be wanting
to complete their charafler, they pretended to be lords
of the future world alfo, and to have a power of reftrain-
ing even the divine juftice itfelf, and remitting that
puniOunent which the Deity hath denounced againft the
workers of iniquity.
All this time the powers of fuperftition reigned
Invocations triumphant over thofe remains of Chriftianity - which
of I dints, had efcaped the corruptions of the firft four centuries.
1 atcT' *:^e century began the invocation of the hap-
w.rodu’ced P.y ^ou^s departed faints. Their affiftance was in-
.75 .
Chriftiani¬
ty greatly
corrupted.
T O R Y. S3 3
treated by many fervent prayers, while none flood-up Ecclefia-
to oppofe this prepofterous kind of woriliip. The
images of thofe who during their lives had acquired the
reputation of uncommon fanflity, wTere now honoured
with a particular worftiip in feveral places ; and many
imagined that this drew into the images the propitious
prefence of the faints or celeftial beings wdiich they
were fuppofed to reprefent. A fingular and irrefiftible
efficacy was attributed to the bones of martyrs, and to
the figure of the crofs, in defeating all the attempts of
Satan, removing all forts of calamities, and in healing
not only the difeafes of the body, but alfo thofe of the
mind. The famous Pagan doctrine concerning the pu¬
rification of departed fouls by means of a certain kind
of fire, i. e. purgatory, was alfo confirmed and ex¬
plained more fully than it had formerly been •, and
every'one knows of how much coniequence this abfurd
doftrine hath been to the wealth and power of the Ro-
raifh clergy.
In the fixth century, Gregory the Great advanced
an opinion, That all the words of the facred writings
were images of invilible and fpiritual things ; for which
reafon he loaded the churches with a multitude of ce¬
remonies the moft infignificant and futile that can be
imagined ; and hence arofe a new and moft difficult
fcience, namely, the explication of thefe ceremonies,
and the inveftigation of the caufes and circumitances
whence they derived their origin. A new method was
contrived of adminiftering the' Lord’s fupper, with a
magnificent aflemblage of pompous ceremonies. This
was called the canon of the mafs. Baptiim, except in
cafes of neceflity, was adminiftered only on the great ^
feftivals. An incredible number of temples was erec- introduc-
ted in honour of the faints. The places fet apart for tion of the
public worftiip were alfo very numerous : but now they ma*"5’
were confidered as the means of purchafing the protec¬
tion and favour of the faints •, and the ignorant and
barbarous multitude were perfuaded, that thefe de¬
parted fpirits defended and guarded againft evils and
calamities of every kind, the provinces, lands, cities,
and villages in which they were honoured with temples.
The number of thefe temples was almoft equalled by
that of the feftivals, which feem to have been invented
in order to bring the Chriilian religion as near the mo¬
del of Paganifm as poffible. -
In the feventh century, religion feemed to be alto- saperft;-
getber buried under a heap of fuperftitious ceremonies jtion ftill
the worftiip of the true God and Saviour of the increafev
world was exchanged for the worffiip of bones, bits of
wood (laid to be of the crofs), and the images of faints.
The eternal ftate of mifery threatened in Scripture to
the wicked was exchanged for the temporary punilh-
ment of purgatory ; and the expreflions of faith in
Chrift by an upright and virtuous conduft, for the aug¬
mentation of the richea- of the clergy by donations to
the church, and the obfervance of a heap of idle cere¬
monies. New feftivals were ftilfi added j one in par¬
ticular was inftituted in honour of the true crofs on
which our Saviour fuffered: and chv.rches were declared
to be fandfuaries to all finch as tied to them, whatever
their crimes might have been.
Superftition, it would feem,, had now attained its
higheft pitch ; nor is it eafy to conceive a degree of ig¬
norance and degeneracy beyond what we have already
mentioned. If any thing can poflibly be imagined
more.'
354
Eccicfia- more contrary to true religion, it is an opinion which
Hi ft or v Preva^ec^ the eighth century, namely, That Chri-
iuans might appeafe an offended Deity by voluntary
a6ts of mortification, or by gifts and oblations lavifin-
ed on the church j and that people ought to place their
confidence in the works and merits of the faints. The
piety in this and fome lucceeding ages confided in
building and embellilhing churches and chapels j in en¬
dowing monaderies and bafilics} hunting after the re¬
lics of faints and martyrs, and treating them -with an
abfurd and exceffive veneration ; in procuring the in-
terceflion of the faints by rich oblations, or fuper-
ditious rites ; in wordiipping images j in pilgrimages
to thofe places which were edeemed holy, particu¬
larly to Paledine, &c. The genuine religion of Je-
fus was now utterly unknown both to clergy and
people, if we except a few of its general doedrines con¬
tained in the creed. In this century alfo, the fuper-
flitious cuftom offolitary majfcs had its origin. Thefe
were celebrated by the pried alone in behalf of fouls
detained in purgatory, as well as upon lotne other oc-
cafions. They were prohibited by the laws of the
church, but proved a fource of immenfe wealth to the
clergy. Under Charlemagne they were condemned
by a fynod affembled at Mentz, as criminal effects of
avarice and lloth. A new fuperdition, however, dill
fprung up in the tenth century. It was imagined, from
Rev. xx. i. that Antichrid was to make his appearance
on the earth, and that foon after the world itfelf would
be dedroyed. An univerfal panic enfued ; vad num¬
bers of people, abandoning all their connexions in fo-
ciety, and giving over to the churches and monalleries
all their wrorldly effeXs, repaired to Paledine, where
they imagined that Chrifi would defeend from heaven
to judge the world. Others devoted themfelves by a
folemn and voluntary oath to the fervice of the churches,
convents, and prielthood, whofe Haves they became,
in the mod rigorous fenfe of that w7ord, performing
daily their heavy talks *, and all this from a notion that
the fupreme Judge would diminilh the feverity of their
fentence, and look upon them with a more favourable
and propitious eye, on account of their having made
themfelves the Haves of his miniders. When an eclipfe
of the fun or moon happened to be vifible, the cities
were deferted, and their miferable inhabitants fled for
refuge to hollow caverns, and hid themfelves among
the craggy rocks, and under the bending fummits of
deep mountains. The opulent attempted to bribe the
faints and the Deity himfelf by rich donations confer¬
red upon the facerdotal tribe, who were looked upon
as the immediate vicegerents of heaven. In many
places, temples, palaces, and noble edifices both pub¬
lic and private, were fuffered to decay, nay, were deli¬
berately pulled down, from a notion that they were no
longer of any ufe, as the final diffolution of all things
was at hand. In a word, no language is fufficient to
exprefs the confufion and defpair that tormented the
minds of miferable mortals upon this occafion. The
general delufion was indeed oppofed and combated by
the difeerning few, who endeavoured to difpel thefe
terrors, and to efface the notion from which they arofe
in the minds of the people. But their attempts were
ineffeXual 5 nor could the dreadful appiehenfions of the
fuperftitious multitude be removed before the end of
Sea. n.
the century, and this terror became one of the acci- EcclefU-
dental caufes of the Croisades. ft'ca'
That nothing might now be wanting to complete Hiftory. ^
that antichriftian lyffem of religion which had over-
fpread all Europe, it was in the nth century deter¬
mined that divine worffiip Ihould be celebrated in the
Latin tongue, though now unknown throughout the
whole continent. During the whole of this century,
alfo, Chriftians were employed in the rebuilding
and ornamenting their churches, which they had de-
ftroyed through the fuperltkious fear already taken
notice of.
In much the fame way with what is above related,
or worfe if poflible, matters wrent on till the time of
the reformation. The clergy were immerfed in crimes
of the deepeft dye •, and the laity, imagining them¬
felves able to purchafe pardon of their fins for money,
followed the examples of their pallors wfithout remorfe. ^
The abfurd principle formerly mentioned, namely, Extrava-
that religion conlifts in aXs of aufterity, and an un-Sant beha-
known mental correfpondence with God, produced ^
the moll extravagant and ridiculous behaviour in the faints.
devotees and reputed faints. They not only lived
among the wild beafts, but alfo after the manner of
thefe favage animals: they ran naked through the
lonely deferts with a furious afpeX, and all the agita¬
tions of madnefs and frenzy •, they prolonged their
wretched life by grafs and wild herbs, avoided the fight
and converfation of men, remained almoft motionlefs in
certain places for feveral years, expofed to the rigour
and inclemency of the feafons, and towards the con-
clufion of their lives ftmt themfelves up in narrow and
miferable huts •, and all this wTas confidered as true
piety, the only acceptable method of worlhipping the
Deity and attaining a lhare in his favour.—But of
all the inftances of fuperflitious frenzy which difgraced
the times we now fpeak of, none was held in higher
veneration, or excited more the wonder of the multi¬
tude, than that of a certain order of men who wrere
called Stylites by the Greeks, and Sancii Columnaresy
or Pillar Saints, by the Latins. Thele wTere perfons
of a molt lingular and extravagant turn of mind, who
flood motionlefs on the tops of pillars exprefsly raifed
for this exercife of their patience, and remained there
for feveral years amidft the admiration and applaufe
of the flupid populace. The inventor of this ftrange
difeipline was one Simeon a Syrian, who began his
follies by changing the agreeable employment of a
fliepherd for the aufterities of a monkifli life. He be¬
gan his devotion on the top of a pillar fix cubits high j
but as he increafed in fanXity, he alfo increafed the
height of his pillar, till, towards the conclufion of his
life, he had got up on the . top of a pillar 40 cubits
in height. Many of the inhabitants of Syria and Pa-
leftine, feduced by a falfe ambition and an utter igno¬
rance of true religion, followed the example of this fa¬
natic, though not with the fame degree of aufterity.
This fuperftitious praXice began in the fifth century,
and continued in the eaft for 600 years. The Latins,
however, had too much wfifdom and prudence to imi¬
tate the Syrians and Orientals in this whimfical fuper-
ftition ; and when a certain fanatic, or impoftor, named
WuljUaicus, ereXed one of thefe pillars in the country
of Treves, and propofed to live on it after the manner
HISTORY.
1
Se&. II-
Ecclefia-
ftical
Hiltory.
So
Rife of Ma
hometan-
iftn.
Si
State of re-
iipion tn
the begin¬
ning of the
16th cen-
tuiy and
fince that
time.
H I S T
of Simeon, the neighbouring biChops ordered it to be
pulled down.
The praclices of auftere worfhip and difcipline in
ether refpeds, however, gained ground throughout
all parts of Chriilendom. Monks of various kinds
were to be found in every country in prodigious num¬
bers. But though their difcipline was at firft exceed¬
ingly fevere, it became gradually relaxed, and the
monks gave into all the prevailing vices of the times.
Other orders fucceeded, who pretended to ftill great¬
er degrees of fanftity, and to reform the abufes of
the preceding ones ; but thefe in their turn became
corrupted, and fell into the fame vices they had bla¬
med in others. The moll violent animofities, difputes,
and hatred, alfo reigned among the different orders of
monks j and, indeed, between the clergy of all ranks
and degrees, whether we conhder them as clafled in
different bodies, or as individuals of the fame body.
To enter into a detail of their ivranglings and dif¬
putes, the methods which each of them took to ag-
grandife themfelves at the ^expence of their neigh¬
bours, and to keep the reft of mankind in fubjedlion,
would require many volumes. We fhall only obferve,
therefore, that even the external profeffion of the au¬
ftere and abfurd piety which took place in the fourth
and fifth centuries, continued gradually to decline.
Some there ivere, indeed, who boldly oppofed the tor¬
rent of fuperftition and wickednefs which threatened
to overflow' the w'hole wmrld: but their oppofition
proved fruitlefs, and all of thefe towards the era of the
reformation had been either filenced or deftroyed : fo
that, at that time, the pope and clergy reigned over
mankind without controul, had made themfelres ma¬
ilers of almoft all the wealth in every country of Eu¬
rope, and may truly be faid to have been the only fo-
vereigns ; the reft of the human race, even kings and
princes, being only their vaffals and Haves.
While the Popifh fuperftition reigned thus violently
in the weft, the abfurd doilrines of Mahomet over-
fpread all the eaft. The rife of this impoftor is rela¬
ted under the article Arabia. His fucceffors con¬
quered in order to eftablifh the religion of their apoftle j
and thus the very name of Chriftianity was extinguifhed
in many places w'here it had formerly flourifhed. The
conquefts of the Tartars having intermingled them
with the Mahometans, they greedily embraced the fu-
perftitions of that religion, v'hich thus almoft entirely
overfpread the whole continents of Afia and Africa ;
and, by the conqueft of Conftantinople by the Turks
in 1453, w-as likewife eftablifhed throughout a confxder-
able part of Europe.
About the beginning of the 16th century, the Ro¬
man pontiffs lived in the utmofl: tranquillity 5 nor had
they, according to the appearance of things at that
time, any reafon to fear an oppofttion to their autho¬
rity in any refpetl, fince the commotions which had
been raifed by the W'aldenfes, Albigenfes, &c. wrere
nowT entirely fuppreffed. We muft, not, however,
conclude, from this apparent tranquillity and fecurity
of the pontiffs and their adherents, that their meafures
were univerfally applauded. Not only private perfons,
but alfo the moft powerful princes and fovereign ftates,
exclaimed loudly againft the tyranny of the popes,
and the unbridled licentioufnefs of the clergy of all
denominations. They demanded, therefore, a refor.-
O Pt Y.
535
mation of the church in its head and members, and a Ecclefia-
general council to accomplilh that neceffary purpofe.
But thefe complaints and demands were not carried to ; 
fuch a length as to produce any good effe£l j fince
they came from perfons who never entertained the leaft
doubt about the fupreme authority of the pope in re¬
ligious matters, and wdro, of confequence, inftead of
attempting themfelves to bring about that reformation
which vras fo ardently defired, remained entirely in¬
active, or looked for redrefs to the court of Rome, or
to a general council. But while the fo much defired re¬
formation feemed to be at fuch a great diftance, it fud-
denly arofe from a quarter whence it was not at all
expefled. A fingle perfon, Martin Luther, a monk of
the order of St Auguftine, ventured to oppofe himfelf
to the whole torrent of papal power and defpotifm.
This bold attempt w7as firft made public on the 30th of
September 1517; and notwdthftanding all the efforts
of the pope and his adherents, the dodlrines of Luther
continued daily to gain ground. Others, encouraged
by his fuccefs, lent their afliftance in the wTork of refor¬
mation ; which at laft produced new churches, founded
upon principles quite different from that of Rome, and
which ftill continue. But for a particular account of
the tranfaflions of the firft reformers, the oppofition
they met with, and the final fettlement of the reformed
churches in different nations in Europe, fee the articles
Luther and Reformation.
The ftate of religion in other parts of the wmrld
feems as yet to be but little altered. Afia and Africa
are funk in the groffeft fuperftitions either of the Ma¬
hometan or Pagan kinds. The fouthern continent
of America, belonging to the Spaniards, continues
immerfed in the moft abfurd fuperftitions of Popery.
The northern continent, being moftly peopled with
colonies from Great Britain, profeffes the refornfed re¬
ligion. At the fame time it muft be owned, that fome
kind of reformation hath taken place even in Popery
and ?4lahometanifm themfelves. The popes have no
longer that authority over ftates and princes, even thofe
moft bigotted to Popery, which they formerly had.
Neither are the lives either of the clergy or laity fo
corrupt as they were before. The increafe of learning
in all parts of the world has contributed to caufe men
open their eyes to the light of reafon, and this hath
been attended with a proportional decreafe of fuper¬
ftition. Even in Mahometan countries, that furious
enthufiafm which formerly emboldened their inhabitants
to face the greateft dangers,, hath now7 almoft vaniflied j
fo that the credit of Mahomet himfelf feems to have
funk much in the eftimation of his followers. This is
to be underftood even of the moft ignorant and bigo¬
ted multitude $ and the fenfible part of the Turks are
faid to incline much toxvards deifm. With regard to
thofe nations which flill profefs Paganifm, the inter-
courfe of Europeans with them is fo fmall, that it is
impoffible to fay any thing concerning them. As
none of them are in a ftate of civilization, however, it
may be coniedlured, that their religion is of the fame
unpoliflied call with their manners; and that it confifts
of a heap of barbarous fuperftitions which have been
handed down among them from time immemorial, and
which they continue to obferve without knowing why
or wherefore.
Sect; .
HIST
536
Com por¬
tion of
Tliftoiy.
Si
Cicero’s
•'rules.
Dt Or at.
lib. ii.c. 15.
Sect, III. Of the Coinpojition of Hifory.
Cicero has given us the 3311016 art of compoiing
hiftory, in a very Ihort and comprehet-ifive manner.
We lhall iirft tranfcribe ivhat he fays, and then con-
fid er the feveral parts of it in their proper order.
“ No one is ignorant (fays he), that the firft law in
writing hiftory is, Not to dare to fay any thing that
is falfe 5 and the next, Not to be afraid to fpeak the
truth : that on the one hand there be no fufpicion of
affe&ion, nor of prejudice on the other. Thefe foun¬
dations are what all are acquainted with.. But the
fuperftrudlure confifts partly in things, and partly in
the ftyle or language. The former require an order
of times, and defcriptions of places. And becaufe
in great and memorable events, we are defirous to
know firft their caufes, then the aflions themfelves,
and laftly their confequences \ the hiftorian Ihould
take notice of the fprings or motives that occafioned
them 5 and, in mentioning the fafts themfelves, ftiould
not only relate what was done or faid, but likewife
in what manner ; and, in treating upon their confe¬
quences, fhow if they were the effefts of chance, wif-
dom, or imprudence. Nor fhould he only recite the
adlions of great and eminent perfons, but likewife de-
fcribe their charafters. The ftyle ought to be fluent,
fmooth, and even, free from that harfhnefs and poig¬
nancy which is ufual at the bar.” Thus far Cicero.
A hiftory written in this manner, and furnifhed with
all thefe properties, muft needs be very entertaining,
as well as inftruftive. And perhaps few haVfe come
nearer this plan than Tacitus 5 though his fubjeft is
attended with this unhappy circumftance, or at leaft
unpl^pfant one, that it affords us examples rather of
what we ought to avoid than what to imitate. But
it is the bufinefs of the hiftorian, as well as of the
philofopher, to reprefent both virtues and vices in
their proper colours} the latter doing it by precepts,
and the former by examples. Their manner is dif¬
ferent *, but the end and defign of both is, or ftiould
be, the fame : And therefore hiftory has not improper¬
ly been faid by fome to be moral philofophy exempli¬
fied in the lives and adfions of mankind.
We fhall reduce thefe feveral things mentioned by
Cicero to three heads, Matter, Order, and Style ; and
treat upon each of them feparately. But as Truth is
the bafis and foundation of all hiftory, it will be ne-
ceffary to confider that in the firft place.
Of-hiftoric
truth.
Art. 1. Of Truth in Hiftory.
Truth is, as it were, the very life and foul of
hiftory, by which it is diftinguifhed from fable or ro¬
mance. A hiftorian therefore ought not only to be
a man of probity, but void of all paflion or bias. He
muft have the fteadinefs of a philofopher, joined with
the vivacity of a poet or orator. Without the former,
he will be infenfibly fwayed by fome paffion to give
a falfe colouring to the adlions or charafters he de-
icribes, as favour or diftike to parties or perfons affe£t
his mind. Whereas he ought to be of no party, nor
to have either friend or foe while writing ; but to pre-
ferve himfelf in a ft ate of the greateft indifferency to
41, that he may judge of things as they really are in
I
O R Y. Sea. lit.
their orvn nature, and not as conne&ed with this or Compofi-
that perfon or party. And with this firm and fedate t'011 ot
temper, a lively imagination is requifite j without, Hiftorw
which his defcriptions will be flat and cold, nor will
he be able to convey to his readers a iuft and adequate
idea of great and generous aflions. Nor is the aflift-
ance of a good judgment lefs neceflary than any of
the former qualities, to diredl him what is proper to be
faid and what to be omitted, and to treat every thing
in a manner fuitable to its importance. And fince
thefe are the qualifications neceffary for a hiftorian, it
may perhaps feem the lefs ftrange that we have fo few
good hiftories.
But hiftorical truth confifts of two parts j one is, Not
to lay any thing we know to be falfe : Though it is
not fufficient to excufe a hiftorian in relating a falfe-
hood that he did not know it was fo when he wrote
it, unlefs he firft ufed all the means in his power to
inform himfelf of the truth ; for then, undoubtedly,
an invincible error is as unpardonable in hiftory as in
morality. But the generality of writers in his kind
content themfelves with taking their accounts from
hearfays, or tranfcribing them from others; with¬
out duly weighing the evidence on which they are
founded, or giving themfelves the trouble of a ftrift
inquiry. Few will-ufe the diligence neceffary to in¬
form themfelves of the certainty of what they under¬
take to relate. And as the want of this greatly abates
the pleafure of reading fuch writers, while perfons
read with diffidence j fo nothing more recommends an
hiftorian than fuch induftry. Thus we are informed
of Thucydides, that when he wrote his hiftory of the
Peloponnefian war, he did not fatisfy himfelf with the
beft accounts he could get from his countrymen the
Athenians, fearing they might be partial in their owm
caufe •, but fpared no expence to inform himfelf how
the fame fadls were related by their enemies the Lace¬
demonians ; that, by comparing the relations of both
parties, he might better judge of the truth. And
Polybius took greater pains than he, in order to wwite
his hiftory of the Roman affairs •, for he travelled into
Africa, Spain, Gaul, and other parts of the wrorld,
that by viewdng the feveral fcenes of a&ion, and in¬
forming himfelf from the inhabitants, he might come
at a greater certainty of the faffs, and reprelent them
in a julfer light. But as an hiftorian ought not to
affert what he knows to be falfe ; fo he ftiould likewife
be cautious in relating things which are doubtful, and
acquaint his readers with the evidence he goes upon
in fuch faffs, from wffience they may be able to judge
how far it is proper to credit them. So Herodotus
tells us what things he faw himfelf in his travels, and,
what he heard from the information of the Egyptian
priefts and others with wdiom he converfed. And Cur-
tius, in the life of Alexander, fpeaking of the affairs
of India, ingenuoufly confeffes, that he wrote more
than he fully believed. “ For (fays he) I neither dare
to affirm politively what I doubt of, nor can I think it
proper to omit what I have been told.” By fuch a
conduff the author fecures his credit, whether the
things prove really true or falfe •, and gives room for
further inquiry, without impofing on his readers.
The other branch of hiftorical truth is, Not to omit
any thing that is true, and neceffary to fet the matter
treated of in a cl^ar and full light. In the affions of
pait
Se&. in.
HIST
Hiftory.
Compofi- pad ages or Jillant countries, wherein the writer has
tion at no perfonal concern, he can have no great induce-
, ment to break in upon this rule. But where intereit
or party is engaged, it requires no fmall candour, as
well as firmnefs of mind, conftantly to adhere to it.
Affe&ion to fome, averfion to others, fear of dif-
obliging friends or thofe in power, will often inter-
pofe and try his integrity. Befides, an omiffion is
lefs obvious to cenfure than a falfe affertion: for the
one may be eaiily aferibed to ignorance or forgetful-
nefs; whereas the other will, if difeovered, be com¬
monly looked upon as defign. He therefore who, in
fuch circumftances, from a generous love to truth, is
fuperior to all motives to betray or ftifle it, juiily de-
ferves the charadfer of a brave as well as honed man.
What Polybius fays upon this head is very well worth
remarking : “ A good man ought to love his friends
and his country, and to have a like difpofition with
them, both towards their friends and enemies.' But
when he takes upon him the charadler of a hidorian,
they mud all be forgot. He mud often fpeak well
of his enemies, and commend them when their aftions
deferve it •, and fometimes blame, and even upbraid
his greated friends, when their condudt makes it ne-
ceffary. Nor mud he forbear fometimes to reprove,
and at other times to commend, the fame perfons j
fince all are liable to midake in their management,
and there are fcarce any perfons who are always in
the wrong. Therefore, in hidory, all perfonal con-
iiderations fhould be laid afide, and regard had only to
their aefions.”
What a different view of mankind and their aflions
ihould we have were theie rules obierved by all hi-
dorians ? Integrity is undoubtedly the principal qua¬
lification of a hidorian j when we can depend upon
this, other imperfeclions are more eafily paffed over.
Suetonius is faid to have written the lives of the fird
twelve Roman emperors with the fame freedom where¬
with they themfelves lived. What better charadler
can be given of a writer i1 The lame ingenuous tem¬
per appears in the two Grecian hidorians above men¬
tioned, Thucydides and Polybius: The former of
whom, though banidied by his countrymen the Athe¬
nians, yet expreffes no marks of refentment in his
hidory, either againd them in general, or even againd
the chief authors of it, when he has occalion to men¬
tion them ; and the latter does not forbear cenfuring
what he thought blameable in his neared relations
and friends. But it is often no eafy matter to know
W'hether a hidorian fpeaks truth or not, and keeps
up to the feveral charadfers here mentioned ; though
it feems reafonable, upon the common principles of
judice due to all mankind, to credit him where no
marks of partiality or prejudice appear in his writings.
Sometimes, indeed, a judgment may in a good mea-
fure be formed of the veracity of an author from his
manner of expreffmg himfelf. A certain candour and
franknefs, that is always uniform and confident with
itfelf, runs through their writings who have nothing
in view but truth, which may be judly elleemed as a
very good evidence of their dneerity. Whereas thofe
who have partial defigns to anfwer are commonly
more clofe and covert 5 and if at other times they- af-
fume an air of opennefs and freedom, yet this is not
condant and even, but foon followed again with the
Vol. X. Part II.
537
Compofi-
tion of
Hiftory.
O R Y.
appearance of fome bias and referve : for it is very
difficult to a£I a part long together without lying
open to a difeovery. And therefore, though craft and
delign is exceeding various, and, Proteus-like, aflumes
very diderent drapes, there are certain characters by
which it may often be perceived and detected. Tims,
where things are uncertain by reafon of their being
reported various ways, it is partiality in a hidorian
to give into the mod unfavourable account, where
others are as well known and equally credible. Again,
it is a proof of the fame bad temper, wffien the fads
themfelves are certain and evident, but the delign and
motives of thofe concerned in them are unknown and
obfeure, to affign fome ill principle, fuch as avarice,
ambition, malice, intered, or any other vicious habit,
as the caul’e of them. This con dud: is not only un-
jud to the petfons whofe aClions they relate ; but
hurtful to mankind in general, by endeavouring to
dedroy the principal motive to virtue, which fprings
from example. Others, who affed to be more covert,
content themfelves wnth fufpicious and Hy infinuatious 3
and then endeavour to come off, by intimating their
unwillingnefs to believe them, though they would have
their readers do fo. And to mention no more, there
are others, who, when they have loaded perfons with
unjud calumnies and reflections, will allow them fome
flight commendations, to make what they have faid
before look more credible, and themfelves lefs partial.
But the honed and faithful hidorian contemns all fuch
low and mean arts 3 he conliders things as they are
in themfelves, and relates them as he finds them with¬
out prejudice or affeftion.
Art. II. The Subject or Argument of Hidory.
The fubjeB in general is faCts, together with fuch
things as are either conneCIed with them, or may at^’^01y'
lead be requifite to fet them in a jult and proper light.
But although the principal defign of hidory be to ac¬
quaint us with fads, yet all fads do not merit the
regard of an hidorian 3 but fuch only as may be thought
of ufe and fervice for the condud of human life. Nor
is it allowable for him, like the poet, to form the plan
and fcheme of his work as he pleafes. His bufinefs
is to report things' as he finds them, without any co¬
louring or difguife to make them more pleadng and
palatable to his reader, which would be to convert his
hidory into a novel. Indeed, fome hidories afford
more pleafure and entertainment than others, from the
nature of the things of which they condd 3 and it may
be edeemed the happinefs of an hidorian to meet with
luch a fubjed, but it is not his fault if it be otherwife.
Thus Herodotus begins his hidory with Ihowing, that
the barbarians gaye the fird occafion to the wars be¬
tween them and the Greeks, and ends it with an ac¬
count of the puniffiment which, after fome ages, they
fuffered from the Greeks on that account. Such a re¬
lation mud not only be very agreeable to his country¬
men the Grecians, for whofe fakes it was written 3 but
likewife very indrudive, by informing them of the juf-
tice of Providence in punifhing public injuries in this
world, wherein focieties, as fuch, are only capable of
puniffiment. And therefore thofe examples might be of
ufe to caution them againd the like pradices. On the
contrary, Thucydides begins his hidory with the un¬
happy date of his countrymen the Athenians 3 and in
3 Y the
84
538 HIST
Conipofi- the courfe of it plainly intimates, that they were the
tion of caufe of the calamitous war between them and the
. ‘ . Lacedemonians. Whereas, had he been more inclined
to pleafe and gratify his countrymen than to write
the truth, he might have fet things in fuch a light as
to have made their enemies appear the aggreffors.
But he fcorned to court applaufe at the expence of
truth and jultice, and has fet a noble example of in¬
tegrity to all future hidorians. But as all actions do
not merit a place in hiilory, it requires no fmall judge¬
ment in an hiitorian to feletd lucli only as are proper.
Cicero obferves very jullly, that hiftory “ is conver-
fant in great and memorable aftions.” For this rea-
fon, an hiitorian tliould always keep pofterity in view ;
and relate nothing which may not, upon fome account
or ocher, be worth the notice of after-ages. To de-
Icend to trivial and minute matters, fuch as frequently
occur in the common affairs of life, is below the dig¬
nity of hiffory. Such writers ought rather to be deemed
journalifts than hiftorians, who have no view or ex¬
pectation that their works Ihould furvive them. But
the Ikitful hittorian is fired with a more noble ambi¬
tion. His defign is to acquaint fucceeding ages with
WThat remarkable occurrences happened in the world
before them j to do juftice to the memory of great
and virtuous men ; and at the fame time to perpetuate
his own. Pliny the younger has fome fine reflections
upon this head, in a letter to a friend. “ You advife
me (fays he) to write an hiftory •, and not you only,
for many others have done the fame, and I am myfelf
inclined to it. Not that I believe myfelf qualified for
it, which would be radr to think till I have tried it;
but becaufe I edeem it a generous action not to fuffer
thofe to be forgotten wdiofe memory ought to be eter-
nifed ; and to perpetuate the names of others, together
with one’s own. For there is nothing I am fo defirous
or ambitious of, as t® be remembered hereafter ; which
is a thing worthy of a man, efpeeially of one who, con-
feious of no guilt, has nothing to fear from poderity.
Therefore I am thinking day and night by what means,
as Virgil fays,
 My name
To raife aloft :
That would fuftice me j for it is above my widi to add
with him,
 and wing my flight to fame.
But oh !
I<ib. v. However, this is enough, and what hiftory alone feems
ep- 8. to promife.” This was Pliny’s opinion wfith regard
to the ufe and advantage of hiftory •, the fubjefts of
which are generally matters of weight and importance.
And therefore, when a prudent hiftorian thinks it
convenient to take notice of things in themfelves lefs
confiderable, he either does it with brevity, or for
fome apparent reafon, or accounts for it by fome juft
apology. So Dion Caffius, when he has mentioned
fome things of lefs moment in the life of Commodus
(as indeed that emperor’s life was chiedy filled up with
cruelty and folly), makes this excufe for himfelf: “ I
would not have it thought that I defeend below the
gravity of hiftory in writing thefe things : For, as
they were the aftions of an emperor, and I was pre-
fiait and faw them all, and both heard and converfed
O R Y. Sea. HI.
with him, I did not think it proper to omit them.” Ccmpofi-
He feems to think thofe actions, wben performed by _*'on
an emperor, might be worth recording, which, if done . .
by a perfon of inferior rank, would fcarce have deferved
notice. Nor does he appear to have judged amifs,
if we confider what an influence the conduct and be¬
haviour of princes, even in the common circumftances
of life, have upon all beneath them •, which may fome-
times render them not unworthy the regard of an hi-
dorian, as examples either for imitation or caution.
But although fa£ts in general are the proper fub-
jeift of hiftory, yet they may be differently confidered
with regard to the extent of them, as they relate either g-
to particular perfons or communities of men. And Different
from this coniideration hidory has been diftinguifhed in- of
to three forts, viz. biography, particular and general hi- ht^ory*
Jhory. The lives of fingle perfons is called biography.
By particular hi/fory is meant that of particular dates,
whether for a Ihorter or longer fpace of time. And
general hijlory contains an account of feveral dates exift-
ing together in the fame period of time.
I. The fubjecis of biography are the lives either of
public or private perfons ; for many ufeful obferva-
tions in the condutf of human life may be made from
juft accounts of thofe who have been eminent and be¬
neficial to the world in either Ration. Nay, the lives
of vicious perfons are not without their ule, as warn¬
ings to others, by obferving the fatal confeqitCnces
which fooner or later generally follow fuch practices.
But for thofe who expofed their lives, or otherwife
employed their time and labour, for the fervice of their
fellow-creatures, it feems but a juft debt that their
memories fhould be perpetuated after them, and po¬
fterity acquainted with their benefa&ors. The ex¬
pectation of this was no finall incentive to virtue in
the Pagan world. And perhaps every one, upon due
reflection, will be convinced how natural this paflion is
to mankind in general. And it was for this reafon,
probably, that Virgil places not only hi» heroes, but
alfo the inventors of ufeful arts and fciences, and other
perfons of didinguifhed merit, in the Llylian Fields,
where he thus deferibes them :
Here patriots live, who, for their country’s good,
In fighting fields were prodigal of blood ;
Priefts of un blend fil’d lives here make abode,
And poets worthy their infpiring god ;
And fearching wits of more mechanic parts,
Who grac’d their age with new invented arts j
Thofe who to worth their bounty did extend,
And thofe who knew that bounty to commend :
The heads of thefe with holy fillets bound,
And all their temples were with garlands crown’d.
AiNEID, vi. 66.
In the lives of public perfons, their public charaClers
are principally, but not folely, to be regarded. The
world is inquifitive to know the conduCt of princes
and other great men, as well in private as public.
And both, as has been faid, may be of fervice, confi-
dering the influence of their examples. But to be
over-inquifitive in fearching into the weakneffes and
infirmities of the greateft or bed of men, is, to fay
no more of it, but a needlefs curiofity. In the writers.,
of this kind, Plutarch is judly allowed to excel.
But it has been a matter of difpute among the
. learned.
Ad Fam
lib. v.
ep. 12.
Lib. viii.
ep. i.
Sea. III. H I s T
C.rr.nor,- learned, whether any one ought to write his own
' hiftory. It may be pleaded m favour ol this, that
no one can be fo mucli mafter of tbe fubjeft as the
perfon himfelf: and befides, there are many inftances,
both ancient and modern, to juftify fuch a conduct.
But on the other hand it muft be owned, that there are
manv inconveniences which attend it •, fome of which
are mentioned by Cicero. “ If (fays, he) there is any
thing commendable, perfons are obliged to .fpeak o
themfelves with greater modefly, and. to omit what is
blameable in others. Befides, what is faid is not fo
foon credited, and has lefs authority ; and after all,
many will not flick to cenfure it.” And Pliny lays
very well to the fame purpofe, “ Thofe who proclaim
their owm virtues, are thought not fo much to proclaim
them becaufe they did them, as to have done them that
they might proclaim them. So that which would have
appeared great if told by another, is loft when related
by the party himfelf. For when men cannot deny the
faft, the^refleft upon the vanity of its author. Where¬
fore, if you do things not worth mentioning, the athons
themfelves are blamed •, and if the things you do are
commendable, you are blamed for mentioning them.
Thefe refleaions will be generally allowed to be very
juft ; and yet confidering how natural it. is for men to
love themfelves, and to be inclined in their own favoui,
it feems to be a very difficult talk, for any one to write
an impartial hiftory of his owm aftions. Ihere is fcarce
any treatife of this kind that is more celebrated than
Ceefar’s Commentaries. And yet Suetonius tells us,
that “ Afinius Pollio (who lived at that time.) thought
they wrere neither written with due care nor integrity .
that Caefar w'as often too credulous in his accounts of
what was done by other perfons ; and mifreprefented
his own aflions, either defignedly, or through forget-
fulnefs 5 and therefore he fuppofes he would have, re-
vifed and corredled them.” How'ever, at fome times
it may doubtlefs be juftifiable for a perfon to be his
own hiftorian. Plutarch mentions two cates wherein
it is allowable for a man to commend himfelf, and be
the publilher of his owm merits. Ihefe are, when
the doing of it may be of confiderable advantage, ei¬
ther to himfelf or others. It is indeed lels invidious
for other perfons to undertake the. province. And
efpecially for a perfon to talk or w7rite of his owm vii-
tues, at a time when vice and a general corruption of
manners prevails, let what he fays be ever fo tiue, it
will be apt at leaft to be taken as a retle£!ion upon
others. “ Anciently (fays Tacitus), many wrote
their owm lives, rather as a teftimony of their conduft,
than from pride.” Upon which he makes this judi¬
cious remark : 44 That the more virtue abounds, the
fooner tbe reports of it are credited.” But the an¬
cient w'riters had a w’ay of taking off the reader s. at¬
tention from themfelves in recording their own actions,
and fo rendering what they faid lefs invidious ; and that
was, by fpeaking of themfelves in the third perfon, and
not in the firft. Thus Caefar never fays, 44 / did,” or,
44 / faid, this or that’,” but alwrays, 44 Ccrfar did, or
faid, fo and fo.” Why the moderns have not more
chofen to follow them in this, we know not, fince it
feems lefs exceptionable.
2. In a continued hiftory of particular ftates, fome
account may be given of their original, and founders •,
the nature of their foil, and fituation j what ad van-
o R Y. ,
tages they have for their fupport or improvefnent, ei- ^
ther within themfelves, by foreign traffic, or con- Hillory<
quefts $ with the form of their government. Then   >
notice fliould be taken of the methods by which they
increafed in wealth or power, till they gradually ad¬
vanced to their higbeft pitch of grandeur ; whether
by their virtue, the goodnefs of their conftitution,
trade, induftry, wars, or whatever caufe. Alter tins
the reafons of their declenfion lliould be Ihown ; what
were the vices that principally occaftoned it (.oi that
is generally the cafe) $ whether avarice, ambition, lux¬
ury, difeord, cruelty, or feveral of thefe in conjunaion.
And laftly, where that has been their unhappy fate,
how they received their final rum and fubverfion. Isloi.
of thefe things Livy had in view when he wrote his hi-
ftory of this Roman Hate, as he acquaints his readers in
the preface. 44 The accounts (fays he) of what hap¬
pened either before or while the city was building, con¬
fining rather of poetical fables than any certain iccoiui
of fadls, I {hall neither affert nor confute them. Let
antiquity be allowed to make the origin of their cities
more venerable, by uniting things human and. divine.
But if any nation may be fuftered to fetch their origin
from the gods, fuch is the military glory of the Ro¬
mans, that when they reprefent Mars as the father or
their founder, other nations may as eafily acquiefce in
this as they do in their government. But I lay no
great ftrefs upon thefe things, and others of the Iffie
nature, wffiatever may be thought of them. V* hat I
am defirous every one ffiould carefully attend to, aie
our lives and manners: by what men, and what arts,
civil and military, the empire was both acquired and
enlarged : then let him obferve, how our manners gra¬
dually declined with our difeipline •, afterwards grew
worfe and vvorfe j and at length fo far degenerated, t^at
at prelent we can neither bear with our vices noi {auei
them to be remedied. I his is the chief benefit and ad¬
vantage to be reaped from hiftory, to fetch inftru'tion
from eminent examples of both kinds j in order to imi¬
tate the one, which will be of ufe both to yourlelf and
your country, and avoid the other, which aie equally
bafe in their rile and event.” Ihus far Livy. And
how well he has executed this defign muft be acknow¬
ledged by all who will be at the pains to perufe his
work. _ . f
3. But as a particular hiftory confifts in a number of
fafts relating to the fame ftate, fuitably connected and
laid together in a proper feries j io a geiiei al hiftory is
made up of feveral particular hiftories, whofe feparate
tranfa&ions within the fame period of time, or part of
it, ftiould be fo diftinaiy related, as to caufe no conffi-
fion. Such w'as the hiftory of Diodorus Siculus, which
contained an account of moft of the eminent ftates and
kingdoms in the world, though far the greateft pait of
it is now unhappily loft. Of the fame nature is the hi¬
ftory of Herodotus, though not fo extenfive j to whom
we are elpecially indebted for the Perfian atiairs. And
to this kind may likewife be referred .luftin’s hiftory,
though it be only the epitome of a large'r work written
by another hand. I he rules proper for conducting
fuch hiftories are much the fame as thofe above men¬
tioned concerning particular hiftories ; excepting-what
relates'to the order, of which we {hall have occafion to
{peak hereafter. .
But the hiftories both of particular ftates and thole
2 y 2 which
54° HIST
^ are more gerxeral frequently contain only the af-
Hiltory. fflrS °f 1'orr)e ih:rt Pcriod of time. Thus the hiftory of
t.je Peloponnefian war, written by Thucydides, com-
pnfes only what was done in the firit 20 years of that
war, which lafted feven years longer than his account
reaches though indeed the reafon of that might be,
becaufe Thucydides died before the war was finithed*
otherwife he would very probably have continued his’
hiftory to the conclufion of it. But the hiftory of the
war between the Romans and King Jugurtha in Afri¬
ca, given us by Salluft, as alfo Ccefar’s hiftories of the
Gallic and civil wars, are all confined within a much
lefs number of years than that of Thucydides. Nay,
Sometimes one fingle tranfaftion is thought fuihcient to
furnilh out a hiftcry. Such was the conlpiracy of Ca¬
tiline to fubvert the Roman ftate, written likewife by
Salluft. As to more general hiftories, Xenophon’s hi¬
ftory of Greece may be efteemed as fuch •, which in or-
oer of time iucceeds that of 1 hucydides, and contains
the affairs of 48 years. And Polybius called his a gc-
?tci al hiftory ; which, though it principallyp contained
the Roman affairs, yet took in the moft remarkable
tranfattions of feveral other ftates, for the fpace of 53
years : tnough it has met with the fame hard fate as
that of Diodorus Siculus, fo that only the firft five
books out of forty, of which it confifted at firft, now
remain entire. And to mention no more, the celebra¬
ted hiftory of Thuanus is another inftance of this fort,
in ivhich the principal tranfaftions of Europe for about
60 years, chiefly in the 16th century, are deferibed
with that judgment and fidelity, and in a manner fo ac¬
curate and beautiful, that he has been thought fcarcely
inferior to any of the ancient hiftorians. Now', in fuch
hiftories as thefe, to go farther back than is neceffary to
let the fubjedt in a juft light, feems as improper as it is
unneceffary.
0 R Y- Sea. 111.
adlions. But die moft agreeable feene of hiftory arifes Compofi.
the writer acquaints us
tion of
Hiftory.
85
1 he general fubjedl or argument of hiftory, in its
feveral branches, maybe reduced to thefe four heads j
narration, rrfte&ions, fpeeches, and digrejftons.
Of naira- E By narration is meant a defeription of fadls or
tion. adfions, with fuch things as are neceffarily connected
with them j namely, perfons, time, place, defign, and
event.
As to attions themfelves, it is the bufinefs of the
hiftbrian to acquaint his readers with the manner in
which they were performed ; what meafures were con¬
certed on all fides, and how they were conducted,
whether with vigilance, courage, prudence, and cau¬
tion, or the contrary, according to the nature of the
action 5 as likewile, if any unforefeen accidents fell
out, by which the deligned mcafures w’ere either pro¬
moted or broken. All aftions may be referred to
tvvo forts, military and civil. And as war arifes from
injuftice and injuries received on one fide or the
other, it is fit the reader ftiould be informed who were
the aggreffors. For though war is never to be defi¬
ned, yet it is fometimes neceffary. In the defeription
of battles, regard fliould be had” equally to both par¬
ties j the number of forces, conduft of the generals
in what manner they engaged, what turns and chan¬
ces happened in the engagement, either from accidents,
courage, or ftratagem, and how it iffued. The like
circumftances fhould all be obferved in fieges and other
from a ftate of peace. Here     „ ^
wkh the conftitution of ftates, the nature of their laws,
the manners and cuftoms of the inhabitants, the ad- v"~'
vantages of concord and unanimity, with the difad-
vantages of contention and difeord 5 the invention of
arts and fciences, in what manner they were impro¬
ved and cultivated, and by whom •, with many other
things, both pleafant and profitable in the conduft of
life.
As to perfons, the chara&ers of all thofe fhould be
deferibed u’ho aft any confiderable part in a hiftory.
This excites the curiofity of the reader, and makes him
more attentive to what is faid of them ; as one is more
inquifitive to hear what relates to others in proportion
to his knowledge of them. And it will likewife be of
ufe to obferve, how their aftions agree with their cha-
rafters, and what were the effefts of their different qua¬
lifications and abilities.
The circumftances of time and place are carefully to
be regarded by an hiftorian, without which his accounts
of fads will be frequently very lame and imperfed.
And therefore chronology and geography feem not im¬
properly to have been called the tzvo eyes of hiftory.
Belides, they very much aflift the memory : for it is
much eafier to remember any thing faid to be done at
fuch a time, and in luch a place, than if only related in
general j nay, the remembrance of thefe often recals
thofe things'to mind which otherwife had been oblite¬
rated. By time is meant not only the year of any par¬
ticular era or period ; but likewile the feafon, as” fum~
mer or winter ; and the age of particular perfons. For
it is oftentimes from hence that we are principally ena¬
bled to make a juft eftimate of fads. Thus Cicero
commends Pompey for undertaking and finilhing the
Piratic war at a feafon of the year when other generals
would not have thought it fafe to venture out at fea.
This double danger, as well from the weather as the pro
enemy, confidering the neceflity of the cafe, heightens ManJ'.i
the glory of the adion 5 fince to have done the fame
thing in fummer would not have been an equal proof of
the courage and intrepidity of the general. And there
is nothing more furprifing in the conquefts of Alexan¬
der than that he Ihould fubdue fo large a part of the
world by the time he was little more than 30 years old;
an age at which few other generals have been much di-
ftinguiHied. Had we not known this, a confiderable
part of his charader had been loft.
The like advantages arife from the other circumftan¬
ces of place. And therefore in marches, battles, and
other military adions, the hiftorian ftiould take notice
of the nature of the country, the paffes, rivers, diftan-
ces of places, fituation of the armies, and ftrength of
the towns either by nature or art ; from which the read¬
er may the better form a judgment of the difficulties and
greatnefs of any enterprife. Caefar is generally very
particular in thefe things, and feems to have thought it
highly requifite in order to give his readers a juft idea
of his adions. The deferiptions of countries, cities,
and rivers, are likewife both ufeful and pleafant; and
help us tt) judge of the probability of what is related
concerning the temper and genius of the inhabitants,
their arts, traffic, wealth, power, or whatever elfe is
remarkable among them.
But an accurate hiftorian goes yet further, and con-
fiders
Sea. III.
H I S T O R Y.
54i
Hiftory.
Compofi- fiders the caufes of aftions, and what were the dejtgns
tion of and views of thofe perfons who were principally con¬
cerned in them. Some, as Polybius has well obferved,
are apt to confound the beginnings of aftions with
their iprings and caufes, which ought to be carefully
feparated. For the caufes are often very remote* and
to be looked for at a conliderable difla/hce from the ac¬
tions themfelves. Thus, as he tells us, fome have re-
prefented Hannibal’s befieging Saguntum in Spain,
and palling the Ebro, contrary to a former agreement
between the Romans and Carthaginians, as caufes of
the fecond Punic war. But thefe were only the begin¬
nings of it. The true caufes were the jealoulies and
fears of the Carthaginians from the growing power of
the Romans; and Hannibal’s inveterate hatred to
them, with which he had been impreffed from his in¬
fancy. For his father, whom he fucceeded in the com¬
mand of the Carthaginian army, had obliged him,
when but nine years old, to take a moll folemn oath
upon an altar never to be reconciled to the Romans:
and therefore he was no fooner at the head of the army,
than he took the firft opportunity to break with them.
Again, the true fprings and caufes of aftions are to be
diftinguilhed from fuch as are only feigned and pretend¬
ed. For generally the worfe deligns men have in view',
the more felicitous they are to cover them with fpecious
pretences. It is the hiftorian’s bufinefs, therefore, to
lay open and expofe to view thefe arts of politicians.
So, as the fame judicious hiltorian remarks, we are not
to imagine Alexander’s carrying over his army into
Alia to have been the caufe of the w'ar between him
and the Perlians. That had its being long before.
The Grecians had formerly two armies in Aha, one
under Xenophon and the other commanded by Agefi-
laus. Now the Aliatics did not venture to oppofe or
moleft either of thefe armies in their march. This made
King Philip, Alexander’s father, who was an ambiti¬
ous prince, and afpired after univerfal monarchy, think
it might be a prafticable thing to make a conquell of
Aha. Accordingly, he kept it in his view, and made
preparations for it \ but did not live to execute it.
That was left for his fon. But as King Philip could
not have done this without firft bringing the other flates
of Greece into it, his pretence to them wras only to
avenge the injuries they had all fuffered from the Per-
fians; though the real defign was an univerfal govern¬
ment, both over them and the Perfians, as appeared af¬
terwards by the event. But in order to our being well
alfured of a perfon’s real defigns, and to make the ac¬
counts of them more credible, it is proper we ftiould
be acquainted with his difpofition, manners, w'ay of
life, virtues, or vices •, that by comparing his aftions
with thefe, we may fee how far they agree and fuit
each other. For this reafon Salluft is fo particular in
his defeription of Catiline, and Livy of Hannibal ; by
wduch it appears credible, that the one was capable of
entering into fuch a confpiracy again!! his country, and
the other of performing fuch great things as are re¬
lated concerning him. But if the caufes of aftions lie
in the dark, and unknown, a prudent hiftorian wall not
trouble himfelf or his readers wuth vain and trifling
conjeftures, unlefs fomething very probable offers it-
lelf.
Laftly, an hiftorian fhould relate the iffue and event
of the aftions he deferibes. This is undoubtedly the
Compofi-
tion of
Hiitory.
moft ufeful part of hiftory •, fmee the greateft advan¬
tage anting from it is to teach us experience from
what has happened in the world before us. When we
leam from the examples of others the happy eftefts of
wifdom, prudence, integrity, and other virtues, it na¬
turally excites us to an imitation of them, and to pur-
fue the fame meafures in our own conduft. And, on
the contrary, by perceiving the unhappy confequences
which have followed from violence, deceit, ralhnefs, or
the like vices, we are deterred from fuch praftices.
But fince the wife!! and moft prudent meafures do not
always meet with the delired fuccefs, and many crofs
accidents may happen to fruftrate the bei! concerted
defigns; when we meet with inftances of this nature,
it prepares us for the like events, and keeps us from
too great a confidence in our own fchemes. However,
as this is not commonly the cafe, but in the ordinary
courfe of human affairs like caufes ufuaily produce like
effefts ; the numerous examples of the happy confe¬
quences of virtue and wifdom recorded in hiftory are
fufficient to determine us in the choice of our meafures,
and to encourage us to hope for an anfwerable fuccefs,
though we cannot be certain we fhall in no inftance
meet with a difappointment. And therefore Polybius,
very juftly obferves, that “ he who takes from hi¬
ftory the caufes, manner, and end of aftions, and
omits to take notice whether the event was anfwerable
to the means made ufe of, leaves nothing in it but a
bare amufement, without any benefit or inftruftion.”
Thefe, then, are the feveral things neceffary to be at¬
tended to in hiftorical narrations ; but the proper dif¬
pofition of them muft be left to the Ikill and prudence
of the writer. „
II. ReJleBions made by the writers. Some have con-of retlec-
demned thefe, as having a tendency to bias the reader j tions.
who ftiould be left to draw fuch conclufions from the
accounts of fafts as he fees proper. But fince all
readers are not capable of doing this for themfelves,
what diladvantage is it for the author to fuggeft to
them fuch obfervations as may affift them to make the
beft u!e ol what they read ? And if the philofopher is
allowed to draw fuch inferences from his precepts as he
thinks juft and proper, why has not the hiftorian an
equal right to make reflections upon the fafts he re¬
lates ? The reader is equally at liberty to judge for him¬
felf in both cafes, without danger of being prejudiced.
And therefore we find, that the beft hitlorians have al¬
lowed themfelves this liberty. It would be eafy to
prove this by a large number of inftances, but one or
two here may fuffice. When Salluft has given a very
diftinft account of the defigns of Catiline, and of the
whole fcheme of the confpiracy, he concludes it with
this refleftion : “ All that time the empire of the Ro¬
mans feems to me to have been in a very unhappy ftate.
For when they had extended their conquefts through
the whole world from eaft to weft, and enjoyed both
peace and plenty, which mankind efteem their greateft.
happinefs; fome perfons were obftinatcly bent upon
their own ruin, and that of their country. For not- Bell. Catifr
withftanding two decrees were publilhed by the fenate,c. 37.
not one out of fo great a multitude was prevailed with,
by the rewards that were offered, either to difeover the
confpiracy or to leave the army of Catiline. So defpe-
rate a difeafe, and as it were infeftion, had feized the
minds of moft people !” And it is a very handfome
obfervation.
542
Compofi-
tion of
Hillory.
H I $ T O R Y.
Sea. III.
ss
Of fpeech-
Lib. xxxi.
c- 5-
okfer^dtion tliat Livy makes upon the ill-condu£t of
Hannibal in quartering his army in Capua after the
battle of Cannte ; by which means they loft their mar¬
tial vigour through luxury and eafe. “ Thofe (fays
he) who are fkilled in military affairs reckoned this a
greater fault in the general, than his-not marching his
army immediately to Rome after his vicbory at Cannce j
for fuch a delay might have feemed only to defer the
viflory, but this ill ftep deprived him of the power to
gain it.” The modefty of the hiftorian in this paflage
is worth remarking, in that he ftoes not reprefent this
as his own private opinion, and by that means under¬
take to cenfure the condudb of fo great a general as
Hannibal was, but as the fenfe of thofe who were {kill¬
ed in fuch affairs. However, a hiftorian Iho'uld be
brief in fuch remarks ; and confider, that although he
does not exceed his province by applauding virtue, ex-
prefting a juft indignation againft vice, and interpcfing
his judgment upon the nature and confequences of the
fafts he relates j yet there ought to be a difference be¬
tween his refleclions and the encomiums or declamations
of an orator.
III. Speeches inferted by hiftorians. Thefe are of
two forts, oblique and diredl. The former are fuch
as the hiftorian recites in his own perfon, and not in
that of the fpeaker. Of this kind is that of Hannibal
in Juftin \ by which he endeavours to perfuade King
Antiochus to carry the feat of the war againft the Ro¬
mans into Italy. It runs thus : “ Having defired li¬
berty to fpeak, he faid none of the prefent counfels
and defigns pleafed him *, nor did he approve of Greece
for the feat of the war, which might be managed in
Italy to greater advantage : becaufe it was impoffible to
conquer the Romans but by their own arms, or to fub-
due Italy but by its own forces 5 fince both the nature
of thofe men, and of that war, w’as different from all
others. In other wars, it was of great importance to
gain an advantage of place or time, to ravage the coun¬
tries and plunder the towns; but though you gain fome
advantage over the Romans, or defeat them, you muft
ftill fight with them when beaten. Wherefore, Ihould
any one engage with them in Italy, it was pofiible
for him to conquer them by their own power, ftrength,
and arms, as he himfelf had done j but fhould he at¬
tempt it out of Italy, the fource of their power, he
would be as much deceived, as if he endeavoured to al¬
ter the courfe of a river, not at the fountain-head, but
where its ftreams were largeft and deepeft. This w7as
his judgment in private, and what he had offered as his
advice, and now repeated in the prefence of his friends 5
that all might know in what manner a war ought to be
carried on againft the Romans, who were invincible a-
broad, but might be conquered at home. For they
might fooner be driven out of their city than their em¬
pire, and from Italy than their provinces *, having been
taken by the Gauls, and almoft fubdued by hirnfelf.
That he was never defeated till he withdrew' out of
their country ; but upon his return to Carthage, the
fortune of the w;ar w'as changed with the place.” He
feems to intimate by this fpeech, that the Romans were
like fome fierce and impetuous animals, wdiich are no
otherwdfe to be fubdued than by wounding them in
fome vital part. In fpeeches related after this manner,
wTe are not neceffarily to fuppofe the hiftorian gives us
the very word in which they were at firft delivered, Coinpofi-
but only the fenfe. But in diredt fpeeches, the perfon t‘?n
himfelf is introduced as addrefling his audience ; and Hiitory. .
therefore the words as well as the fenfe are to be fuited
to his character. Such is the fpeech of Eumenes, one
of Alexander’s pantains and fucceffors, made to his fol-
diers when they had traiteroufly bound him in chains,
in order to deliver him up to his enemy Antigonus, as
we have it in the fame writer. “ You fee, foldiers (fays
he), the habits and ornaments of your general, which
have not been put upon me by mine enemies j that
rvould afford me fome comfort : it is by you, that of a
conqueror I am become conquered, and of a general a
captive ; though yen have fworn to be faithful to me
four times within the fpace of a year. But I omit that,
fince relledtions do not become perfons in calamity.
One thing I intreat, that, if Antigonus muft have
my life, you would let me die among you. For it no
way concerns him how or where I fuffer, and I ihall
efcape an ignominious death. If you grant me this, I
free you from your oath, with which you have been fo
often engaged to me. Or, if fhame reftrains you from
offering violence to me at my requeft, give me a Iword,
and fuffer your general to do that for you without the
obligation of an oath which you have fworn to do for
your general.” Lib. xiv.
But this likewife is a matter in which critics havec* 4*
been divided in their fentiments j whether any, or what
kind, of fpeeches ought to be allowed in hiftory.
Some have thought all fpeeches fhould be excluded :
and the reafon given for that opinion is this ; that it
breaks the thread of the difeourfe, and interrupts the
reader, when he is defirous to come to the end of an
adlion, and know' how it iflued. This is true, indeed,
when fpeeches are either very long or too frequent ;
but otherwife they are not only entertaining, but like¬
wife inftrudlive. For it is of her vice to know the
fprings and reafons of aftions •, and thefe are frequently
opened and explained in the fpeeches of thofe by whom
they w'ere performed. Others therefore have not been
againft all fpeeches in general, but only direft ones.
And this was the opinion of Trogus Pompeius, as Ju-Lib.xxxvlii,
ftin informs us*, though he did not think fit to follow c. 3.
him in that opinion, when he abridged him, as we
have feen already by the fpeech of King Eumenes.
The reafen offered againft direft fpeeches is, becaufe
they aie not true ; and truth is the foundation of all
hiftory, from which it never ought to depart. Such
fpeeches, therefore, are faid to weaken the credit of
the wmiter j fince he who will tell us that another
perfon fpoke fuch things which he does not know
that he ever did fpeak, and in fuch language as he
could not ufe, may take the fame liberty in reprefent-
ing his adlions. Thus, for example, when Livy gives
us the fpeeches of Romulus, the Sabine women, Bru¬
tus, and others, in the firft ages of the Roman ftate,
both the things themfelves are imaginary, and the
language wholly difagreeable to the times in which
thofe perfens lived. Accordingly we find, that when
feveral hiftorians relate fome particular fpeech of the
fame perfon, they widely differ both in the fubjedt-
matter and expreflions. So the fpeech of Veturia,
by which (be diffuaded her fon Coriolanus from be-
fieging Rome when he came againft it with an army
of
I
Sea. HI.
H I S T O R Y.
COnipofi-
tion of
Hiftory.
Lib. ii.
c. 40.
Ant. Rom,
lib viii.
c. 46.
In Corio-
lano.
See VofT.
Ars. Hijl.
C. 20. ,
Lib. iv.
c. r.
Ann. lib. i.
73- iii- 56>
59-
of Volfcians to avenge the injuries he had received, is
very differently related by Livy, Dionyfius of Halicar-
nafl'us, and Plutarch. Such lifiitious fpeeches there¬
fore are judged more fit for poets, who are allowed a
greater liberty to indulge their fancy than hiftorians.
And if any difeft fpeeches are to be inferted, they
Ihould be fuch only as were really fpoken by the per-
fons to whom they are afcrlbed, where any fuch have
been preferved. Thefe have been the fentiments of
fome critics both ancient and modern. However,
there is Icarce an ancient hiftorian now extant, either
Greek or Latin, who has not fome fpeeches, more or
lefs, in his works ; and thofe not only oblique, but alfo
direct. They feem to have thought it a necefi'ary orna¬
ment to their writings : and even where the true fpeech¬
es might be come at, have chofen rather to give them
in their own words •, in order, probably, to pyeferve an
equality in the ftyle. Since therefore the beft and molt
faithful hiff orians have generally taken this liberty, we
are to diftinguilh between their accounts of faffs and
their fpeeches. In the former, where nothing appears
to the contrary, we are to fuppofe they adhere to truth,
according to the beft information they could get ; but
in the latter, that their view is only to acquaint us with
the caufes and fprings of affions, which they choofe to
do in the form of fpeeches, as a method moft ornamen¬
tal to the. work, and entertaining to the reader :
Though the beft hiftorians are cautious of inferring
fpeeches, but where they are very proper, and upon
fome folemn and weighty occafions. Thucydides is laid
to have been the firft who brought complete and finiftr-
ed fpeeches into hiftory, thofe of Herodotus being but
Ihort and imperfeff. And though Dionyfius of Hali-
carnaffus, in his cenfiire upon Thucydides, feems then
to have difiiked that part of his conduff ; yet he after¬
wards thought fit to imitate it in his Antiquities of
Rome, where we find many not only oblique, but alfo
direff fpeeches. "
What has been faid of fpeeches, may likewife be un-
derftood of letters, which we fometimes meet with in
hiftories •, as that of Alexander to Darius in Quintus
Curtius, thofe of Tiberius and Drufus in Tacitus, and
many others. Some letters are wholly fiffitious ; and
in others perhaps the hiftorian reprefents the fubftance
of what was really faid, but gives it his own drefs.
Thus we find that (hort letter of Lentulus to Catiline
at the time of his confpiracy differently related by Ci¬
cero and Salluft. The reafon of which feems to be
this : That as Cicero recited it publicly to the people
of Rome in his third oration againft Catiline, it is rea-
fonable to imagine he did it in the very words of the
letter, which he had by him } whereas Salluft, as an
hiftorian, might think it fufficient to give the fenfe of it
in his own words.
IV. DigreJJions. Thefe, if rightly managed, afford
the reader both delight and profit. Like fpeeches, they
fhould neither be too long nor frequent \ left they in¬
terrupt the courfe of the hiftory, and divert the reader
Jrora the main defign of the work. But now and then
to introduce a beautiful deicription, or fome remarkable
incident, which may give light to the fubjeff, is fo far
from an interruption^ that it is rather a relief to the
reader, and excites him to go on with greater pleafure
and attention. See further on this head, Oratory,
N°.37-
Art. III. Of Order.
Of order.
543
Competi¬
tion of
Since moft hiftories confift of an introduffion and the < ~ »
body of the work, in each of which fome order is re- 89
quifite, w7e fhall difeufs them feparately. ‘
1. The defign of the introduffion is the fame here as
in orations. For the hiftorian propofes three things by
his introduffion, which may be called its parts 5 to
give his reader fome general view of the fubjeff, to
engage his attention, and to poffefs him with, a candid
opinion of himfelf and his performance. Some have
thought this iaft unneceffary for an hiftorian. But if
we confider how7 differently mankind are apt to judge of
the fame perfons and affions, it feems as requifite for
an hiftorian to be well elleemed as an orator. And
therefore wTe find fome of the beft hiftorians have not
omitted this part. Livy’s introduffion has been very-
much applauded by the learned, as a mafterpiece in
its kind. It begins with an account of his defign.
“ Whether (fays he) it may anfwer any valuable end
for me to write the hiftory of the Roman affairs from
the beginning of the city, I neither am certain, nor if
I wTas ihould I venture to declare it.” Soon after he
endeavours to prepare the reader’s attention, by repre-
fenting the grandeur and ufefulnefs of the fubjeff: in the
following words: “ Either I am prejudiced in favour of
my fubjeff, or there never wras any ftate greater, more
virtuous, and fruitful of good examples, or in which
avarice and luxury had a later admittance, or poverty
and thriftinefs were either more highly or longer efteem-
ed, they always coveting lefs the lefs they enjoyed.”
And then he prefently proceeds to ingratiate himfelf
with his readers, and gain their favourable opinion ;
“ Although my name is obfeure in fo great a number
of writers, yet it is a comfort that they cloud it by their
fame and charaffer. But I fhall gain this advantage
by my labour, that I ftall be diverted for a time from
the profpeff of thole evils which the age has feen for lo
many years 5 while my mind is wholly intent upon for¬
mer times, free from all that care which gives the
writer an uneafinefs, though it cannot bias him againft
tne truth.” In this paflage we fee he endeavours to
gain the good efteem of his readers from two very-
powerful motives, modefty and a ftriff regard to truth.
It may fcarce feem neceffary to obferve, that thofe in-
troduffions are efteemed the beft which are rnoft natu¬
ral j that is, fuch as are taken from the fubjeff-matter
of the hiftory itielf, and clofely conneffed with it.
Such are thofe of Herodotus, Thucydides, Livy, Ta¬
citus, and others. And therefore Salluft is* greatly
blamed by Quintilian on the account of his introduc-
tions,. which are fo general, that they might fuit other
hiftories as well as thofe to which they are prefixed,
Introduffions fliould likewife be proportioned to the
length of the work. We meet wfith fome few hiftories,
in which the writers immediately enter upon their fub¬
jeff, Witnout any introduction j as Xenophon in his
Expedition of the younger Cyrus, and Caffar in his
Commentaries of the Gallic and Civil Wars. But the
latter does not profefs to write a juft.hiftory ; and there¬
fore left himfelf more at liberty, as well in this refpeft
as in fome others.
2. But order is principally to be regarded in the
body of the work. And this may be managed two
ways} either by attending to the time in a chronologi¬
cal
544
Compofi-
tion of
Hiftory.
HISTORY.
Sea. III.
cal fenes, or tlie different nature and circumftances
of the things contained in the hiftory. However, as
thefe two methods do not equally fuit all lubje&s, we
ftiall a little confider to what kind of hiftories each of
them feems more properly adapted. All hiftory then,
as we have obferved already, may be reduced to three
forts ; biography, the hijlory of particular fates, and
the general hiforij of fevcralfates exifting at tne fame
time.
In biography, or the lives of particular perfons, moft
waiters follow the order of time *, though fome reduce
them to certain general heads, as their virtues and vices,
or their public and private charaifter. Plutarcn and
Cornelius Nepos have taken the former method, and
Suetonius the latter.
As to the hiftory of particular ftates, the order of
time is generally beft, as being moft natural and eafy.
And therefore it has ufually been obferved by the belt
hiftorians, as Thucydides, Livy, and others. ^ iaci-
tus, indeed, wrote tw7a diftindft works j one ot which
he called Annals, and the other Hifories. And as in
both he has kept to the order of time, critics have been
at a lofs to affign any other reafon for thefe different
titles, unlefs that in the former work he confines him-
felf more clofely to the fa£ts thernielves, and does not
treat fo largely upon the caufes, manner, or event of
them, as he has done in the latter. And even in the
circumftances of fa6ls, there is a certain order proper
to be obferved, for rendering the account more plain
and intelligible. Ihus, for inftance, in the deferip-
tion of a battle or fiege, the time fhould firft be known,
then the chief perfon or perfons who condufted it,
then the number of forces, and other requifites, after¬
wards the nature of the place, then the adlion itfelf,
and laftly the event. But fometimes it is neceffary to
add the time in which feveral of the other circum¬
ftances happened, efpecially in aftions of any confider-
able length. Where the order of thefe circumftances
is confufed, it perplexes the account, and renders it
both lefs entertaining to the reader, and more difficult
to remember.
In a general hiftory, the order of time cannot al¬
ways be prelerved j though, where the aftions of dif¬
ferent communities have refpeef to one as the princi¬
pal, they fhould all, as far as poflible, be referred to
the tranfaftions of that ftate. But even here the fe¬
veral affairs of thofe different ftates ought to be rela¬
ted feparately, wffiich wull neceffarily occafion the an¬
ticipating fome things, and poftponing^ others, fo that
they cannot all ftand in the order of time in which
they were performed. However, Velleius Paterculus
fays very juftly with regard to this fubjedf, “ lhat
every entire action placed together in one view, is
much better apprehended than if divided by different
times.” In this cafe, therefore, for better preferving
the chronology, it is ufual with hiftorians, when they
have finiftred any particular narrative, in palling to the
next, to exprefs the time by fome fhort and plain
transition ; and fometimes to apologize for themfelves,
by affigning the reafons of their conduct. So Poly¬
bius, whofe hiftory is of this kind, fays concerning
himfelf: “ As in writing the actions of each year, in
the order of time, I endeavour to reprefent the affairs
of the fame nation together in one fummary view, it
is plain that inconvenience muft of courfe attend this
2
Hiftory.
way of writing.” Curtius profeffes only to write the G'mp •fi-
aCkions of Alexander king of Macedon ; but his hiftory 110,1 of
contains in it the principal affairs of the greateft ftates
in the world during that period. Now although, in
the courfe of thofe tranfaefions, the war between Ar-
chelaus governor of Macedonia, and Agis king of
Sparta, happened before the battle of Alexander at
Arbela ^ yet the hiftorian not only relates that battle
firft, but carries on the account of Alexander’s affairs
in Afia to the death of Darius without interruption 5
for which he gives this reafon : “ If I fhould relate Lib. v.
the affairs of Alexander, which happened in the mean
time, either in Greece or Illyricum and Thrace, each
in their proper order and time, I muft interrupt the
affairs of Afia ; which it is much better to reprefent
together in one continued feries as they fell out, to
the tlight and death of Darius.” Such anachronifms, •
therefore, are nothing more tnan what neceffarily anle
fometimes from the nature of the fubject : As every
thing, the more complex it is, and contains under it a
great number of parts, is more difficult to be digefted
in a regular order. But in a hiftory compoled ol fe¬
veral ftates, wffiofe affairs are independent of one an¬
other, the adlions of each nation muft neceffarily be
feparated, in order to reprefent them in a juft view,
and prevent confufion. ft his is the method which
Herodotus has taken, as likewife Diodorus Siculus
and Juftin. Now both the pleafure and benefit which
fuch hiftories afford, arife from obferving tne conduct
of each ftate feparately in the courfe of tiieir attaiis,
and then comparing one w’ith the other. And as tne
order of time muft frequently be interrupted, it. is not
unufual to continue the chronology at proper diftances
in relating the affairs of eacn nation ; w'hicn preierves
an unity in the wffiole, and connects it in one confiftent
body.
The divifion of hiftories into books was defigned
only for the better diftinftion of the fubject and eafie
of the reader. And the dividing thefe books again
into chapters, is rather a praftice of later editors
(founded, as they have thought, on the lame rea¬
fons), than countenanced by the example of ancient
wT'iters.
Art. IV. Of Style.
An hiftorical ftyle is faid to be of a middle nature, of ftyle.
between that of a poet and an orator, differing nom
both not only in the ornamental parts, but likewife m
the common idioms and forms of expreffion.
Cicero obferves, that “ nothing is more agreeable in De Clar.
hiftory than brevity of expreflion, joined with purity Or at. c. 75.
and perfpicuity.” Purity indeed is not peculiar to hif¬
tory, but yet it is abfolutely neceffary *, for no one will
ever think him fit to write a hiftory who is not mafter
of the language in which he writes: and there¬
fore when Albinus had written a hiftory of the Roman
affairs in Greek, and apologifed for any flips or impro¬
prieties that might be found in the language upon the
account of his being a Roman, Cato called him a trifler,
for choofing to do that which, after he had done it, he
was obliged to afk pardon for doing. Nor is perfpi-GW/. lib. xi,
cuity lefs requifite in an hiftorical ftyle. I he nature ofc. 8.
the fubjefl plainly directs to this. For as hiftory con-
fifts principally in narration, clearnefs and perfpicuity
are nowhere more neceffary than in a relation of fads.
But
tion of
Hiftory.
Di Orai.
lib. ii.
c. 15
2©.
Sed. in. HIS'
Compofi- But thefe two properties are to be accompanied with
brevity, fince nothing is more difagreeable than a long
j and tedious narrative. And in this refpedt an hiftorical
ityle differs both from that of poetry and oratory. For
the poet frequently heightens and enlarges his defcrip-
tions of fa£ts, by dwelling upon every circumftance,
placing it in different views, and embellilhing it with
the fineft ornaments of wit and language, to render his
images more agreeable ; and the orator often does the
like, with a defign to ftrike the paflions. But fuch co¬
louring is not the buiinefs of an hiftorian, who aims at
nothing more than a juft and faithful reprefentation of
what he relates, in a way beft fuited to its nature, and
in fuch language as is moft proper to fet it in a plain
and eafy light.
Again, Cicero, treating of an hiftorical ftyle, fays :
“ It ought to be fluent, fmooth, and even, free from
that harftmefs and poignancy which is ufual at the
bard’ The properties here mentioned diftinguifli this
ftyle from that of judicial difcourfes, in which the
orator often finds it neceffary to vary his manner of
fpeaking, in order to anfwer different views, either of
purfuing an argument, prefling an adverfary, addref-
fing a judge, or recommending the merits of his caufe.
This occafions an inequality in his ftyle, while he
fpeaks fometimes directly, at other times by way of
queftion, and intermixes ftiort and concife expreflions
with round and flowing periods. But the hiftorian
has no neceflity for fuch variations in his ftyle. It
is his province to efpoufe no party, to have neither
friend nor foe, but to appear wholly difinterefted and
indifferent to all; and therefore his language ftiould
be fmooth and equal in his relations of perfons and
their a&ions.
But further: Dionyfius makes “ decency a princi¬
pal virtue in an hiftorian j” which he explains by fay¬
ing, that “ he ought to preferve the charaflers of the
perfons and dignity of the actions of wdiich he treats.”
And to do this it feems neceffary that an hiftorical
ftyle fhould be animated with a good degree of life
and vigour; without which neither the characters of
eminent perfons, nor their remarkable aftions, which
make up the main bufinefs of hiftory, can be duly re-
prefented : for even things in themfelves great and
excellent, if related in a cold and lifelefs manner, of¬
ten do not affeft us in a degree fuitable to their dig¬
nity and importance. And this feems particularly ne¬
ceffary in fpeeches, in order to reprefent what every
one fays, according to his different country, age, tem¬
per, and ftation of life, in the /fame manner we may
fuppofe he either really did, or wmuld have fpoken
himfelf on that occafion. Befides there are fome fcenes
of aCHon which require very pathetic and moving lan¬
guage to reprefent them agreeably to their nature.
And in defcriptions, the moft beautiful tropes and
lively figures are often neceffary to fet the ideas of
things in a proper light. From whence it appears,
that painting and imagery make up no finall part of
the hiftorian’s province, though his colours are not fo
ftrong and glittering as thofe either of the poet or .
orator. He ought therefore to be well acquainted
with the manners of men and the nature of the paf-
fions, fince he is often obliged to defcribe both ; in
the former of which Herodotus excels, and Thucydi¬
des in the latter, as Dionyfius has obferved.
Vol. X. Part II.
545
Compofi-
tion of
Hiftoiy.
Epiji. ad
Cn. Ptm-
ptium.
f O R Y.
Now from thefe feveral propertie* laid down by an¬
cient writers, as requifite for an hiftorical ftyle, it
feems upon the whole to agree beft with the middle
charatter. And this wfill further appear, by what
they fay relating to the ornamental parts of ftyle 5
namely, compofition and dignity. As to the former
of thefe, which refpeCts the ftruCture of fentences, and
the feveral parts of them, Demetrius remarks, that
“ An hiftorical period ought neither to rife very high,
nor fink very low, but to preferve a medium.” This
fimplicity (he fays) “ becomes the gravity and cre¬
dit of hiftory ; and diftinguithes it from oratory on the
one hand, and dialogue on the other.” His meaning
is, that hiftorical periods fliould neither be fo full and
fonorous as is frequent in oratory j nor yet fo fliort
and flat as in dialogue : the former of which, as he
fays, require a ftrong voice to pronounce them ; and
the latter have fcarce the appearance of periods. So
that, according to this judicious writer, the periods
beft fuited for hiftory are thofe w’hich, being of a mo¬
derate length, will admit of a juft rife and cadency,
and may be pronounced with eafe. And Dionyfius
tells us, that “ Hiftory Ihould flow fmooth and even,
every where confiftent wfith itfelf, without roughnefs
or chafms in the found.” This relates to the harmony
of periods, w'hich arifes from fuch a pofition of the
words as renders the found pleafant and agreeable,
and as he thinks ought to be attended to in hiftory.
And as to dignity, which refpeCts the ufe of tropes
and figures, the fame author fays, that “ Hiftory
fliould be embelliflied with fuch figures as are neither
vehement nor carry in them the appearance of art.”
This is agreeable to what Cicero obferves, in com¬
paring Xenophon and Califthenes, two Greek hifto-
rians. “ Xenophon the Socratic (fays he) wras the
firft philofopher, and after him Califthen.es the fcho-
lar of Ariftotle, who wrote an hiftory : the latter al-
moft like a rhetorician : but the ftyle of the former is
more moderate, and has not the force of an orator,
lefs vehement perhaps, but in my opinion more fweet De Ora&,
and pleafant.” The difference between thefe two“•
writers, with regard to their ftyle, confifted chieflyc* I4‘
in the choice of their figures: which in Xenophon were
more gentle and moderate, and therefore in the judge¬
ment of Cicero more agreeable to hiftory. Now thefe
feveral properties relating to the ornaments of lan-
guage, as w«ll as thofe betore mentioned, which by an¬
cient writers have been thought requifite for hiftory,
are all fiiited to the middle ftyle, as we have elfewhere
Ihown at large. See Oratory, N° 99—121.
But notwithftanding this general account of the fe¬
veral properties which conftitute an hiftorical ftyle, it
admits of confiderable varieties from the different na¬
ture and dignity of the fubjeCI. The lives of particu¬
lar perfons do not require that ftrength and majefty of
exprfflion, nor all thofe ornaments of language, as
an hiftory of the Roman empire. And accordingly
we find the ftyle of Nepos and Suetonius very diffe¬
rent from that of Livy. The former is fmooth and
eafy, fcarce rifing above the low charadter ; but the
latter often approaches near to the fublime. And
other hiftorians again have kept a medium between
thefe. Upon the whole, therefore, we may conclude,
that the middle ftyle is the proper charadler for hi¬
ftory j though hiftorians may fometimes fink into the
3 Z low
54-6
HIST
Compofi- low character, and at other times rife to the gran¬
deur and magnificence of the fubhme, from the dif¬
ferent nature of their fubjeft, or fome particular parts
of it. For that is to be efteemed the proper charac¬
ter of any writing which in the general beft fuits it.
And this diltinftion may help us in fome meafure to
tion of
Hiftory.
O R Y. Sea. III.
reconcile the fentiments of writers upon this head Compofi.
who feem to attribute different characters to an hiito-
rical flyle, or at lead to judge where the truth lies •, ■. y‘j
fince a variety of ftyle is not only requifite in different
fubjeCts, but likewife in different parts of the fame
work.
Iliilory
II
Hithe.
H I T
Histort of Nature, or Natural Hi/lory. See Na¬
tural History.
i HISTRIO, in the ancient drama, fignified an aftor
or comedian 5 but more efpecially a pantomime, who
exhibited his part by geflures and dancing. Livy in¬
forms us that the hiftriones were brought to Roine
from Etruria, in the year of the city 391, (Dec. i.
lib. 7.)
HISTRIX. See Hystrix.
HITCHING, a large and populous town of Hart-
fordihire in England, fituated near a large wood called
Ilitchwood. The manor was the ancient demefne of
the kings of England, as it continues at this day; and
it has been the dower of feveral of their queens. The
town is reckoned the fecond in the county for number
of ftreets, houfes, and inhabitants. It was formerly
famous for the ffaple commodities of the kingdom,
and divers merchants of the ftaple of Calais refided
here, fince which that trade is loft. The inhabitants
now make large quantities of malt j and the market is
one of the greateft in England for wheat. W. Long,
o. 10. N. Lat. 51. 58.
HITHE, or Hythe, a town of Kent in England,
70 miles from London. It is one of the cinque ports;
and had formerly five parilhes, but by the choking up of
its harbour and other accidents is now reduced to one.
In the reign of Henry IV. numbers of its inhabitants
were cut off by a peftilence, 200 of their houfes con-
fumed by fire, and five of their {hips funk at fea, with
the lofs of 1OO men ; fo that the people were going to
abandon the town, had not the king by his charter
generoufly releafed to them, for five turns next follow¬
ing, their fervice of five Ihips of 100 men and five
horfe, which they were to have furnilhed out and kept
at their own charge in the king’s wars for 15 days.
It wras firft incorporated by the name of barons of the
town and port of Hith ; but the government was after¬
wards changed. It was incorporated by Queen Eliza¬
beth with the name of the mayor, jurats, and common¬
alty of the town and port of Hith, who with the free¬
men eleft the members of parliament. The mayor is
chofen yearly on Candlemas-day. Here is a market on
Saturdays, and fairs in July and December. From
hence to Canterbury is a paved Roman military way,
called Stoney Street; and at a little diftance from hence
are the remains of the u alls of a caftle, which included
10 acres. There is a remarkable pile of dry bones in
the town, 28 feet long, 6 broad, and 8 high ; they are
kept in a vault under the church in as good order as
books in a library, confiiting of feveral thoufand heads,
arms, legs, thigh-bones, &c. fome very gigantic, and
appear by an infcription to be the remains of the Danes
and Britons killed in a battle near this place, before
H O A
the Norman conqueft. From hence to Boulogne is
reckoned the Ihorteft cut to France. E. Long. 1. 10.
N. Lat 51. 8.
HITTITES, the defendants of Heth. See Hetii.
HIVE, in country affairs, a convenient receptacle
for bees. See Apis and Bee.
HIVITES, a people defended from Canaan. They
dwelt at firft in the country which wras aftenvards pof-
feffed by the Caphtoiims, or Philiftines. There were
Hivites likewife at Shechem and Gibeon, and confe-
quently in the centre of the promifed land ; for the
inhabitants of Shechem and the Gibeonites were Hi¬
vites, (Jolhua xi. 19. Genefis xxxiv. 2.). Laftly, there
wTere fome beyond Jordan, at the foot of Mount Her-
mon (Jolhua xi. 3.). Bochart is of opinion, that Cad¬
mus, who carried a colony of Phoenicians into Greece,
was an Hivite. His name, Cadmus, comes from the He¬
brew Keden, “ the eaft,” becaufe he was of the eaftern
part of the land of Canaan. The name of his wife
Hermione, comes from Mount Kermon, at the foot
whereof the Hivites had their dwelling. The meta-
morphofis of Cadmus’s companions into ferpents is
grounded on the fignification of the name Hivites, which
in Phoenician fignifies “ ferpents.”
HOACHE, in Natural Hi/lory, a kind of earth
approaching to the nature of chalk, but harder, and
feeling like foap ; whence fome think that it is either
the fame with the foap rock of Cornwall, or very
like it. The Chinefe mix it with water till the li¬
quor is of the confiftence of cream, and then varnilh
their China ware with it.
HOAD LEY, Benjamin, fucceffively bilhop of
Bangor, Hereford, Salifbury, and Winchefter, was
born in 1676. His firft preferment in the church was
the redtory of St Peter le Poor, and the ledlurelhip of
St Mildred’s in the Poultry. In the year 1706, he
publilhed fome Remarks on the late Bilhop Atterbury’s
fermon at the funeral of Mr Bennet, in which Dr At-
terbury had, in the opinion of Mr Hoadley, laid
down fome dangerous propofitions. Two years, after,
Mr Hoadley again entered the lifts againft this for¬
midable antagonift j and in his exceptions againft a fer¬
mon publilhed by Dr Atterbury, intitled “ The Power
of Charity to cover Sin,” he attacked the dodor with
his ufual ftrength of reafoning and difpaflionate in¬
quiry. In 1709, another difpute arofe between thefe
two learned combatants, concerning the dodrine of
non-refiftence, occafioned by a performance of Mr
Hoadley’s, intitled “ The Meafures of Obedience j”
fome pofitions in which Dr Atterbury endeavoured
to confute in his elegant Latin fermon preached that
year before the London clergy. In this debate Mr
Hoadley fignalized himfelf in fo eminent a degree,
that
Hittites
II
Hoadley.
H O A [ 5
Hoadley. tliat the honourable houfe of commons gave him a
k*——V”—' particular mark of their regard, by reprefenting,
in an addrefs to the queen, the fignal fervices he
had done to the caufe of civil and religious liberty.—
The principles, however, which he efpoufed being re¬
pugnant to the general temper of thofe times, drew
on him the virulence of a party ; yet it was at this
period (1710, when, as he himfelf expreffed fury
feemed to be let loofe upon him') that the late Mrs How¬
land prefented him to the reftory of Streatham in Sur¬
ry, unalked, unapplied to, and without his either ha¬
ving feen her or been feen by her. Soon after the ac-
cefhon of King George I. Mr Hoadley was confecrated
to the fee of Bangor; and, 1717, having broached
fome opinions concerning the nature of Chriti’s king¬
dom, &.c. he again became the objesft of popular cla¬
mour. At this juncture he was diftinguilhed by an¬
other particular mark of the royal regard, by means
of which the convocation was fucceflively prorogued,
and it was not permitted to fit, or do any bufinefs,
till that refentment was entirely lubfided. In 1721
he was tranfiated to Hereford \ and from thence, in
1723, to Salifbury. In 1734, he was tranfiated to
Winchefter (on the demife of Dr Willis), and pub-
lifiied his Plain Account of the Sacrament: a. perform¬
ance which ferved as a butt for his adverfaries to ihoot
at; yet impartiality owns it to be dear, rational, and
manly, written with great candour and judgment, and
fuited to the capacity of every ferious and confiderate
inquire!: after truth.—His latter days were embittered
by a moft vile inftance of fraud and ingratitude. The
bilhop took a French prieft, who pretended to abjure
his religion, under his prote&ion, with no other re¬
commendation than that of his necefiitiesj in return for
which ad of humanity, the priefi found an opportunity
of getting the bilhop’s name written by his own hand,
and, caufing a note of fome thoufand pounds to be placed
before it, offered it in payment. But the bilhop deny¬
ing it to be his, it was brought before a court of jufiice,
and was there found to be a grofs impofition. The un¬
grateful villain had now recourfe to a pamphlet, in
which he charged the bilhop with being a drunkard ;
and alleged that he had the note of him when he was
in liquor. To this calumny the bilhop made a full
and nervous anfvver; in which he expofed the man’s
falfehood, and folemnly averred that he was never
drunk in his whole life. The world with becoming
ardour embraced his defence, and he had the happi-
nefs to find himfelf perfedly acquitted even of any
fufpicion of fuch a charge. As a writer, he poffeffed
uncommon abilities. His fermons (publilhed in 1754
and 1555) are efteemed inferior to few writings in the
Engliih language, for plainnefs and perfpicuity, ener¬
gy and ftrength of reaibning, and a free and mafterly
manner. In private life, he was naturally facetious,
eafy, and complying •, fond of company, yet would
frequently leave it for the purpofes of ffudy or devo¬
tion. He was everywhere happy} and particularly
in his own family, where he took all opportunities of
inffrufting by his influence and example. He died in
1761, aged 83. Befides the works already mentioned,
he wrote, 1. Terms of Acceptance, 8vo. 2. Reafon-
ablenefs of Conformity. 3. On the Sacrament. His
tra6ls and pamphlets are extremely numerous : and
the reader may fee a complete catalogue of them in
47 ] HOB
his life inferted in the fupplement to the Biographia ‘I°;m ey
Britannica. Hobbes
Hoadley, Benjamin, M. D. fon of the former, was , —.vl. ’ .
born in 1706 ; and ffudied at Bennet college, Cam¬
bridge, under the tuition of Dr Herring afterwards
archbilhop of Canterbury. He took his degree in phy-
fic \ and particularly applying himfelf to mathematical
and philofophical ftudies, was, when very young, ad¬
mitted a member of the royal fociety. He was made
regifter of Hereford while his father filled that fee, and
was early appointed phyfician to his majelly’s houfe-
hold, but died at his houfe in Chelfea in 1757* H6
wrote, r. Three letters on the organs of refpiration, 410.
2. The Sufpicious Hulband, a comedy. 3. Obferva-
tions on a feries of eleftrical experiments •, and, 4. Ora~
tio anniverfaria, in Theatre Col. Med. Londin. ex Har-
vei infituto habita die OBob. 1742.
HQAI-ngan-FOU, a city of China, in the province
of Hiang-nan. According to Groiier, it is fituated in
a marfh, and is enclofed by a triple wall. As the ground
on which it Hands is lower than the bed of the canal,
the inhabitants live in continual dread of an inundation.
The fuburbs extend to the difiance of a league on each
fide of the canal, and form at their extremity a kind oi
port on the river Hoang-ho. This place is very po¬
pulous, and every thing in it announces an aiffive and
brilk trade. One of thofe great mandarins who have
the infpeftion of the canals and navigation, and who
are alfo objiged to fupply the court with neceffary pro-
vifions, refides here. This city has eleven others under
its jurifdi£lion ) two of which are of the fecond, and
nine of the third clafs.
HOAR-hound. See Marrubium, Botany In¬
dex.
HOARSENESS, in Medicine, a diminution of the
voice, commonly attended with a preternatural afperity
and roughnefs thereof. The parts affecled are the
afpera arteria and larynx. For its caufes and cure, fee
Medicine Index.
HOBAL, in Mythology, an idol of the ancient
Arabs, the worlhip of which at Mecca was deftroyed
by Mahomet.
HOBBES, Thomas, a political writer, was born at
Malmfbury in 1588. He was the fon of a clergyman j
and having completed his ftudies at Oxford, he was af¬
terwards governor to the eldeft fon of William Caven-
difti earl of Devonfhire. He travelled through France
and Italy with that young nobleman, and at length ap¬
plied himfelf entirely to the ftudy of polite literature.
He tranfiated Thucydides into Englifir ; and publifhed
his tranflation in 1628, in order to (how his country¬
men, from the Athenian hiftory, the diforders and con-
fufions of a democratical government. In 1626 his
patron the earl of Devonftiire died*, and in 1628 his
Ion died alfo : which lofs affedled Mr Hobbes to fuch
a degree, that he very willingly accepted an offer made
him of going abroad a fecond time with the fon of Sir
Gervafe Clifton j whom he accordingly accompanied
into France, and ftaid there fome time. But while
he continued there, he was folicited to return to Eng¬
land, and to refume his concern for the hopes of that
family to whom he had attached himfelf fo early, and
to which he owed fo many and fo great obligations.
In 1631, the countefs dowager of Devonfhire defired
to put the young earl under his care, who was then
3 Z 2 about
♦
H OB [ 548 1 HOB
Hobbes, about the age of 13. This was very (likable to Mr
Hobbes’s inclinations, who difcharged that trull with
great fidelity and diligence. In 1634, he republilhed
his tranflation of Thucydides, and prefixed to it a de¬
dication to that young nobleman, in which he gives a
great charadler of his father, and reprefents in the
ilrongeft terms the obligations he was under to that
illuftrious family. The lame year he accompanied his
noble pupil to Paris, where he applied his vacant hours
to the lludy of natural philolophy, and more efpecially
to the perfe£l underftanding of mechanifm, and the
caufes of animal motion. He had frequent converfa-
tions upon thefe fubjedls with Father Marin Merfenne j
a man defervedly famous, and who kept up a corre-
fpondence with almofl all the learned in Europe. From
Paris he attended his pupil into Italy, where at Pifa he
became known to that great aftronomer Galileo Gali¬
lei, who communicated to him his notions very freely 5
and after having leen all that was remarkable in that
country, he returned with the earl of Devonlhire into
England. Afterwards, forefeeing the civil wrars, H
went to feek a retreat at Paris ; where, by the good
olfices of his friend Father Merfenne, he became known
to the famous Renatus des Cartes, and afterwards held
a correfpondence with him upon feveral mathematical
fubjedls, as appears from the letters of Mr Hobbes pub-
lilhed in the works of Des Cartes. But when this
philofopher printed afterwards his Meditations, where¬
in he attempted to eftablilh points of the higheft confe-
quence from innate ideas, Mr Hobbes took the liberty
of diffenting from him 5 as did alfo the French king’s
mathematical profeffor, the illuftrious Peter Gaffendi,
with whom Mr Hobbes contracted a very clofe friend-
ihip, which was not interrupted till the death of the
former. In 1642, Mr Hobbes printed a few copies
of his famous book De Give, which, in proportion as
it became known, raifed him many adverfaries, who
charged him with intlilling principles which had a dan¬
gerous tendency. Among many illuftrious perfons
who, upon fhipwreck of the royal caufe, retired to
France for fafety, was Sir Charles Cavendilh, brother
to the duke of Newcaftle, and this gentleman, being
(killed in every branch of the mathematics, proved a
conftant friend and patron to Mr Hobbes 5 wTho, by
embarking in 1645 in a controverfy about fquaring the
circle, was grown fo famous for it, that in 1647 he
was recommended to inllruft Charles prince of Wales,
afterwards King Charles II. in mathematical learning.
His care in the difcharge of this office gained him the
efteem of that prince in a very high degree: and though
he afterwards withdrew his public favour to Mr Hobbes
on account of his writings, yet he always retained
a fenfe of the fervices he had done him j fhowed him
various marks of his favour after he was reftored to his
dominions ; and, as fome fay, had his piClure hanging
in his clofet. This year alfo W’as printed in Holland,
by the care of M. Sorbiere, a fecond and more com¬
plete edition of his book De Give ; to which are pre¬
fixed two Latin letters to the editor, the one by Mr
Gaffendi, the other by Father Merfenne, in commen¬
dation of it : and in 1650 was publilhed at London a
ixnall treatife of Mr Hobbes’s, entitled. Human Nature;
and another De corpore politico, or “ Of the elements
©f the law.”
All this time Mr Hobbes had been digefting with
great care and pains his religious, political, and moral Hobbes.
principles, into a complete fyltem, which he called the ' —
Leviathan, and rvhich was printed in Englilh at Lon¬
don in 1650 and 1651. After the publication of his
Leviathan he returned to England, and paffed the fum-
mer commonly at his patron the earl of Devonlhire’s
feat in Derbyfhire, and fome of his winters in town,
where he had for his intimate friends fome of the greatelt
men of the age. In 1660, upon the reftoration, he
quitted the country, and came up to London, where
he obtained from the king affurance of protedlion, and
had an annual penfion of icol. fettled upon him out
of the privy purfe. Yet this did not render him en¬
tirely fafe : for, in 1666, his Leviathan and his trea¬
tife De Give were cenfured by parliament •, which
alarmed him very much, as did alfo the bringing in of
a bill into the houfe of commons to puniih atheifm and
profanenefs. When this llorm was a little blown over,
he began to think of procuring a beautiful edition of
his pieces that were in Latin ; but finding this im-
pradticable in England, he caufed it to be undertaken
abroad, where they were publifhed in quarto in 1668,
from the prefs of John Bleau. In 1669, he was vi-
fited by Coimo de Medicis, then prince, afterwards
duke of Tufcany, who gave him ample marks of his
elleem and refpefl j and having received his picture,
and a complete colleflion of his writings, caufed them
to be repofited, the former among his curiofities, the
latter in his noble library at Florence. The like vifits
he received from foreign ambaffadors and other flrangers
of diltindlion ; who were curious to fee a perfon wThofe
fingular opinions and numerous writings had made fo
much noife all over Europe. In 1672, he wrote his
own life in Latin verfe, when, as he obferves, he had
completed his 84th year : and, in 1674, he publilhed
in Englilh verfe four books of Homer’s Odyffey 5 which
was (b well received, that it encouraged him to under¬
take the whole Iliad and Odyffey, which he likewfife
performed and publilhed in 1675. About this time
he took his leave of London, and went to fpend the
remainder of his days in Derbylhire : where, howrever,
he did not remain inadlive, notwithftanding his ad¬
vanced age j but publilhed from time to time feveral
pieces, to be found in the colleclion of his works. He
died in 1679, aged 92.
As to his charadler and manners, they are thus de-
fcribed by Dr White Kennet, in his Memoirs of the
Cavendilh family. “ The earl of Devonlhire (fays
he) for his whole life entertained Mr Hobbes in his
family, as his old tutor rather than as his friend or
confident. He let him live under his roof in eafe and
plenty, and in his own way, wuthout making ufe of him
in any public, or fo much as domeftic affairs. He
would frequently put off the mention of his name, and
fay, ‘ He was a humorift, and nobody could account
for him.’ There is a tradition in the family, of the
manners and culloms of Mr Hobbes, fomewhat obfer-
vable. His profeffed rule of health was to dedicate
the morning to his exercife, and the afternoon to his
liudies. And therefore, at his firll rifing, he walked
out, and climbed any hill wnthin his reach 5 or if the
w’eather was not dry, he fatigued himfelf within doors
by fome exercife or other, to be in a fweat; recom¬
mending that praftice upon this opinion, that an old
man had more moifture than heat, and therefore by
fucb
HOB [ 549 ] HOC
Hobbes fuca m&tlon heat was to be acquired and moifture ex-
Hobby. pelkd. After this, he took a comfortable breakfaft •,
” ^ and then went round the lodgings to wait upon the
earl, the countefs, and the children, and any conlider-
able ftrangers, paying fome Ihort addreffes to all of
them. He kept thefe rounds till about 12 o’clock,
when he had a little dinner provided for him, which
he ate always by himfelf without ceremony. Soon af¬
ter dinner he retired to his ftudy, and had his candle
with i o or i 2 pipes of tobacco laid by him j then (hut¬
ting his door, he fell to fmoking, thinking, and wri¬
ting for feveral hours. He retained a friend or two at
court, and efpecially the lord Arlington, to protedl
him if occafion fliould require. He ufed to fay, that
it was lawful to make ufe of ill inftruments to do our-
felves good : ‘ If I were call (fays he) into a deep pit,
and the devil (hould put down his cloven foot, I would
take hold of it to be drawn out by it.’ After the re¬
iteration, he watched all opportunities to ingratiate
himfelf with the king and his prime minifters; and look¬
ed upon his penlion to be more valuable, as an earneft
of favour and proteftion, than upon any other account.
His future courfe of life was to be free from dan-
er. He could not endure to be left in an empty
oufe. Whenever the earl removed, he would go along
with him, even to his laft ftage, from Chatfworth to
Hardwick. When he was in a very weak condition,
he dared not to be left behind, but made his way upon
a feather-bed in a coach, though he furvived the jour¬
ney but a few days. He could not bear any difeourfe of
death, and feemed to call off all thoughts of it. He
delighted to reckon upon longer life. The winter be¬
fore he died, he made a warm coat, which he faid mull:
laft him three years, and then he would have fuch ano¬
ther. In his laft ficknefs his frequent queftions were,
Whether his difeafe was curable ? and when intimations
were given, that he might have eafe, but no remedy,
he ufed this expreflion, ‘ I fliall be glad to find a hole
to creep out of the world at which are reported to
have been his laft fenfible words ; and his lying fome
days following in a filent ftupefaftion, did feem owing
to his mind more than to his body.’
The reverend Mr Granger obferves, that Hobbes’s
ftyle is incomparably better than that of any other wri¬
ter in the reign of Charles I. and was for its uncom¬
mon ftrength and purity fcarcely equalled in the fuc-
ceeding reign. “ He has in tranilation (fays he)
done Thucydides as much juftice as he has done injury
to Homer j but he looked upon himfelf as born for
much greater things than treading in the fteps of his
predecelfors. He was for ftriking out new paths in
fcience, government, and religion ; and for removing
the land-marks of former ages. His ethics have a
ftrong tendency to corrupt our morals, and his politics
to deftroy that liberty which is the birthright of every
human creature. He is commonly reprefented as a
fceptic in religion, and a dogmatift in philofophy j but
he was a dogmatift in both. The main principles of
his Leviathan are as little founded in moral or evan¬
gelical truths, as the rules he has laid down for fqua-
ring the circle are in mathematical demonftration. His
book on human nature is efteemed the beft of his
works.”
HOBBY, the name ot a hawk called by fome au-
tkimsfubbuteo. See Falco, Ornithology Index.
It is a hawk of the lure, and not of the fill; and is HabSsy
very like the faker, only much lefs. It makes excel-
lent fport with net and fpaniels ; for when the birds .
fee the hobby, they dare not commit themfelves to
the wing, but lie clofe to the ground, and fo are ta¬
ken in nets.
Hobby is alfo a name formerly given to ftrong ac¬
tive horfes of a middling fize : they are reported to
have been originally natives of Ireland,' and were much
liked and ufed. Nags anfwer the fame defeription as
to fize, qualities, and employments.
HOBGOBLIN, is a name vulgarly applied to fai¬
ries or apparitions. Skinner calls the word robgoblinsy
and derives it from Robin Goodfellow, Hob being the
nick-name of Robin: but Wallis and Junius, with
greater probability, derive it from hopgob/ins, empufce%
becaufe they are luppofed to hop without moving both
their feet.
HOBLERS, or Hobilers, Hobelaru, in our an¬
cient cuftoms, were men who, by their tenure, w?ere
obliged to maintain a light horfe or hobby, for the cer¬
tifying any invafion towards the fea-fide.—The name
was alfo ufed for certain Irilh knights, who ufed to
ferve as light horfemen upon hobbies.
HOB-NAIL, a nail with a thick ftrong head, ufed
in (hoeing a hobby or little horfe.
HOB-NOB, or Hab-NAB, a cant word formed from
hap ne hap, and denoting an event which happens at
random or by mere chance.
HOBOO, a name given by the people of Otaheite,
and in the neighbouring illands of the South Sea, to
their fuperfine cloth. It is the thinneft and moft fi-
nilhed preparation of the aouta.
HOBSHEE coffrees, a kind of Abyftinian Haves
very frequent in the empire of Hindoftan. They
come moftly from a province fubjedft to the Negus of
Ethiopia, called Innariah, to the fouth of his other
dominions, and bordering upon Negroland in Africa j
from whence they are feleded, and a great traffic
made of them over all Mogoliftan and Perfia ; but it is
chiefly from the ports of Arabia and the Red fea that
they are brought. Nothing can be imagined more
fmooth and gloffy, and perfeblly black, than their Ikinj
in w hich they far furpafs the negroes on the coaft of
Guinea ; and, generally fpeaking, have not any thing
of their thick lips, though otherwife as woolly haired
as they. They are highly valued for their courage,
fidelity, and Ihrewdnefs; in which they fo far excel, as
often to rife to polls of great honour, and are made
governors of places under the title Siddees.
PIOBSON’s-choice, a vulgar proverbial expreffion,
applied to that kind of choice in which there is no al¬
ternative. It is faid to be derived from the name of a
carrier at Cambridge, who let out hackney horfes, and
obliged each cuftomer to take in his turn that horfe
which flood next the liable door.
HOCHE, Lazarus, a republican French general.
This extraordinary man, and particular favourite of
fortune, was born on the 24th of June 1768, at the
village of Montreuil, in the fuburbs of Verfailles. His
father, in the early part of his life, had been a foldier
but adled afterwards in the. capacity of a menial fer-
vant, and was appointed to feed the hounds*of Louis-
XV. His mother died loon after the birth of young
Hoche, by which he was left in a great meafure defti-
tUtCj.,
HOC r 5
tute, his aged father (then about 72) being unable to
~J contribute to his fupport. By the humanity of an
aunt, however, who kept a green ftall at Verfailles,
he was refcued from abfolute beggary. She fent him
to a fmall fchool, where he acquired a tolerable know¬
ledge of reading and writing, ihewing hhufelf at once
the bed and mod mifchievous fcholar in the whole
fchool. He was made a chorider by the redlor of St
Germain-en-Laye, becaufe he found him to be a boy
of a very lively difpofition. He very foon difcovered
an infatiable third for information upon every fubjeft,
aiking quedions at thofe who were much older than
himfelf, and lidening with the utmod attention to the
anfwers they returned. The ingenuity of his remarks
and enquiries was often perplexing to others j but as
he gradually approached towards manhood, a very re¬
markable change took place, both in his manners and
difpoiition. His loquacity was lucceeded by a muling,
contemplative turn, and he proved by the importance
of his converfation, that he had not meditated in
vain.
Finding that his wants grew7 more numerous than
could be fupplied by the indudry of his aunt, he form¬
ed the commendable refolution of earning his owm fub-
fidence, and accordingly became a fort of adidant in
the royal dables of Verfailles. His ardent charafter,
howTever, foon found this fituation by far too degrading ;
he already viewed it with abhorrence j and having ac¬
cidentally met with fome part of the wrorks of Roulfeau,
a fpirit of independence indantly feized upon him. Ap¬
prehending that he might better his duration by going
abroad, to which he was drongly urged by a rafeal w'ho
made a prey of him, even offered him money to enable
him to profecute the undertaking, and then gave him
to underdand that he was now a foldier in the French
guards. Hoche, finding it wholly unavailing to remon-
drate, was fent at the age of 16 to join his regiment,
which wras then quartered at Paris. Here he found
himfelf poffeffed of no more than 12^ livres (about 5I.
fferling), the united refult of his own economy, and
the bounty he received on entering the army. Even
out of this fmall fum he was obliged to treat his fellow
foldiers with a breakfad, which exhauded his whole
dock. A military lite, however, foon appeared to be
exaftly fuited to his diipodtion, fo that he furpaffed all
the other recruits in the rapidity with which he learned
the manual exercife 5 and in a fingle month w7as fit for
the veteran ranks.
His limbs were admirably proportioned, his drefswas
filw’ays neat, and his condudl fo regular, that he was
made a grenadier at the requed of the company. He
now felt the circumfcribed nature of his education, of
which he was afhamed, and he determined to atchieve
that by his own exertions which the penury of his rela¬
tions prevented them from accomplilhing. He faw the
necedity of a command of books, and as his pay was in¬
adequate to the purchafe of thefe, he determined to
make up the deficiency by manual labour, with no
fpecies of which was he ever difguded, while it put the
means of intelledlual improvement within his reach. He
rofe at the dawn of day, either to draw w ater, or trench
ground for the gardeners in the vicinity of Paris 5 and
at night he embroidered veds and caps.
The fruits of his indudry w ere, at the end of the
week, divided into three parts; the fird was given to
2
o ] H O C
the fubditute who mounted guard for him ; the fecond
was devoted to the incidental expences of a convivial
hour with his companions; and the third defrayed the
expences of the books which he borrmved. He now
turned his wdiole attention to the attainment of a better
knowledge of his own profedion, and even ventured to
point out the radical defeats of the prevailing fydem of
military tatties, and reprobated lome of the regulations
which obtained in the army. In fpite, however, of the
general gravity of his deportment, he was no enemy to
occafional conviviality. Having once underdood that
a companion had been murdered during a quarrel in the
vicinity of the metropolis, he determined not to deep
till he had taken vengeance on the affaffm. Marching
forth at the head of a body of his companions, to the
houfe wdiere the deed w7as perpetrated, he demolidied
all the windows, and dedroyed the furniture 5 but for
this he was fentenced to three months confinement in
the black hole. At the expiration of this period he ex¬
hibited a fpedlacle truly deferving of commiferatidh, be¬
ing deditute of linen, clothes and dioes, his face pale
and disfigured, and in this condition he arrived at the
barracks, where he was received by his companions
with every demondration of joy. He foon after fought
a duel with a tyrannical corporal, of whom the whole
regiment was afraid except the gallant Hoche. The
latter fell, and Hoche received a deep cut in his fore¬
head, which added greatly to his martial appearance.
Soon after this period appeared the celebrated pam¬
phlet of Sieves refpedting the Third EJlate, and almod
every Frenchman wms ready to prove that he belonged
to it. The guards, it is well known, took a decided
part with the people ; and on the 14th of July 1789,
Hoche, at the head of his companions, was among the
fird who feized on the Baltile. The guards were
formed into the iC2d, 103d, and 104th regiments, in¬
to the lad of which Hoche was admitted with the rank
of fecond adjutant, when he had an opportunity of ma-
nifeding his talents in a different channel. Improper
hands having obtained the adminidration of the military
hofpitai of the French guards, he minutely invedigated
the date of the accounts, which had been veiled with
ambiguity for the purpofe of deceiving. He amended
the difeipline of the army, and his aflive talents did
not pals unrewarded. While the regiment was reviewed
in the Elyfian fields, Servan, the minider at w7ar, was fo
delighted with the platoons of Hoche’s company, that
he enquired who the young man was by whom it was
conduced, and he bellowed on him fome flattering com¬
pliments, and in four days after fent him the brevet cl
lieutenant in the regiment of Rouergue. He left Paris
on the 24th of June 1792, in order to join his regi¬
ment, then in garrifon at Thionville. General Leve-
neur, who held the command in the ablence of Va¬
lence, fent Lieutenant Hoche with a regiment of huffars,
to procure provifions for the troops which Miranda had
ordered to lay liege to Maeflricht. This he executed
with univerfal applaufe ; and wdierr the army of .the
Ardennes was ordered to recrofs the Meufe, Hoche
fucceeded in removing the powder from the abbey of
Merchen, in bringing away the military ched of the di-
vifion, and conducing the fick in the hofpitai, when
every thing appeared to be in the power of the enemy’s
huffars. Having fought in the capacity of aide-de-camp
to General Leveneur, at Gutenhowen, Neerwinden,
Boehe.
HOG [ 551 J HOC
Hoche. the heights of Vertrich, and at Elan gen, the repub-
——v 1' He an army repafl'ed the E)yle, breaking down the
bridges j and Iloche enabled it to efTeft a retreat, by
difputing every inch of ground along with the rear¬
guard.
When Dumourier threw off the diiguife at the camp
of Maulde, arrefting the deputies from the convention,
General Leveneur entrufled to young Hoche the deli¬
cate charge of carrying the new’s to Paris. His con¬
duit on this occafion was fo highly approved oi by the
adminiftvation, that he wTas railed to the rank of ad¬
jutant-general, and chief of battalion j but he de¬
clined a higher rank than captain and aid-de-camp to
his patron.
When the Britilh troops and the Auftrians befieged
Dunkirk, Houchard, who wras ordered to cover the
place, threw in fupplies under the command of Souham
and Adjutant-general Hoche, the latter of whom in-
fpired all around him with enthuliafm ; keeping up the
fpirits of the troops and haraffing the enemy by frequent
fallies, while the right wung and centre of the befieging
army were attacked by Jourdan. Hoche conftrufted
feveral advanced works before the place, and for lix
Wreeks together was never in a bed. I he reprefenta-
tives wuth the army, as a reward for his ailivity, ap¬
pointed him chief of brigade.
Having obtained this rank, he wTas fent into Auftrian
Flanders, where invariable fuccefs attended all his
movements. And when only 24 years of age, he wms
appointed commander in chief of the army of the Mo-
zelle, which had remained for a long time inactive, and
even experienced fome difgrace under Houchard. Few
feenes of aftion could be more inaufpicious than that
upon which Hoche was now about to enter. I he Auf¬
trians and Pruffians were about 100,000 ftrong, under
the command of the firft officers in Europe, which
prefented a formidable front from the Upper Palatinate
to the Hundfruck : and almoft every pofition might be
deemed impregnable. The troops of General Hoche
were nearly undifeiplined, and the nature of their litua-
tion rendered them difpirited 5 but their leader firlt en¬
deavoured to gain their confidence, wffiich he'conceived
made a general invincible *, he reifored military difei-
pline •, invefligated the cbara£!ers and talents of his offi¬
cers •, and puniffied or rewarded as neceffity required.
To infpire the inhabitants on the frontiers with cou¬
rage was his next obje£f, for which purpofe he viiited
the different towms in his vicinity, frequented popular
focieties, and addreffed them in perfon j fo that he not
only fecured a high degree of confidence, but even pro¬
cured volunteers, clothes, and provifions. Having re¬
ceived inftru£fions from the committee of public fafety
to raife the fiege of Bitche and Landau 5 he drew a
number of troops from the different garrifons, and on
the event of an attack on the quarter he had weakened,
he gave orders to General Moreau to ihut himfelf up
in Thionville, which place he was charged to defend
until death. He formed fuch a general plan of opera¬
tions as gave the ftrongeft evidence of his great milita¬
ry talents ^ for if the fubordinate parts of it mifearned
(which was actually the cafe) the grand object, the
effefting a junction with Pichegru, who commanded
the army on the Rhine, was ftili within his reach. By
a fudden and formidable manoeuvre, he fo affoniffied the
enemy, that they immediately quitted the Sarre, and
after experiencing a defeat, retired towards the heights Hoche.
of Blifecaftel, with the lofs of 700 men killed upon the
field. The duke of Brunfwick retreated towards Kay-
ferlautern, at which place the whole of the Pruffian
columns formed a junftion. General Hoche was well
aware that his great objeft would be attained, if he
could vanquilh the enemy at this place, and therefore
he began to fcale the mountains, and when he reached
the plain on the top, he found them deeply intrench¬
ed. In defiance of this advantageous pofition, he de¬
termined to give them battle, and as foon as. the fignal
gun was fired, he advanced from the ranks, and toffing
his hat in the air, he exclaimed, “ Long live the repub¬
lic !” The attack on his part was bold, and the de¬
fence of the enemy was obftinate 5 about 40,000 were
engaged on each fide, but the able manner in which
the duke of Brunfwick had fortified his pofition, gave
him evidently the advantage. After fighting for two
days, Hoche obtained little or no advantage. The am¬
munition of the Prufiians being exhaufted, he next day
determined to carry their entrenchments at the point of
the bayonet; but being informed that they had obtain¬
ed a fupply during the night, he found it neceffary to
retreat. But he loon after relieved Landau, and eftedf-
#d a junction with General Pichegru, being appointed
commander in chief of both armies.
The viftorious Hoche afterwards made himfelf mafter
of Germerfheim •, Worms and Spires opened their gates
to receive him, and Fort Vauban was retaken. It was.
his determination to crofs the Rhine at Stralburgh, or
Offendorf, and venture into the heart of Germany with
25,000 men ; to which movement Pichegru was un¬
friendly, and had the addrefs to prevail with the repre-
fentatives then prefent to refufe their fandfion. Robe-
fpierre now regarded him with a jealous eye ; all his
plans w'ere treated with unmerited indignity, and hisar-
reft was refolved on. This, however, would have been
a defperate attempt at the head of his vidlorious troops,
and therefore he was offered the chief command of the
army of Italy ; but no fooner had he arrived at Nice
than he was fent a prifoner to Paris, where he remain¬
ed confined for many months, almoff entirely forgotten.
Another temporary revolution procured his liberty, and
Carnot confented to his being again employed, although
he was far from being his warm friend.
Fie was appointed to the command of the army
dellined to protect the coaffs of Cherbourg, a fituation
which by no means agreed with his difpofition ; for he
was often heard to exclaim “ how much happier are
they who fight againft the Pruffians !” His fituation
was indeed difagreeable, for it> was Frenchmen fighting
againft Frenchmen, and he fucceeded a number of ge¬
nerals who had been nearly all of them degraded. His
keen difeernment, enabled him to obferve that igno¬
rance and fuperftition were at the bottom of the con-
teft, which made him adopt a plan of procedure very
different from thofe of his predeceffors 5 and he made
this lingular affertion to the committee of public fafety,
that a “ few proclamations would be produdlive of in¬
finitely more effedl than fixteen pounders.” He check¬
ed the depredations of his own foldiers, reftored the
confidence of the peafantry, and fo highly fatisfied the
government, that the command of the diftridl of Breft
was committed to him. So profligate and abandoned
had been the condmft of his predeceffors, that he could
not
HOC
Koche. not procure a lodging at Rennes, which he had come
to proteft from the infurgents, although he offered an
extravagant price for it. Soon, however, was he enabled
to difarm their prejudices 5 for inftead of hunting down
the priefts, he allowed the celebration of the mafs, or¬
dered the clergy to be protedted, and took many of the
confeffors into pay. Thefe were not like the plans of
fo young a man j they would have done honour to one
who had ftudied human nature much longer than he had
been in exiitence.
We have faid that he protected both the priefts and
the people, but he difcovered no difpofition to negociate
with the chiefs. But the government having politively
ordered him to do fo, he began a treaty w'ith Cormar-
tin and fome others, from which he was decidedly of
opinion that the chief leaders might be gained over by
money, and commiflions in the republican army. He
was accuftomed to fay, “ with two hundred thoufand
livres and ten pair of epaulets, I could gain over a ma¬
jority of thefe men 5 as for the reft, a cane will fuffice.”
The chiefs impofed upon the reprefentatives with the
army, but the general was not fo ealily deceived. Cler¬
mont having been permitted to travel through the can¬
tons in which he had fome influence, oftenftbly to put a
period to hoftilities, was arrefted by orders of General
Hoche, being taken in the a£l of iffuing falfe affignats.
Cormartin, another rebel chief, gave the money to the
royalifts which he had received from the republic, and re¬
cruited an army of Chouans in the name of Louis XVIII.
Government now perceived the neceflity of giving Ge¬
neral Hoche a difcretionary power, w'hoin confequence
thereof arrefted Cormartin ; and being apprehenlive
that it was the defign of Decils to take polfeflion
of the arfenal of Cifay, he marched againft that
leader, putting him and 300 of his affociates to the
bayonet.
When the ill-fated expedition againft Quiberon was
undertaken, and an Englifti flotilla with ten thoufand
emigrants made a defcent, and took poffeffion, without
oppofttion, of Penthievre, and the peninfula it com¬
mands, Hoche having received ftrong reinforce¬
ments, commenced offenfive operations, and determined
to carry Fort Penthievre by affault. This was oppofed
by the engineers as by far too defperate an under¬
taking, who recommended a regular liege j |but the
general was not to be diverted from the fteady execu¬
tion of his purpofe. Having divided his army into
three columns, he marched during the night, though
affailed by a dreadful tempeft. The fort was difcover¬
ed about the dawm of day, which poured upon them
fuch a tremendous fire of grape (hot, that two of the
divifions began to retire; but a general cry of viflory
foon made them return. Three hundred emigrants
were put to death.
His next great military project was an expedition
againft Guernfey and Jerfey, which wre are told, was
rejefted by the influence of Boiffy d’Anglas, who wras
at that time a member of the committee of public
fafety. But having obtained the chief command of
the army of the Weft, the wdiole charge of the wrar in
La Vendee was committed to his management, to
w-hich he was refolved to put a glorious termination,
prefenting the deluded people with the olive branch in
one hand, and the fword in the other. Having granted
a pardon to all who had been deceived, he propofed to
HOC
unite the armies of Cherburg, Breft, and the Weft, un- Hoche.
der the appellation of the army of the Coafts of the' v—
Ocean, which, by the influence of Barras, wus inftantly
adopted. Having marched againft Charette with a
body of troops, that chief w^as feized and ordered to be
executed. In palling through Sarthe, Maine, Loire, and
Morbihan, with his movirg columns, he gave no quar¬
ter to the chiefs j but when he beheld the ignorant pea-
fantry in arms and at his mercy, he ufed to exclaim,
Thefe unfortunate people are Frenchmen! He de¬
clared the principal towns to be no longer in a ftate
of fiege, abolilhed martial law', diffolved military tri¬
bunals ; and, after fucceeding in the accomplilhment
of his wifhes ra the fpace of eight weeks, he was
honoured with the title of Pacificator of La Ven¬
dee.
The next objefl which attra&ed his whole attention
was the conqueti of England, a country vath which he
appears to have been little acquainted. His plan, howr-
ever, was much approved of by the minifter of marine
(Truguet); but every thing w^as wanting for the accom-
' pliihment of an undertaking fo very extraordinary;
and the attempt was rellrifted to Ireland alone. For
this purpofe he fet out for Breft, and procured the re¬
moval of Admiral Villaret-Joyeufe, becaufe he w'as ini¬
mical to his favourite projeft. General Hoche fuper-
intended the dock yards, battened the public works,
and prepared every thing connedled with a great na¬
val equipment. It was the declaration of Rear-admiral
Bruix, who fell at Abcukir, that Hoche would become
the beft minifter of marine that France ever beheld, if
he had only a Angle year’s experience. When every
thing was in readinefs for the propofed defcent upon
Ireland, General Hoche embarked on board the frigate
La Fraternite, this being the firft time he was ever at
fea. In a gale of wind he was feparated from his ar¬
my, which confifted of 15,000 men 5 part of the fleet
appeared off the coaft of Ireland, and fome Ihips enter¬
ed Bantry bay, but without their general they could
undertake nothing j and therefore after holding a coun¬
cil of war, they determined to return. General Hoche
arrived fome time after, but learning that the fleet had
given up the enterprife, he fleered back to the French
coaft, weeping, it is faid, when he got the laft fight of
Ireland.
It was believed by fome, that General Hoche would
be difgraced on account of the total failure of this ex¬
pedition ; but inftead of any fuch attempt, he was cho-
fen to the command of the army of the Sambre and
Meufe, which at different periods had been commanded
by Jourdan, Kleber, and Bernadette. The troops had
continued for fome time inadlive, and fo {hocking were
the exceffes they had been accuftomed to commit, that
the officer whom he fucceeded called them a horde of
robbers. Thefe unfavourable circumftances, however
did not terrify young Hoche, who commenced his la¬
bours with the reformation ot the officers $ he then bet¬
tered the fituation of the men j attended to the very
minutiae of the fervice, and he caft an eagle’s eye on
the conduft of the commiffaries. Being alfo entrufted
with the adminiftration of the conquered countries, he
appointed a board of five members, to redrefs all griev¬
ances which might be brought before it.
Having fignified to the enemy that the armiftice was
at an end, he difpatched a courier to the dire&ory to
inform
[ 552 1
K ° D [5
Hoche inform them, “ that he was now ready with a body of
II 86,000 men, to proceed towards the Danube, and force
I Tod egos, enerny to malie peace on fuch terms as might be
advantageous to the republic.” He according began
his march, eroded the Rhine without any difficulty,
and occupied the heights of Neuwied. He then pur-
fued the enemy to Dierdorff, which they were forced
to abandon, wffiile he encamped at Montabaur and Al-
tenkirchen. I he Auftrians at this time loft 1000
men killed, and 8000 prifoners, with a vaft quantity of
kaggage and ammunition. This vidlorious career was
Hopped by the news of an armiftice concluded between
Bonaparte in Italy and the emperor.
He once more turned his attention to the invafion of
Ireland, to prepare for which he vifited Paris, and af¬
terwards went to Holland; but while he was march¬
ing a body of troops to Breft, the defeat of the Dutch
fleet under Admiral De Winter completely fruftra-
ted his deligns. But as the directory was at a lofs
for a general of charafter in the metropolis, Hoche was
made choice of, afterwards appointed minifter at war,
and favoured with the unlimited confidence of Barras.
But as it was fufpedled that Hoche was too young to
hold that important office, the council of five hundred
fent a meffage to the executive power to receive infor¬
mation upon this point, during which General Hoche
refigned, and fet off for Charleville, where he had fta-
tioned a body of troops for the purpofe, it was believed,
of marching to Paris. I hefe orders being counter¬
manded, he fet off for his head quarters. Although
the royalift party was gaining ground in the legillature,
and the general’s health rapidly on the decline' he de¬
termined to celebrate the memorable 10th of Auguft
with great pomp and magnificence. He difpached two
confidential officers, Cherin and Angereau, to aiiift in
the. revolution which took place in a few days after
their arrival in Paris, wdiile he himfelf was labouring
under a mortal diftemper. He refufed to comply with
the. advice of his phyficians; and when a meffenger
arrived with intelligence refpefting the events of the
J 8th Fruffidor, he rofe from his bed with this excla¬
mation, “ the republic triumphs !”
Soon after this he was appointed to command the
army on the Rhine, on which he repaired immediately
to Strafburgh. At this place his malady increafed, and
perceiving that his end was fall approaching, he pre¬
pared to meet it with undaunted fortitude. He died
on the 26th of September 1797.
HOCUS POCUS, a cant expreffion with which
the. exhibitors of legerdemain tricks generally prefaced
their feats. 1 hey are thought to be derived from that
arch legerdemain trick of the Romiffi priefts convert¬
ing the facramental bread into Deity ; in which won¬
derful metamorphofis the words hoc ejl corpus made a
confpicuous part of the ceremony, and which words
may oe confidered as the probable root of our modern
hocus-pocus.
HOD, a fort of tray for carrying mortar, in ufe
among bricklayers.
. HOHEGQS, a term purely Greek, fignify-
ing guide. The word is chiefly ufed as the title of a
book compofed by Anaffafius the Sinate, towards the
cloie of the fifth century; being a method of diiputing
again ft the heretics, particularly the Acephali.
IVTr 1 olan.i has alfo publifhed a differtation under the
Vol. X. Part II.
53 1 HOF
fame title. Its fubje£l is the pillar of fire, &c. which
went before the Ifraelites as a guide in the defert.
HODGE-PODGE. See Hotch-fot.
HODMAN, a cant term formerly ufed for a young
fcholar admitted from Weftminfter-fchool to be ftudent
in Chrift church in Oxford.
HODY, Humphry, a learned Englhh divine, was
born in 1659. At 21 years of age, he publilhed his ce¬
lebrated Differtation againft Arifteus’s hiftory of the 73
interpreters; which was received with great applaufe
by all the learned, Ifaac Voffius excepted, who could
not bear to have his opinions oppofed by fuch a youth.
Twenty years after, he treated the fubjedl more fully in
a work entitled, De Bibliorum textihus originalibus, ver-
Jionibus Greeds, et Latina vulgala, libri IV. In 1689,
he wrote the Prolegomena to John Melala’s Chronicle,
printed at Oxford; and the year after wras made chap¬
lain to Dr Stillingfleet biftrop of Worcefter. The
deprivation of the nonjuring biffiops engaged him in
a controverfy with Mr Dodwell; which recommended
him to Archbilhop Tillotfon, to whom, and his fuc-
ceffor Dr Tennifon, he was domeftic chaplain. In
1698 he was made regius profeffor of the Greek
tongue at Oxford, and archdeacon of Oxford in 1704.
On occafion of the controverfy about the convocation,
he, in 1701, publifhed A Hiftory of Engliffi councils
and convocations, and of the clergy’s fitting in parlia¬
ment, &c. He died in 1706, leaving in MS. An Ac¬
count of thofe learned Grecians who retired to Italy on
the taking of Conftantinople, &c. which was publifhed
in 1742 by Dr Jebb.
HOE, or How, a hufbandman’s tool, made like a
cooper’s adz, to cut up weeds in gardens, fields, &.c.
This inftrument is of great ufe, and ought to be much
more employed than it is in hacking and clearing the
feveral corners and patches of land in fpare times of the
year, which would be no final] advantage to it.
Horfe-HoE, a large kind of hoe drawn by horfes, and
ufed to ftir the intervals in the new hufbandry, and clear
the corn from w7eeds. See Agriculture.
HOEING, in the new hufbandry, is the break¬
ing or dividing the foil by tillage while the corn or
other plants arc growing thereon.— It differs from
common tillage (which is always performed before
the corn or plants are fown or planted) in the time
of performing it; and it is much more beneficial
to the crop, than any other tillage. This fort of til¬
lage is. performed various ways, and by means of dif¬
ferent inftruments, as deferibed under the article Agri¬
culture.
HOEI-tcheou, the moft fouthern city of the pro¬
vince of Kiang-nan in China, and one of the richeft of
the empire. The people are economical and temperate,
but they are active and enterprifing in trade; they boait
of their tea, varnifh, and engravings, which are indeed
the moft efteemed in China. It'has dependent upon
it fix cities , of the third clafs; the mountains which
fur round this canton contain gold, filver, and copper
mines.
HOEMATOPUS, a genus of birds of the order of
grallm. See Ornithology Index.
HOFFMAN, the name of feveral eminent phyfi-
cians ; of whom Maurice Hoffman, and John Maurice
Hoffnaan his fon, pratftifed at Altorf. Maurice died
in 1698, leaving behind him many works; and was
4 A fucceeded
Hodge*
podge
II
Hoftman.
H OG r 554
Hoffn atiifts faccecded by bis fan Jehu Maurice, who wrote as well pea
!1 as his father, and died in 1727, highly efteemed by
r . n the faculty.—Fiederic Hoftman, probably of the fame
family, was born at Magdeburg in 1660. 1 be prin¬
cipal known circumftances of bis life are, his journey
into Holland and England, where he became inti-
Ynately acquainted with Paul Herman and Robert
Eoyle, never taking any Tees, being fupported by his
annual Itipend ; his curing the emperor Charles VI.
And Frederic I. king of Pruffia of inveterate difeafes j
to which may be added, his accurate knowledge of the
nature and virtues of mineral waters. He furvived
his 80th year, and his works, which are in great
efteem, were printed in fix volumes folio at Geneva, in
J74°-
HOFFMAN I SI’S, in ecclefiaftical hillory, denote
thofe who eipouled the fentiments of Daniel Hoffman,
profeffbr of the univerfity of Helmlladt, who, from the
year 1598, maintained, that philofophy was a mortal
enemy to religion, and that what was true in philoio-
phy was falie in theology. Thefe abiurd and perni¬
cious tenets occafroned a warm and extenfrve contro-
verfy: at length Hoffman was compelled by Julius duke
of Brunfwick to retraft his inveflives againfl philofo¬
phy, and to acknowledge, in the mofl open manner,
the harmony and uni an of found philofophy with true
find genuine theology.
HOG. See Sus, Mammalia Index.
Hog, on board of a fhip, is a fort of flat fcrubbmg
broom, formed by inclofmg a number, of fhort twigs
of birch or f'uch wood between two pieces of plank
faftened together, and cutting off the ends of the
twigs •, and’ ferving to ferape the filth from a fhip’s
bottom Under water, particularly in the acf of boot-
topping. For this purpofe they fit to this broom a
long ftaff with two ropes *, one of which is ufed ,to
thru ft the hog under the fhip’s bottom, and the other
to guide and pull it up again clofe to the planks. I his
bufinefs is commonly performed in the fhip’s boat,
Which is confined as clofe as pofhble to the veffel’s fide
during the operation, and fhifted from one part of the
fide to another till the whole is completed.
Hog's Dung is by Mortirper reckoned one of the
lichetf man pres vve are acquainted with, and the next
in value to fheep’s dung ; and is found to be equal in
virtue to twice the quantity of tiny other dung except
this. The ancients feem to have been difpleafed with
It on account of its breeding weeds; but this is only
'accilfing it of being too rich, for a»t dung will do
this when laid too thick. It is an excellent manure
for pafture-grounds, and excels ?11 other kinds of dung
for trees. The farmers who ufe this dung for their
lands, generally take care to fave it, by well-paving
•the it yes 5 and’ increafe the quantity by throwing. in
/bean-ftalks, (kibble, and many other things, of a like
nature : and, by good management of this kind, many
farmers have procured 50 or 60 loads of excellent
.manure a-year out of a fmall ftye. . The very belt way
of ufing this dung is by mixing it with horfe-dung j
and for this reafon it is belt to have the ftye near the
liable, that the two cleanfings may be mixed in one
heap, and ufed together.
They have in many parts of Stafford (hire a poor,
light, (hallow land, on which they fow a kind of white
] HOG
the land is neither able to bear this nor any Hogarth,
tiling elfe to advantage for their reaping : but when
the peas are ripe, they turn in as many hogs as the
quantity of peafe will fatten, fuffering them to live at
large, and to remain there day and night : in confe-
quence of this, the land will produce good crops of bay
for feveral years afterwards •, or, if too poor for that,
it will at vvorft raife grais enough to make it good
pafture-ground.
Hog's Lard. See Axungia, Materia Medic a
Index.
HOGARTH, William, a truly great and origi¬
nal genius, is faid by Dr Burn to have been the de-
feendant of a family originally from Kirkby 1 hore, in
Weftmoreland. His father, who had been a fchoolmafter
in the fame county, went early to London, where he was
employed as a corrector of the prefs ; and appears to
have been a man of feme learning, a dictionary in La¬
tin and Engliih, which he compofed for the ufe of
fchools, being (till exifting in MS. He married in
London, and kept a fchool in Ship-Court, in the Old
Bailey. Our hero was born in 1697 or 1698, in the
parilh of St Martin, Ludgate. The outfet ot his iite,
however, was unpromifing. “ He was bound,” fays
Mr Walpole, “ to a mean engraver of arms on plate.”
Hogarth probably chofe this occupation, as it requi¬
red fome (kill in drawing : to which his genius was par¬
ticularly turned, and which he contrived aftiduoufly to
cultivate. His mafter, it ftnee appears, was Mr Ellis
Gamble, a filverfmith of eminence, who refided in Cran-
burn-ftreet, Leicefter-fields. In this profefiion it is
not unufual to bind apprentices to the Angle branch of
engraving arms and cyphers on every fpecies ot metal 'y
and in that particular department of the bufinefs young
Hogarth was placed 5 “ but, before his time was ex-
“ pired, he felt the impulfe of genius, and that it di-
“ reifted him to painting.” During his apprentice-
fhip, he fet out one Sunday, with two or three com¬
panions, on an excurfion to Highgate. I he weather
being hot, they went into a public houfe, where they
had not been long before a quarrel arofe between fome
perfons in the fame room. One of the difputants ftiuck.
the other on the head with a quart pot, and cut him
very much* The blood running down tne man s face,
together with the agony of the wound, which had dif-
torted his features into a mod hideous grin, prefented
Hogarth, who (bowed himfelf thus early “ appriled
of the mode Nature had intended he ftiould purfue,
with too laughable a fubject to be overlooked. He
drew out his pencil, and produced on the fpot one of
the mort ludicrous figures that ever was feen. W hat
rendered this piece the more valuable was, that it ex¬
hibited an exa£t likenefs of the man, with tne portrait
of his antagonift, and the figures in cancature of the
principal perfons gathered round him..
How long he continued in obfeurity vve cannot ex¬
actly learn ; but the firft piece in which he diftinguifh-
ed himfelf as a painter is fuppofed to have been a r*-
prefentation of Wanftead Affernbly. . The figures in
it, we are told, were drawn from the life, and without
any circumftances of burlefque. Fhe faces were faid
to be extremely like, and the colouring rather better
than in fome of his late and more highly finiftied per¬
formances. From the date of the earlieil plate that,
can
Hogarth.
HOG l 5
can be afcertained to be tbe work of Hogarth, it may
be prefumed that he began bufinefs on his own account
at leait as early as 1720.
His firft employment feems to have been the engra¬
ving of arms and fhop bills, i he next was to dehgn
and furniih plates for bookfellers. Mr Bowles, at the
Black Horfe in Cornhill, was one of his earlieft. pa¬
trons, whofe prices were very low. His next friend
in that line was Mr Philip Overton, who paid him
fomewhat better for his labour and ingenuity.
There are ftill many family piifures by Hogarth
exitting, in the ftyle of ferious converfation-pieces. What
the prices of his portraits were, Mr Nichols drove in
vain to difcover; but he fufpedls they were_ originally
very low, as the people who are beft acquainted with
them choofe to be filent on that fubjeft.
It happened, in the early part of Hogarth’s liie, that
a nobleman who was uncommonly ugly and deformed
came to fit to him for his picture. It was executed
with a fkill that did honour to the artift’s abilities ;
but the likenefs rvas rigidly obferved, without even the
neceifary attention to compliment or flattery. I he
peer, difgufied at this counterpart his dear felf, ne¬
ver once thought of paying for a reflector that would
onlv infult him with his deformities. Some time was
fuffered to elapfe before the artid applied for his mo¬
ney 5 but afterwards many applications w'ere made by
him (who had then no need of a banker) for payment
without fuccefs. The painter, however, at lail hit
upon an expedient, which he knew muff alarm the
nobleman’s pride, and by that means anfwer his pur-
pofe. It was couched in the following card : “ Mr
Hogarth’s dutiful refpects to Lord finding that
he does not mean to have the pi£hire which wTas drawn
for him, is informed again of Mr H’s neceflity for the
money J b, therefore, his lordfliip does not fend for it
in three days, it will be difpofed of, with tbe addi¬
tion of a tail, and fome other little appendages, to
Mr Hare, tbe famous wild-beafl: man ; Mr H. having
given that gentleman a conditional promife of it for an
exhibition-pifture on his lordfhip’s refufal.” J bis inti¬
mation bad the defired effecL The picture was fent
home, and committed to the flames.
Mr Walpole has remarked, that if our artift “ in¬
dulged his fpirit of ridicule in pei Tonalities, it never
proceeded beyond fketebes and drawings and won¬
ders “ that lie never, without intention, delivered tbe
very features of any identical perfon.” Mr Nicholas af-
fures us, from unqueib’onable authority, that almofi all
the perfonages who attend the levee of the Rake were
ui doubted portraits; and that in “ Southwark Fair,”
and the “ Modern Midnight Converfation,” as many
more were difcoverable. While Hogarth was painting
the “ Rake’s Progrefs,” he had a fummer refidence at
Ifleworth ; and never failed to queftion the company
who came to fee thefe pictures, if they knew for whom
one or another figure was defigned. When they guefTed
wrong, he let them right.
The duke of Leeds has an original feene m the
“ Beggar’s Opera,” painted by Hogarth. It is that
in which Lucy and Polly are on their knees, before
their rtfpecHve fathers, to intercede for the life of the
hero of the piece. All the figures are either known
or fuppofed to be portraits. If we are not mifinforrr.ed,
the late Sir Thomas Robinfon (perhaps better known
5S ] H O G
by tbe name of Long Sir Thomas) is landing in one Hogs
of the fide-boxes. Macheath, unlike bis fpruce repre-' v
Tentative on our prefent ftage, is a flouchmg bully;
and Polly appears happily difencumbered of fuch a
hoop as the daughter of Peachum within our younger
memories has worn. Mr Walpole has a pitlure of a
feene in tbe fame piece, where Macheath is going to
execution. In this alfo tbe likenefles of Walker, and
Mifs Fenton, afterwards duchefs of Bolton (dhe firlt
and original Macheath and Polly) are preferved. In
the year 1726, when the affair of Mary Tofts, the
rabbit-breeder of Godaiming, engaged the public at¬
tention, a few of our principal furgeons fubferibed
their guinea a-piece to Hogarth, for an engraving
from a ludicrous fketch he had made on that very po¬
pular fubieft. This plate, amongft other portraits,
contains that of the St Andre, then anatomift to the
royal hbufehold, and in high credit at a furgeon. In
1727, Hogarth agreed with Morris, an upholfterer, to
furnith him with a deiign on canvas, reprefenting the
element of earth as a pattern for tapeftry. The work
not being performed to the fatisfa&ion of Morris, he re-
fufed to pay for it; and our artifl, by a fuit at law, re¬
covered the fnoney.
In 1730, Mr Hogarth married the only daughter
of Sir James Thornhill, by whom he had no child.
This union, indeed, was a ftolen one, and confequent-
ly without the approbation of Sir James, who, ccnfi-
dering the youth of his daughter, then barely 18, and
the flender finances of her huiband, as yet an obfeure
artirt, was not eafily reconciled to the match. Soon
after this period, however, he began his “ Harlot’s
Progrefs” (the colfin in the laft plate is inferibed Sept.
2. 1731); and was advlfed by Lady Thornhill to have
fome of the feenes in it placed in the way of his father-
in-law. Accordingly, one morning early, Mrs Ho¬
garth undertook to convey feveral of them into his
dining-room. When he arole, he inquired from whence
they came ; and being told by whom they were intro¬
duced, he cried out, “ Very well ; tbe .Wan who can
furnilh reprefentations like tbefe can alfo maintain a
wife without a portion.” He defigned this remark as
an excufe for keeping his purfe-ftrings dole ; but, foon
after, became both reconciled and generous to tbe
young people. An allegorical ceiling by Sir James
Thornhill is at the boule of tbe late Mr Huggins, at
Headiy Park, Hants. The fubjeft of it is the ilory of
Zephyrus and Flora ; and the figure of a fatyr and others
were painted by Hogarth.
In 1732, Hogarth ventured to attack P/Ir Pope, in
a plate called “ The Man of Tatle containing a
view of the Gate of Burlingtoa-houfe, with Pope white-
wafhing it a«d befpattering the duke of Chandos’s
coach. This plate was intended as a fatire on the
tranfiator of Homer, Mr Kent the architecf, and the
earl of Burlington. It was fortunate for Hogarth that
he efcaped the la ill of the former. Either Hogarth’s
obfeurity at that time was his proteffion, or the bard
was too prudent to exafperate a painter who had al¬
ready given fuch proof of his abilities for fatire.
Soon after his marriage, Hogarth had fummer lodg¬
ings at South Lambeth : and being intimate with Mr
Tyres, contributed to the improvement of the Spring
Gardens at Vauxhal!, by the hint of embellithing them
with paintings, fome of which were the fuggeftiens of
4 A 2 hk
HOC [55
Hogarth his owq truly comic pencil. For his alTiftance, Mr
1'yres gratefully prefented him with a gold ticket of
admiffion for himfelf and his friends.
In 1733, his genius became confpicuoufly known.
The third feene of his “ Harlot’s Progrefs” introdu¬
ced him to the notice of the great. At a board of
treafury which was held a day or two after the ap¬
pearance of that print, a copy of it was fhown by one
of the lords, as containing, among other excellencies,
a linking likenefs of Sir John Gonfon. It gave univer-
lal fatisfa£tion : from the treafury each lord repaired to
the print-fhop for a copy of it, and Hogarth rofe com¬
pletely into fame.
f be ingenious Abbe Du Bos has often complained
no hiftory-painter of his time went through a fe-
. ' aftions, and thus, like an hiilorian, painted the
e fortune of an hero from the cradle to the
What Du Bos wiihed to fee done, Hogarth
He launches out his young adventurer
1 upon the town, and conduits her through
' lit.ides of wretchednefs to a premature
:; was painting to the underftanding and
; none had ever before made the pencil
• ■ u- to the purpofes of morality and inftruc-
^ ; like t!:is is fitted to every foil and every
" ' : he that runs may read. Nor was the
Hogarth confined to his perfons. One of
•. u illencies conutted in what maybe termed the
furniture of his pieces; for as, in fublime and hiftori-
cul reprefientalions,’ the fewer trivial circumftances are
permitted to divide the fpeclator’s attention from the
principal figiu es, the greater is their force ; fo, in
fcenes copied from familiar life, a proper variety of
little domeftic images contributes to throw a degree of
verifimilitude on the whole. “ The Rake’s levee-
room,” fays Mr Walpole, “ the nobleman’s dining¬
room, the apartments of the hufband and wife in Mar¬
riage a la Mode, the alderman’s parlour, the bed-cham¬
ber, and many others, are the hiftory of the manners
-of the ag-e.*’
In 1745, Hogarth fold about 20 of his capital pic¬
tures by auftion ; and in the fame year acquired addi¬
tional reputation by the fix prints of “ Marriage <t la
Mode,” ivhich many be regarded as the ground-work of
a novel called “ the Marriage Aft,” by Dr Shebbeare,
.and of “ The Clandeftine Marriage.”
Soon after the peace of Aix la Chapelle, he went
over to France, and was taken into cuftody at Calais
while he was drawing the gate of that town ; a cir-
cumftance Vi hich he has recorded in his pifture, enti¬
tled, “ O the Roafi: Beef of Old England !” pub-
blifhed March 26. 1749. He was aftually carried be¬
fore the governor as a fpy, and after a very ftrift exa¬
mination committed a prifoner to Granfire, his landlord,
on his promiling that Hogarth fliould not go out of his
houfe till he was to embark for England.
In 1753, he appeared to the world in the charafter
of an author, and publilhed a quarto volume, entitled,
“ The Analyfis of Beauty, written with a view of
fixing the fluctuating ideas of tafte.” In this per¬
formance he Ihows, by a variety of examples, that a
curve is the line of beauty, and that round fwelling
figures are molt pleafing to the eye ; and the truth of
his opinion has been countenanced by fubfequent wri¬
ters on the fubjeft. In this work, the leading idea of
6 ] HOG
which was hieroglyphically thrown out in a frontifpiece Hogarth:
to his works in 1745, he acknowledges himfelf indebt- —y-—
ed to his friends for attiftance, and particularly to one
gentleman for his corrections and amendments of at
leaft a third part of the wording. This friend ivas Dr
Benjamin Hoadley the phyfician, who carried on the
work to about the third part, Chap. IX. and then,
through indifpofition, declined the friendly office with
regret. Mr Hogarth applied to his neighbour Mr
Ralph ; but it was impolfible for two fuch perfons to
agree, both alike vain and pofitive. He proceeded no
farther than about a (beet, and they then parted
friends, and feem to have continued fuch. The kind
office of finifhing the work, and fuperintending the
publication, was lattly taken up by Dr Morell, who
went through the remainder of the book. The pre¬
face was in like manner correfted by the reverend Mr
Townley. The family of Hogarth rejoiced when the
latt: Iheet of the “ Analyfis” was printed off; as the
frequent difputes he had with his coadjutors, in the
progrels of the work, did not much harmonize his
dilpoirtion. This work was tranfiated into German
by Mr Mylins, when in England, under the author’s
infpeftion ; and the tranilation was printed in London,
price five dollars. A new and correft edition was in
X 754 propoied for publication at Berlin, by Ch. Fr. Vok,
with an explanation of Mr Hogarth’s fatirical prints,
tranllated from the French ; and an Italian tranflation
was publifhed at Leghorn in 1761.
Hogarth had one failing in common with mofl people
who attain wealth and eminence without the aid of li¬
beral education.—He affefted to defpife every kind of
knowledge which he did not poffefs. Having efta-
biiihed his fame with little or no obligation to litera¬
ture* he either conceived it to be needlefs, or decried
it becaufe it lay out of his reach. His fentiments, in
ftrort, reiembled thofe of Jack Cade, who pronounced
fentence on the clerk of Chatham becaufe be could
write and read. Till, in evil hour, this celebrated ar-
tift commenced author, and was obliged to employ the
friends already mentioned to correft his “ Analyfis of
Beauty,” he did not feem to have difeovered that even
fpelling was a neceffary qualification ; and yet he had
ventured to ridicule the late Mr Rich’s deficiency as
to this particular, in a note which lies before the Rake
whofe play is refufed while he remains in confinement
for debt. Previous to the time of which we are now
fpeaking, one of our artitt’s common topics of decla¬
mation was the ufeleffnefs of books to a man of his
profefiion. In “ Beer-ftreet,” among other volumes
configned by him to the paftry-cook, we find Turn-
bull “ on Ancient Paintinga treatife which Ho¬
garth flrould have been able to underftand before he
ventured to condemn. Garrick himfelf, however, was
not more duftile to flattery. A word in praife of
“ Sigifmunda,” his favourite work, might have com¬
manded a proof print, or forced an original (ketch out
of our artitt’s hands. The following authenticated
ftory of our artift will alfo ferve to (how how much
more eafy it is to deleft ill-placed or hyperbolical adu¬
lation refpefting others than when applied to ourfelves.
Hogarth being at dinner with the great Chefelden and
fome other company, was told that Mr John Freke,
furgeon of St Bartholomew’s-hofpital, a few evenings
before, at Dick’s coffeeheufe, had afferted that Greene
wss
4
HOG [ J57 3 HOG
Hogaith. was as eminent in compofition as Handel. “ That
' fellow Freke,” replied Hogarth, “ is always (hooting
his bolt abfurdly one way or another ! Handel is a giant
in mufic ; Greene only a light Florimel kind of a com-
pofer.”—“ Aye,” fays our artift’s informant j “ but at
the fame time Mr Freke declared you were as good a
portrait-painter as Vandyck.”—“ There he was in the
right,” adds Hogarth ; “ and fo by G— I am, give me
my time, and let me choofe my fubjedl!”
A fpecimen of Hogarth’s propensity to merriment,
on the mod trivial occafions, is obfervable in one of
his cards requefting the company of Dr Arnold King
to dine with him at the Mitre. Within a circle, to
which a knife and fork are the fupporters, the written
part is contained. In the centre is drawn a pye, with
a mitre on the top of it 5 and the invitation of our
artift concludes with the following fport on the Greek
letters—to Eta Beta Pi. The reft of the infcription
is not very accurately fpelt. A quibble by Hogarth is
furely as refpeflable as a conundrum by Swift.
In one of the early exhibitions at Spring-Gardens,
a very plealing fmall pifture by Hogarth made its firft
appearance. It rvas painted for the earl of Charle-
mont, in whofe colledlion it remains, and was entit-
tled “ Picquet, or Virtue in Danger and ihowrs us a
young lady who during a tete a fete had juft loft all her
money to a handfome officer of her own age. He is
reprefented in the aft of returning her a handful of
bank bills, with the hope of exchanging them for a
fofter acquifition and more delicate plunder. On the
chimney-piece a watch cafe and a figure of Time over
it, with this motto—NUNC. Hogarth has caught
his heroine during this moment of hefitation, this
ftruggle with herfelf, and has marked her feelings with
uncommon fuccefs.
In the “ Mifer’s Feaft,” Mr Hogarth thought pro¬
per to pillory Sir Ilaac Shard, a gentleman proverbi¬
ally avaricious. Hearing this, the fon of Sir Ifaac,
the late Ifaac Pacatus Shard, Efq. a young man of
fpirit, juft returned from his travels, called at the
painter’s to fee the pifture ; and, among the reft, alk-
ing the Cicerone “ whether that odd figure was in¬
tended for any particular i erfon ?” on his replying
“ that it was thought to be very like one Sir Ifaac
Shard,” he immediately drew his fwmrd and flafhed the
canvas. Hogarth appeared inftantly in great wrath :
to whom Mr Shard calmly juftified what he had done,
faying, “ that this w7as a very unwarrantable licence 5
that he w^as the injured party’s fon, and that he was
read to defend any fuit at law j” wdiich, however, was
never inftituted.
About 1757, his brother-in-law, Mr Thornhill, re-
figned the place of king’s ferjeant-painter in favour of
Mr Hogarth.
The laft remarkable circumftance of his life was his
conteft wfith Mr Churchill. It is faid that both met
at Weftminfter-hall •, Hogarth to take by his eye a ri¬
diculous likenefs of the poet, and Churchill to furnifh
a defcription of the painter. But Hogarth’s print of
the poet was not much efteemed, and the poet’s letter
to him was but little admired. Some pretend, indeed,
to fay that it broke the painter’s heart; but this wTe
can from good authority fay is not true. Indeed the
report falls of itfelf j for we may as well fay, that
Hogarth’s pencil was as efficacious as the poet’s pen, Hogarth,
(ince neither long furvived the conteft. -y:-—
It may be truly obferved of Hogarth, that all his
powers of delighting were reftrained to his pencil.
Having rarely been admitted into polite circles, none
of his ffiarp corners had been rubbed off, fo that he
continued to the laft a grofs uncultivated man. The
flighteft contradiftion tranfported him into rage. To
fume confidence in himfelf he was certainly entitled ;
for, as a comic painter, he could have claimed no ho¬
nour that w'ould not moft readily have been allowed
him \ but he was at once unprincipled and variable in
his political conduft and attachments. He is alfo faid
to have beheld the rifing eminence and popularity of
Sir Joilrua Reynolds writh a degree of envy; and, if
we are not mifinformed, frequently fpoke with afperi-
ty both of him and his performances. Juftice, how¬
ever, obliges us to add, that our artift was liberal,
hofpitable, and the moft punftual of paymafters ; fo
that, in fpite of the emoluments his works had procu¬
red to him, he left but an inconfiderable fortune to his
widow. His plates indeed are fuch refources to her as
may not fpeedily be exhaufted. Some of his domeftics
had lived many years in his fervice; a circumftance that
always refiefts credit on a mafter. Of moft of thefe he
painted ftrong likeneffes on a canvas ftill in Mrs Ho¬
garth’s poffelfton.
Of Hogarth’s, leffer plates many were deftroyed.
When he wanted a piece of copper on a fudden, he
would take any from which he had already worked off
fuch a number of impreffions as he fuppofed he would
fell. He then fent it to be effaced, beat out, or other-
wife altered to his prefent purpofe. The plates which
remained in his poffeflion were fecured to Mrs Hogarth
by his will, dated Aug. 12. 1764, chargeable with
an annuity of Sol. to his lifter Anne, who furvived
him. When, on the death of his other lifter, Ihe left
off the bulinefs in which fhe was engaged, he kindly
took her home, and generoully fupported her, making
her, at the fame time, ufeful in the difpofal of his
prints. Want of tendernefs and liberality to his rela¬
tions was not among the failings of Hogarth.
The following charafter of Hogarth as an artift is
given by Mr Gilpin in his EJfay on Prints. “ The
works of this mafter abound in true humour, and fa-
tire which is generally well direfted : they are admi¬
rable moral leffons, and a fund of entertainment fuited
to every tafte; a circumftance which (hows them to
be juft copies of nature. We may confider them too
as valuable repofitories of the manners, cuftoms, and
dreffes of the prefent age. What a fund of entertain¬
ment would a collection of this kind afford, drawn
from every period of the hiftory of Britain!—How
far the works of Hogarth will bear a critical examina¬
tion, may be the fubjeft of a little more inquiry.
“ In dejign, Hogarth was feldom at a lofs. His
invention was fertile, and his judgement accurate. An
improper accident is rarely introduced, a proper one
rarely omitted. No one could tell a ftory better, or
make it, in all its circumftances, more intelligible. His
genius, however, it mult be owned, was fuited only to
low or familiar fubjecls ; it never foared above common
life : to fubjecls naturally fublime, or which from an¬
tiquity or other accidents borrowed dignity, he could.
not
Hogarth.
11 O G C SS3 1 H 0 L
not rife. In compnjttion we fee little In him to admire.
In many of his prints the deficiency is fo great as plainly
to imply a want of all principle j which makes us ready
to believe, that when we do meet with a beautiful
group, it is the effect of chance. In one of his minor
works, the Idle Prentice, we feldom fee a crowd more
beautifully managed than in the laft print. If the
fherifPs officers had not been placed in a line, and had
been brought a little lower in the pitffure, fo as to
have formed a pyramid with the cart, the compontion
had been unexceptionable; and yet the firlt print of
this work is fuch a finking inftance of difagreeable
compofition, that it is amazing how an artift who had
any idea of beautiful forms could fuffer fo unmallerly
a performance to leave'his hands. Of the dijlribution of
bight Hogarth had as little knowledge as of compojition.
In fome of bis pieces we fee a good effedf, as in the
Execution juft mentioned ; in wffiich, if the figures at
the right and left corners had been kept down a little,
the light would have been beautifully difhibuted on
the fore-ground, and a fine fecondary light fpread over
part of the crowd. But at the fame time there is fo
obvious a deficiency in point of effedf in molt of his
prints, that it is very evident he had no principles.
Neither was Hogarth a mailer in drawing. Of the
mufcles and anatomy of the head and hands he had
perfeft knowledge •, but his trunks are often badly
moulded, and his limbs ill fet on •, yet his figures, up¬
on the whole, age infpired with fo much life and mean¬
ing, th ;t the eye is kept in good-humour in fpite of
its inclination to find fault. The author of the Ana-
lyfis of Beauty, it might be fuppofed, w?ould have
given us more inlfanc.es of grace than we find in the
vrorks of Hogarth ; which Ihows ftrongly that theory
and practice are not alrvays united. Many opportuni¬
ties his fubjefls naturally afford of introducing graceful
attitudes, and yet we have very few' examples of them.
With inltances of picfurefque grace his works abound.
Of this expreffion, in which the force of his genius lay,
we cannot fpeak in terms too high. In every mode of
it he was truly excellent. The paffions he thoroughly
underltood, and all the effe&s which they produce in
every part of the human frame. He had the happy
art alfo of conveying his ideas w-ith the fame prccifion
with which he conceived them. He w'as excellent too
in expreffing any humorous oddity which we often
fee damped upon the human face. All his heads are
cad in the very mould of nature. Hence that *ndlefs
variety which is difplayed through his works } and hence
it is that the difference arifes between ins heads and the
affeffed caricatures of thofe maders who have fometimes
amufed themfelves with patching together an affemblage
of features from their own ideas. Such are Spaniolet’s :
which, though admirably executed, appear plainly to
have no archetypes in nature. Hogarth’s, on the other
hand, are colledfions of natural curiofities. The Oxford*
heads, the Fhyfcians-arms, and fome of his other
pieces, are exprefsly of this humorous kind. They are
truly comic, though ill-natured cffullons of mirth :
more entertaining than Spaniolet’s, as they are pure
nature ; but lefs innocent, as they contain ill-dire£led
ridicule.—But the fpecies of expreffion in which this
mader perhaps mod excels, is that happy art of catching
thole peculiarities of art and gedure which the ridicu¬
lous part of every profedion contract, and which for
3
that rcafon become charafleridic of the whole. r^His Hogfliead
counfellors, his undertakers, Ms lawyers, his ufurers, H .
are all confpicuous at fight. In a word, almod every , ^0*hci'‘'-
profeflion may fee in his works that particular fpecies
of affedfation which they diould mod endeavour to
avoid. The execution of this mader is well luited to
his iubjedls and manner of treating them. He etches
with great fpirit, and never gives one unneceffary
droke.”
HOGSHEAD, in commerce, a meafure of capa¬
city containing 63 gallons,=:i6 gallons in Scotland.
HOGUE, a town and cape on the north-wed point
of Normandy in France ; near wffiich Admiral Rook
burnt the French admiral’s diip called the Rifng Sun,
with 1 2 more large men of wrar, the day after the vic¬
tory obtained by Admiral Ruffell near Cherburg in May
1692. W. Long, 2. 0. N. Lat. 49. 50.
HOIST, in fea-language, denotes the perpendicu¬
lar height of a dag or enlign, as oppofed to the dy,
which lignifies its breadth from the daff to the outer
edge.
HOISTING fignifies the operation of drawing up
any body by the affidance of one or more tackles.
Holding is never applied to the act of pulling up any
body by the help of a Angle block, except in the ex-
ercife of extending the fails by drawing them upwards
along the mads or days, to which it is invariably ap¬
plied.
HOKE-day, HocK-day, or Hock-Tucfday, in opr
ancient cudoms (dies Mams, quern qutndenampafeiue va¬
cant), the fecond Tuefday after Fader wreek ; a folemn
fedival celebrated tor many ages in England in memory
of the great daughter of the Danes in the time of King
Ethelred, they having been in that reign almod all dc-
droyed in one day in different parts of the kingdom,
and that principally by women. This is dill kept up
in fome counties ; and the women bear the principal
fway in it, dopping all paffengers with ropes and chains,
and exacting fome fmall matter from them to make
merry with. This day was very remarkable in former
times, infomuch as to be ufed on the fame footing with
Michaelmas for a general term or time ol account. We
find leafes without date reierving fo much rent payab1e
ad duos anni terminus, feii. ad le hoke-day, A3 ad fefum
fantli Michaelis. In the account of Magdalen college,
Oxford, there is yearly an allowance pro tmtlieribus
hockantibus of lorne manors of theirs in Hampihire ;
where the men hock the women on Mondays and the
women hock them on Tuefdays. The meaning of it
is, that on that day the women in merriment dopped
the way wdth ropes, and pulled paffengers to them,
defiring fomething to be laid out for pious ufes.
Hoie-Day Monet/, or Hoke-Tuefday Money, a tribute
anciently paid the landlord, for giving his tenants and
bondmen leave to celebrate bock-day, or hoke day, in
memory of the expulfion of trie domineering Danes.
HO-KIEN-Fou, a city of China, and one of the
principal in the province of Pe-tcheli. It has two ci¬
ties of the fecond, and fifteen of the third clais in its
dill riel, but is remarkable for nothing but the neatneis
of its dreets.
HOLBEIN, Hans, a celebrated painter, born at
Bal'd in Switzerland in 1498, learned the rudiments
of his art from his father, who was a painter ; but
foon die wed his fuperior genius. In the tuwn-houle
of
H O L [ ;
Holbein. OxF Bafil he painted our Saviour’s Paffion j and in the
—■'V”"-'1 filh-market of the fame city Death’s Dance, and a
Dance of Peafants, which were extremely admired ;
and Erafmus was fo pleafed with them, that he defired
him to draw his piflure, and was ever after his friend.
He llaid fome years longer at Bafil, till his neceflities,
occafioned by his own extravagance and an increaiing
family, made him comply with Erafmus’s perfuafions
to go to England. In his journey he llatd fome days
at Stralburg, where it is faid he applied to a very great
painter for work, who took him in, and ordered him
to give a fpecimen of his Ikill. On which Holbein fi-
niihed a piece with great care, and painted a fly on the
mofl; eminent part of it ; after which he privately with¬
drew in the abfence of his mafter, and purfued his jour¬
ney, without faying any thing to any body. When
the painter returned home, he was aftonifhed at the
beauty and elegance of the drawing *, and elpecially at
the fly, which he at full took for a real one, and en¬
deavoured to remove it with his hand. He now fent all
over the city for his journeyman j and after many in¬
quiries, difeovered that he had been thus deceived by
tlie famous Holbein.—Holbein having in a manner
begged his way to England, prefented a letter of re¬
commendation from Erafmus to Sir Thomas More, and
alfo fhowed him Erafmus’s picture.. Sir Thomas, who
was then lord-chancellor, received him with all the joy
imaginable, and kept him in his houfe between two
and three years •, in which time he drewr Sir Thomas’s
pi£ture, and thofe of many of his relations and friends.
Holbein one day happening to mention a nobleman
who had fome years before invited him to England,
Sir Thomas is as very felicitous to know who it was.
Holbein faid that he had forgot his title, but remem¬
bered Ids face fo well, that he believed he could draw
his likenefs; which he did fo perfeftly, that thejioble-
man, it is faid, was immediately known by it. The
chancellor having now adorned his apartments with the
productions of this great painter, refolved to introduce
him to Henry VIII. For this purpofe, he invited
that prince to an entertainment 5 having, before he
came, hung up all Holbein’s pieces in the great hall,
in the befl; order, and placed in the beft light. The
king, on his firfl entrance into this room, was fo
charmed with the fight, that he a Iked whether fuch atr
artill was now alive, and to be had for money ? Upon
this, Sir Thomas prefented Holbein to his majefly
w ho immediately took him into his fervice, and brought
him into great efteem-with the nobility and gentry, by
which means he drew a vaft number of portraits. But
while he was here, there happened an affair which
might have proved fatal to him, had he not been pro-
tecled by the king. On the report of this painter’s
charafler, a lord of the fiift quality came to fee him
when he was drawing a figure after the life. Holbein
fent to defire his lordfhip to defer the honour of his
vifit to another day : which the nobleman taking for
an affront, broke open the door, and very rudely went
up flairs. Holbein hearing a noife, came out of his
chamber ; and meeting the lord at his door, fell into a
violent paflion, and pufhed him backwards from the
top of the flairs to the bottom. However, immediate¬
ly refleCIing on what he had done, he efcaped from the
tumult he had raifed, and made the beft of bis way to
the king. The nobleman, much hurt, though not fo
59 1 H o L
much as he pretended, was there foon after him 5 and Hoicas
upon opening his grievance, the king ordered Holbein ^
to alk his pardon. But this only irritated the noble- .
man thejmore, who would not be fatisfied with lefs
than his life j upon which the king fternly replied,
“ My lord, you have not now to do with Holbein
but with me ; whatever punifhment you may contrive
by way of revenge againft him, fliall certainly be in-
flifled on yourfelf. Remember, pray, my lord, that
I can whenever I pleafe make feven lords of feven
ploughmen, but I caunot make one Holbein of even
feven lords.” Holbein died of the plague at his lodg¬
ings at Whitehall in 1554. “ It is amazing (fays De
Piles), that a man born in Switzerland, and who had
never been in Italy, fhould have fo good a gujlo, and fo
fine a genius for painting.” He painted alike in every
manner; in frefco, in water-colours, in oil, and in
miniature. His genius was fufficiently fhown in the
hiftorical ftyle, by two celebrated compofitions which
he painted in the hall of the Stillyard company. He
was alfo eminent for a rich vein of invention, which he
fliowed in a multitude of defigns w'hich he drew for
engravers, ftatuaries, jewellers, &c. and he had this
Angularity, that he painted with his left hand.
HOLCUS, Indian millet or corn, a genus of
plants belonging to the polygamia clafs, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 4th order, Gramina*
See Botany Index.
HOLD, the whole interior cavity or belly of a
fliip, or all that part of her infide which is compre¬
hended between the floor and the lower-deck through¬
out her w'hole length.—This capacious apartment ufu-
ally contains the ballaft, provifions, and ftores of a fliip
of war, and the principal part of the cargo in a mer¬
chantman. The difpolition of thefe articles with re¬
gard to each other, naturally falls under confideration
in the article Stowage ; it fuffices in this place to fay,
that the places where the ballaft, water, provifions,
and liquors are flowed, are known by the general
name of the hold. The feveral ftore-rooms are fepa-
rated from each other by bulk-heads, and are deno¬
minated according to the articles which they contain,
X.h.zfail-roomy the bread-roomy the fjh-rootn, the fpirit-
room, &c.
HOLDER, William, D. D. an Englifti divine,
was born in Nottingham (hire, educated in Pcmbroke-
hall Cambridge, and in 1642 became re£lor of Blech-
ingdon of Oxford. In 1660 he proceeded D. D. was
afterwards canon of Ely, fellow of the Royal Society,
canon of St Paul’s, fub-dean of the royal chapel, and
fub-almoner to his majefty. Dr Holder was a very ac*
compliflied fcholar, and greatly diftinguilhed himfelf,
by making a young gentleman of rank who was born
deaf and dumb, to Ipeak. This gentleman’s name
was Alexander Popham, fon of Colonel Edward Pop-
ham, who was forne time an admiral in the fervice of
the long parliament. The cure was performed by him
in Ins houfe at Blechingdon in 1659; but Popham lo-
ling what he had been taught by Holder after he was
called home to his friends, was fent to Dr Wallis, who
brought him to his fpeech again. Holder publiftied a
book, entitled “ the Elements of Speech ; an elfay of
enquiry into the natural Production of Letters : with
an appendix concerning perfons that are deaf and
dymb, 1669,” 8vo. In the appendix he relates how
foon.
II O L [ 560 1 HO L
ncfs foon, and by what methods, he brought Popham to
fpeak. In 1678, he publilhed in 410 “ a Supplement
s’ , to the Philofophical Tranfaftions of July 1670, with
fome refleffions on Dr Wallis’s letter there inferted.”
This was written to claim the glory of having taught
Popham to fpeak, which Wallis in the faid letter had
claimed to himfelf •, upon which the Doftor foon af¬
ter publilhed “ a Defence of the Royal Society, and
the Philofophical Tranfaftions, particularly thofe of
July 1670, in anfwer to the Cavils of Dr William
Holder, 1678,” 410. Holder was {killed in the theo¬
ry and praftice of mulic, and wrote “ a Treatife of the
natural Grounds and Principles of Harmony, 1694,”
Svo. He wrote alfo “ a Difcourfe concerning Time,
with Application of the natural Day, lunar Month,
and folar Year, &c. 1694,” 8vo. lie died at Amen
Corner in London, January 24. 1696-7, and was bu¬
ried in St Paul’s.
HOLDERNESS, a dillri£t of the eafl: riding of
Yorkfhire, having the German fea on the eaft, and the
Humber on the fouth. This diitrift is remarkable for
its rich and a large breed of horned cattle and horfes.
It had the title of an earldom, now extinft.
HOLDSWORTH, Edward, a very polite and
elegant fcholar, was born about 1688, and educated at
Winchefter fchool. He was thence eledled demy of
Magdalen college, Oxford, in July 1705’, took the
degree of M. A. in April 1711 •, became a college-tu¬
tor, and had many pupils. In 1715, when he was to
be chofen into a fellowfhip, he refigned his demyfhip
and left the college, becaufe unwilling to fwear alle¬
giance to the new government. The remainder of his
life was fpent in travelling with young noblemen and
gentlemen as tutor; in 1741 and 1744 he was at Rome
in this capacity. He died of a fever at Lord Digby’s
houfe at ColePnill in Warwick fir ire, December 30. 1747.
He was the author of the “ Mufcipula,” a poem, efleem-
ed a mailer-piece in its kind, and of which there is a
good Englilh tranllation by Dr John Hoadley, in vol. 5.
of Dodlley’s Mifcellanies. He was the author alfo of
a dilfertation, entitled “ Pharfalia and Philippi ; or the
two Philippi in Virgil’s Georgies attempted to be ex¬
plained and reconciled to Hillory, 1741,” 4to : and of
“ Remarks and DHTertations on Virgil*, with fome other
claffical Obfervations, publiihed with feveral notes and
additional remarks by Mr Spence, 1768,” 4to. Mr
Spence fpeaks of him in Polymetis, as one who under¬
flood Virgil in a more mafterly manner than any perfon
lie ever knew*.
HOLORACEiE, (from holtis, “ pot-herbs”) 5 the
name of the 12th order in Linnaeus’s fragments of a
natural method, confiding of plants which are ufed for
the table, and enter into the economy of domedic
affairs. See Botany Index.
HOLIBUT. See Pleuronectes, Ichthyology
Index.
HOLINESS, or sanctity ; a quality which con-
ditutes or denominates a perfon or thing holy ; i. e.
pure, or exempt from fin. The word is alfo ufed
in refpeft of perfons and things that are facred,
i. e. fet apart to the fervice of God, and the ufes of
religion.
Holiness, is alfo a title of quality attributed to the
pope ; as that of rnajejiy is to kings. Even kings, when
writing to the pope, addrefs him under the venerable
3
appellation of Tour Holinefs, or Ho/y Father ; in La- HolingOied
tin, San&iJJime or Beatiffime Pater. Anciently the II
fame title was given to all bifiiops. The Greek em- Ho!land-
perors alfo were addrefied under the title of Holinefs, v
in regard of their beina: anointed with holy oil at
their coronation. Du Cange adds, that fome of the
kings of England have had the fame attribute ; and
that the orientals have frequently refufed it to the
pope.
HOLINGSHED, Ralph, or Raphael, was one
of the humble but ufeful clafs of hidorians called chro-
nologers. He wTas educated at Cambridge, according
to Bidrop Tanner, and became A. M. in the year
1544. The nature and extent of his education, as wrell
as his profedion, are involved in uncertainty. It feems
probable, however, that he wras deward to Thomas
Burdett, Efq. of Bomcote in Warwicklhire, where he
died about the year 1580. He has given name to a '
compilation of chronicles of Engliih hidory from the
earlied times, the fird edition of which was publidred
at London in 1577J in two volumes folio, and the fe-
cond edition in three volumes, w7as printed about feven
years after his death, brought down to 1586. This
work, according to the tedimony of Holingdied himfelf,
was begun by the advice of Reginald Wolfe, printer
to Queen Elizabeth. Part of it was compiled by him¬
felf, but he received confiderable adidance from Wil¬
liam Harrifon, John Hooker, Abraham Fleming, Fran¬
cis Thynne, and fome others. It was continued by
John Stowe after the death of Holingdied. Some parts
of the fird edition were altered in the fecond and third,
becaufe they gave offence to Queen Elizabeth and the
minidry, wdio laid many redridlions on the liberty of
the prefs. The fird edition of confequence is both
fcarce and valuable ; but the fuppreffed Iheets were af¬
terwards printed by themfelves. The chronicles of
Holingdied, although confidered as both tedious and
vulgar, contain many important fafts, which tend to
illudrate the cudoms and manners of remote periods.
HOLLAND, Philemond, M. D. commonly call¬
ed the trandator general of his age, was educated in
the univerfity of Cambridge. He wras for many years
a fchoolmailer at Coventry, where he alfo pradtifed
phyfic. He trandated Livy, Pliny’s Natural Hidory,
Plutarch’s Morals, Suetonius, Ammianus Marcellinus,
Xenophon’s Cyropaedia, and Camden’s Britannia, in¬
to Englidi ; and the geographical part of Speed’s
Theatre of Great Britain into Latin. The Britan¬
nia, to which he made many ufeful additions, was the
mod valuable of his wTorks. It is furpnfing that a
man of two profedions could find time to trandate fo
much but it appears from the date of the Cyropae¬
dia, that he continued to trandate till he was 80 years
of age. He died in 1637, aged 85. He made the
following epigram upon writing a large iolio with a.
fingle pen :
With one foie pen I wrote this book,
Made of a grey goofe quill *,
A pen it wTas when it I took,
And a pen I leave it dill.
HOT-. LAND, the larged of the feven United Pro¬
vinces, divided into South and North Holland, the
latter of which is alfo called IIv/? Friejiand is bound¬
ed oci the wed by the German ocean, or North rea to
the
H O L [ 561 1 H O L
Holland, the eafl by the Zuyder-fee, the province of Utrecht,
■——r—' and part of Guelderland j to the fouth by Dutch Bra¬
bant and Zealand *, and to the north by the Zuyder-
fee. Its greateft extent from north to fouth, including
the ifland of Texel, is about 90 Englifh miles 5 but
from eaft to weft its extent varies from 40 to 25. To
defend it againft the fea, dykes have been ere£led at an
immenfe expence, and innumerable canals cut to drain
it, as being naturally very low and marfny. Some
parts of the province are very fruitful in corn j but the
greater part confifts of rich paftures, wherein are kept
large herds of kine, which fupply them with incredible
, quantities of butter and cheefe. Of the latter, that of
Edam, in North Holland, is highly efteemad. The
many rivers and canals that interfeft the province are
of great advantage to its commerce, but contribute to
render the air foggy and unwholefome. There is a
communication by water betwixt almoft every town and
village. Towards the middle alfo of the province are
great numbers of turf-pits. It is fo populous, that
the number of the inhabitants is computed at 1,200,000.
In point of cleanlinefs no country furpafles, and few
come up to it, efpecially in North Holland, and that
even in the villages. From the counts of Holland this
province devolved, in 1436, to the dukes of Burgun¬
dy, and from them to the houfe of Auftria, along with
the other provinces. The ftates of Holland and Weft
Friefland are compofed of the nobility and deputies of
the towns; of the latter there are 18 that fend depu¬
ties to the aflembly of the ftates, which is held at the
Hague. The grand penfionary is a perfon of great
dignity arid weight in this aflembly, and his office re¬
quires extraordinary abilities. There are alfo two
councils compofed of deputies, one for South and ano¬
ther for North Holland, who have the cognizance of
the revenue and military affairs. The whole province
fends one deputy from among the noblefle to the ftates-
general, who takes precedence of all others, together
with three or four more. There are two fupreme
courts of judicature for Holland and Zealand ; viz. the
great council of Holland and Zealand, and the hof
or court of Holland. To thefe appeals lie from the
towns \ but the caufes of noblemen come before them
in the firft inftance. With refpeft to the ecclefiaitical
government, there is a fynod held annually both in
South and North Holland, of which the former con¬
tains eleven clafles, and the latter fix •, and the mini-
fters of both together amount to 331. In the whole
province are 37 towns, eight boroughs, and 400 vil¬
lages.
Soon after the commencement of the French revolu¬
tion, this ill-fated country became the theatre of war,
the old government wTas fubverted, and the ftadtholder
having fled to England for fafety, the republican rulers
of France impofed a political conftitution upon it ac¬
cording to their pleafure. The infatuated people of
Holland received their conquerors with apparent, per¬
haps with real fatisfa£Hon at firft j but we believe that
experience has fatally taught them the pernicious na¬
ture of the change. As the government of France
changed from direftorial to confular, and from confular
to imperial, that of Holland alfo received various modi¬
fications, till at laft it wras converted into a monarchy
under one of Bonaparte’s brothers, who claims the title
of king. Of all thefe changes the deluded people have
Vol. X. Part II.
been obliged to be the paffive fpeffators; for what is it Ho!lan5;
which may not be eftablilhed at the point of the bayo-
net ? For a copious detail of military tranfaflions, and , .
the political viciffitudes which Holland has ^experienced
in confequence of the French revolution, fee the article
France 5 and for the hiftory, fee United Provinces.
Holland, one of the divifions of Lincolnfliire in
England. It fo much refembles the province of that
name upon the continent, in moft refpedls, being low
and marffiy, with the fea on one fide, and canals run¬
ning through it, that it mult either have had its name
from thence, or on the fame account. On the eaft it
has what the ancient geographers call AZjhiarium Me-
taris, now the Wallies, which are overflowed at high
rvater, and part of Cambridgeffiire on the fouth. The
lower part of it is full of bogs and marlhes, and has
huge banks to defend it againft the fea and land floods.
The ground is fo foft, that horfes are worked unffiod ;
and it produces plenty of grafs, but little corn.
The whole traft feems to have been gained from the
fea ; and is divided into Upper and Lower, the latter
of which was impaflable ; but fince the fens have been
drained, the lands are grown more folid, and the inha¬
bitants fow cole-feed upon them to their great profit.
Though there are no Hones to be found in or upon
the ground, yet moft of the churches are of ftone.
They have no frelh water but from the clouds, which
is preferved in pits: but if thefe are deep, it foon turns
brackilh ; and if they are (hallow, they foon become
dry.
New Holland, the largeft illand in the world,
reaching from 10 to 44* S. Lat. and between no
and 154 of E. Long, from London. It received its
name from having been chiefly explored by Dutch
navigators. The land firft difcovered in thofe parts
was called Eendragkt (Concord) Land, from the name
of the ffiip on board which the difcovery was made
in 1616 j 240 and 250 fbuth. In 1618, another part
of this coaft, nearly in 13* fouth, was difcovered by
Zeachen, who gave it the name of Arnheun and Die¬
men ; though a different part from what afterwards re¬
ceived the name of Diemen’s Land from Tafman, which
was fuppofed to be the fouthern extremity, in latitude
43®. This is now found to be an illand feparated from
New Holland by Bafs’s Straits. See Diemen's Land.
In 1619, Jan Van Edels gave his name to a fouthem •*
part of New Holland. Another part, lituated between
30 and 330 received the name of Leuwen. Peter Van
Nuitz gave his name, in 1627, to a coaft which com¬
municates to Leuwen’s Land towards the weftward j
and a part of the weftern coaft, near the tropic of Ca¬
pricorn, bore the name of De Wit's. In 1628, Peter
Carpenter, a Dutchman, difcovered the great gulf of
Carpentaria, between 10 and 20° fouth. In 1687,
Dampier, an Engliffiman, failed from Timor, and coafi-
ed the weftern parts of New Holland. In 1699, he
left England, with a defign to explore this country, as
the Dutch fupprefled whatever difcoveries had been
made by them. He failed1* along the weftern coaft of it,
from 28 to 150. He faw the land of Eendraght and
of De Wit. He then returned to Timor, from
whence he went out again; examined the ifles of Pa¬
pua ; coafted New Guinea ■, difcovered the paffage that
bears his name 5 called a great ifland which forms this
paflage or ftrait on the eaft fide. New Britain; and
4 B . . felled
0
New Hol¬
land.
Whether
the name
of lontincnt
belongs to
New Hol¬
land.
n.
Captain
Cook’s ac¬
count of
the coun¬
try.
H O L [ 562 ]
Tailed back to Timor along New Guinea. This is the
Tame Dampier who, between 1683 and 1691, failed
round the world by changing his Ihips. Notwith-
ftanding the attempts of all thefe navigators, however,
the eaftern part of this vail traci was totally unknown
till Captain Cook made his voyages •, and by fully ex¬
ploring that part of the coail^ gave his country an
undoubted title to the pofleffion of it •, which accord¬
ingly has fince been taken poffeflion of under the name
of iVetu South Wales,
Some have difputed whether the title of ijland can
be properly applied to a country of fuch vaft extent,
or whether it ought not rather to be denominated a
continent; while others have replied, that though the
word ifland, and others fimilar to it, do indeed fignify
a trafl: of land furrounded by fea, yet in the ufual ac¬
ceptation it means only a land of moderate extent
furrounded in this manner. Were it otherwife, we
might call the whole world an i'dand, as it is every
where furrounded by the fea •, and in fail, Dionyfius
Periegetes applies this term to it, with the addition of
the word immenfe, to diftinguifh it from other iflands.
The beft rule, according to Mr Stockdale, for deter¬
mining when a country ought to lofe the name of ifland
and begin to be called a continent, is when it beg is to
lofe the advantages of an infular fituation. The firit
and principal of thefe, is the being capable of an union
under one government, and thence deriving a fecurity
from all external attacks excepting thofe by fea ; but
in countries of great extent, this is not only difficult,
but impoffible. If we confider, therefore, New Hol¬
land as extending about a thoufand miles every way,
we lhall find that its claim to be called a continent is
undoubted *, its length from eaft to weft being about
2400 Engliili miles, and 2300 from north tafouth.
This coaft was firft explored by Captain Cook in
the year 1770 ; but his ftay wTas too ftiort to examine
the nature of the country with the accuracy wEich he
H O L
wmuld otherwife have done had he continued longer New Hoi-
in it. In general, it was found rather barren than *ai’d-
otherwife. Many brooks and fprings were found along v J
the eaftern coaft, but no river of any confequence.
They found only two kinds of trees ufeful as timber,
the pine, and another which produces a fort of gum.
They found three kinds of palm trees j but few efculent
plants, though there are abundance of fuch as might
gratify the curiolity of the botanift. A great variety
of birds wTere met with, which have fince been particu¬
larly defcribed j but the number of quadrupeds bears
but a very fmall proportion to that of the other ani¬
mals. The moft remarkable infe£b feen at this time
were the green ants (a), who build their nefts upon
trees in a very lingular manner.
This country has now become an obje£l of more Settlement
confequence than formerly, by reafon of the eftablifh-of a Britift
ment of a Britifti colony in it j where the criminals col°nV 'n
condemned to be tranfported are fent to pafs their time '
of fervitude. Before this plan was refolved on by govern¬
ment, another had been difcuffed, viz. that of employ¬
ing thefe criminals in workhoufes *, and Judge Black-
ftone, with Mr Eden and Mr Howard, had con-
fidered of the beft method of putting it in execution :
but though this plan had been approved by parliament
as early as 1779, feme ditficulties always occurred,
which prevented its going forward j and at length, on
the 6th of December 1786, orders were iffued by his
majefty in council for making a fettlement on New
Holland, ellabliftiing a court of judicature in the
colony, and other regulations neceffary on the oc-
cafion. The whole received the complete fandlion of
legiflature in the beginning of the year 1787. The
fquadron appointed for putting the defign in execution
began to aflemble at the Mother Bank, the place of
rendezvous, in the Me of Wight, on the 16th of
March 1787. It confifted of the Sirius frigate Cap¬
tain John Hunter, the Supply armed tender Lieute¬
nant
(a) Thefe little animals form their habitations, by bending down the leaves of trees, and glueing the ends of
them together fo as to form a purfe. Though thefe leaves are as broad as a man’s hand, they perform this feat
by main ftrength, thoufands of them being employed in holding down the leaves,, while multitudes of others
apply the glutinous matter. Captain Cook’s people afeertained themfelves that this was the cafe, by fome-
Imes difturbing them at their work-, in which cafe the leaf always fprung.up with an elafticity, which they
could not have fuppofed that fuch minute infefls were capable of overcoming. For this curiolity, however,
they fmarted pretty feverely j for thoufands of thefe little enemies inftantly threw themfelves upon, the aggref-
fors, and revenged themfelves by their bites or ftings for the interruption they had met with, Thefe were little
lefs painful at firft than the fting of a bee but the pain did not laft above a minute.. Another fpecies of ants
burrow themfelves in the root of a plant wdiich grows on the bark of trees like the mifletoe, and which is com¬
monly as big as a large turnip. When this is cut, it appears interfered with innumerable winding paffages all
filled with thefe animals; notwithftanding which, the vegetation of the plant fuffers no injury. Thefe do not give
pain by their ftings, but produce an intolerable itching by crawling about on the (kin. Ihey are about the lize
of the fmall red ant in this country. Another fort, wdiich do not moleft in any manner, re fern hie the white
ants of the Eaft Indies. They conftru<ft nefts three or four times as big as. a man’s head on the branches of
trees j the outlides being compofed of fome vegetable matter along with a glutinous fubftance.. On breaking the
outer crufts of thefe hives, innumerable cells appear fwarming with inhabitants, in a great variety of wnnding di-
reftions, all communicating with each other, and with feveral other nefts upon the fame tree. Ihey have alfo
another houfe built on the ground, generally at the root of a tree j formed like an irregularly Tided cone ; fome-
times more than fix feet high, and nearly as much in diameter. The outfide of thefe is well-tempered clay about
two inches thick j and within are the cells, which have no opening outward. One of thefe is their fummer
and the other their winter dwelling, communicating with each other by a large. avenue leading to the
ground, and by a fubterraneous paffage. The ground ftruflures are proof againft wet, which thofe on the branches
are not.
H O L
Nm Hoi- nant H. L. Ball j three ftore-fliips, the Golden-grove,
land. Fiihburn, and Borrowdale, for carrying provifions and
—v  Ho res for two years; and laftly, lix tranfports, the Scar¬
borough and Lady Penrhyn from Portfmouth, the ¥ riend-
iliip and 'Charlotte from Plymouth, and the Prince of
Wales and Alexander from Woolwich. Thefe were
to carry the convifts, with a detachment of marines in
each proportioned to the nature of the fervice ; the
larged where refiflance was mod expecded, viz. in
thole which carried the greated number of male con-
vidds. On the arrival of Governor Phillip at the fta-
tion, he horded his Hag on board the Sirius as commo¬
dore of the fquadron ; and the embarkation being com¬
pleted, he gave the fignal to weigh anchor on the 13th
of May at day-break. The number of convidls was
'jyS, of whom 558 were men. They touched at the
illand of Teneriffe on the 3d of June, without meeting
with any bad accident. Here they ftaid a week, in
order to procure fuch refrediments as were neceffary for
preventing the diforders modly to be dreaded in fuch a
long and perilous voyage. In this they fucceeded to
their wifh ; and were about to depart on the 9th. of
June, when it was difcovered that one of the convids
had made his efcape, having found means to cut away
a boat and make off with it. He offered himfelf as a
failor aboard a Dutch veffel at that time in the har¬
bour, but was refufed ; on which he attempted to con¬
ceal himfelf in a cove. In this he would probably have
iucce^ded, had it not been for the boat, which he could
not conceal; fo that he was foon difcovered and brought
back to the ihip, where, however, he obtained his par¬
don from the governor.
On the xoth of June the fleet fet fail from Santa
Cruz in the ifland of Teneriffe, and on the 18th came
in fight of the Cape Verd ifiands, where they fleered
for St Jago : but the want of a favourable wind and
other circumftances prevented their getting in ; fo that
as Governor Phillip did not choofe to wafte time, they
did not touch land till they came to Rio Janeiro on the
coaft of Brafil. It may feem furprifing, that a voyage
to the eaftward, which of itfelf may be accounted of
fufficient length, fhould thus be wilfully made fo much
longer, by failing twice acrofs the Atlantic. The
calms, however, fo frequent on the, coaff of Africa,
feem of themfelves to be a fufficient inducement fm* na¬
vigators to preferve a weilerly courfe ; and even the
iflands at winch it is fo neceffary to touch, are not far
diffant from the American coaft. The returning tracks
of Captain Cook’s three voyages are all within a little
fpace of the 45th degree of weft longitude, which is
even 10 degrees farther weft than Cape St Roque ;
and that courfe appears to have been taken voluntarily,
without any extraordinary inducement.
During the time of their ftay at Santa Cruz the
weather had been very moderate ; the barometer about
30 inches, and the thermometer never above 72 ; as
they approached the Cape Verd iflands it rofe to 82,
and did not exceed 82° 51' all the wray from thence to
Rio Janeiro. Here they met with a very favourable
reception, contrary to that which Captain Cook expe¬
rienced on a fimilar occafion. Provifions w’ere fo cheap,
that though the allowance of meat was fixed by the go¬
vernor at 20 ounces per day, the men were victualled
completely at 3^d each, including rice, vegetables, and
every other neceffary. Wine was not at this time to
H O L
be had except at an advanced price : but rum was laid New BoL
in, and fuch feeds and plants procured as were thought . ,
moft likely to flourifh in New South Wales ; particu¬
larly coffee, indigo, cotton, and the cochineal fig. An
hundred facks of caffada w^ere likewife purchafed as a
fubftitute for bread, if it fhould happen to be fcarce.
By the kindnefs of the viceroy alfo, fome deficiencies
in the military {lores wTere made up from the royal ar-
fenal, and every affiftance given which the place could
afford. They arrived here on the 5th of Auguft 178^
and fet fail on the 4th of September, receiving as the
laft compliment from the governor a falute of 21
guns.
From Rio de Janeiro the fleet had a fine run to Table
Bay, in the fouthern extremity of Africa, wThich they
accomplifhed in 39 days : where they took in the re-
frefhments meant to fupply them during the remainder
of the voyage. Here they arrived on the 13th of Odlo-
ber ; and having fupplied thernfelves with a great num¬
ber of live flock, they fet fail on the l 2th of Novem¬
ber, but wTere long impeded by contrary winds from
the fouth-eaft. On the 25th they were only 80 leagues
diftant from the Cape, wdien Governor Phillip left the
Sirius and went aboard the Supply tender; in hopes,
by leaving the convoy, to gain fuflicient time for exa¬
mining the country round Botany Bay, that the moft
proper fituation for the new colony might be chofen
before the tranfports fhould arrive. They now met
with favourable winds, blowing generally in very ftrong
gales from the north-weft, weft, and fouth-weft. The
wind fhifted only once to the eaft, but did not continue 4
in that dire&ion above a few hours. On the 3d of Ja-’r^y ar“
nuary 1788 the Supply came within fight of New South
Wales ; but the winds then became variable, and [an(jf
a current, which at times fet very flrongly to the
fouthward, impeded her courfe fo much, that it was
not till the 1 8th of the month that file arrived at Bo¬
tany Bay. 5
Governor Phillip no fooner landed than he had an Interview
opportunity of converfing with .the natives, who were Wlt.h ^
affembled on fhore. As it was the intention of thisn‘u‘v
gentleman to conciliate if poflible their friendThip, he
ufed every method at this firft interview to infpire them
with a favourable idea of the Europeans. For this pur-
pofe be prefented them wuth beads and other trifling
ornaments, which they feemed pleafed to wear, though
Captain Cook found them very indifferent about any'
kind of finery he could furnifh them with. They
feemed, according to the account of that celebrated na¬
vigator, to be fo attached to their own ornaments, that
they made no account of any thing elfe. They recei¬
ved indeed fuch things as were given them, but made
no offer to return any thing in exchange ; nor could
they be made to comprehend that any thing of the kind
was wanted. Many of the prefents which they had
received were found afterwards thrown away in the
woods. ' • 6
Governor Phillip having parted with his new ac-Incorweni.
quaintance in a friendly manner, next fet about an exa-ence Bo“
mination of the country about Botany Bay, which had
been llrongly recommended by Captain Cook as themcnt<
moft eligible place for a fettlement. He found, how¬
ever, that the bay itfelf was very inconvenient for (hip¬
ping ; being expofed to the eafterly winds, and fo {hal¬
low that fnips even of a moderate burden could not
4 B 2 , get
[ 563 I
H O L [ 5^4 1 HO L
New Hoi- get far enough within land to be Iheltered from the fu-
i , ry of the ocean. Neither did the land about any part
ol this bay appear an eligible lituation for a colony j
being in fome places entirely fwampy, in others quite
deftitute of water. Point Sutherland feemed to afford
the lituation molt free from objeftions, but the (hips
could not approach it j and even here the ground feem¬
ed to be universally damp and fpongy : fo that, on the
whole, finding no place within the compafs of the bay
proper for the new fettlement, they found themfelves
obliged to remove fomewhere elfe.
The reft of the fleet arrived in two days after the
Supply j and that no time might be loft, Governor
Phillip ordered the ground about Point Sutherland to
be cleared, and preparations to be made for landing,
while he went with feveral officers in three boats to exa¬
mine Port Jackfon, which was only three leagues di-
ftant. Here they had the fatisfaction to find one of the
fined harbours in the world, wffiere 1000 fail of the
line might ride in perfect fafety. On examining the
different coves, one was preferred which had a fine run
of fpring water, and where Ihips could anchor fo clofe
to the Ihore, that at a very fmall expence quays might
be confiru£ted for leading and unloading the larged
veffels. This was named by the governor Sydney Cove,
in honour of Lord Sydney, and the country around it
dedined for the place of fettlement. It is about half a
mile long, and a quarter of a mile broad at the en¬
trance. On the governor’s return to Botany Bay, the
reports made to him concerning the adjacent country
were fo exceedingly unfavourable, that orders were
7 immediately given for the removal of the fleet to
A fettle- port Jacffi'on. On the morning of the 2Cth, therefore,
ment lorm*- ■, /••iir n ° i7r r *
£c\ at Port the governor iailed rrom .Botany Bay, and was loon rol-
Jackfon. lowed by the whole fleet. In the mean time, they
were furprifed by the appearance of two other Euro-
8 pean veffels, which had been fird feen off Botany Bay
Vifited by on the 24th. Thefe were found to be two French
^ °sFrench ffiips, named the Sljlrolabe and Boitjfole, which had
^ ' left France on a voyage of difeovery under the com¬
mand of M. la Peyroufe, in the year 1785. They had
touched at the ifland of Santa Catharina on the coafl
of Brafil, and from thence gone by the extremity of
South America into the Pacific ocean, wffiere they had
run along by the coads of Chili and California ; after
which they had viiited Falter Ifland, Nootka Sound,
Cook’s river, Kamtfchatka, Manilla, the ifles des Na-
vigateurs, and the Sandwffiffi and Friendly Ifles. They
had alfo attempted to land on Norfolk Ifland, but
found it impofli'ole on account of the furf. During the
whole voyage none w’ere lod by ficknefs ; but two
boats crews had unfortunately periflied in a furf on the
north-wed coafl of America •, and at Mafuna, one of
the ijles des Navigateurs, M. L’Angle, captain of the
Aftrolabe, with 12 of his people, officers and men, •
were murdered by the favages. This was the more fur-
prifing, as there had been an uninterrupted friendiffiip
with them from the time the French touched at the
ifland, till that unfortunate moment. M. L’Angle had
gone alhore with two long boats for the purpofe of fill¬
ing fome water-calks. Flis party amounted to forty
men 5 and the natives, from whom the French had al¬
ready received abundance of refrelhments, did not Ihow
any figns of a hoftile difpofition : But from wffiatever
ipotive their refentment was excited, the men had no
fooner begun to get out the boats, than the favages Mew Hol-
made a moft furious and unexpe&ed affault with ftones. land-
In this encounter M. L’Angle himfelf, with the peo- 
pie above mentioned, fell a facrifice to the treachery of
thefe barbarians. The remainder of the party efcaped
with great difficulty 5 the Ihips having at that time paf-
fed a point of land which intercepted their view of the
affray.
The convi&s and others deftined; to remain in New
South Wales being landed, no time was loft in begin¬
ning to clear ground for an encampment, ftore-houfes,
&x. The work, however, went on but flowly, partly
owffiig to the natural difficulties they had to encounter,
and partly to the habitual indolence of the convidls,
which indeed was naturally to be expe&ed confidering
their former way of life. Neverthelefs, by the end of
the firft week of February, the plan of an encampment
was formed, and places were marked out for different
purpofes, fo that the colony already began to affume
fome appearance of order and regularity. The ma¬
terials and frame-work of a flight temporary habita¬
tion for the governor had been brought out from Eng¬
land ready formed, which w^ere landed and put toge¬
ther with as much expedition as circumftances would
allow. Hofpital tents were alfo eredted ; and the fick¬
nefs which foon took place ffiowed the propriety of fa
doing. In the paffage from the Cape there had been
but little ficknefs, and few of the convicls had died ;
but a little time after they landed a dyfentery b-^ran to
prevail, which proved fatal in feveral inftances, and the
feurvy began to rage with great violence, fo that the
hofpital-tents were foon filled with patients. The dif-
order proved the more virulent as frefh provifions could
but rarely be obtained j nor were efculent vegetables
often obtained in fuch plenty as could produce any ma¬
terial alleviation of the complaint: the only remedy for
the dyfentery was found to be a kind of red gum, pro¬
duced in plenty by the trees growing upon this coaft.
The yellow gum has the fame properties, though in an
inferior degree.
In the beginning of February, a moft violent fterm
of thunder and lightning deftroyed five of the fheep
which had a Ihed erected for them under a tree, which
proved a prelude to other misfortunes among the cattle.
The encampment, however, was carried on with great
alacrity •, the foundations of the ftore-houfes were laid,
and every thing began to wear a promifing appearance.
On the 7th of the month a regular form of govern- o ^
ment was eftablilhed in the colony, with all the folera-
nity which could poflibly be given : the governor made govem-
a proper fpeech to the convidffs, reminding them of the mcrit efta“-
fituation in which they flood ; and that now, if they
continued their former practices, it was impoiiible they
could hope for mercy if detected 5 neither could they
expeft to efcape detection in fo fmall a fociety. Of¬
fenders, therefore, he faid, would certainly be puniihed
with the utmoft ligour 5 though fuch as behaved them¬
felves in a proper manner, might always depend upon,
encouragement. He particularly noticed the illegal in-
tercourfe betwixt the fexes, as a practice which encou¬
raged profligacy in every refpett ; for which reafon he
recommended marriage : and this exhortation feemed
not to be altogether in vain, as 14 marriages were ce¬
lebrated that very week in confequence.
Heavy rains took place during the remainder of this
month,.
H O L
[ S65 ]
H O L
Kew Ho!-
land.
10
Norfolk
Iflaiid fet¬
tled.
f See Nor¬
folk If. and-
Broken
Bay exami
uti.
month, which fliowed the necellity of going on with
the work as foon as poflible. The want of carpenters,
however, prevented this from being done fo expediti-
oufly as could have been wiihed. Only 16 of thefe
could be hired from all the fhips 5 and no more than
12 of the convifts were of this profedion, of whom fe-
veral were lick ; fo that the party were by far too few
for the work they had to perform. An hundred con-
vifts were added as labourers ; but with every effort it
was found impolhble fo complete either the barracks
or the huts for the officers fo foon as could be wiihed.
On the 14th of February a fmall party was fent out
to fettle on Norfolk liland, who have knee effablilhed
a colony there which promifes to be of confiderable uti¬
lity f. It was foon found, however, abfolutely necef-
fary to make examples of fome of the convifls at Port
Jackfon. Towards the end of February it was found
neceffary to convene a criminal court, in which fix of
the convifts received fentence of death. One who was
the head of the gang was executed the fame day : one
of the reft was pardoned ; the other four were repriev¬
ed, and afterwards exiled to a fmall illand within the
bay, where they were kept on bread and water. They
had frequently robbed both the ftores and other con-
vidls. The fellow who was executed, and two others,
had been detected in ftealing the very day on which
they received a week’s provifion •, and at the fame time
that their allowance was the fame as that of the fol-
diers, fpirituous liquors only excepted.
In the beginning of March the governor went out
with a fmall party to examine Broken Bay, lying about
eight miles to the northward of Port Jackfon. This
was found very extenfive, with many openings. One
of the latter ended in feveral fmall branches, and a large
lagoon, which they could not at that time examine.
Moft of the land about the upper part of this branch
was low and full of fwamps, with great numbers of pe¬
licans, and other aquatic birds. Among the reft they
.met with an uncommon bird, called at that time the
Hooded Gull, but afterwards found to be the fpecies na¬
med by Mr Latham the Cafpian Tern.
From this north-weft branch they proceeded acrofs
the bay to the fouth-weft branch, which is alfo very
extenfive, with a fecond opening to the weftward ca¬
pable of affording fhelter to almoft any number of
fhips, with depth of water for vefl'els of almoft any
burden. The land was found much higher here than
at Port Jackfon, more rocky, and equally covered with
timber. Large trees were feen growing even on the
f'ummits of the mountains, which appeared totally inac-
ceffible to the human fpecies. Round the headland
which forms the fouthern entrance into the bay is a
third branch, which Governor Phillip thought the
fineft piece of water he had ever feen ; which for that
reafon he honoured with the name of Pitt-water. This
branch, as well as the former, is fufficient to contain
all the navy of Great Britain ; but the latter has a bar
at tne entrance of only t 8 feet at low water. Within
are from 7 to 15 fathoms. The land here is move le¬
vel than on the fouth-weft branch, and fome fituations
are proper for cultivation. The governor determined
to have returned by land, in order to explore the coun¬
try betwixt Port Jackfon and Broken Bay, but the
continual rains prevented him.
On the xoth of March the French flu£S departed.
little intercourfe having paffed between them and the New HoL
Englifh during the time of their flay. While the for- , ,
mer remained in Botany Bay, Father la Receveur, who l z
had come out in the Aftrolabe as a naturalift, died of DeathofLa
the wounds he had received in the battle with the in-Receveur.
habitants of Mafuna. A kind of monument was eredt-
ed to his memory, with the following infeription :
Hie jacet La Receveur
E. F. F. minimis Gallioe facerdos,
Phyficus in circumnavigatione
Mundi
Duce De la Peyrouse,
Ob. 17. Feb. 1788.
This monument, however, was foon after deftroyed
by the natives ; on which Governor Philip caufed the
infeription to be engraved on copper and nailed to a
neighbouring tree. M. de la Peyroufe had paid a fimi-
lar tribute to the snemoi'y of Captain Clerke at Kamtf-
chatka. 13
On the 15th of April, the governor, attended by Excurfions
feveral officers and a Imall party of marines, fet out on?nto .tlie
an expedition into the interior parts of the country.^'^'o/the
Their firft landing wus at the head of a fmall covec0untry.
named Shell-cmie, near the entrance of the harbour on
the north fide. Proceeding in this diredlion, they ar¬
rived with great labour at a large lake, furrounded on
all fides with bog and marlhy ground to a confiderable
extent, and in which they frequently plunged up to
the waift. Here they obferved that bird lb rare in
other parts of the wmrld, viz. a black fwan. On being
fired at, it rofe, and (hewed that its wings were edged
with white, the bill being tinged red. They fpent three
days in a very laborious manner in palling the marlhes
and fwamps which lie in the neighbourhood of the har¬
bour : and here they had an opportunity of obferving,
that all the fmall ftreams which defqend into Port Jack¬
fon proceed from fwamps, occafioned by the ftagnation
of the wTater in the low grounds as it rifes from the
fprings. On leaving thefe low grounds, they found
them lucceeded by a rocky and barren country; the
hills covered with various fiowering Ihrubs, though fre¬
quently inacceffible by reafon of various natural obfta-
cles. At about 15 miles diftance from thefea, the go¬
vernor had a fine view of the internal parts of the coun¬
try, which were mountainous. To the moft northerly
chain of thefe he gave the name of Carmarthen, and to
the moft foutherly that of Lanfdown Hills ; and to one
which lay between thefe he gave the name of Richmond
Hill. It was conjeblured, that a large river muft rife
from thefe mountains ; but thei'e wras now a neceffity for
returning. On the 22d, however, another expedition
was undertaken. Governor Phillip with his party land¬
ed near the head of the harbour. Here they found a-
good country 5 but in a Ihort time arrived at a dole
thicket through which they found, it impoffible to .make
their way, fo that they were obliged to x-eturn. Next
day, by keeping clofe to the banks of a fmall creek,
they made a Ihift to pafs that obftacle, and continued
their coxxrfe for three days to the weftward. The couu-
t y was now extremely fine, either entirely level or ril¬
ing in fmall hills-, the foil excellent,* but ftony in a fewT
places. The trees grew at the diftance of from 20 to,
40 feet from each other, in general totally deftitute of
underwood, which W’as confined to the barren and ftewy
fpots* .
H O L [ 566 ] HO L
Nevr HjI- Tpots. On the 5th day they faw for the hrft time in
, this fecond expedition Carmarthen and Lanfdown hills j
but the country all round was fo beautiful, that Go¬
vernor Phillip gave it the name of Belle Vue. They
were flill apparently 30 miles from the mountains which
they had intended to reach ; but not having been able
to carry more than fix days provifions along with them,
they found it neceflary to return ; and even with this
fmall flock the officers as well as men were obliged to
carry heavy loads. During all this time they had not
proceeded farther in a direft line than 30 miles, fo great
were the obftrudlions they had met with from deep ra¬
vines, &c. Their return, however, was eft’edled with
much greater eafe, having cleared a track, and marked
trees all the way as they went along to direct them in
their journey back. The country explored at this time
appeared fo fine, that Governor Phillip determined to
form a fettlement there as foon as a fufficient number
could be fpared from thofe works which were immedi¬
ately necefiary. On his return he had the mortification
to find, that five ewes and a lamb had been killed very
near the camp, and in the middle of the day. This
mifehief was fuppofed to have been done by fome dogs
belonging to the natives.
All this time the feurvy had continued to rage with
great violence : fo that by the beginning of May near
200 people were incapable of work. For this reafon,
and on account of the great difficulty of clearing the
ground, no more than eight or ten acres of wheat and
barley had been fown, befides what private individuals
had fown for themfelves j and it was even feared that
this fmall crop -would fuffer from the depredations of
ants and field mice. To procure as much relief as
poffible therefore in the prefent exigence, the Supply
was fent in the beginning of Pvlay to Lord Howe Ifland
in hopes of procuring fome turtle and other provifions’;
but unfortunately the veffel returned without any tur-
14 tie, having met with fqually weather, and being obli-
Murders ge(] cut away ber beft bower anchor. The natives
b^hena^ no'v ^e8an t0 ft10W an hofiile difpofition, which they had
tives. not hitherto done. One of the convi&s, who had
wandered away from the reft in queft of vegetables, re¬
turned with a very dangerous wound in the back ; giv¬
ing information alfo, that another who had gone out
for the fame purpofe had been carried off in his fight by
the natives, after being wounded in the head. A ffiirt
and hat were afterwards found in fome of the huts of
the natives, but no intelligence of the man could be
gained. This was followed by other misfortunes of the
fame nature. On the 30th of the month, two men
who had been employed in cutting rufhes for thatch at
fome diftance from the camp were found dead. One
of them had four fpears in his body, one of which had
pierced quite through it ; but the other had no marks
of violence upon him. In this cafe, however, it was
proved, that thofe who fuffered had been the aggref-
lors; as they had been feen with one of the canoes of
the natives which they had taken from one of the fifli-
ing places. All poffible inquiry was made after the
natives who had been guilty of the murder, but to no
purpofe. In the courfe of this inquiry, it wras found
that one of the natives had been murdered, and feveral
wounded, previous to the attack upon the ruffi-cutters.
The'*governor promifed liberty to any convift who
ihould difeover the aggreflers; but no information was
2
procured, though it is probable that it may prevent ac- New Hob
cidents of that kind for the future. About this time ,in(3-
the two bulls and four cowrs belonging to government ”
and to the governor, having been left for fome time by
the man who had the charge of them, ftrayed into the
woods and could not be recovered, though they were
afterwards traced to fome d’ftanCe.
The 4th of June being his majefty’s birth-day, was
celebrated with as much feftivity as circumfiances would
allow ; and on this occafion it was firft made public
that the governor had given the name of Giunberland
County to this part of the territory. The appointed
boundaries were Carmarthen and Lanfdown hills on the
weft, the northern parts of Broken Bay on the north,
and the fouthern parts of Botany Bay on the fouth ;
thus including thefe three principal bays, with Sydney
Cove nearly in the centre.
1 he misfortunes which attended thofe convifts w7ho A-
ftrayed to too great a diftance from the fettlement,execute^*
were not fufficient to prevent fome of them from ramb¬
ling into the woods, in hopes of fubfifting themfelves
there and regaining their liberty. One of thefe, who
had been guilty of a robbery, tied into the w7oods on
the 5th of June, but was obliged to return half-ftarved
on the 24th. He had found it impoffible to fubftft in
the woods, and had met with very little relief from the
natives. One of them gave him a fifti, but made figns
for him to go awTay. According to his account, they
themielves wrere in a very miferable fituation ; and he
pretended to have feen four of them apparently dying
of hunger, who made figns to him for fomething to
eat. He pretended alfo to have fallen in with a party
who wrould have burnt him, and that he made his ef-
cape from them with difficulty. He faid alfo, that he
had feen the remains of a human body lying on a fire ;
and endeavoured to inculcate the idea of thefe favages
eating human fleth when other provifions were fcarce.
This poor wretch was tried and executed for the theft
he had committed before his departure, along with an¬
other criminal. jg
By this time the colony was fo far advanced, that Regular
the plan of a regular town had been marked out. TheP*an
principal ftreet, when finiftied, is to be 200 feet wide, town^a^
terminated by the governor’s houfe, the main guard,
and criminal court. The plans of other ftreets are
likewife marked out; and it is the governor’s inten¬
tion, that when houfes are built here, the grants of
land lhall be made with fuch claufes as wall prevent
the building of more than one houfe on one allotment,
which is to confift of 60 feet in front and 150 in depth.
Thus a kind of uniformity will be preferved in the
building, narrow ftreets prevented, and many inconve¬
niences avoided, which a rapid increafe of inhabitants
might otherwife occafion. It has likewife been an ob-
jeft of the governor’s attention to place the public
buildings in fuch fituations as will be eligible at all
times, and particularly to give the ftore-houfes and hofi
pital fufficient fpace for future enlargement, ffiould it
be found neceffary. The firft huts eredled in this place
were compofed only of the foft wood of the cabbage
palm, in order to give immediate (belter, and which
had the further inconvenience of being ufed quite
green. The huts of the convifts were conftrufted only
of upright polls wattled with flight twigs, and plafter
ed up with clay. Buildings of ftone might eafily have
been
/
H O L
[ S67 1
H O L
.1 17
Different
accounts of
New Hoi- been raifed, had there been any means of procuring
land- ljme for mortar. There were three kinds of ftone met
with about Sydney Cove, one equal in goodnefs to
Portland ftone, an indifferent kind of fandftone or free-
ftone, and a fort which feems to contain iron ; but nei¬
ther chalk nor any fpecies of limeftone has yet been
difcovered. Lime was indeed procured from oyfter-
fnells collefted in the neighbouring coves to conftruft
a fmall houfe for the governor $ but it cannot be ex-
petted that a fufficient quantity can thus be procured
for many or very extenftve buildings. Good clay for
bricks has been found near Sydney Cove, and very
good bricks have been made of it 5 the wood alfo, not-
withftanding the many reports to the contrary, is found
abundantly fit for various purpofes after being tho¬
roughly feafoned. Such fpecimens as have been fent
to England were fine-grained and free of knots, but
heavy.
On the point of land that forms the weft fide of the
Cove a fmall obfervatory has been eredted, the longi¬
tude of which has been afcertained to be 159° 19' 30"
eaft from Greenwich, and the latitude 32® 52' 30"
fouth. Inftead of thatch they now make ufe of ihingles
made from a certain tree, which has the appearance of
a fir, but produces wood like Engliffi oak.
With regard to the ftate of this colony there have
tl e colon been various and difcordant accounts. Some of thefe
have reprefented the country in fuch a light, that it
would feem impofiible to fubfift on it; and it has been
laid, that the people who have had the misfortune to
go there already were in the utmoft danger of ftarving
before any afliftance could be fent from Britain. Thefe
reports, horvever, appear not to be well founded. Dif¬
ficulties muft undoubtedly be felt at the firfl fettlement
of every uninhabited country j and we are not to ex¬
pert that a colony, moft of whom are wretches ex¬
iled for their crimes from their own country, can
thrive in an extraordinary manner for fome time. It
appears, indeed, that fo far from the tranfportation to
this place having had any good effefl in reforming
them, the governor has been obliged to execute the
utmoft rigour of the law by hanging feveral of them.
A good number of others have unaccountably difap-
peared, and are fuppofed to have been murdered by
the natives, or perifhed with hunger in the woods j fo
that, unlefs the numbers be recruited by more refpec-
table inhabitants, it is not likely that much can be
expedled from the Port Jackfon fettlement for a long
time to come. Of this, however, there feems to be
little doubt : the general fpirit of emigration which
prevails through moft, indeed we may fay all the coun¬
tries of Europe, will undoubtedly foon fupply a fuffici¬
ent number j and even fome of the Americans, hot-
withftanding the extent and fertility of their own
country, and the liberty they enjoy in it, are faid to
be willing to exchange thefe bleffings for the precari¬
ous hopes of what may be obtained in New Holland
among Britiffi convidts and Haves. This rambling dif-
pofition may perhaps be accounted for from an obfer-
vation which has been made, viz. that “ it may admit
of a doubt whether many of the accommodations of a
civilized life be not more than, counterbalanced by the
artificial wants to which they give birth. That thefe
accommodations do not give a fatisfadlion equivalent
to the trouble with which they are procured, is certain 5
and it is no wonder, then, to find numbers of people New^Ho-
in every country who are willing to exchange them for ^ _. j
independent eafe and tranquillity, which belong, com¬
paratively fpeaking, to few individuals in thofe coun¬
tries which are called civilized.” jS
With regard to the geography of this extenfive ^"
country, wrhich may perhaps be reckoned a fifth gene-
ral divilion of the world, Captains Cook and Furneaux
fo fully explored its coafts, that fucceeding navigators
have added nothing to their labours. The only part
which ftill remains unknown is that between the lati¬
tudes of 37° 38' and 39® fouth j and as none of the
fleet which lately failed from Britain could be fuppofed
to undertake any voyage of difcovery, it is unknown
whether or not a ftrait interfefts the continent in this
place or not. Captain Tench, however, informs us,
on the authority of a naval friend, “ that when the
fleet was off this part of the coaft, a ftrong fet-off thore
was plainly felt.”
A vaft chain of lofty mountains runs nearly in a north
and fouth diresftion farther than the eye can trace, a-
bout 60 miles inland. The general face of the country
is pleafing, diverfified with gentle rifings and fmall
winding valleys, covered for the moft part with large
fpreading trees, affording a fucceftion of leaves in all
feafons. A variety of flowering fhrubs, almoft all en¬
tirely new to an European, and of exquifite fragrance,
abound in thofe places which are free from trees *, and
among thefe, a tall Ihrub, bearing an elegant flower
which fmells like Englilh may, is peculiarly delightful,
and perfumes the air to a great diftance. There are
but few trees j and, as Captain Tench and others re¬
late, of fo bad a grain, that they can fcarcely be ufed ,g
for any purpofe : This, however, Mr Stockdale a-Red and v
feribes to their being ufed in an unfeafoned ftate, as has yeff°w
been already mentioned. In return for thefe bad qua-&ums*
lities, however, the trees yield vaft; quantities of the
gum already mentioned as a cure for the dyfentery. It
is of an acrid quality, and therefore requires to be giv¬
en along with opiates. The tree which yields it is of
very conftderable flze, and grows to a great height be¬
fore it puts out any branches. The gum itfelf is ufual-
ly compared to fanguis draconis, but differs from it in
being perfedlly foluble in water, which the fanguis dra-
conis is not. It may be extracted from the wood by
tapping, or taken out of the veins when dry. The
leaves are narrow, and not unlike thofe of a willow $
the wood fine-grained and heavy, but warps to fuch a
degree, when not properly feafoned, as foon to become
entirely ufelefs.
The yellow gum is properly a refin, being entirely
infoluble in water. It greatly refembles gamboge,
but has not the property of ftaining. It is produced
by a low fmall plant with long grafly leaves ; but the
fruclification {hoots out in a furprifing manner from
the centre of the leaves on a Angle ffraight item to the
height of 12 or 14 feet. This Item is ftrong and
light, and is ufed by the natives for making their
fpears. The refin is generally dug up from the foil
under the tree, not colledted from it, and may perhaps
be the fame which Tafman calls gum lac of the ground.
It has been tried by Dr Blane phyfician to St Tho¬
mas’s hofpital, who found it very efficacious in the
cure of old fluxes, and that in many and obllinate cafes.
Many of the New Holland plants have been already
imported^
H O L [ 568 ] H O L
Ne-.v Hoi- imported into Britain, and are now flour!(liing in per-
f ian(‘‘ , fe6tion at the nurfery garden of Mr Lee of Hammer-
vr'T fmith.
The foil immediately around Sydney Cove is fandy,
with here and there a ftratum of clay 5 but hitherto
* the produce has not been remarkable. The principal
difficulty hitherto experienced in clearing the ground
arifes from the lize of the trees, which is laid to be fo
enormous, that 12 men have been employed for live
days in grubbing up one. Captain Cook fpeaks of
fome fine meadows about Botany Bay ; but none of
thefe have been feen by the prefent fettlers, and Go¬
vernor Phillip fuppofes them to have been fwamps
leen at a dilfance. Grafs grows in almoft every place,
but in the fwamps with the greateft vigour and luxu-
riancy, though not of the fineft quality. It is found
to agree better with cows and horfes than Iheep. A
few wdld fruits are fometimes procured ; among which
is a kind of fmall purple apple mentioned by Captain
Cook j and a fruit which has the appearance of a
grape, but tailing like a green goofeberry, and excef-
20 lively four.
Scarcity of From the firlt difcovery of this continent, the ex-
frelh wa- treme fcarcity of frelh water has been mentioned by
ier* every navigator. None have been fortunate enough
to enter the mouth of any navigable river fuch as
might be expe&ed in a country of fuch extent.
1 he fettlers about Port Jackfon found enough for
the common purpofes of life ; but Captain Tench in¬
forms us, that when he left the country, towards the
end of 1788, there had been no difcovery of a ilream
large enough to turn a mill. Since that time, how¬
ever, Governor Phillip has been more fuccefsful j as
j we are informed by a letter of his to Lord Sydney, of
Xivers <lif- ^ate Feb. 13. 1790: In this letter he relates, that
covered by foon •after the Ihips failed in November 1788, he again
Captain made an excurlion to Botany Bay, where he llaid five
Phillip. jayS. gut t^e refearc]-,es p,e macie there tended only
to confirm him in the opinion he already entertained
that the country round it was by no means an eligible
fituation for a colony. After having vifited Broken
Bay feveral times with boats, a river was found, which
has fince been traced, and all thefe branches explored
which afforded any depth of water. This -river has
obtained the name of Hawke/bury, is from 300 to 800
feet wide, and feems navigable for the largeft merchant
Ihips as far up as Richmond hill, at which it becomes
very lhallow, and divides into two branches 5 on which
account the governor calls Richmond hill the head of
the river. As after very heavy rains, however, the
water fometimes arifes 30 feet above its level, it would
not be fafe for (hips to go up fo far •, but 15 or 20
miles below it they wrould lie in frelh water, and be
perfe&ly fafe.
The country about Broken Bay is at firft high and
rocky, but as we proceed op the river it becomes more
level, the banks being covered with timber, and the
foil a light rich mould, fuppofed to be very capable of
cultivation. The other branches of this river are Ihal-
IowT, but probably run many miles up into the country.
Great numbers of black fwans and wild ducks were
feen on thefe rivers, and the natives had feveral decoys
for catching quails.
Richmond hill, near which a fall prevented the boats
from proceeding farther up, is the molt foutherly of
I
a large range of hills which run to the northward, and New HoJ-
probably join the mountains nearly parallel to the coaft ^nd.
from 50 to 60 miles inland. The foil of this hill is v~~—'
good, and it lies well for cultivation. There is a very „
extenfive profped from the top, the whole country a-
round feeming a level covered with timber. There is
a flat of fix or feven miles between Richmond hill and
a break in the mountains which feparates Lanfdown
and Carmarthen hills ; in which flat the governor fup¬
pofes that the Hawkeihury continues its courfe ; though
the river could not be feen on account of the timber
with which the ground is everywhere covered where
the foil is good. Six miles to the fouthward of Port
Jackfon is a fmall river; and 20 to the weftward is one
more confiderable, which piobably empties itfelf into
the Hawkeihury. As far as this river was at that time
explored, the breadth was computed at from 300 to
400 feet. It w’as named the Nepean, and, like the
Hawkefbury, lometimes rifes 30 feet above its level.
A party who crolfed the river attempted to reach the
mountains, but found it impoffible, probably for want
of provifions. After the firft day’s journey they met
with Inch a fucceffion of deep ravines, the fides of
which were frequently fo inacceflible, that in five days
they could not proceed farther than 15 miles. At the
time they turned back, they fuppofed themfelves to be
12 miles from the foot of the mountains. With re¬
gard to the ftate of the colony, it appears from this let¬
ter to be as flourifhing as could in any reafonable man¬
ner be expefted. Another has been formed at a place
called Rofehill, at the head of the harbour of Sydney
Cove. At this place is a creek, vffiich at half flood
has water for large boats to go three miles up; and
one mile higher the wrater is frefh and the foil good.
Some ground having been cleared and cultivated, the
governor in the above letter writes, that 27 acres were
fown wdth corn, and that in December the crop was
got in : That the corn w’as exceedingly good ; about
200 buftrels of w’heat and 60 of barley, with a fmall
quantity of flax, Indian corn, and oats; all wffiich is
preferved for feed : That if fettlers are fent out, and
the convidls divided amongft them, this fettlement wall
very fhortly maintain itfelf; but without which this
country cannot be cultivated to any advantage. “ At
prefent (continues the governor) I have only one per-
fon, who has about 100 convidls under his diredtion,
who is employed in cultivating the ground for the pub¬
lic benefit, and he has returned the quantity of com
above mentioned into the public ftore: the officers
have raifed fufficient to fupport the little flock they
have : fome ground I have had in cultivation will re¬
turn about 40 bufhels of wheat into ftore ; fo that the
produce of the labour of the convidfs employed in cul¬
tivation has been very fhort of what might have been
expedfed, and wffiich I take the liberty of pointing out
to your lordlhip in this place ; to ftiow as fully as pof-
fible the ftate of this colony, and the neceffity of the
convidts being employed by thofe who have an intereft
in their labour.” The country for 20 miles to the w eft-
ward is very capable of cultivation ; though the labour
of cutting down the trees is very great. At Sydney
Cove the (lores had been infefted by a fwarm of rats
which deftroyed no lefs than 12,000lb. weight of flour
and rice. The gardens alfo had fuffeied very confider-
ably ; fo that, having met with fuch a confiderable lofs
2J
Govern
H O L [5
New Hoi- of pfovilion, and a fufficient fupply not being procured
land, from the Cape, Governor Phillip thought proper to
fencl a further detachment to Norfolk Ifland, where the
fertility of the foil afforded great hopes of their being
able in a fhort time to fubfift themfelves independent of
any adiftance from the ftores.
With regard to the civil eflablifhment in this colony,
ment of the Governor Phillip’s jurifdiftion extends from 430 49' to
colony. 1 c° 37' fouth, being the northern and fouthern extremi¬
ties of the continent. It commences again in 1350 E.
Long, from Greenwich j and proceeding in an ealterly
direftion, includes all the iflands within the above
mentioned latitudes in the Pacific ocean; by which
partition it is fuppofed that every fource of litigation
will be cut off; as all thefe are indifputably the difco-
very of the Britifh navigators,
The powers of the governor are abfolutely unlimi¬
ted, no mention being made of a council to affift him
in any thing ; and as no ftated time is appointed for
affembling the courts fimilar to the affizes and gaol
deliveries in England, the duration of imprifonment
is altogether in his hands. He is likewife inverted
with a power of fummoning general courts martial j
but the infertion in the marine mutiny aft, of a fmal-
ler number of officers than 13 being able to compofe
fucti a tribunal, has been negle&ed j fo that a milita¬
ry court, fhould detachments be made from head quar¬
ters, or ficknefs prevail, may not always be found
practicable to be obtained, unlefs the number of officers
in the fettlement at prefent be increafed. The gover¬
nor is allowed to grant pardons in all cafes, treafon and
■wilful murder excepted j and even in thefe he has au¬
thority to ftay the execution of the law until the king’s
pleafure fhall be fignified. In cafe of the governor’s
death, the lieutenant governor takes his place ; and on
his deceafe, the authority is lodged in the hands of the
fenior officer.
It was not long after the convifts were landed that
there appeared a neceffity for affembling a criminal
court •, and it was accordingly convened by warrant
from the governor. The members were the judge ad¬
vocate, who prefided, three naval, and three military
©fficers. The number of members is limited by aft of
parliament to feven ; who are exprefsly ordered to be
officers either of his majefty’s fea or land forces. The
court being met, completely arrayed and armed as at
a military tribunal, the judge advocate proceeds to ad-
miniller the ufual oaths taken by jurymen in England
to each member j one of whom afterwards fwears him
in a like manner. This ceremony being over, the
crime is laid to the prifoner’s charge, and the queftion
“ guilty or not guilty” put to him. No law officer
being appointed on the part of the crown, the party
at whofe fuit he is tried is left to profecute the pri-
foner entirely by himfelf. All the witneffes are exami¬
ned on oath ; and the decifion muft be given according
to the laws of England, or “ as nearly as may be, al¬
lowing for the circumftances and fituation of the fettle¬
ment,” by a majority of votes, beginning with the
youngeft member, and ending with the prefident of
the court. No verdift, however, can be given in
cafes of a capital nature, unlefs at leaft five of the
feven members concur therein. The evidence on both
fides being finifhed, and the prifoner’s defence heard,
the court is cleared, and, on the judgment being fet-
Vol. X. Part II.
69 ] HO L
tied, is throwm open again, and fentence pronounced. New Hof-
During the time of fitting, the place in which it is , la^‘ ,
aflembled is direfted to be furrounded by a guard un¬
der arms, and admiffion granted to every one who
choofes to enter it. Of late, however, fays Captain
Trench, our colonills are fuppofed to be in fuch a train
of fubordination, as to make the prefence of fo large
a military force unneceffary 5 and two centinels in ad¬
dition to the provoft raarfhal are confidered as fuffi¬
cient. 23
The firft trials which came before this court were Trials of
thofe of three convifts, one of whom was convifted convicts,,
of having ftruck a marine with a cooper’s adze, and,wCC’
behaving otherwife in a moft fcandalous and riotous
manner. For this he was condemned to receive 150
larties, being a fmaller puniihment than a foldier wrould
have fuffered in a fimilar cafe. A fecond, for having
committed a petty theft, was fent to a fmail barren
ifiand, and kept there on bread and water only for a
week. The third was fentenced to receive 50 laffies j
but being recommended by the court to the governor,
had his fentence remitted. The fame lenity, however,
could not be obferved in all cafes. One fellow, who
had been condemned to be hanged, was pardoned
while the rope was about his neck, on condition that
he would become the common executioner ever after.
He accepted the horrid office, but not without a paufe.
Some examples of feverity were undoubtedly neceil'ary ;
and among thefe it is impoffible to avoid feeling forae
regret for the fate of one who fuffered death for fteal-
ing a piece of foap of eight pence value : but by a letter
of Governor Phillip, we are informed that the con¬
vifts in general had begun to behave much better;
more fo indeed than ever he expefted ; and at this
time one woman had fuffered for a robbery; five chil¬
dren had died, and 28 had been born. The whole
amount of the deaths 77, of the births 87.
The number of convifts already fent to New South
Wales amounts to 2000 and upwards—above 1800 are
lince embarked for that fettlement. The annual ex¬
pence of the civil and military eftabliflunents at that
place is nearly io,oool. This was previous to 1792.
Befides the criminal court, there is an inferior one,
compofed of the judge advocate, and one or more
juftices of the peace, for the trial of fmall mildemeanors.
This court is likewife empowered to decide all law-
fuits ; and its verdiQ is final, except where the fum ex¬
ceeds 3001. in which cafe an appeal can be made to
to England from its decree. In cafe of neceflity, an
admiralty court, of which the lieutenant governor is
judge, may alfo be fummoned for the trial of offences
committed on the high feas. 24
The quadrupeds on the continent of New Holland A.nimals
hitherto difcovered, are principally of the opoffum foun(iitri
kind, of which the moft remarkable is the kangaroo.
There is alfo a fpecies of dogs very different from thofe
known in Europe. They are extremely fierce, and ne¬
ver can be brought to the fame degree of familiarity
with thofe we are acquainted with. Some of them
have been brought to England, byt (till retain their
ufual ferocity. There are a great many beautiful birds
of various kinds *, among which the principal are the
black fwans already mentioned, and the oftrich or
caffowary •, which laft arrives frequently at the height
of feven feet or more. Several kinds of ferpents, large
4 C fpiders,
H O L [ 570 ]
New Hoi- fpideis, ami fcolopendras, have alfo been met with, country-
are likewife mariy curious fifiies ; though
land.
*5
Climate.
There are likewife many curious fifiies ; though the
finny tribe Jeem not to be fo plentiful on the coaft as
to give any confiderable affilfance in the way of provi-
fiions for the colony. Some very large fharks have
been feen in Port Jackfon, and two fmaller fpecies,
one named the Port Jackfon fhark, the other Watts’s
fiiark. The latter, notwithflanding its diminutive lize,
the mouth fcarce exceeding an inch in breadth, is ex-
ceflively voracious. One of them having been taken
and flung down upon the deck, lay there quiet for
two hours ; after which Mr Watts’s dog happening to
pafs by, the filh fprung upon it with all the ferocity
imaginable, and feized it by the leg in fuch a manner
that the animal could not difengage himfelf without
affilfance.
The climate of this continent appears not to be dif-
agreeable, notwithftanding the violent complaints which
fame have made about it. The heat has never been
exceffive in fummer, nor is the cold intolerable in win¬
ter. Storms of thunder and lightning are frequent;
but thefe are common to all warm countries j and it
has been fuppofed (though upon what foundation does
not well appear) that were the country cleared of wood,
and inhabited, thefe would in a great meaiure ceafe.
A fhock of an earthquake has likewife been felt •, but
thefe natural calamities are incident to fome of the
fineft countries in the world. It is not known whether
2(j or not there are any volcanoes.
Account of The inhabitants of New Holland are by all accounts
the inhabi- reprefented as the moll miferable and favage race of mor-
tants. . tals perhaps exilfing on the face of the earth. They go
entirely naked \ and though pleafed at firft with fome
ornaments which were given them, they foon threw
them away as ufelefs. It does not appear, however,
that they are infenfible of the benefits of clothing, or
of foine of the conveniences which their new neigh¬
bours are in pofleffion of. Some of them, whom the
colonitls partly clothed, feemed to be pleafed with the
comfortable warmth they derived from it; and they all
exprefs a great defire for the iron tools which they fee
their neighbours make ufe of. Their colour, in the
opinion of Captain Cook, is rather a deep chocolate
than a full black j but the filth with which their fkins
are covered, prevents the true colour of them from ap¬
pearing. At fome of their interviews with the colo-
nifts, feveral droll inftances happened of their milfaking
the negroes among the coloniils for their own coun¬
trymen. Notw'ithffanding their difregard for European
finery, they are fond of adorning, or rather deforming,
their bodies with fears 5 fo that fome of them cut the
raeft hideous figure that can be imagined. The fears
ihemfelves have an uncommon appearance. Sometimes
the fk.in is railed feveral inches from the ilelh, and ap¬
pears as if filled with w'ind ; and all thefe feem to be
reckoned marks of honour among them. Some of
them perforate the cartilage of the nofe, and thruft a
large bone through it, 4m hideous kind of ornament,
humoroufly called by the failors their fprit-fail-yard.
-Their hair is generally fo much clotted with the red
gum already mentioned, that they referable a mop.
They alfo paint themfelves with various colours like
moft other favages j they will alfo fometimes ornament
themfelves with beads and fhells, but make no ufe of
the besntfij^l feathers procurable from the birds of the
land
H . O L
Moll of the men w’ant one of the fore-teeth New Hoi-
in the upper jaw ; a circumflance mentioned by Dam-
pier and other navigators $ and this alio appears to be
a badge of honour among them. It is very com¬
mon among the wTomen to cut off the two lower joints
of the little finger 5 which, conlidering the clumfinefs
of the amputating inftruments they poffefs, muff cer¬
tainly be a very painful operation. This wTas at firft
fuppofed to be peculiar to the married women, or thofe
who had born children j but fome of the oldeff wo¬
men were found without this diftin&ion, while it was
obferved in others who were very young.
The New Hollanders appear extremely deficient in
the ufeful arts. Of the cultivation of the ground they
have no notion j nor can they even be prevailed upon
to eat bread or dreffed meat. Hence they depend en¬
tirely for fubliftence on the fruits and roots they ran
gather, with the fiih they catch. Governor Phillip
alfo mentions their frequent fetting fire to the grafs,
in order to drive out the opoffums and other .animals
from their retreats •, and we have already taken notice
of their ufing decoys for quails. As all thefe refources,
however, muff be at belt precarious, it is no wmnder
that they are frequently diitreiled for provifions. Thus,
in the fummer-time, they would eat neither the fhark
nor fting-ray \ but in winter any thing was acceptable.
A young whale being driven alhore, was quickly cut
in pieces and carried off. They broiled it only long
enough to fcorch the outlide, and in this raw ffate they
eat all their filh. They broil alio the fern root and an¬
other whofe fpecies is unknown. Among the fruits
ufed by them is a kind of wild fig; and they eat alfo
the kernels of a fruit refembling the pine apple. The
principal part of their fubfiftence, however, is filh j
and when thefe happened to be fcarce, they were wont
to watch the opportunity when the coloniils hauled the
feine, and often feized the whole, though a part had
formerly been offered or given them. They fometimes
ftrike the filh from the canoes with their fpears, fome¬
times catch them with hooks, and alfo make ufe of
nets, contrary to the affertion of Dr Hawkefworth,
w'ho fays that none of thefe are to be met with among
them. Their nets are generally made of the fibres of
the flax plant, with very little preparation, and are
ftrong and heavy •, the lines of which they are com-
pofed twifted like whip-cord. Some of them, how¬
ever, appear to be made of the fur of an animal, and
others of cotton. The mefhes of their nets are made
of very large loops artificially inferted into each other,
but without any knots. Their hooks are made of the
infide of a fhell very much refembling mother-of-pearl.
The canoes in which they filh are nothing more than
large pieces of bark tied up at both ends with vines-^
and confidering the flight texture of thefe veffels, we
cannot but admire the dexterity with which they are
managed, and the boldnefs with which they venture
in them out to fea. They generally carry fire along with
them in thefe canoes, to drefs their filh when caught.
When fiihing with the hook, if the fifli appears too
flrong to be drawn afhore by the line, the canoe is
paddled to the fhore } and while one man gently draws
the fifh along, another ftands ready to ftrike it with a
fpear, in which he generally fucceeds. There is no
good reafon for fuppofing them to be cannibals, and
they never eat animal fubftances but raw or next to it.
Some
II O L [
New Hoi- Some of their vegetable* are poifonous when raw,
land, deprived of this property when boiled. A ccnvift
^ —v"™' unhappily experienced this by eating them in an un¬
prepared date ; in confequence of which he died in 24
hours. The dillike of the New Hollanders to the Eu¬
ropean provifions has already been mentioned : if bread
be given them, they chew and fpit it out again, feldom
choofing to fwallow it. They like fait beef and pork
rather better ; but they could never be brought to tafle
fpirits a fecond time.
'1 he huts of thefe favages are formed in the mod
rude and' barbarous manner that can be imagined.
They conlift only of pieces of bark laid together in
the form of an oven, open at one end, and very low,
though long enough for a man to lie at full length.
There is reafon, however, to believe, that they depend
lefs on them for (belter than on the caverns with
which the rocks abound. They go invariably naked,
as has already been obferved ; though we mull not
imagine that the cuftom of going naked inures them fo
to the climate as to make them infenlible to the injuries
of the weather. The colonifts had repeated oppor¬
tunities of obferving this, by feeing them fhivering with
cold in the winter time, or huddling together in heaps
in their huts or in caverns, till a die could be kindled
to warm them. It is probable, however, notwith-
i landing their extreme barbarity, that fome know¬
ledge of the arts will foon be introduced among them,
as fome have been feen attentively confidering the
utenfils and conveniences of the Europeans, with a
view, feemingly, of making (imilar improvements of
their own. It has alfo been obferved, that in fome
things they pofiefs a very great power of imitation.
They can imitate the fongs and language of the Eu¬
ropeans almoft indantaneoufly, much better than the
latter can imitate theirs by long pradlice. Their ta¬
lent for imitation is alfo difcernible in their fculptures
reprefenting men and other animals everywhere met
with on the rocks ; which, though rude, are very
furprifmg for people who have not the knowdedge even
of conftru&ing habitations in the lead comfortable for
themfelves, or even clothes to preferve them from the
cold.
In their perfons, the New Hollanders are aftive, vi¬
gorous, and dout, though generally lean. Hampier
aiTerts that they have a dimnefs of fight; though later
navigators have determined this to be a midake, afcri-
bing to them, on the contrary, a quick and piercing
light. Their fenfe of fmelling is alfo very acute. One
of them having touched a piece of pork, held out his
finger for his companion to fmell with drong marks of
difgud. The only kind of food they eagerly accept
of is fi(h. Their behaviour with regard to the wo¬
men has been hitherto unaccountable to the colonids.
Tew of them, comparatively fpeaking, have been feen;
and thefe have fometimes kept back with the mod
jealous fenfibility j fometimes offered with the greated
familiarity. Such of the females as have been feen,
have foft and pleafing voices j and notwithdanding
their barbarifm and excedive rudenefs, feem not to be
entirely deditute of modedy.
The New Hollanders generally difplay great per-
fonal bravery on the appearance of any danger. An
old man, whom Governor Phillip had treated with
land.
571 ] H O L
but fome familiarity, took occadon to deal a fpade •, blit New Ilol-
being taken in the fa61, the governor gave him a few
dight daps on the (boulder 5 on which the old man
caught hold of a fpear, and coming up to him, feem-
ed for fome time determined to drike, though had he
done fo, it would have been impoffible for him to
efcape, being then furrounded by the officers and fol-
diers. No encounters between parties of the natives
themfelves have been obferved, though from fome cir-
cumdances it appears that wars are carried on among
them. They have more than once been ieen affembled
as if bent on fome expedition. An officer one day
met 14 of them marching along in a regular Indian
file through the woods, each man having a (pear in
one hand and a done in the other. A chief appeared
at their head, who was didinguidied from the red by
being painted. They paifed on peaceably, though,
greatly fuperior in number to our people. On another
occafion they offered no hodilities when affembied to the
number of 200 or 300, and meeting the governor attend¬
ed only by a fmall party. With all their courage,
however, they are much afraid of a mufket, and almod
equally fo of a red coat, which they know to be the
martial drefs of the Europeans. The mifehief which
they have hitherto done has been exercifed only on
fome draggling convi&s, mod of whom probably have
been the fird aggredors.
Though thefe favages allow their beards to grow to
a condderable length, it does not appear that they
look upon them to be any ornanr^ht, but rather the
contrary, as appears from the following indance. Some
young gentlemen belonging to the Sirius, one day
met an old man in the woods with a beard of cond¬
derable length. This his new acquaintance let him
know that they would rid him of, droaking their
chins, and ffiowing him the fmoothnefs of them at the
fame time. At length the old fellow confented ; and
one of the youngders taking a penknife from his poc¬
ket, and making the bed fubditute for lather he
could, performed the operation„with fuch fuccefs, that
the Indian feemed highly delighted. In a few days
he paddled alongdde of the Sirius again, pointing
to his beard; but could not by any means be prevailed
upon to enter the (hip. On this a barber was fent
down to him, who again freed him from his beard, at
which he expreffed the utmod fatisfaclion. It has,
however, been found impoffible to form any kind of
permanent intercourfe with the natives, though many
attempts have been made for that purpofe j but in his
letter above quoted, Governor Phillip declares that he
has not the lead appreheHfion of their doing any da¬
mage to the colony. At fird the colonids imagined
the fpears of the New Hollanders to be very trivial
weapons j but it now appears that they are capable of
inditling very grievous and mortal wounds. They
are fometimes pointed with a (harp piece of the fame
reed of which the (hafts are made, but more frequently
with the fliarp bone of the ding-ray. They certainly
burn their dead, which perhaps has given rife to the
report of their being cannibals. Governor Phillip, ob¬
ferving the ground to be raifed in feveral places, caufed
one of thefe tumuli to be opened, in which were found
a jaw-bone half confumed and fome adies. From the
manner in which the affies are depofited, it appears
4 C 2 that
♦
H O L [57
New Hoi- that tlie body has been laid at length, railed from the
land. ground a little {pace* arid confumed in that pofture,
being afterwards lightly covered with mould.
The only domelfic animals they have are the dogs
already mentioned, which referable the fox-dog of Eng¬
land. In their language thefe animals are called dingo;
but all other quadrupeds without exception they name
kangaroo.—They feem very little given to thieving in
companion with the inhabitants of moft of the South
Sea illands •, and are very honeft among themfelves,
leaving their fpears and other implements open on the
beach'" in full and perfeft fecurity of their remaining
untouched. They are very expert at throwing their
javelins, and will hit a mark with great certainty at a
confiderable diftance and it feems that fometimes they
kill the kangaroo with this weapon, as a long fplinter
of one of the fpears was taken out of the thigh of one
. of thefe animals, the flefti having clofed over it com¬
pletely. The people are more numerous than was at
firit imagined, though itill the number of inhabitants
mull be accounted few in companion to the extent of
country ; and there is great reafon to believe that the
interior parts are uninhabited.
The New Hollanders bake their provifions by the
help of hot ftones, like the inhabitants of the South-
fea iHands. They produce fire with great facility ac¬
cording to Captain Cock, but with difficulty accord¬
ing to later accounts, and fpread it in a wonderful man¬
ner. To produce it, they take two pieces of dry
foft wood : one is a Hick about eight or nine inches
long, the other piece is flat. The Hick they ffiape
into an obtufe point at one end •, and prefling it upon
the other, turn it nimbly, by holding it between both
' their hands, as we do a chocolate mill •, often Hiifting
their hands up, and then moving them down upon U,
to increafe the preffure as much as poffible. By this
method they get fire in lefs than two minutes, and
from the {'mailed fpark they increafe it with great
fpeed and dexterity. “ We have often feen (fays Cap¬
tain Cook (one of them run along the ffiore, to all
appearance with nothing in his hand, who Hooping
down for a moment, at the ditlance of every fifty or
an hundred yards, left fire behind him, as we could
fee, firft by the fmoke, and then by the flame along
the. drift of wood and other litter which was feather¬
ed along the place. We had the curiofity to examine
one of thefe planters of fire when he fet off, and we
faw him wrap up a fmall fpark m dry grafs, which
when he had run a little way, having been fanned by,
the air that his motion produced, began to Haze ; he
then laid it down in a place convenient for his purpofe,
inclofing a fpark of it in another quantity of grafs,
and fo continued his courfe.”
State If the According to the moH recent accounts we have feen
colony in refpedling this country, the colony is already in as
^191' flourifliing a Hate as can be expefted, confidering the
many difficulties with which every infant fettlement has
to flruggle for fome time. At the clofe of the year
179-7, the colony had of live Hock, 26 horfes, 58 mares,
1.32 bulls and oxen, 195 cows, 4247 hogs, 743 rams,
1714 fheep, 781 he tmd 1495 Hie goats. Of land in
a Hate of cultivation, there were 33614- acres in wheat,
15 27 for maize, and 264- barley, befides a confider-
able quantity of garden ground, which produced pota¬
toes, callevances, and vines.
land.
2 ] H O L
The increafe of public buildings belonging to the New HM-
gdvernment was alfo very confiderable. At Toongabbe
a barn was ereffed 90 feet long, in which 18 men
might thrafh com, without interrupting each other.
At Sydney, an entire new fuite of apartments was
built of brick, for the accommodation of the two af-
fiftant furgeons, and a jail 80 feet long was eretted at
the fame place. Two wind-mills, and a granary 72
by 21 feet, were among the buildings of public utility,
as well as an elegant church too by 44 feet, with a
veflry 20 feet long, eredled upon pillars, befides a
great variety of other edifices and ufeful improvements.
Thefe demonHrate the parental care of the Britith go¬
vernment, and evince the profperity of the colony to
be rapidly advancing.
From the 27th of January 1788, to the 7th of June
1800, not fewer than i2oihips and veffels of various
deferiptions, and from different quarters of the globe,
have vifited this country ; a convincing proof that they
either found it a place of refreffiment after the fatigues
of a long voyage, or an advantageous market for their
commercial fpeculations. Thirty-feven of them went
from England with convifts, to the number of 5000>
whom about 157 Were females.
Befides the black fwans already mentioned, which
the ancients defpaired of ever feeing, this country pro¬
duces that beautiful bird called menura fupsrba, oF
which an intereffing defeription is given by Mr Collins,
in the fecond volume of his Account of the Englilh
Colony. Here alfo there is a confiderable number of
very uncommon and exquifitely fragrant flirubs. There
is alfo an extraordinary amphibious animal found here,
called the ornithorynchus paradoxus, of which Mr
Home has given a defeription, which was publiihed in
the Philofophical Tranfadfions for t8oi.
In 1801, there were in circulation the following
coins, which were made legal tenders by authority of
the governor.
A guinea,
A johannes,
A half do.
A ducat,
A gold mohur,
A pagoda,
A Spaniih dollar,
A rupee,
A Dutch gilder.
An Englifli fliilling,
A copper coin of I oz.
A do. of 4 oz.
A do. of -4 oz.
L. s. d.
o
o
o
6
6
o
o
6
o
JE
2
I
1
4
2
o
1
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
2
O
o
9
*7
8
5
2
2
1
o
o
o
2S
In the year 18ci the increafing profperity of the co-in iScw
lony was Hill confpicuous, for the live Hock of different
individuals confiffed of 6269 fheep, 362 cattie, 211
horfes, 1259 goats, and 4766 hogs-, and what belong¬
ed to government confided of 488 ffieep, 93 1 cattle,
and 32 hogs. Individuals had 4857 acres of land fown
with wheat, and 3564 acres for maize j and govern¬
ment had 467 acres for the one fpecies of grain, and
300 for the other. 29
In the month of June 1801, there were 5547 per-Population
fons of all deferiptions in the fettlement, which with
q6i
■>
' -
H O L [ 573 ] H O L
Holland, p6i at Norfolk iiland, made a total of 6508 perfons
^otiar- fubjeft to the governor’s authority.
Holland, in commerce, a fine and clofe kind of
linen, fo called from its being firll manula£luied in
Holland.
HOLLAR, Wlnceslaus, a celebrated engraver,
born at Prague in 16^^. His parents were in a gen¬
teel line of life ; and he was at firft defigned for the
Rudy of the law. But the civil commotions which
happened in his youth, ruining his family affairs, he
was obliged to Ihift for himfelf j and by difcovering
fome genius for the arts, he was placed with Marian,
a very able defigner and engraver of views. Being
himfelf a man of great ingenuity, he profited hafiily
from the inffrutlion of his tutor. He principally ex¬
celled in drawing geometrical and perfpedtive views
and plans of buildings, ancient and modern cities and
towns ; alfo landfcapes, and every kind of natural and
f artificial curiofities 5 which he executed with a pen in
a very peculiar Ryle, excellently well adapted to the pur-
pofe. He travelled through feveral of the great cities
of Germany : and, notwithfianding all his merit, met
with fo little encouragement, that he found it very dif¬
ficult to fupport himfelf. The earl of Arundel being
in Germany, took him under his protection, brought
him to England, and recommended him to the favour
of Charles I. He engraved a variety of plates from the
Arundel collection, a#id the portrait of the earl him¬
felf on horfeback. The civil wTars, which happened
foon after in England, ruined his fortune. He was ta¬
ken prifoner, with fome of the royal party, and with
difficulty efcaped ; wffien he returned to Antw’erp, and
joined his old patron the earl of Arundel. He fettled
in that city for a time, and publiffied a confiderable
number of plates : but his patron going to Italy foon
after for the benefit of his health, Hollar fell again in¬
to diffrefs, and wTas obliged to work for the print and
booklellers of Antwerp at very low prices. At the re-
floration he returned into England 5 wffiere, though
he had fufficient employment, the prices he received
for his engravings were fo greatly inadequate to the
labour neceffarily required, that he could but barely
fubfiR, and the plague, with the fucceeding fire of Lon¬
don, putting for fome time an effectual Rop to bufinefs,
his affairs were fo much embarraffed, that he was never
afterwards able to improve his fortune. It is faid that
he ufed to work for.the bookfellers at the rate of four-
pence an hour, and always had an hour glafs before him.
He was fo very fcrupuloufiy exaCt, that wffien obliged
to attend the calls of nature, or wffiilR talking, though
with the perfons for whom he was working, and about
their own bufinefs, he conflantiy laid down the glafs,
to prevent the fand from running. Neverthelefs, all his
great indufiry, of which his numerous wmrks bear
ample taflimony, could not procure him a fufficient
maintenance. It is melancholy to add, that on the
verge of his yoth year, he was attached with an execu¬
tion at his lodgings in Gardener’s lane, WeRminRer,
wffien he defired only the liberty of dying in his bed,
and that he might not be removed to any other prifon
than the grave, a favour which it is uncertain whether
he obtained or not. He died, however, in 1677.—His
works amount nearly to 24,000 prints, according to
Vertue’s Catalogue ; and the lovers of art are always
zealous to collect them. Generally fpeaking, they are
etchings performed almofl entirely with the point, and Holloa
their merits are thus charaflerifed by Mr Strutt :
“ They poffefs great 1-pirit, with afloniffiing freedom
and lightnefs, efpecially W'hen we confider how highly
he has finiflied fome of them. His views of abbeys,
churches, ruins, &c. with his ffiells, muffs, and every
fpecies of firil life, are admirable } his landlcapes fre¬
quently have great merit j and his diflant views of
towns and cities are not cnly executed in a very accu¬
rate, but a very pleafing manner.” A fomewhat colder
character is given of them by Mr Gilpin in his Efl'ay
on Prints: “ Hollar gives us views of particular places,
which he copies with great truth, unornamented as he
found them. If wre are fatisfied with exadl reprefenta-
tions, w?e have them nowhere better than in Hollar’s
works ; but if we expeft pictures, wTe mult feek them
elfewhere. Hollar was an antiquarian and a draughtf-
man, but feems to have been little acquainted with
the principles of painting. Stiflhefs is his characler-
iRic, and a painful exadlnefs void of taRe. His
larger views are mere plans. In fome. of his fmaller,
at the expence of infinite pains, fomething of an ef¬
fect is fometimes produced. But in general, w7e con¬
fider him as a repofitory of curiofities, a record of anti¬
quated dreffes, abolilhed ceremonies, and edifices now
in ruins.”
HOLLOA, in the fea-language, an exclamation
of anfw'er, to any perfon wffio calls to another to alk
fome queRion, or to give a particular order. Thus
if the mailer intends to give any order to the people
in the main-top, he previoufly calls, Main top, hoay !
to which they anfwer, Holloa ! to fliow that they hear
him, and are ready. It is alfo the anfwer in. hailv
ing a ihip at a diRance. See Hailing.
HOLLY. See Ilex, Botany Index.
Sea-HoLir, See Eryngium, Botany Index.
HOLM (Sax. hulmus, infula amnica), denotes an‘
ifle or fenny ground, according to Bede, or a river
ifiand. And wffiere any place is called by that name,
and this fyllable is joined with any other in the names
of places, it fignifies a place furrounded w'ith wrater, as
the Flatholmes and Stepholmes in the Severn near Brif-
tol j but if the fituation of the place is not near the
water, it may then Rgnify a hilly.place *, holm in Saxon
fignifying alfo “ a hill or ciifi.”
HOLOCAUST (formed from “ whole”, and
“ I confume. with fire)”, a kind of facrifice^ .
wherein the whole offering is burnt or confumed by
fire, as an acknowledgement that God, the creator,
preferver, and lord of all, was worthy of all honour
and worlhip, and as a token of men’s giving themftlves
entirely up to him. It is exiled alio in Scripture a
burnt-offering,. Sacrifices of this fort are often mention¬
ed by the heathens as well as Jews; particularly
by Xenophon, Cyroped. lib. viii. p. 446. ed. Hutchinf.
1738, who fpeaks of facrificing holocaufis of oxen to
Jupiter, and of horfes to the fun ; and they appear to
have been in ufe long before the inftitution of the other
Jew iih facrifices by the law of Mofes ; (fee Job i. 5.
xii. 8. and Gen. viii. 20, xxii. 13.) On this account,
the Jews, who would not allow the Gentiles to offer
on their altar any other facrifices peculiarly enjoined by
the law of Mofes, admitted them by the Jewiffi priefis .
to offer holocauflsj becaufe thefe were a fort of facri¬
fices prior to the law, and common to all nations. Du-
♦ rinJL
J
H O L [5
c'- ring tlieir fubje£Hon to the Romans, it was no uncom-
~ mon thing for thofe Gentiles to offer facritices to the
God of Ifrael atjerufalem. Holocaufts were deemed
by the Jews the mod excellent of all their facrifkes.
It is laid, that this kind of facrifice was in common
life among the heathens, till Prometheus introduced
the cuftom of burning only a part, and referving the
remainder for his own ufe. See Sacrifice.
HOLOFERNES, lieutenant general of the armies
of Nabuchodonofor king of Affyria, who having in a
remarkable encounter overcome Arphaxad king of the
Medes, fent to all the neighbouring nations with an
intention of obliging them this way to lubmit to
his empire, pretending that there could be no power
capable of refilling him. At the fame time Holofer-
nes, at the head of a powerful army, paffed the Eu¬
phrates, entered Cilicia and Syria, and fubdueu almoff
all the people of thefe provinces.
Being refolved to make a conqueff of Egypt, he ad¬
vanced towards Judaea, little expecting to meet with
any refiftance from the Jews. In the mean time, he
was informed that they were preparing to oppofe him ;
and Achior the commander of the Ammonites, who
had already fubmitted to Holofernes, and was with
feme auxiliary troops in his army, reprelented to him
that the Hebrews were a people protected in a parti¬
cular manner by God Almighty, fo long as they were
obedient to him } and therefore he fliould not flatter
himfelf with expeftations of overcoming them, unlefs
they had committed fome offence againft God, whereby
they might become unworthy of his protection. Holo¬
fernes, difregarding this difeourfe, commanded Achior
to be conveyed within fight of the walls of Bethulia,
and tied to a tree, and left there, whither the Jews
came and loofed him.
In the mean time Holofernes formed the fiege of
Bethulia ; and having cut oft' the water which fupplied
the city, and fet guards at the only fountain which
the befieged had near the walls, the inhabitants were
foon reduced to extremity, and refolved to furrender
if God did not fend them fuccours in five days. Ju¬
dith, being informed of their refolution, conceived the
defign of killing Holofernes in his camp. She took
her fineft clothes, and went out of Bethulia with her
xnaid-fervant •, and being brought to the general, fire
pretended that fhe could no longer endure the fins
and exceffes of the Jews, and that God had infpired
her with the defign of furrendering herfelf to him. As
foon as Holofernes faw her, he was taken with her
beauty ; and fome days after invited her to a great
feaft, which he prepared for the principal officers of
his army. But he drank fo much wine, that deep
and drunkennefs hindered him from fatisfying his paf-
fion. Judith, who in the night was left alone in his
tent, cut off his head with his own fword ; and de¬
parting with her fervant from the camp, (he returned
to Bethulia With the head of Holofernes. As foon as
it was day, the befieged made a fally upon their ene¬
mies, who going into their general’s tent, found his
headlefs carcafe wallowing in its own blood. They
then difeerned that Judith had deceived them, and fled
with precipitation, leaving the camp abounding with
rich fpoils j the Jews purfued them, killed a great num¬
ber of them, and returned loaded with booty.
1 here is a great diverfity of opinions concerning the
'4 ] H O L
time when this war between Holofernes and the Jews HoJogra-
happened. Some date it from the captivity of Baby- phum
Ion, in the reign of Manaffeh, and pontificate of Elia- „
kim the high-prieft ; others place it at fome time after 1 011 ein-
the captivity ; and fome doubt the truth of the whole,
tranfaftion. See the article Judith.
HOLOGR APHUM (compofed of “ all,”
and “ I write”), in the civil law, lomething
written wholly in the hand-writing of the perfon who
figns it. The word is chiefly ufed in fpeaking of 3
teftament written wholly in the teftator’s own hand.
The Romans did not approve of holographic tef-
taments 5 and, though Valentinian authorifed them by
a novel, they are not ufed where the civil law is in full
force.
HOLOSTEUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the triandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 22d order, Carijophyllei. See Botany
Index*
HOLOTHURIA, a genus of the order vermes, be¬
longing to the clafs mollufca. See Helminthology
Index.
HOLSTEIN, a duchy of Germany, bounded by
the German ocean on the well j the Baltic, or the
gulf of Lubeck, on the call j the duchy of Meck¬
lenburg on the fouth-eafl j that of Bremen, with the
river Elbe, on the fouth-weft *, and Lauenburg, with
the territory of Hamburg, on the fouth. Its greateft
length is about 80 miles, and its breadth 60. The
diocefe of Eutin, and the county of Ranzau, though
they make a part of the duchy of Holftein, yet being
lands belonging to the empire and circle, (hall be de-
fenbed feparately.
A great part of this country confifls of rich marfh
land, which being much expofed to inundations both
from the fea and rivers, dikes have been raifed at a
great expence to guard and Jefend them. The pa-
ftures in the marffies are fo rich, that cattle are bred
in vaft numbers and fattened in them, and great
quantities of excellent butter and cheefe made of their
milk. They are alio very fruitful in wheat, barley,
peafe, beans, and rape-feed. In the more barren,
Candy, and heathy parts of the country, large flocks
of (beep are bred and fed : nor are orchards wanting,
or woods, efpecially of oak and beech j nor turf,
poultry, game, and wild-fowl. Here is a variety
both of fea and river fiih •, and the beef, veal, mut¬
ton, and lamb, are very fat and palatable. Holflein
is abo noted for beautiful horfes. The gentry ufually
farm the cows upon their eftates to a Hollander, as
he is called, who for every cow pays from fix to ten
rix-dollars ; the owner providing pafture for them in
fummer, and draw and hay in winter. It is no un¬
common thing here to drain the ponds and lakes
once in three or four years, and fell the carp, lam¬
preys, pikes, and perch, found in them ; then fow
them for feveral years after with oats, or ufe them for
pafturage j and after that lay them under water again,
and breed fi(h in them. There are hardly any hills in
the country j but feveral rivers, of which the principal
are the Eyder, the Stor, and the Trave. The duchy
contains about 30 towns great and fmall \ moft part
of the peafants are under villenage, being obliged to
work daily for their lords, and not even at liberty to
quit their eftates. . The nobility and the proprietors
of
H O L [ 575 ]
Hein, of manors are poffefled of the civil and criminal jurif- Charle
’ diftion, with other privileges and exemptions. For¬
merly there were diets, but now they feem to be en¬
tirely laid alide : meetings, however, of the nobility
are ftill held at Kiel. The predominant religion here
is Lutheranifm^ with fuperintendencies as in other
Lutheran countries. In feveral places the Jews are
allowed the exercife of their religion. At Gluck-
ftadt and Altena are both Calvinift and Popilh church¬
es j and at Kiel a Greek Ruffian chapel. Befides
the Latin fchools in the towns, at Altena is a gymna-
frum, and at Kiel an univerfity. Notwithftanding this
country’s advantageous fituation for commerce, there
are few manufadlures and little trade in it. Hamburg
and Lubeck fupply the inhabitants with what they
want from abroad ; from whence and Altena they ex¬
port fome grain, malt, grots, flarch, buck-wheat, peafe,
beans, rape-feed, butter, cheefe, ffieep, fwine, horned
cattle, horfes, and fifh. The manufadffures of the
duchy are chiefly carried on at Altena, Kiel, and
Gluckftadt. The duchy of Holffein conflfts of the
ancient provinces of Holftein, Stormar, Ditmarfli, and
Wagria. It belongs partly to the king of Denmark
and partly to the dukes of Holftein Gottorf and Ploen.
Anciently the counts of Holftein were vaflals of the
dukes of Saxony ; but afterwards they received the in-
veftiture of their territories from the emperor, or the
bifhops of Lubeck in the emperor’s name, though the in-
veftiture wras afterwards given by the emperor in perfon.
The king of Denmark appoints a regency over his part
of Holftein and the duchy of Slefwick, wrhich has its
office at Gluckftadt. The feat of the great duke’s
privy council and regeflty-court, together with the
chief conflftory, wffiich is united to it, is at Kiel: there
are many inferior courts and confiftories, from which
an appeal lies to the higher. In the duchy of Holftein,
the government of the convents and nobility is alter¬
nately in the king and duke for a year, from Mi¬
chaelmas to Michaelmas. The perfon in wffiom the
government is lodged adminifters it by his regency.
In fome cafes an appeal lies from this court to the Au-
lic council or chamber at Wetzlar : the convents, the
nobility, and the proprietors of manors in the country,
have a civil and criminal jurifdiftion over their eftates.
The revenues of the fovereigns arife principally from
their demefnes and regalia } befides which, there is a
land and feveral other taxes and impofts. The duke’s
income, feeling afide his ducal patrimony, has been
eftimated at 70,000 or 80,000 pounds. The king
ulually keeps here fome regiments of foot and one of
horfe. With refpeft to the duke’s military force, it
amounts to about 800 men. The king, on account
of his (hare in this country, ftyles himfelf duke of Ho/-
flem, Stormar, and Ditmarjh. The dukes both of the
royal and princely houfe ftyle themfelves heirs of Nor¬
way, dukes of Slefwick, Holftein, Stormar, and Ditmarfb,
and counts of Oldenburg and Delmenhorjl. On account
of Holftein, both the king of Denmark and the grand
duke have a feat and voice in the college of the princes
of the empire, and in that of the circle. Together
w7ith Mecklenburg they alfo nominate an affeffor for
this circle in the Aulic chamber. The matricular af-
feffment of the whole duchy is 40 horfe and 80 foot,
or 800 florins ; to the chamber of Wetzlar both princes
pay 189 rix-dollars, 31 kruitzers. In 1735, duke
H O L
Frederic C>f Holftein Gottorf founded an order
of knighthood here, viz. that of St Anne, the enfign
of which is a red crofs, enamelled, and worn pendant
at a red ribbon edged with yellow.—The principal
places of that part of the duchy belonging to the king
of Denmark and the duke of Ploen are Gluckftadt,
Itzhoe, Rendfburg, and Ploen j and that part belong¬
ing to the great duke are Kiel, Oldenburg, Preetz,
and Altena.
HOLT, Sir John, knight, eldeft fon of Sir Tho¬
mas Holt, ferjeant-at-law, w’as born in 1642. He en¬
tered himfelf of Gray’s Inn in 16585 and applied to
the common law with fo much induftry, that he foon
became a very eminent barrifter. In the reign of
James II. he was made recorder of London, which of¬
fice he difcharged writh much applaufe for about a year
and a half 5 but loft his place for refufing to expound
the law fuitably to the king’s defigns. On the arrival
of the prince of Orange, he wras chofen a member of
the convention parliament, which afforded him a good
opportunity of difplaying his abilities 5 fo that, as foon
as the government w'as fettled, he was made lord chief
juftice of the court of king’s bench, and a privy coun-
fellor. He continued chief juftice for 22 years, with
great repute for fteadinefs, integrity, and thorough
knowledge in his profeftion. Upon great occaiions he
afferted the law with intrepidity, though he thereby
ventured to incur by turns the indignation of both the
houfes of parliament. He publiffied fome reports, and
died in 1709.
Holt (Sax.) “ a wood;” wherefore the names of
towns beginning or ending with holt, as Buck-holt, &c.
denote that formerly there was great plenty of wood
in thofe places.
HOLY. See Holiness.
HOLY-GHOST, one of the perfons of the holy
Trinity. See Trinity.
Order of the Holy Ghost, the principal military
order in France, inftituted by Henry HI. in 1569.
It confifts of 100 knights, who are to make proof of
their nobility for three defcents. The king is the
grand-mafter or fovereign 5 and as fuch takes an oath
on his coronation-day to maintain the dignity of the
order.
The knights wear a golden crofs, hung about their
necks by a blue filk ribbon or collar. But before
they receive the order of the Holy-Ghoft, that of St
Michael is conferred as a neceffary degree 5 and for this
reafon their arms are furrounded with a double collar.
HOLYHEAD, a town and cape of the ifle of An-
glefea in Wales, and in the Iriffi channel, where people
ufually embark for Dublin, there being three packet-
boats that fail for that city every Monday, Wednef-
day, and Friday, wind and weather permitting. It is
276 miles from London, and has a very convenient
harbour for the northern trade, when taken ihort by
contrary winds. It is fituated near the extremity of
the ifle, and is joined to the north-weft part of it by
a ftone bridge of one arch. It has a fmall market on
Saturdays. 1 he parilh is about five or fix miles long,
and two or three broad, bounded nearly by the fea.
The church ftands above the harbour, within an old
quadrangular fortification, with a baftion at each cor¬
ner built about 450, a mountain near it is ano¬
ther old fortification called Turris Munimentum,
which
Holt
Holyhead.
H O L r 576 ] H O L
> Holyhead, wliicli is an old ftone wall without mortar, and in its
Holy- centre is a {mail turret, and contains a well of water.
, Ifland. Holyhead was frequently formerly vilited by .Irilh ro¬
vers, and was defended as a place of confequence.
There are leveral remains of old fortifications and
Bruidical antiquities in its neighbourhood, as well as
chapels of religious rvorfhip. I he parifir church of
Holyhead was built in the reign of Edward III. and
is in the form of a crofs, with a porch and fteeple very
antique. There was an old chapel near the church,
now converted into a fchool-houfe. A falt-houfe was,
ere£led on an iiland in the harbour in Queen Anne’s
reign, but it is now in ruins, i he town is little more
than a fifiiing town, rendered confiderable by being the
place of paffage to Ireland. It has three good inns.
The pafl'age hence to Ireland is in general about twelve
hours. There is no frefh w7ater here except from rain,
nor any bread fold but what comes from Ireland.
A bath and affembly-room wrere erefted here in I77°*
Under the mountains that overhang the town is a large
cavern in the rock, fupported by natural pillars, called
the Parliament-houfe, acceffible only by boats, and the
tide runs into it. If this harbour was properly re¬
paired, and ware-houfes built, it would be very conve¬
nient for the Irifh to import fuch of their goods as pay
Englifh duty, it being but a few hours fail from Dublin.
Befides, the Dublin merchants might come over with the
packets to fee their goods landed. I he commodities are,
butter, cheefe, bacon, wild-fowl, lobilers, crabs, oyfters,
razor- filh, {hrimps, herrings, cod-fifh, whitings, whiting-
pollacks, cole-fifli, fea-tenches, turbots, foies, floun¬
ders, rays, and plenty of other filh. On the rocks
the herb grows of wdiich they make kelp, a fixed lalt
ufed in making glafs, and in alum works. In the
neighbourhood there is a large vein of white fulleis
earth and another of yellow, which might be ufeful
to fullers. On the ifle of Skerries, nine miles to the
north, is a light-houfe, which may be feen 24 miles off.
Large flocks of puffins are often feen here j they all
come in one night, and depart in the fame manner.
HOLY-IslaND, a fmall ifland lying on the coaft of
England, 10 miles fouth-eaft of Berwick, in Northum¬
berland. Bede calls it a femi-ijland, being, as he obferves,
twice an ifland and twdee continent in one day . for
at the flowing of the tide, it is encompaffed by water *,
and at the ebb, there is an almoft dry paffage, both
for horfes and carriages, to and from the main land j
from which, if meafured on a ftraight line, it is diftant
about two miles eaftward •, but on account of fome
quickfands paffengers are obliged to make fo many de¬
tours, that the length of way is nearly doubled. The
water over thefe flats at fpring-tides is only feven feet
deep.—This ifland was by the Britons called Inis Me-
dicante; alfo Lindisfarne, from the fmall rivulet of
I .inHi or Landia, which here runs into the fea, and the
Celtic word fahren or “ recefs j” and on account of
its being the habitation of fome of the firft monks in
this country, it afterwards obtained its prefent name
of Holy-i/land. It meafures from eaft to weft about
two miles and a quarter, and its breadth from north
to fouth is fcarcely a mile and a half. At the north-
weft part there runs out afpit of land of about a mile in
length. The monaftery is fituated at the fouthermoft
.extremity} and at a fmall diftance north of it Hands the
village. On this ifland there is plenty of fifti and
fowl j but the air and foil are bad. There is not a Holy-
tree on the ifland. The village, which Hands on a
rifing ground, confifts but of a few fcattered houfes,
chiefly inhabited by fiihermen ; and it has two inns.
The north and eaft coafts are formed of perpendicular
rocks, the other Tides fink by gradual Hopes to the
fands. There is a commodious harbour, defended by
a block-houfe •, which laft was furprifed and taken in
1715, but was foon invefted and retaken.
Holy-ifland, though really part of Northumberland,
belongs to Durham ; and all civil difputes muft be de¬
termined by the juftices of that county.—It was a
very ancient epifcopal feat. Aidan the firft biffiop,
after prefiding in it 14 years, died ai 1 was buried here
A. D. 651. Finan, his fucceffor, built a wooden
church, thatched with reeds, but before the end of the
century covered with lead by Biffiop Eadbert. St
Cuthbert, who from a poor fhepherd became monk of
Melrofs 15 years, was prior here 12 more, when he
retired to one of the barren Earn rocks, from whence
he was called to this fee, which he held only two
years, and returned to his retirement, where he died,
and was buried at the eaft end of his oratory, where
his ftone coffin is ftill Ihown. His body was found
freffi 11 years after his death. Lindisfarne was ruined
by the Danes, A. D. 793, when the monks carried
his body about for feven iyears, and at laft fettled at
Chefter-le-ftreet, whither the fee wras tranflated, a»d
where it continued many years. On a fecond deftruc-
tion of the monaftery by the Danes they were remo¬
ving to Rippon, but flopped by a miracle at Durham,
wffiere the faint continued till the reformation, when
his body was found entire, and privately buried in a
wooden coffin, as fome pretend, near the clock, but more
probably in the ground under where his ffirine flood.
The entrochi found among the rocks at Lindisfarne
are called St Cuthbert’s beads, and pretended to be
made by him in the night. Eighteen bifliops fat here
till the removal of the fee to Chefter, which had eight
more till the removal to Durham, A. D. 995. Lin¬
disfarne became a cell to that Benedi&ine monaftery,
valued at 48k per ann. The north and fouth walls of
the church are Handing, much inclined •, part of the
weft end remains, but the eaft is down. The columns
of the nave are of four different forts, 12 feet high and
5 feet diameter, maffy and richer than thofe of Dur¬
ham ; the bafes and capitals plain, fupporting circular
arches. Over each arch are large windows in pairs,
feparated by a ffiort column, and over thefe are fmaller
Angle windows. In the north and fouth walls are fomo
pointed arches. The length of the body is 138 feet,
breadth 18 feet, and with the two ailes 36 feet •, but it
may be doubted whether there ever was a tranfept.
One arch of the centre tow7er remains adorned, as is its
entrance from the nave, with Saxon zigzag. Somewhat
to the eaft is the bafe of a crofs, and to the weft the
prefent pariftr-church.
Holt-Rood Dcnj, a feftival obferved by the Roman
Catholics, in memory of the exaltation of our Saviour's
crofs. See Cross and Exaltation.
Ho lx-Well, a town of North Wales, in the county
of Flint. It is a place of great note, for the well of
St Winnifred, who was reputed a virgin martyr \ and it
is much frequented by people that come to bathe in it,
as well as by popiflr pilgrims out of devotion. The
fpring
H O M [ 577 ] HO M
Homage fpring gufhes forth with fuch impetuofity, that at a
I! fmall diftance it turns feveral mills. Over the fpring
Home' is a chapel built upon pillars, and on the windows is
painted the hiltory of St Wmnifred’s life. There is a
mofs about the well, ■which fome foolifhly imagine to
be St Winnifred’s hair. W. Long. 3. 15. N. Lat. 54.
21.
HOMAGE, in Law, is the fubmiffion, loyalty, and
fervice, which a tenant promifed to his lord when
he was firft admitted to the land which he held of
the lord in fee ; alio that owing to a king, or to any
fuperior.
HOMBERG, William, a celebrated phyfician,
chemift, and philofopher, was the fon of a Saxon gen¬
tleman, and born in Batavia, in the Eaft Indies, in
1652. His father afterwards fettling at Amfterdam,
William there profecuted his ftudies j and from thence
removed to Jena, and afterwards to Leiplic, where he
ftudied the law. In 1642, he was made advocate at
Magdeburg, and there applied himfelf to the ftudy of
experimental philofophy. Some time after he travelled
into Italy $ and applied himfelf to the ftudy of medi¬
cine, anatomy, and botany, at Padua. He afterwards
ftudied at Bologna $ and at Rome learned optics,
painting, fculpture, and mufic. He at length travel¬
led into France, England, and Holland j obtained the
degree of doftor of phyfic at Wirtemberg •, travelled
into Germany and the North j vifited the mines of
Saxony, Bohemia, Hungary, and Sweden $ and re¬
turned to France, where he acquired the efteem of the
learned. He was on the point of returning into Ger¬
many, when M. Colbert being informed of his merit,
made him fuch advantageous offers, as induced him to
fix his refidence at Paris. M. Homberg, who was al¬
ready well known for his pholphorus, for a pneumatic
machine of his own invention more perfeft than that
of Guericke, for his microfcopes, for his difcoveries in
chemiftry, and for the great number and variety of his
curious obfervations, was received into the academy of
fciences in 1691, and had the laboratory of that aca¬
demy, of which he was one of the principal ornaments.
The duke of Orleans, afterwards regent of the king¬
dom, at length made him his chemift, fettled upon him
a penfion, gave him the moft fuperb laboratory that
was ever in the poffeflion of a chemift, and in 1704
made him his firft phyfician. He had abjured the
Proteftant religion in 1682, and died in 1715. There
are a great number of learned and curious pieces of his
writing, in the memoirs of the academy of fciences,
and in feveral journals. He had begun to give the
elements of chemiftry in the memoirs of the academy,
and the reft were found among his papers fit for print¬
ing.
Homberg, a town of Germany, in the circle of the
Upper Rhine, and landgravate of Heffe, feated ten
miles north of Frankfort, and gives title to one of the
branches of the houfe of Heffe, who is its fovereign.
E. Long. 8. 24. N. Lat. $o. 20.
Hdmberg, a town of Germany, in the palatinate
of the Rhine, and duchy of Deuxponts. E. Long. 7. 6.
N. Lat. 49. 20.
HOME, Henry, Lord Kames, an eminent Scot-
tiflr lawyer, and author of many celebrated works on
various fubje£ts, was defcended of a very honourable
and ancient family, and born in the year 1696.
Vol. X. Part II.
Lord Karnes’s grandfather, Henry Home, was a Home,
younger fon of Sir John Home of Renton, who held "V””
the high office of lord juftice-clerk, or chief crimi¬
nal judge of Scotland, in the year 1663. He re¬
ceived the eftate of Kames from his uncle George,
brother to the then lord jultice-clerk. The family
of Renton is defcended from that of the earls of
Home, the reprefentatives of the ancient princes of
Northumberland, as appears from the records of the
Lion Office.
The coimty of Berwick in Scotland has the ho¬
nour of having given birth to this great and ufeful
member of fociety. In early youth he was lively, and
eager in the acquifition of knowledge. He never at¬
tended a public fchool j but was inftrufted in the an¬
cient and modern languages, as well as in feveral
branches of mathematics, and the arts neceffarily con-
nefled with that fcience, by Mr Wingate, a man of
confiderable parts and learning, wrho fpent many years
as preceptor or private tutor to Mr Home.
After ftudying, with acutenefs and diligence, at the
univerlity of Edinburgh, the civil law, and the muni¬
cipal law of his own country, Mr Home early per¬
ceived that a knowdedge of thefe alone is not fufficient to
make an accompliffied lawyer. An acquaintance with"
the forms and praftical bufinefs of courts, and efpecially
of the fupreme court, as a member of which he wras to
feek for fame and emolument, he confidered as effential-
ly neceffary to qualify him to be a complete barrifter.
He accordingly attended for fome time the chamber
of a writer to the fignet, where he had an opportunity
of learning the ftyles of legal deeds, and the modes of
conducing different fpecies -of bufinefs. This wife
ftep, independently of his great genius and unwearied
application, procured him, after his admiflion to the
bar, peculiar refpeff from the court, and proportional
employment in his profeffion of an advocate. Who¬
ever perufes the law-papers compofed by Mr Home
when a young man, will perceive an uncommon ele¬
gance of ftyle, befides great ingenuity of reafoning,
and a thorough knowdedge of the law and conftitu-
tion of his country. Thefe qualifications, together
with the ftrength and vivacity of his natural abilities,
foon raifed him to be an ornament to the Scottiffi bar j
and, on the 2d day of February 1752, he was ad¬
vanced to the bench as one of the judges of the court
of feffion, under the title of Lord Kames.
Before this period, however, notwithftanding the un¬
avoidable labours of his profeffion, Mr Home had fa¬
voured the world with feveral ufeful and ingenious
works. In the year 1728, he publiffied Remarkable
Decifions of the Court of Seffion from 1716 to 1728,
in one volume folio.—In 1732 appeared Effays upon
feveral fubjects in law, viz. "jus tertii; Benejicium ce-
dendarum aclionum; Vinco Vincentem; and Prefcrip~
tion; in one volume 8vo. This firft produce of his
original genius, and of his extenfive views, excited not
only the attention, but the admiration of the judges,
and of all the other members of the college of juftice.
This work was fucceeded, in the year 1741, by De¬
cifions of the Court of Seffion from its firft inftitu-
tion to the year 1740, abridged and digefted under
proper heads, in form of a Di£Konary, in two volumes
folio : A very laborious work, and of the greateft uti¬
lity to every practical lawyer. In 1747 appeared Effays
4 D upon
<N
Home.
H O M [ 578 ] H O M
upon feveral fubjefts concerning Britifli antiquities,
viz. i. Introdu&ion of the feudal law into Scotland.
2. Conftitution of parliament. 3. Honour, Dignity.
4. Succeffion, or Defcent ; with an appendix upon he¬
reditary and indefeafible right, compofed anno 1745,
and publilhed 1747, in one volume 8vo. In a pretace
to this work, Lord Karnes informs us, that in the years
1745 and 1746, when the nation was in great fufpenfe
and diftradlion, he retired to the country ; and in order
to banilh as much as pofiible the ubeafinefs of his mind,
he contrived the plan, and executed this ingenious per¬
formance.
Though not in the order of time, we fliall continue
the lift of all our author’s writings on lawr, before
we proceed to his produ&ions on other fubjeffs. In
1757, he publiftted The Statute Law of Scotland a-
bridged, with hiftorical notes, in one volume 8vo; a moft
ufeful and laborious work. In the year 1759, he pre-
lented to the public a new work under the title of Hifto-
rical Law Trads, in one volume 8vo. It contains 14
int6refting trads, viz. Hiftory of the Criminal Law :—
Hiftory of Promifes and Covenants :—Hiftory of Pro¬
perty :—Hiftory of Securities underand for Payment of
Debt:—Hiftory of the Privilege which an Heir-appa¬
rent in a fvudal holding has to continue the Pofleftion of
his Anceftor :—Hiftory of Regalities, and of the Privi¬
lege of repledging :—Hiftory of Courts:—Hiftory of
Brieves :—Hiftory of Procefs in abfence :—Hiftory of
Execution againft Moveables and Land for Payment
of Debt :—Hiftory of Perfonal Execution for Payment
of Debt :—Hiftory of Execution for obtaining Pay-
jnent after the Death of the Debtor :—Hiftory of the
limited and univerfal Reprefentation of Heirs :—Old
and New Extent. In 1760, he publilhed, in one vo¬
lume folio, The Principles of Equity j a work which
Ihows both the fertility of the author’s genius and his in¬
defatigable application. In 1766, he gave to the public
another volume in folio of Remarkable Decifions of the
Court of Seflion, from 173010 1752. In 1777, ap¬
peared his Elucidations refpeding the Common and Sta¬
tute Law of Scotland, in one volume 8vo. This book
contains many curious and interefting remarks upon fome
intricate and dubious points which occur in the law
of Scotland. In 1780, he publiftied a volume in folio
of Seled Decifions of the Court of Seflion from 1752
to 1768.
From this Iketch of Lord Karnes’s compofitions and
colledions with a view to improve and elucidate the
laws of Scotland, the reader may form fome idea of
his great induftry, and of his anxious defire to promote
the honour and welfare of his country. It remains
to be remarked, that in the fupreme court there, the
law-writings of Lord Kames are held in equal eftima-
tion, and quoted with equal, refpeft, as thofe of Coke
or Blackftone in the courts of England.
Lord Karnes’s mind was very much inclined to me-
taphyfical difquifitions. When a young man, in order
to improve himfelf in his favourite ftudy, he corre-
fpcnded with the famous Berkeley bifliop of Cloyne,
Dr Butler bifliop of Durham, Dr Samuel Clark, and
many other ingenious and learned men both in Bri¬
tain and Ireland. The letters of correfpondence, we
are happy to learn, have been carefully preferved by
his fon and heir George Horae-Drummond, Efq. of
Blair-Drummond.
The year 1751 gave birth to the firft fruits of his
lordlhip’s metaphyfical ftudies, under the title of Eflays
on the Principles of Morality and Natural Religion, in
two parts. Though a fmall volume, it was replete with
ingenuity and acute reafoning, excited general attention,
and gave rife to much controverfy. It contained, in
more explicit terms than perhaps any other work of a
religious theift then known in Scotland, the dodtrine
which has of late made fo much noife under the appel¬
lation of pJulofofi/iical necejfity. The fame thing had in¬
deed been taught by Plobbes, by Collins, and by the
celebrated David Hume, Efq. but as thofe authors either
were profefled infidels, or were fuppofod to be fuch, it
excited, as coming from them, no wonder, and provo¬
ked for a time very little indignation. But when a wri¬
ter, who exhibited no fymptoms of extravagant fcepti-
cifm, who infinuated nothing againft the truth of reve¬
lation in general, and who inculc^ed with earneftnefs
the great duties of morality and natural religion, advan¬
ced at the fame lime fo uncommon a dodlrine as that of
necejjity ; a number of pens were immediately drawn
againft him, and for a while the work and its author
were extremely obnoxious to a great part of the Scot-
tifti nation. On the other hand, there were fome, and
thofe not totally illiterate, who, confounding TteccJJily
with predeflmation, complimented Mr Home on his ma-
fterly defence of the eftablifhed faith : and though be¬
tween thefe two fchemes there is no fort of refemblance,
except that the future happinefs or mifery of all men is,
according to both, certainly foreknown and appointed
by God ; yet we remember, that a profefibr in a diffent-
ing academy fo far miftook the one for the other, that
he recommended to his pupils the EfTays on Morality and
Natural Religion, as containing a complete vindication
of the doftrine of Calvin. For this miftake he was dif-
miffed from his office, and excluded from the commu¬
nion of the fecft to which he belonged. Lord Kames,
like many other great and good men, continued a Ne-
ceiTarian to the day of his death •, but in a fublequent
edition of the Eflays, he exhibited a remarkable proof
of his candour and liberality of fentlment, by altering
the exprefuons, which, contrary to his intention, had
given fuch general offence.
In 1761, he publiffied an Introduction to the Art of
Thinking, in one volume izmo. This fmall but va¬
luable book was originally intended for the inftruc-
tion of his own family. The plan of it is both cufious,
amufing, and highly calculated to catch the atteniion
and to improve the minds of youth. It confifts of
maxims collefted from Rochefoucault and many other
authors. To illuftrate thefe maxims, and to rivet
their fpirit and meaning in the minds of young per Ions,
his lor dihip has added to moft of them beautiful ftories,
fables, and hiftorical anecdotes.
In the department of belles lettres, his Elements of
Criticifm appeared in 1762, in three volumes 8vo.
This valuable work is the firft and a moft fuccefs-
ful attempt to ffiew, that the art of criticifm is found¬
ed on the principles of human nature. Such a plan,
it might be thought, Ihould have produced a dry and
phlegmatic performance. Lord Kames, on the con¬
trary, from the fprightlinefs of his manner of treating
every fubjeft he handled, has rendered the Elements of
Criticifm not only highly inftru61ive, but one of the
xnoft entertaining books in our language. Before this
work
Home.
H O M [ 57
Home- work was publiflied, Rollin’s Belles I.ettros, a dull per-
v ■ ’ formance, from which a ftudent could derive little ad¬
vantage, was univerfally recommended as a ftandard j
but, after the Elements of Criticifm were prefented to
the*public, Rollin inftantly vanitbed, and gave place
to greater genius and greater utility. With regard to
real inftruftion and genuine tafte in compolition of
every kind, a ftudent, a gentleman, or a fcholar, can
in no language find fuch a fertile field of information.
Lord Karnes, accordingly, had the happinefs of feeing
the good effe£ls of his labours, and of enjoying for
twenty years a reputation which he fo juftly merited.
A ftill farther proof of the genius and various pur-
fuits of this aflive mind wTas given in the year I772>
when his lordihip publilhed a work in one volume
8vo, under the title of rJ he Gentleman Farmer, being
an attempt to improve Agriculture by fubjechng it to tne
tejl of rational principles. Our limits do not permit us
to give details •, but, with regard to this book, we
muft inform the public, that all the intelligent farmers
in Scotland uniformly declare, that, after perufing
Young, Dicklon, and a hundred other writers on
agriculture, Lord Karnes’s Gentleman barmer contains
the bed practical and rational information on the va¬
rious articles of hufbandry which can any where be
obtained. As a practical farmer, Lord Kames has
given many obvious proofs of his Ikill. After he fuc-
ceeded, in right of his lady, to the ample eftate of
Blair-Drummond in the county of Perth, he formed a
plan for turning a large mofs, confifting of at leaft
1500 acres, into arable land. His lordihip had the
pleafure, before he died, to fee the plan fucceisfully,
though only partially executed. The fame plan was
afterwards carried on in a much more rapid manner by
his fon George Drummond, Efq. But as this is not a
proper place for details of this nature, we muft refer
the reader to the article Agriculture *, where a par¬
ticular account of this extraordinary, but extenfively
ufeful, operation is given.
In the year 1773, Lord Kames favoured the wmrld
with Sketches of the Hiffory of Man, in 2 vols 4to.
This work confifts of a great variety of fails and ob-
fervations concerning the nature of man •, the produce
of much and profitable reading. In the courfe of his
ftudies and reafonings, he had amafled a vaft colleilion
of materials. Thefe, when confiderably advanced in
years, he digefted under proper heads, and fubmitted
them to the confideration of the public. He intended
that this book ftiould be equally intelligible to women
as to men ; and, to accomplilh this end, when he had
occafion to quote ancient or foreign books, he uniform¬
ly tranflated the paflages. The Sketches contain much
ufeful information } and, like all his lordlhip’s other
performances, are lively and entertaining.
We now come to Lord Karnes’s laft wmrk, to which
9 ] H O M
he modeftly gives the title of Loofe Hints upon Educa¬
tion, chiefly concerning the culture of the heart. It was
publifiied in the year 1781, in one vol. 8vo, when the
venerable and aftonilhing author was in the 85th year
of his age. Though his lordftiip chofe to caU them
Loofe Hints, the intelligent reader will perceive in this
compofition an uncommon activity of mind at an age
fo far advanced beyond the ufual period of human lite,
and an earneft defire to form the minds of youth to
honour, to virtue, to induftry, and to a veneration of
the Deity.
Belides the books w?e have enumerated, Lord Kames
publiftied many temporary and fugitive pieces in diffe¬
rent periodical works. In the Eflays Phyflcal and
Literary, publiftied by a fociety of gentlemen in Edin¬
burgh, we find compofitions of his lordihip On the
Laws of Motion, On the Advantages of Shallow Plough¬
ing, and on Evaporation ; all of which exhibit evident
marks of genius and originality of thinking.
How a man employed through life in public bufinefs,
and in bufinefs of the full importance, could find leifure
for fo many different purfuits, and excel in them (a),
it is not eafy for a meaner mind to form even a concep¬
tion. Much, no doubt, is to be attributed to the fupe-
riority of his genius •, but much muft likewife have been
the refult of a proper diftribution of his time. He rofe
early •, when in the vigour of life at four o’clock, in
old age at fix ; and ftudied all morning. When the
court w'as fitting, the duties of his office employed him
from eight or nine till twelve or one $ after which, it
the weather permitted, he walked for two hours with
lome literary friends, and then went home to dinner,
Whilft he was on the bench, and wre believe when he
was at the bar, he neither gave nor accepted invitations
to dinner during the term or fefflon ; and if any friend
came uninvited to dinner with him, his lordfhip difplay-
ed his ufual cheerfulnefs and hofpitality, but always re¬
tired with his clerk as foon as he had drunk a very few
glafles of wine, leaving his company to be entertained
by his lady. The afternoon was fpent as the morning
had been, in ftudy. In the evening he w'ent to the
theatre or the concert, from which he returned to the
fociety of fome men of learning, with whom he fat late,
and difplayed fuch talents for converfation as are not
often found. It is obferved by a late celebrated author,
that “ to read, write, and converfe, in due proportions^
is the bufinefs of a man of letters •, and that he who
hopes to look back hereafter with fatisfadlion upon
paft years, muft learn to know the value of fingle mi¬
nutes, and endeavour to let no particle of time fall ufe-
lefs to the ground.” It wras by pra&ifing thefe leffons
that Lord Kames rofe to literary eminence, in oppofi-
tion to all the obftacles which the tumult of public bu¬
finefs could place in his way.
To give a proper delineation of the public and pri-
4 D 2 vate
Home.
(a) Upon reflefting on the ftudioufnefs of Lord Karnes’s difpofition, and his numerous literary produftions,
the reader wall naturally recal to his mind a ftriking fimilarity between his lordthip and the laborious Pliny the
Elder. In a letter from Pliny the Younger to Macer, the following paflage occurs, wdiich is equally ap
plicable to both : Nonne videtur tibi, recordanti quantum legent, quantum feripferit, nec in ojficiis ulhs, nec in ami-
citia principum fuijfe ? which is thus tranfiated by Melmoth : “ When you reflect on the books he has read
and the volumes he has written, are you not inclined to fufpe£l, that he never was engaged in the affairs of the
public, or the fervice of his prince ?”
Home.
H O M [ 580 ] H O M
vate character of Lord Kames, would far exceed our
limits. The writer c.f this article, however, who had
the honour of an intimaite acquaintance with this great
and good man for more than twenty years, muft be in¬
dulged in adding a few fafts which fell under his own
obfervation.
Lord Kames was remarkable for public fpirit, to
which he conjoined aftivity and great exertion. He
for a long trad of time had the principal management
of all the focieties and boards for promoting the trade,
filheries, and manufactures,,, in Scotland. As condu¬
cive to thofe ends, he was a ftrenuous advocate for
making and repairing turnpike roads through .every
part of the country. He had likewife a chief lead in
the diftribution and application of the funds ariliwg
from the eftates in Scotland which had unfortunately
been annexed to the crown. He was no lefs zealous
in fupporting, both with his writings and perfonal in¬
fluence, literary aflbciations. He was in fome mea-
fure the parent of what was called the Phyfical and Li¬
terary Society. This fociety was afterwards incorpo¬
rated into the Royal Society of Edinburgh, which re¬
ceived a charter from the crown, and which is daily
producing marks of genius, as well as works of real
utility.
As a private and domeftic gentleman, Lord Kames
was admired by both fexes. The vivacity of his wit,
and of his animal fpirits, even when advanced in years,
rendered his company not only agreeable, but greatly
folicited by the literati, and courted by ladies of the
higheft rank and accomplifhments. He told very few
ftories ; and rarely, if ever, repeated the fame ftory to
the fame perfon. From the neceflity of retailing anec¬
dotes, the miferable refuge of tbofe who, without ge¬
nius, attempt to (hine in converfation, the abundance
of his own mind fet him free j for his wit or his learn¬
ing always fuggefted what the occafion required. He
could with equal eafe and readinefs combat the opinions
of a metaphyfician, unravel the intricacies of law, talk
with a farmer on improvements in agriculture, or efti-
mate with a lady the merits of the drefs in falhion. In-
ftead of being jealous of rivals, the chara£teriftic of little
minds, Lord Kames fufifered and encouraged every
lymptom of merit that he could difcover in the feholar,
or in the loweft mechanic. Before he fucceeded to the
eftate of Blair-Drummond, his fortune was fmall. Not-
withftanding this circumftance, he, in conjunction with
Mrs Drummond, his refpeftable and accomplilhed
fpoufe, did much more fervice to the indigent than
molt families of greater opulence. If the prefent ne-
ceffity was prefling, they gave money. They did more:
When they difcovered that male or female petitioners
were capable of performing any art or labour, both
parties exerted themfelves in procuring that fpecies of
work which the poor people could perform. In cafes
of this kind, which were very frequent, the lady took
charge of the women and his lordfliip of the men.
From what has been faid concerning the various and
numerous productions of his genius, it is obvious that
there could be few idle moments in his long protraCl-
ed life. His mind was inceflantly employed j either
teeming with new ideas, or puduing aCtive and labo¬
rious occupations. At the lame time, with all this
intellectual ardour, one great feature in the character
of Lord Kames, beflde his literary talents and his
public fpirit, was a remarkable innocency of mind.
He not only never indulged in detraction, but when
any fpecies of fcandal was exhibited in his company,
he either remained filent, or endeavoured to give a dif¬
ferent turn to the converfation. As natural confe-
quences of this amiable difpofition, he never meddled
with politics, even when parties ran to indecent lengths
in this country 5 and what is Itill more remarkable, he
never wrote a fentence, notwithflanding his numerous
publications, without a direCt and a manifeft intention
to benefit his fellow creatures. In his temper he was
naturally warm, though kind and affeCtionate. In
the friendlhips he formed, he was ardent, zealous, and
fincere. So far from being inclined to irreligion, as
fome ignorant bigots infinuated, few men poffefled a
more devout habit of thought. A conftant fenfe of
Deity, and a veneration for Providence, dwelt upon
his mind. From this fource arofe that propenfity
which appears in all his writings, of invefligating final
caufes, and tracing the wifdom of the Supreme Author
of nature. But here we muft flop. Lord Kames, to the
great regret of the public, died on the 27th day of
December 1782. As he had no marked difeafe but
the debility neceflarily refulting from extreme old acre,
a few days before his death he went to the Court of
Seflion, addreffed all the judges feparately, told them
he w^as fpeedily to depart, and took a folemn and an
affeCfionate farewell.
HOMER, the prince of the Greek poets, flourifti-
ed, according to Dr Blair, about 900 B. C. accord¬
ing to Dr Prieftley 850, according to the Arundelian
marbles 300, after the taking of Troy , and agreeable
to them all, above 400 years before Plato and Ariftotle.
Seven cities difputed the glory of having given him
birth, viz. Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis, Chios,
Argos, and Athens $ which has been exprefled by the
following diftich :
Smyrna, Rhodes, Colophon, Salamis, Chios, Argos, Athence;
Orbis de patria cert at, Homer e, tua.
We have nothing that is very certain in relation to the
particulars of his life. The moft regular account is
that which goes under the name of Herodotus, and is
ufually printed with his hiftory : and though it is ge¬
nerally fuppofed to be a fpurious piece, yet as it is an¬
cient, was made ufe of by Strabo, and exhibits that
idea which the later Greeks, and the Romans in the
age of Auguftus, entertained of Homer, we muft con¬
tent ourfelves with giving an abftratft of it.
A man of Magnefia, whofe name was Menalippus,
went to fettle at Cumae, where he married the daugh¬
ter of a citizen called Homyres, and had by her a
daughter called Critheis. The father and mother dy¬
ing, the young woman was left under the tuition of
Cleonax her father’s friend, and fuft'ering herfelf to be
deluded, was got with child. The guardian, though
his care had not prevented the misfortune, was how¬
ever willing to conceal it; and therefore fent Critheis
to Smyrna, which was then building, 18 years after
the founding of Cumae, and about 168 after the taking
of Troy. Critheis being near her time, went one day
to a fellival which the town of Smyrna was celebra¬
ting on the banks of the river Meles ; where her pains
coming upon her, fhe wras delivered of Homer, whom
fhe called Mclefgenes, becaufe he was born on the
banks
Homer.
H O M t 581 ] H a M
Homer, banks of that river. Having nothing to maintain her,
—-v-— was forced to fpin, and a man of Smyrna called
Phemius, who taught literature and mufic, having of¬
ten feen Critheis, who lodged near him, and being plea-
fed with her houfewifery, took her into his houfe to
fpin the wool he received from his fcholars for their
fchooling. Here (he behaved herfelf fo modeftly and
difcreetly, that Phemius married her j and adopted her
fon, in whom he difcovered a wonderful genius, and
the bed natural difpofition in the world. After the
death of Phemius and Critheis, Homer fucceeded to
his father-in-law’s fortune and fchool; and was admi¬
red, not only by the inhabitants of Smyrna, but by
ftrangers, who reforted from all parts to that place of
trade. A Ihipmafter called Mentes, who was a man
of learning and a lover of poetry, was fo taken with
Homer, that he perfuaded him to leave his fchool, and
to travel with him. Homer, who had then begun his
poem of the Iliad, and thought it of great confequence
to fee the places he Ihould have occafxon to treat of,
embraced the opportunity. He embarked with Mentes,
and during their feveral voyages never failed carefully
to note down all that he thought worth obferving. He
travelled into Egypt; from whence he brought into
Greece the names of their gods, the chief ceremonies
of their worlhip, and a more improved knowledge in
the arts than what prevailed in his own country. He
viGted Africa and Spain •, in his return from whence
he touched at Ithaca, where he was much troubled
with a rheum falling upon his eyes. Mentes being in
halle to take a turn to Leucadia his native country,
left Homer well recommended to Mentor, one of the
chief men of the illand of Ithaca, who took all poffi-
ble care of him. There Homer was informed of many
things relating to Ulyffes, which he aftenvards made
ufe of in compofing his Odyffey. Mentes returning to
Ithaca, found Homer cured. They embarked toge¬
ther ; and after much time fpent in vifrting the coafts
of Peloponnefus and the iilands, they arrived at Colo¬
phon, where Homer was again troubled with the de¬
fluxion upon his eyes, which proved fo violent, that he
is faid to have loft his fight. This misfortune made
him refolve to return to Smyrna, where he finifhed his
Iliad. Some time after, the ill pofture of his affairs
obliged him to go to Cumae, where he hoped to have
found fome relief. Here his poems were highly ap¬
plauded : but when he propofed to immortalize their
town, if they would allow him a falary, he was an-
fwered, that “ there would be no end of maintaining
all the 'Op^oi or “ blind men and hence got the
name of Homer. He afterwards wandered through feve¬
ral places, and flopped at Chios, where he married,
and compofed his Odyffey. Some time after, having
added many verfes to his poems in praife of the cities
of Greece, efpecially of Athens and Argos, he went to
Samos, where he fpent the winter, fmging at the houfes
of the great men, with a train of boys after him. From
Samos he went to lo, one of the Sporades, with a de-
fign to continue his voyage to Athens •, but landing
by the way at Chios, he fell fick, died, and was buried
on the fea (bore. -
The only inconteftable works wdiich Homer has left
behind him are the Iliad and Odyffey. The Batracho-
myomachia, or battle of the frogs and mice, has been
difputed. The hymns have been difputed alfo, and at¬
tributed by the fcholiafts to Cynsethus the rhapfodift : _ Homer,
but neither Thucydides, Lucian, nor Paufanias, have
fcrupled to cite them as genuine. Many other pieces
are afcribed to him : epigrams, the Eartiges, the Ce-
cropes, the deftruftion of Oechalia, of which only the
names are remaining.
Nothing wras ever comparable to the clearnefs and
majefty of Homer’s ftyle; to the fublimity of his^
thoughts ; to the ftrength and fweetnefs of his verfes.
All his images are ftriking •, his defcriptions juft and
exa£t ; the paflions fo well expreffed, and nature fo juftly
and finely painted, that he gives to every thing motion,
life, and a<ftion. But he more particularly excels in
invention, and in the different charafters of his heroes,
wdnch are fo varied, that they affe£! us in an inexpref-
fible manner. In a word, the more he is read by a
perfon of good tafte, the more he is admired. Nor
are his works t© be efteemed merely as entertaining
poems, or as the monuments of a fublime and varied
genius. He was in general fo accurate with refpeft to
coftume, that he feldom mentioned perfons or things
that we may not conclude to have been known during
the times of which he writes j and it was Mr Pope’s
opinion, that his account of people, princes, and coun¬
tries, was purely hiftorical, founded on the real tranf-
adfions of thofe times, and by far the moft valuable
piece of hiftory and geography left us concerning the
ftate of Greece in that early period. His geographi¬
cal divifions of that country were thought fo exatt, that
■we are told of many controverfies concerning the boun¬
daries of Grecian cities which have been decided upon-
the authority of his poems.
Alcibiades gave a rhetorician a box on the ear for'
not having Homer’s writings in his fchool. Alexander
was ravifhed with them, and commonly placed them
under his pillow writh his fword : he inclofed the Iliad
in the precious cafket that belonged to Darius *, “ in
order (faid he to his courtiers) that the molt perfect
production of the human mind might be inclofed in the
moft valuable cafket in the world.” And one day fee¬
ing the tomb of Achilles in Sigaea, “ Fortunate hero !
(cried he), thou haft had a Homer to fing thy victo¬
ries !” Lycurgus, Solon, and the kings and princes of
Greece, fet fuch a value on Homer’s works, that they
took the utmoft pains in procuring correCt editions of
them, the moft efteemed of which is that of Ariftarchus.
Didymus was the firft wko wrote notes on Homer j
and Euftathius, archbifhop of Theffalonica, in the 1 2th
century, is the moft celebrated of his commentators.
Mr Pope has given an elegant tranflation of the Iliad,-
adorned wdth the harmony of poetic numbers 5 and
Mad. Dacier has tranfiated both the Iliad and Odyffey-
in profe.
Thofe who defire to know the feveral editions ofi
Homer, and the writers who have employed themfelves-
on the works of that great poet, may confult Fabricius,
in the firft volume of his Bibliotheca Greeca.
A very fingular difcovery, however, which vyas made-
a few years ago in Ruflia, deferves to be here mention¬
ed, together with the circumftances that attended it.
Chriftian Frederic Matthaei, who had been educated by
the learned Ernefti, and did credit to the inftruCtions*
of that celebrated mafter by the great erudition that he
difplayed, being invited to fettle at Mofcow, and to afi-
fift in a plan of literature for which his abilities and ac-
quifitions ■
H O M [ 5B2 ] H O M
Homer, quifniotts eminently qualified him j on his arrival at that
“~v city was informed, equally to his aftonifhment and fa-
tisfaPiion, that a very copious treafure of Greek manu-
fcripts was depolited in the library of the Holy Synod,
■which no perfon in that country had either the abilities
to make ufe of, or the curiofity to examine. Struck
with the relation of a circumifance fo unexpefted, and
at the fame time fo peculiarly agreeable to his claffical
tafte, he immediately feized the opportunity that was
fortunately offered him, to explore this repofitory of
hidden treafure. After having examined feveral curi¬
ous books, he difcovered a manufcript copy of the
works of Homer, written about the conclulion of the
14th century, but evidently a tranfcript from a very an¬
cient and moll valuable copy, which, befides the Iliad
and the Odyffey, contains alfo 16 of the hymns, wdiich
have been long publiihed under the name of Homer.
Nor was this all. Twelve lines of a loft hymn to Bac¬
chus, and the hymn to Ceres, which w^as alfo loft, were
preferved in this curious and long unnoticed manufcript.
The hymn to Ceres appears to be entire, excepting a
few lines towards the clofe : and it is furely remarkable,
that a Greek poem, attributed to Homer, which had
been loft for ages, fhould be at length difcovered in
Mufcovy, the rudeft and moft unclaflical country in
Europe. M. Matthsei, exulting in an acquifition fo
unexpedfed, and at the fame time fo valuable, commu¬
nicated it, with lingular difintereftednefs, to his learned
friend M. Ruhnkenius, with whofe talents and extra¬
ordinary4 erudition he was well acquainted, that this
gentleman might prefent it to the wTorld without thofe
delays wdiich w ould probably have retarded the publica¬
tion of it at Mofcow. He w'as rather induced to em¬
ploy M. Ruhnkenius in the publication of this curious
and beautiful remnant of antiquity, becaufe he knew
that this gentleman had been particularly engaged in
the ftudy of the hymns of Homer, in order to give the
public a complete edition of them. The hymn to Ce¬
res, and the fragment of the hymn to Bacchus, were
printed in 1780 at Leyden, under the care of M. Ruhn¬
kenius, who has added fome very valuable notes and
obfervations on the hymn to Ceres, which tend to illu-
ftrate its beauties, and to throw7 a light on fome of its
obfcurities. The learned editor obferves, that nothing
w7as more diftant from his expectations than the difco-
very of this hymn to Ceres. He knew indeed that a
poem bearing that title, and afcribed to Homer, exifted
in the fecond century •, but as it had long been confi-
dered as irretrievably loft, he had formed no hopes of
ever feeing it refcued from the obfcurity to wTich it had
been configned. He acknowledges, that he has many
doubts with refpect to the high and illuftrious origin af¬
cribed to this hymn : but as no pofitive external evi¬
dence can be produced to determine the point, he
choofes to reft his argument on what appears to him the
more certain ground of internal proof; and obferves,
that though the poem be exquifitely beautiful, yet that
it is evidently deficient in fome of Homer’s more ftrik-
ing and predominant charafteriftics. It wants his ener¬
gy and fpirit j that vigour, that infpiration, w’hich ani¬
mate and give an irrefiftible power, as well as an en¬
chanting beaufy, to the poems of that fublime and ini¬
mitable bard. This opinion, as we have already feen,
hath been given by other critics of all the hymns of
Homer. But though M. Ruhnkenius is not inclined
to attribute to Homer the hymn to Ceres, he yet ac¬
knowledges, that the ftrufture of its language is found-,
ed on the model of that great poet, and he hefitates not
to give it the honour of very high antiquity. He is' of
opinion, that it was wwitten immediately after Homer,
or at leaft in the age of Hefiod \ and he congratulates
the age on the difcovery of fo curious a poem, refcued
by mere accident from the darkeft retreats of oblivion,
and perhaps but at a flight diftance from inevitable per¬
dition. He deems it to be an acquifition, not only cal¬
culated to gratify the curiofity of the connoiffeurs in
claffic antiquity, or to entertain thofe lovers of Greek
poetry whofe ftudies are made fubfervient to a refined
and elegant fpecies of amufement, but he alfo efteems it
to be of particular ule to the critic, as it tends to illuf-
trate fome obfcure paffages both in the Greek and La¬
tin poets.
Homer, Omer, or Chomer, a Jewdfh meafure, con¬
taining the tenth part of the epha. See Corus and
Measure.
HOMESOKEN. See Hamesecken.
HOMICIDE, fignifies in general the taking away
of any perfon’s life. It is of three kinds } jujiijiable,
excufable, and felonious. The firft has no lhare of
guilt at all; the fecond very little •, but the third is the
higheft crime againft the law of nature that man is ca¬
pable of committing.
I. Juftifiable homicide is of divers kinds.
1. Such as is owing to fome unavoidable necej/tm,
without any wall, intention, or delire, and without any
inadvertence or negligence, in the party killing, and
therefore wnthout any fhadow of blame j as, for in-
ftance, by virtue of fuch an office as obliges one, in the
execution of public juftiee, to put a malefaftor to death,
who hath forfeited his life by the laws and verdift of
his country. This is an aft of necefiity, and even of
civil duty j and therefore not only juftifiable but com¬
mendable, where the law requires it. But the law muft
require it, otherwife it is not juftifiabie : therefore wan¬
tonly to kill the greateft of malefaftors, a felon, or a
traitor, attainted or outlawed, deliberately, uncompel¬
led, and extrajudicially, is murder. And farther, if
judgment of death be given by a judge not authorifed
by lawful commiflion, and execution is done according¬
ly, the judge is guilty of murder. Alfo fuch judg¬
ment, when legal, muft be executed by the proper of¬
ficer, or his appointed deputy ; for no one elfe is re¬
quired by law7 to do it, which requifition it is that jufti-
fies the homicide. If another perfon doth it of his own.
head, it is held to be murder : even though it be the
judge himfelf. It muft farther be executed, fervato
juris ordine; it muft purfue the fentence of the court.
If an officer beheads one who is adjudged to be hang¬
ed, or vice verfa, it is murder : for he is merely mini-
fterial, and therefore only juftified when he afts under
the authority and compulfion of the law. But if a ffie-
riff changes one kind of punifhment for another, he then
afts by his own authority, wffiich extends not to the
commiffion of homicide ; and befides, this licence might
occafion a very grofs abufe of his power. The king in¬
deed may remit part of a fentence, as in the cafe of trea-
fon, all but the beheading : hut this is no change, no
introduftion of a new puniChment : and in the cafe oj
felony,
Hom^r
It .
Homicide.
a
H O M l 1 H O M
Homicide, felony, where the judgment is to be hanged, the king
  v 1 (it hath been faid) cannot legally order even a peer to
be beheaded.
Again : In fome cafes homicide is juflifiable, rather
by the permijjion, than by the abfolute command, of the
law : either for the advancement of public jujlice, which
without fuch indemnification would never be carried
on with proper vigour ; or, in fuch inidances where it
is committed for the prevention of fome atrocious crime,
which cannot otherwife be avoided.
2. Homicides, committed for the advancement of
•public are, I. Where an officer, in the execu¬
tion of his office, either in a civil or criminal cafe, kills
a perfon that affaults and refifts him. 2. If an officer,
or any private perfon, attempts to take a man charged
with felony, and is refilled •, and, in the endeavour to
take him, kills him. 3. In cafe of a riot, or rebellious
alTembly, the officers endeavouring to difperfe the mob
are juftifiable in killing them, both at common law, and
by the riot a£l, 1 Geo. I. c. 5. 4. Where the prifon-
ers in a gaol, or going to gaol, aifault the gaoler or
officer, and he in his defence kills any of them, it is
juftifiable, for the fake of preventing an efcape. 5. If
trefpaflers in forefts, parks, chafes, or warrens, will not
furrender themfelves to the keepers, they may be (lain *,
by virtue of the ftatute 21 Edward I. ftat. 2. de male-
faclonbus in parcis, and 3 and 4 W. and M. c. 10.
But, in all thefe cafes, there muft be an apparent ne-
ceffity on the officer’s fide ; viz. that the party could
not be arrefted or apprehended, the riot could not be
fupprefled, the prifoners could not be kept in hold, the
deer-ftealers could not but efcape, unlefs fuch homicide
were committed : otherwife, without fuch abfolute ne-
ceffity, it is not juftifiable. 6. If the champions in a
trial by battle killed either of them the other, fuch ho¬
micide was juftifiable, and was imputed to the juft judg¬
ment of God, who was thereby prefumed to have de¬
cided in favour of the truth.
3. In the next place, fuch homicide as is committed
for the prevention of any forcible and atrocious crime, is
juftifiable by the latv of nature ; a’ad alfo by the law of
England, as it ftood fo early as the time of Bracton,
and as it is fince declared by ftat. 24 Hen. VIII c.
If any perfon attempts a robbery or murder of another,
or attempts to break open a houfe in the night-time
(which extends alfo to an attempt to burn it), and (hall
be killed in fuch attempt, the flayer ftiall be acquitted
and difeharged. This reaches not to any crime unac¬
companied with force, as picking of p>ockets ; or to the
breaking open of any houfe in the dir■ time, unlefs it
carries with it an attempt of robbery alio. So the Jew-
ifh law, which puniffied no theft with death, makes ho¬
micide only juftifiable in cafe of noBurnal houfe-break-
Exod. xjrii, ing : “if a thief be found breaking up, and he be
fmitten that he die, no blood ftiall be fired for him :
but if the fun be riftn upon him, there fhall blood be
fhed for him •, for he fhould have made full reftitution.”
At Athens, if any theft was committed by night, it
was lawful to kill the criminal, if taken in the faft :
and, by the Roman law of the twelve tables, a thief
might be killed by night with impunity j or even by
day, if he armed himfelf with any dangerous weapon :
which amounts very nearly to the fame as is permitted
by our own conftitutiom.
The Roman law alfo juftifies homicide, when com¬
mitted in defence of the chaftity either of one’s felf or Homicide,
relations r and fo alfo, according to Selden, ftood the y~—
law in the Jewifh republic. The Engliftv law likewife
juftifies a woman killing one who attempts to ravifh
her : and fo too the hufband or father may juftify kill¬
ing a man, who attempts a rape upon his wife or
daughter ; but not if he takes them in adulteiy by
confent •, for the one is forcible and felonious, but not
the other. And there is no doubt but the forcibly at¬
tempting a crime, of a ftill more deteftable nature,
may be equally refifted by the death of the unnatural
aggreffor. For the one uniform principle that runs
through our own, and all other laws, feems to be
this : That where a crime, in itfelf capital, is endea¬
voured to be committed by force, it is lawful to repel
that force by the death of the party attempting. But,
wTe muft not carry this dodlrkie to the fame vifionary
length that Mr Locke does; who holds, “ that all
manner of force without right upon a man’s perfon,
puts him in a ftatc of war with the aggreflbr ; and, of
confequence, that, being in fuch a ftate of war, he
may lawfully kill him that puts him under this unnatu¬
ral reftraint.” However juft this conclufion may be
in a ftate of uncivilized nature, yet the lawr of Eng¬
land, like that of every other well-regulated communi¬
ty, is too tender of the public peace, too careful of the
lives of the fubjefls, to adopt fo contentious a fyftem ;
nor will fuffer with impunity any crime to be prevented
by death, unlefs the fame, if committed, would alfo be
punijhed by death.
In thefe inftances of jujlifiable homicide, it may be
obferved, that the flayer is in no kind of fault whatfo-
ever, not even in the minuteft degree \ and is there¬
fore to be totally acquitted and difeharged, with com¬
mendation rather than blame. But that is not quite
the cafe in excufable homicide, the very name whereof
imports fome fault, fome error, or omiffion 3 fo trivial,.
however, that the law excufes it from the guilt of felo¬
ny, though in ftridlnefs it judges it deferving of fome
little degree of puniffiment.
II. Excufable homicide is of two forts 3 either per
infortunium, by mifadventure 3 or fe defendendo, upon
a principle of felf-prefervation. We will firit fee where¬
in thefe two fpecies of homicide are diftinct, and then
wherein they agree.
1. Homicide per infortunium, or mifadventure, is
where a man, doing a lawful aft, without any inten¬
tion of hurt, unfortunately kills another 3 as where a
man is at work with a hatchet, and the bead thereof
flies oft' and kills a ftander-by 3 or where a perfon, qua¬
lified to keep a gun, is ffiooting at a mark, and unde-
fignedly kills a man : for the aft is lawful, and the ef-
feft is merely accidental. So where a parent is mode¬
rately correfting his child, a mailer his apprentice or
fcholar, or an officer puniftiing a criminal, and happens
to occafion his death, it is only mifadventure 3 for the
aft of correftion was lawful: but if he exceeds the
bounds of moderation, either in the manner, the inftru-
ment, or the quantity of punilhment, and death enfues,.
it is manflaughter at leall, and in fome cafes (accord¬
ing to the circumftances) murder 3 for the aft of immo¬
derate correftion is unlawful. Thus by an edift of the
emperor Conftantine, when the rigour of the Roman
law with regard to flaves began to relax and foften, a
mailer was allowed to chaftife his Have with rods and
imprifonment,,
H O M [ 584 ] H 0 M
tlomicide. imprifonment, and if death accidentally enfued, he was
y-— guilty of no crime ; but if he (truck him with a club or
a (tone, and thereby occafioned his death, or if in any
other yet groffer manner immoderate fuo jure utatur,
tunc reus homicidiiJit.
But to proceed. A tilt or tournament, the martial
divcrlioir of our anceftors, was however an unlawful
adt 5 and fo are boxing and fword-playing, the fucceed-
ing amufement of their pofterity : and therefore, if a
knight in the former cafe, or a gladiator in the latter,
be killed, fuch killing is felony of manflaughter. ^ But
if the king command or permit fuch diverlion, it is faid
to be only mifadventure 5 for then the aft is lawful :
.In like manner as, by the laws both of Athens and
Rome, he who killed another in the pancratium, or
public games, authorifed or permitted by the (late, was
not held to be guilty of homicide. Likewkc to whip
-another’s horfe, whereby he runs over a child and kills
him, is held to be accidental in the rider, for he has
done nothing unlawful *, but manflaughter in the perfon
who wfliipped him, for the aft was a trefpafs, and at
bed a piece of idlenefs, of inevitably dangerous confe-
fjuence. And in general, if death enfues in coniequence
of an idle, dangerous, and unlawful fport, as (hooting
or catling (tones in a town, or the barbarous diverfion
of cock-throwing \ in thefe and fimilar cafes, the flayer
is guilty of manflaughter, and not mifadventure only \
for thefe are unlawful afts.
2. Homicide in felf-defence, or fe defendendo, upon a
fudden affray, is alfo excufable rather than jultifiable,
by the Englifli law. This fpecies of felf-defence muft
be diftinguirtied from that juft now mentioned, as cal¬
culated to hinder the perpetration of a capital crime ;
which is not only a matter of excufe, but of juftification.
Bui the felf-defence which we are now fpeaking of, is
that w'hereby a man may proteft himfelf from an af-
fault, or the like, in the courfe of a fudden brawl or
quarrel, by killing him who affaults him. And this
is what the law' expreffes by the word chance-medley, or
(as fome rather choofe to write it) chaud-medley ; the
former of which in its etymology fignifies a cafual af¬
fray, the latter an affray in the heat of blood or paf-
(ion : both of them of pretty much the fame import j
but the former is in common fpeech too often erro-
neoufly applied to any manner of homicide by mifadven¬
ture ; w'hereas it appears by the ftatute 24 Hen. VIII.
c. 5. and our ancient books, that it is properly applied
to fuch killing as happens in felf-defence upon a fudden
rencounter. The right of natural defence does not im¬
ply a right of attacking : for, inftead of attacking one
another for injuries part or impending, men. need only
have recourfe to the proper tribunals of juftice. They
cannot therefore legally exercife this right of preventive
defence, but in fudden and violent cafes ; when certain
and immediate fuffering would be the confequence of
waiting for the afliftance of the law. Wherefore, to
excufe homicide by the plea of felf-defence, it muft ap¬
pear that the flayer had no other pofiible means of ef-
caping from his affailant.
In fume cafes this fpecies of homicide (upon chance-
medley in felf-defence) differs but little from manflaugh¬
ter, which alfo happens frequently upon chance-medley
in the proper legal fenfe of the word. But the true
criterion between them feems to be this •, when both
parties are aftually combating at the time when the
J
mortal ftroke is given, the flayer is then guilty of man- Horn
(laughter j but if the flayer hath not begun to fight, 1
or (having begun) endeavours to decline any farther
ftruggle, and afterwards, being clofely preffed by his
antagonift, kills him to avoid his own deftruftion, this
is homicide excufable by felf-defence. For which rea-
fon the law requires, that the perfon, who kills another
in his own defence, (hould have retreated as far as he
conveniently or fafely can, to avoid the violence of the
aifault, before he turns upon his affailant 5 and that
not fiftitioufly, or in order to watch his opportunity,
but from a real tendernefs of (bedding his brother’s
blood. And though it may be cowardice in time of
war between twro independent nations, to flee from an
enemy \ yet between two fellow fubjefts, the law coun¬
tenances no fuch point of honour : becauie the king
and his courts are the ^indices injuriarum, and will
give to the party wronged all the fatisfaftion he de-
ferves. In this the civil law alfo agrees with ours, or
perhaps goes rather farther •, “ qui cum aider lueri fe
non pojfunt, damni cu/pam dederint, innoxiifuntThe
party affaulted muft therefore flee as far as he conve¬
niently can, either by reafon of fome wall, ditch, or
other 'impediment; or as far as the fiercenefs of the
a (fault will permit him ; for it may be fo fierce as not
to permit him to yield a ftep, without manifeft danger
of his life, or enormous bodily harm •, and then in his
defence he may kill his affaiiant inftantly. And this is
the doftrine of univerfal juftice, as well as of the muni¬
cipal law.
And, as the manner of the defence, fo is alfo the
time to be confidered : for if the perfon affaulted does
not fall upon the aggreffor till the affray is over, or
when he is running away, this is revenge, and not de¬
fence. Neither, under the colour of felf-defence, will
the law permit a man to fereen himfelf from the guilt
of deliberate murder : for if two perfons, A and B,
agree to fight a duel, and A gives the firrt onfet, and
B retreats as far as he fafely can, and then kills A,
this is murder } becaufe of the previous malice and
concerted defign. But if A upon a fudden quarrel af¬
faults B firft, and, upon B’s returning the affault, A
really and bona fde flies; and, being driven to the
wall, turns again upon B and kills him •, _ this may be
fe defendendo, according to fome of our writers j though
others have thought this opinion too favourable : inaf-
much as the neceflity, to which he is at laft reduced,
originally arofe from his own fault. Under this ex¬
cufe of felf-defence, the principal civil and natural re¬
lations are comprehended : therefore, mafter and fer-
vant, parent and child, hufband and wife, killing an
affailant in the neceffary defence of each, other re-
fpeftively, are excufed j the aft of the relation aflifting
being conftrued the fame as the aft of the party him¬
felf.
There is one fpecies of homicide fe defendendo, where
the party (lain is equally innocent as he v’ho occafions
his death : and yet this homicide is alfo excufable from
the great univerfal principle of felf-prefervation, w’hich
prompts every man to fave his own life preferable to
that of another, where one of them muft inevitably pe-
rifli. As, among others, in that cafe mentioned by
Lord Bacon, where two perfons, being (lii.pwrecked,
and getting on the fame plank, but finding it not able
to fave them both, one of them thrufts the other from
it.
H O M [ 585 ] H O M
Homicide, it, whereby he is drowned. He who thus preferves his
Y——" own life at the expence of another man’s; is excufable
through unavoidable neceflity, and the principle of felf-
defence ; fince their both remaining on the fame weak
plank is a mutual though innocent attempt upon, and
an endangering of, each other’s life.
Let us next take a view of thofe circumftances
wherein thefe two fpecies of homicide, by mifadventure
and felf-defence, agree ; and thefe are in their blame
and punithment. For the law fets fo high a value up¬
on the life of a man, that it always intends fome milbe-
haviour in the perfon who takes it away, unlefs by the
command or exprefs permiffion of the law. In the cafe
of mifadventure, it prefumes negligence, or at lead a
want of fufficicnt caution, in him who was fo unfortunate
as to commit it; who therefore is not altogether fault-
lefs. And as to the neceflity which excufes a man who
kills another fe defendendo, Lord Bacon intitles it ne-
cejfitas culpabilis, and thereby diftinguilhes it from the
former neceffity of killing a thief or a malefactor. For
the law intends that the quarrel or affault arofe from
fome unknown wrong, or fome provocation, either in
word or deed: and lince in quarrels both parties may
be, and ufually are, in fome fault ; and as it fcarce can
be tried who wTas originally in the wrong ; the law will
not hold the furvivor entirely guiltlefs. But it is clear,
in the other cafe, that where I kill a thief who breaks
into my houfe, the original default can never be upon
my fide. The law befides may have a farther view, to
make the crime of homicide more odious, and to cau¬
tion men how they venture to kill another upon their
own private judgment, by ordaining, that he who
“flays his neighbour, without an exprefs warrant from
the law fo to do, lhall in no cafe be abfolutely free
from guilt.
Nor is the law of England Angular in this refpeft.
Even the {laughter of enemies required a folemn pur¬
gation among the Jews ; w'hich implies, that the death
of a man, however it happens, will leave fome ftain
behind it. And the Mofaical law appointed certain
cities of refuge for him “ who killed his neighbour un¬
awares; as if a man goeth into the wood with his
neighbour to hew wood, and his hand fetcheth a ftroke
with the ax to cut down a tree, and the head flippeth
from the helve, and lighteth upon his neighbour that
he die, he (hall flee into one of thofe cities and live.”
But it feems he was not held wholly blamelefs, any
more than in the Englifh law; fince the avenger of
blood might flay him before he reached his afylum, or
if he afterwards ftirred out of it till the death of the
high prielt. In the imperial law likewife cafual homi¬
cide was excufed, by the indulgence of the emperor
figned writh his own fign manual, adnotatione pnnci-
pis; otherwife, the death of a man, however commit¬
ted, was in ibme degree punifhable. Among the
Greeks, homicide by misfortune was expiated by vo¬
luntary banifhment for a year. In Saxony, a fine is
paid to the kindred of the {lain ; which alfo, among the
weftern Goths, was little inferior to that of voluntary
homicide : and in France, no perfon is ever abfolved in
cafes of this nature, without a largefs to the poor, and
the charge of certain maffes for the foul of the party
killed.
The penalty infliffed by our laws is faid by S’" Ed¬
ward Coke to have been anciently no lefs than death j
Vol. X. Part II.
which, hovrever, is with reafon denied by later and
more accurate writers. It feems rather to have confift-
ed in a forfeiture, fome fay of ail the goods and chat¬
tels, others of only a part of them, by way of fine or
weregild: w’hich was probably difpofed of, as in
France, in pios ufus, according to the humane fuper-
flition of the times, for the benefit of his foul who
was thus fuddenly fent to his account with all his im-
perfeftions on his head : But that reafon having long
ceafed, and the penalty (efpecially if a total forfei¬
ture) growung more fevere than was intended, in pro¬
portion as perfonal property has become more confider-
able, the delinquent has now, and has had as early as
our records will reach, a pardon and rvrit of reftitution
of his goods as a matter of courfe and right, only pay¬
ing for fuing out the fame. And, indeed, to prevent
this expence, in cafes where the death has notorioufly
happened by mifadventure or in felf-defence, the judges
will ufually permit (if not diredt) a general verdift of
acquittal.
III. Felonious homicide is an aft of a very different
nature from the former, being the killing of a human
creature, of any age or fex, without juftification or
excufe. This may be done either by killing one’s felf,
or another man : for the confideration of which, fee
the articles S&Lv-Murder, Murder, and Manslaugh¬
ter.
HOMILY, in ecclefiaftical writers, a fermon or dif-
courfe upon fome point of religion, delivered in a plain
manner, fo as to be eafily underilood by the common
people. The wrord is Greek, opiXut j formed of opthos,
cactus, “ affembly or council.”
The Greek homily', fays M. Fleury, fignifies a fa¬
miliar difcourfe, like the Latin fermo ; and difcourfes
delivered in the church took thefe denominations, to
intimate, that they were not harangues or matters of
oflentation and flourifh, like thofe of profane orators,
but familiar and ufeful difcourfes, as of a mafter to his
difciples, or a father to his children.
All the homilies of the Greek and Latin fathers are
compofed by bifhops. We have none of Tertullian,
Clemens Alexandrinus, and many other learned per-
fons; becaufe, in the firfl: ages, none but bifhops were
admitted to preach. The privilege was not ordinarily
allowed to priefts till toward the fifth century. St
Chryfoftom was the firfl: prefbyter that preached fta-
tediy. Origen and St Auguftine alfo preached ; but
it was by a peculiar licence or privilege.
Photius diftinguifhes homily from fermon ; in that the
homily was performed in a more familiar manner, the
prelate interrogating and talking to the people, and
they in their turn anfwering and interrogating him, fo
that it was properly a converfation ; whereas the fermon
was delivered with more form, and in the pulpit, after
the manner of the orators.
The praftice of compiling homilies, which were to
be committed to memory, and recited by ignorant or
indolent prierts, commenced towards the clofe of the
8th century ; when Charlemagne ordered Paul Deacon
and Alcuin to form homilies or dilcourfes upon the Gof-
pels and Epiftles, from the ancient doftors of the
church. This gave rife to that famous colleftion intit-
led the Hotnilarium of Charlemagne, and which being
followed as a model by many produftions of the fame
kind, compofed by private perfons, from a principle of
4 E pious
Homily.
HON [ 586 ] HO N
pious zeal, contributed much (fays Motheim) to nou-
rilh the indolence, and to perpetuate the ignorance of a
worthlefs clergy.
There are itill extant feveral fine homilies, compofed
by the ancient fathers, particularly St Chryfoftom and
St Gregory.
Clementine Homilies, in ecclefiadical hi dory, are
nineteen homilies in Greek, pubhlhed by Cotelerius,
with two letters prefixed 5 one of them written in the
name of Peter, the other in the name of Clement, to
James bifhop of Jerufalem •, in which lad letter they
are intitled Clement’s Tpitorae of the Preaching and
Travels of Peter. According to Le Clevc, thefe ho¬
milies were compofed by an Ebionite in the lecond
century ; but Montfaucon fuppofes that they were
forged long after the age of St Athanafius. Dr Lard-
ner apprehends, that the Clementine homilies were the
original or fird edition of the Recognitions •, and that
they are the fame with the work cenfured by Eufe-
hius under the title of Dialogues of Peter and Ap-
pion.
HOMINE REPLEVIANDO, a writ for the bailing of
a man out of prifon when he is confined without com¬
mandment of the king or his judges, or for any caufe
that is repleviable. But this writ is now feldom ufed ;
a writ of habeas corpus be.ng fued out on the neceiTary
occafions.
HOMMOC, a name given by mariners to a hillock
or fmall eminence of land, refembling the figure of a
cone, and appearing on the fea coad of any country.
PIOMO, MAN,, is ranked by Linnaeus under the or¬
der of primates 5 and charadterifed by having four pa¬
rallel fore teeth both in the upper and lower jaw, and
two mammae on the bread. The fpecie^, according to
this author, are two, viz. the homo fapiens, and the
homo troglodytes.
He fubdivides the homo fapiens into five varieties,
viz. the American, the European, the Afiatic, the A-
frican, and what he calls the monjlrous. See Man.
The troglodytes, or orang-outang, is a native of E-
thiopia, Java, and Amboina. His body is white •, he
walks eredt, and is about one-half the ordinary human
ftze. He generally lives about 25 years. He conceals
himfelf in caves during the day, and fearches for his
prey in the night. Pie is faid to be exceedingly faga-
cious, but is not endowed with the faculty of fpeech.
See Troglodytes and Simia, Mammalia Index.
HOMOGENEOUS, or Homogeneal (compofed
of the Greek “ like,” and yeves, “ kind”), is a
term applied to various fubjedts, to denote, that they
confid of fimilar parts, or of parts of the fame nature
and kind : in contradillindficn to heterogeneous, where
the parts are of different natures, &c.
HOMOLQGATION, in the civil law, the adl of
confirming or rendering a thing more valid and folemn,
by publication, repetition, or recognition thereof. The
word comes from the Greek opaMyix, “ confent, af-
fent ;” formed of jimihs, “ like,” and hoyot;, of
Xtyuv, dicere, “ to fay ;” q. d. to fay the. fame thing,
to confent, agree.
HOMOLOGOUS, in Geometry, an appellation gi¬
ven to the correfponding fides and angles of fimilar fi¬
gures, as being proportional to each other.
HONAN, a province of China, bounded on the
north by that of Petcheli and Chanfi, on the weft by
Chanfi, on the fouth by Houquang, and cn the eaft by Honan-
Chantong. Every thing that can contribute to render^ Fou, ^
a country delightful is found united in this province j 0 ° '
the Chinefe therefore call it Tong-hoa, or the middle t y <
Jlower: it is indeed fituated almoft in the centre of
China. The ancient emperors, invited by the mildnefs
of the climate and the beauty of the country, fixed their
refidence here for fome time. The abundance of its
fruits, paftures, and corn, the effeminacy of its inhabi¬
tants (who are accounted extremely voluptuous), and
laftly, the cheapnefs of provifions, have no doubt pre¬
vented trade from being fo fiouriihing here as in the
other provinces of the empire. The whole country is
fiat excepting towards the wreft, where there arifes a
long chain of mountains, covered with thick forefts ^
and the land is in fuch a high ft ate of cultivation, that
thofe who travel through it imagine they are walking
in an immenfe garden.— Befides the river Hoangho,
which, traverfes this province, it is watered by a great
number of fprings and fountains •, it has alfo a valuable
lake, which invites to its banks a prodigious number of
women, bee aide its wTater has the property of commu¬
nicating a luftre to filk, which cannot be imitated.
Extlufive of forts, caflles, and places of firength, this
province contains eight J'ou or cities of the firft clafs,
and 102 of the fecond and third. In one of thefe cities
named Nanyang, is found a kind of ferpent, the fkin of
which is marked with fmall white fpots ; the Chinefe
phyficians i'teep it in wine, and ufe it afterwards as an
excellent remedy againft the pally.
Honan-Fou, a city of the above province, fituated
amidff mountains and between three rivers. The Chi¬
nefe formerly believed this city to be the centre of the
earth, bccaufe it was in the middle of their empire.
Its jurifdidiion is very extenfive ; for it comprehends
one city of the fecond clafs and thirteen of the third :
one of thefe cities named Teng-fong-hien, is famous cn
account of the tower eredfed by the celebrated Tcheou-
kong for an obfervatory ; there is ftijl to be feen in it
an inftrument which he made uie of to find the fhadow
at noon, in order to determine the latitude. This aftro-
ncmer lived above a thoufand years before the Chriflian
era, and the Chinefe pretend that he invented the mari¬
ners compafs.
HONDEKOOTER, Melchior, a famous Dutch
painter born at Utrecht, excelled in painting animals,
and efpecially birds. His father and grandfather were
of the fame profeffion, and their fubjedfs the fame. He
was trained up to the art by his father 5 but furpafled
not onlv him, but even the belt of his cotemporaries, in
a very high degree. Till he wras feventeen years of
age, he continued under the diredHon of his father,
and accuftomed himfelf to paint feveral, forts of birds;
but particularly he was pleafed to reprefent cocks,
hens, ducks, chickens, and peacocks, which he de-
feribed in an elegant variety of adlions and attitudes.
After his father’s death, which happened in 1653,
he received fome inflrudfions from his uncle John Bap-
tift Weeninx ; but his principal and bell infirudior w’as
nature, which he ftudied with intenfe application.—
His pencil was wonderfully neat and delicate ; his
touch light; his colouring exceedingly natural, lively,
and remarkably tranfparent ; and the feathers of his
fowls w'ere expreffed with fuch a fvvelling foftnefs, as
might have readily and agreeably deceived the eye of any
fpedlator.
Honduras
11
Honey.
HON |
fpeCrator. It is reported that he had trained up a
cock to Hand in any attitude he vranted to deferibe,
and that it was his cultom to place that creature near
his eafel ; fa that at the motion oi his hand the bird
would fix itfelf in the proper pollute, and would con¬
tinue in that particular jaofition without the Imalleft
perceptible alteration lor ieveral hours at a time. 1 he
landfcapes which he introduces as the back grounds of
his pictures are adapted with peculiar judgment and
Ikill, and admirably finithed j they harmonize with his
fpbjehf, and always increale the force and the beauty
of his principal objeefs. His touch was very fingular,
in imitating the natural plumage of the fowls he paint¬
ed •, which not only produced a charming eiFeft, but
itlfo may prove ferviceable to an intelligent obferver,
to affill him in determining which are the genuine works
of this mailer, and which are jmpofitions. His pic¬
tures fell at a high price, and are much fought after.
He died at Utrecht in 1695, aged 59.
HONDURAS, a province of North America in
New Spain, lying on the North Sea, being about 370
miles in length, and 200 in breadth} it was difeover-
ed by Chrillopher Columbus in the year 1501< hue
Englilh have be<r*i poffeffed of the logwood country
on the bay of Honduras a great while, and cut large
tpuantities every year. The Molquito native Americans
live in the eailern parts } and being independent of the
Spaniards, have entered into treaties with the English,
and ferve them in feveral capacities. This province is
watered by feveral rivers, which enrich the country by
their inundations j and it is very fertile in Indian corn.
It is faid there are fome mines of gold and lilver in this
province. Valladolid is the capital town.
HONE, a fine kind of white Hone, ufed for fetting
razors, pen knives, and the like.
HONEY, a fweet vegetable juice, collefted by the
bees from the flowers of various plants, and depofited
in the cells of the comb •, from which it is extrafled
either by fpontaneous percolation through a lieve in a
warm place, the comb being feparated and laid there¬
on, or by expreflion. That which runs fpontaneoufly
is purer than that which is exprefled, a quantity of
the wax and other matters being forced out along with
it by the prefiure. The beft fort of honey is of a thick
conliftence, a whitilh colour inclining to yellow, an
agreeable fmell, and pleafant talle : both the colour
and flavour are laid to differ in fome degree, accord¬
ing to the pknts which the bees colleft it from. It
is fuppofed that honey is merely the juice of the flower
perfpiring, and becoming infpiffated thereon, and that
the bee takes it up with its probofeis, and carries it
to be depofited in its waxen cells, with which the
young bees are to be fed in fummer, and the old ones
in winter ; but it is certain, that honey can be pro¬
cured by no other method of colle&ing this juice than
by the bees. The honey wrought by the young
bees, and that which is permitted to run from the
comb without heat or prefiiire, is white and pure, and
called virgin honey. The honey of old bees, and that
which is forced from the comb by heat or preffure, is
yellow, from the wax. Honey produced where the
air is clear and hot, is better than that where the air
is variable and cold.—The honey of Narbonne in
France, where rofemary abounds, is faid to have a
very manifeft flavour of that plant, and to be imitable
587 ] HON
by adding to other honey an infufibn
flowers.
Honey, confidered as
detergent and aperient,
juices, and promoting!
phlegm. In fome particular
inconvenience of griping, or
of rofemary Honey.
a medicine, is a very ufeful
powerfully diiTolving vifeid
the expectoration of tough,
conffitutions it has an
of proving purgative,
which is faid to be in fome meafure prevented by pre-
vioufly boiling the. honey. This, hotvever, with all
conflitutions, is by no means effectual j and the cir-
cumftauce mentioned has had fo much weight with
the Edinburgh college, that they do not now employ
it in any preparation, and have entirely rejeCted the
meila medicata, fubftituting fyrups in their place : but
there can be no doubt that honey is very ufeful in gi¬
ving form to different articles, although there be fome
individuals with whom it may difagree. In order,
however, to obtain the good eflcCts of the honey it¬
felf, it mull be ufed to a confiderable extent, and as
an article of diet. The following remarkable initances
of the good effeCIs of honey in fome afthmatic cafes,
given by Mr Monro in his Medical and Pharmaceutical
Chemiitry, deferve to be here inferted. “ The late
D" John Hume, one of the commiflioners of the fick
and hurt of the royal navy, was for many years vio¬
lently affliCled with the arthma. Having taken many
medicines without receiving relief, he at lail refolved
to try the effeCIs of honey, having long had a great
opinion of its virtues as a peCtoral. For two or three
years he ate foine ounces of it daily, and got entirely
free of his aithma, and likewife of a gravelly complaint
with which he had long been affliCled. About two
years after he had recovered his health, when he was
fitting one day in the office for the fick and hurt, a
perfon labouring under a great difficulty of breathing,
who looked as if he could not live many days, came to
him, and alked him by what means he had been cured
of his afthma ? Dr Hume told him the particulars of
his own cafe, and mentioned to him the means by
which he had found relief. For two years after he
heard nothing of this perfon, who was a flranger to
him, and had feemed fo bad that he did not imagine
he could have lived many days, and therefore had
not even alked him who he was •, but at the end of
that period, a man feemingly in good health, and de¬
cently dreffed, came to the fick and hurt office, and
returned him thanks for his cure, which he affured
him had been entirely brought about by the free ufe
of honey.”
HoNEr-Devu, a fweet faccharine fubftance found
on the leaves of certain trees, of which bees are very
fond, by the hufbandmen fuppofed to fall from the
heavens like common dew. This opinion hath been
refuted, and the true origin of this and other faccha¬
rine dews Ihown by the Abbe Boiffier de Sauvages, ip
a memoir read before the Society of Sciences at Mont¬
pelier. “ Chance (fays the abbe) afforded me an op¬
portunity of feeing this juice in its primitive form on
the leaves of the holm oak : thefe leaves were covered
with thoufands of fmall round globules or drops,
which, without touching one another, feemed to point
out the pore from whence each of them had proceed¬
ed. My tafte informed me, that they were as fweet
as honey 5 the honey-dew on a neighbouring bramble
did not refemble the former, the drops having run to-
4 E 2 gether,
J
HON L 5^8 1 HON
Honey- gether, owing either to the moifture of the air which
De^ had diluted them, or to the heat which had expand-
“ v ed them. The dew was become more vifcous, and lay
in large drops, covering the leaves j in this form it is
/ ufually feen.
‘‘ The oak had at this time two forts of leaves: the
©Id, which were ftrong and firm j and the new, which
were tender, and newly come forth. The honey-dew
was found only'on the old leaves, though thefe were
covered by the new ones, and by that means Iheltered
from any moifture that could fall from above. I ob-
ferved the fame on the old leaves of the bramble,
while the new leaves were quite free from it. An¬
other proof that this dew proceeds from the leaves is,
that other neighbouring trees not furnilhed with a
juice of this kind had no moifture on them ; and par¬
ticularly the mulberry, which is a very particular cir-
«umftanee, for this juice is a deadly poifon to filk-
worms. If this juice fell in the form of a dew, mift,
or fog, it would wet all the leaves without diflimftion,
and every part of the leaves, under as well as upper.
Heat may have fome (hare in its produ&ion: for
though the common heat promotes only the tranlpira-
tion of the more volatile and fluid juices, a fultry heat,
efpecially if reflefled by clouds, may fo far dilate the
vefl’el as to produce a more vifcous juice, fuch as the
honey-dew.
“ The fecond kind of honey-dew, which is the chief
refource of bees after the fpring flowers and dew by
tranfpiration on leaves are paft, owes its origin to a
fmall infeft called a vine fretter; the excrement ejec¬
ted with fome force by this infeft makes a part of the
moft delicate honey known in nature (fee Aphis).
Thefe vine-fretters reft during feveral months on the
barks of particular trees, and extraft their food by
piercing that bark, without hurting or deforming the
tree. Theie infefts alfo caufe the leaves of fome trees
to curl up, and produce galls upon others. They
fettle on branches that are a year old. The juice, at
firft perhaps hard and crabbed, becomes, in the bowels
of this infedl, equal in fweetnefs to the honey obtain¬
ed from the flowers and leaves of vegetables j except¬
ing that the flowers may communicate fome of their
effential oil to the honey, and this may give it a pe¬
culiar flavour, as happened to myfelf by planting a
hedge of rofemary near my bees at Sauvages : the honey
has tailed of it ever fince, that flirub continuing long
in flower.
“ I have obferved two fpecies of vine-fretters, which
live unlheltered on the bark of young branches; a
larger and a leffer. The leffer fpecies is of the colour
of the bark'upon which it feeds, generally green. It
is chiefly diftinguifhed by two horns, or ftraight, im¬
moveable, flelhy fubftances, which rife perpendicular¬
ly from the lower fides of the belly, one on each fide.
This is the fpecies which lives on the young branches
of bramble and elder. The larger fpecies is double the
fize of the other *, is of a blackilh colour •, and inftead
of the horns which diftinguilh the other, have in the
fame part of the fkin a fmall button, black and fhining
like jet.
“ The buzzing of bees in a tuft of holm-oak, made
me fufpeft that fomething very interefting brought fo
many of them thither. I knew that it was not the
feafon fpr expecting honey-dew,, nor was it the place
where it is ufually found j and was furprifed to find Honey-
the tuft of leaves and branches covered with drops faew.
which the bees collefted with a humming noife. The '
form of the drops drew my attention, and led me to
the following difcovery. Inftead of being round like
drops which had fallen, each formed a fmall longilh
oval. I foon perceived from whence they proceeded.
The leaves covered with thefe drops of honey were
fituated beneath a fwarm of the larger black vine-
fretters ; and on obferving thefe infedls, I perceived
them from time to time raife their bellies, at the ex¬
tremity of which there then appeared a fmall drop of
an amber colour, which they inftantly ejefled from
them to the diftance of fome inches. I found by ta¬
iling fome of thefe drops which I had catched on my
hand that it had the fame flavour wdth what had be¬
fore fallen on the leaves. I afterwards fawr the fmaller
fpecies of vine-fretters ejeft their drops in the fame
manner. This ejection is fo far from being a matter
of indifference to thefe infeds themfelves, that it i'eems
to have been wifely inftituted to procure cleanlinefs in
each individual, as wTell as to preferve the whole fwarm
from deftrudion j for prefling as they do one upon
another, they would otherwife foon be glued together,
and rendered incapable of ftirring. The drops thus
fpurted out fall upon the ground, if not intercepted
by leaves or branches j and the fpots they make on
ftones remain fome time, unlefs walked off by rain.
This is the only honey-dew that falls j and this never
falls from a greater height than a branch where thefe
infeds can clutter.
“ It is now eafy to account for a phenomenon which
formerly puzzled me greatly. Walking under a lime-
tree in the king’s garden at Paris, I felt my hand wet¬
ted with little drops, wdiich I at firft took for fmall
rain. The tree indeed fliould have ftieltered me from
the rain, but I efcaped it by going from under the tree.
A feat placed near the tree fhone with thefe drops.
And being then unacquainted wfith any thing of this-
kind, except the honey-dew found on the leaves of
fome particular trees, I wTas at a lofs to conceive hovtf
fo glutinous a fubftance could fall from the leaves in
fuch fmall drops : for I knew that rain could not over¬
come its natural attradion to the leaves till it became
pretty larga drops •, but I have fince found, that the
lime-tree is very fubjed to thefe vine-fretters.
“ Bees are not the only infeds that feaft upon this
honey 5 ants are equally fond of it. Led into tin’s opi¬
nion by what naturalifts have faid, I at firft believed
that the horns in the leffer fpecies of thefe vine-fret¬
ters had in their extremity a liquor which the ants
went in fearch of: but I foon difcovered that what
drew the ants after them came from elfewhere, both
in the larger and leffer fpecies, and that no liquor is
difcharged by the horns. There are two fpecies of
ants which fearch for thefe infeds. The large black
ants follow thofe which live on the oaks and chefnut;
the leffer ants attend thofe on the elder. But as the
ants are not, like the bees, provided with the means
of fucking up fluids j they place themfelves near the
vine-fretters, in order to feize the drop the moment
they fee it appear upon the anus ; and as the drop
remains fome time on the fmall vine-fretters before they
can call it off, the ants have leifure to catch it, and
thereby prevent the bees from having any lhare : bud
H O N
[ 5§9 ]
HON
Honey
II
^Honour.
the vine-fretters of the oak and chefnut being ilronger,
and perhaps more plentifully fupplied with juice, dart
, the drop inftantly, fb that the larger ants get very little
of it.
“ The vine-fretters finding the greateft plenty of
juice in trees about the middle of fummer, afford alfo
at that time the greateft quantity of honey ; and this
leffens as the feafon advances, fo that in the autumn
the bees prefer to it the dowers then in feafon. Though
thefe infedts pierce the tree to the fap in a thoufand
places, yet the trees do not feem to fuffer at all from
them, nor do the leaves lofe the leaft of their verdure.
The hufbandman therefore a£ts injudicioufly when he
deftroys them.”
Honey-Guide, a curious fpecies of cuckow. See
Cuculus, Ornithology Index.
HoNEY-LocuJi, or Three-thorned Acacia. See Gle-
ditsia, Botany Index.
Hone r-Suchle. See Lonicera, Botany Index.
HONFLEUR, a confiderable fea-port town of
France, in the department of Calvados, with a good
harbour, and trade in bone-lace. It is feated on the
river Seine, in E. Long. o. 8. N. Lat. 17. 49.
HON1 SOIT QUI MAL Y PENSE, q. d. “ Evil to him
that thinks evil j” the motto of the moft noble order
of the knights of the Garter. See Garter.
HONITON, a very pleafant market and borough
town in Devonftiire, fituated 156 miles weft of London,
and 16 eaft of Exeter. It confiftsof about 400 houfes;
and has one church on a hill full half a mile from the
town, and a chapel and free grammar fchool in the
town. It is well paved and lighted, and lakes of water
run through it. This place has differed by fires greatly
in 1747 and 1765. The market is on Saturday, and
one fair in July j its manufactures are ferge, and rich
bone-lace and edgings. It was a corporation chartered
by James II. but reverted to its old conftitution on
the revolution, and is now governed by a portreeve who
is chofen annually. It firft returned members the 2 8th
Edw. I.
HONORIACI, in antiquity, an order of foldiery
under the eaftern empire, who introduced the Goths,
Vandals, Alani, Suevi, &c. into Spain. Didymus
and Verinianus, two brothers, had, with great vigi¬
lance and valour, defended the paffages of the Pyre¬
neans againft the Barbarians for fome time, at their
own expence •, but being at length killed, the emperor
Conftantius appointed the hononaci to defend thofe paf¬
fages, who, not contented to lay them open to all the
nations of the north then ravaging the Gauls, joined
themfelves to them.
HONOUR, a teftimony of efteem or fubmiftion,
expreifed by words, aftions, and an exterior behavi¬
our, by which we make known the veneration and re-
fpeft we entertain for any one on account of his dig¬
nity or merit. The word honour is alfo ufed in gene¬
ral for the efteem due to virtue, glory, and reputation.
It is alfo ufed for virtue and probity themfelves, and for
an exaClnefs in performing whatever we have promifed 5
and in this laft fenfe we ufe the term, a man of honour.
But honour is more particularly applied to twro diffe¬
rent kinds of virtue ; bravery in men, and chaftity in
women.—Virtue and Honour were deified among the
ancient Greeks and Romans, and had a joint temple
confecrated to them at Rome 3 but afterwards each of
them had feparate temples, which were fo placed, that Honourt
no one could enter the temple of Honour without "
palling through that of Virtue 3 by which the Romans
were continually put in mind, that virtue is the only
direCl path to true glory. Plutarch tells us, that the
Romans, contrary to their ufual cuftom, facrificed to
Honour uncovered : perhaps to denote, that wherever
honour is, it wants no covering, but (hows itfelf openly
to the world.
The Spanifti hiftorians relate a memorable inftance
of honour and regard to truth. A Spanifti cavalier
in a fudden quarrel flew a Moorilh gentleman, and fled.
His purfuers loon loft fight of him, for he had unper- -
ceived thrown himfelf over a garden wall. The owner,
a Moor, happening to be in his garden, w'as addreffed
by the Spaniard on his knees, who acquainted him
with his cafe, and implored concealment. “ Eat this,”
faid the Moor (giving him half a peach), “ you now
know that you may confide in my protedlion.” He
then locked him up in his garden apartment, telling
him as foon as it was night he would provide for his
efcape to a place of greater fafety. The Moor then
went into his houfe, where he had but juft feated himfelf,
when a great crowd, with loud lamentations, came to
his gate, bringing the corpfe of his fon, who had juft
been killed by a Spaniard. When the firft ftiock of
furprife was a little over, he learnt from the defcrip-
tion given, that the fatal deed was done by the very
perfon then in his power. He mentioned this to no
one 3 but as foon as it was dark retired to his garden,
as if to grieve alone, giving orders that none fhould
follow him. Then accofling the Spaniard, he faid,
“ Chriftian, the perfon you have killed is my fon 3 his
body is now in my houfe. You ought to fuft'er ; but
you have eaten with me, and I have given you my-
faith, which muft not be broken.” He then led the
aftonilhed Spaniard to his ftables, mounted him on
one of his fleeteft horfes, and faid, “ Fly far while
the night can cover you; you will be fafe in the morn¬
ing. You are indeed guilty of my fan’s blood: but
God is juft and good 3 and I thank him I am innocent
of yours, and that my faith given is preferved.”
This point of honour is moft religioufly obferved by
the Arabs and Saracens, from whom it was adopted
by the Moors of Africa, and by them was brought
into Spain. The following inftance of Spanilh honour
may ftill dwell in the memory of many living, and de-
ferves to be handed down to the lateft pofterity. In the
year 1746, when we were in hot war with Spain, the
Elizabeth of London, Captain William Edwards, co¬
ming through the gulf from Jamaica, richly laden,
met with a moft; violent ftorm, in which the fhip fprung
a leak, that obliged them, for the laving of their lives,
to run into the Havannah, a Spanifh port. The cap¬
tain went on (bore, and -directly waited on the gover¬
nor, told the occafion of his putting in, and that he
furrendered the fhip as a prize, and himfelf and his
men as prifoners of war, only requefting good quarter.
“ No, Sir, replied the Spanifh governor, “ if we had
taken you in fair war at fea, or approaching our
coaft with hoftile intentions, your fhip would then have
been a prize, and your people prifoners ; but when,
diftreffed by a tempeft, you come into our ports for
the fafety of your lives, we, the enemies, being men,
are bound as fuch by the laws of humanity to afford
relief
HON [ 590 ] H O N
Honour, relief to difireffed men who aflc it of us. We cannot
even againft our enemies take advantage of an aft of
God. You have leave therefore to unload your ihip,
if that be neceflary, to flop the leak •, you may relit
her here, and traffic fo far as Ihall be necefl'ary to pay
the charges 5 you may then depart, and I will give
you a pafs to be in force till you are beyond Bermuda :
if alter that you are taken, you will then be a lawful
prize ; but now you are only a ftranger, and have a
Granger’s right to fafety and proteftion.” The ihip
accordingly departed, and arrived fafe in London.
A remarkable inllance of the like honour is record¬
ed of a poor unenlightened African negro, in Captain
Snelgrave’s account of his voyage to Guinea. A New
England floop, trading there in 1752, left a fecond
mate, William Murray, Tick on ihore, and failed with¬
out him. Pvfurray was at the houfe of a black named
Cudjoe, with whom he had contrafted an acquaintance
during their trade. He recovered ; and the floop be-
ing gone, he continued with his black friend till fome
other opportunity ffiould offer of his getting home.
In the mean time a Dutch ffiip came into the road,
and fome of the blacks coming on board her, were
treacheroully feized and carried off as their flaves. The
relations and friends, tranfported with fudden rage,
ran into the houfe of Cudjoe, to take revenge by kill¬
ing Murray. Cudjoe ffopt them at the door, and de¬
manded what they wanted. “ The white men,” faid
they, “ have carried away our brothers and fons, and
we will kill all white men. Give us the white man you
have in your houfe, for we wall kill him.” “ Nay,”
faid Cudjoe, “ the wffiite men that carried away your
relations are bad men, kill them when you can take
them ; but this white man is a good man, and ■ you
muff not kill him.”—“ But he is a white man,” they
cried ; “ and the white men are all bad men, we will
kill them all.” “ Nay,” fays he, “ you muff; not
kill a man that has done no harm, only for being white.
This man is my friend, my houfe is his poll, I am his
foldier, and muff fight for him ; you muff kill me be¬
fore you can kill him. What good man will ever come
again under my roof, if I let my floor be ftained with
a good man’s blood ?” The negroes feeing his refolu-
tion, and being convinced by his difeourfe that they
were wrong, went awray afhamed. In a few days Mur¬
ray ventured abroad again with his friend Cudjoe,
when feveral of them took him by the hand, and told
him, “ They were glad they had not killed him ; for
as he was a good (meaning innocent) man, their God
would have been very angry, and would have fpoiled
their fithing.”
Honour, in the beau monde, has a meaning materi¬
ally different from the above, and which it is eafier to
illurtrate than define. It is, however, fubjeft to a fy-
ftem of rules, called the law of honour, conftrufted by
people of fafhion, calculated to facilitate their inter-
courfe with one another, and for no ether purpofe.
Confequently, nothing is confidered as inconfiftent wdth
honour, bmt what tends to incommode this intercourfe.
Hence, as Archdeacon Paley ftates the matter, pro-
fanenefs, negleft of public worfhip or private devotion,
cruelty to fervants, rigorous treatment of tenants or
other dependents, want of charity to the poor, inju¬
ries done to tradefmen by infolvency or delay of pay¬
ment, with numherlefs examples of the fame kind, are
2
accounted no breaches of honour; l^ecaufe a man is Honour,
not a lefs agreeable companion for thefe vices, nor ——y*—
the worfe to deal with in thofe concerns which are
ufually tranfafted between one gentleman and another.
—Again, the law of honour being conffituted by
men occupied in the purfuit of pleafure, and for
the mutual conveniency of fuch men, will be found,
as might be expected from the charafter and de-
lign of the law-makers, to be, in moft inffances, fa¬
vourable to the licentious indulgence of the natural
paffions. Thus it allows of fornication, adultery,
drunkennefs, prodigality, duelling, and revenge in the
extreme ; and lays no ftrefs upon the virtues oppofite to
thefe.
Honour or Rank.—The degrees of honour which
are obferved in Britain may be comprehended under
thefe two heads, viz. nobiles majores, and nobiles minores.
Thofe included under the firff rank are, archbifhops,
dukes, marquifes, earls, vifeounts, bilhops, and barons ;
which are all diilinguilhed by the refpeftive ornaments
of their efcutcheons : and thofe of the laff are baronets,
knights, efquires, and gentlemen. There are fome au¬
thors who will have baronets to be the laff under the
firff rank ; and their reafon is, becaufe their honour fc
hereditary, and by patent, as that of the nobility. See
Commonai.ty and Nobility.
Honours of War, in a fiege, is, when a governor,
having made a long and vigorous defence, is at laft
obliged to furrender the place to the enemy for want
of men and provifions, and makes it one of his princi¬
pal articles to march out with the honours of war ; that
is, with Ihouldered arms, drums beating, colours flying,
and all their baggage, &c.
Military Honours. All armies falute crowned heads
in the moft refpeftful manner, drums beating a march,
colours and ftandards dropping, and officers faluting.
Their guards pay no compliment, except to the princes
of the blood ; and even that by courtefy, in the'abfence
of the crowned head.
To the commander in chief the whole line turns out
without arms, and the camp-guards beat a march, and
falute. To generals of horfe and foot, they beat a
march, and falute. Lieutenant-generals of ditto, three
ruffs, and falute. Major-generals of ditto, two ruff's,
and falute. Brigadiers of ditto, refted arms, one ruff,
and falute. Colonels of ditto, relied arms, and no beat¬
ing. Centinels reft their arms to all field-offieers, and
{boulder to every officer. All governors, that are not
general officers, {hall, in all places where they are go¬
vernors, have one ruff, with refted arms •, but for thofe
wffip have no commiflion as governors, no drum ftiall
beat. Lieutenant-governors (hall have the main-guard
turned out to them with ftrouldered arms.
Pruffian Honours of War, chiefly imitated by mold
powers in Europe, are,
To the king, all guards beat the march, and all of¬
ficers falute. Field-marflials received with the march,
and faluted in the king’s abfence. General of horfe
or fo®t, four ruffs ; but if he commands in chief, a
march and falute. Lieutenant-generals of horfe or foot,
commanding or not, guards beat three ruffs. Major-
generals of horfe and foot, two ruffs. Officers, when
their guards are under arms, and a general makes a fig-
nal, muft reft to him, but not beat ; wffien not got mil¬
der arms, and a fignal made, only ftand by their arms.
Village-
HON [ 591 ] H O O
Honour. Village-guards go under arms only to tire king, field-
—--v marlhals, generals of horfe and foot, and to the gene¬
ral of the day. Generals guards go under arms only
to the king, field-marfhals, and the general over whom
they mount. Commanding officers of regiments and
battalions, their own quarter and rear guards to turn
out } but not to other field-officers, unlefs they are of
the day. Generals in foreign fervice, the fame.
Honours paid by Centinels. Field-marffials \ two cen-
tinels with ordered fire-locks, at their tent or quarters.
Generals of horfe or foot •, two centinels, one with his
firelock ffiouldered, the other ordered. Lieutenant-
generals •, one, wdth firelock ordered. Major-generals}
one, with firelock ffiouldered.
The fil'd battalion of guards go under arms to the
king only ; not to Hand by, nor draw up in the rear
of their arms to any other } nor to give centinels to
foreigners. Second and third battalions draw up be¬
hind their arms to the princes, and to field-marffials }
but when on grenadier guards or out pods, they turn
out, as other guards do, to the officers of the day.
They give one centinel with Oiouldered arms to the
princes of the blood, and to field-marffials wdren they
lie alone in garrifons.
Court of Honour. .See Court of Caiy^iRr.
Fountain of Honour. The king is fo dyled, as being
the fource of honours, dignities, &.c. See Prero¬
gative.
It is impoffible that government can be maintained
without a due fubordination of rank ; that the people
may-know and didinguifh fuch as are let over them,
in order to yield them their due refpecl and obedience;
and alfo that the officers themfeives, being encouraged
by emulation and the hopes of fuperiority, may the
better difeharge their fundtions : and the law fuppofes,
that no one can be fo good a judge of their feveral me¬
rits and fervices as the king himfelf wffio employs them.
It has therefore entrufted him with the foie power of
conferr ng dignities and honours, in confide me that
he will befiowr them upon none but fuch as deferve
them. And therefore all degrees of nobility, of knight¬
hood, and other titles, are received by immediate grant
from the crown ; either exprefi’ed in writing, by wrrits
or letters patent, as in the creation of peers and baro¬
nets ; or by corporeal inveftiture, as iti the_ creation of
a fimple knight.
From the fame principle alfo arifes the prerogative
of eredhng and difpofing of offices : for honours and
offices are in their nature convertible and fynonymous.
All offices under the crown carry in the eye of the
law7 an honour along with them ; bccaufe they imply
a fuperiority of parts and abilities, being fuppofed to
be always filled writh thofe that are moll: able to exe¬
cute them. And, on the other hand, all honours in
their original had duties or offices annexed to them :
an earl, comes, was the confervator or governor of a
county; and a knight, miles, was bound to attend
the king in his wars. For the fame reafon therefore
that honours are in the difpofal of the king, offices
ought to be fo likewife ; and as the king may create
new titles, fo may he create new offices; but with this
reftriflion, that he cannot create new offices with new
fees annexed to them, nor annex new7 fees to old of¬
fices ; for this would be a tax upon the fubjecl, which
cannot be impoftd but by ad of parliament. Where¬
fore, in 13 Hen. IV. a new office being created Ijy Honour
the king’s letters patent for meafuring cloths, with a il
new fee for the fame, the letters patent w7ere, on ac- rfland*
count of the new fee, revoked and declared void in ——vr—
parliament.
Upon the fame or a like reafon, the king has alfo
the prerogative of conferring privileges upon private
perfons. Such as granting place or precedence to
any of his fubieds, as ffiall feem good to his royal
wifdom : or fuch as converting aliens, or perfons bom
out of the king’s dominions, into denizens; whereby
fome very confiderable privileges of natural-born fub-
jeds are conferred upon them. Such alfo is the pre¬
rogative of erediug corporations; whereby a nurnber
of private perfons are united and knit together, and
enjoy many liberties, powers, and immunities in their
political capacity, which they were utterly incapable of
in their natural.
Maids of Honour, are young ladies in the queen’s
houfehold, whole office is to attend the qi- :en when ffie
goes abroad, &c. In England they are fix in number,
and their falary 3001. per annum each.
Honour is particularly applied in our cuftoms to
the more noble kind of feignories or lordffiips, whereof
other inferior lordihips or manors hold ou depend. As
a manor confifts of feveral tenements, fervices, cuftoms,
&c. fo an honour contains divers manors, knights-fees,
&c. It u7as alfo formerly called benefeium or royal fee,
being always held of the king in capita.
Honour Point, \n Heraldry, is that next above the
centre of the efcutcheon, dividing the upper part into
tw7o equal portions.
Honourable, a title conferred on the younger funs
of earls, the fons of vifeounts and barons ; as alfo on
fuch peifons as have the king’s commiffion, and upon
thofe who enjoy places of trait and honour.
HONOUR ARY, fomething done or conferred up¬
on any one, to do him honour. See the article Ho¬
nour.
Konourary is fometimes underftood of a perfon
who bears or poiTefies fome poft or title, only for
the name’s fake, without doing any thing of the func¬
tions belonging to it, or receiving any advantage from
it: thus w7e fay honourary counfellors, honourary fel¬
lows, &c.
Honourary is alfo ufed for a kwvyer’s fee, or a falary
given to public profeflbrs in any art or fcience,
HOOF), Robin, a famous outlaw7 and dcer-ftealer,
who chiefly harboured in Sherwood foreft in Notting-
hamffiire. He was a man of family, which by his pedi¬
gree appears to have had fome title to the earldom of
Huntingdon ; and played his pranks about the latter
end of the 1 2th century. He wras famous for archery
and for his treatment of all travellers who came in his
way : levying contributions on the rich, and relieving
the poor. Falling fick at laft, and requiring to be •
blooded, he is faid to have been betrayed and bled to
death. He died in 1247; and was buried at Kirklees
in Yorkffiire, then a Benedicline monaftery, where his
graveftone is ftill ftiown.
Hood. See Chaperon and Cowl.
Hood, in falconry, is a piece of leather, where¬
with the head of a haw'k, falcon, or the like, is co¬
vered.
Hood If and, one of the Marquesas IJiands, in the
South
H O O [ 592 ] H O O
■Hoof South fea. It was difcovered in April 1774 Cap-
H tain Cook, who gave it that name from the perfon
Hooiaih, ^ wj1() paw tjie lan(}> jt js mofl. northerly of
the duller, and lies in S. Lkt. 9. 26. W. Long.
I39- I3-
HOOF, the horny fubllance that covers the feet of
divers animals, as oxen, horfeS, &c.
HooF-bound. See Farriery Index.
HOOGUESTRATTEN, a town of the Nether¬
lands, in Dutch Brabant, and capital of a county of the
fame name. E. Long. 4. 4. N. Lat. 51. 25.
HOOK, in angling, &c. See Fi$HiNG-/iook.
Hooks, in building, &c. are of various forts;
fome of iron and others of brais, viz. I. Armour-
hooks, which are generally of brafs, and are to lay up
arms upon, as guns, mulkets, half-pikes, pikes, jave¬
lins, &c. 2. Cafement-hooks. 3. Chimney-hooks, which
are made both of brafs and iron, and of different fa¬
shions: their ufe is to fet the tongs and fire-lhovel
again!!. 4. Curtain-hooks. 5. Hooks for doors, gates,
&:c. 6. Double line-hooks, large and fmall. 7. Single
line-hooks, large and fmall. 8. Tenter-hooks of vari¬
ous forts. See Tenter.
Hooks of a Jhip, are all thofe forked timbers which
are placed diredly upon the keel, as wTell in her run as
in her rake.
Can-HooKS, thofe which being made faff to the end
of a rope with a noofe (like that which brewers ufe
to fling or carry their barrels on), are made ufe of for
flings.
Foot-Hooxs, in a Ihip, the fame with futtocks.
Loof Hooks, a tackle with two hooks j one to hitch
into a cringle of the main or fore-fail, in the bolt-
rope at the leech of the fail by the clew j and the
other is to hitch into a ftrap, which is fpliced to the
chefs-tree.
Their ufe is to pull down the fail, and fuccour the
tackles in a large fail and ftiff gde, that all the llrefs
may not bear upon the tack. It is alfo ufed when*the
tack is to be feized-more fecure, and to take off or put
on a bonnet or drabler,
HooK-Pins, in archite£lure, are taper iron pins, only
with a hook-head, to pin the frame of a roof or floor to¬
gether.
HOOKAH, among the Arabs and other nations
of the Eaft, is a pipe of a Angular and complicated
conftruftion, through which tobacco is fmoked : out
of a fmall veffel of a globular form, and nearly full of
water, iffue two tubes, one perpendicularly, on which
is placed the tobacco the other obliquely from the
fide of the veffel, and to that the perfon who fmokes
applies his mouth ; the fmoke by this means being
drawn through water, is cooled in its paffage and ren¬
dered more grateful: one takes a whiff, draw’s up a
large quantity of fmoke, puffs it out of his nofe and
mouth in an immenfe cloud, and paffes the hookah to
his neighbour *, and thus it goes round the whole circle.
—The hookah is knowm and ufed throughout the eaft ;
but in thofe parts of it where the refinements of life
orevail greatly, every one has his hookah facred to him-
felf 5 and it is frequently an implement of a very coftly
nature, being of filver, and fet with precious Hones; in
the better kind, that tube w’hich is applied to the mouth
is very long and pliant 5 and for that reafon is termed
the fuake : people w-ho ufe it in a luxurious manner, fill
the veffel through which the fmoke is drawn with rofe Hooke,
water, and it thereby receives fome of the fragrant qua- —-v-—
lity of that fluid.
HOOKE, Robert, a very eminent Englilh mathe¬
matician and philofopher, was the fon of Mr John
Hooke minifter of Frelhwater, in the ille of Wight,
w’here he was born in 1635. He very early difcovered
a genius for mechanics, by making curious toys with
great art and dexterity. He was educated under Dr
Bulhby in Weftminfter fchool j where he not only ac¬
quired a competent lhare of Greek and Latin, toge¬
ther with an infight into Hebrew and fome other Ori¬
ental languages, but alfo made himfelf mailer of a con-
fiderable part of Euclid’s elements. About the year
I653 he w'ent to Chrill-church in Oxford, and in 1655
wras introduced to the Philofophical Society there j
where, difeovering his mechanical genius, he was firll
employed to aflill Dr Willis in his operations in chemi-
ftry, and afterwards recommended to the honourable
Robert Boyle, whom he ferved feveral years in the fame
capacity. He was alfo inftrufled in aftronomy about
this time by Dr Seth Ward, Savilian profeffor of that
fcience j and from henceforward dillinguilhed him¬
felf by many noble inventions and improvements of
the mechanic kind. He invented feveral aftronomi-
cal inftruments, for making obfervations both at fea
and land j and was particularly ferviceable to Mr
Boyle in completing the invention of the air-pump.
Sir John Cutler having founded a mechanic fchool in
1664, fettled an annual ftipend on Mr Hooke for
life, mtrulling the prefident, council, and fellows, of
the Royal Society to diredf him with refpe£t to the
number and fubjefts of his le£!uresand on the nth
of January 1664-5, was efe^e^ by that Ibciety
curator of experiments for life, with an additional fa-
lary. In 1666 he produced to the Royal Society a
model for rebuilding the city of London deltroyed by
fire, with which the fociety w7as well pleafed ; but
although the lord mayor and aldermen preferred it
to that of the city furveyor, it was not carried
into execution. It is faid, by one part of this mo¬
del of Mr Hooke’s, it was defigned to have all the
chief ftreets, as from Leaden-hall to Newgate, and
the like, to lie in exaft flraight lines, and all the
other crofs ftreets turning out of them at right angles,
with all the churches, public buildings, markets,
&.c. in proper and convenient places. The rebuild¬
ing of the city according to the a£l of parliament
requiring an able perfon to fet out the ground to the
proprietors, Mr Hooke was appointed one oi the
furveyors j in which employment he got moll part
of his eftate, as appeared pretty evident from a large
iron cheft of money found after his death, locked
down with a key in it, and a date of the time, which
Ihowed it to have been fo Ihut up above 30 years.—
Mr Oldenburgh, fecretary to the Royal Society, dying
in 1677, Mr Hooke was appointed to fupply his
place, and began to take minutes at the meeting in
October, but did not publifh the Tranfaflions. In
the beginning of the year 1687, his brother’s^ daugh¬
ter, Mrs Grace Hooke, who ffiad lived w’ith him
feveral years, died j and he wras fo affefted with,
grief at her death, that he hardly ever recovered it,
but was obferved from that time to become lefs
aftive, more melancholy, and even more cynical than
ever.
H O O [ ;
Hooke, ever. At the fame time, a chancery fuit in which
he was concerned with Sir John Cutler, on account
of his falary for reading the Cutlerian ledures, made
him very uneafy, and increafed his diforder. In 1691,
he was employed in forming the plan of the hofpital
near Hoxton, founded by Robert Aik alderman of
London, who appointed Archbilhop Tillotfon one of
his executors; and in December the fame year, Hooke
was created doftor of phyfic, by a warrant from that
prelate. In June 1696, the chancery fuit with Sir John
Cutler was determined in his favour, to his inexpredible
fatisfaflion. His joy on that occaiion was found in his
diary thus expreffed ; DOMSHLGISSA : that is, Deo, Op¬
timo, Maximo, fit honor, laus, gloria, in feecula fceculo-
rum, Amen. “ I was born on this day of July 1635,
and God hath given me a new birth : may I never for-
get his mercies to me ! while he gives me breath may
I praife him !”
In the fame year 1696, an order was granted to him
for repeating moll of his experiments at the expence of
the Royal Society, upon a promife of his finilhing the
accounts, obfervations, and deductions from them, and
of perfecting the defeription of all the inltruments con¬
trived by him ; but his increaling illnefs and general
decay rendered him unable to perform it. He conti¬
nued fome years in this waiting condition ; and thus
languilhing till he was quite emaciated, he died March
3d 1702, at his lodgings in Grelham college, and was
buried in St Helen’s church, Bilhopfgate Itreet; his
corpfe being attended by all the members of the Royal
Society then in London.
Dr Hooke’s character, in fome refpeCts, was not one
of the molt: amiable. In his perfon he exhibited but a
mean appearance, being fhort of llature, very crooked,
pale, lean, and of a meagre afpeCt, with lank brown
% hair, which he wrore very long, and hanging over his
face. Suitable to his perfon, his temper was penurious,
melancholy, miltruftful: and, though polfelfed of great
philolophical knowledge, he had fo much ambition,
that he wmuld be thought the only man who could in¬
vent or difeover^ and thus it has been afferted by fome,
that he frequently laid claim to the inventions and dif-
coveries of others, while he boalted of many of his own
which he never communicated. On the contrary his
admirers have retorted the charge, and have blamed
■others with claiming the difeoveries of this philofopher.
Without deciding on this point, which feems at lead
fomewhat doubtful, wTe lhall leave our readers to judge
for themfeives, after recommending to their perufal
the hidory of the inventions claimed by Dr Hooke at
the end of this article, and the note under the article
Watch, both drawm up, rve believe, by ProfelTor Ro-
bifon. In the religious part of his character he was fo
far exemplary, that he always expreffed a great vene¬
ration for the Deity ; and feldom received any remark¬
able benefit in life, or made any confiderable difeovery
in nature, or invented any ufeful contrivance, or found
out any difficult problem, without fetting down his ac¬
knowledgment to God, as many places in his diary
plainly ffiow. He frequently ftudied the facred writ¬
ings in the original ; for he was acquainted with the
ancient languages, as well as with all parts of the ma¬
thematics.—He wrote, 1. LeRiones Cutleriance, or Cut¬
lerian LeCIures. 2. Micrographia, or Defcriptions of
minute bodies made by magnifying glaffes. 3. A de-
Vol. X. Part II.
93 ] HO O
feription of heliofcopes. 4. A defeription of fome m> Hooke,
chanical improvements of lamps and w'ater-poiies, ' v
quarto. 5. Philofophical collections. After his death
were publiffied, 6. Pofthumous works collected from
his papers by Richard Waller lecretary to the Royal
Society.
Chronological Hi/lor 1/ of Inventions and Difeoveries bu
Dr Hooke.
1656, Barometer, a weather-glafs.
1657, A fcapement, for maintaining the vibration of
a pendulum.—And not long after, the regulating or
balance-fpring for watches.
1658, The double barrelled air-pump. The co¬
nical pendulum.—His firit employment of the coni¬
cal pendulum was no lefs ingenious and fcientific than
it w7as original. He employed it to reprefent the
mutual gravitation of the planets; a faCt which he
had molt fyflematically announced. He had ffiewn,
that a force, perfectly analogous to gravity on this
earth, operated on the furface of the moon and of Ju¬
piter. Confidering the numerous round pits on the
furface of the moon, furrounded with a fort of wall,
and having a little eminence in the middle, as the pro¬
duction of volcanoes, he inferred, that the ejeCted matter
fell back again to the moon, as fuch matter falls back
again to the earth. He favv Jupiter furrounded with an
atmofphere, which accompanied him j and therefore pref-
fed on him, as our air preffes on the earth :—He inferred,
that it was the fame kind of power that maintained the
fun and other planets in a round form. He inferred a
force to the fun from the circulation round him, and
he called it a gravitation ; and faid that it was not the
earth which deferibed the ellipfe, but the centre of gra¬
vity of the earth and moon. He therefore made a co¬
nical pendulum, wffiofe tendency to a vertical pofition
reprefented the gravitation to the fun, and which w7as
projeCled at right angles to the vertical plane j and fhew7-
ed experimentally, how the different proportions of the
projeClile and centripetal tendencies produced various
degrees of eccentricity in the orbit. He then added
another pendulum, deferibing a cone round the firft,
wffiile this deferibed a cone round the vertical line, in
4order to fee wffiat point between them deferibed the
ellipfe, The refults of the experiment were intricate
and unfatisfaCtory; but the thought was ingenious.
He candidly acknowledged, that he had not difeovered
the true law of gravitation which would produce the
defeription of an ellipfe round the focus, owing to his
want of due mathematical knowledge ; and therefore
left this inveftigation to his fuperiors. Sir Ifaac New¬
ton was the happy man who made the difeovery, after
having entertained the fame notions of the forces which
connefted the bodies of the folar fyftem, before he had
any acquaintance with Dr Hooke, or knew of his [pe¬
culations.
1660, The engine for cutting clock and watch-wheels.
—The chief phenomena of capillary attraction. The
freezing of water a fixed temperature.
1663, I he method of fupplying air to a diving
bell.—The number of vibrations made by a mufical
chord.
1664, His Micrographia was, by the council of the
Royal Society, ordered to be printed; but in that work
are many juft notions refpeCting refpiration, the com-
4 F pofitioa
H O O [ 594 ] H O O
Hooke, pofition oi the atmofphere, and the nature of light,
""'v ' which were afterwards attributed as diicoveries to Ma-
yovv and others, who, though we are far from fuppo-
Jing that they fiole their difeoveries from Dr Hooke,
were certainly anticipated by him.
1666, A quadrant by reflection.
1667, The marine barometer.—The gage for found¬
ing unfathomable depths.
1668, The meafurement of a degree of the meridi¬
an, with a view to determine the figure of the earth,
by means of a zenith feftor.
1669, The fa ft of the confervatio virium vivarum,
and that in all the productions and extinctions of mo¬
tion, the accumulated forces were as the fquares of the
final or initial velocities. This doftrine he announces
in all its generality and importance, deducing from it
all the confequences which John Bernoulli values him-
felf fo highly upon, and which are the chief fafts ad¬
duced by Leibnitz in fupport of his doftrine of the
forces of bodies in motion. But Heoke was perfeftly
aware of their entire correfpondence with the Cartefian
or common doftrine, and was one of the firft in apply¬
ing the celebrated 39th propofltion of Newton’s Prin-
cipia to his former pofitions on this fubjeft, as a mathe¬
matical demonftration of them.
1673, That the catenarea was the beft form of an
arch.
1674, Steam engine on Newcomen’s principle.
1679, That the air was the foie fource of heat in
burning: That combuftion is the folution of the inflam¬
mable vapour in air •, and that in this folution the air
gives out its heat and light. That nitre explodes and
caufes bodies to burn without air, becaufe it confifts
of this air, accompanied by its heat and light in a con-
denfed or folid Bate j and air fupports flame, becaufe
it contains the fame ingredients that gunpowder doth,
that is, a nitrous fpirit : That this air diflblves fome-
thing in the blood while it is expofed to it in the lungs
in a very expanded furface, and when faturated with it,
can no longer fupport life nor flame •, but in the aft
of folution, it produces animal heat: That the arterial
and venal blood differ on account of this fomething be¬
ing wanting in one of them. In fhort, the fundamen¬
tal doftrines of modern chemiftry are fyftematically de¬
livered by Dr Hooke in his Micrographia, publifhed in
1664, and his Lampas, publifhed in 1677.
1680, He firfl: obferved the fecondary vibrations of
elaftic bodies, and their conneftion with harmonic founds.
A glafs containing water, and excited by a fiddleftick,
threw the water into undulations, which were fquare,
hexagonal, oftagonal, &c. fbewing that it made vibra¬
tions fubordinate to the total vibration j and that the
fundamental found was accompanied by its oftave, it?
twelfth, &c.
1681, He exhibited mufical tones by means of tootlf-
ed wheels, whirled round and rubbed with a quill,
which dropped from tooth to tooth, and produced tones
proportioned to the frequency of the cracks or fnaps.
1684, He read a paper before the Royal Society,
iji which he affirms, that fome years before that period
he had propofed a method of difeourfing at a diftance,
not by found, but by fight. He then proceeds to de-
feribe a very accurate and complete telegraph, equal,
perhaps, in all refpefts to thofe now in ufe. But fome
ye^rs previous to 1684, M. Amontons had not invent¬
ed his telegraph ; fo that, though the Marquis of Wor- Hooke,
ccfter unqueftionably gave the firft hint of this inftru- ’ v “J
ment, Dr Hooke appears to have firft brought it to
perfeftion. See Telegraph ; and a book, publifhed
17 26, entitled Philofophical Experiments and Obferva- (
tions of the late eminent Dr Robert Hooke.
To him alfo we are indebted for many other difeo¬
veries of leffer note j fuch as the wheel barometer, the
univerfal joint, the manometer, ferew divided quadrant,
telefcopic fights for aftronomical inftruments, repiefen-
tation of a mufcular fibre by a chain of bladders, expe¬
riments fhewing the infleftion of light, and its attrac¬
tion for folid bodies, the curvilineal path of light through
the atmofphere.
Hooke, Nathaniel, author of an efteemed Roman
hiftory and other performances. Of this learned gen¬
tleman the earlieft particulars to be met with are fur-
nifhed by himfclf, in the following modeff but man¬
ly addref's to the earl of Oxford, dated Oft. 7. 1722:
“ My Lord, the firft time I had the honour to wait Nichols's
upon your lordfhip fince your coming to London, ^
your lordfhip had the goodnefs to afk me, what way ^ier'
of life I wras then engaged in ? A certain mauvaife
honte hindered me at that time from giving a direft
anfwer. The truth is, my lord, I cannot be faid at
prefent to be in any form of life, but rather to live
extempore. The late epidemical diftemper feized me,
I endeavoured to be rich, imagined for a while that I
was, and am in fome meafure happy to find myfelf at
this inftant but juft worth nothing. If your lordfhip,
or any of your numerous friends, have need of a fer~
vant, with the bare qualifications of being able to read
and write, and to be honeft, I fhall gladly undertake
any employments your lordfhip fhall not think me
unwrorthy of. I have been taught, my lord, that nei¬
ther a man’s natural pride, nor his felf-love, is an equal
judge of what is fit for him } and I fhall endeavour to
remember, that it is not the fhort part we aft, but the
manner of our performance, which gains or lofes us the
applaufe of Him who is finally to decide of all human
aftions. My lord, I am juft now employed in tranf-
lating from the French, a Hiftory of the Life of the
late archbifhop of Cambray ) and I wTas thinking to
beg the honour of your lordfhip’s name to proteft a
work which will have fo much need of it. The ori¬
ginal is not yet publifhed. ’Tis written by the author
of the Difcourfe upon Epic Poetry, in the new edi¬
tion of Telemaque. As there are fome paffages in the
book of a particular nature, I dare not folicit* your
lordfhip to grant me the favour I have mentioned, till
you firft have perufed it. The whole is fhort, and
pretty fairly tranferibed. If your lordfhip could find
a fpare hour to look it over, I would wait upon your
lordfhip with it, as it may poffibly be no unpleafing
entertainment. I fhould humbly afk your lordfhip’s
pardon for fo long an addrefs in a feafon of fo much
bufinefs. But when fhould I be able to find a time ia
which your lordfhip’s goodnefs is not employed ? I an^
with perfeft refpeft and duty, my lord, your lordfhip’s
moft obliged, moft faithful, and moft obedient humble
fervant, Nathaniel Hooke.” The tranflation here
fpoken of was afterwards printed in i2mo, I723* From
this period till his death, Mr Hooke enjoyed the con¬
fidence and patronage of men not lefs diftinguifhed by
virtue than by titles. In 17.. he publifhed a tranf-
latioo.
HOC [ 595 ] H O O
Hooke, lation of Ramfay’s Travels of Cyrus, in 410 ; in 1733
■“-v*"-*"1 he revifed a tranflation of “ The Hiilory of the Con-
queft of Mexico by the Spaniards, by Thomas Tovvn-
fend, Efq 5” printed in 2 vols 8vo ; and in the lame
year he publiihed, in 4to,. the firft volume of “ The
Roman Hiftory, from the building of Rome to the
ruin of the Commonwealth •, illuftrated with maps and
other plates.” In the dedication to this volume, Mr
Hooke took the opportunity of “ publicly tellifying
his juft efteem for a worthy friend, to whom he had
been long and much obliged,” by telling Mr Pope,
that the difplaying of his name at the head of thole
Iheets was “ like the hanging out a fplendid fign, to
catch the traveller’s eye, and entice him to make trial
of the entertainment the place affords. But, (he pro¬
ceeds), when I can write under my fign, that Mr
Pope has been here, and -was content, who will que-
ftion the goodnefs of the houfe ?” The volume is in¬
troduced by “ Remarks on the Hiftory of the Seven
Roman Kings, cccafioned by Sir Ifaac Newton’s ob¬
jections to the fuppofed 244 years duration of the
royal ftate of Rome.” PUs nervous pen was next em¬
ployed in digefting “ An Account of the conduct of
the Dowager-duchefs of Marlborough, from her firft
coming to court to the year 17x0, in a Letter from
herfelf to Lord in 1742,” 8vo. His reward on
this occafion was confiderable •, and the reputation he
acquired by the performance much greater. The cir-
cumftances of this tranfadlion are thus related by Dr
Maty, in his Memoirs of Lord Chefterfield, vol. i.
p. 116. “ The relidl of the great duke of Marlbo¬
rough, being defirous of fubmitting to pofterity her
political conduct, as well as her lord’s, applied to the
earl of Chefterfield for a proper perfon to receive her
information, and put the memoirs of her life into a
proper drefs. Mr Hooke was recommended by him
for that purpofe. He accordingly waited upon the
duchefs, while Ihe was ftill in bed, oppreffed by the
infirmities of age. But, knowing who he was, Are
immediately got herfelf lifted up, and continued fpeak-
ing during fix hours. She de!ive*-ed to him, without
any notes, her account in the moft lively as well as
the moft connected manner. As lire was not tired her¬
felf, Ihe would have continued longer the bufinefs of
this firft fitting, had not fhe perceived that Mr Hooke
was quite exhaufted, and wanted refrefhment as well as
reft. So eager was (lie for the completion of the
Work, that (he infilled upon Mr Hooke’s not leaving
her houfe till he had finilhed it. This -was done in a
fhort time ; and her Grace was fo well pleafed with
the performance, that fhe complimented the author
with a prefent of yocol. a fum which far exceeded his
expedtations. As foon as he was free, and permitted
to quit the houfe of his benefadlrefs, he haftened to
the earl, to thank him for his favour, and communi¬
cate to him his good fortune. The perturbation of
mind he was under, occafioned by the ftrong fenfe of
his obligation, plainly appeared in his ftammering out
his acknowledgments : and he, who had fucceeded fo
well as the interpreter of her Grace’s fentiments, could
fcarcely utter his own.” The fecond volume of his
Roman hiftory appeared in 1745', when Mr Hooke
embraced the fair occafion of congratulating his wor¬
thy friend the earl of Marchmont, on “ that true
glory, the confenting praife of the honeft and the
wife,” which his lordlhip had fo early acquired. To Hkok
the fecond volume Mr Hooke added “ The Capitoiine ^
Marbles, or Coniular Calenders, an ancient Monument
accidentally difeovered at Rome in the year 1545,, du¬
ring the Pontificate of Paul III.” Ift 1758 Mr Hooke
publiflied Obfervations on, L The Anfwer of M.
1’Abbe de Vertot to the earl of Stanhope’s Inqui¬
ry concerning the Senate of ancient Rome: dated
December 1716. II. A Differtation upon the Con-
ftitution of the Roman Senate, by a Gentleman : pu-
blifhed in 1743. III. A Treatife on the Roman
Senate, by Dr Conyers Middleton: publilhed in 1747.
IV. An Effay on the Roman Senate, by Dr Thomas
Chapman: publilhed in 1750;” which he with great
propriety inferibed to Mr Speaker Onllow. The third
volume of Mr Hooke’s Roman Hiftory to the end
of the Gallic war, was printed under his infpe6lion
before his laft illnefs ; but did not appear til! after his
death, which happened in 1764. The fourth and laft
volume was publiftied in 1771. Hr Hooke left two
fons •, of whom one is a divine of the church of Eng¬
land j the other, a doflor of the Sorbonne, and pro-
feffbr of aftronomy in that illuftrious feminary.
HOOKER, John, a//as Vowell, was born in
Exeter, about the year 1524, the fecond fon of Ro¬
bert Hooker, who in 1529 was mayor of that city.
He w’as i.ftlrudled in grammar learning by Dr More-
man. vicar of Menhinit in Cornwall, and thence re¬
moved to Oxford } but to what college is uncertain.
Having left the univerfity, he travelled to Germany,.
and refided feme time at Cologne, where he kept ex-
ercifes in lawT, and probably graduated. Thence he
went to Strafburg, where he ftudied divinity under
the famous Peter Martyr. He now returned to Eng¬
land, and foon after vifited France, intending to pro¬
ceed to Spain and Italy ; but was prevented by a de¬
claration of war. Returning therefore again to Eng¬
land, he fixed his refidence in his native city, where,
having married, he w7as in 1 554 defied chamberlain,
being the firft perfon whe held that office, and in
1571 reprefented his fellow'-citizens in parliament. He
died in the year 1631, and w-as buried in the cathe¬
dral church at Exeter. He wrote, among other
wmrks, 1. Order and ufage of keeping of parliaments
in Ireland. 2. The events of comets or blazing liars,
made upon the fight of the comet Pagonia, which
appeared in November and December 1577. 3. An
addition to the chronicles of Ireland from 1546 to
1568 ; in the fecond volume of Holinffied’s chronicle.
4. A defeription of the city of Exeter-, and of the
fondrie affaults given to the fame ; Holinfti. chron.
vol. iii. 5. A book of enfigns. 6. Tranfiation of
the hiftory of the conqueft of Ireland from the Latin
of Giraldus Cambrenfis ; in Holinfh. chron. vol. ii.
7. Synopjts chorographica, or an hiftorical record of the
province of Devon y never printed.
Hooker, Richard, a learned divine, was born at
Heavy-tree, near Exeter, in the year 155.3. Some
of his anceftors were mayors of that city, and he was
nephew to 'John Hooker the hillorian. By this uncle
he was firft fupported at the univerfity of Oxford, with
the addition of a fmall penfion from Dr Jewel, bithop
of Saliftmry, who in 1561 got him admitted one of the
clerks of Corpus-Chrifti college. In 1573 die was defi¬
ed fcholar. In 1577 he took the degree of mailer of
4 F 2 arts,
H O O [ 596 ] H O O
arts, and was admitted fellow the fame year. In July
1379, was appointed deputy profeifor of the Hebrew
language. In Oftobcr, in the fame year, he was for
lome trivial mifdemeanor expelled the college, but was
immediately reflored. In 1581 betook orders; and,
being appointed to preach at St Paul’s crofs, he came
to London, where he was unfortunately drawn into a
marriage with Joan Churchman, the termagant daugh¬
ter of his hoilefs. Having thus loft his feliowftup, he
continued in the utmoft diftrefs till the year 1584,
when -be was prefented by John Cheny, Efq. to the
rectory of Drayton-Beaucham in Buckinghamlhire. In
this retirement he was vifited by Mr Edwin Sandys,
and Mr George Cranmer, his former pupils. They
found him, with a Horace in his hand, tending fome
ftieep in the common field, his fervant having been or¬
dered home by his fweet Xantippe. They attended him
to his houfe *, but were foon deprived of his company
by an order, from his wife Joan, for him to come and
rock the cradle. Mr Sandys’s reprefentation to his
father, of his tutor’s fituation, procured him the maf-
terfhip of the Temple. In this fituation he met
with confiderable moleftation from one Travers, lec¬
turer of the iemple, and a bigoted Puritan, who in
the afternoon endeavoured to confute the doftrine de¬
livered in the morning. From this difagre^able fitua¬
tion he folicited Archbilhop Whitgift to remove him to
fome country retirement, where he might profecute
his ftudies in tranquillity. Accordingly, in 1591, he
obtained the redlory of Bofcomb in Wiltfhire, toge¬
ther with a prebend in the church of Salilbury, of
which he was alfo made fub-dean. In 1594 he wras
prefented to the reftory of Biftiopfbourne in Kent,
where he died in the year 1600. He was buried in
his own parifti-church, where a monument was ere£f-
ed to his memory by William Cooper, Efq. He was
a meek, pious, and learned divine. He wrote, 1. Ec-
clefiaftical politic, in eight books folio. 2. A difcourfe
of juftification, &c. with two other fermons, Oxford
161 2, qto. Alfo feveral other fermons printed with
the Ecclefiaftical Politic.
Hooker, in naval architeflure, a velfel much ufed
by the Dutch, built like a pink, but rigged and mailed
like a hoy.—Hookers wull lie nearer a wind than vef-
lels with crofs-fails can do. They are from 50 to 200
tons burden, and with a few hands wull fail to the
Eaft Indies.
HOOP, a piece of pliant wTood, or iron, bent into
a circular form, commonly ufed for fecuring calks, &c.
Driving a Hoop, a boyilh exercife, of good effe£t in
rendering the limbs pliable, and for ftrengthening the
nerves.
HOOPER, John, bilhop of Worcefter, and a mar¬
tyr in the Proteftant caufe, was born in Somerfetlhire,
and educated at Oxford, probably in Merton-college.
In 1518 he took the degree of bachelor of arts, and
afterwards became a Ciltercian monk ; but at length,
dilliking his fraternity, he returned to Oxford, and
there became infefted with Lutheranifm. In 1539 he
was made chaplain and houfe-fteward to Sir John Arun¬
del, who afterwards fuffered with the prote61or in the
reign of Edward VI. But that very catholic knight, as
Wood calls him, difcovering his chaplain to be a here¬
tic, Hooper was obliged to leave the kingdom. After
cgntmuing feme time in France, he returned to Eng¬
land, and lived w ith a gentleman called Seintlow: but Hooping-
being again difeovered, he efcaped in the habit of a cough
failor to Ireland ; thence embarked for the continent, ^
and fixed his abode in Switzerland.—When King Ed- 1 J
ward came to lire crown, Mr Hooper returned once
more to his native country. In 1550, by his old pa¬
tron Sir John Arundel’s intereft with the earl of War¬
wick, he w^as confecrated bilhop of Glouceftcr ; and in
1552 w’as nominated to the fee of Worcefter, which he
held in cothmendam with the former. But Oueen Mary
had fcarce afeended the throne, before his lordlhip was
imprifoned, tried, and, not choofing to recant, condemn¬
ed to the fiames. He fullered this terrible death at
Gloucefter, on the 9th of February 1554, being then
near 60 years of age. He was an avowed enemy to
the church of Rome, and not perfedtly reconciled to
w hat he thought remnants of Popery in the church of
England. In the former reign he had been one of
Bonner’s accufers, which fufticiently accounts for his
being one of Queen Mary’s firft facrifices to the holv
fee. He was a perfon of good parts and learning, as
may be found in Fox’s Book of Martyrs.
Hooper, George, a very learned writer, bilhop of
Bath and Wells, was well fkilled in mathematics, and
in the eaftern learning and languages. He fat in thofe
fees above 25 years, often refufed a feat in the privy
council, and could not be prevailed upon to accept of
the bilhopric of London on the death of Bilhop Comp¬
ton. He wrote, I. The church of England free from
the imputation of Popery. 2. A difcourfe concerning
Lent. 3. New danger of Prelbytery. 4. An enquiry
into the ftate of the ancient meafures. 5. De Va/en-
tinidnorum hcereji conjctiurrc. 6. Several lermons; and
other works.
HOOPING-cough. See Medicine Index.
HOOPOE. See Upupa, Ornithology Index.
HOP, in Botany. See Humulus, Botany Index.
Hops were firft brought into England from the Ne¬
therlands in the year 1524. They are firft mentioned
in the Englilh ftatute-book in the year 1552, viz. in
the 5 and 6 of Edw. VI. cap. 5. And by an ad of
parliament of the firft year of King James I. anno 1603,
cap. 18. it appears, that hops were then produced in
abundance in England.
The hop being a plant of great importance in the
article of brewing, wre Ihall conlider what relates to the
culture and management of it, under the following
heads :
Of Soil. As for the choice of "their hop grounds,
they efteem the richeft and ftrongeft grounds the moft
proper : and if it be rocky wdthin two or three feet
of the furface the hops will profper w'cll; but they
will by no means thrive on a lliff clay or fpongy wet
land.
The Kentifh planters account new7 land beft for
hops; they plant their hop gardens with apple-trees at
a large diftance, and with cherry-trees between ; and
when the land hath done its beft for hops, which they
reckon it will in about 10 years, the trees may begin
to bear. The clierry-trees laft about 30 years; and by
that time the apple-trees are large, they cut down the
cherry-trees.
The ElTex planters account a moory land the moft
proper for hops.
As to the fituation of a hop-ground, one that in¬
clines
HOP [ 597 ] HOP
dines to the fouth or weft is the moft eligible ; but if
it be expofed to the north-eaft or fouth-weft winds, there
ftiould be a Ihelter of fome trees at a diftance, becaufe
the north-eaft winds are apt to nip the tender (hoots in
the fpring ; and the fouth-weft winds frequently break
and blow' down the poles at the latter end of the fum-
mer, and very much endanger the hops.
In the winter-time provide your foil and manure for
the hop-ground agauift the following fpring.
If the dung be rotten, mix it with two or three parts
of common earth, and let it incorporate together till
you have occafion to make ufe of it in making your
hop hills ; but it it be new dung, then let it be mixed
as before till the fpring in the next year, for new dung
is very injurious to hops.
Dung of all forts wras formerly more commonly
made ule of than it is now, efpecially wThen rotted and
turned to mould, and they who have no other manure
muft ufe it j which if they do, cows or hogs dung, or
human ordure mixed with mud, may be a proper com-
poft, becaufe hops delight moft in a manure that is
cool and moift.
Planting. Hops require to be planted in a fituation
fo open, as that the air may freely pafs round and be¬
tween them, to dry up and diftipate the moifture,
whereby they will not be fubjecft to fire-blafts, which
often deftroy the middles of large plantations while the
outftdes remain, unhurt.
As for the preparation of the ground for planting, it
Ihould, in the preceding winter, be ploughed and har¬
rowed even ; and then lay upon it in heaps a good
quantity of frefti rich earth, or w’ell-rotted dung and
earth mixed together, fufficient to put half a bufhel in
every hole to plant the hops in, unlefs the natural
ground be very frefti and good.
The hills where the hops are to be planted ftiould
be eight or nine feet afunder, that the air may freely
pafs between them 5 for in clofe plantations they are
very fubjecl to what the hop-planters call the Jire-
blajl.
If the ground is intended to be ploughed with horfes
between the hills, it wall be beft to plant them in fquares
checquerwife ; but if the ground is fo fmall that it may
be done wuth the breaft-plough or fpade, the holes
fhould be ranged in a quincunx form. Which way fo-
ever you make ufe of, a flake fhould be ftuck down at
all the placos where the hills are to be made.
Perfons ought to be very curious in the choice of
the plants as to the kind of hop j for if the hop-garden
be planted with a mixture of feveral forts of hops that
ripen at feveral times, it will caule a great deal of trou¬
ble, and be a great detriment to the owmer.
The two beft forts are the white and the gray bind 5
the latter is a large fquare hop, more hardy, and is
the more plentiful bearer, and ripens later than the
former.
1 here is alfo another fort of the white bind, which
ripens a week or ten days before the common •, but
tins is tenderer, and a lefs plentiful bearer ; but it has
this advantage, that it comes firft to market.
But if three gr@unds, or three diftant parts of one
ground, be planted with thefe three forts, there will
be this conveniency, that they may be picked fuccef-
ftvely as they become ripe. The fets ftiould be five
cr fix inches long, with three or more joints or buds
on them.
If there be a fort of hop you value, and would in-
creafe plants and fets from, the fuperfluous binds may
be laid down when the hops are tied, cutting off the
tops, and burying them in the hill } or when the hops
are dreffed, all the cuttings may be faved 5 for almoft
every part will grow, and become a good fet the next
fpring.
As to the feafons of planting hops, the Kentifh
planters beft approve the months of Ocftober and
March, both which fometimes fucceed very well ; but
the fets are not to'be had in Ohtober, unlefs from
fome ground that is to be deftroyed 5 and likewife there
is fome danger that the fets may be rotted, if the wun-
ter prove very wet \ therefore the moft ufual time of
procuring them is in March, w'hen the hops are cut
and dreffed.
As to the manner of planting the fets, there fliould
be five good fets planted in every hill, one in the
middle, and the reft round about Hoping, the tops
meeting at the centre ; they muft ftand even with the
furface of the ground 5 let them be preffed clofe with
the hand, and covered with fine earth, and a flick
fhould be placed on each fide the hill to fecure it.
The ground being thus planted, all that is to be
done more during that fummer, is to keep the hills
clear from weeds, and to dig up the ground about the
month of May, and to raife a fmall hill round about the
plants. In June you muft twift the young bind or
branches together into a bunch or knot ; for if they
are tied up to fmall poles the firft year, in order to
have a few hops from them, it will not countervail the
weakening of the plants.
A mixture of compoft or dung being prepared for
your hop-ground, the beft time for laying it on, if the
weather prove dry, is about Michaelmas, that the wheels
of the dung-cart may not injure the hops, nor furrow
the. ground : if this be not done then, you muft be
obliged to wait till the froft has hardened the ground$
fo as to bear the dung-cart ; and this is alfo the time
to carry on your new poles, to recruit thofe that are
decayed, and to be call out every year.
If you have good (lore of dung, the- beft way will
be to fpread it in the alleys all aver the ground, and
to «lig it in the winter following. The quantity they
will require will be 40 loads to an acre, reckoning
about 30 bufhels to the load.
If you have not dung enough to cover all the ground
in one year, you may lay it on one part one year, and
on the reft in another, or a third ; for there is no occa¬
fion to dung the ground after this manner oftener than
once in three years.
. Thofe who have but a fmall quantity of dung, ufu-
ally content themfelves with laying on about twenty
loads upon an acre every year ; this they lay only on
the hills, either about November, or in the fpring j
which laft fome account the beft time, when the hops
are dreffed, to cover them after they are cut ; but if it
be done at this time, the compoft or dung ought to be
very well rotted and fine.
DneJJing. . As to the dreffing of the hops, w'hen the
hop-ground.is dug in January or February, the earth
about the hills, and very near them, ought to be taken
away
H O P
t 598 ]
HOP
Hops.
away with a fpade, that you may corns the more con-
veniently at the flock to cut it.
About the end of February, if the hops were plant¬
ed the fpring before, or if the ground be weak, they
ought to be drcffed in dry weather 5 but ede, if the
ground be ftrong and in perfection, the middle of
March will be a good time : and the latter end of
March, if it be apt to produce over-rank binds, or the
beginning of April, may be foon enough.
Then having with an iron picker cleared away all the
earth out of the hills, fo as to clear the flock to the
principal roots, with a ftrarp knife you muft cut off all
the flioots which grew up with the binds the laft year j
and alfo all the young fuckers, that none be left to run
in the alley, and weaken the hill. It wall be proper
to cut one part of the flock lower than the other, and
alfo to cut that part low that was left highelt the pre¬
ceding year. By purfuing this method you may expett
to have ftronger buds, and alfo keep the hill in good
order.
In dreffing thofe hops that have been planted the
vear before, you ought to cut off both the dead tops
and tne young fuckers which have fprung up from the
lets, and alfo to cover the flocks with fine earth a fin¬
ger’s length in thicknefs.
The poling. About the middle of April the hops
are to be poled, when the (hoots begin to fprout up }
the poles muft be fet to the hills deep into the ground,
with a fquare iron picker or crow, that they may the
better endure the winds j three poles are fufficient for
one hill. Thefe (hould be placed as near the hill as may
be, with their bending tops turned outwards from the
hill, to prevent the binds from entangling; and a fpace
between two poles ought to be left open to the fouth
to admit the fun-beams.
The poles ought to be in length 16 or 20 feet,
more or lefs according as the ground is in ftrength •,
and great care muft be taken not to overpole a young
or weak ground, for that will draw the flock too much,
and weaken it. If a ground he overpoled, you are not
to expedl a good crop from it; for the branches which
bear the hops will growr very little till the binds have
over-reached the poles, which they cannot do when the
poles are too long. I wo fmall poles are fufhcient for
a ground that is young.
If you wait till the fprouts or young binds are grown
to the length of a foot, you will be able to make a bet¬
ter judgement where to place the largeft poles 5 but if
you flay till they are fo long as to fall into the alleys,
it will be injurious to them, becaufe they will entangle
one wuth another, and will not clafp about the pole
readily.
Maple or afpen poles are accounted the bed for
hops, on which they are thought to profper beft, be¬
caufe of their warmth •, or elfe, becaufe the climbing
of the hop is promoted by means of the roughnefs
of the bark. But for durability, aftien or willow poles
are preferable ; but chefnut poles are the moft durable
of all.
If after the hops are grown up you find any of
them have been under-poled, taller poles may be pla¬
ced nearer thole that are too thort to receive the binds
from them.
The Ujeing. As to the tying of hops, the buds that
do not clafp of themfelves to the neareft pole when
3
they are grown to three or four feet high, muft be
guided to it by the hand, turning them to the fun,
whofe courfe they will always follow. I hey muft be
bound with withered ruffles, but not fo clofe as to hin¬
der them from climbing up the pole.
This you muft continue to do till all the poles are
fuvniihed with binds, of which two or three are enough
for a pole; and all the fprouts and binds that you have
no occafion for are to be plucked up ; but if the
ground be young, then none of thefe ufelefs binds
(hould be plucked up, but ftiould be v/rapt up together
in the middle of the hill.
When the binds are grown beyond the reach of your
hands, if they forfake the poles, you thould make ufe
of a ftand-ladder in tying them up.
Towards the latter end of May, when you have
made an end of tying them, the ground muft have
the fummer drefling : this is done by calling up with
the fpade fome fine earth into every hill ; and a month
after this is done, you muft hoe the alleys with a
Dutch hoe, and make the hills up to a convenient
biguefs.
Gathering. About the middle of July hops begin to
blow, and will be ready to gather about Bartholomew
Tide. A judgment may be made of their ripenefs by
their ftrong fcent, their hardnefs, and the brownilh co¬
lour of their feed.
When by thefe tokens they appear to be ripe, they
muft be picked with all the expedition poflible; for if
at this time a ftorm of wind (hould come, it would do
them great damage by breaking the branches, and
bruifing and difcolouring the hops ; and it is very well
known that hops, being picked green and bright, will
fell for a third part more than thofe which are difco-
loured and brown.
The moft convenient way of picking them is into a
long fquare frame of wood, called a bin, with a cloth
hanging on tenter-hooks within it, to receive the hops
as they are picked.
The frame is compofed of four pieces of wood join¬
ed together, fupported by four legs, wuth a prop at
each end to bear up another long piece of wood pla¬
ced at a convenient height over the middle of the bin ;
this ferves to lay the poles upon which are to be
picked.
The bin is commonly eight feet long, and three
feet broad ; two poles may be laid on it at a time, and
fix or eight perfons may work at it, three or four on
each fide.
It will be beft to begin to pick the hops on the eaft
or north fide of your ground, if you can do it conve¬
niently ; this will prevent the fouth-weft wind from
breaking into the garden.
Having made choice of a fpot of the ground con¬
taining 11 hills fquare, place the bin upon the hill
which is in the centre, having five hills on each fide ;
and when thefe hills are picked, remove the bin into
another piece of ground of the fame extent, and fo pro¬
ceed till the whole hop-ground is finifhed.
When the poles are drawn up to be picked, you
muft take great care not to cut the binds too near the
hills, efpecially when the hops are green, becaufe it will
make the fap to flow exceffively.
The hops muft be picked very clean i. e. free from
leaves and ftalks ; and, as there (hall be occafion, two
or
Hops,
HOP f 599 ] HOP
Hop!, or three times in a day the bin muft be emptied into a
—hop-bag made of coarfe linen cloth, and carried imme¬
diately to the oaft or kiln in order to be dried 5 for if
they fhould be long in the bin or bag, they will be apt
to heat and be diicoloured.
If the weather be hot, there fhould no more poles
be drawn than can be picked in an hour, and they
ihould be gathered in fair weather, if it can be, and
when the hops are dry ; this will lave fome expence in
firing, and preferve their colour better when they are
dried.
The crop of hops being thus bellowed, you are to
take care of the poles againft another year, which are
bell to be laid up in a fhed, having firit liripped off the
haulm from them ; but if you have not that conveni*
ency, fet up three poles in the form of a triangle, or
fix poles (as you pleafe) wade at bottom ; and having
let them into the ground, with an iron picker, and
bound them together at the top, fet the reft of your
poles about them •, and being thus difpofed, none but
thole on the outlide will be fubjedl to the injuries of
the weather, for all the inner poles will be kept dry,
unlefs at the top ; whereas, if they were on the ground,
they would receive more damage in a fortnight than by
their Handing all the reft of the year.
Drying. The beft method of drying hops is with
charcoal on an oaft or kiln, covered with hair-cloth, of
the lame form and falhion that is ufed for drying malt.
There is no need to give any particular directions for
making thefe, fince every carpenter or bricklayer in
thofe countries where hops grow, or malt is made, knows
how to build them.
The kiln ought to be fquare, and may be of 10, I 2,
14, or 16 feet over at the top, where the hops are
laid, as your plantation requires, and your room will
allow. There ought to be a due proportion between
the height and breadth of the kiln and the beguels of
the fteddle where the fire is kept, viz. if the kiln be
12 feet fquare on the top, it ought to be nine feet,
and a half fquare, and fo proportionable in other di-
menfions.
The hops muft be fpread even upon the oaft a foot
thick or more, if the depth of the curb will allow- it 5
but care is to be taken not to overload the oaft if the
hops be green or wet.
The oaft ought to be firft wrarmed with a fire before
the hops are laid on, and then an even fteady fire muft
be kept under them •, it muft not be too fierce at firft,
left it fcorch the hops, nor muft it be fuffered to fink
or fiacken, but rather be increafed till the hops be
nearly dried, left the moifture or fweat which the fire
has raifed fall back or difcolour them. When they
have lain about nine hours they muft be turned, and in
two or three hours more they may be taken off the
oaft. It may be known when they are well dried by
the brittlenefs of the ftalks and the eafy falling off of
the hop leaves.
It is found by experience that the turning of hops,
though it be after the moft eafy and beft manner, is
not only an injury or wafte to the hops, but alfo an ex¬
pence of fuel and time, becaufe they require as much
fuel and as long a time to dry a fmall quantity, by
turning them, as a large one. Now this may be pre¬
vented by having a cover (to be let down and raifed
at pleafure) to the upper bed whereon the hops lie.
This cover may alfo be tinned, by nailing {ingle tin
plates over the face of it j fo that when the hops begin
to dry, and are ready to burn, i. e. when the greateft
part of their moifture is evaporated, then the cover may
be let down within a foot or lefs of the hops (like a
reverberatory), which will relleCl the heat upon them,
fo that the top w-ill foon be as dry as the lowermoft,
and every hop be equally dried.
Bagging. As foon as the hops are t^ken off the
kiln, lay them in a room for three weeks or a
month to cool, give, and toughen ; for if they are bag¬
ged immediately they will powder, but if they lie a
while (and the longer they lie the better, provided they
be covered clofe with blankets to fecure them from the
air) they may be bagged with more fafety, as not be¬
ing liable to be broken to powder in treading ; and this
will make them bear treading the better, and the harder
they are trodden the better they will keep.
The common method of bagging is as follows : they
have a hole made in an upper floor, either round or
fquare, large enough to receive a hop-bag, which con-
fifts of four ells and a half of ell-ivide cloth, and alfo
contains ordinarily two hundred and a half of hops j
they tie a handful of hops in each lower corner of the
bag to ferve as handles to it: and they fatten the
mouth of the bag, fo placed that the hoop may reft
upon the edges of the hole.
I hen he that is to tread the hops down into the
bag, treads the bag on every fide, another perfon con¬
tinually putting them in as he treads them till the bag
is full; which being w-ell filled and trodden, they unrip
the faftening of the bag to the hoops, and let it down,
and clofe up the mouth of the bag, tying up a handful
of hops in each corner of the mouth, as was done in
the lower part.
Hops being thus packed, if they have been well
dried, and laid up in a dry place, will keep good feve-
ral years ; but care muft be taken that they be neither
deft roved nor fpoiled by the mice making their nefts in
them.
Produce. I he charge of an acre of hop-ground in
moft parts of England where hops are cultivated, is
computed thus : three pounds for the hufbandry, four
pounds for the wear of the poles, five pounds for pick¬
ing and drying, one pound ten {hillings for dung, one
pound for rent, though in fome places they pay four or
five pounds an acre yearly for the rent of the land, and
ten ihillings for tythe j in all 15I. a-year. The hop-
planters in England reckon that they have but a mo¬
derate return, when the produce ot an acre of hops
does not fell for more than 3^1* They frequently
have fifty, fixty, eighty, or a hundred pounds ; and in
a time of general fcarcity confiderably more: fo that,
upon the whole, if the total charge of an acre of hops
is computed at fifteen pounds a-year, and its average
produce at thirty pounds^ the clear profit from an acre
will be fifteen pounds a-year. But the plantation of
hops has lately fo much ipcreafed, and the average
produce fo much exceeded the confumption, that hops
have been with many planters rather a lofing than a
very profitable article.
Ufes. In the fpring-Ume, while the bud is yet ten¬
der, the tops of the plant being cut off, and boiled, are
ate like afparagus, and found very wholefome, and ef-
feffual to loofen the body ; the heads and tendrils are
HOP [ 600 ] H O R
good to purify tire blood in the (curvy, and moil cuta¬
neous difeafes ; decodlions of the flowers, and fyrups
thereof, are of ufe a gain (l peftilential fevers ; juleps
and apozems are alfo prepared with hops for hypo¬
chondriacal and hyfterical affections, and to promote
the menfes.
A pillow (luffed with hops and laid under the head,
is faid to procure deep in fevers attended with a deli¬
rium. But the principal ufe of hops is in the brew¬
ery for the prefervation of malt liquors j which by the
fuperaddition of this balfamic, aperient, ana diuretic
bitter, become lefs vifeid, lefs apt to turn four, more
detergent, more difpofed to pafs off by urine, and in
general more falubrious. They are fnid to contain an
agreeable odoriferous principle, which promotes the vi¬
nous fermentation. When (lightly boiled or infufed
in warm water, they increafe its fpirituofity.
Laws relating to Hors. By 9 Anne, cap. I 21. ah
additional duty of 3d. a pound is laid on all hops im¬
ported, over and above all other duties and hops
landed before entry and payment of duty, or without
warrant for landing, fhall be forfeited and burnt 5 the
(hip alfo fhall be forfeited, and the perfon concerned in
importing or landing fhall forfeit 5I. a hundred weight •,
7 Geo. II. cap. 19. By 9 Anne, cap. 12. there fhall
be paid a duty of id. for every pound of hops grown
in Great Britain, and made fit for ufe, within fix
months after they are cured and bagged •, and bop-
grounds are required to be entered on pain of 40s. an
acre. Places of curing and keeping are alio to be en¬
tered, on pain of 50I. which may be vifited by an offi¬
cer at any time without obftrudlion, under the penalty
of 20I. All hops fhall, within fix weeks after gather¬
ing, be brought to fuch places to be cured and bagged,
on pain of 5s. a pound. The rebagging of foreign
hops in Britifh bagging for fale or exportation, incurs
a forfeiture of 10I. a hundred weight *, and defrauding
the king of his duty by ufing twice or oftener the fame
bag, with the officer’s mark upon it, is liable to a pe¬
nalty of 40I. The removal of hops before they have
been bagged and weighed, incurs a penalty of 50I.
Concealment of hops fubjefts to the forfeituie of 20I.
and the concealed hops 5 and any perfon w7ho fhall pri¬
vately convey away any hops, with intent to defraud
the king and owner, fhall forfeit 5s. a pound. And
the duties are required to be paid within fix months
after curing, bagging, and weighing, on pain of double
duty, two-thirds to the king, and one-third to the in¬
former. No common brewer, &c. fhall ufe any bitter
ingredient inflead of hops, on pain of 20I. Hops
which have paid the dnty may be exported to Ireland j
but by 6 Geo. II. cap. 1. there fhall be no drawback *,
and by 7 Geo. II. cap. 19. no foreign hops fhall be
landed in Ireland. Notice of bagging and weighing
(hall be fent in writing to the officer, on pain of 50I.
6 Geo. cap. 21. And by 14 Geo. III. cap. 68. the
officer (hall, on pain of 5I. w7eigh the bags or pockets,
and mark on them the true weight or tare, the planter’s
name and place of abode, and the date of the year
in which fuch hops were grown 5 and the altering or
forging, or obliterating fuch mark, incurs a forfeiture
of 1 ok—The owners of hops fhall keep at their oafts,
8ec. juft weights and feales, and permit the officer to
ufe them on pain of 20I. 6 Geo. cap. 21. And by
10 Geo. III. cap. 44. a penalty of 100k is inflifted
3
for falie feales and weights. The owners are allowed Hope
to ufe cafks inftead of bags, under the fame regulations. II
6 Geo. cap. 21. If any perfon (hall mix wuth hops HoraPol*Q .
any drug to alter the colour or feent, he (hall forfeit
5k a hundred w'eight. If any perfon fhall unlawfully
and malicioufiy cut hop binds growing on poles in any
plantation, he fhall be guilty of felony without benefit
of clergy. 6 Geo. II. cap. 37.
HOPE, in Et/u'cs, is the defire of fome good, attend¬
ed with a belief of the poflibility at lead, of obtaining
it, and enlivened with joy, greater or lefs, according to
the greater or lefs probability of our poffeffing the ob-
je£t of our hope. Alexander, preparing for his Allan
expedition, dillributed his hereditary dominions among
his friends ; allotting to fome villages, to Others bo¬
roughs, to others cities *, and being afked what he had
referved for himfelf, replied, Hope.
Hope, Good, Cape of. See Good Hope.
HOPEA, a genus of plants belonging to the poly-
delphia clafs. See Botany Index.
HOPIATES, Hoplita: (formed of esrAe* armour),-
in antiquity, were fuch of the candidates at the Olympic
and other (acred games as ran races in armour.
One of the fineft pieces of the famous Parrhafius
was a painting which reprefented two hoplites ; the
one running, and feeming to fweat large drops} the
other laying his arms down, as quite fpent and out of
breath.
HOPLITODROMOS (formed of armour-,
and I run), in the ancient' gymnaftic fports, a
term applied to fuch perfons as went through thofe
toilfome and robuft exercifes in complete armour ; by
which the exercife became much more violent, and the
wearing of armour in the time of battle much more
eafy.
HOPLOMACHI, OTtXty.a.-gti (compofed of
armour, and px-gopou If git), in antiquity, were a fpe-
cies of gladiators who fought in armour ; either com¬
pletely armed from head to foot, or only with a calk and
cuirafs.
HOPPER, a veffel in which feed-corn is carried at
the time of fowing.
The word is alfo ufed for that wooden trough in a
mill, into which the corn is put to be ground.
HOR, a mountain, or mountainous tra<ft of Arabia
Petraea, fituated in that circuit which the Ifraelites
took to the fouth and fouth-eaft of Edom in their way
to the borders of Moab : on this mountain Aaron
died. The inhabitants were called Hordes. Thistradl
was alfo called Seir, either from a native Horite, or
from Efau, by way of anticipation from his hairy
habit of body j whofe pofterity drove out the Ho-
rites.
HORAE See Hours.
HOR ALA, in antiquity, folemn facrifices, confid¬
ing of fruits, &c. oftered in fpiing, fummer, autumn,
and winter ; that heaven might grant mild and
temperate weather. Thefe, according to Meurfius,
were offered to the goddeffes called i. e. Hours,
who were three in number, attended upon the Sun,
prefided over the four feafons of the year, and had di¬
vine worfhip paid them at Athens.
HORAPOLLO, or Horus Apollo, a gramma¬
rian of Panaplus in Egypt, according to Suidas, who
firft taught at Alexandria, and then at Conitantinople
under
H O R
ftVatii under tire reign of Theodofius. There are extant, un-
II der his name, two books on the hieroglyphics of the
a[or(*' , Egyptians : w-hich Aldus firft publilhed in Greek in
’"’~v 1505, in folio; and they have often been publilhed
fmce, wdth a Latin verfion and notes. It is not cer¬
tain, however, that the grammarian of Alexandria
was the author of thefe books; they being rather
thought to belong to another Horapollo of more an¬
cient date : on which head, fee Fabriaus',s Bibliotheca
Greeca.
HORATII, three Roman brothers, who, under the
reign of Tullus Hoftilius, fought againlt the three
Curiatii, who belonged to the Alban army. Two
of the Horatii w7ere firft killed; but the third, by his
addrefs, fueceflively flew the three Curiatii, and by
this vidlory rendered the city of Alba fubjedl to the
Romans. See Rome.
HORATTUS, furnamed Codes from his lofing an
eye in combat, was nephew to the conful Horatius
Pulvillus, and defcended from one of the three bro¬
thers w7ho fought againft the Curiatii. Porfenna,
laying liege to Rome, drove the Romans from Janicu-
lum ; and purfued them to the w7ooden bridge over the
Tiber, which joined the city to Janiculum. Largius,
Herminius, and Horatius Codes, fuftained the Ihock
of the enemy on the bridge, and prevented their en¬
tering the city with the Romans; but Largius and
Herminius having palled the bridge, Horatius Codes
was left alone, and repulfed the enemy till the bridge
was broken under him : he then threw himfelf armed
into the Tiber, fwam acrofs the river, and entered Rome
hr triumph.
Horatius, Quintus F/accus, the moll excellent of
the Latin poets of the lyric and fatirical kind, and
the moll judicious critic in the reign of Auguftus, wras
the grandfon of a freedman, and was born at Venu-
fium 64 B. C. He had the belt mafters in Rome,
after which he completed his education at Athens.
Having taken up arms, he embraced the party of Bru¬
tus and Caflius, but left his Ihield at the battle of Phi¬
lippi. Some time after, he gave himfelf up entirely
to the ftudy of polite literature and poetry. His ta¬
lents foon made him known to Auguftus and Mecae-
nas, who had a particular efteem for him, and loaded
him with favours. Horace alfo contracted a ftridt
friendlhip with Agrippa, Pollio, Virgil, and all the
other great men of his time. He lived without ambi¬
tion, and led a tranquil and agreeable life with his
friends; but was fubjeCt to a defluxion in his eyes.
He died at the age of 57. There are ftill extant his
Odes, Epiftles, Satires, and Art of Poetry ; of which
there have been a great number of editions. The beft
are thofe of the Louvre, in 1642, folio; of Paris 1691,
quarto ; of Cambridge, 1699 ; and that with Bentley’s
emendations, printed at Cambridge in 1711.
HORD, in Geography, is ufed for a company of
wandering people, which have no fettled habitation,
but ftroll about, dwelling in w7aggons or under tents,
to be ready to (hift as foon as the herbage, fruit, and
the prefent province, is eaten bare : fuch are feveral
tribes of the Tartars, particularly thofe who inhabit
beyond the Wolga, in the kingdoms of Aftracan and
Bulgaria.
A hord confifts of 50 or 60 tents, ranged in a cir¬
cle, and leaving an open place in the middle. The in-
x Vol. X. Part II.
H O R
habitants in each hord ufualiy form a military company Hordeutu
or troop, the eldeft whereof is commonly the captain, j^ot.|^on
and depends on the general or prince of the whole na-: —^—-
tion.
HORDEUM, BARLEY, a genus of plants belonging
to the triandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 4th order, Gratnina. See Botant
Index.
HORDICALIA, or HorDNSidia, in antiquity, a
religious feaft held among the Romans, wherein they
facrificed cattle big with young. This feaft fell ■ on
April 1 j. on which day they facrificed 30 cows with
calf to the goddefs Tellus or the Earth ; part of them
were facrificed in the temple of Jupiter. Ihe calves
taken out of their bellies were burnt to allies at firft by
the pontifices, afterwards by the eldeft of the veftal
virgins.
HOREB, or Oreb, a mountain of Arabia Petraea,
contiguous to and on the fouth fide of Mount Sinai ;
the fcene of many miraculous appearances.
HORESTI (Tacitus), a people of Britain, beyond
Solway frith. Now E/hdale (Camden).
HORITES, an ancient people, who at the begin¬
ning dwelt in the mountains of Seir beyond Jordan
(Gen. xiv. 6.) They had princes, and were power¬
ful, even before Efau made a conqueft of their coun¬
try, (zi/. xxxvi. 20—30.) The Horites, the defcetid-
ants of Seir, and the Edomites, feem afterwards to
have been confounded, and to have compoied but one
people (Deut. ii. 2. xxxiii. 2. and Judg. v. 4.). rIhey
dwelt in Arabia Petraea, and Arabia Deferta, to the
fouth-eaft of the promifed land. We find the Hebrew
word 0"i;n Chorim, which in the book of Genefis is
tranflated Horites, to be ufed in an appellative fenfe in
feveral other paffages of fcripture, and to fignify no¬
bles, or great and powerful men (l Kings xxi. 8. II.
and Neh. ii. 16. iv. 14. v. 7. vi. 17. vii. 5. xii. 17. Eccl.
x. 17. Ifa. xxxiv. 12. Jer. xxvii. 20. xxxix. 6.) ; and it
is very probable that the Greeks derived from hence
their heroesf in like manner as they derived Anax “ a
king,” from the fons of Anak, the famous giant in
Paleftine.
HOREHOUND, the name of a plant. See Mar-
rubium, Botany Index.
HORIZON, or EIorison, in Geography and AJlro-
nomy, a great circle of the fphere, dividing the world
into two parts or hemifpheres; the one upper and
vifible, the other lower and hid. The word is pure
Greek, which literally fignifies “ bounding or
terminating the fight ;” being formed of termi-
no, dejinio, “ 1 bound, I limit whence it is alfo
called finitor, “ finifher.” See Astronomy and Geo¬
graphy.
The horizon is either rational ox fenjible.
Rational, true, or agronomical Horizon, which is al¬
fo called Amply and abfolutely the hons&on, is a great
circle, whofe plane paffes through the centre of the
earth, and whofe poles are the zenith and nadir. It
divides the fphere into tw@ equal parts or hemi¬
fpheres.
Senfible, 'djible, or apparent Horizon, is a leffer cir¬
cle of the fphere, which divides the vifible part of the
fphere from the invifible. Its poles, too, are the ze¬
nith and nadir : and confequently. the fenjible horizon
parallel to the rational; and it is cut at right angles,
4 G and
t 6=1 1
Horn.
H O R
Hoiizor.taland into two equal parts, by the verticals.
ble horixon is divided into enjiern and wejlern. The
i eaflern or or live horizon, is that part of the horizon
wherein the heavenly bodies rile. The wejiern or oc-
cidual horizon, is that wherein the ftars fet. The al¬
titude or elevation of any point of the fphere, is an
arch of a vertical circle intercepted between it and the
fenfible horizon.
By fenjible horizon is alfo frequently meant a circle,
which determines the fegment of the furface of the
earth, over which the eye can reach 5 called alfo the
pkyjical horizon. In this fenfe we fay, a fpacious hon-
zon, a narrow fcanty horizon.
HORIZONTAL, fomething that relates to the
horizon, is taken in the horizon, or on a level with
the horizon.—We fay, a horizontal plane, horizontal
line, &c.
Horizontal Dial, is that drawn on a parallel to the
horizon : having its gnomon, or ftyle, elevated accor¬
ding to the altitude of the pole of the place for which
it is deligned. Horizontal dials are, of all others, the
moft limple and eafy. The manner of deferibing them,
fee under the article Dial.
Horizontal Line, in PerfpeEhve, is a right line
drawm through the principal point, parallel to the ho¬
rizon : or, it is the interfedtion of the horizontal and
peripedlive planes. See PiiRSPJXTIVE.
Horizontal Plane, is that which is parallel to the
horizon of the place, or nothing inclined thereto.
The bulinefsof levelling is to find whether tw’o points
be in the horizontal plane j or how much the deviation
is. See Levelling.
Horizontal Plane, in PerfpeSlive, is a plane parallel
to the horizon, palling through the eye* and cutting
the perfpe&ive plane at right angles.
Horiz,ontal Projection. See Geography Index.
Horizontal Range, or Level Range, of a piece of
ordnance, is the line it deferibes, when dire&ed paral¬
lel to the horizon or horizontal line. See Gunnery,
pajjim.
Horizontal Moon. See Moon, Astronom? Index.
Horizontal Speculum. See Speculum.
HORMINUM, clary, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the didynamia clafs ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 5 2d order, Verticillatce. See Bota¬
ny Index.
HORN, in Phyjiology, a hard fubftance growing
on the heads of divers animals, particularly the cloven¬
footed quadrupeds ; and ferving them both as weapons
of offence and defence.
The horn of animals is of the fame nature as their
gelatinous matter j and is only that matter charged wuth
a lefs quantity of water, and a larger quantity of earth,
and fufficiently condenfed to have a firm and folid con¬
fidence. By digefling horn with water in Papin’s di-
gefier, it may be entirely converted into jelly.
Horn is a perfeftly animalifed matter, and furnifhes
in diflillation the fame principles as all animal matters j
that is, at firff a pure phlegm, with a degree of heat
not exceeding that of boiling water •, then a volatile al¬
kaline fpirit, which becomes more and more penetrat¬
ing and ftrong •, a fetid, light, and thin oil •, a con¬
crete volatile fait, which forms ramifications upon the
fides of the receiver •, much air $ fetid oil, which be¬
comes more and more black and thick} and laftly, it with the real tortoife-fhell.
[ 602 ] H o R
The fenji- leaves in the retort a confiderable quantity of almofl in-
combuftible coal, from which, after its incineration, '
fcarcely any fixed alkali can be obtained.
Animal oil, and particularly that which is drawm fird
in the didillation of horn, is fufceptible of acquiring
great thinnefs and volatility by repeated didillations,
and is then called the oil of dippel.
The horns of dags, and of other animals of that kind,
are the mod proper to furnidt the animal oil to be rec¬
tified in the manner of dippel •, becaufe they yield the
larged quantity. Thefe horns alfo differ from the horns
of other animals in this, that they contain a larger
quantity of the fame kind of earth which is in bones
hence they feem to poifefs an intermediate nature be¬
twixt horns and bones.
Hart's-HoRN. See HARHs-Horn.
Horns make a confiderable article in the arts and
manufadtures. Bullocks horns, foftened by the fire,
ferve to make lanthorns, combs, knives, ink-horns, to¬
bacco-boxes, &c.
Dyeing of Horn.—Black is performed by deeping
brafs in aquafortis till it be returned green : with this
the horn is to be wradied once or twice, and then put
into a warmed decodlion of logwood and water. Green
is begun by boiling it, Sec. in alum-w'ater ; then wdth
verdigrife, ammoniac, and white-wine vinegar j keep¬
ing it hot therein till fufficiently green. Red is begun
by boiling it in alum-w'ater 5 and finiffied by decodtion
in a liquor compounded of quick-lime deeped in rain
water, drained, and to every pint an ounce of Brazil¬
wood added. In this decodtion the bone, &c. is to be
boiled till fufficiently red.
Dr Lewis informs us that horns receive a deep black
dam from folution of diver. It ought to be diluted to
fuch a degree as not fenfibly to corrode the fubjedt ,
and applied two or three times, if neceffary, at confi¬
derable intervals, the matter being expofed as much as
poffible to the fun, to haden the appearance and deep¬
ening of the colour.
Dyeing or ft aining Horn to imitate Tortoife-fhell.—
The horn to be dyed mud be fird preffed into proper
plates, feales, or other flat form •, and the following
mixture prepared. Take of quick-lime tw7o parts, and
of litharge one part •, temper them together to the
confidence of a foft pade with foap-ley. Put this pade
over all the parts of the horn, except fuch as are pro¬
per to be left tranfparent, in order to give it a nearer
refemblance of the tortoife-fliell. The horn mud re¬
main in this manner covered with the pade till it be
thoroughly dry j wffien, the pade being bruffied ofl,
the horn will be found partly opaque and partly tranf¬
parent, in the manner of tortoife-ffiell ; and when put
over a foil, of the kind of latten called afidue, will be
fcarcely diflinguifliable from it. It requires fome de¬
gree of fancy and judgment to difpofe of the pade in
fuch a manner as to form a variety of tranfparent parts,
of different magnitudes and figures, to look like the
effect of nature : and it will be an improvement to add
femitranfparent parts • which may be done by mixing
whiting with fome of the pade to weaken its operation
in particular places j by which fpots of a reddifli browm
will be produced, which if properly interfperfed, efpe-
cially on the edges of the dark parts, will greatly in-
creafe both the beauty nf the work, and its fimilitude
Horn.
Horn
H O It
[ 6oj ]
H O It
Horn is alfo a fort of mufical inftrument of the wind
kind j chiefly ufed in hunting, to animate and bring
together the dogs and the hunters. The term ancient¬
ly was, wind a horn, all horns being in thofe times
compalled •, but fmce ftraight horns are come in faflnon,
they fay blow a horn, and fometimes found a horn.—■
There are various leifons on a horn 5 as the recheat,
•double recheat, royal recheat, running or farewell re¬
cheat, &'c. See Recheat.
The French horn is no other than a wreathed or
contorted trumpet. It labours under the fame defects
as the trunjpet itfelf j but theiehave of late been fo pal¬
liated, as to require no particular fele&ion of keys for
this inftrument. In the beginning of the year 1773’ a
foreigner, named Spandau, q.laved in a conceit at the
opera-houfe a concerto, part whereof was in the key of
C, with the minor-third } in the performance of which
all the intervals feemed to be as perfeft as in any wind-
inftrument. This improvement was effe&ed By putting
his right hand into the bottom or bell of the inftrument,
and attempering the founds by the application ot his
fingers to different parts of the tube.
The Hebrews made ufe of horns, formed of rams
horns, to proclaim the jubilee } whence the name jubi¬
lee.
Cape-HoRN. See Terra del Fvego.
HoRN-Beam. See Carpinus, Rotany Index.
Horn-BHI. See Buceros, Ornithology Index.
HoRN-Blende, a fpecies of mineral. See Mineralogy
Index •
Human Horns. In Dr Charles Leigh’s natural hi-
ftory of Lancaihire, Cheftiire, and the Peak in Derby-
fhire, is the print of a woman with two horns on her
head. When (lie was 28 years of age an excrefcence
grew upon her head like a wen, which continued 30
years, and then grew into two horns. After four years
ihe caft them, and in their place grew two others. Af¬
ter four years fhe call thefe alfo \ and the horns which
were on her head in 1668 (the time when the account
was written) were then loofe. Her picture and one of
her horns are in Afhmole’s mufeum. In the univerfity
library at Edinburgh is preferved a horn which was cut
from the head of Elizabeth Love, in the 5°^ year of
her age. It grew three inohes above the ear, and was
growing feven years.
Horn Di/lemper, a difeafe incident to horned cattle,
affefling the internal fubftance of the horn commonly
called the pith, which it infenfibly waftes, and leaves
the horn hollow. I he pith is a ipongy bone, the
cells of which are filled with an unfluous matter. ^ It
is furniftied with a great number of fmall blood veffels,
is overfpread with a thin membrane, and appears to be
united by futures with the bones of the head. Accord¬
ing to an account of this diftemper, publiihed by Dr
Tofts in the Memoirs of the American Academy, vol. i.
the faid fpongybone is fometimes partly, and fometimes
entirely wafted. The horn lofes its natural heat, and a
degree of coldnefs is felt upon handling it. Ihe dif¬
temper, however, is feldom fufpefled without a particu¬
lar acquaintance with the other fymptoms, which are a
dulnefs in the countenance of the beaft, a fluggiftmefs
in moving, a failure of appetite, an inclination to lie
down, and, when accompanied with an inflammation of
brain, a giddinefs and frequent tofling of the head.
The limbs are fometimes affefled with ftiffnefs, as in a
rheumatlfm ; in cows the milk often fails, the udder is
hard, and in almoft all cafes there is a fudden wafting
of the flefti. As foon as the diftemper is difeovered, an u<
opening into the difeafed horn ftiould be immediately
made j which may be done with a gimlet of a mode¬
rate fize, in fuch a part of the horn as is moft favour¬
able for the difeharge. It is recommended as moft pru¬
dent to bore at firft two or three inches above the head.
If it is found hollow, and the gimlet pafies through to
the oppoffte fide, and no blood difeharges from the aper¬
ture, it may be beft to bore ftill lower, and as near the
head as it ftiall be judged that the hollownefs extends.
This opening is affirmed to be a neceifary meafure, and
often gives immediate relief. Care muft be taken to
keep it clear, as it is apt to be clogged by a thin fluid
that gradually oozes out and fills up the paffage. Some
have pra&ifed fawing off the horn *, but, according to
the beft obfervations, it does not fucceed better than
boring. From the cafes Dr Tofts has feen, he is led
to conclude that injedions are in general unneceffary j
that, when the diftemper is early difeovered, no more
is required than a proper opening into the horn, keep¬
ing it fufficiently clear for the admiflion of frelh air, the
removal of the compreffion, and the difeharge of float¬
ing matter. But when the diftemper has communica¬
ted its efteds to the brain, fo as to produce a high de¬
gree of inflammation, it is much to be doubted whether
any method of cure will fucceed.
HoRN-FiJh, Gar-fjh, or Sea-needle. See Esox, Ich¬
thyology Index,
Horn-WoH, in fortification, an outwork compofed
of two demi-baftions joined by a curtain. See Forti¬
fication.
HORNBY, a town of England, in Lancaffiire,
feated on a branch of the river Lune, and beautified
with a handfome parochial chapel. The ruins of a de¬
cayed caftle are ftill to be feen here. W. Long. 2. 20.
N. Lat. 54. 6.
HORN-castle, a town of England, in Lincoln-
fhire. It had a caftle, as the name imports •, from the
architedure of which, and the Roman coins that are
fometimes dug up here, it is thought to have been a
camp or ftation of the Romans. The town is well
built, and is almoft furrounded with water. It is a
figniory of 1 3 lordihips. In thefe lordfhips there are
feveral chapels for the convenience of the inhabitants,
•who are at too great a diftance from the mother-
church, and pretty numerous. It has a market on Sa¬
turdays, and fairs in June and Auguft.
HORNDON, a town of Effex in England. It ftands
near a rivulet, that at a fmall diftance from hence falls
into the Thames, which is there called the Hope. E,
Long. o. 30. N. Lat. 51. 20.
HORNE, George, an Englilh prelate of great
eminence, was born in the vicinity of Maidftone, in
the county of Kent, in the year 1730.. His father was
redor of Otham, and having for fome time aded in the
capacity of a tutor at Oxford, w^as well qualified to fu-
perintend the education of his fon George. However,
that he might not be fpoiled by too long a refidence at
home, he was, by the advice of a friend, fent to Maid¬
ftone fchool at the age of 13, where he continued un¬
der an eminent teacher for two years, and acquired
fome knowledge of oriental literature, particularly the
Hebrew, and went to Oxford in his 15th year. Here
4G 2 he
Horn’
!l '
Horne.
H O R
Horne.
he indefatigably laboured to ftare his miud with alnroft
every branch of ufeful learning, and refolved to make
polite literature fubfervient to the knowledge and illuf-
tration of the Scriptures. He fludied the Hebrew more
attentively, and was v/ifely exhorted to abandon the
method of Euxtorf, fo encumbered with that load of
rubbilh, the mafcretic punctuation. The rectitude of
his conduCt, and the vivacity of his converfation, gain¬
ed him the efteem of every perfon with whom he wras
acquainted. In the year 1749 he wras made B. A. and
next year was elected to a fellowfliip in Magdalen col-
lege, without any felicitation upon his part.
About this time he became a profelyte to what are
called tne royfteries of Hutchinjonianifm, chiefly through
tne influence of Mr William Jones. His mind, at the
age of 19, was completely fettered by thofe doftrines,
believing that it was the defign of Sir Ifaac Newton
and Dr Clarke, to fjbvert the theology of the Scrip¬
tures, and introduce the ftoical amma munch into the
place of the God of the univerfe ! Under the influence
of fuch an infatuated whim, it is not aftonifhing that he
fliould endeavour to diferedit the fyftem of Newton.
He obtained the degree of M. A. in the year 1752,
when he engaged in a controverfy on the fubjed of the
cherubim, in the Gentleman’s Magazine, fubferibing
hiinfelf Ingenuus. With a view to recommend the
writings of Hutchinfon, he publithed “ A fair, candid,
and impartial flate of the cafe between Sir Ifaac New¬
ton and Mr Hutchinfon 5 in wTbich is (hewn, how far a
jyftem ot phyfics is capable of mathematical demonftra-
tion 5 how far Sir Ifaac’s, as fuch a fyftem, has that de-
monftration ; and confequently, what regard Mr Hut-
chinfon’s claim may deferve to have paid it.” In the
year 1753 Mr Horne entered into holy orders, and ac¬
quired high reputation as a public fpeaker, as his com-
pofitions were excellent, and his elocution graceful.
While preaching before the univerfity, he introduced
lome of his peculiar notions, which again led him into
controverfy. A piece made its appearance, entitled
“ A w°rd to the Hutchinfonians j or, remarks on three
extraordinary fermons, lately preached before the uni¬
verfity of Oxford, by Dr Patten, Mr Wetherell, and
Mr Horne.” To this our author replied in his “ A-
pology f°r certain gentlemen in the univerfity of Ox¬
ford, afperfed in a late anonymous pamphlet,” &c.
I he vindication of the hint to the Hutchinfonians, w7as
fuppofed to be the produflion of Dr Kennicott, who
became afterwards fo famous for his labours in collating
Hebrew manuferipts, and his valuable edition of the
Hebrew Bible. He (Mr Horne) was chofen profior
of the univerfity in 1758, and on the honourable termi¬
nation of his authority was created B. D. When Mr
(aftervvaids Dr) Kennicott, gave the world propofals
for collating the text of the Hebrew Bible, for the pur-
pofe of correfling the original, and preparing for a new
tranflation, Mr Horne was very much alarmed. He
falfely apprehended that the adoption of fuch a roeafure
would overwhelm the facred text with licentious criti-
eifm j on which account he publiftied, in 1760, “ A
view of Mr Kennicott’s method of correding the He¬
brew7 text, with three queries formed thereon, and
humbly fubmitted to the confideration of the learned
and Chriftian wTorld.” But an acquaintance which
thus began in hoftility was converted afterwards into
[ 604 ]
H O R
genuine friendfbip, wfliich continued through the whole
of life.
In 1764, Mr Horne was created D. D. although as
yet advanced to no confpicuous ftation. On the death
of Dr Jenner, the prefident of Magdalen college, Dr
Horne was appointed to fucceed him in a poll at once
honourable and valuable, in the beginning of 1768,
after which we are informed that he exchanged a bugle’
for a married life. Next year he publiftied “ Confide-
rations on the life and death of St John the Baptift,
being the fubftance of feveral fermons preached by him
before the univerfity.” In 1771, he was chofen chap¬
lain in ordinary to his majefty, which he held for ten
years. In 1772, wdien a number of clergymen had
formed the refolution of petitioning parliament for re¬
lief as to the fubferibing the liturgy and thirty-nine ar¬
ticles, Dr Horne determined, if poftible, to defeat their
object, for which purpofe he publilhed “ Confiderations
on the projeaed reformation of the church of England
in a letter to Lord North.”
He now fet about the finiftiing of his greateft work
which had occupied his attention for alraoft 20 years!
This was his “ Commentary on the Book of Pfalms,”
which appeared in 1776, in 2 vols quarto. It exhibits
profound erudition, a great genius, and fervent piety j
and is perufed with much pleafure and advantage by
every judge of merit. In the fame year he was chofen
vice-chancellor of the univerfity, which he held till the
latter end of the year 1780. On the publication of
Dr Adam Smith’s^letter, containing an account of the
death of Mr David Hume, Dr Horne, in the year
I777» publicly animadverted upon it, in “ A letter to
Adam Smith, L. L. D. on the life, death, and philo-
fophy of his friend David Hume, Efq. by one of the
people called Chriftians.” In this work he expofes the
aofuidities of the Scotch philofopher’s performance, to
the contempt of die religious world, with clear and
concluftve reafoning, and keen but good-humoured
irony. In 1779, Dr Horne publiftied “ Dilbourfe's on
various fubjetts and occafions,” in two volumes oftavo,
which have procured the approbation of all deferiptions
of readers.
As vice-chancellor of the univerfity he became ac¬
quainted with Lord North, to whofe intereft, joined
with that of Lord Hawkeftmry, he was indebted, in.
1781, for the deanery of Canterbury. His time was
now divided between this city and Oxford, and the
confcientious. difeharge of every part of his complex
duty made him univerfally beloved. In 1784 he pub-
lifhed letters on infidelity, fimilar to bis reply to Dr
Adam Smith. The books againft which he levelled
his ridicule are, “ An apology for the life and writings
of David Hume, Efq. j” Hume’s “ Dialogues on natu¬
ral religion } An eflay on filicide by the fame author,
and a treatife entitled “ Doubts of the Infidels.” In
the year 1790, when Dr Bagot was tranflated to the
fee of St Afaph, Dr Horne was appointed to fucceed
him in the fee of Norwich. His laft literary labours
were “ Obfervations on the cafe of the Proteftant dif-
fenters with reference to the corporation and teft aefts,”
1790 ; and “ A charge intended to have been deliver¬
ed to the clergy of the diocefe of Norwich,” at his firft
vifitation, I79J- When he was raifed to the epifcopal
dignity, his health, always delicate, began rapidly to
decline j
Horiift.
H O R [ 60
Horners decline •, but from the waters of Bath he received great
I! relief, to which place he repaired a third time in the
Horniey- |-arveft of On his way he was feized with a
v ftroke of the palfy, and after languilhing for a few
weeks, he died at Bath on the 17th of January 1792,
in the 6 2d year of his age.
He was powerfully animated in his laft moments by
thofe hopes which fpring from the promifes of the gof-
pel, and the inexpreflible fatisfaciion of a well-fpent
life. His erudition was extenfive, his piety fincere,
and his whole life exemplary. His charity, both of a
public and private nature, was very extenlive, and if
not in debt at the end of the year, he was perfectly fa-
tisfied. His pofthumous works are, vols iii. and iv. of
“ Difcourfes on feveral lubjecfs and occafions j” a vo¬
lume of fermons j and “ Cautions to the readers of Mr
Law.”
HORNERS, thofe people whofe bufinefs it is to
prepare various utenlils of the horns of cattle. The
horners were a very ancient and conliderable fraternity
in the city of London fome hundred years ago. In the
reign of Edward II. they complained to parliament,
that by foreigners buying up the horns in England,
they were in danger of being ruined, and this bufinefs
laft to the nation. For this reafon was made the ftatute
6 Edw. IV. by which the fale of horns to foreigners
(except fuch as the faid horners refufed) wus prohibit¬
ed ; and the wardens had power granted them to fearch
all the markets in London, and twenty-four miles
round, and to infpeff Sturbridge and Ely fairs, to pre¬
vent fuch pradlices, and to purchafe horns at ftated
prices. But on plaufible pretences this law was re¬
pealed in the reign of James I. and thereupon the old
evil revived. The horners again applied to parlia¬
ment, and King Edward’s ftatute w’as renewed (excep¬
ting as to the infpeflion of the fairs), and ftill remains
in force. The importation of unwrought horns into
this country is alfo prohibited. In 1750, there were
exported to Holland 514,500 lantern leaves, befides
powder dalks. There was formerly a duty of 20 Ihil-
iings a thoufand, under which in 1682 were exported
76,650 •, but in the reign of George I. this duty was
taken oft', and thefe and all other manufaftures made
of horns may be exported free. The prefent company
of horners wras incorporated January 12. 1638*, and
confifts of a matter, two wardens, and nine affiftants,
without livery or hall. They have a warehoufe in
Spitalfields, to which the horns are fent as brought
from town and country-markets, and thence regularly
divided, the widows and orphans of deceafed members
having erpual (hares.
HORNET, a fpecies of wafp. See Vespa, Ento¬
mology Index
HORNING, in Scots Law, a writing iffuing from
the fignet, in his majelly’s name, at the inftance of a
creditor againft his debtor, commanding him to pay or
perform within a certain time, under pain of being de¬
clared rebel, and by a caption put in prifon.
HORNSEY, a town in Yorkihire, 188 miles from
London. It is aimott furrounded by a fmail arm of the
fea ; and the church having a high fteeple, is a noted
fea-mark. Not many years ago there was a ftreet here
called Hornfeif-beck, which was walhed away by the
fea, except a lioufe or two. E. Long. o. 6. N. Lat.
54- °-
5 ] H G R
Hornsey, a town of Middlefex, five miles north
London. It is a long draggling place, fituated in a
low valley, but extremely pleafant, having the new ri¬
ver winding through it. Its church, of which High-
gate is a hamlet, is fuppofed to be built with the ftones
that came from Lodge-Hill, the biftiop of London’s
hunting-feat in his park here 5 it having been his ma¬
nor from the moft ancient times. About a mile nearer
this is a coppice of young trees, called Hornfey-wood,
at the entrance of which is a public-houfe, to which
great numbers of perfons refort from the city. This
houfe being fituated on the top of a hill, affords a de¬
lightful profpedl of the neighbouring country.
HORNPIPE, a common inftrument of mufic in
Wales, confiding of a wooden pipe, with holes at ftat¬
ed diftances, and a horn at each end : the one to col-
left the wind blown into it by the mouth, and the
other to carry off the founds as modulated by the per¬
former.
Hornfey'
II
Horolo¬
gium.
Hornpipe is alfo the name of an Englifti air, pro¬
bably derived from the above inftrument. The mea-
fure of this air is triple time, with fix crotchets in a
bar •, four of which are to be beat with the hand down.
and two up.
HOLOGRAPHY, the art of malting or conftruft-
ing dials ; called alfo dialling, horologiography, gno-
monica, fciatherica, photofeiatherica, &c.
HOROLOGIUM, 'a^oAayiex, (compofed of
horn, “ time, hour,” and Aayaj, “ fpeech, difeourfe,”)
a common name among ancient writers for any inftru¬
ment or machine for meafuring the hours 5 (fee Chro¬
nometer.)—Such are our clocks, watches, fun-dials,
&c. See Clock, Watch, Dial, and Clepsydra.
Modern inventions, and gradual improvements, have
given birth to fome new terms that come properly un¬
der this head, and annexed new meanings to others to¬
tally different from what they had originally. All
chronometers that announced the hour by ftriking on
a bell, were called clocks : thus, we read of pocket-
clocks, though nothing could feem more abfurd than
to fuppofe that a clock, according to the modern idea,
(hould be carried in the pocket. In like manner, all
clocks that did not ftrike the hour were called watches
or time-pieces; and the different parts of a ftriking
clock were diftinguifhed by the watch-part and the
clock-part •, the former meaning that part which mea-
fures the time, and the latter the part which proclaims
_ the hours. In the report of Sir Ifaac Newton to the
houfe of commons, anno 1713, relative to the longi¬
tude aft, he ftates the difficulties of afeertaining the
longitude by means of a watch : yet it is obvious, from
feveral circumftances, that his remarks were direftly
to be underftood of a time-piece regulated by a pendu¬
lum ; for his objeftions are founded on the known
properties of the pendulum, fome of which difi'er ef-
fentially from the properties of the balance and fpring.
It is aifo to be remembered, that all the attempts of
Huygens for finding the longitude were by means of
pendulum clocks that did not ftrike the hour, and con-
fequently, according to the language of the times, were
called watcher. At this time fuch machines for mea¬
furing time as are fixed in their place are called c/oci,s>,
if they ftrike the hour : if they do not ftrike the hour,
they are called time-pieces ; and when conftrufted with
more care, for a more accurate meafure of time, they-
are
H O R [ 606 ] H O R
Horopter arc. ca\\t& regulators. Some artifts of late have affe&ed
Ilolfe t0 Ca^ ^Llc^1 watc^cs as were conftrufted for aftrono-
i ,) mical and nautical obfervations by the name of time¬
pieces, probably to intimate that they pofl'efs the advan¬
tages of thofe conftrufted with a pendulum.
Mr John Harrifon firft gave the name of time-keeper
to his watch, for the performance of which he receiv¬
ed from parliament the fum of 20,oocl. See Longi-
. TUDE.
For the account of the principles of this machine, fee
Time-keeper. And for the chief improvements that
have been made for the more accurate meafure of time,
fee Pallets, Pendulum, and Scapement.
HOROPTER, in optics, is a right line drawn
through the point w'here the two optic axes meet, pa¬
rallel to that which joins the centres of the two eyes,
or the two pupils.
HOROSCOPE, in Sljlrology, the degree or point
of the heavens riling above the eallern point of the ho¬
rizon at any given time when a predifiion is to be made
of a future event : as, the fortune of a perfonthen born,
the fuccefs of a delign then laid, the weather, &c.
The wmrd is compofed of kora, “ hour,” and the
verb tnioTnu, video, “ I behold.”
Such w^as at one time the infatuation concerning horo-
fcopes, that Albertus Magnus, Cardan, and others, are
laid to have had the temerity to draw' that of Jefus Chrift.
Horoscope is alfo ufed for a fcheme or figure of
the twelve houfes, i. e. the twelve figns of the zodiac,
wherein is marked the difpofition of the heavens for
any given time. Thus we fay, to draw a horofcope,
conftruft a horofcope, &c. We call it, more peculiar¬
ly, calculating a nativity, when the life and fortune
of a perfon are the fubjedt of the prediction ; for they
draw horofcopes of cities, great enterprifes, &c. See
House.
HOROSCOPY. See Divination, N° 2.
HORREA, in Roman antiquity, were public maga¬
zines of corn and falt-beef, out of w'hich the foldiers
were furnilhed on their march in the military roads of
the empire. Horrea w7as alfo the name which they gave
to their granaries.
HORROX, Jeremiah, an eminent Englilh affro-
nomer in the 17th century, was born at Texteth near
Liverpool in Lancalhire in 1619. He died, to the
great lofs of that fcience and of the w'orld, in the 23d
year of his age, after he had juft finilhed his Venus in
Sole vifa ; w'hich, with fome other works, were publilh-
ed by Dr Wallis, in quarto.
HORROR, ftridlly fignifies fuch an excefs of fear
as makes a perfon tremble. See Fear, Fright, and
Terror. In medicine, it denotes a fhivering and
lhaking of the W'hole body, coming by fits. It is com¬
mon at the beginning of all fevers, but is particularly
remarkable in thofe of the intermittent kind.
Horror of a Vacuum, was an imaginary principle a-
mong the ancient philofophers, to which they aferibed
the afeent of water in pumps, and other fimilar pheno¬
mena, w'hich are now known to be occafioned by the
weight of the air.
HORSE. See Equus, Mammalia Index.
Horfes were very rare in Judaea till Solomon’s time.
Before him we find no horfemen mentioned in the ar¬
mies of Ifrael. David having won a great battle againft
Hadadezer king of Shobah (2 Sam. viii. 4, 5.), took
2
1700 horfes, and lamed all belonging to the chariots of Horfe.
w'ar, referving only 100 chariots. The judges and ^
princes ol Ifrael ufed generally to ride on mules or afles.
After David’s time, horfes w'ere more common in the
country of Judah, &.c, Solomon is the firft king of
Judah who had a great number of horfes, and he kept
them rather for pomp than for war ; for we do not read
that he made any military expeditions. He had, fays
the Scripture (1 Kings iv. 26.), 40,000 ftalls of horfes
for his chariots, and i 2,000 horfemen diftributed in his
fortified places (1 Kings x. 26.). He had his horfes
from Egypt (ibid. ver. 28, 29.) ; and there was not a
fet which did not coft him more than 600 fhekels,
which make of our money about pci. Mofes had for¬
bidden the king of the Hebrews to keep a great num¬
ber of horfes (Deut. xvii. 16.), left at any time he
fhould be inclined to carry the people back into E-
gypt-
We read in the fecond book of Kings (xxiii. 17.),
that Jofiah took away the horfes which the kings of
Judah his predeceftbrs had confecrated to the fun. We
know the fun was worftiipped over all the eaft, and
that the horfe, the fwifteft of tame beafts, was confe¬
crated to this deity, who wTas reprefented as riding in
a chariot drawm by the moft beautiful and fivifteft
hories in the w'orld, and performing every day his
journey from eaft to weft, in order to communicate his
light to mankind. Xenophon deferibes a folemn facri-
fice of horfes, which w'as made with ceremony to the
fun : they were all the fineft fteeds, and were led with
a white chariot, crowned, and confecrated to the fame
god. We may believe that the horfes which Joliah re¬
moved out of the court of the temple, w'ere appointed
for the like facrifices. The rabbins inform us, that
thefe horfes were every morning put to the chariots de¬
dicated to the fun, whereof there is mention made in
the fame book j and that the king, or fome of his offi¬
cers, got up and rode to meet the fun in its riling, as
far as from the eaftern gate of the temple to the fub-
urbs of Jerufalem. Others are of opinion, that the
horfes mentioned in the book of Kings were of wood,
ftone, or metal, erefted in the temple in honour of the
fun : Others, that they were horfes w'hich none were
permitted to ride or faften to the yoke, but were free,
and left to themfelves, like thofe which Julius Ca;far
let loofe and fet at liberty after his palTage of the Rubi¬
con.
Horfes w'ere ufed both amongft the Greeks and Ro¬
mans in w'ar, but were not originally very numerous ;
for as each horfeman provided his own horfe, few
would be able to bear the expence. Horfes for a con-
fiderable time were managed by the voice alone, or by
a fwitch, without bridle, faddle, or ftirrups. Their
harnefs was ikins of beafts, or fometimes cloth. Both
horfes and men amongft the Greeks underwent a fe-
vere probation before their admiffion into the cavalry.
—Horfe-races were common amongft the Greeks and
Romans, and the place where they ran or breathed their
courfers was called hippodromus.
Management of a Horse upon and after a 'Journey.
See that his ftioes be not too ftrait, orprefs his feet, but
be exactly fhaped 5 and let him be ihod fome days be¬
fore you begin a journey, that they may be fettled to
his feet.
Obferve that he is fumifhed with a bitt proper for
him,
f
K O R [
Korfe. him, and by no means too heavy, which may incline
’——y1 him to carry low, or to reft upon the hand when he
Sport/man s grows weary which horfemen call making ufe of his
Dmonar3-fifh leg.
The mouth of the bitt fhould reft upon his bars
about half a finger’s-breadth from his tulhes, fo as not
to make him frumble his lips ; the curb ftiould reft in
the hollow of his beard a little above the chin ", and if
it gall him, you muft defend the place with a piece of
buff or other foft leather.
Take notice that the faddle do not reft upon his wi¬
thers, reins, or back-bone, and that one part of it do
not prefs his back ipore than another.
Some riders gall’*a horfe’s fides below the faddle with
their ftirrup-leathers, efpecially if he be lean •, to hin¬
der it, you (hould fix a leather-ftrap between the points
of the fore and hind-bows of the faddle, and make the
ftirrup-leather p^fs over them.
Begin your journey with (hort marches, efpecially
if your horfe has not been exercifed for a lojig time ;
fuffer him to ftale as often as you find him inclined j
and not only fo, but invite him to it : but do not ex¬
cite vour mares to ftale, becaufe their vigour will be
thereby diminiftied.
It is advifable to ride very foftly, for a quarter or
half an hour before you arrive at the inn, that the
horfe not being too warm, nor out of breath, when
put into the liable, you may unbridle him : but if your
bufinefs obliges you to put on fharply, you muft then
(the weather being warm) let him be walked in a man’s
hand, that he may cool by degrees j otherwife, if it be
very cold, let him be covered with cloths, and walked
up and down in fome place free from wind ; but in
cale you have not the conveniency of a fheltered walk,
ft able him forthwith, and let his whole body be rubbed
and dried with ftrawT.
Although fome people wall have their horfes legs
rubbed down with ftraw as foon as they are brought
into the liable, thinking to fupple them by that
means ; yet it is one of the greateft errors that can be
committed, and produces no other effecls than to draw
down into the legs thofe humours that are always ftir-
red up by the fatigue of the journey : not that the
rubbing of horfes legs is to be difallowed 5 on the con¬
trary, we highly approve of it, only would not have
it done at their firft arrival, but when they are perfedtly
cooled.
Being come to your inn, as foon as your horfe is
partly dried, and ceafes to heat in the flanks, let him
be unbridled, his bitt walhed, cleanfed, and wiped, and
let him eat his hay at pleafure.
If your horfe be very dry, and you have not given
him water on the road, give him oats wafhed in good
mild ale.
The dull and fand will fometimes fo dry the tongues
and mouths of horfes, that they lofe their appetites :
in fuch cafe, give them bran well moiftened with wa¬
ter to cool and refrelh their mouths j or walh their
mouths and tongue with a wet fponge, to oblige them
to eat.
The foregoing dire£fions are to be obferved after
moderate riding •, but if you have rode exceflively hard,
unfaddle your horfe, and fcrape off the fweat with a
fweating-knife, or fcraper, holding it with both hands,
and going always with the hair j then rub his head and
607 ] H O R
ears with a large hair-cloth, .wnpe him alfo between the
fore legs and hind legs j in the meanwhile, his body
fliould be rubbed all over with ft raw, efpecially under
his belly and beneath the faddle, till he is thoroughly
dry.
That done, fet on the faddle again, cover him ; and
if you have a wTarm place, let him be gently led up and
down in it for a quarter of an hour ; but if not, let him
dry where he ftarids.
Or you may unfaddle him immediately 5 fcrape off
the fweat ; let the oftler take a little vinegar in his
mouth, and fquirt it into the horfe’s j then rub his
head, between the fore and hind legs, and his whole
body, till he is pretty dry : let him not drink till he is
thoroughly cool, and has eaten a few oats ■, for many,
by drinking too foon, have been fpoiled. Set the
faddle in the fun or by a fire, in order to dry the pan-
nels.
When horfes are arrived at an inn, a man fhould,
before they are unbridled, lift up their feet, to fee
whether they want any of their fhoes, or if thofe they
have do not reft upon their fides j afterwards he fhould
pick and clear them of the earth and gravel which may
be got betwixt their fhoes and foies.
If you water them abroad, upon their return from
the river caufe their feet to be flopped with cow-
dung, which will eafe the pain therein ; and if it be in
the evening, let the dung continue in their feet all
night, to keep them foft and in good condition ; but if
your horfe have brittle feet, it will be requiiite to anoint
the fore feet, at the on-fetting of the hoofs, with but¬
ter, oil, or hog’s greafe, before you water him in the
morning, and in dry weather they fhould be alfo greafed
at noon.
Many horfes, as foon as unbridled, inftead of eat¬
ing, lay themfelves down to reft, by reafon of the
great pain they have in their feet, fo that a man is apt
to think them fick : but if he looks to their eyes, he
will fee they are lively and good ) and if he offers them
meat as they are lying, they will eat it very willingly •
yet if he handles their feet, he wall find them extreme¬
ly hot, which difcovers their fuffering in that part.
You muft therefore fee if their fhoes do not reft upon
their foies, which is fomewhat difficult to be certainly
known without unfhoeing them ; but if you take off
their fhoes, then look to the iniide of them, and you
may perceive that thofe parts which reft upon the
foies are more fmooth and fhining than the others j
in this cafe you are to pare their feet in thofe parts,
and fix on their fhoes again, anointing the hoofs, and
flopping the foies with fcalding hot black pitch or
tar.
After a long day’s journey, at night feel your horfe’s
back, if he be pinched, galled, or fwelled (if you do
not immediately difcover it, perhaps you may after flip¬
per), there is nothing better than to rub it with good
brandy and the wdiite of an egg. If the galls are be¬
tween the legs, ufe the fame remedy y but if the oftler
rubs him well between the legs, he will feldom be gal¬
led in that part.
In order to preferve horfes after travel, take thefe
few ufeful inftru&ions. When you are arrived from a
journey, immediately draw the two heel-nails of the
fore feet ; and, if it be a large fhoe, then four : two
or three days after, you may blood him in the neck,
and
Horfe.
H O R [ 60
'^one- and feed him for 10 or 12 days only with wet bran,
’ without giving him any oats 3 but keep him well lit¬
tered.
The reafon why you are to draiv the heel-nails, is
becaufe the heels are apt to fwell, and if they are not
thus eafed, the flioes would prefs and ftraiten them
too much ; it is alfo advifable to flop them with cow-
dung for a while : but do not take the Ihoes off, nor
pare the feet, becaufe the humours are drawn down by
that means.
The following bath will be very ferviceable for pre-
ferving your horfe’s legs. Take the dung of a cow
or ox, and make it thin with vinegar, fo as to be of
the confidence of thick broth 3 and having added a
handful of fmall fait, »rub his fore legs from the knees,
and the hind legs from the gambrels, chafing them
well with and againll the hair, that the remedy may
fink in and dick to thofe parts, that they may be all
covered over with it. Thus leave the horfe till morn¬
ing, not wetting his legs, but giving him his water that
evening in a pail : next morning lead him to the river,
or wafli his legs in well water, which is very good, and
will keep them from fwelling.
Thofe perfons, who, to recover their horfes feet,
Tnake a hole in them, which they fill with moidened
cow dung, and keep it in their fore feet during the
ffpace of a month, do very ill 3 becaufe, though the con¬
tinual moidure that iffues from the dung occafions the
growing of the hoof, yet it dries and Ihrinks it fo ex-
cefiively when out of that place, that it fplits and breaks
like glafs, and the foot immediately draitens. For it
is certain, that cow-dung (contrary to the opinion of
many people) fpoils a horfe’s hoof: it does indeed moif-
ten the foie, but it dries up the hoof, which is of a dif¬
ferent nature from it. In order, therefore, to recover
a horfe’s feet, indead of cow-dung, fill a hole with blue
wet clay, and make him keep his fore-feet in it for a
month.
Mod horfes that are fatigued or over-rid, and made
lean by long journeys, have their danks altered with¬
out being purfy, efpecially vigorous horfes that have
worked too violently.
There is no method better to recover them, than to
give each of them in the morning half a pound of ho¬
ney very well mingled with fcalded bran 3 and when
they readily eat the half pound, give them the next
time a whole one, and afterwards two pounds, every
day, continuing this courfe till your horfes are empty,
and purge kindly with it 3 but as foon as you perceive
that their purging ceafes, forbear to give them any
more honey.
You may adminider powder of liquorice in the
fcalded bran for a confiderable time 3 and to cool their
blood, it will not be improper to let them have three
or four glyders.
In cafe the horfe be very lean, it is expedient to
give him fome wet bran, over and above his propor¬
tion of oats 3 and grafs is alfo extraordinary beneficial,
if he be not purfy.
If it be a mare, put her to a horfe 3 and if flie never
had a foal before, it will enlarge her belly.
Sometimes excefiive feeding may do horfes more
harm than good, by rendering them fubjedl to the
farcy. You fhould therefore be cautious in giving
] H o It
them too great a quantity at a time, anil take a little H rfU.
blood from them now and then. _
When a horfe begins to drink water heartily, it is a
certain lign that he will recover in a diort time. As to
the method of giving him water during a journey, ob-
ferve the following rules :
All the while you are upon a journey, let your horfe
drink of the fird good water you come to, after feven
o’clock in the morning if it be in fummer-time, and
after nine or ten in winter.
That is accounted good water which is neither too
quick and piercing, nor too muddy and dinking.
This is to be done, unlefs you would have him gal¬
lop a long time after drinking 3 for if fo, you mud for¬
bear.
Though it is the cudom in England to run and
gallop horfes after drinking, which we call watering-
courfes, to bring them (as they fay) into wind 3 yet
fays M. de Solleyfel, it is the mod pernicious pra&ice
that can be imagined for horfes, by which many are
rendered purfy.
While a horfe is drinking, draw up his head five or
fix times, making him move a little between every
draught 3 and notwithftanding he be warm, and fweat
very much, yet if he is not quite out of breath, and
you have dill four or five miles to ride, he will be bet¬
ter after drinking a little, than if he had drank none
at all: it is true, indeed, that if the horfe is very warm
you diould, at coming out of the water, redouble your
pace, to make him go at a gentle trot, to warm the
water in his belly.
You ought to let him drink after this manner du¬
ring the whole time of your journey 3 becaufe, if when
you happen to bait he be hot or fweaty, you mud
not let him drink for a long time, as it would en¬
danger his life 3 and when his bridle is taken off, his
exceffive third will hinder him from eating, fo that he
will not offer to touch his meat for an hour or two,
W’hich perhaps your occafion will not allow you for a
baiting time, and not to have any food will render him
unfit for travel.
If you meet with any ford before you come to your
inn, ride the horfe through it two or three times, but
not up to his belly : this will not only cleanfe his legs j
but the coldnefs of tire water will bind up the humours,
and prevent them from defcending.
If your horfe has been very warm, and you have not
had the conveniency of watering him upon the road, he
will, when unbridled, eat but very little 3 therefore he
fhould have his oats given him wafhed in ale or beer,
or only fome of them, if you intend to feed him again
after he has drank.
Some are of opinion, that horfes are often fpoiled by
giving them oats before their w^ater 3 becaufe they fay
the water makes the oats pafs too foon, and out of the
domach undigeded. But M. de Solleyfel affirms, that
though it be the common cudom not to do it till after,
yet it is proper to feed with oats both before and after,
efpecially if the horfe be w'arm, and has been hard rode 3
for he will be a great deal the better for it, and in no
danger of becoming fick.
Breeding of Horses. When the dallion is chofen, Buffo ns
and all the mares intended for him are collefled toge- Nat'
ther, there mud be another done horfe, to difcover
which
H O R [ 609 ] H O R
Horfe. u hicli of the rnares are in heat, and, at the fame time,
—v 1 contribute to inflame them. All the mares are to be
brought fucceflively to this ftone-horfe, which ihouid
alfo be inflamed, and fuffered frequently to neigh. As
he is for leaping every one, fuch as are not in heat keep
him oft', whillt thofe which are fo fuffer him to ap¬
proach them. But inftead of being allowed to fatisfy
his impulfe, he muft be led away, and the real ftallion
fubftituted in his Head. This trial is neceffary for af-
certaining the true time of the mare’s heat, elpecially
of thofe which have not yet had a colt ; for with re¬
gard to fuch as have recently foaled, the heat ufually
begins nine days after their delivery 5 and on that very
day they may be led to the ftallion to be covered ; and
nine days after, by the experiment above-mentioned, it
may be known whether they are ftill in heat. If they
are, they muft be covered a fecond time $ and thus fuc-
ceflively every ninth day while their heat continues : for
when they are impregnated, their heat abates, and in a
few days ceafes entirely.
But that every thing may be done eafily and con¬
veniently, arid at the fame time with fuccefs and
advantage, great attention, expence, and precaution,
are requiftte. The ftud muft be fixed in a good foil,
and in a fuitable place, proportioned to the number of
mares and ilallions intended to be ufed. This fpot
muft be divided into feveral parts, inclofed with rails
or ditches well fenced j in the part where the pafture
is the richeft, the marcs in fold, and thofe with colts
by their Tides, are to be kept. Thofe which are not
Impregnated, or have not yet been covered, are to be
feparated, and kept with the fillies in another clofe,
where the pafture is lefs rich, that they may not grow
too fat, which would obftru£l the progrefs of genera¬
tion. Laftly, the young ftone colts or geldings are to
be kept in the dried: part of the fields, and where the
ground is mod unequal ; that by running over the un¬
even furface, they may acquire a freedom in the mo¬
tion of their legs and (boulders. This clofe, where the
ftone colts are kept, muft be very carefully feparated
trom the others, left the young horfes break their
bounds, and enervate themfelves with the mares. If
the tract be fo large as to allow of dividing each of
thefe clofes into two parts, for putting oxen and horfes
into them alternately, the pafture will laft much lon¬
ger than if continually eaten by horfes: the ox impro¬
ving the fertility, v’hereas the horfe leflfens it. In each
of thefe clofes fhould be a pond (landing water being
better than running, which often gripes them $ and if
there are any trees in the ground, they (liould be left
(landing, their Ihade being very agreeable to the horfes
in great heats ; but all (ferns or (lumps (liould be grub¬
bed up, and all holes levelled, to prevent accidents. In
thefe paftures your horfes ftiould feed during the dim¬
mer •, but in the winter the mares (bould be kept in
the liable and fed with hay. The colts alfo muft be
houfed, and never differed to feed abroad in winter,
except in very fine weather. Stallions that (land in the
liable (liould be fed more with draw than hay ; and
moderately exercifed till covering time, which gene¬
rally lafts from the beginning of April to the end of
June. But during this feafon they (hould have no
other exercife, and be plentifully fed, but with the fame
food as ufual. Before the ftallion is brought to the
Vol. X. Part II.
mare, he (liould be dreffed, as that wall greatly in- Horfe.
creafe his ardour. The mare muft alfo be curried, and
have no (hoes on her hind feet, dime of them being
ticklifh, and will kick the ftallion. A perfon holds
the mare by the halter, and two others lead the ftallion •
by long reins 5 when he is in a proper lituation, ano¬
ther afliftant carefully diredfs the yard, pulling adde
the mare’s tail, as a dngle hair might hurt him dan-
geroufty. It fometimes happens that the ftallion does
not complete the wrork of generation, coming from the
mare without making any injedlion j it ftiould there¬
fore be attentively obferved, whether, in the laft mo¬
ments of the copulation the dock of the ftallion’s tail
has a vibrating raotjon ; for fuch a motion always ac¬
companies the emiffion of the feminal lymph. If he
has performed the aeft, he mutt on no confideration be
fuffered to repeat it; but be led away directly to the
(table, and there kept two days. For, however able a
good ftallion may be of covering every day during the
three months, it is much better to let him be led to a
mare only every other day : his produce will be greater,
and he himfelf lefs exhaufted. During the firlt feven
days, let four different mares be (ucceflively brought to
him ; and the ninth day let the firft be again brought,
and fo fucceffively while they continue in "heat ; but as
foon as the heat of any one is over, a frefn mare is to
be put in her place, and covered in her turn every nine
days ; and as feveral retain even at the firft, fecond, or
third time, it is computed that a ftallion, by fuch ma¬
nagement, may, during the three months, cover 15 or
18 mares, and beget 10 or 12 colts. Thefe animals
have a very large quantity of the feminal lymph ; fo
that a confiderabie portion of it is (bed during the
emiflion. In the mares likewife is an emiflion, or ra¬
ther diftillation of the feminal lymph, during the whole
time they are horfing ; eje£ting a vifeid whitifh lymph,
called the heats, which ceafes on conception. This
ichor the Greeks called luppomanes; and pretended
that philtres might be made of it, one remarkable ef¬
fect of which was, to render a horfe frantic with luft.
This hippomanes is very different from that found in
the fecundines of the foal, which M. Daubenton firft
difeovered, and has fo accurately deferibed its nature,
origin, and fituation. The ejediion of this liquor is
the moft certain fign of the mare’s heat; but it is alfo
known by the inflation of the lower part of the vulva,
by her frequent neighings, and attempts to get to the
horfes. After being covered, nothing more is requi-
fite than to lead her away to the field. The firft foal
of a mare is never fo ftrongly formed as the fucceed-
ing ; fo that care (hould be taken to procure for her,
the firft time, a larger ftallion, that the defedl of the
growth may be compenfated by the largenefs of the
(ize. Particular regard (hould alfo be had to the diffe¬
rence or congruity of the faftiion of the ftallion and
the mare, in order to correfl the faults of the one by
the perfeftions of the other: efpecially never to make
any difproportionate copulations, as of a fmall horfe
with a large mare, or a large horfe with a fmall
mare-, as the produce of fuch copulation wmuld be
fmall, or badly proportioned. It is by gradations that
we muft endeavour to arrive at natural beauty; for
inftance, to give to a mare a little too clumfy, a well-
made horfe and fiftely (haped ; to a fmall mare, a horfe
4 H a little
HOE [6
Horfe. a little higher ] to a mare which is faulty in her fore-
v~“~ hand, a horfe with an elegant head and noble cheft,
&c.
It has been obferved, that horfes fed in dry and light
grounds, produce temperate, fwift, and vigorous foals,
with mulcular legs and a hard hoof j while the fame
bred in marlhes and moifl paflures have produced
foals with a large heavy head, a thick carcafe, clumfy
legs, bad hoofs, and broad feet. Thefe differences pro¬
ceed from the air and food, which is eafily underllood )
but what is more difficult to be accounted for, and Hill
more effential than what w'e have hitherto obferved, is,
to be continually croffing the breed to prevent a dege¬
neracy.
In coupling of horfes, the colour and fize fhould be
fuited to each other, the fhape contralted, and the breed
croffed by an oppolition of climates •, but horfes and
mares foaled in the fame find fhould never be joined.
Thefe are effential articles, but there are others which
fhould by no means be neglefted : as that no fhort-
docked mares be fuffered in a ilud, becaute from their
being unable to keep off the flies, they are much more
tormented by them than others which have a long
fweeping tail ; and their continual agitation from the
flings of thefe infefts occafions a diminution in the
quantity of their milk, and has a great influence on the
eonftltution and fize of the colt, which will be vigorous
in proportion as its dam is a good nurfe. Care muff al-
fo be taken, that the ftud mares be fuch as have been
always brought up in paftures, and never over-worked.
Mares which have always been brought up in the lia¬
ble on dry food, and afterwards turned to grafs, do not
breed at firfl : fome time is required for accufloming
them to this new aliment.
Though the ufual feafon for the heat of mares be
from the beginning of April to the end of June, yet
it is not uncommon to find fome among a large num¬
ber that are in heat before that time : but it is ad-
vifable to let this heat pafs over without giving them
to the flallion, becaufe they would foal in winter ; and
the colts, befides the inclemency of the feafon, would
have bad milk for their nourifhment. Again, if the
mares are not in heat till after the end of June, they
fhould not be covered that feafon j becaufe the colts
being foaled in fummer, have not time for acquiring
flrength fufficient to repel the injuries of the following
winter.
Many, inflead of bringing the flallion to the mare,
turn him loofe into the clofe, where all the mares are
brought together; and there leave him to cho«fe fuch
as will Hand to him. This is a very advantageous me¬
thod for the mares : they wall always take horfe more
certainly than in the other j but the flallion, in fix
weeks, wTill do himfelf more damage than in feveral
years by moderate exercife, conduced in the manner
we have already mentioned.
When the mares are pregnant, and their belly be¬
gins to fwell, they muft be feparated from thofe that
are not, left they hurt them. They ufuallygo n months
and fome days, and foal Handing, wdiereas moft other
quadrupeds lie down. Thofe that cannot foal without
great difficulty, muft be affifted j the foal muft be pla¬
ced in a proper fitua*ticn j and fometimes, if dead,
djeawn out with cords. The head of t.:e colt ufually
o ] H O R
preients itleit hrft, as in all other animals: at its coming Horfe.
out of the matrix, it breaks the fecundines or integu- ■“'V'—
ments that inclofe it, which is accompanied with a
great flux of the lymph contained in them 5 and at the
fame time one or more folid lumps are difchargedr
formed by the fediment of the infpiffated liquor of the
allantoides. 1 his lump, which the ancients called the
hippomanes of the colt, is fo far from being, as they ima¬
gined, a mafs of flefh adhering to the head of the colt,
that it is feparated from it by a membrane called am¬
nios. As foon as the colt is fallen, the mare licks it,
but without touching the hippomanes, which points out
another error of the ancients, who affirmed that ftie in-
ftantly devours it.
The general cuftom is to have a mare covered nine
days after her foaling, that no time may be loft ; but
it is certain, that the mare having, by this means, both
her prefent and future foal to nourifh, her ability is
divided, and fhe cannot fupply both fo largely as the
might one only. It wrould therefore be better, in .order
to have excellent horfes, to let the mares be covered
only every other year; they w'ould laft the longer, and
bring foals more certainly ; for, in common ftuds, it is
fo far from being true that all mares which have been
covered bring colts every year, that it is confidered
as a fortunate circumftance if half or at moft two thirds
of them foal.
Mares, when pregnant, will admit of copulation ;
but it is never attended with any fuperfoetation. They
ufually breed till they are 14 or 15 years of age ; and
the moft vigorous till they are above 18. Stallions,
when well managed, will engender till the age of 20,
and even beyond; but it muft be obferved, that fuch
horfes as are fooneft made ftallions, are alfo the fooneft:
incapable of generation : thus the large horfes, which
acquire ftrength fooner than the {lender, and are there¬
fore often ufed as ftallions as foon as they are four
years old, are incapable of generation after they are
fixteen.
Gelding of Hoksks. See Castration, Farriery
Index.
Draught-Horse, in farming, a fort of coarfe-made
horfe deftined for the fervice of the cart or plough. In
the choice of thefe horfes for what is called the fow
draught, they are to be chofen of an ordinary height ;
for otherwife, when put into the cart, one draws un¬
equally with the other. The draught-horfe fhould be
large bodied and ftrong loined, and of fuch a difpo-
fition, as rather tp he too dull than too brifk, and ra¬
ther to crave the whip than to draw more than is need¬
ful. Mares are the fitteft for this ufe for the farmer,
as they will be kept cheap, and not only do the work,
but be kept breeding, and give a yearly increafe of a
foal. They ftiould have a good head, neck, breaft, and
fhoulders ; for the reft of the ffiape, it is not of much
confequence. Only, for breeding, the mare fhould have
a large belly ; for the more room a foal has in the dam,
the better proportioned it will be. Draught-horfes
ftiould be always kept to that employ. Some put
them to the faddle on occafion, but it does them great
harm, alters their pace, and fpoils them for labeur. The
draught horfe ought to have a large broad head, be¬
caufe horfes of this fhaped'head are lefs fubjeft than
others to difeafes of the eyes. The ears fhould be
finall,
H O R [ 61
Horfe. fmall, ftraigKt and upright; thehottrils large and open,
—v-^ that he may breathe with the more freedom. A horfe
with a full and bold eye always promifes well. On the
other hand, a funk eyefand an elevated brow are bad
iigns. The horfe is efteemed fitted; for this purpofe
alfo, that has a large and round buttock, which nei¬
ther finks down nor cuts. He mufi: have a firm and
ftrong tail, and the dock mull be thick and well fur-
nilhed with hair, and placed neither very high nor ve¬
ry low. The legs Ihould be rather flat and broad than
round •, the roundnefs ef the leg being a fault in a
horfe deftined to labour that will foon ruin him. As
to the hinder legs, the thighs Ihould be flefliy and
long, and the whole mufcle which (hows itfell on the
outfide of the thigh Ihould be large and very thick.
No country can bring a parallel to the fize and ftrength
of our horfes deftined for the draught. In London
vhere are inftances of fingle horfes that are able to
draw on a plain, for a fmall fpace, the weight of three
tons, and which can with eafe, and for continuance,
draw half that weight. The pack-horfes of Yorklhire
ufually carry a burden of 4201b. over the higheft: hills
of the north, as wTell as the moft: level roads : but the
moft remarkable proof of the ftrength of our Britilh
horfes is derived from that of our mill horfes; fome
of which will at one load carry 13 meafures, which at
a moderate computation of 70 lb. each, wall amount
to 9101b. Nothing is fo effential to the health of
thefe ferviceable creatures as cleanlinefs $ if they are
fed ever fo well, and not^kept clean, they will be fub-
« je£l to numerous difeafes.
The fervant who has the care of them ought to be
up very early, and to clean the racks and mangers
from all filth. The currying of them ought to be care¬
fully performed every morning, but not in the liable,
for the dull to fall upon the other horfes, as it is too
often done. After the horfes are dulled, they Ihould
daily twill a whifp of ftraw hard up, and wetting it
in water, rub the legs, Ihoulders, and body with it.
Many of the difeafes of draught-houfes, which are not
owing to naftinefs, are owing to bad water j fuch as
is too raw, too muddy, or too cold, being impro¬
per. If there be any running ftream in the neighbour¬
hood, they Ihould always be led to that to water every
day in fummer ; but in winter, well-water is warmilh,
and is better for them. If there be a neceflity of gi¬
ving them well-water in fummer, it mull be drawn up
fome hours before the time, and expofed to the fun-
beams in tubs or troughs 5 marlh-water or that of lowT-
land ditches is worft of all. When the labouring horfe
has drunk his w^ater, he Ihould have his oats given him,
and thefe Ihould be carefully lifted, and the manger
dulled firft. It is a common practice, as foon as a horfe
is come in from his work, to rub down his legs with
a hard whifp of hay •, but the bell judges of horfes ab-
folutely condemn this, and obferve, that this rubbing
of the legs after hard labour brings down humours into
them, and makes them ftiff.
The rubbing itfelf is wholefome, but the doing it
when the creature is hot is the mifchief; while a horfe
is in a fweat it is a great relief and refrelhment to him
to have his body rubbed down, but when he is cold is
the proper time to rub his legs. The racks are to be
well fupplied with hay, and the horles Ihould be left
i ] H O R
to reft and eat, about two hours, and then led to wa¬
ter •, after this their oats Ihould be given them, and
they Ihould then go to wrork again.
In the evening, when the labour of the day is over,
the firft; thing to be done is to examine the feet, and
fee if any thing is amifs about the Ihoes j and what earth
or gravel is lodged in the foot, between the Ihoe and
the foie, is to be picked out and fome frelh cow-
dung put in its place, which will cool and refrelh the
part.
A very material thing for the prefervation of all
forts of cattle, but of none fo much as draught-horfes,
is frefh and clean litter.
Horse-Chefnut. See zEsculus, Botany Index.
HoRSE-Guards. See Guards.
HoRSK-Hunting. See Huntkr.
HoRSE-M.ec.fure is a rod of box to flide out of a cane,
with a fquare at the end, being divided into hands and
inches to meafure the height of horfes.
HoRSE-Mufcle. See Mytilus, Conchology Index.
Race-HoRss. See Racing.
HoRSE-RadiJh. See Cochlearia, Botany Index.
HoRSE-Shde,-■& cover or defence for the foie of a
horfe’s foot. See Farriery Index.
HoRSE-Jhoe-head, a difeafe in infants,\wherein the fu¬
tures of the Ikull are too open, or too great a vacui¬
ty is left between them •, fo that the aperture fhall not
be totally clofed up, or the cranium in that part not be
fo hard as the reft for fome years after. This open-
nefs is found to be increafed upon the child’s catching
cold. When the difeafe continues long, it is reputed
a fign of weaknefs and ftiort life. In this cafe, it is
ufual to rub the head now and then with warm rum or
brandy, mixed with the white of an egg and palm-oil.
Sometimes the diforder arifes from a colleftion of wa¬
ters in the head called an hydrocephalus.
Stone-IIoRsx. See Stallion.
Hors E-Tad. See Equisetum, Botany, Index.
HoRSE-Vetch. See Hippocrepis, Botany Index.
TVar-HoRSE. The proper rules for choofing a horfe
for fervice in wTar, are thefe : he fhould be tall in fta-
ture, with a comely head, and out-fwdling forehead.
His eye fhould be bright and fparkling, and theVwhite
part of it covered by the eye-brow. The ears ftiould
be fmall, thin, ftiort, and pricking ; or if long, they
ftiould be moveable with eafe, and well carried. The
neck fliould be deep, and the bread large and fwelling;
the ribs bending, the chine broad and ftraight, and
the buttocks round and full. The tail ftiould be high
and broad, neither too thick nor too thin •, the thigh
fwelling •, the leg broad and flat, and the paftern ftiort.
When fuch a horfe is chofen, he muil be kept high
during the time of his teaching, that he may tie full of
vigour. His food mull be fweet hay, and good clean
oats, or two parts of oats and one part of beans or
peafe, well dried and hardened. The quantity ihould be
half a peck in the morning, and the fame quantity at
noon and in the evening. Upon his refling days he is
to be dreffed between five and fix in the morning, arid
watered at feven or eight. In the evening he is to be
dreffed at four, and watered about five, and he muir al¬
ways have provender given him after watering ; he muft
be littered about eight, and then muft have food giv-
ven him for all night. The night before he is ridden,
4 H 2 all
Horfe.
I
H O R [ 612 ] H O R'
ft. all his hay is to be taken away about nine o’clock, and
he mull have a handful or two of oats about four in
the vnorninrr j when he has eaten thefe, he is to be
turned upon the fnaffle, and rubbed very well with dry
cloths; then faddled, and made fit for his exercife.
When he has performed this, he is to be brought
fweating into the flable, and rubbed down with dry
whifps. When this has been done, the faddle is to be
taken off, and be is to be rubbed down with dry cloths;
the hcufing cloth is then to be laid on ; and the laddie
being again laid on, he is to be walked gently about
till thoroughly cool. After this, he muft ftand with¬
out treat two or three hours, then he muft be fed ;
and in the afternoon he is to be rubbed and dreffed as
before, and watered in the ufual manner.
HoRSF.-Wbrm, in Natural Hijlory, a fpecies of fly-
worm called alfo bott, produced of eggs depoftted by a
two-winged fly of the fhape and flze of the humble bee
in the inteftines of horfes. See Botts, Farriery
Index.
River-HoRSE. See Hippopotamus, Mammalia
Index.
Horse is alfo ufed in the military language, to ex-
prefs the cavalry ; or the body of foldiers who ferve on
horfeback.
The horfe includes horfe guards, horfe grenadiers,
and troopers. Dragoons are alfo frequently compre¬
hended under this name, though they fight on foot:
of thefe there are now 18 regiments; befides three re¬
giments of dragoon-guards railed in 168 if. See Gra-
xadier, Dragoons, and Guards.
Majler of the Horse. See Master.
Light-HoRSE, are regiments of cavalry, mounted on
light fwift horfes, whofe men are fmall and lightly ac¬
coutred. They were firft raifed in 1757. The deno¬
mination arofe hence, that anciently they were lightly
armed, in comparifon of the royal guards, which were
armed at all points.
Hungarian Horse. See Hussars.
Horse is alfo a term ufed in various arts and manu-
fadftories, for fomething that helps to fuftain their work
from the ground, for the more commodious working
at it.
The horfe ufed by tanners and Ikirmers, alfo call¬
ed the leg, is a piece of wood cut hollow and round-
ifh, four or five feet long, r.,>d placed aflope ; upon
which they pare'their Ikins to get off the dirt, hair,
flelh, &c.
Horse is alfo ufed in carpentry, for a piece of wood
jointed acrofs twro other perpendicular ones, to fuftain
the boards, planks, &c. which make bridges over fmall
rivers; and on divers other occafions.
Horse, in fea-language, is the name of a rope reach¬
ing from the middle of a yard to its extremity, or what
is called the yard-arm, and depending about two or
three feet under the yard, for the failors to tread upon
whilft they are loofmg, reefing, or furling the fails, rig¬
ging out the ftudding-fail booms, &c. In order, there¬
fore, to keep the hoxfe more parallel to the yard, it is
ufually fufpended to it at proper diftances, by certain Horfe.
ropes called ftirrups, which hang about two feet under ' V“
tlm yard, having an eye in their lower ends through
which the horfe paffes.
Horse is alfo a thick rope, extended in a perpendi¬
cular diredlion near the fore or after-fide of a maft, for
the purpofe of hoifting or extending fome fail upon iu
When it is fixed before a mart, it is calculated for the
ufe of a fail called the fquarefail, wdioie yard being at¬
tached to the horfe, by means of a traveller, or bull’s
eye, which Hides up and down occafionally, is retained
in a fteady pofition, either when the fail is fet, or
whilft it is hoifting or lowering. When the horfe is
placed abaft or behind a mart, it is intended for the
try-lail of a fnow, and is accordingly very rarely fixed
in this pofition, except in thofe Hoops of war which
occafionally affume the form of fnows, in order to de¬
ceive the enemy.
Horse is alfo a cant name introduced into the ma-
nagement of lotteries, for the chance or benefit of a
ticket or number for one or more days, upon condi¬
tion, if it be drawn a prize within the time covenanted
for, of returning to the feller an undrawn ticket.—To
determine the value of a horfe ; multiply the amount
of the prizes in the lottery by the time the horfe is hi¬
red for; and from the product fubtracl the amount of
the number of prizes by the value of an undrawn tic¬
ket into the time of the horfe : the remainder being
divided by the number of tickets into the whole time
of drawing, the quotient is the value of the horfe. See
Lottery.
HoRsE-Bread. See Bread.
HoRSE-Dung, in Gardening, is of great ufe in ma¬
king hot beds, for the railing all forts of early crops :
as falading, cucumbers, melons, afparagus, &c. for
which purpofes no other kind of dung will do fo well.
Horfe dung ferments the ftrongeft ; and if mixed with
litter and fea-coal allies in a due proportion, will con¬
tinue its heat much longer than any other fort of dung
whatfoever ; and afterward, when rotted, becomes an
excellent manure for moft forts' of land : more efpe-
cially for fuch as are of a cold nature. For ftiff clayey
land, horfe dung mixed with fea-coal afties, and the
cleanfing of ftreets, will caufe the parts to feparate
much fooner than any other compolt : fo that where
it can be obtained in plenty, it is always to be recom¬
mended for fuch lands. See Dung.
Animated HoRSE-Hairs, a term ufed to exprefs a fort
of long and flender water-worm, of a blackilh colour,
and fo much refembling a horfe-hair, that it is gene¬
rally by the vulgar fuppofed to be the hair fallen from
a horfe’s mane into the water as he drinks, and there
animated by fome ftrange power. Dr Lifter has at
large confuted this abfurd opinion, in the Philofophical
Tranfaftions.
HoRSE-Hair Worms. See Amphisilena.
HoRsE-Hoeing Hufbandry. See Agriculture, N°
489.
HORSEMANSHIP 5
A
[ 613 1
HORSEMANSHIP;
Or, The Art of Riding, and of Training and Managing, Horses.
Breaking of
Horfes.
Sect. I. The Method of preparing Horfes to be mount¬
ed.
^HOUGH all horfes are generally bought at an
age v.'hen they have already been backed, they
(hould be begun and prepared for the rider with the
fame care, geritlenefs, and caution, as if they had ne¬
ver been handled or backed, in order to prevent acci¬
dents, which might elfe arife from fkittkhnefs or other
caufes : and as it is proper that they fhould be taught
the figure of the ground they are to go upon when
they are at firft mounted, they Ihould be previoufiy
trotted in a longc on circles, without any one upon
them.
Earl of Xhe manner of doing this is as follows: Put an eafy
Eembrote e cavejpon Up0n the horfe’s nofe, and make him go for-
ireSliom. wa;.gs roun(j you, Handing quiet and holding the
longe; and let another man, if you find it neceflary,
follow him with a whip. All this muft be done very
gently, and but a little at a time : for more horfes are
fpoiled by overmuch w'ork, than by any other treat¬
ment whatever ; and that by very contrary effedls:
for fometimes it drives them into vice, madnefs, and
defpair, and often ftupifies and totally difpirits them.
The firft obedience required in a horfe is going for¬
wards \ till he perform this duty freely, never even
think of making him rein back, which would inevi¬
tably make him reftive : as foon as he goes forwards
readily, ftop and carefs him. You muft remember in
this, and likewife in every other exercife, to ufe him
to go equally well to the right and left ; and when he
obeys, carefs him and difmifs him immediately. If a
horfe that is very young takes fright and Hands ftill,
lead on another horfe before him, which probably will
induce him inftantly to follow. Put a fnaffle in his
mouth ; and when he goes freely, faddle him, girting
him at firft very loofe. Let the cord, which you
hold, be long and loofe j but not fo much lb as to
endanger the horfe’s entangling his legs in it. It muft
be obferved, that fmall circles, in the beginning, would
conftrain the horfe too much, and put him upon de¬
fending himfelf. No bend muft be required at firft *,
never luHer him to gallop falfe; but whenever he at¬
tempts it, ftop him without delay, and then fet him
off afrefh. If he gallops of his own accord, and true,
permit him to continue it; but if he does it not volun¬
tarily, do not demand it of him at firft. Should he
fly and jump, ftiake the cord gently upon his nofe
without jerking it, and he will fall into his trot again.
If he Hands ftill, plunges, or rears, let the man who
holds the whip make a noife with it; but never touch
him till it be abfolutely neceffary to make him go on.
When you change hands, ftop and carefs him, and en¬
tice him by fair means to come up to you; for by pre-
fenting yourfelf, as fome do, on a hidden before horfes,
and frightening them to the other fide, you run a great Inftruflions-
rifk of giving them a fhynefs. If he keeps his head concerning-
too low, ftiake the caveffon to make him raife it •,
and in whatever the horfe does, whether he -walks, ■ »
trots, or gallops, let it be a conftant rule that the
motion be determined, and really fuch as is intended,
without the leaft fhuiHing, pacing, or any other irre¬
gular gait.
Sect. II. TJlc Method of placing the Rider and render¬
ing him firm on Horfebach, with fotnc occafional In-
firu&ions for Riders and the Horfes.
It is neceffary that the greateft attention, and the
fame gentlenefs that is ufeb in teaching the horfes,
be obferved likewife in teaching the rider, efpecially
at the beginning. Every method and art muft be
pradfifed to create and preferve, both in man and
horfe, all poflible feeling and fenlibility ; contrary to
the ufage of moft riding-mafters, who feem induftrioufty
to labour at aboliftiing thefe principles both in the one
and the other. As fo many eflential points depend upon
the manner in which a man is at firft placed on horfe-
back, it ought to be confidered and attended to with
the ftridleft care and exadlnefs.
The abfurdity of putting a man, who perhaps has
never before been upon a horfe, on a rough trotting
horfe, on which he is obliged to Hick with all the
force of his arms and legs, is too obvious to need men¬
tioning. This rough work, all at once, is plainly as
detrimental at firft, as it is excellent afterwards in pro¬
per time. No man can be either well or firmly feated
on horfeback, unlefs he be mafter of the balance of
his body, quite unconftrained, with a full pofieflion
of himfelf, and at his eafe; none of which requifites
can he enjoy, if his attention be otherwife engaged j
as it muft wholly be in a raw, unfuppled, and un¬
prepared lad, who is put at once upon a rough horfe ;
in fuch a diftrefsfyl ftate, he is forced to keep himfelf
on at any rate, by holding to the bridle (at the ex-
pence of the fenfibility both of his own hand and the
horfe’s mouth), and by clinging with his legs, in
danger of his life, and to the certain deprivation of a
right feeling in the horfe.
The firft time a man is put on horfeback, it ought
to be upon a very gentle one. He never fhould be
made to trot, till he is quite eafy in the walk ; nor
gallop, till he is able to trot properly. The fame muft
be obferved in regard to horfes; they ftiould never be
made to trot till they are obedient, and their mouths
are well formed on a walk, nor be made to gallop,
till the fame be eftefted on a trot. When he is ar¬
med at fuch a degree of firmnefs in his feat, the more
he trots, and the more he rides rough horfes, the bet¬
ter. This is not only the beft method, but alfc the
eafieft and the fliorteft : by it a man is foon made fuffi-
ciently
6i4- H O R S E M
Initruflior? cieritly an horfeman for a ioldier : but by tbe other
bHi ^e,:eftab^ methods that are commonly ufed, a man,
and Horfes. hrftead of improving, .contracts all forts of bad habits,
, u—~y—- an 1 rides worfe and worfe every day j the horfe too
- becomes daily more and more unfit for ufe. In pro¬
ceeding according to the manner propofed, a man is
rendered firm and eafy upon the horfe, both his own
and the horfe’s fenfibility is preferved, and each in a
fituation fit to receive and praclxfe all lefibns effec¬
tually.
Among the various methods that are ufed of pla¬
cing people on horfeback, few are diredled by reafon.
ilefore you let the man mount, teach him to know,
and always to examine, if the curb be well placed,
(that is, when the horfe has a bit in his mouth, which
at firff he fhould not, but only a fnafHe, till the rider
is firm in his feat, and the horfe alfo fomewhat taught):
likewife to know if the nofe-band be properly tight;
the throat-band loofiih j and the mouth-piece neither
too high nor too low in the horfe’s mouth, but right¬
ly put, fo as not to wrinkle the fkin nor to hang lax *,
the girts drawn moderately, but not too tight •, and
the crupper and the bread-plate properly adjuded.
A very good and careful hand may venture on a bit at
firft, and fucceed with it full as well as by beginning
with a fnaffle alone : only colts, indeed, it is better, in
all fchools whatfoever, to avoid any preffure on the
bars jud at firft, which a curb, though ever fo deli¬
cately ufed, muft in fome degree occafion. When
the bridle, &c. have been well looked to, let the man
approach the horfe gently near the {boulder; then
taking the reins and a handful of the main in his left
hand, let him put his foot foftly in the left ftirrup, by
pulling it towards him, left he touch the horfe with
his toe ; then railing bimfelf up, let him reft a moment
on it with his body upright, but not ftiff j and after
that, palling his right leg clear over the faddle without
rubbing againft any thing, let him feat himfelf gently
down. He muft be cautious not to take the reins too
thort, for fear of making the horfe rear, run, or fall
back, or throw up his head ; but let him hold them of
an equal length, neither tight nor Hack, and with the
little finger betwdxt them. It is fit that horfes ftiould
be accuftomed to ftand ftill to be mounted, and not to
ftir till the rider pleafes. All foldiers ftiould be in-
ftrufled to mount and difmount equally well on both
iides, wrhich may be of great ufe in times of hurry and
confufion. Then place the man in his faddle, with
his body rather back, and his head held up with eafe,
without ftiffnefs ; feated neither forwards, nor very far
backwards ; with the breaft puflied out a little, and
the lower part of the body likewife a little forwards;
the thighs and legs turned in without conftraint, and
the feet in a ftraight line, neither turned in nor-out.
By this pofition, the natural weight of the thighs has a
proper and fufficient preffure of itfelf, and the legs are
in readinefs to a£t when called upon ; they muft hang
down eafy and naturally 5 and be fo placed, as not to
be wriggling about, touching, and tickling, the horfe’s
fides, but always near them in cafe they fhould be want¬
ed, as well as the heels.
The body muft be carefully kept eafy and firm, and
without any rocking when in motion ; which is a bad
habit very ealily contra6fed, efpecially in galloping.
The left elbow muft be gently leant againft the body,
1
A N S H I P. Sea. II.
a little forwards j unlefs it be fo refted, the hand can- Inltmiftion*
not be fteady, but wall always be checking, and confe- concerning
quently have pernicious effects on the horfe’s mouth. bo’,hTl<'K!.ers
And the hand ought to be of equal height with thparK‘
elbow j if it were lower, it would conftrain and con¬
fine the motion of the horfe’s ftioulders j but, as the
mouths of horfes are different, the place of the hand
alfo muft occaiionally differ : a leaning, low-, heavy,
fore-hand, requires a high hand; and a horfe that
pokes out his nofe, a low one. The right-hand arm
mail: be placed in fymmetry with the left 5 only let
the right hand be a little more forward or backward,
higher or knver, as occafion may require, in order that
both hands may be free j both arms muft be a little
bent at the elbow, to prevent ftiffnefs.
. A foldier’s right hand Ihould be kept unemployed
in riding ; it carries the fword, which is a fufficient
bufinefs for it.
There remains one farther obfervation, that ought
not to be omitted, about the hand, that it muft be
kept clear of the body j i. e. about two inches and a
half forwards from it, with the nails turned oppoiite
to the belly, and the w-rift a little rounded with eafe $
a pofition not lefs graceful than ready for flackening,
tightening, and moving the reins from one fide to the
other, as may be found neceffary.
When the men are well placed, the more rough
trotting they have without ftirrups the better *, but
with a ftribt care always, that their pofition be pre-
ferved very exa£tly. In all cafes, great care muft be
taken to hinder their clinging w-ith their legs j in
ffiort, no flicking by hands or legs is ever to be al¬
lowed of at any time. If the motion of the horfe be
too rough, flacken it, till. the rider grows by degrees
more firm ; and wffien he is quite firm and eafy on his
horfe in every kind of motion, ftirrups may be give.n
him •, but he muft never leave off trotting often with¬
out anv.
The ftirrups muft be neither fhort nor long ; but of
fuch a length, that when the rider, being well placed,
puts his feet into them (about one-third of the length
of each foot from the point of it), the points may be
between two and three inches higher than the heels.
The rider muft not bear upon bis ftirrups, but only
let the natural weight of his legs reft on them : For
if he bears upon them he would be raifed above and
out of his faddle ; which he fhould never be, except in
charging fword in hand, with the body inclined for¬
wards at the very inftant of attacking. Spurt may
be given as foon as the rider is grown familiar with
ftirrups; or even long before, if his legs are well pla¬
ced.
A hand fhould always be firm, but delicate : a
horfe’s mouth fhould never be furprifed by any hidden
tranfition of it, either from flack to tight, or from
tight to flack. Every thing in horfemanihip muft be
effedled by degrees, but at the fame time with fpirit
and refolution. 7 he hand which by giving and ta¬
king properly, gains its point with the leaft force, is
the belt j and the horfe’s mouth, under this fame
hand’s diredlions, will alfo confequently be the beft,
fuppofing equal advantages in both from nature. This
principle of gentlenefs fhould be obferved upon all oc-
cafions in every branch of horfemanfnip. Sometimes
the right hand may be neceffary, upon fome trouble-
- fome
Sea. II. H O R S E M
Inftruftions fome horfes, to afTift tlie left j but tbe feldomer this is
concerning done) better •, efpecially m a foldier, who has a
^irul1 Hoifword to carry, and to make ufe of.
»_ y The fnaffle muft on all occafions be uppermod j
that is to fay, the reins of it mull be above thofe of
the bridle, whether the fnaffle or the bit be ufed fe-
parately, or whether they be both ufed together.
When the rider knows enough, and the horfe is fuffi-
ciently prepared and fettled to begin any work to¬
wards fuppling, one rein muft be (hortened according
to the ftde worked to j but it muft never be fo much
fhortened, as to make the whole ftrength reft on that
rein alone : for, not to mention that the work would
be falfe and bad, one fide of the horfe’s mouth would
by that means be always deadened ; whereas, on the
contrary, it ihould always be kept frefti by its own
play, and by the help of the oppolite rein’s aiding
delicately in a fomewdiat fmaller degree of tenfion •,
the joint eriedf of wfflich produces in a horfe’s mouth
the proper, gentle, and eafy, degree of appui or bear¬
ing.
A coward and a madman make alike bad riders,
and are both alike difcovered and confounded by the
fuperior fenfe of the creature they are mounted upon,
who is equally fpoilt by both, though in very different
ways. The coward, by fuffering the animal to have
his own way, not only confirms him in his bad habits,
but creates new ones in him : and the madman, by
falfe and violent motions and corre&ions, drives the
horfe, through defpair, into every bad and vicious trick
that rage can fuggeft.
It is very requifite in horfemanftiip, that the hand
and legs ftiould aft in correfpondence with each other
in every thing *, the latter always fubfervient and af-
liftant to the former. Upon circles, in walking, trot¬
ting, or galloping, the outward leg is the only one to
be uled, and that only for a moment at a time, in order
to fet off the horfe true, or put him right if he be falfe \
and as foon as that is done, it muft be taken away
again immediately : but if the horfe be lazy, or other-
wife retains himfelf, both legs muft be ufed and preffed
to his fides at the fame time together. The lefs the
legs are ufed in general, the better. Very delicate
good riders, with horfes they have dreffed themfelves,
wall fcarcely ever want their help'. By the term cut-
vjard is underftood the fide which is more remote from
the centre ; and by inward is meant the fide next to
the centre. In reining back, the rider ftiould be care¬
ful not to ufe his legs, unlefs the horfe backeth on his
fhoulders 5 in which cafe they muft be both applied
gently at the fame time, and correfpond with the hand.
If the horfe refufe to back at all, the rider’s legs muft
be gently approached, till the horfe lifts up a leg, as
if to go forwards \ at which time, when that leg is in
the air, the rein of the fame fide with that leg which
is lifted up will eafily bring that fame leg backwards,
and accordingly oblige the horfe to back ; but if the
horfe offers to rear, the legs muft be inftantly removed
away. I he inward rein muft be tighter on circles, fo
that the horfe may bend and look inwards; and the
outward one croffed over a little towards it j and both
held in the left hand.
Let the man and horfe begin on very flow motions,
that they may have, time to underhand and refleft on
A N S H I P. 615
what is taught them ; and in proportion as the effeft.sbftrufti°nS
of the reins are better comprehended, and the manner
of working becomes more familiar, the quicknefs ofan(j Horf"s.
motion muft be increafed. Every rider muft learn to 
feel, without the help of the eye, when a horfe goes
falfe, and remedy the fault accordingly : this is an in¬
telligence, which nothing but praftice, application, and
attention, can give, in the beginning on flow motions.
A horfe may not only gallop falfe, but alfo trot and
wralk falfe. If a horfe gallops falfe, that is to fay, if
going to the right he leads with the left leg, or if
going to the left he leads with the right; or in cafe
he is difunited, i. e. if he leads with the oppofite leg
behind to that which he leads with before j itop him
immediately, and put him off again properly. The me¬
thod of effefting this, is by approaching your outward
leg, and putting your hand outwards ■, itill keeping
the inward rein the fhorter, and the horfe’s head in¬
wards, if poftible : and if he fhould frill refill, then
bend and pull his head outw7ards alfo 5 but replace it
again, bent properly inwards, the moment he goes off
true. A horfe is faid to be difunited to the right,
when going to the right, and confequently leading
with the right leg before, he leads with the left be¬
hind 5 and is find to be difunited to the left, when go¬
ing to the left, and confequently leading with the left
leg before, he leads with the right behind. A horfe
may at the fame time be both falfe and difunited 5 in
correfting both which faults, the fame method muft
be ufed. He is both falfe and difunited to the right,
when in going to the right he leads with the left leg
before, and the right behind $ notwithftanding that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his
belly than the left, becaufe the horfe is working to the
right : And he is falfe and difunited to the left, when
in going to the left he leads with the right leg before
and the left behind ; notwithftanding, as above, that
hinder leg be with propriety more forward under his
belly than the right, becaufe the horfe is working to
the left.
In teaching men a right feat on horfeback, the
greateft attention muft be given to prevent ftiffnefs,.
and flicking by force in any manner upon any oc-
cafion : ftiffnefs difgraces every right Work ; and ilrck-
ing ferves only to throw a man (wfflen difplaced)
a great diftance from his horfe by the. fpring he
muft go off with : whereas by a proper equilibra¬
ting pofition of the body, and by the natural weight
only of the thighs, he cannot but be firm and fecure in
his feat.
As the men become more firm, and the horfes more
fupple, it is proper to make the circles lefs; but not
too much fo, for fear of throwing the hori’es forwards
upon their fhoulders.
Some horfes, when firft the bit is put into their
mouths, if great care be not taken, will put their heads
very low. With fuch horfes, raife your right hand with
the bridoon in it, and play at the fame time with the
bit in the left hand, giving- and taking.
On circles, the rider muft lean his body inwards;
unlefs great attention be given to make him do it, he
will be perpetually lofing his feat outwards. It is fcarce
poffible for him to be difplaced, if he leans his body •
properly inwards.
Sect..
H O R S E M
Sect. III. The Method of^ fuppling Horfes with
Men upon them, by the Epaule en dedans, is'e.
with and without a Longe, on Circles and on
Jlraight Lines.
When a horfe is well prepared and fettled in all
his motions, and the rider firm, it will be proper then
to proceed on towards a father fuppling and teaching
of both.
In fetting out upon this new work, begin by bring¬
ing the horfe’s head a little more inwards than before,
pulling the inward rein gently to you by degrees.
When this is done, try to gain a little on the ihoul-
ders, by keeping the inward rein the Ihorter, as be¬
fore, and tire outward one eroded over towards the
inward one. The intention of thefe operations is
this : The'inward rein ferves to bring in the head, and
procures the bend •, whilit the outward one, that is a
little eroded, tends to make that bend perpendicular
and as it fhould be, that is to fay, to reduce the nofe
and the forehead to be in a perpendicular line with
each other : it alfo ferves, if put forwards, as well as
alfo eroded, to put the horfe forwards, if found necef-
fary ; which is often requidte, many horfes being apt
in this and other works rather to lofe their ground
backwards than otherwife, when they fhould rather
advance •, if the nofe were drawn in towards the bread
beyond the perpendicular, it would confine the motion
of the fhouldfers, and have other bad effects. All other
bends, beddes what are above fpecided, are falfe. The
outward rein, being eroded, not in a forward fenfe,
but rather a little backwards, ferves alfo to prevent
the outward dioulder from getting too forwards, and
makes it approach the inward one •, which facilitates
the inward leg’s eroding over the outward one, which
is the motion that fo admirably fupples the dioulders.
O.re mull be taken, that the inward leg pafs over the
outward one, without touching it : this inward leg’s
eroding over mud be helped alto by the inward rein,
which you mud crofs towards and over the outward
rein every time the outward leg comes to the ground,
in order to lift and help the inward leg over it : at
any other time, but jud when the outward leg comes
to the ground, it would be wrong to crofs the inward
rein, or to attempt to lift up the inward leg by it j
nay, it would be demanding an abfolute impodibility,
and lugging about the reins and horfe to no purpofe :
becaufe in this cafe, a very great part of the horfe’s
weight reding then upon that leg, would render fuch
an attempt not only fruitlefs, but alfo prejudicial to
the fenfibility of the mouth, and probably oblige him
to defend himfelf j and, moreover, it would put the
horfe under a necettity of draddling before, and alfo of
leading with the wrong leg, without being productive
of any fuppling motion whatfoever.
When the horfe is thus far familiarly accudemed to
what you have required of him, then proceed to effect
by degrees the fame eroding in his hinder legs. By
bringing in the fore legs more, you wdll of courfe en¬
gage the hinder ones in the fame w'ork ; if they rend,
the rider mud bring both reins more inward : and, if
neceffary, put back alfo, and approach his inward leg to
the horfe •, and if the horfe throws out his croup too
far, the rider mud bring both reins outwards, and, if
2
A N s H I P. Seft. m.
abfolutely neceffary, he mud alfo make ufe ox h.s cut- Of fuppling
ward leg, in order to replace the horfe properly : ob- Horfes.
ferving that the croup diould always be condderably 'm"xJ
behind the dioulders, which in all actions muff go fird-,
and the moment that the horfe obeys, the rider mud
put his hand and leg again in their ufual podtion.
Nothing is more ungraceful in jtfelf, more detrimen¬
tal to a man’s feat, or more dedruCtive of the fenfibi¬
lity of a horfe’s fides, than a continual wriggling un-
fettlednefs in a horfeman’s legs, which prevents the
horfe from ever going a moment together true, deady,
or determined.
A horfe diould never be turned, without fird moving
a dep forwards : and when it is doing, the rider mud
not lift his elbow, and difplace himfelf; a motion only
of the hand from the one fide to the other being fufii-
cient for that purpofe. It mud alfo be a condant rule,
never to fuffer a horfe to be dopped, mounted, or difi-
mounted, but when he is well placed. The flower the
motions are when a man or horfe is taught any thing,
the better.
At fird, the figures worked upon mud be great,
and afterwards made lefs by degrees, according to the
improvement which the man and horfe make 5 and the
cadenced pace alfo, which they work in, mud be ac ¬
cordingly augmented. The changes from one fide to
the other mud be in a bold determined trot, and at
fird quite draight forwards, without demanding any
dde-motion on two pi/les, which is very neceffary to
require afterwards when the horfe is fudiciently fup-
pled. By two pi/les is meant, when the fore parts and
hinder parts do not follow, but deferibe two different
lines.
In the beginning, a longe is ufed on circles, and
alfo on draight lines, to help both the rider and the
horfe •, but afterwards, when they are grown more in¬
telligent, they thould go alone. At the end of the
leffon, rein back ; then put the horfe, by a little at a
time, forwards, by approaching both legs gently to
his fides, and playing with the bridle : if he rears, pufii
him out immediately into a full trot. Shaking the ca-
vejjon on the horfe’s nofe, and alfo putting one’s felf
before him and rather near to him, will generally make
him back, though he otherwife refufe to do it : and
moreover a dight ufe and approaching of the rider’s
legs, will fometimes be neceffary in backing, in order
to prevent the horfe from doing it too much upon his
dioulders *, but the preffure of the legs ought to be very
fmall, and taken quite away the moment that he puts
himfelf enough upon his haunches. If the horfe does
not back upon a draight line properly, the rider mud
not be permitted to have recourfe immediately to his
leg, and fo didort himfelf by it; but fird try, if eroding
over his hand and reins to which every dde may be ne-
ceffary, it will not be alone fufficient: which mod fre¬
quently it will *, if not, then employ the leg.
After a horfe is well prepared and fettled, and goes
freely on in all his feveral paces, he ought to be in all
his works kept, to a proper degree, upon his haunches,
with his hinder legs well placed under him ; whereby
he will be always pleafant to himfelf and his rider, will
be light in hand, and ready to execute whatever may
be demanded of him, with facility, vigour, and quick-
nefs.
The common method that is ufed of forcing a horfe
fidewife,
Sea. iv. H O R S E M
Of the fidewife, is a moil glaring abfurdity, and very hurtful
Head to the to the animal in its confequences j for inftead of fup-
WaJl, Sec. pimg it obliges him to fbifen and defend himfelf^
and often makes a creature that is naturally benevo¬
lent, reftive, frightened, and vicious.
For horfes, who have very long and high fore-hands,
and who poke out their nofes, a running fnaffle is of
excellent ule ; but for fuch as bore and keep their
heads low, a common one is preferable 5 though any
horfe’s head indeed may be kept up alfo with a run¬
ning one, by the rider’s keeping his hands very high
and forwards : but whenever either is ufed alone with¬
out a bridle upon horfes that carry their heads low
and that bore, it muft be fawed about from one fide to
the other.
This leflbn of the epaule en dedam ihould be taught
to fuch people as are likely to become ufeful in help¬
ing to teach men and to break horfes j and the more
of fuch that can be found the better} none others fhould
ever be fuft'ered upon any occafion to let their horfes
look any way beiides the way they are going. But all
horfes whatever, as likewife all men who are defigned
for the teaching others, mull go thoroughly and per¬
fectly through this excellent leflbn, under the direc¬
tions of intelligent inftruftors, and often praftife it
too afterwards ; and when that is done, proceed to
and be finifhed by the leflbns of head and tail to the
wall.
SECifc IV. Of the Bead to the Wall, and of the Croup
to the Wall.
This leflbn fhould be pra&ifed immediately after
that of the epaule en dedans, in order to place the horfe
properly the way he goes, &c. I he difference betiveen
the head to the wall, and the croup to the wall, con-
fills in this : in the former, the fore-parts are more re¬
mote from the centre, and go over more ground j in
the latter, the hinder parts are more remote from the
centre, and confequently go over more ground : in
both, as likewife in all other leflbns, the fhoulders muft
go firft. In riding-horfes, the head to the wall is
the eafier leflbn of the twTo at firft, the line to be
worked upon being marked by the wall, not far from
his head.
Thp motion of the legs to the right, is the fame as
that of the epaule en dedans to the left, and fo vice verfi;
but the head is alwrays bent and turned differently : in
the epaule en dedans, the horfe looks the contrary way
to that which he goes 5 in this, he looks the way he is
g°ing*
In the beginning, very little bend muft be required:
too much at once would aftonifh the horfe, and make
him defend himfelf: it is to be augmented by degrees.
If the horfe abfolutely refufes to obey, it is a fign that
either he or his rider has not been fufficiently prepared
by previous leflbns. It may happen, that weaknefs or
a hurt in fotne part of the body, or fometimes temper,
though feldom, may be the caufe of the horfe’s de¬
fending himfelf.': it is the rider’s bufinefs to find out
from whence the obftacle arifes ; and if he finds it to
be from the firft mentioned caufe, the previous leflbns
muft be refumed again for fome time ; if from the fe-
cond, proper remedies muft be applied \ and if from
VOL. X. Part II.
A N S II I P.
617
the laft caufe, when all fair means that can be tried Of the
have failed, proper corrections with coolnefs and judge-FPa!lloa;}la
ment muft be ufed. . f’.Zll'i
In praCtifing this leflbn to the right, bend the
horfe to the right with the right rein ; helping the
left leg over the right (at the time when the right
leg is juft come to the ground), with the left rein
crofled towards the right, and keeping the right (houl
der back with the right rein towards your body, in
order to facilitate the left leg’s crofting over the right •,
and fo likewife vice verfa to the left, each rein help¬
ing the other by their properly mixed effects. In
working to the right, the rider’s left leg helps the.
hinder parts on to the right, and his right leg flops
them if they get too forwards 5 and fo vice verfa to
the left : but neither ought to be ufed, till the hand
being employed in a proper manner has failed, or finds
that a greater force is neceffary to bring about what
is required than it can effeCt alone : for the legs
fhould not only be correfponding with, but alfo fub-
fervient to, the hand 5 and all unneceflary aids, as well
as all force, ought alwmys to be avoided as much as
poflible.
In the execution of all leflbns, the equilibre of the
rider’s body is of great ufe to the horfe j it ought al¬
ways to go with and accompany every motion of the
animal 3 w'hen to the right, to the right 3 and when to
the left, to the left.
Upon all horfes, in every leflbn and aftion, it muft
be obferved, that there is no horfe but has his own
peculiar appui or degree of bearing, and alfo a fenfi-
bility of mouth, as likewife a rate of his owm, wdiich
it is abfolutely neceflary for the rider to difeover and
make himfelf acquainted with. A bad rider always
takes off at leaft the delicacy of both, if not abfolutely
deftroys it. The horfe will inform his rider when he
has got his proper bearing in the mouth, by playing
pleafantly and fteadily with his bit, and by the ipray
about his chaps. A delicate and good hand will not.
only always preferve a light appui, or bearing, in its
fenfibility 3 but alfo of a heavy one, whether naturally
fo or acquired, make a light one. The lighter this
appui can be made, the better 3 provided that the
rider’s hand correfponds with it 3 if it does not, the
more the horfe is properly prepared, fo much the
wmife. Inftances of this inconvenience of the beft of
appuis, when the rider is not equally taught with the
horfe, may be feen every day in fome gentlemen, who
try to get their horfes bitted as they call it, wdthout
being fuitably prepared themfelves for riding them :
the confequence of which is, that they ride in danger
of breaking their necks 3 till at length, after much
hauling about, and by the joint infenfibility and igno¬
rance of themfelves and their grooms, the poor animals
gradually become mere fenfelefs unfeeling ports 3 and
thereby grow, what they czM, fettled. When the pro¬
per appui is found, and made of courfe as light as pof-
fible, it muft not be kept duly fixed without variation,
but be played w’ith 3 otherwife one equally continued
tenfion of reins would render both the rider’s hand and
the horfe’s mouth very dull. The flighteft and frequent
giving and taking is therefore neceffary to keep both
perfeft.
W7hatever pace or degree of quicknefs you work in,
4 I \ (be
618 HORSEMANSHIP.
To make (be it ever fo faft, or ever fo flow), it muff be ca-
time is as neceffary for a horfeman as for a
Seel. VI.
&e.
HorfesJ denied ,
ft and Fire, jnuftejan.
This lelTon of the head and of the tail to the wall,
mull be taught every foldier: fcarce any manoeuvre can
be well performed without it. In clofing and opening
of files, it is almoft every moment wanted.
Sect. V. The Method of making Horfes Jland Fire,
Noi/'es, Alarms, Sights, &c.
In order to make horfes ftand fire, the found of
drums, and all forts of different noifes, you muff ufe
them to it by degrees in the liable at feeding time 5
and inftead of being frightened at it, they will foon
come to like it as a fignal for eating.
With regard to fuch horfes as are afraid of burning
objects, begin by keeping them ftill at a certain di-
ffance from fome lighted ftraw' j carefs the horfe ; and
in proportion as his fright diminilhes, approach gra-'
dually the burning ftraw very gently, and increafe the
fize of it. By this means he will very quickly be brought
to be fo familiar with it, as to w’alk undaunted even
through it.
As to horfes that are apt to lie down in the water,
if animating them, and attacking them vigoroufly,
fliould fail of the defired effe£t, then break a ftraw-
bottle full of water upon their heads, and let the water
run into their ears, which is a thing they apprehend
very much.
All troop-horfes mull be taught to ftand quiet and
ftill when they are Ihot off from, to flop the moment
you prefent, and not to move after firing till they are
required to do it j this leffon ought efpecially to be
obferved in light troops : in Ihort, the horfes muft be
taught to be fo cool and undifturbed, as to fuffer the
rider to aft upon him with the fame freedom as if he
was on foot. Patience, coolnefs, and temper are the
only means requifite for accomplilhing this end. Be¬
gin by walking the horfe gently, then ftop and keep
him from ftirring for fome time, fo as to accuftom
him by degrees not to have the leaft idea of moving
without orders: if he does, then back him j and
when you ftop him, and he is quite ftill, leave the reins
quite loofe.
To ufe a horfe to fire-arms, firft put a piftol or a
carabine in the manger with his feed : then ufe him
to the found of the lock and the pan j after which,
when you are upon him, Ihow the piece to him, pre-
fenting it forwards, fometimes on one fide, fometimes
on the other: when he is thus far reconciled, proceed
to flafii in the pan j after which, put a fmall charge
into the piece, and fo continue augmenting it by de¬
grees to the quantity which is commonly ufed : if he
feems uneafy, walk him forward a few fteps fiowly j
and then ftop, back, and carefs him, Horfes are
often alfo difquieted and unfteady at the clafli, and
drawing, and returning of fwords $ all which they muft
be familiarized to by little and little, by frequency and
gentlenefs.
It is very expedient for all cavalry in general, but
particularly for light cavalry, that their horfes fhould
■be very ready and expert in leaping over ditches, hedges,
gates, &c. The leaps, of whatever fort they are, which
the horfes are brought to in the beginning, ought to
be very fmall ones •, the riders muft keep their bodies Of Reining
back, raife their hands a little in order to help the Back, &c.
fore-parts of the horfe up, and be
their equilibre.
very attentive to
It is beft to begin at a low bar co¬
vered with furze, which pricking the horfe’s legs, if
he does not raife^ himfelf fufficiently, prevents his con-
f trafting a fluggilh and dangerous habit of touching,
as he goes over, which any thing yielding and not
pricking wmuld give him a cuftom of doing. Let the
ditches you firft bring horfes to be narrow ; and in
this, as in every thing elfe, let the increafe be made by
degrees. Accuftom them to come up to every thing
which they are to leap over, and to ftand coolly at it
for fome time; and then to raife themfelves gently up
in order to form to themfelves an idea of the diftance.
When they leap well {landing, then ufe them to walk
gently up to the leap, and to go over it without firft:
halting at it 5 and after that praftice is familiar to
them, repeat the like in a gentle trot, and fo by de¬
grees fafter and fafter, till at length it is as familiar to
them to leap flying on a full gallop as any other way ;
all which is to be acquired with great facility by calm
and foft means, without any hurry.
As horfes are naturally apt to be frightened at the
fight and fmell of dead horfes, it is advifeable to habi¬
tuate them to walk over and leap over carcafes of
dead horfes : and as they are particularly terrified at
this fight, the greater gentlenefs ought confequently to
be ufed.
Horfes fhould alfo be accuftomed to fwim, which
often may be neceffary upon fervice ; and if the men
and horfes both are not ufed to it, both may be fre¬
quently liable to perifh in the uTater. A very fmall
portion of ftrength is futficient to guide a horfe, any¬
where indeed, but particularly in the water, where they
muft be permitted to have their heads, and be no-ways
conftrained in any fhape.
The unreafonable rage in Britain of cutting off all
extremities from horfes, is in all cafes a very pernicious
cuftom. It is particularly fo in regard to a troop-
horfe’s tail. It is almoft incredible, how much they
fuffer at the picket for wTant of it: conftantly fretting,
and fweating, kicking about and laming one another,
tormented, and flung off their meat, miferable, and
helplefs j while other horfes, with their tails on, brufh
off all flies, are cool and at their eafe, and mend dailyj
whilft the docked ones grow every hour more and more
out of condition.
Sect. VI. I he Method of reining back,—and of moving
forwards immediately after ;—of Piafng,—of Pil¬
lars, &c.
Never finifh your work by reining back with horfes
that have any difpofition towards retaining themfelves j
but always move them forwards, and a little upon the
haunches alfo, after it, before you difmount, (unlefs
they retain themfelves very much indeed, in which cafe
nothing at all muft be demanded from the haunches).
This leffon of reining back, and piafing, is excellent to
conclude with, and puts a horfe well and properly upon
the haunches : It may be done, according as horfes are
more or lefs fuppled, either going forwards, backing,
or in the fame place: if it is done well advancing, or
at moft on the fame fpot, it is fully fufficient for a fol-
dier’s
H O R S E M
Sed. VII.
Gf Curing dier’s horfe : For to piafe in backing, is rather too
Reftivenefs, much to be expedled in the hurry which cannot but at-
, &LC' , tend fuch numbers both of men and horfes as muft be
taught together in regiments. This leflbn muft never
be attempted at all, till horfes are very well fuppled,
and fomewhat accuftomed to be put together $ other-
wife it will have very bad confequences, and create ref¬
tivenefs. If they refufe to back, and ftand motionlefs,
the rider’s legs muft approach with the greateft
gentlenefs to the horfe’s fides $ at the fame time that
the hand is adling on the reins to folicit the horfe’s
backing. This feldom fails of procuring the defired
effedt, by railing one of the horfe’s fore-legs, which
being in the air, has no weight upon it, and is confe-
quently very eafily brought backwards by a fmall de¬
gree of tenfion in the reins. When this leffon is well
performed, it is very noble and ufeful, and has a plea-
fing air; it is an excellent one to begin teaching fcho-
lars with.
The leflbn is particularly ferviceable in the pillars,
for placing fcholars well at firft. Very few regimental
riding-houfes have pillars, and it is fortunate they have
not : for though, when properly made ufe of with Ikill,
they are one of the greateft and beft difcoveries in
horfemanlhip ; they muft be allowed to be very dan¬
gerous and pernicious, when they are not under the
diredtion of a very knowing perfon.
Sect. VII. T/ic Method of curing Refivenefs, Vices,
Defences, Starting, &c.
Whenever a horfe makes reliftance, one ought, be¬
fore remedy or corredlion is thought of, to examine
very minutely all the tackle about him, if any thing
hurts or tickles him, whether he has any natural or
accidental weaknefs, or in ftiort any the leaft impedi¬
ment in any part. For want of this precaution, many
fatal difafters happen : the poor dumb animal is fre¬
quently accufed falfely of being reftive and vicious j is
ufed ill without reafon j and, being forced into defpair,
is in a manner obliged to adl accordingly, be his tem¬
per and inclination ever fo well difpofed. It is very
feldom the cafe, that a horfe is really and by nature
vicious 5 but if fuch be found, he will defpife all caref-
fes, and then chaftifements become neceffary.
Corredtion, according as you ufe it, throws a horfe
into more or lefs violent adfion, which, if he be weak,
he cannot fupport : but a vicious ftrong horfe is to be
confidered in a very different light, being able both
to undergo and confequently to profit by all leffons j
and is far preferable to the beft natured weak one
upon eartn. Patience and attention are never failing
means to reclaim fuch a horfe : in whatfoever manner
he defends himfelf, bring him back frequently with
gentlenefs (not however without having given him
proper chaftifement if neceffary) to the leffon which
he-feems moft averfe to. Horfes are by degrees made
obedient, through the hope of recompenfe and the fear
of punifhment: how to mix thefe two motives judici-
oufly together, it is a very difficult matter; it requires
much thought and pradlice; and not only a good head,
but a good heart likewife. The cooleft and beft natu¬
red rider will always fucceed beft. By a dexterous ufe
of the incitements above-mentioned, you will gradual¬
ly bring the horfe to temper and obedience j mere
A N S H I P, ' 619
force, and want of fkill and coolnefs, would only tend Of Curing
to confirm him in bad tricks. If he be impatient or R-eftlvenels>
choleric, never ftrike him, unlefs he abfolutely refufe , ^c'
to go forward } which you muft refolutely oblige him
to do, and which will be of itfelf a corredlion, by pre¬
venting his having time to meditate and put in execu¬
tion any defence by retaining himfelf. Refiftance in
horfes, you muft confider, is fometimes a mark of
ftrength and vigour, and proceeds from fpirit, as well
as fometimes from vice and weaknefs. Weaknefs fre¬
quently drives horfes into vicioufnefs, when any thing
wherein ftrength is neceffary is demanded from them ;
nay, it inevitably muft : great care therefore fhould
always be taken to diftinguifh from which of thefe
twro caufes any remedy or punifliment is thought of.
It may fometimes be a bad fign when horfes do not
at all defend themfelves, and proceed from a fluggilh
difpolition, a want of fpirit, and of a proper fenftbili-
ty. Whenever one is fo fortunate as to meet with a
horfe of juft the right fpirit, adlivity, delicacy of feel¬
ing, with ftrength and good nature, he cannot be che-
riftied too much ; for fuch a one is a rare and inefti-
mable jewel, and, if properly treated, will in a man¬
ner do every thing of himfelf. Horfes are oftener fpoilt
by having too much done to them, and by attempts
to drefs them in too great an hurry, than by any other
treatment.
If after a horfe has been well fuppled, and there
are no impediments, either natural or accidental, if
he ftill perfift to defend himfelf, chaftifements then
become neceffary : but whenever this is the cafej they
muft not be frequent but always firm, though always
as little violent as poflible ; for they are both dange¬
rous and very prejudicial when frequently or flightly
played w’ith, and ftill more fo when ufed too vio¬
lently.
It is impoflible, in general, to be too circumfpeft
in leffons of all kinds, in aids, chaftifements, or ca-
reffes. Some have quicker parts, and more cunning,
than others. Many will imperceptibly gain a little
every day on the rider. Various, in ftiort, are their
dilpofttions and capacities. It is the rider’s buftnefs
to find out their different qualities, and to make them
fenlible how much he loves them, and defires to be
loved by them j but at the fame time that he does not
fear them, and will be mafter.
Plunging is a very common defence among reftive
and vicious horfes : if they do it in the fame place, or
backing, they muft, by the rider’s legs and fpurs
firmly applied, be obliged to go forwards, and their
heads kept up high. But if they do it flying for¬
wards, keep them back, and ride them gently and
very flow for a good while together. Of all bad tem¬
pers and qualities in horfes, thofe which are occa-
fioned by haiih treatment and ignorant riders are the
worft.
Rearing is a bad vice, and, in weak horfes efpe-
cially, a very dangerous one. Whilft the horfe is up,
the rider muft yield his hand; and when the horfe is
defcending, he muft vigoroufly determine him for¬
wards : if this be done at any other time but whilft
the horfe is coming down, it may add a fpring to his
rearing, and make him fall backwards. With a good
hand on them, horfes feldom perfift in this vice ; for
they are themfelves naturally much afraid of falling
4 I 2 b^kwardsr
620
HORSEMANSHIP.
Sect. VIII.
Rulef-for backwaicis. If tins metbod fails, you muft make the
Bad horfe kick up behind, by getting fomebody on foot
Horlen.en. ftrJke him behind with a whip ; or, if that will not
effedl it, by pricking him with a goad.
Starting often proceeds from a defeft in the fight }
which therefore muft be carefully looked'into. What¬
ever the horfe is afraid of, bring him up to it gently j
if you carefs him every fiep he advances, he will go
quite up to it by degrees, and foon grow familiar with
all forts of obje6ts. " Nothing but great gentlenefs can
corredt this fault; for if you inflict punifhment, the
apprehenfion of chaftifement becomes prevalent, and
caufes more ftarting than the fear of the objedt. If
you let him go by the objedt, without bringing him
up to it, you increafe the fault, and confirm him in
his fear: the confequence of which is, he takes his
rider perhaps a quite contrary way from what he was
going, becomes his mafter, and puts himfelf and the
perfon upon him every moment in great danger.
With fuch horfes as are to a very great degree
fearful of any objedts, make a quiet horfe, by going
before them, gradually entice them to approach nearer
and nearer to the thing they are afraid of. If the
horfe, thus alarmed, be undifciplined and headftrong,
he will probably run away with his rider ; and if io,
his head muft be kept up high, and the fnaffie fawed
backwards and forwards from right to left, taking up
and yielding the reins of it, as alio the reins of the
bit : but this latter muft not be fawed backwards and
forwards like the fnaffle, but only taken up and
yielded properly. No man ever yet did, or ever will
flop a horfe, or gain any one point over him, by main
force, or by pulling a dead weight againft him.
Sect. VIII. Rules for bad Horfemen.
‘Thomfins In the firft place, every horfe ftiould be accuftom-
RmUu ed to ftand ftill when he is mounted. One would
imagine this might be readily granted; yet we fee how
much the contrary is praftifed. Wrhen a gentleman
mounts at a livery-ftable, the groom takes the horfe
by the bit, which he bends tight round his under jaw :
the horfe ftriving to go on, is forced back ; advancing
again, he frets, as he is again flopped fhort, and hurt
by the manner of holding him. The rider, in the
mean time, mounting without the bridle, or at lead
holding it but {lightly, is helped to it by the groom,
who being thoroughly employed by the horfe’s flut¬
tering, has at the fame time both bridle and ftirrup to
give. This confufton would be prevented, if every
horfe 'was taught to ftand ftill wdren he is mounted.
Forbid your groom, therefore, when he rides your
horfe to wrater, to throw himfelf over him from a
horfe-block, and kick him with his leg, even before
he is fairly upon him. This wrong manner of mount¬
ing is what chiefly teaches your horfe the vicious ha¬
bit againft which we are here warning. On the
other hand, a conftant praflice of mounting in the
proper manner, is all that is neceffary to prevent a
horfe’s going on till the rider is quite adjufted in the
faddle.
The next thing necefiary therefore is, that the rider
fhould mount properly. The common method is to
ftand near the croup or hinder part of the horfe, with
ihe bridle held very long in the right hand. By this
manner of holding the bridle before you mount, you Rules for
are liable to be kicked ; and when you are mounted, Bad
your horfe may go on fome time, or play what gam- or ^men''<
bols he pleafes, before the rein is fhort enough in
your hand to prevent him. It is common likewife
for an awkward rider, as foon as his foot is in the ftir¬
rup, to throw himfelf with all his force to gain his feat j
which he cannot do, till he hath firft overbalanced him¬
felf on one fide or the other : he will then wriggle in¬
to it by degrees. The way to mount wfith eafe and
fafety is, to ftand rather before than behind the ftir¬
rup. In this pofture take the bridle fhort, and the
mane together in your left hand, helping yourfelf to
the ftirrup with your , right, fo that your toe may not
touch the horfe in mounting. While your left foot is
in the ftirrup, move on your right, till you face the fide
of the horfe, looking acrofs over the faddle. Then
with your right hand grafp the hinder part of the fad¬
dle •, and with that and your left, which holds the
mane and bridle, lift yourfelf upright on your left foot.
Remain thus a mere inftant on your ftirrup, only fo as
to divide the a£tion into two motions. While you are
in this pofture, you have a fure hold with both hands,
and are at liberty, either to get fafely down, or to
throw your leg over and gain your feat. By this de¬
liberate motion, likewife, you avoid, what every good
horfeman would endeavour to avoid, putting your
horfe into a flutter.
When you difmount, hold the bridle and mane to¬
gether in your left hand, as when you mounted * put
your right hand on the pommel of the faddle, to raife
yourfelf; throw your leg back over the horfe, grafp
the hinder part of the faddle with your right hand,
remain a moment on your ftirrup, and in every refpeft
difmount as you mounted ; only what was your firft
motion when you mounted, becomes the laft in dif-
mounting. Remember not to bend your right knee
in difmounting, left your fpur ftiould rub againft the
horfe.
It may be next recommended to hold your bridle at
a convenient length. Sit fquare, and let not the pur-
chafe of the bridle pull forward your fhoulder •, but
keep your body even, as it would be if each hand held
a rein. Hold your reins with the whole grafp of your
hand, dividing them with your little finger. Let
your hand be perpendicular; your thumb will then be
uppermoft, and placed on the bridle. Bend your
wrift a little outward : and when you pull the bridle,
raife your hand toward your breaft, and the lower
part of the palm rather more than the upper. Let the
bridle be at fuch a length in your hand, as, if the
horfe fhould {tumble, you may be able to raife his
head, and fupport it by the ftrength of your arms, and
the weight of your body thrown backward. If you
hold the rein too long, you are fubjeft to fall back¬
ward as your horfe rifes.
If, knowing your horfe perfe£tly well, you think a
tight rein unneceflary, advance your arm a little (but
not your fhoulder) towards the horfe’s head, and keep
your ufual length of rein. By this means, you have
a check upon your horfe, while you indulge him. 1
If you ride with a curb, make it a rule to hook on
the chain yourfelf j the molt quiet horfe ’ may bring
his rider into danger, fhould the curb hurt him. If,,
in fixing the curb, you turn the chain to the right,
the
Se£l VIII. HORSEMANSHIP.
Rules for the links will unfold themfelves, and then oppofe a
Bad farther turning. Pat on the chain loofe enough to
Horfemen. hang down on the horfe’s under lip, fo that it may not
1 ~ ^ rife and prefs his jaw, till the reins of the bridle pre
moderately pulled. ...
If your horfe has been ufed to hand ftill when he is
mounted, there will be no occafion for a groom to hold
him : but if he does, fuffer him not to touch the reins,
but that part of the bridle which comes down the
cheek of the horfe. He cannot then interfere with
the management of the reins, which belongs to the
rider only \ and holding a horfe by the curb (which is
ever painful to him) is evidently improper when he is
to Hand ftill.
Another thing to be remembered is, not to ride
with your arms and elbows as high as your (boulders j
nor let them (hake up and down with the motion of
the horfe. The pofture is unbecoming, and the weight
of the arms (and of the body too if the lider does
not fit ftill) afts in continual jerks on the jawr of the
horfe, w'hich muft give him pain, and make him un¬
quiet, if he has a tender mouth or any fpirit.
Bad riders wonder why horfes are gentle as foon as
they are mounted by (kilful ones, though their (kill
(eems unemployed : the reafon is, the hor(e goes, at
his eafe, yet finds all his motions w’atched } wdiich
he has fagacity enough to difcover. Such, a rider
hides his whip, if he finds his horfe is afraid ot it ;
and keeps his legs from his fides, if he finds he dreads
the fpur.
Avoid the ungraceful cuftom of letting your legs
(hake againft the fides of the horfe : and as you are. not
to keep your arms and elbows high, and in motion 5
fo you are not to rivet them to your fides, but let
them fall eafy. One may, at a diftance, diftinguifh
a genteel horfeman from an awkward one: the (lift
fits ftill, and appears of a piece with his horfe 5 the
latter feems flying off at all points.
It is often faid with emphafis, that fuch a one has
no feat on horfeback ; and it means, not only that he
does not ride well, but that he does not fit on the righu
part of the horfe. To have a good feat, is to fit on
that part of the horfe, which, as he fprings, is the
centre of motion j and from which, of courfe, any
weight would be with moft difficulty fhaken. As in
the riling and falling of a board placed in cequihbrio,
the centre will be always moft at reft •, the true (eat
will be found in that part of your faddle, into which
your body would naturally (hde, if you rode without
ftirrups : and is only to be preferved by a proper poife
of the body, though the generality of riders imagine
it is to be done by the grafp of the thighs and. knees.
The rider (hould confider himfelf as united to his horfs
in this point} and when (haken from it, endeavour to
reftore the balance.
Perhaps the mention of the two extremes of a bad
feat may help to defcribe the true one. Lhe one is,
when the rider fits very far back on the faddle, fo tnat
his weight preffeS the loins of the horfe : the other,
when his r body hangs forward over the pommel of the
faddle. The firft maly be feen pradtifed by grooms,
when they ride with theh ftirrups affedfedly (hort •, the
latter, by fearful horfemen. on the lead flutter of the
horfe. Evdry good rider has, even on the hunting
faddle, as determined a place for his thighs, as can be
deterffiined for him by the bars of a demi-peak. In¬
deed there is no difference between the feat of either :
only, as in the firft you ride with (horter 1 Lin ups,
your body will be confequently more benind your
knees.
To have a good feat yourfelf, your faddle mult fit
well. To fix a precife rule might be difficult ; it may
be a direBion, to have your faddle prefs as neatly as
poffible on that part which we have defcribed as the
point of union between the man and horfe ■, howevei,
fo as not to obftrudt the motion of the horfe’s fhoul-
ders. Place yourfelf in the middle or lowed, part of
it : fit ered j but with as little conftraint as in your
ordinary fitting. The eafe of adion manes the gentle¬
man : you may repofe yourfelf, but not lounge. I he
fet and ftudied erednefs acquired in the riding-houfe,
by thofe whofe deportment is not ealy, appears ungen-
teel and unnatural.
If your horfe (lops (hort, or endeavours by nfing
and kicking to unfeat you, bend not your body for¬
ward, as many do in thele circumftances : that motion
throws the breech backward, and you off your fork, or
twill, and out of your feat ; wdiereas, the advancing
the lower part of your body, and bending back the
upper part and (boulders, is the method both to keep
your feat, and to recover it when loft. I he bending
vour body back, and that in a great degree, is the
greateft fecurity in flying leaps’, it is a fecurity too,
when your horle leaps flanding. The hone s riling
does not try the rider’s feat \ the laffi of his hind legs
is what ought chiefly to be guarded againft, and is belt
done by the body’s being greatly inclined back. Stif¬
fen not your legs or thighs’, and let your.body be pli¬
able in the loins, like the coachman’s on his box. This
loofe manner of fitting will elude every rough motion
of the horfe ; whereas the fixture of the knees, fo
commonly laid a ftrefs on, will in great (hocks conduce
to the violence of the fall.
Was the cricket-player, when the ball is ftruck with
the greateft velocity, to hold his hand firm and fixed
when he receives it, the hand would be bruifed, or
perhaps the bones fradtured by the refiftance. . To ob¬
viate this accident, he therefore gradually yields his
hand to the motion of the ball for a certain diftance j
and thus by a due mixture of oppofition and obedi¬
ence, catches it without fuftaining the lead injury. I he
cafe is exadlly the fame in riding : the (kilful horfeman>-
will recover his poife by giving fome way to the mo¬
tion *, and the ignorant horfeman will be flung out of
his feat by endeavouring to be fixed.
Stretch not out your legs before you ; this will puffi
you againft the back of the faddlc j neither gathei up
your knees like a man riding on a pack j this throws
your thighs upwards: each pradlice unfeats you. Keep
your legs ftraight down ^ and (it not on the moft flefhy
part of the thighs, but turn them inwards, fo as to
bring in your knees and toes : and it is more fafe to •
ride with the ball o( the foot prefling on the ftirrup,
than with the ftirrup as far back as the heel : for the
preffure of the heel being in that cafe beuind the ftir¬
rup, keeps the thighs down.
When you find your thighs thrown upwards, widen
your knees to get them and the upper part of your
fork lower down on the horfe. Graip the faddle with
the hollow’ or inner part of your thighs, but not more
than
i
-“62 2
RUBad"°r tKan jufl t0 t}ie balance of your body : this will
Horfetoen. a^° enable you to keep your fpurs from the horfe’s
w—fides, and to bring your toes in, without that affeded
and ufelefs manner of bringing them in pra&ifed by
many. Sink your heels if might down ; for while your
heels and thighs keep down, you cannot fall: this (aid¬
ed with the bend of the back) gives the fecurity of a
feat, to thole who bear themfelves up in their ftirrups
in a fwift gallop, or in the alternate riling and falling
in a full trot.
j.et your feat determine the length of your ftirrups,
rather than .the ftirrups your feat. If more precilion
is requifite, let your ftirrups (in the hunting faddle)
be of fuch a length, as that, •when you Hand in them,
there may be the breadth of four fingers between your
'feat and the faddle.
. )vPu*d greatly aflift a learner, if he w^ould prac-
tife riding in a large circle, as dire&ed fed. ii. with¬
out ftirrups j keeping his face looking on the outward
part of the circle fo as not to have a full view of the
horfe’s head, but juft of that ear which is on the out-
ward part ol the circle 5 and his Ihoulder, which is to¬
wards the centre of the circle, very forward. By this
means you learn to balance your body, and keep a true
feat, independent of your ftirrups: you may probably
likewife efcape a fall, Ihould you at any time lofe them
by being accidentally lhaken from your feat.
As the feat in fome meafure depends on the faddle,
it may not be amifs to obferve, that becaufe a faddle
with a high pommel is thought dangerous, the other
extreme prevails, and the pommel is fcarce allowed to
be higher than the middle of the faddle. The faddle
fhould lie as near the back-bone as can be, without
hurting the horfe j for the nearer you fit to his back,
the better feat you have. If it does fo, it is plain the
pommel muft rife enough to fecure the withers from
preffure : therefore, a horfe whole withers are higher
than common, requires a higher pommel. If, to avoid
this, you make the faddle of a more ftraight line, the
inconvenience fpoken of follows $ you fit too much
above the horfe’s back, nor can the faddle form a pro¬
per feat. There fhould be no ridge from the but¬
ton at the fide of the pommel, to the back part of
the faddle. I hat line alfo fhould be a little concave,
for your thighs to lie at eafe. In fhort, a faddle
ought to be, as nearly as poflible, as if cut out of the
horfe.
When you want your horfe to move forward, raife
his head a little, and touch him gently with your whip j
or elfe, prefs the calves of your legs againft his fides.
If he does not move fall: enough, prefs them with more
force, and fo till the fpur juft touches him. By this
pradlice he will (if he has any fpirit) move upon the
leaft preflure of the leg. Never fpur him by a kick; but
if it be neceffary to fpur him brifkly, keep your heels
clofe to his fides, and fiacken their "force as he becomes
obedient.
When your horfe attempts to be vicious, take each
rein feparate, one in each hand, and advancing your
arms forward, hold him very ftiort. In this cafe, it is
common for the rider to pull him hard, with his arms
low. But the horfe by this means having his head low
too, has it more in his power to throw out his heels :
whereas, if his head be raifed very high, and his nofe
thrown out a little, which is confequent, he can nei-
3
HORSEMANSHIP.
Se&
thcr rife before nor behind j becaufe he can give him-
felf neither of thofe motions, without having his head
at liberty. A plank placed in (equilibria% cannot rife
at one end unlefs it finks at the other.
fx your horfe is headftrong, pull not wuth one con¬
tinued pull, but flop, and back him often, juft ftiaking
the reins, and making little repeated pulls till be obeys.
Horfes are fo accuftomed to bear on the bit when they
go forward, that they are difcouraged if the rider will
not let them do fo.
If a horfe is loofe-necked, he will throw up his
head at. a continued pull; in which fituation, the ri¬
der, feeing the front of his face, can have no power
over him. When your horfe does thus, drop your
hand and give the bridle play, and he will of courfe
drop his head again into its proper place : while it is
coming dowm, make a fecond gentle pull, and you wall
find his mouth. With a little praaice, this is done
almoft inftantaneoufly j and this method will ftop, in
the diftance of a few yards, a horfe, which will run
away with thofe who pull at him with all their might.
Almoft every one muft have obferved, that when a
horfe feels himfelf pulled with the bridle, even when
he is going gently, he often miftakes what was defigned
to ftop him, as a diredion to bear on the bit and to
go fafter.
Keep your horfe’s head high, that he may raife his
neck and creft 5 play a little with the rein, and move
the bit in his mouth, that he may not prefs on it in
one conftant and continued manner : be not afraid of
raifing his head too high ; he will naturally be too
ready to bring it down, and tire your arms with its
weight, on the leaft abatement of his mettle. When
you feel him heavy, ftop him, and make him go back
a few pacesthus you break by degrees his propenfity
to prefs on his bridle.
You ought not to be pleafed (though many are)
with a round neck, and a head drawn in towards his
breaft : let your horfe carry his head bridling in, pro¬
vided he carries it high, and his neck arching upwards;
but if his neck bends downwards, his figure is bad, his
fight is too near his toes, he leans on the bridle, and
you have no command over him. If he goes prefling
but lightly on the bridle, he is the more fure-footed,
and goes pleafanter; as your wrift only may guide him.
If he hangs down his head, and makes you fuppcrt
the weight of that and his neck with your arms bear¬
ing on his fore-legs, (which is called being on his /boul¬
ders), he will ftrike his toes againft the ground, and
ftumble.
If your horfe is heavy upon the bit, tie him every
day, for an hour or two, with his tail to the manger,
and his head as high as you can make him lift it, by
a rein on each port of the ftall, tied to each ring of
the fnaffle bit.
Horfe-breakers and grooms have a great propenfity
to bring a horfe’s head down, and feem to have no
feat without a ftrong hold by the bridle. They know
indeed, that the head fliould yi<;ld to the reins, and
the neck form an arch ; but do not take the proper
pains to make it an arch upward. A temporary effedl
of attempting to raife a horfe’s head, may perhaps be
maK.ing him pufh out his nofe. They will here tell
you, that his head is too high already ; whereas it is
not the diftance from his nofe, but from the top of his
head
Sea. viii.
Rules for head to the ground, which determines the head to be
Hoffemen. or low‘ BerideS although the flult is faid to be
in the manner of carrying the head, it fhould rather be
faid to be in that of the neck ; for if the neck was raif-
ed, the head would be more in the pofition of one fet
on a well formed neck.
I he defign therefore of lifting up the head, is to
raife the neck, and thereby bring in the head j for
even while the bridle makes the fame line from the
rider’s hand to the bit, the horfe’s nofe may be either
drawn in, or thruft out, according as his neck is raifed
or depreffed. Inftead of what has been here recom¬
mended, we ufually fee colts broke with their heads
caveffoned very low, their necks ftiff, and not in the
lead fuppled. When the breaking-tackle is left off,
and they are mounted for the road, having more food
and reft, they frequently plunge, and a fecond break¬
ing becomes neceflary. Then, as few gentlemen can
manage their own horfes, they are put into the hands
of grooms, from whom they learn a variety of bad
habits.
If, on the other hand, your horfe carries his head
(or rather his nofe) too high, he generally makes fome
amends by moving his Ihoulders lightly, and going
fafely. Attend to the caufe of this fault. Some horfes
have their necks fet fo low on their {boulders, that they
bend firft down, then upwards, like a flag’s. Some
have the upper line of their necks, from their ears to
their withers, too ftiort. A head of this fort cannot
poflibly bend inwards and form an arch, becaufe the
vertebrae (or neck bones) are too Ihort to admit of
flexure ; for in long and ftiort necked horfes the num¬
ber of the vertebrae is the fame. In fome, the jaw is
fo thick, that it meets the neck, and the head by this
means has not room to bend. On the other hand, fome
have the under line from the jaw to the breaft fo ftiort,
that the neck cannot rife.
In all thefe cafes you may gain a little by a nice
hand with an eafy bit $ but no curb, martingale, or
other forcible method, will teach a horfe to carry his
head or neck in a pofture which nature has made un-
eafy to him. By trying to pull in his nofe farther than
he can bear, you will add a bad habit to nature. You
could not indeed contrive a more effectual method to
make him continually tofs his nofe up, and throw his
foam over you.
. The rule already given to ride a loofe-necked horfe,
will be a proper one for all light-mouthed horfes j one
caution being added, which is, always to fearch whe¬
ther his faddle or girths may not in fome way pinch
him ; and whether the bit may not hurt his lip by
being too high in his mouth : becaufe, whenever he
fiets from either of thefe caufes, his head will not be
fteady.
It is a common cuftom to be always pulling at the
bridle, as if to fet off to advantage either the fpirit of
the hoife, or the {kill of the rider. Our horfes there¬
fore are taught to hold their heads low, and pull fo as
to bear up the. rider from the faddle ftanding in his
ftmups, even in the gentleft gallop : how very impro¬
per is this, we are experimentally convinced, when we
happen to meet with a horfe which gallops otherwife.
We immediately fay, he canters excellently, and find the
eafe and pleafure of his motion. When horfes are.de-
023
ftgned for the race, and fwiftnefs is the only thing con- Rules fo»
fidered, the method may be a good one.
It is not to be wondered that dealers are always Hoi^meri<;
pulling at their horfes, that they have the fpur con-
ftantly in their Tides, and are at the fame time conti¬
nually checking the rein : by this means they make
them bound, and champ the bit, while their rage has
the appearance of fpirit. Thefe people ride with their
arms fpread, and very low on the ftioulders of their
horfes : this method makes them ftretch their necks
and gives a better appearance to their fore-hands ; it
conceals alfo a thick jaw, wrhich, if the head was up,
would prevent its yielding to the bit; it hides like-
wife the. ewe-neck, which wmuld otherwife ftiow itfelf.
Indeed, if you have a horfe unfteady to the bit, formed
with a natural heavy head, or one which carries his
nofe obftinately in the air, you muft find his mouth
where you can, and make the beft of him.
Many horfes are taught to ftart, by whipping them
for flatting. How is it poflible they can know it is •
deligned as a punifhment ? In the riding-houfe, you
teach your, horfe to rife up before, and to fpring and
lafh out his hinder legs, by. whipping him when tied
between two pillars, with his head a little at liberty.
If he underftood this to be a punifhment for doing fo*
he would not by that method learn to do it. He feems
to be in. the fame manner taught to fpring and fly
when he is frightened. Moft horfes would go quietly
part an objeft they were.beginning to fly from, if their
riders, inftead of gathering up their bridles, and ftiow-
mg themfelves fo ready, fhould throw the reins loofe
upon their necks.
. When a horfe ftarts at any thing on one fide, moft
riders turn him out of the road, to make him go up
to what he ftarts at: if he does not get the better of
his. fear, or readily comply, he generally goes paft the
objeft, making with his hinder parts, or croup, a
great circle out of the road; whereas, he fhould learn
to keep ftraight on, without minding objeds on either
fide.
. If he at. any thing on the left, hold his head
high, and keep it ftraight in the road, pulling it from
looking at the thing he ftarts at, and keeping your
right leg hard preffed againft his fide, towards his
flank : he will then go ftraight along the road. By
this method, and by turning his head a little more
he may be forced with his croup clofe up to what
frightened him.; for as his head is pulled one wav, his
croup neceffarily turns the other. Always avoid a
quarrel with your horfe, if you can : if he is apt to
ftart, you will find occafions enough to exercife his
obedience, when what he ftarts at lies dire&ly in his
way, and you mujl make him pafs; if he is not fub-
jed to ftart, you fhould not quarrel with him about a
trifle.
. It muft be obferved, however, that this rule in go¬
ing paft an objed may perhaps be a little irregular in
a managed horfe, which will always obey the leg •
but. even, fuch a horfe, if he is really afraid, and not
reftivr, it may not be amifs to make look another
way ; unlefs the objed be fomething you would par¬
ticularly accuftom him to the fight of.
The cafe will alfo be different with a horfe whofe
fear is owing to his being not ufed to objeds; but
fuch
HORSEMANSHIP.
624
Rules for
Bad
Horfemen
See
Sed:. v.
HORSEMANSHIP. SeH. VIII.
fucli a one is not to be rode by any borfeman to whom
thefe rules are directed : the ftarting here meant arifes
i merely from the horfe’s being pampered, and fpringing
through livehnefs.
The notion of the neceffity of making a horfe go
immediately up to every thing he is afraid of, and not
fuffering him to become matter of his rider, feems to
' be in general carried too far. It is an approved and
good method to conquer a horfe’s fear of the found of
a drum, by beating one near to him at the time of
feeding him : this not only familiarizes the noife to
him, but makes it pleafant, as a fore-runner of. his
■ meat * j whereas, if he w*as whipped up to it, he might
perhaps ftart at it as long as he lived. Might not
this be applied to his ftarting at other, things, and
ihow that it tvould be better to fuffer him (provided
he does not turn back) to go a little irom and avoid
an objeft he has a diflike to, and.to accuttom him to
it by degrees, convincing him, as it were, that it will
not hurt him •, than to punilh him, quarrel with him,
and perhaps fubmit to his will at laft, while you inttft
on his overcoming his fear in an inttant ? If he fees a
like objeff again, it is probable he will recoiled his
dread, and arm himfelf to be difobedient.
We are apt to fuppofe that a horfe fears nothing
do much as his rider} but may he not, in many cir-
cumftances, be afraid of inftant deftrudion ? of being
crulhed ? of being drowned ? of falling down a. preci¬
pice ? Is it a wmnder that a horfe ftiould be afraid of a
loaded waggon ? may not the hanging load feem to
threaten the falling on him ? There cannot be a rule
more general, than, in fuch a cafe, to (hew him theie
is room for him to pafs. This is done by turning his
head a very little from the carriage, and prefling your
leg, which is farthett from.it, againft his fide. .
A horfe is not to flop without a fign from his rider.
 Is it not then probable, that vdren driven up to a
carriage he ftarts at it, he conceives himfelf obliged
either to attack or run ag.ainft.it ? Can he under.ftand
the rider’s fpurring him wuth his face direded to it, as
a lion for him to pafs it ? 1 hat a horfe is eafhy alarmed
for his face and eyes (he will even catch back his
head from a hand going to carefs him) j that he will
not go wnth any force, face to face, even to another
horfe (if in his powTer to flop) *, and that he fees per-
feftly fidew’ays,—may be ufeful hints for the treat¬
ment of horfes with regard to ftarting.
Though you ought not to whip a horfe. for ftarting,
there can be no good effect from clapping his neck
wnth your hand to encourage him. If one took any
notice of his ftarting, it fhould be rather with feme
tone of voice which he ufually underftood as an ex-
preffion of diflike to what he is doing j for there is
oppofition mixed with his ftarting, and a horfe will ever
repeat wdiat he finds has foiled his rider.
Notwithflanding the direaions above given, of not
prefling a horfe up to a carriage he ftarts at; yet if
one which you apprehend will frighten him meets
you at a narrow part of the road, when you have
once let him know he is to pafs it, be fure you remain
determined, and prefs him on. Do this more efpe-
cially when part of the carriage has already paffed you:
' for if, when he is frightened, he is accuftomed to go
back, and turn round, he will certainly do it if he
finds,* by your hand flackening, and legs net prefling,
3
that you are irrefolute ; and this at the moft dangerous Rides for
point" of time,•when the wheels of the carriage take Bad
him as he turns. Remember not to touch the curb *01 <~m r1,
rein at this time ; it will certainly check him. It is
not known to every one, that the perfon wrho would
lead a horfe by the bridle, ftiould not turn his face to
him when he refufes to follow^ him : if, befides this, he
raifes his arms, ftiows his whip, or pulls the bridle
with jerks, he frightens the horfe, inftead of perfua-
ding him to follow; which a little patience may bring
about.
Ride with a fnaffle ; and ufe your curb, if you have
one, only occaftonally. Choofe your fnaffle full and
thick in the mouth, efpeciaily at the ends to which
the reins are faftened. Moft of them are made too
fmall and long •, they cut the horfe’s mouth, and
bend back over the bars of his jaw, working like
pincers.
The management of the curb is too nice a matter
to enter on here, farther than to preferibe great cau¬
tion in the ufe of it : a turn of the wrift, rather than
the weight of your arm, ftiould be applied to it. 1 he
elaflicity of a rod, when it hath hooked a fifti, may
give you lome idea of the proper play of a horfe s
head on his bridle ; his fpirit and his pliablenefs are
both marked by it.
A horfe fhould never be put to do any thing in a
curb which he is not ready at : you may force him,
or pull his head any w7ay with a inaffle j but a curb
a£ls only in a ftraight line. It is true, that a horfe
will be turned out of one track into another by a curb,
but it is becaufe he knowTs it as a Jignal. When he is
put to draw a chair, and does not underftand the ne¬
ceffity he is then under of taking a larger fweep when
he turns, you frequently fee him rejhve, as it is then
called : but put him on a fnaffle, or buckle the rein to
that part of the bit which does not curb him ; and
the horfe fubmits to be pulled about, till he under-
ftands what is defired of him. Thefe dire&ions
fuppofe your horfe to have fpirit, and a good mouth ;
if he has not, you muft take him as he is, and ride
him with fuch a bit as you find moft eafy to your-
felf.
When you ride a journey, be not fo attentive to
your horfe’s nice carnage of himfelf, as to your en¬
couragement of him, and keeping him in good humour.
Raife his head ; but if he flags, you may indulge him
with bearing a little more upon the bit than you
would fuffer in an airing. If a horfe is lame., tender-
footed, or tired, he naturally hangs upon his bridle.
On a journey, therefore, his mouth will depend greatly
on his ftrength and the goodnefs of his feet. Be then
very careful about his feet, and let not a farrier fpoil
them. You will be enabled to keep them from
danger, by the direftions given under the article Fah-
RIERY. . ...
Very few, although praftifed in riding, know they
have any power over a horfe but by the bridle ; or
any ufe for the fpur, except to make him go forward..
A little experience will teach them a farther ufe. If
the left fpur touches h;m (and he is at the fame time
prevented from going forward), he has a fign, which
he will foon underftand, to move fidewife to the rignt.
In the fame manner to the left, if the right fpur is
clofed to him: he afterwards, through fear of the
Sea vm. H O R S E M
Rules for fpur, obeys a touch of the leg ; in the fame manner
as a hoil'e moves his croup from one fide of the ftall
Horfemen. otjierj when any one ftrik.es him with his hand.
In ftiort, his croup is guided by the leg, as his head is
by the bridle. He will never difobey the leg, unlefs
he becomes reftive. By this means you will have a
far greater power over him j he will move fidewife, if
you clofe one leg to him ; and ftraight forward, if
both : even when he ftands ftill, your legs held near
him wdll keep him on the watch ; and with the
flighteft unfeen motion of the bridle upwards, he
will raife his head, and Ihow his forehand to advan-
tage.
On this ufe of the legs of the rider, and guidance
of the croup of the horl'e, are founded all the airs (as
the riding-mafters exprefs themfelves) which are
taught in the manege •, the paffage, or lide-motion of
troopers to clofe or open their files, and indeed all
their evolutions. But the convenience of fome degree
of this difcipline for common ufe is the reafon of
mentioning it here. It is ufeful if a horfe is apt to
t ftumble or ftart. If to the firft, by prefling your legs
to his flank, and keeping up his head, he is made to
go light on his fore-legs, which is aiding and fup-
porting him •, and the fame if he does actually ftum¬
ble, by helping him at the very inftant to exert him-
felf, while as yet any part of him remains not irreco¬
verably impreffed with the precipitate motion. Hence
this ufe of the hand and legs of the rider is called
giving aids to a horfe; for, as to holding up the weight
of a heavy unadtive horfe, by mere pulling, it is as
impoflible as to recover him when falling down a pre¬
cipice.
A horfe is fupported and helped by the hands and
legs of his rider in every aflion they require of him j
hence he is faid to perform his airs by the aids from
his rider.
The fame manner is ufeful if a horfe ftarts. For if
when he is beginning to fly to one fide, you leg on
the fide he is flying to, he flops his fpring immedi¬
ately. Fie goes paft what he ftarted at, keeping
ftraight on, or as you choofe to direft him; and he will
not fly back from any thing if you prefs him with
both legs. You keep his haunches under him, going
A N S H I P. 625
down a hill j help him on the fide of a bank ; more Rules for
eafily avoid the wheel of a carriage j and approach
more gracefully and nearer to the fide of a coach or Horl^me‘i‘.
horfeman. When a pampered horfe curvets irregularly,
and twifts his body to and fro, turn his head either
to the right or left, or both alternately (but without
letting him move out of the track), and prefs your leg
to the oppofite fide : your horfe cannot then fpring on
his hind-legs to one fide, becaufe your leg prevents
him; nor to the other, becaufe his head looks that
way, and a horfe does not ftart and fpring to the fide
on which he looks. Here it may not be amifs to ob-
lerve the impropriety of the habit which many riders
have, of letting their legs ftiake againft the fides of
the horfe : if a horfe is taught, they are then con¬
tinually prefling him to violent atfion 5 and if he
is not, they render him infenfible and incapable of
being taught. The fretting of a hot horfe will hence
be exceflive, as it can no otherwife be moderated
than by the utmoft ftillnefs of the feat, hands, and
legs of the rider.
Colts at firft; are taught to bear a bit, and by de¬
grees to pull at it. If they did not prefs it, they
could not be guided by it. By degrees they find their
necks ftronger than the arms of a man •, and that they
are capable of making great oppofition, and often of
foiling their riders. Then is the time to make them
fupple and pliant in every part. The part which of
all others requires moft this pliancy is the neck.
Hence the metaphor of Jlijf-neched for difobedient. A
horfe cannot move his head but with the mulcles of
his neck ; this may be called his helm; it guides his
courfe, changes and directs his motion.
The ufe of this pliancy in the different parts and
limbs of a horfe has been already Ihown in a former
fedtion. The prefent fettion being diredled to the
inexperienced horfeman, it may fuffice to add, that
his idea of fupplenefs need only be, that of an abi¬
lity and readinefs in a horfe to move every limb, on
a fign given him by the hands or legs of his rider ;
as alfo, to bend his body, and move in a Ihort com-
pafs, quick and collefted within himfelf, fo as inftantly
to be able to perform any other motion.
H O R
ttorfham,* HORSHAM, a towm of Suffex, feated near St
*Y——Leonard’s foreft, 38 miles from London. It has its
name from Horfa, brother to Hengift the Saxon : and
is one of the largeft towns in the county. It has fent
members to parliament ever fince the 30th of Edward I.
and is the place where the countv-goal is held, and
often the afii2.es. It is a borough by prefcription, with
the title of tw7o bailiffs and burgage-holders within and
W’ithout the borough, &.c. who eledl the members of
parliament, and they are returned by the bailiffs chofen
yearly by a court-leet of the lord of the manor, who
return four candidates to the fteward, and he nomi¬
nates two of them for the office. Here is a very fine
church, and a well endowed free-fchool. Great ftore
cf poultry is bought up for London at its market on
Vol. X= Part II.
H O R
Saturday, and it has a patent alfo for a monthly mar-Hortagilcrs
k6*"' _ Hortenfius.
HORTAGILERS, in the grand fignior’s court,
upholfterers, or tapeftry-hangers. The grand fignior
has conftantly 400 in his retinue when he is in the
camp ; thefe go always a day’s journey before him, to
fix upon a proper place for his tent, which they pre¬
pare firft ; and afterwards thofe of the officers, accord¬
ing to their rank.
HORTENSIUS, Quintus, a celebrated Roman
orator, the cotemporary of Cicero, pleaded with uni-
verfal applaufe at 19 years of age, and continued the
fame profeffion during 48 years. But being at laft
eclipfed by Cicero, he quitted the bar, and embraced
a military life ; became a military tribune, praetor,
4 K and
H 0 R [ 626 ] H O R
Hortas and afterwards conful about 80 B. C. Cicero fpeaks
Siecus. 0p jn a manner as makes us regret the lofs
v— o£ oratjon3# Hortenfius had a wonderful memory,
and delivered his orations without writing down a
fmgle word, or forgetting one particular that had been
advanced by his adverfaries. He died very rich, a
little before the civil war, which he had endeavoured
by all poiTible means to prevent.
HORTUS SICCUS, a DRY GARDEN ; an appella¬
tion given to a collection of fpecimens of plants, care¬
fully dried and preferved.
The value of fuch a colledlion is very evident,
lince a thoufand minutiae may be preferved in well
dried fpecimens of plants, which the moft accurate
engraver would overlook. We (hail therefore give two
methods of drying and preferving a hortus Jjccus ; the
firlt by Sir Robert Southwell in the Philofophicaf Tranf-
adlions, N° 237 \ and the other by Dr Hill, in his re¬
view ®f the works of the Reyal Society, with his ob-
jedlions to Sir Robert’s method.
According to the former gentleman, the plants are
to be laid ilat between papers, and then put between
two fmooth plates of iron, fcrewed together at the
corners ; and in this condition committed to a baker’s
oven for two hours. When taken out, they are to be
rubbed over with a mixture of equal parts of aquafor¬
tis and brandy and after this to be fattened down on
paper with a folution of the quantity of a walnut of
gum tragacanth diilolved in a pint of water. See
Herbal.
To this the Dcdlor obje&s, that the heat of an oven
is much too uncertain to be employed in fo nice an
operation 5 and that the fpace of time ordered for con¬
tinuing the plants in it is of no information, unlefs
the degree of heat, and even the different nature
of the plant as to its fucculency and the firm-
nefs or tendernefs of its fibres, be attended to } there
being fcarcely any two plants alike in thefe particulars:
confequently the degree and duration of heat fufficient
for one plant would deftroy another. Befide which,
the acid ufed deftroys the colour of many plants j and
never recovers that of others loft in the drying j and
frequently after the plant is fixed down, rots both the
paper it is fixed to, and that which falls over it. Dr
Hill’s method is as follows. Take a fpecimen of a
plant in flower, and with it one of its bottom leaves if
it have any ; bruife the ftalk if too rigid, or flit it if
too thick : fpread out the leaves and flowers on pa¬
per, cover it with more paper, and lay a weight over
all. At the end of 1 8 hours take out the plants, now
perfe£Uy flattened, and lay them on a bed of dry com-
ij-ion fand *, fift more dry fand over them to the depth
of two inches, and thus let them he about three weeks:
the lefs fucculent dry much fooner, but they take no
harm afterward. If the floor of a garret be covered in
fpring with fand two inches deep, leaving fpace lor
walking to the feveral parts, it will receive the col-
leftion of a whole hummer j the covering of fand be¬
ing fifted over every parcel as laid in, they need no
farther care from the time of laying them till they are
taken up to be ftuck on paper. The cement ufed by
the Doftor is thus prepared : early in the fpring, put
two ounces of camphor into three quarts of water in a
large bottle, (hake it from time to time, and when the
firtt Golle&ed plants are ready for the fattening down,
put into a pint of the water, poured off into an earth- Harms
en veffel that will bear the fire, twro ounces of com-
mon glue, fuch as is ufed by the carpenters, and the
fame quantity of ichthyocolla beat to flrreds } let them
ftand 36 hours, then gently boil the whole a few mo¬
ments, and ftrain it off through a coarfe cloth : this is
to be warmed over a gentle heat when it is to be ufed,
and the back of the plants fmeared over with a paint¬
er’s brufti : after this lay them on paper, and gently
prefs them for a few minutes, then expofe them to
the air a little ; and finally, lay them under a fmall
weight between quires of paper to be equally dried.
It is fcarce to be conceived how ftrongly the water
becomes impregnated with the camphor by this fimple
procefs : a part of it indeed flies off in the making of
the cement and the ufing of it : but enough remains
with the plants to prevent the breeding of infedfts in it.
He farther obferves, that plants may be dried very
well without fand, by only putting them frequently
into freih quires of paper, or a few, by only prefling
them between the leaves of a book : but the fand me¬
thod preferves the colour belt, and is done with leatt
trouble.
Another method much better than that of the
oven is the flattening and drying the plant by patting
a common fmoothing iron for linen over the papers
between which it is laid } but for nice things the molt
perfect of all methods is that by a common fand heat,
fuch as is ufed for chemical purpofes. The cold fand
is to be fpread fmooth upon this occafion, the plant '
laid on it carefully flatted, and a thick bed of fand fift¬
ed over : the fire is then to be made, and the whole
procefs carefully watched until by a very gentle heat
the plant be carefully dried. The colour of the ten-
dereft herb may by this manner be preferved ; and
flowers, that can no way elfe be preferved, may be ma¬
naged perfeftly well thus.
HORUS, a renowned deity of ancient Egypt. He
was an emblem of the fun. Plutarch (in his treatife
de Ifide et Ofiride) fays, “ that virtue which prefides
over the fun, whilft he is moving through fpace, the
Egyptians called Horns and the Greeks Apollo?'' Job al-
fo calls Ur or Orus the fun—“ If I gazed upon the
fun (Ur, Orus) when he was Alining, or on {Jdrecha)
the moon walking in brightnefs, and my heart hath
been feverely enticed (i. e. to worftiip), or my mouth
hath kiffed my hand } this alfo were an iniquity to be
punifhed by the judge, for I (hould have denied the
God who is above.” Chap. xxxi. ver. 26, 27, 28.
The interpretation left by Hermapion of the hiero¬
glyphics engraved on the obelilk of Heliopolis (accord¬
ing to Ammianus Marcellinus), otters thefe remarkable
words : “ Horus is the fupreme lord and author of
time.” Thefe qualities, it is known, were chiefly-
attributed to Ofiris: that they may apply, therefore,
to Horus, he mutt neceffarily denote the ftar of the
day in certain circumftances j and this is what is ex¬
plained to us by the oracle of Apollo of Claros :
Learn that the firft of the gods is Jao.
He is catted invyible in winter, Jupiter in the fpring,
The fun in fummer, and towards the end of autumn
the tender )jcio.
The ftar of the day, on attaining the fummer folftice,
and called per excellentiam the Sun, is the fame as Ho-
XUS.
H O 11 [ 627 ] H O S
Honss. rn*. In faft, the Egyptians reprefented him borne
on lions, which fignitied his entrance into the fign of
the lion. They who prefided over the divine inilitu-
tions, then pEced fphynxes at the head of the canals and
*S tunal *acre^ fountain^, to warn the people of the approaching
lib01. ' fouudation. Mucrobius *, wrho informs us why the
Greeks gave Horus the name of Apollo, confirms this
fentiraent: “ In the myfteries (fays he) they difcover
as a fecret, which ought to be inviolable, that the fun
arrived in the upper hemifphere, is called Apollo.”
Ihefe teftimonies concur in proving, that this emble¬
matical deitv was no other than the liar of day, paf-
fing through the figns of fummer.
Thefe lights may lead us to the explication of the
facred fable, which the prielts publiihed on the fub-
jeft of Hoi us ; for they enveloped in myltery every
point of their religion. Plutarch gives it at length in
his treatife of Ins and Ofiris : The following are the
principal traits. They laid that he was the fon of Ofi-
ris and of Ills; that Typhon, after killing his brother
Ofiris, took poffeflion of the kingdom ; that Horus,
leaguing himfelf with Ills, avenged the death of his
father, expelled the tyrant from his throne without
depriving him of life, and reigned glorioufiy in E-
gypt. A perfon who has travelled ever fo little in
eafily difcovers natural phenomena hid under
the veil of fable. In the fpring, the wind khamfin
frequently makes great ravages there. It raifes whirl¬
winds of burning fand, which fuffocate travellers,
darken the air, and cover the face of the fun in fuch
a manner as to leave the earth in perfedt obfcurity.
Here is the death of Ofiris and the reign of Typhon.
Thefe hurricanes break out ufually in the months of
February, March, and April. When the fun ap¬
proaches the fign of the lion, he changes the ftate of
the atmofphere, difperfes thefe tempefts, and reftores
the northerly winds, which drive before them the ma¬
lignant vapours, and preferve in Egypt coolnefs and
falubrity under a burning fky. This is the triumph of
Horus over Typhon, and his glorious reign. As the
natural philofophers acknowledge the influence of the
moon over the Hate of the atmofphere, they united her
with this god, to drive the ufurper from the throne.
The prielfs confidering Ofiris as the father of time,
might beftow the name of his fon on Horus, wTho
reigned three months in the year. This, according to
t Letttn on Mr Savary -f, is the natural explication of this al-
legory. And all enlightened men, he thinks, mull
have underftood this language, which wTas familiar to
them. The people only, whofe feeble fight extends
no farther than the exterior, without diving into the
true meaning of things, might regard thefe allegorical
perfonages as real gods, and decree prayers and offerings
to them.
Jablonfki, who has interpreted the epithet of Aru-
cri, which the Egyptians gave to Horus, pretends
that it fignifies efficacious virtue. Thefe expreffions
perfectly chara&erife the phenomena tvhich happened
during the reign of this god. It is in fummer, in fadt,
that the fun manifefts all its power in Egypt. It is
then that he fwells the waters of the river with rains,
exhaled by him in the air, and driven againft the fum-
mits of the Abyflinian mountains \ it is then that the
hufbandman reckons on the treafures of agriculture. It
was natural for them to honour him with the name of
Slrucri, or efficacious virtue, to mark thefe aufpicious Hofanna
effedts. Ij .
HOSANNA, in the Hebrew ceremonies, a prayer, 0 P^‘ntan;
which they rehearfed on the feveral days ot the feaft
of tabernacles. It was thus called, becaufe there was
frequent repetition therein of the word JOSWifT, ferva
nunc, or ferva precor ; i, e. fave us now j or lave us,
we pray.
There are divers of thefe hofannahs. The Jews
call them Jiofchannoth ; i. e. the hofannahs. Some are
rehearfed on the firit day, others on the fecond, &c.
which they called hofanna of the firft day, hofanna of
the fecond day, &c.
Hosanna Rabha, or Grand Hofanna, is a name they
give to their feaft of tabernacles, which lafts eight
days $ becaufe during the courfe thereof, they are fre¬
quently calling for the afliftance of God, the forgive-
nefs of their fins, and his bleffmg on the new year j
and to that purpofe they make great ufe of the hof-
channoth, or prayers above-mentioned.—-The JewTs al-
fo applied the term hofanna rabba, in a more peculiar
manner, to the feventh day of the feaft of tabernacles j
becaufe they apply themfelves more immediately on
that day to invoke the divine blefling, &c.
HOSE, from the Saxon Hofa, a flocking. See
Stocking.
HOSEA, the firft in number of the minor Hebrew
prophets, as arranged in the Hebrew' and Greek bibles*
although probably the third in a chronological fenfe.'
He wTas the fon of Beeri, but it is uncertain to what
tribe he belonged. He prophefied in the reigns of Uz-
ziah, Jotham, Ahaz, and Hezekiah, kings of Judah, and
in the time of Jeroboam, w:ho wTas king of li’rael. If
he uttered predidlions during 66 years, between 790
and 724 before Chrift, then he difcharged the office of
a facred feer eight years during the reign of Jero¬
boam II. 33 in the reign of Uzziah, the entire reigns
of Jotham and Ahaz, and three years in the reign of
Hezekiah j but could not have furvived the taking of
Samaria. Pie reproved the vices of kings as w'ell as
their fubjefts, mixing threatenings of divine vengeance
with promifes of pardon in confequence of repentance.
His ftyle is concife, fententious and abrupt. His fhort
and lively comparifons are numerous. Pie is fometimes
diftinguiffied by great force of expreflion, has many
beautiful paffages, and in fome parts is truly fublime.
Dr Newcome wus of opinion that the chief difficulty in
underftanding this prophet is owing to the corrupt read¬
ings which disfigure the printed text, and thefe he free¬
ly corte&ed from the collations of Dr Kennicott. . On.
the other hand, Dr Plorfiey protefts earneftly againft
Dr Newcome’s opinion, declaring that the corruptions
can be no caufe of obfcurity *, but we muft leave it to
our readers to determine which of thefe two great men
is in the right, from an attentive perufal of their own
works, affured that they wall decide in favour of him
who furnilhes the beft helps for underftanding this
prophet.
HOSPINIAN, Rodolphus, one of the greateft
writers that Switzerland has given birth to. He was
born in IJ47’ at Altorf near Zurich 3 obtained the
freedom of Zurich 3 and wras made provifor of the
abbey fchool. Notwithffanding this employment, he
undertook a noble work of vaft extent, wffiich wa§ a
Hifonj of the Errors of Ropery. Though he could
3 K 2 not
H O S [ 628 ] H O S
Hofpital. not complete this work according to his plan, he pub-
 ' liihcd home confiderable parts of it : what he publiHi¬
ed on the Euchariid, and another work called Concor¬
dia Difcors, exceedingly exafperated the Lutherans.
He did not reply to them j but turning his arms againft
the Jefuits, publiftied Hijloria Jefuitica, &:c. Thefe
writings gained him preferment j he being appointed
archdeacon of Caroline church, and then miniiter of
the abbey-church. He died in 1626; and there was
an edition of his works publiflied at Geneva 1681, in
feven volumes in folio.
HOSPITAL, popularly Spittal, a place or build¬
ing erected, out of charity, for the reception and Sup¬
port of the poor, aged, infirm, fick, and otherwile
helplefs. The word is formed of the Latin hofpes,
“ hofl, ftranger.” See Host.
In the ages of the church, the bifhop had the im¬
mediate charge of all the poor, both found and dif-
eafed, as alfo of widows, orphans, firangers, &c.—
When the churches came to have fixed revenues allot¬
ted them, it was decreed, that at leail one fourth
part thereof fhould go to the relief of the poor j and
to provide for them the more commodiouily, divers
houfes of charity were built, which are fince denomi¬
nated hofpitals. They were governed wholly by the
priefts and deacons, under the infpeftion of the bi-
fliop. In courfe of time, feparate revenues were affign-
ed for the hofpitals j and particular perfons, out of
motives of piety and charity, gave lands and money
for ere&ing of hofpitals. When the church difeipline
began to relax, the priefts, who till then had been
the adminiftrators of hofpitals, converted them into a
fort of benefices, which they held at pleafure, with¬
out giving account thereof to any body *, referving
the greateft part of the income to their own ufe; fo
that the intentions of the founders were fruftrated.—
To remove this abufe, the council of Vienne exprefsly
prohibited the giving any hofpital to fecular priefts in
the way of a benefice ; and directed the adminiftra-
tion thereof to be given to fufficient and refponfible
laymen, who (hould take an oath, like that of tutors,
for the faithful difeharge thereof, and be accountable
to the ordinaries.—This decree was executed and con¬
firmed by the council of Trent.
In Britain, hoipitals are buildings properly endow¬
ed, or otherwife fupported by charitable contributions,
for the reception and fupport of the poor, aged, infirm,
fick, or helplefs.
A charitable foundation laid thus for the fuftenance
and relief of the poor is to continue for ever. Any
perfon feized of an eftate in fee, may, by deed inrol-
led in chancery, erect and found an hofpital, and no¬
minate fuch heads and governors therein as he {hall
think fit 5 and this charitable foundation {hall be in¬
corporated, and fubjeft to the infpe&ion and guidance
of the heads and vifitors nominated by the founder.
Likewife fuch corporations lhall have, take, and pur-
chafe lands, fo as not to exceed 200I. a year, provided
the fame be not held of the king ; and to make leafes,
referving the accuftomed yearly rent. See Corpora¬
tion.
HOSPITAL, Michael de l’, chancellor of France
in the 16th century, was one of the greateft men of
his age, and had railed himfelf by degrees. He agreed
to an edifl m«cb ieverer againlt the Proteftants than
he could have wilhed, to prevent the introdu£bon of Hofpital,
the inquifition. It was that of Romorairtin. The HolpTality.
fpeeches he made, in order to infpire a fpirit of tolera- v~_'
tion, made him much fufpedfed by the Roman Catho¬
lics, and extremely odious to the court of Rome. The
maxims of ftate upon which he regulated himfelf w^ere
of great advantage to France, fince he formed fome
difciples who oppofed, in proper time, the pernicious
attempts of the leaguers, and rendered them abortive.
His pacific views being diiliked by Catharine de Me-
dicis, who had contributed to his advancement, (he ex¬
cluded him from the council of w7ar, and occafioned
his difgrace. He retired, however, of his own ac¬
cord, in 1568 } and {pent the reft of his life at his
country-feat at Vignai, where he died in 1573* aged 68.
His poems are efteemed. Hf? alio publithed feme excel¬
lent fpeeches and memoirs.
Hospital, William-Francis-Antony, Marquis of, a
great mathematician of France, was born of an an¬
cient family in 1661. Fie was a geometrician al-
moft from his infancy •, for one day being at the duke
of Rohan’s, where fome able mathematicians w^ere
fpeaking of a problem of Pafchal’s wdrich appeared to
them extremely difficult, he ventured to fay, that he
believed he could folve it. They w*ere amazed at fuch
prefumption in a boy of 15, for he was then no more j
neverthelefs, in a few days he fent them the folution.
He entered early into the army, and w*as a captain of
horfe 5 but being extremely Ihort-fighted, and expofed
on that account to perpetual inconveniences and errors,
he at length quitted the army, and applied himfelf en¬
tirely to his favourite amufement. He contraffed a
friendfhip for Malebranche, and took his opinion upon
all occafions. In 1693, he was received an honorary
member of the academy of fciences at Paris and he
publiftied a work upon Sir Ifaac Newton’s calcula¬
tions, entitled, DAnalyfe des infnimens petits. He was
the firft in France who wrote upon this fubjeft ; and
on this account w^as regarded almoft as a prodigy. He
engaged afterwards in another wmrk of the mathemati¬
cal kind, in which he included Les SeBiones Coniques,
les Lieux Geometriques, la CnnftruBion des Equations, et
Une Theorie des Courbes Mechaniques : but a little be¬
fore he had finifhed it, he was feized with a fever, of
which he died Feb. 2. I7°4> aged 43* ^ was publifti¬
ed after his death.
HOSPITALITY, the pra&ice of entertaining
ftrangers. Dr Robertfon, fpeaking of the middle ages,
fays, “ Among people whole manners are fimple, and
who are feldom vifited by ftrangers, hofpitality is a
virtue of the firft rank. I his duty of holpitality w;as
fo neceffary in that ftate of fociety which took place
during the middle ages, that it was not coniidered as
one of thofe virtues w'hich men may praftife or not,
according to the temper of their minds and the gepe-
rofity of their hearts. Hofpitality was enforced by
ftatutes, and thofe who neglefted the duty were liable
to puniftiment. Lhe lawrs of the Salvi ordained that
the moveables of an inhofpitable perfon {hould be con-
fifeated, and his houfe burnt. They were even fo fo-
licitous for the entertainment of ftrangers, that they
permitted the landlord to fteal for the fupport of his
gueft.”
The hofpitality of our Britifti anceftors, particularly
of the great and opulent barons, hath been much ad¬
mired,
H O S [ ^29 ] H O S
Hofpi'aiity. mired, and confidered as a certain proof of the noble-
'—'•Y''-'"' nets and generolity of their fpirits, 1'he fadt is well
attefted. The cattles of the powerful barons were ca¬
pacious palaces, daily crowded with their numerous
retainers, who were always welcome to their plentiful
tables. They had their privy counfellors, their trea-
furers, marthals, conilables, ftewards, fecretaries, chap¬
lains, heralds, purfuivants, pages, henfhmen or guards,
trumpeters, minilrels, and in a word all the officers of
a royal court. The etiquette of their families was an
exadt copy of that of the royal houfehold •, and fome
of them lived in a degree of pomp and fplendour little
inferior to that of the greateft kings. Richard Ne¬
ville, earl of Warwick, we are told, “ was ever had in
great favour of the commons of the land, becaufe of
the exceeding houfehold which he daily kept in all coun¬
tries wherever he fojourned or lay : and when he came
to London, he held fuch an hcufe, that fix oxen were
eaten at a breakfaft } and every tavern w’as full of his
meat.” The earls of Douglas in Scotland, before the
fall of that great family, rivalled or rather exceeded
their fovereigns in pomp and profufe hofpitality. But
to this manner of living it is highly probable thefe
great chieftains were prompted by a defire of increa-
fing the number and attachment of their retainers, on
which, in thofe turbulent times, their dignity, and
even their fafety, depended, as much as to the innate
generofity of their tempers. Thofe retainers did not
confiantly refide in the families of their lords; but
they wore their liveries and badges, frequently feafied
in their halls, fwelled their retinues on all great folem-
nities, attended them in their-journeys, and followed
them into the field of battle. Some powerful chief¬
tains had fo great a number of thefe retainers conftant-
ly at their command, that they fet the laws at de¬
fiance, were formidable to their fovereigns, and terri¬
ble to their fellow-fubjedls '} and feveral lawTs were made
againft giving and receiving liveries. But thefe laws
produced little effedl in this period.
Hofpitality was not confined to the great and opu¬
lent, but was pradfifed rather more than it is at pre-
fent by perfons in the middle and lower ranks of life.
But this was owhng to neceflity, arifing from the fcar-
city of inns, which obliged travellers and ftrangers to
apply to private perfons for lodging and entertainment}
and thofe who received them hofpitably acquired a
right to a fimilar reception. This was evidently the
cafe in Scotland in the firfl: part of this period.
James I. A. D. 1424, procured the following adt of
parliament. “ It is ordanit, That in all burrow townis,
and throuchfairis quhair commoun paffages ar, that
thair be ordanit hoftillaries and refettis, havand ftables
and chalrners 5 and that men find with thame bread
and aill, and all uther fude, alfweil for horfe as men,
for refonable price.” But travellers had been fo long
accuftoined to lodge in private houfes, that thefe pub¬
lic inns were quite negledted •, and thofe who kept
them prefented a petition to parliament, complaining,
“ That the liegis travelland in the realme, quhen they
cum to burrowis and throuehfairis, herbreis thame not
in hoftillaries, bot with thair acquaintance and freindis.”
I his produced an a£I prohibiting travellers to lodge in
private houfes where there were hoftlaries, under the
penalty of 40s. and fubje&ing thofe who lodged them
to the fame penalty.
The inhabitants ef the Highlands and the WeftemBofp'tal'ty-
Ifles were remarkable for their hofpitality and kindnefs ~
to ftrangers, and ftill retain the fame difpofition. See
Highlanders.
HOSPITALLERS, Hospitalarh, an order of
religious knights, who built an hofpital at Jerufalem,
wherein pilgrims were received. To thefe Pope Cle¬
ment V. transferred the effects and revenues of the
Templars j whom, by a council held at Vienne, he
fuppreffed for their many and great mifdemeanours.
Thefe hofpitallers were otherwife called Knights of
St John of Jerufalem; and are the fame with thofe
whom we now call Knights of Malta.
HOSPITIUM, a term ufed in old writers either
for an inn or a monaftery, built for the reception
of ftrangers and travellers. See Inn and Monas¬
tery.
HOSPODAR, a title borne by the princes of
Walachia and Moldavia, who receive the inveftiture
of their principalities from the grand fignior. He
gives them a veil and itandard j they are under his
protection, and obliged to ferve him, and he even
fometirnes depofes them ; but in other refpefts they
are abfolute fovereigns within their own dominions.
HOST, Hospes, a term of mutual relation, ap-
p1ied both to a perfon who lodges and entertains ano¬
ther, and to the perfon thus lodged, &c.—The word
is formed of the Latin hofpes, which fome will have
thus called quaji hojlium or ojlium petens ; for ojiium
was anciently written with an afpirate.—Thus the inn¬
keeper fays, he has a good hoji, in (peaking of the
traveller who lodges with him: and the traveller,
again, fays, he has a kind fio/?, in fpeaking of his
landlord.
It mull be obferved then, that it was the cuftom
among the ancients, when any ftranger alked for lod¬
ging, for the mailer of the houfe, and the ftranger,
each of them to fet a foot on their own fide of the
threlhold, and fwear they would neither of them do
any harm to the other. It was this ceremony that
railed fo much horror againft thofe who violated the
law or right of hofpitality on either fide ; inafmuch
as they were looked on as perjured.
Inltead of hofpes, the ancient Latins called it hoJHs;
as Cicero himfelf informs us: though, in courfe of
time, hojlis came to fignify an enemy j fo much was
the notion of hofpitality altered.
Host is alfo ufed by way of abbreviation for hojlia,
a victim or facrifice offered to the Deity- In this
fenfe, hojl is more immediately underftood of the per¬
fon of the Word incarnate, who was offered up an holt
or hojlitia to the Father on the crofs for the fins of
mankind. See Hostia.
Host, in the church of Rome, a name given to
the elements ufed in the eucharift, or rather to the
confecrated wafer j which they pretend to offer up
every day a new' holt or facrifice for the fins of man¬
kind.—They pay adoration to the holt, upon a falfe
prefumption that the elements are no longer bread and.
wine, but tranfubllantiated into the real body and blood
of Chrift. See Transubstantiation.—Pope Gre¬
gory IX. firft decreed a bell to be rung, as the fignal
for the people to betake themfelves to the adoration of
the holt.—The veffel wherein the holls are kept is call¬
ed the cibonj ; being a large kind of covered chalice.
HOSTAGE,
HOT
HOSTAGE, a perfon given up to an enemy as
a fecurity for the performance of the articles of a
treaty.
HOSTIA, Host, in antiquity, a victim offered in
facrifice to a deity.
The word is formed from hqftis, “ enemy j” it being
the cuftom to offer up a facrifice before they joined
battle, to render the gods propitious j or, after the
battle was over, to give them thanks. Some choofe
to derive the word from hq/lio, q. d. feno, “ I ftrike.”
Ifidore on this word remarks, that the name hojlia was
given to thofe facrifices which they offered before they
marched to attack an enemy, {antequam ad hojiem per-
geretit) ; in contradiftindlion from viciima, vs hich were
properly thofe offered after the viftory.
Hq/fia alfo fignified the leffer forts of facrifice, and
'viBima the larger. A. Gellius fays, that every prieft,
indifferently, might facrifice the hoftia, but that the
viBima could be offered by none but the conqueror
himfelf. But, after all, we find thefe two words pro-
mifcuoufly ufed one for the other by ancient writers.
We read of many kinds of hojlice: ^hojiicepuree, which
were pigs or lambs ten days old j hqfiurprtecidanece, fa¬
crifices offered the day before a folemn feaft \ hojiiee bi-
dentes, facrifices of fheep or other animals of two years
old hojlice cximice, a facrifice of the flower of the flock;
hojlice fuccedanece, facrifices offered after others which
had exhibited fome ill omen •, hojlice ambarvales, vic¬
tims facrificed after having been folemnly led round
the fields at the ambarvalia; hojlue amburbiales, vic¬
tims flain after the amburbium ; hojlice caneares or ca¬
viares, vidlims facrificed every fifth year by the college
of pontiffs, in which they offered the part of the tail
called caviar; hojlice prodigice, facrifices in which the
fire confumed all, and left nothing for the priefts j hof-
tice piacularcs, expiatory facrifices ; hojlice ambegnee or
mnbiegnee, facrifices of cows or ffieep that had brought
forth twins ; hojlice harugee, viflims offered to predift
future events from j hojlice mediates, black vidlims of¬
fered at noon.
HOSTILITY, the a&ion of an enemy, or a ftate
of warfare. The word is Latin, hojlilitas, formed of
the primitive hojlis, which fignifies 44 enemy j” and
which anciently fignified “ ftranger,” hofpes.
HOT -BEDS, in Gardening, beds made with frelh
horfe-dung, or tanners bark, and covered with glaffes
to defend them from cold winds.
By the Ikilful management of hot-beds, we may
imitate the temperature of warmer climates $ by which
means, the feeds of plants brought from any of the
countries within the torrid zone may be made to
flourilh even under the poles.
The hot-beds commonly ufed in kitchen-gardens
are made with new horfe-dung mixed with the litter
of a liable, and a few fea-coal-alhes, which laft are
of fervice in continuing the heat of the dung. This
ihould remain fix or feven days in a heap *, and being
then turned over, and the parts mixed well together,
it Ihould be again call into a heap •, where it may con¬
tinue five or fix days longer, by which time it will
have acquired a due heat. Thefe hot-beds are made
in the following manner : In fome flickered part of
the garden, dig out a trench of a length and width
proportionable to the frames you intend it for ; and if
the ground be dry, about a foot or a foot and a half
[ 630 j HOT
deep *, but if it be wet, not above fix inches : then Hot-be£*
wheel the dung into the opening, obferving to ftir   v~—■
every part of it with a fork, and to lay it exaiffly
even and fmooth on every part of the bed, laying the
bottom part of the heap, which is commonly free from
litter, upon the furface of the bed : and if it be de-
figned for a bed to plant out cucumbers to remain
for good, you mull make a hole in the middle of the
place defigned for each light about ten inches over,
and fix deep, which Ihould be filled with good frelh
earth, thrulling in a flick to fhow the places where
the holes are *, then cover the bed all over with the
earth that was taken out of the trench about four
inches thick, and put on the frame, letting it remain,
till the earth be warm, which commonly happens in
three or four days after the bed is made, and then the
plants may be placed in it. But if your hot-bed be
defigned for other plants, there need be no holes made
in the dung j but after having fmoothed the furface
with a fpade, you Ihould cover the dung about three
or four inches thick with good earth, putting on the
frames and glaffes as before. In making thefe beds,
care mull be taken to fettle the dung clofe with a
fork ; and if it be pretty full of long litter, it Ihould
be trod down equally on every part. During the firlt
week or ten days after the bed is made, you Ihould
cover the glaffes but flightly in the night, and in the
day-time carefully raife them, to let out the Iteam :
but as the heat abates, the covering Ihould be increa-
fed 5 and as the bed grows cold, new hot dung Ihould
be added round the fides of it.
The hot-bed made with tanners bark is, however,
much preferable to that deferibed above, efpecially
for all tender exotic plants and fruits, which require
an even degree of warmth to be continued for feveral
months, which cannot be effected with horfe-dung.
The manner of making them is as follows : Dig a
trench about three feet deep, if the ground be dry ;
but if wet, it mull not be above a foot deep at moll,
and mull be raifed two feet above the ground. The
length mull be proportioned to the frames intended to
cover it; but it ihould never be lefs than ten or twelve
feet, and the width not lefs than fix. The trench
Ihould be bricked up round the fides to the above-
mentioned height of three feet, and filled in the fpring
with frelh tanners bark that has been lately drawn
out of their vats, and has lain in a round heap, for
the moillure to drain out of it, only three or four
days : as it is put in, gently beat it down equally
with a dung-fork \ but it muff not be trodden, which
would prevent its heating, by fettling it too clofe :
then put on the frame, covering it wfith glaffes •, and
in about ten days or a fortnight it will begin to heat $
at wdiich time plunge your pots ol plants or feed into
it, obferving not to tread dowm the bark in doing it.
Thefe beds will continue three or four months in a
good temper of heat; and if you llir up the bark
pretty deep, and mix a load or twm of frelh bark with
the old when you find the warmth decline, you wall
preferve its heat twm or three months longer. Many
lay fome hot horfe-dung in the bottom of the trench
under the bark •, but this ought never to be praftifed
unlefs the bed is wanted fooner than the bark would
heat of itfelf, and even then there ought only to be a
fmall quantity of dung at the bottom.
The
1
H O T [ 631 1 H O T
Hot-ljoufe The frames which cover thefe beds ihould be pro-
II portioned to the feveral plants they are defigned to
Hotteiitits. contajn_ jf t],ey are to cover the ananas or pine¬
apple, the back part Ihould be three feet high, and the
lower part 15 inches; if the bed be intended for taller
plants, the frame mult be made of a depth proportion¬
able to them : but if it be for fowing of feeds, the
frame need not be above 14 inches high at the back,
and 7 in the front; by which means the heat will be
much greater.
EoT-Houfe. See Stove and Hypocaustum.
HOTEL, a French term, anciently fignifying a
houfe or dwelling place.—It is now more commonly
ufed fof the palaces or houfes of the king, princes, and
great lords. In this fenfe they fay, the hotel do Conde,
hotel de Conti, hotel du Louvre, &c.
The grand prevot de Chotel, is the firit judge of the
officers of the king’s houfehold. His jurifdidlion is
much like that of lord fteward of the houiehold of the
king of England.
The hotel de ville is what we call a town-houfe or
town-hall.
Hotel, is likewife ufed for a large inn, alfo for a
large lodging-houfe ready furnifhed.
HOTTENTOTS, a people in the fouthern part of
Africa, whole country extends north by welt from
the Cape of Good Hope beyond the mouth of Orange
' river, and from that cape in an eaft-north-eaft direc¬
tion to the mouth of the great Fiffi river, which
parts it from Caffraria. According to Sanutus, this
coalt, beginning at the Mountains of the Moon un¬
der the tropic of Capricorn in 23 4-° S. Lat. extends
north beyond the Cape to the coaft of Zanguebar j
having the Indian fea on the eaft, the Ethiopic on the
weft, the fouthern ocean on the fouth 5 and on the north
the kingdoms of Mattatan, Monomotapa, and the coaft
of Zanguebar, or rather the Mountains of the Moon,
which divide it from the reft of the continent.
The Europeans firft became acquainted with this
country in the year 1493, when Bartholomew Diaz,
a Portuguefe admiral, difcovered the moft foutherly
point of Africa now called the Cape of Good Hope, but
by him Cabo dos totos tormentos, or Cape of all
Plagues, on account of the ftorms he met with in the
neighbourhood ; but John, then king of Portugal, ha¬
ving from the account of Diaz concluded that a paf-
fage to the Eaft Indies was now difcovered, changed
the name to that of the Cape of Good Hope, which it
ftill retains. In 1497, it wTas circumnavigated by
Vafco de Gama, wffio made a voyage to India that
way ; however, it remained ufelefs to Europeans till
the year 1650, when Van Riebeck a Dutch furgecn
firft faw the advantages that wmuld accrue to the Eaft
India company in Holland from a fettlement at fuch
a convenient diftance both from home and from India.
The colony which he planted has ever lince continued
in the hands of the Dutch, has greatly increafed in
value, and is vilited by all the European Ihips trading
to the Eaft Indies. See Gooo-Hope.
1 he country now poffeffed by the Dutch is of pret¬
ty conliderable extent, and comprehends that part of
the African coaft on the weft called Terra de Natal.
It is naturally barren and mountainous; but the in-
duftry of the Dutch hath overcome all natural difficul¬
ties, and it now produces not only a fufficiency of all
the necdlaries of life for the inhabitants, but alfo for
the refreftnnent of all the Europeans wffio pafs and re-
pafs that way. i,
The coaft abounds in capes, bays, and roads. Thir-.
ty leagues to the eaft of the Cape of Good Hope, in
S. Lat. 34. 21. is another cape which runs out be¬
yond 350, called by the Portuguefe, wffio firft doubled
it, Cabo dos Hgulhas, or the Cape of Needles, on ac¬
count of fome ftrange variations in the magnetical
needle obferved as they came near it. Near this cape
is a flat fhore, with plenty of filh : it begins in the
weft near a freflr-water river, and, extending 15 leagues
in the main fea, ends in the eaft near Fifh-bay. Cabo
Falfo, fo called by the Portuguefe, wffio returning from
India miftook it for the Cape of Good Hope, lies to
the eaftward between thefe two capes, about eight or
nine leagues beyond that of Good Hope. Along the
coafts, on both fides of the Cape of Good Hope, are
many fine bays. Twenty-feven leagues to the north-
weft is Saldanha bay, fo named from a Portugueie cap¬
tain fhipwrecked on the coaft. The largeft and moft
commodious is Table Bay, on the fouth, and near the
mountain of that name, fix leagues in circumference,
with four fathoms wrater clofe to the beach. Oppofite
to this bay is Robu Eilan, or the ifland of Rabbits, in
34. 30. S. Lat. 67 leagues eaft from the Cape of Good
Hope. Peter Both, in 1661, difcovered a bay, which
he named Uleef, ffieltered only from north winds, in
which is a fmall ifland, and on the weft a rivulet of freftx
water extremely convenient for European mariners.
Twenty-five or thirty leagues farther eaft, Both dif¬
covered Marffial Bay, afterwards named by the Portu¬
guefe Seno Formofo. Next to this is Seno de Logo,
from its refemblance to a lake. There are feveral
roads in this bay, and an ifland called Ilha dos Caos.
Cabo de S. Francifco, and Cabo das Serras are mark¬
ed upon charts between thefe two bays. Near the
latter of thefe capes is Cabo de Arecito, and the
ifland Contento; and fomething more north-eaft is
St Chriftopher’s river, called San Chriftovano by the
Portuguefe, and by the Hottentots Nagod. The
country beyond this river was called by the Por¬
tuguefe, wffio difcovered it on the day of our Lord’s
nativity, Terra de Natal. Between the Cape of
Good Hope and Cabo das Agulhas are the Sweet,
Saltj and Jagulina rivers, which run into the fea, and
Swefet-water river flows from the Table-mountain.
The moft remarkable mountains in this country are.
Table-mountain, Devil’s Tower, Lion’s Head, and the
Tiger-hills. The three firft lie near Table-bay, and
furround Table-valley, where the Cape-town Hands.
(See the article Goou-Hopel) Mr Forfter, in his voy¬
age, informs us, that “ the extremity of Africa towards
the fouth is a mafs of high mountains, of which The
outermoft are craggy, black, and barren, confifting of
a coarfe granite, which contains no heterogeneous parts,
fuch as petrified ftiells, &c. nor any volcanic produc¬
tions. The ground gradually rifes on all fides towards
the three mountains wffiich lie round the bottom of the
bay, keeping low and level only near the fea-fide, and
growing fomewhat marlhy in the ifthmus between Falfe
and Table bays, where a fait rivulet falls into the lat¬
er. The marfhy part has fome verdure, but inter--
mixeriL
H O T [ 6j2 ] HOT
Hottentots, mixed with a great deal of fand. The higher
' grounds, which, from the fea-fide, have a parched
and dreary appearance, arej however, covered with
an immenfe variety of plants, among which are a
prodigious number of flirubs, but fcarce one or two
fpecies that deferve the name of treei. There are al-
fo a few fmall plantations wdrerever a little run of wa¬
ter moiflens the ground. The afcent of Table-mount
is very deep and difficult, on account of the number
of loofe Hones wdrich roll away under the feet of the
traveller. About the middle of the mountain is a bold,
grand chafm, whofe wTalls are perpendicular, and often
impending rocks piled up in ftrata. Some rills of
water ooze out of crevices, or fall from precipices in
drops, giving life to hundreds of plants and low
ffirubs, in the chafm. The fummit of the mountain is
nearly level,'very barren, and bare of foil j feveral ca¬
vities, however, are filled with rain water, or contain
a fmall quantity of vegetable earth, from whence a
few7 odoriferous plants draw their nourilhment. Some
antelopes, howling baboons, folitary vultures, and toads,
are fometimes to be met with on the mountain. rI he
view from thence is very extenfive and pidturefque. The
bay fecms a little pond or bafoh, and the ffiips in it
dwindled to little boats •, the town under our feet, and
the regular compartments of its gardens, look like the
w'ork of children.”
Mod accounts of this country that have been pub-
lidied mention a furprifing phenomenon which is an¬
nually to be feen on the top of Table-hill from Sep¬
tember to March j namely, a white cloud hovering on
its top, and called by failors the Devil's table-cloth. ( See
the article Goov-Hopel} This cloud is faid by fome
to appear at fird no bigger than a barley-corn j then
increafes to the fize of a walnut, and foon alter co¬
vers the wdiole top of the mount. But, according
to Mr Kolben, it is never lefs, even on its fird appear¬
ance, than the fize of a large ox, often bigger. It
hangs in feveral deeces over the Table-hill and the
Wind or Devil’s-hill j wffiich deeces, at lad uniting,
form a large cloud that covers the fummits of thefe
two hills. After this has reded for fome time with¬
out change or motion, the wind burds out fuddenly
from it with the utmod fury. The fkirts of the cloud
are white, but feem much more compact than the mat¬
ter of common clouds j the upper parts are of a leaden
colour. No rain falls from it, but fometimes it dif-
covers a great deal of humidity } at which times it is
-of a darker colour, and the wind iffuing from it is broken,
raging by fits of diort continuance. In its ufual date,
the wind keeps up its fird fury unabated for one, two,
three, or eight days 5 and fometimes for a whole month
together. The cloud feems all the while undiminilhed,
though little fleeces are from time to time detached,
from it, and hurried down the Tides of the hills, vanifli-
ing when they reach the bottom, fo that during the
dorm the cloud feems to be fupplied with new matter.
When the cloud begins to brighten up, thefe iupplies
fail, and the wind proportionably abates. At length,
the cloud growing tranfparent, the wind ceafes. Du¬
ring the continuance of thefe fouth-ead winds, the
Table-valley is torn by furious whirlwinds. If they
blow warm, they are generally of fliort duration j and
in this cafe the cloud foon difappears. This wind
sarely blows till after funfet, and never longer than till
2 
towards midnight, though the cloud remains j but then Kottentdts.
it is thin and clear : but when the wind blows cold, it ^ v
is a fure fign that it will lad for fome time, an hour
at noon and midnight excepted *, wffien it feems to
lie dill to recover itfelf, and then lets loofe its fury
anew.
The Europeans at the Gripe confider the year as di¬
vided into two feafons, which they term monfoons ; the
wet monfoon or winter, and the dry one or fummer.
The fird begins with our fpring in March *, the latter
with September, when our fummer ends. In the dim¬
mer monfoon reign the fouth-ead winds already men¬
tioned ; which though they clear and render the air
more healthy, yet make it difficult for dips outward
bound to enter Table-bay. In the bad feafon, the
Cape is much fubjedt to fogs ; and the north-wed
Winds and rain make the inhabitants day much at
home. But there are frequent intermiffions and many
clear days till June and July ; when it rains almofi con¬
tinually, and from thence till fummer. The weather
in winter is cold, raw, and unpleafant j but never
more rigorous than autumn in Germany. Water ne¬
ver freezes to above the thicknefs of half a crown 5 and
as foon as the fun appears, the ice is diflblved. The
Cape is rarely vifited by thunder and lightning, ex¬
cepting a little near the turn of the feafons, which ne¬
ver does any hurt. During the continuance of the
fouth-ead winds which rage in fummer, the Iky is free
of all clouds except that on the Table and Wind Hills
already mentioned ; but during the north-wHl winds,
the air is thick, and loaded with heavy clouds big with
rain. If the fouth-ead winds ffiould ceafe for any
length of time, the air becomes fickly by reafon of the
fea-wreeds driving affiore and rotting 5 hence the Eu¬
ropeans are at fuch times aftedled with head-achs and
other diforders ; but, on the other hand, the violence
of thofe winds fubje&s them to inflammation of their
eyes, &c.
* The natives of this country are called Hottentots, irt
their d\vn language 5 a word of wdiich it is vain to in¬
quire the meaning, fince the language of this country
can fcarce be learned by any other nation. The Hot¬
tentot language is indeed faid to be a compofition of
the mod drange and difagreeable founds, deemed by
many the difgrace of fpeech, without human found or
articulation, refembling rather the noife of irritated
turkeys, the chattering of magpies, hooting of owls, and
depending on extraordinary vibrations, inflexions, and
claffiings of the tongue againd the palate.—If this ac¬
count is true, how’ever, it is obvious, that all the re¬
lations we have concerning the religion, &c. of the
Hottentots derived from themfelves, mud fall to the
ground, as nobody can pretend to underdand a lan¬
guage in itfelf unintelligible. The manners and cu-
doms of thofe people, however, are eafily obfervable,
whether they themfelves give the relation or not •, and
if their language is conformable to them, it is no doubt
of a nature fufficiently wonderful.
Many accounts have been publiflied concerning the
extreme nadinefs and filthy cudoms of the Hottentots
but from the obfervations of late travellers it appears,
that thefe have either been exaggerated, or that the
Hottentots (which is not improbable) have in fome
meafure laid afide their former manners. Dr Sparrman
defcribes them in much lefs difgudful terms, and M.
Yaillant
HOT [ 6
Hottentots. Vaillant feetns to have been charmed with their inno-
'■“'""Y— ' cence and fimplicity. According to the doctor, thefe
people are as tall as the generality of Europeans, though
more (lender in their perfons, which he attributes to
their fcanty fupply of food, and not accuftoming them-
felves to hard labour. The charafteriftic of the nation,
however, and which he thinks has not been obferved by
any one before, is, that they have (mail hands and feet
in proportion to the other parts of their body. The
diftance between the eyes appears greater than in Eu^
ropeans, by reafon of the root of the nofe being very
low. The tip is pretty flat, and the iris of the eye has
generally a dark-brown caft, fometimes approaching to
black. Their (kin is of a yellowifli brown, fomething
like that of an European who has the jaundice in a high
degree j though this colour does not in the leait appear
in the whites of the eyes. Their lips are thinner than
thofe of their neighbours the Negroes, Coffees, or Mo-
szambiques. “ In fine (lays our author), their mouths
•are of a middling fize, and almofl; always furniflied with
a fet of the fined teeth that can be feen ; and, taken to¬
gether with the red of their features, as well as their
carriage, drape, and every motion, in ihort their tout
enfemble indicates health and delight, or at lead an air
of fans fouci. This carelefs mien, however, difcovers
marks at the fame time both of alacrity and refolution j
qualities which the Hottentots, in faci, can (how upon
occafion.” The hair of the head is black and frizzled,
though not very clofe j and has fo much the appear¬
ance of wool, that it would be taken for it, wrere it
not for its harflmefs. They have but feldom any ap¬
pearance of a beard, or hair upon other parts of their
bodies; and when any thing of this kind happens to be
vifible, it is always very flight.
A general opinion has prevailed, that the Hottentot
women have a kind of natural vail which covers the
fexual parts j but this is denied by our author. “ The
women (fays he) have no parts uncommon to the red
of their fex : but the clitoris and nymphae, particularly
of thofe who are pad their youth, are pretty much elon¬
gated j a peculiarity which has undoubtedly got foot¬
ing in this nation in confequence of the relaxation ne-
ceflarily produced by the method they have of befmear-
ing their bodies, their flothfulnefs, and the warmth of
the climate.”
The Hottentots befmeaf all their bodies copioufly
with fat mixed up with a little foot. “ This (fays
cur author) is never wiped off; on the contrary, I ne¬
ver faw them ufe any thing to clean their (kins, ex¬
cepting that when in greafing the wheels of their wag¬
gons, their hands were befmeared with tar and pitch,
they ufed to get it off very eafily with cow-dung, at
the fame time rubbing their arms into the bargain up
,to the (boulders with this cofmetic j fo that as the dud
and other filth, together with their footy ointment,
and the fvveat of their bodies, mud neceffarily, not-
withdanding it is continually wearing off, in fome mea-
fure adhere to the (kin, it contributes not a little to
conceal the natural hue of the latter, and at the fame
time to change it from a bright umber-brown to a
brownifli-yellow colour, obfcured with filth and na-
dinefs.”—1 he doftor was enabled to difcover the na¬
tural colour of the Hottentots by means of the nicety
of fome Hutch farmers wives, who had made their
Hottentot girls wa(h and fcour their (kins, that they
VOL. X. Part II.
33. 1 . H .0 T
might be lefs filthy in looking after the children, orHottentofs.
doing any other w’ork that required cleanlinefs. Many
of the colonifls, however, are of opinion, that this ope¬
ration of waflhing is no improvement to the look of a
Hottentot $ but that their natural yellow is fully as
dilagreeable as the black or brown colour of the oint¬
ment ; and that the walhed (kin of a native of this coun¬
try feems to be deficient in drefs, like, (hoes that want
blacking. This the doctor does not pretend to de¬
termine } though, whatever may be fuppofed deficient
in look, we ftiould think mud be made up in cleanli¬
nefs.
The Hottentots perfume their bodies, by daubing
them all over with the powder of an herb, the fmell of
which is at once rank and aromatic, approaching to
that of the poppy mixed with fpices. For this purpofe
they ufe various fpecies of the diofma, called by them
bucku, and which they imagine to be very efficacious in
the cure of difordets. One fpecies of this plant, grow¬
ing about Goud's river, is laid to be fo valuable, that
no more than a thimble-full of its powder is given in ex¬
change for a lamb.
By the ointment of foot and greafe duck full of the
powder of bucku, a pade is formed which defends the
bodies of the Hottentots in a great meafure from the
action of the air ; fo that they require very few clothes,
and in fa Cl go almod quite naked. The only cover¬
ing of the men confifls of two leather draps, which ge¬
nerally hang down the back from the chine to the
thighs, each of them in the form of an ifofceles tri¬
angle, their points uppermod, and faflened to a belt
which goes round their waid, their bales not being
above three fingers broad $ fo that the covering they
form is extremely trifling. Thefe draps have very little
drelfing bedowed upon them, fo that they make a rat¬
tling noife as the Hottentot runs along 5 and our author
fuppofes that they may produce an agreeable coolnefs
by fanning him. Befides this, the men have a bag
or flap made of (kin which hangs down before, and
is fadened to the belt already mentioned. The hollow'
part of this feems defigned to receive that which with
us modefly requires to be concealed 5 but being only
fadened by a fmall part of its upper end to a narrow
belt, in other refpedls hanging quite loofe, it is but a
very imperfedl concealment; and when the wearer is
walking, or otherwife in motion, it is none at all. They
call this purfe by the Dutch name of jackall, it being
almod always prepared of the (kin of that animal, with
the hairy fide turned outwards.
The women cover themfelves much more fcrupu-
loufly than the men, having always two, and very of¬
ten three coverings like aprons j though even thefe feem
to be abundantly fmall for what we would term decency
in this country. The outermod of thefe, which is the
larged, meafures only from about fix inches to a foot in
breadth. All of them are made of a (kin well prepa¬
red and greafed, the outermod being adorned with glafs
beads flrung in different figures. The outermod reaches
about half-way down the thighs, the middle about a
third or one half lefs, and the third fcarcely exceeds
the breadth of the hand. The fird is faid to be de-
figned for ornament, the (econd as a defence for
modedy, and the third to be ufeful on certain occalions,
which, however, are much lefs troublefome to the Hot¬
tentot than to the European females. Our author,
4 L with
<
*
HOT [ 634 ] HOT
Hottentots.
with great probability, fuppofes that it was the light
of this innermoft apron which milled the reverend Je-
fuit Tackard, who, on his return to Europe, firft pro¬
pagated the ftories concerning the natural vails or ex-
crefcences of the Hottentots.—A flory was like wife
commonly believed, that the men in general had but
one telhicle, and that fuch as wrere not naturally formed
in this manner wTere artificially made fo. But this our
author likewife denies •, and though he fays that fuch an
operation might have been formerly performed upon
the males, yet it is not fo now.
The other garments worn by the Hottentots are
formed of a Iheep’s fkin with the wmolly fide turned
inwards ; thus forming a kind of cloak, which is tied
fomards over the bread : though fometimes, intlead of
a fheep’s Ikin, dome fmaller kind of fur is ufed as a
material. In warm weather they let this cloak hang
carelefsly over their Ihoulders, fo that it reaches down
to the calves of the legs, leaving the lower part of the
bread, domach, and fore part of the legs and thighs
bare ; but in cold wreather they wrap it round them ;
fo that the fore-part of the body is likewife pretty well
covered by it as far as the knees : But as one Iheep-fkin
is not futheient for this purpofe, they few on a piece
on the top at each fide with a thong or catgut. In
warm weather they fometimes wrear the woolly fide out¬
wards, but more frequently take off the cloak altoge¬
ther, and carry it under their arm. This cloak or
hrojje ferves them not only for clothes, but bedding
alfo ; and in this they lie on the bare ground, drawing
up their bodies fo dole, that the cloak is abundantly
iudicient to cover them.—The cloaks ufed by the wo¬
men differ little from thofe already deferibed, except¬
ing only that they have a long peak on them, which
they turn up ; forming with it a little hood or pouch,
with the hairy fide inwards. In this they carry their
little children, to which the mother’s breads are now
and then thrown over the Ihoulders ; a cuflom common
among Tome other nations, where the breads of the fe¬
males, by continual want of fupport, grow to an enor¬
mous length. The men commonly wear no covering
on their heads, though our author fays he has feen one
or twm who wore a greafy night-cap made of Ikin with
the hair taken off. Thofe who live neared the colonids
have taken a liking to the European hats, and wear
them douched all round, or with only one fide turned
up. The women alfo frequently go bare-headed;
though they fometimes wear a cap made in the diape
of a fhort truncated cone. This appears to be the fec-
tion of fome animal’s domach, and is perfeddly blacked
by foot and fat mixed up together. Thefe caps are fre¬
quently prepared in fuch a manner as to look diaggy 5
others have the appearance of velvet 5 and in our au¬
thor’s apprehenfion are not inelegant. Over this they
fometimes wear an oval wreath or kind of crown made
of a buffalo’s hide, with the hair outermoft. It is
about four fingers breadth in height, and lurrounds
the head lo as to go a little way down upon the fore¬
head, and the fame depth on the neck behind, without
covering the upper part of the cap above deferibed.
The edges of this wreath, both upper and under, are
always fmooth and even •, each of them fet with a row
of fmall Ihells of the cyprea kind, to the number of
more than 30, in fuch a manner, thafr being placed
quite clofe to one another, their beautiful white
enamel, together wjth their mouths, are turned out-Hottentots.
wards. Between two rows of thefe Ihells run two1 \r—*
others parallel, or elfe waved and indented in various
ways. The Hottentots never adorn their ears or nofes
as other favages do : though the latter are fometimes
marked with a black ilreak of foot ; at others, though
more rarely, with a large fpot of red lead ; of which
laft, on feftivals and holidays, they likewife put a little
on their cheeks. The necks of the men are bare, but
thofe of the women are ornamented with a thong of
undreffed leather, upon which are ftrung eight or
ten Ihells. Thefe, which are about the fize of beans,
have a white ground, with large black fpots of differ¬
ent fizes: but as they are always made ufe of in a bur-
nilhed ftate, the dodor is uncertain whether they be
of that kind which is received in the Syslema Naturae
under the name of nerita albicilla, or exuvia. Thefe
fhells are fold at an enormous price, no lefs than a
Iheep for each ; as it is laid that they come from the
mob dibant coab of Caffraria. Both men and women
are very fond of European beads, particularly the blue
and white ones of the fize of a pea 5 of which they tie
feveral rows round the middle, and next to the girdles
which hold the coverings above mentioned. Befides
thefe ornaments, they ufe rings on their arms and legs,
mob of them made of thick leather braps generally
cut in a circular Ihape } which, by being beat and held
over the fire, are rendered tough enough to retain the
curvature that is given them. From thefe rings it
has been almob univerfally believed, that the Hotten¬
tots wrrap guts about their legs in order to eat them
occafionally. The men wear from one to five or fix
of tbefe rings on their arms, jub above the wrib, but
feldom on their legs. The matrons of a higher rank
have frequently a confiderable number of them both on
their arms and legs, efpecially on the latter 5 fo that
they are covered with them from the feet up to the
knees. T hefe rings are of various thickneffes, from
that of a goofe quill to two or three times that fize.
Sometimes they are made of pieces of leather forming
one entire ring j fo that the arms and feet mub be put
through them wThen the wTearer willies to put them
on. They are brung upon the legs, fmall and great,
without any nicety 5 but are fo large, that they biake
and get twibed when the perfon walks. Rings of
iron or copper, but efpecially of brafs, of the fize of a
goofe-quill, are confidered as more genteel than thofe
of leather. However, they are fometimes worn along
with the latter, to the number of fix or eight at a time,
particularly on the arms. The girls are not allowed
to ufe any rings till they are marriageable. The Hot¬
tentots feldom wear any bioes } but fuch as they do
make ufe of are of the fame form with thofe ivorn by
the African peafants, by the Ebhonians, and Livo¬
nians, as well as by fome Finlanders ; fo that it is
impobible to fay whether they are the invention of the
Dutch or the Hottentots themfelves. They are made
of undreffed leather, with the hairy fide outward j with¬
out any other preparation than that of being beat
and moibened. If it be a thick and bout hide, as
that of a buffalo, it is kept for fome hours in cow-
dung, w’hich renders it beiides very i’oft and pliable.
Some kind of greafe is afterwards ufed for the fame
purpofe. The ihoes are then made in the following
manner. They take a piece of leather, of a redhngu-
HOT [ 63
Hottentots. lar form, fomething longer and broader than the foot
—  ' of the perfon for whom the (hoes are intended ; the two
foremoft corners are doubled up together, and fewed
down, fo as to cover the fore-part of the foot; but
this ieam may be avoided, and the (hoes made much
neater at the toes, by fitting immediately over them a
cap taken from the membrane in the knee-joint of the
hind-leg of fome animal. In order to make this piece
of Ikin or leather rife up to the height of an inch on
both fides of the foot, and clofe it in neatly, it is
pierced with holes at Imall diftances all round the
edge, as far as the hind-quarters j and through thefe
holes is palled a thong, by wdiich the rim is drawn up
into gathers. In order to make ftrong hind-quarters,
the back part of the piece of leather is doubled inwards,
and then raifed up and prefled along the heel. 1 he
ends of the thong or gathering firing are thi n threaded
on both fides through the upper edge of the hind¬
quarters, to the height of about two inches , they are
then carried forwards, in order to be drawm through two
of the above-mentioned holes on the infide of each
rim. Laftly, They are tied over the inllep, or if it be
thought neceffary to tie the Ihoe Hill fafler, they are
carried crofswife over the inllep, and fo downwards
under the thong, which comes out from the hind-quar¬
ters ; then upwards again over the ancle, and even round
the leg itfelf if the wearer chcofes. Shoes of this kind
are not without their advantages : they fit as neat upon
the foot as a flocking, and at the fame time preferve
their form. They are eaiily kept foft and pliable by
conftantly wearing them ; or if at any dme they Ihould
become fomewhat hard, this is eafily remedied by beat¬
ing and greafing them. They are extremely light and
cool, by reafon that they do not cover fo much of the
foot as. a common fhoe. They wear very well, as they
are without any feam, and the foies of the Ihoes are
both tough and yielding. Thefe field Ihoes, as they
are called, being made of almolt raw leather, are much
more durable than thofe. of tanned leather, which are
burnt up by the African fands, and flip and roll about
in them j being alfo very ready to be torn in a rocky
foil, which is not the cafe with the others. The dodlor
is of opinion, that thefe Ihoes would be particularly ufc-
Ful to failors.
The huts of the Hottentots are built exadlly alike ;
and we may readily give credit to our author when he
tells us, that they are done in a ftyle of architedlure
which does not a little coniribute to keep envy from
infinuating itfelf under their roofs. Some of thefe huts
are circular, and others of an oblong fhape, refembling
n round bee-hive or vault 5 the ground-plot being
from 18 to 24 feet in diameter. The highelt are fo
low, that it is fcarce ever poflible for a middle-fized
"> man to Hand upright even in the centre of the arch ;
“ but (fays our author) neither the lowmefs thereof, nor
that of the door, which is but juft three feet high, can
perhaps be confidered as any inconvenience to an Hot¬
tentot, who finds no difficulty in Hooping and crawl¬
ing upon all fours, and is at any time more inclined
to lie down than to Hand. The fire-place is in the
middle of each hut, by which means the walls are not
fo much expofed to danger from fire. From this fitua-
tion of the fire-place alfo the Hottentots derive this
additional advantage, that they can all fit or lie in a
circle round it, enjoying equally the warmth of the
5 1 HOT
fire. The door, low as it is, alone lets in day-light Hottentot i-
or lets out the fmoke : and fo much are thefe people
accuftomed to live in fuch fmoky manfions, that their
eyes are never affedled by it in the leaft, nor even by the
mephitic vapour of the fuel, which to Europeans would
be certain death.
The frame of the arched roof is compofed of [len¬
der rods or fprays of trees. Thefe being previoufly
bent into a proper form, are laid, either whole, or
pieced, fome parallel to one another, others crofstvife j
after which they are ftrengthened by binding others
round them in a circular form with withies. All thefe
are taken principally from the cliffortia conoides, which
grows plentifully in this country near the rivers. Large
mats are then placed very neatly over this lattice work,
fo as perfe&ly to cover the whole. The aperture which
is left for the door is clofed occafionally by a Ikin or
piece of matting. Thefe mats are made of a kind of cane
or reed in the following manner. The reeds being laid
parallel to one another, are faftened together with finews
or catgut, or fome kind of catgut which they have
had an opportunity of getting from the Europeans
fo that they have it in their power to make them as
long as they pleafe, and as broad as the length of the
reeds, which is from fix to ten feet. I lie coloniits
make ufe of the fame kind of matting, next to the
tilts of their waggons, to prevent the fail-cloth from
beinc rubbed and worn, and likew'ife to help to keep
out the rain.
In a hranl, or Hottentot village, the huts, are moft
commonly difpofed in a circle, with the doors inwards j
by which means a kind of court-yard is formed, where
the cattle are kept at nights. I he milk, as foon as
taken from the cowq is put to other milk which , is
curdled, and kept in a leather lack with the hairy
fide inwards, as being the more cleanly *, fo that thus
the milk is never drunk fweet. In fome northern di-
ftrifts, wffiere the land is dry and parched, both Hot¬
tentots and colonifts are ffiepherds. When a Hot¬
tentot has a mind to ffiift his dwelling, he lays all the
mats, fkins, and rods, of wffiich it is compofed, on the
backs of his cattle, which, to a ftranger, makes a mon-
ftrous, unwieldy, and even ridiculous appearance.
There is a fpecies of Hottentots named Bojhiefmen,
who dwell in the woody and mountainous parts, and
fubfift entirely by plunder. They ufe poiloned ar¬
rows, which they ilioot from bows about a yard long
and an inch in thicknefs in the middle, very much
pointed at both ends. Dr Sparrman does not know
the wTood of which they are made, but thinks that
it is not very elaftic. Ihe firings wrere made, fome
of finews, and others of a kind of hemp, or the
inner bark of fome vegetable ^ but moft of them in a
very flovenly manner. 1 he arrows are about a foot
and a half long, headed with bone and. a triangular
bit of iron ; having alfo a piece of quill bound on
very flrongly with linews, about an inch and a half
from the top, in order to prevent it from being eafily
drawn out of the ilefli. The whole is laftly covered
over with a very deadly poifon of the confiitence of an
extradl. Their quivers are two feet long and four
inches in diameter •, and are fuppofed by our author to
be made of the branch of a tree hollowed out, or more
probably of the bark of one of the branches taken off
whole, the bottom and cover being made of leather.
4 L 2 ^
HOT [ 6;
Hottentot;. It is daubed on the outfide with an un&uous fubrtance
“”‘v which grows hard when dry, and is lined about the
aperture with the Ikin of the yellow ferpent, fuppoled
to be the moft deadly in all that part of the world.
The poifon they make ufe of is taken from the moft
venomous ferpents $ and, ignorant as the Hottentots
are, they all know that the poifon of ferpents may be
fwallowed with fafety. See the article Boshiesmen.
In the year 1779, Lieutenant William Paterfon,
who took a long and dangerous excurlion from the
Cape along the weftern fide of the continent, difeo-
vered a new tribe of Hottentots, whofe living, he fays,
is in the higheft degree wretched, and who are ap¬
parently the dirtieft of all the Hottentot tribes. Their
drefs is compofed of the fldns of feals and jackals, the
tlelh of which animals they feed upon. If a grampus
happen to be caft alhore, they remove their huts to
the place, and feed upon the carcafe as long as it lafts,
though perhaps it may be half rotten by the heat of
the weather. They befmear their fkins with the oil ;
by which means they fmell fo exceedingly rank that
their approach may be thus perceived before they come
in fight. Their huts, however, are much fuperior to
thofe of the fouthern Hottentots already deferibed $
being higher, thatched with grafs, and furnifhed with
ftools made of the back bones of the grampus. They
dry their fifti in the fun ; as the lieutenant found feve-
ral kinds of fifh near their huts fufpended from poles,
probably for this purpofe. He found alfo feveral aro¬
matic plants which they had been drying.
With refpeH to the religion of the Hottentots, it
does not appear that they have any. On being quef-
tioned on the fubjedl of a Creator and Governor of
the univerfe, they anfwer that they know nothing of
the matter j nor do they feem willing to receive any
inftrudlion. All of them, however, have the moft firm
belief in the pow ers of magic j from whence it might
be inferred that they believe in an evil being analogous
to what we call the devil; but they pay no religious
worfliip to him, though from this fource they derive
all the evil that happens, and among thefe evils they
reckon cold, rain, and thunder. So monftroufly ig¬
norant are they, that many of the colonifts affured Dr
Sparrman, that their Boftiiefmen would abufe the
thunder with many opprobrious epithets, and threaten
to affault the flafhes of lightning with old fhoes, or any
thing that comes firft to hand. Even the moft intel¬
ligent among them could not be convinced by all the
arguments our author could ufe, that rain was not al¬
ways an evil, and that it would be an unhappy circum-
ftance if it were never to rain. “ A maxim (fays he),
from a race of men in other refpedls really endowed
with fome fenfe, and frequently with no fmall degree
of penetration and cunning, ought, methinks to be
confidered as an indelible religious or fuperftitious no¬
tion entertained by them from their infancy, rather
than as an idea taken up on due deliberation and con-
fequent con vision.”
As the Hottentots have fo ftrong a belief in the
poweis of magic, it is no wmnder that they have abun¬
dance of witches and conjurers among them. Thefe
will readily undertake any thing, even to put a ftop
to thunder and rain, provided they be wTell paid for
then pains j and it it happen to thunder or ram longer
tban the time they promifed, they have always for an
6 ] HOT
excufe, that a more powerful conjurer has put a ftop Hottentots.
to their incantations. Many of the Hottentots be-' v  
lieve that all diforders incident to the human body are
cured by magic. 1 he wizards are fond of encouraging’
this idea 5 but at the fame time take care to employ
both external and internal remedies. Among the for¬
mer may be reckoned a cure performed upon Captain
Cook in fome of the South-fea iflands, viz. that of
pinching, cuffing, and kneading the wffiole body of the
patient. 1 o this, however, the Hottentot phyficians
add that of pretending to fuck out a bone from fome
part of the patient’s body. After this it fometimes
happens that the lick perfon is relieved, and fometimes
not. In the latter cafe the operation is repeated •, and
if he dies, his friends lament that he was bewitched
beyond the pow'er of any one to affift him. Thefe
conjurers appear to be pofiefied of confiderable flight
of hand. Our author was informed by a colonift, that
when he was a child, and playing with a bone of an ok
which he drew as a cart, it appeared to his great afto-
niffiment to be fucked out of a lick perfon’s back by
a wizard j and as far as he could remember, the pa¬
tient recovered foon after. Thefe pretenfions of the
wizards fometimes render them liable to pevlecutions;
and there is an inftance of a chief named Pa/00, who
ordered a general maflacre among them, in hopes of
cutting off the perfon who he believed had bewitched
himfelf, and afflidled him with fore eyes.
The fuperftition of the Hottentots never operates
in the way of making them afraid in the dark. They
feem, however, to have fome ideas of a future ftate,
as they reproach their friends, when dead, with leaving
them fo foon : at the fame time admonilhing them
from henceforth to demean themfelves properly : by
which they mean, that their deceafed friends fliould
not come back again and haunt them, nor allow them-
felyes to be made ufe of by wizards to bring any mif-
chief on thofe that furvive them.
There is a genus of infe&s (the mantis) which, it
has been generally thought, the Hottentots worfliip j
but our author is fo far from being of this opinion,
that he tells us they have more than once catched fe¬
veral of them for him, and aflifted him in flicking pins
through them as he did through other infefls. “ There
is (fays he), however, a diminutive fpecies of this in-
feft, which fome think it would be a crime, as well
as very dangerous, to do any harm to: but this we
have no more reafon to look upon as any kind of reli¬
gious worlhip, than we have to confider in the fame
light a certain fuperlhtious notion prevalent among
many of the more fimple people in our own country
(Sweden), who imagine that their fins will be forgiven
them, if they fet a cock-chafer on its feet that has
happened to fall upon its back. The moon, according
to Kolbe, receives a kind of adoration from the Hot¬
tentots ; but the fa6I is, tha£ they merely take the op¬
portunity of her beams, and at the fame time of the
coolnefs of the night, to amufe themfelves with dan¬
cing, and confequently have no more thoughts of wor-
ffiipping her than the Chriftian colonifts who are leen
at that time ftrolling in great numbers about the ftreets,
and parading on the ftone fteps with which their houfes
are ufually encircled. The conjurers themfelves, ac¬
cording to our author, are generally freethinkers, who
have neither religion nor fuperftition of any kind.
Lieutenant
HOT [ 637 ] HO T
Lieutenant Paterfon has given the following ac¬
count of the Caffres, a nation whom no European but
himfelf has ever feen, and who inhabit the country to
the north-eaft of the Cape as far down as 31° fouth la¬
titude.
The men are from five feet ten inches to fix feet
high, and well proportioned •, and in general manifett
great courage in attacking lions or other wild beafts.
The nation, at the time he vifited them, was divided
into two parties, one to the northward, commanded by
a chief named Olu Cha Bea, or lambufhie, which latter
appellation he had obtained from his mother, a woman
of an Hottentot tribe named Tambukies. I his man
was the ion of a chief named Pharoa, who died about
three years before, and left two Tons Cha Cha Bea, and
another named D/iriha, who claimed the fupreme au¬
thority on account of his mother being of the Caffre
nation. This occafioned a conteft between the tw7o
brothers, in the courfe of which Cha Cha Bea was
driven out of his territories with a great number of his
party ; after which he took up his refidence at a place
named Khouta, where he had an opportunity of en¬
tering into an alliance with the Boihies men.— lhe
Caffres are of a jet black colour, their eyes large,
and their teeth as white as ivory. The clothing of
both fexes is nearly the fame *, confiding entirely of
the hides of oxen, which are made as pliant as cloth.
Idle men wear tails of different animals tied round
their thighs, pieces of brafs in their hair, and large
rings of ivory on their arms : they are likewife adorn¬
ed with the hair of lions, feathers fafiened on their
heads, &c. They ufe the ceremony of circumcifion,
which is ufually performed upon them when they are
nine years of age. They are very fond of dogs, which
they exchange for cattle, and wdll even give two bul¬
locks in exchange for one dog which pleafes them.
They are expert in throwing lances, and in time of
■war ufe Ihields made of the hides of oxen. Through¬
out the day the men occupy themfelves in hunting,
fighting, or dancing 5 the women being employed in
the cultivation of their gardens and corn. They feem
not to be deftitute of the knowledge of agriculture, as
they cultivate feveral vegetables which do not natu¬
rally grow in their own country, viz. tobacco, water¬
melons, a fmall kind of kidney-beans, and hemp. The
women alfo make their bafkets, and the mats on which
they lie. The men are very fond of their cattle, and
cut their horns in fuch a manner as to be able to turn
them into any fhape they pleafe, and teach them to an-
fwer to a whiftle. Mr Paterfon is of opinion, that the
country they inhabit is greatly fuperior to any part of
Africa.
Of the Dutch fettlements and policy at the Cape,
Mr Forfter gives the following account.
“ The income of the governor here is very confi-
derable; for, belides a fixed appointment, and the
ufe of houfes, gardens, proper furniture, and every
thing that belongs to his table, he receives about 10
dollars for every leagre of wine which the company
buy of the farmer in order to be exported to Batavia.
The company allows the fum of 40 dollars for each
leagre, of which the farmer receives but 24: what
remains is (hared between the governor and fecond or
deputy ; the former taking two-thirds, which fome-
times are faid to amount to 40QC dollars per annum.
The deputy-governor has the dire&ion of the com-Hottentots,
pany’s whole commerce here, and figns all orders to '■—v—
the different departments under him, as well as the
governor to others. He and the fifcal have the rank
of upper koopman. The fifcal is at the head of the po¬
lice, and fees the penal laws put in execution : his in¬
come confiils of fines, and of the duties laid on cer¬
tain articles of commerce 5 but if he be ftrift in exa£l»
ing them, he is univerfally detefled. The found policy
of the Dutch has likewife found it neceffary to place
the fifcal as a check, to overawe the other officers of
the company, that they may not counteradl the inte-
relts of their matters, or infringe the laws of the mo¬
ther-country. He is, to that end, commonly well
verfed in juridical affairs, and depends folely upon the
mother-country. The major (at prefent Mr Von
Prehn, who received us with great politenefs) has the
rank of koopman or merchant: this circumftance furi
prifes a ftranger, who, in all other European ftates, is
ufed to fee military honours confer diftindlion and pre¬
cedence and appears ftill more fingular to one who
knows the contrail in this particular between Holland
and Ruffia, where the idea of military rank is annexed
to every place, even that of a profeffor at the univer-
fity. The number of regular foldiers at this colony
amounts to about of which 400 form the gar-
rifon of the fort, near the Cape-town. The inhabi¬
tants capable of bearing arms form a militia of 4000
men, of whom a confiderable part may be affembled
in a few hours, by means of fignals made from alarm-
places in different parts of the country. We may from
hence make fome eftimate of the number of white
people in this colony, which is at prefent fo extenfive,
that the diftant fettlements are above a month’s jour¬
ney from the Cape : but thefe remote parts lie fome-
times more than a day’s journey from each other, are
furrounded by various nations of Hottentots, and too
frequently feel the want of protedlion from their own
government at that diftance. The (laves in this colony
are at leaft in the proportion of five or more to one
white perfon. The principal inhabitants at the Cape
have fometimes from 20 to 30 (laves, which are in ge¬
neral treated with great lenity, and fometimes become
great favourites with their matters, who give them very
good clothing, but oblige them to wear neither (hoes
nor (lockings, referving thefe articles to themfelves.
The (laves are chiefly brought from Madagafcar, and a
little veffel annually goes from the Cape thither on that
trade j there are, however, befides them, a number of
Malays and Bengalefe, and fome negroes. The colo-
nifts themfelves are for the greateft part Germans, with
fome families of Dutch and fome of French Proteftants. .
The charadler of the inhabitants of the town is mixed.
They are induftrious, but fond of good living, hofpita-
ble, and focial, though accuftomed to hire their apart¬
ments to ftrangers for the time they touch at this fettle-
ment, and ufed to be complimented with rich prefents .•
of (luffs, &c. by the officers of merchant drips. They'
have no great opportunities of acquiring knowledge,
there being no public fchools of note at the Cape 5
their young men are therefore commonly fent to Hol¬
land for improvement, and their female education is
too much neglefted. A kind of diflike to reading,
and the want of public amufements, make their conver- •
fation uninterefting, and too frequently turn it upon-
(caudal, a
.  HOT [638
■ utt^ni:0,:s; feandal, wliich Is commonly carried to a degree of in-
veteracy peculiar to little towns. The French, Ena.
lifh, Portuguefe, and Malay languages, are very com¬
monly fpoken, and many of the ladies have acquired
them. This eircumftance, together with the accom-
plimments of finging, dancing, and playing a tune on
the lute, frequently united in an agreeable perfon,
make amendsfor the want of refined manners and de-
icacy of fentiment. There are, however, among the
principal inhabitants, perfons of both fexes, whofe
whole deportment, 6xtenfive reading, and well-culti-
t ated underftandingj would be admired and diftinguilh-
ed even in Europe. Their circumftances are in gene¬
ral eafy, and very often affluent, on account of the
cneap rate at which the necefiaries of life are to be pro¬
cured : but they feldom amafs fuch prodigious riches
nere as at Batavia ; and I was told the greateft private
mnune at the Cape did not exceed ioc,oo» dollars, or
about 25,000k jfierling.
“ The farmers in the country are very plain hofpi-
table people; but thofe who dwell in the remoteft
fettlements feldom come to town, and are faid to be
very ignorant. This may eafily be conceived, becaufe
they have no better company than Hottentots, their
dwellings being often feveral days journey afunder,
which muft in a great meafure preclude all intercourle.
1 he vine is .cultivated in plantations within the com-
pafs of a few days journey from the town ; which were
eflablifhed by the firft colonifts, and of which the
ground was given in perpetual property to them and
their heirs. The company at prefent never part with
the property of the ground, but let the furface to the
farmer for an annual rent, which, though extremely
moderate, being only 25 dollars for 60 acres, yet does
tiot give fufficient encouragement to plant vineyards.
Ihe diftant fettlements, therefore, chiefly raife corn
and rear cattle ; nay, many of the fettlers entirely
follow the latter branch of ruftic employment, and
fome have very numerous flocks. We were told there
were two farmers who had each 15,000 flieep, and
oxen in proportion 5 and feveral who poffeffed 6000
or 8coo (beep, of which they drive great droves to
town every year; but lions and buffaloes, and the fa¬
tigue of the journey, deftroy numbers of their cattle
before they cari. bring them fo far. They commonly
take their families with them in large waggons covered
witn linen or leather, fpread over hoops, and drawn
by 8, 10, and fometimes 12 pair of oxen. They bring
butter, mutton-tallow, the flefli and fkins of river-hrofes
(hippopotamus), together with lion and rhinoceros
Ikms to fell. They have feveral Haves, and commonly
engage in their fervice feveral Hottentots of the poorer
ort, and (as we are told) of the tribe called Boshies-
men, Bofchemans, or Bufhmen, who have no cattle of
their own, but commonly fubfift by hunting, or by
committing depredations on their neighbours.. The
opulent farmers fet up a young beginner by intruding
to his care a flock of 400 or 500 flieep, which he leads
to a diflant fpot, wdiere he finds plenty of good grafs
and water; the one-half of all the lambs , which are
yeaned fall to his fliare, by wfflich means he foon be¬
comes as rich as his benefaftor.
“ I hough the Dutch company feem evidently to
difeourage all new fettlers, by granting no lands in
private property; yet the produces of the country
] HOT
have of late years fuffleed not only to fupply the ifles ofHottenfotSt
Trance and Bourbon with corn, but likewife to furnifli Hettinger-
the mother-country with feveral flap loads. Thefe ex- *  
ports would certainly be made at an enfier rate than at
prefent, if the fettlements did not extend fo far into the
country, from whence the produfts muff be brought to
the Table-bay by land-carriage, on roads which are al-
moft impaffable. 1 he intermediate fpaces of unculti¬
vated land between the different fettlements are very
extenfive, and contain many fpots fit for agriculture ;
but one of the chief reafons why the colonifts are fa
much divided and fcattered throughout the country, is
to be met with in another regulation of the company,
which forbids every new fettler to eftablifh himfelf with!
in a mile of another. It is evident, that if this fettle-
ment were in the hands of the commonwealth, it would
have attained to a great population, and a degree of
opulence and fplendor of which it has not the leaft
hopes at prefent; but a private company of Eaft India
merchants find their account much better in keeping
all the landed property to themfelves, and tying down
the colonift, left he fhould become too great and power¬
ful.
‘‘ 1 he wines made at the Cape are of the greateft
variety poflible. 1 he beft, which is made at M. Vander
Spy’s plantation of Conftantia, is fpoken of in Europe,
more by report than from real knowledge ; 30 leagres
(or pipes) at the utmoft are annually raifed of this
kind, and each leagre fells for about 50I. on the fpot.
I he vines from which it is made were originally brought
from Shiraz in Perfia. Several other forts growT in the
neighbourhood 6f that plantation, which produce a
fueet rich wine, that generally paffes for genuine Con¬
ftantia in Europe. French plants of burgundy, muf-
cade, and frontignan, have likewife been tried, and
have fucceeded extremely well, fometimes producing
wines fuperior to thofe of the original foil. An ex!
cellent dry wine, which has a flight agreeable tartnefs,
is commonly drank in the principal families, and is
made of Madeira vines tranfplanted to the Cape. Se¬
veral low forts, not entirely difagreeable, are raifed in
great plenty, and fold at a very cheap rate ; fo that
the failors of the Eaft India fliips commonly indulge
themfelves very plentifully in them whenever they come
aft) ore.
“ The products of the country fupply with provifions
the ftiips of all nations which touch at the Cape. Corn,
flour, bifeuit, falted beef, brandy, and wine, are to be
had in abundance, and at moderate prices; and their
frefh greens, fine fruits, good mutton and beef, are ex¬
cellent reftoratives to feamen who have made a long
voyage.”
HO I TINGER, John Henry, one of the moft
learned and eminent of the Proteftant divines of Swit¬
zerland, was born at Zurich, in the year 1620. He
difeovered an invincible propenfity to learning at a very
early period, and acquired the knowledge of languages ■
with aftoniftung facility. The truftees of the fchools
had their attention attra&ed towards Hottinger by his
amazing progrefs in the knowledge of the Hebrew',
Greek, and Latin, whom they determined to fend to
foreign univerfities at the public expence. In 1638
lie ftudied for a fhort time at Geneva under the cele¬
brated Spanheim, and went afterwards to France. He
next vifited Holland and Flanders, and became a ftu-
. dent
H O T [ 639 ] H O U
Kotti-nger. dent in the univerfity of Groningen, where he attended
the theological le£luresof the renowned Francis Gomar,
and Profefibr Alting, and fludied the Arabic language
under Profeffor Pafor. Being anxious, however, to en-
iov ftill more advantages than this fituation afforded, he
went to Leyden, where he became tutor to the chil¬
dren of Profeffor Golius, whofe knowledge of oriental
languages was at that time unrivalled. By his inftruc-
tions and thofe of a Turk then at Leyden, Hettinger’s
knowdedge of the Arabic became very extenfive, and
Golius allowed him to copy many of the Arabic ma-
nuferipts which he had in his poffefiion. In 1641 he
was chofen chaplain to the embaffy of the ftates-general
to Conftantinople ; but the magiftrates of Zurich would
not allow him to accept of it, refolving that his talents
Ihould be exerted for the glory and benefit of their
own public fchools. They permitted him to vifit Eng¬
land prior to his return home, where he contrafted ha¬
bits of intimacy with fome of the moft diftinguiffied li¬
terary charadlers. As foon as he returned to Zurich,
he was appointed profeffor of church-hiftory, when no
more than 22 years of age, and when 23, he was cho¬
fen profeffor of catechetical divinity and oriental lan¬
guages. About this period he married, and began his
career as an author, in which he perfevered for twenty
years, with the moll: aftoniffiing indulfry. In 1653 he
wTas appointed profeffor of rhetoric, and profeffor extra¬
ordinary of the divinity of the Old Teftament, and con-
troverfial theology.
So juftly celebrated about this time was Hottinger as
a man of uncommon erudition, that his aid was earneft-
ly requefted by the eledtor palatine, to reilore the fame
ot the univerfity of Pleidelberg. The magiftrates of
Zurich confented to lend him for three years. At Hei¬
delberg he was made profeffor of divinity, principal,
ecclefiaftical counfellor, and redtor. He wrote in fa¬
vour of the re-union of, Lutherans and Calviniffs ; but
he had no better fuccefs than all his predeceffors in the
fame attempt. He continued at Heidelberg, by per-
miffion of the magiftrates of Zurich, till 1661. On
his return home, he was chofen prefident of the com-
mifiioners who were appointed to revife the German
tranllation of the Bible. He was requefted to accept
of profefforlhips from the magiflrates of Deventer, the
landgrave of Heffe, and the magiftrates of Amfterdam
and Bremen ; but the love of his country made him re-
jedl the whole. He was offered the divinity chair at
Leyden in 1667, ^llt magiftrates would not part
with him. This made the Dutch requeft him as a
loan, to which the magiftrates agreed, from their re-
ipedi for the dates of Holland j but while making pre¬
parations for his departure, he was unfortunately drown¬
ed in the river which runs through Zurich, while on
his -way to an eftate of his own about fix miles from
that city.
Dr Hottinger was a man of extraordinary abilities,
both natural and acquired, having few equals for his
knowledge of oriental languages, and the antiquities of
the church. He had a moft retentive memory, and his
literary induftry was almoft unexampled. His life was
comparatively Ihort, being only 47 when he found a
watery grave, yet he was the author of no fewer than
40 volumes, on different fubjedls. He is frequently in¬
accurate, owing to the aftonifhing rapidity with which
he wrote. For a correft lift of his publications, fee Hottonra
Heidegger's Life of Hottinger. II
HO ETON I A, WATER-VIOLET, a genus of plants , * 0^n
belonging to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 21ft order, Precicr. See
Botany Index.
HOUBRAKEN, Jacob, a celebrated engraver,
whofe great excellence confifted in the portrait line.
His works are diftinguifhed by an admirable foftnefs and
delicacy of execution, joined with good drawing and
a fine tafte. If his beft performances have ever been
furpaffed, it is in the mafterly determination of the fea¬
tures, which we find in the works of Nanteuil, Ede-
link, and Drevet ; this gives an animation to the coun¬
tenance, more eafily to be felt than deferibed. His
works are pretty numerous \ and moft of them being
for Englilh publications, they are fufficiently known in
this country. In particular the greater and beft part
of the colleiffion of portraits of illuftrious men, putr-
lifiied in London by I. and P. Knapton, were by his
hand.
HOVEDON, Roger de, born of an illuftrious
family in Yorkftrire, moft probably at the town of that
name, now called Howdcn, fome time in the reign of
Henry I. After he had received the firrt parts of edu¬
cation in his native country, he ftudied the civil and
canon law, which were then become moft fafhionable
and lucrative branches of learning. He became domef-
tic chaplain to Henry II. who employed him to tranfadt
feveral ecclefiaftical affairs; in which he acquitted him-
felf with honour. But his moft meritorious work was
his annals of England, from A. D. 731, when Bede’s
ecclefiaftical hiftory ends, to A. D. 120 2. This work,
which is one of the moft voluminous of our ancient hif-
tories, is more valuable for the fincerity with which it
is written, and the great variety of fafts which it con¬
tains, than for the beauty of its ftyle, or the regularity
of its arrangement.
HOUGH, ham, in the manege, the joint of the
hind leg of a beaft, which connects the thigh to the
leg. See Ham.
To Huiicn, or cut the Houghs, is to ham-ftring, or to
difable by cutting the linews of the ham.
HOULIERES, Antoniette DES, a French lady,
whofe poetry is highly efteemed in France. Her
works and thofe of her daughter have been collefted
and printed together in twro volumes. Moft of the.
idyls, particularly thofe on fheep and birds, furpafs
evory thing of the kind in the French language : the
thoughts and expreftions are noble j and the ftyle
pure, flowing, and chafte. Mademoifelle des Hou-
lieres carried the poetic prize in the French academy
againft Fontenelle. Both of thefe ladies were mem¬
bers of the academy of Ricovatri 5 the mother was
alfo a member of the academy of Arles. Thofe who
defire to be more particularly acquainted with the
hiftory of Madame des Houlieres, may confult her life
prefixed to her works in the Paris edition of 1747,
2 vols i 2mo.
HOULSWORTHY, a large town of Devonfhire,
feated between tw'o branches of the river Tamer, having
a good market lor corn and provifions. W. Long. 4. 42.
N. Lat. 50. 50.
HOUND. See Canis,jBzooD-H2.’/W,and GitF.-Hound.
"Training
H ' O U [ 640 ] H O U
Hounci. Training of Hounds. Before we fpeak of the me-
thods proper to be ufed for this purpofe, it will be ne-
ceilary to point out the qualities which fportfmen de¬
fire to meet with in thefe animals. It is generally un¬
derflood, that hounds of the middle fize are the molt
proper, it being remarked, that all animals of that de-
fcription are flronger than either fuch as are very fmall
or very large. The fhape of the hound ought to be
particularly attended to •, for if he be not well propor¬
tioned, he can neither run fall; nor do much work.
His legs ought to be flraight, his feet round, and not
very large ; his (boulders back •, his bread rather wdde
than narrow *, his cited deep, his back broad, his head
fmall, his neck thin 5 his tail thick and buflty, and if
he carry it well fo much the better. None of thofe
young hounds which are out at the elbows, or fuch as
■are weak from the knee to the foot* (hould ever be ta¬
ken into the pack. That the pack may look well, it
is proper that the hounds (hould be as much as poffible
of a fize : and if the animals be handfome at the fame
time, the pack will then be perfefl. It mud not, how¬
ever, be thought, that this contributes any thing to the
goodnefs of a pack ; for very unhandfome packs, con¬
fiding of hounds entirely different in fize and colour,
have been known to afford very good fport. It is only
necelfary that they (hould run well together •, to which
indeed an uniformity in fize and diape w’ould feem to
contribute in fome degree. The pack that can run to
miles, or any other confiderable (pace, in the (horted
time, may be faid to go faded, though the hounds ta¬
ken feparately might be confiderably inferior to others
in fwiftnefs. A pack of hounds, confidered in a col¬
lective body, go fad in proportion to the excellence of
their nofes and the head they carry. Packs which are
compofed of hounds of various kinds feldom run well.
When the packs are very large, the hounds are feldom
fufiiciently hunted to be good * 20 or 3c couple, there¬
fore, or at mod 40, will be abundantly fufficient for
the keened fportfman in this country, as thus he may
be enabled to hunt three or even four times a-week.
The number of hounds to be kept mud, however, in a
fonliderable degree, depend on the drength of the
pack, and the country in which you hunt. They
(hould be left at home as feldom as poflible ; and too
many old hounds (hould not be kept. None ought
to be kept above five or fix feafons, though this alfo is
fomewhat uncertain, as we have no rule for judging
how long a hound wall lad.
In breeding of hounds, confiderable attention ought
to be paid to the dog from whom you breed. All
fuch are to be rejeCted as have a tender nofe, as are
babblers or Jhirters. An old dog (hould never be put
to an old bitch ; nor diould any attempts be made to
crofs the breed unlefs in a proper and judicious man-
* EJfay on ner. Mr Beckford * informs us, that he has feen fox-
Hunting. hounds bred out of a Newfoundland dog and fox¬
hound bitch •, the whelps wTere mondroufiy ugly, and
had other bad qualities befides. The crofs mod likely
to be of fervice to a fox-hound is the beagle. The rea-
fon of eroding the breeds fometimes is, that the imper-
feftions of one may fometimes be remedied by another.
The months of January, February, and March, are the
bed for breeding; late puppies feldom thrive. After
the females begin to grow big with young, it will not
be proper to let them hunt any more, or indeed to re-
,2
main for a much longer time in the kennel. Some- Notinl
times thele animals will have an extraordinary number
of whelps. Mr Beckford informs us, that he has known
a bitch have 15 puppies at a litter; and he adures us,
that a friend of his informed him, that a hound in his
pack brought forth 16, all of them alive. In thefe
cafes it is proper to put fome of the puppies to another
bitch, if you want to keep them all * but if any are de-
firoyed, the bed coloured ought to be kept. The
bitches (hould not only have plenty of ffedi, but milk
alfo j and the puppies (hould not be taken from them
till they are able to take care of themfelves * their mo¬
thers will be relieved when they learn to lap milk,
which they will do in a diort time. After the puppies
are taken away from the mothers, the litter (hould have
three purging balls given them, one every other morn¬
ing, and plenty of whey the intermediate day. If a
bitch bring only one or two puppies, and you have an¬
other that will take them, by putting the puppies to
her the former will foon be fit to hunt again. She
(hould, however, be fird phyficked, and it will alfo
be of fervice to anoint her dugs with brandy and
water.
Whelps are very liable to the didemper to which
dogs in general are fubjedl, and which frequently
makes great havock among them at their walks * and
this is fuppofed by Mr Beckford to be owing to the
little care that is taken of them. “ If the didemper
(fays he) once get among them, they mud all have
it: yet, notwithdanding that, as they will be eondant-
ly wTell fed, and will lie warm (in a kennel built on
purpofe), I am confident it w?ould be the faving of
many lives. If you Oiould adopt this method, you
mud remember to ufe them early to go in couples :
and when they become of a proper age, they mud he
walked out often ; for (hould they remain confined,
they would neither have the health, (hape, or under-
danding, which they ought to have. When I kept
harriers, I bred up fome of the puppies at a didant
kennel; but having no fervants there to exercife them
properly, I found them much inferior to fuch of their
brethren as had the luck to furvive the many difficul¬
ties and dangers they had undergone at their walks;
thefe were afterwards equal to any thing, and afraid
of nothing $ whild thofe that had been nurfed with fo
much care, were weakly, timid, and had every difad-
vantage attending private education. I have often
heard as an excufe for hounds not hunting a cold
feent, that they were too high-bred. I confefs I know
not what that means: but this I know, that hounds
are frequently too ill-bred to be of any fervice. It is
i’udgment in the breeder, and patience afterwards in the
luntfman, that makes them hunt.
“ When young hounds are fird taken in, they (hould
be kept feparate from the pack ; and as it will happen
at a time of the year when there is little or no hunting,
you may eafily give them up one of the kennels and
grafs court adjoining. Their play frequently ends in a
battle j it therefore is lefs dangerous w’here all are
equally matched.—If you find that they take a didike
to any particular hound, the fafed way will be to re¬
move him, or it is probable they will kill him at lad.
When a feeder hears the hounds quarrel in the kennel,
he halloos to them to dop them •, he then goes in a-
mong them, and flogs every hound he can come near.
How
H O U [ 641 ] H O U
Hound. How much more reafonable, as well as efficacious,
—v-—' would it be, were he to fee which were the combatants
before he fpeaks to them. Punifhment would then fall,
as it ought, on the guilty only. In all packs there are
fome hounds more quarrelfome than the reft j and it is
to them we owe all the mifchief that is done. If you
find chaftifement cannot quiet them, it may be prudent
to break their holders $ for fince they are not neceflary
to them for the meat they have to eat, they are
not likely to ferve them iu any good purpofe. Young
hounds ftrould be fed twice a-day, as they feldom take
kindly to the kennel meat at firft, and the diftemper is
molt apt to feize them at this time. It is better not to
round them till they are thoroughly fettled ; nor fhould
it be put off till the hot weather, for then they will
bleed too much. It may be better perhaps to round
them at their quarters, when about fix months old ;
fliould it be done fooner, it would make their ears tuck
up. The tailing of them is ufually done before they
are put out •, it might be better, perhaps, to leave it till
they are taken in. Dogs muft not be rounded at the
time they have the diftemper upon them, as the lofs of
blood would weaken them too much.
“ If any of the dogs be thin over the back, or any
more quarrelfome than the reft, it will be of ufe to cut
them •, I alfo fpay fuch bitches as I lhall not want to
breed from •, they are more ufeful, are ftouter, and are
always in better order ; befides it is abfolutely neceflary
if you hunt late in the fpring, or your pack will be ve¬
ry Ihort for want of it. The latter operation, however,
does not always fucceed} it will be neceflary therefore
to employ a fldlful perfon, and one on whom you can
depend ; for if it be ill done, though they cannot have
puppies, they will go to heat notwithftanding. They
ftiould be kept low for feveral days before the operation
is performed, and muft be fed on thin meat for fome
time after.”
It is impoflible to determine how many young
hounds ought to be bred in order to keep up the pack,
as this depends altogether on contingencies. The de¬
ficiencies of one year muft be fupplied by the next 5 but
it is probable, that from 30 to 35 couple of old hounds,
and from eight to twelve couple of young ones, will
anfwer the purpofe where no more than 40 couple are
to be kept. A confiderable number, however, ought
alwrays to be bred ; for it is undoubtedly and evidently
true, that thofe who breed the greateft number of hounds
muft expeft the beft pack.
After the hounds have been rounded, become ac¬
quainted with the huntfman, and anfwer to their
names, they ought to be coupled together, and walked
out among fheep. Such as are particularly ill-natured
ought to have their couples loofe about their necks in
the kennel till they become reconciled to them. The
moft ftubborn' ought to be coupled to old hounds rather
than to young ones; and two dogs ftiould not be cou¬
pled together when you can avoid it. As young hounds
are awkward at firft, a few ought only to be fet out at
^ time with people on foot, and they will foon after¬
wards follow a horfe. When they have been walked
out often in this manner amongft the ftieep, they (hould
be uncoupled by a few at a time, and thofe chaftifed
who offer to run after the ftieep ; but it will be difficult
to reclaim them after they have once been allowed to
Vol. X. Part II.
tafte blood. Some are accuftomed to couple the dogs K /und.
with a ram in order to break them from (heep 5 but this l'—“"■7--“
is very dangerous for both parties. Mr Beckford re¬
lates a ftory of a nobleman who put a large ram into
his kennel in order to break his hounds from faeep ;
but when he came fome time after to fee how nobly the
ram defended himfelf, he found him entirely eaten up, and
the hounds gone to fleep after having filled their bellies.
When hounds are to be aired, it is beft to take them
out feparately, the old ones one day, and the young
another ; though, if they are to have whey from a dif-
tant dairy, both old and young may be taken out toge¬
ther, obferving only to take the young hounds in cou¬
ples, when the old ones are along with them. Young
hounds are always apt to fall into mifchief, and even
old ones when idle wall be apt to join them. Mr Beck-
ford mentions a whole pack running after a flock of
ftieep through the mere accident of a horfe’s falling,
and then running away.
With regard to the firft entering of hounds to a
fcent, our author gives fuch dire&ions as have fub-
jefied him to a fevere charge of inhumanity. We
ftiall give them in his own words. “ You had better
enter them at their own game ; it will lave you much
trouble afterwards. Many dogs, I believe, like that
fcent beft which they were firft blooded to : but be this
as it may,'it is moft certainly reafonable to ufe them
to that which it is intended they ffiould hunt. It may
not be amifs firft when they begin to hunt to put light
collars on them. Young hounds may eafily get out of
their knowledge •, and ftiy ones, after they have been
much beaten, may not choofe to return home. Col¬
lars, in that cafe, may prevent their being loft.—You
fay you like to fee your young hounds run a trail-
feent.—-I have no doubt that you would be glad to fee
them run over an open down, where you could fo eafiiy
obferve their aflion and their fpeed. I cannot think
the doing of it once or twice could hurt your hounds 5
and yet as a fportfman I dare not recommend it to you.
All that I can fay is, that it would be lefs bad than en¬
tering them at hare. A cat is as good a trail as any ;
but on no account ihould any trail be ufed after your
hounds are ftooped to a fcent. I know an old Iportfmau
who enters his young hounds firft at a cat, which he
drags along the ground for a mile or two, at the end of
which he turns out a badger, firft taking care to break
his teeth : he takes out about a couple of old hounds
along writh the young ones to hold them on. He never
enters his young hounds but at vermin ; for he fays.
Train up a child in the way he ihould go, and when he
is old he will not depart from it.”
Hounds ought to be entered as foon as poffible,
though the time mull be uncertain, as it depends on
the nature of country in which they are. In corn
countries hunting may not be pra&icable till the corn
is cut down j but you may begin fooner in grafs coun¬
tries and at any time in woodlands. “ If (fays Mr
Beckford) you have plenty of foxes, and can afford to
make a facrifwe offome of them for the fake of making
your young hounds fteady, take them firft where you
have leaft riot, putting fome of the fteadieft of your
old hounds among them. If in fuch a place you are
fortunate enough to find a litter of foxes, you may
affure yourfelf you will have but little trouble with
4 M your
H O U [ ^42 j H O U
!Iound- your young hounds afterwards.—If, owing to a fcar-
city of foxes, you fhould ifoop your hounds at hare,
let them by no means have the blood of her ; nor, for
the fake of conhflency, give them much encourage¬
ment, Hare-hunting has one advantage ; hounds
are chiefly in open ground, where you can eafily com¬
mand them 5 but notwithftanding that, if foxes be in
tolerable plenty, keep them to their own game.———
Frequent hallooing is of ufe with young hounds ;
it keeps them forward, prevents their being loll, and
hinders them from hunting after the reft. The oftener
therefore that a fox is feen and hallooed, the better.
I by no means, however, approve of much hallooing
to old hounds ; though it is true that there is a time
when hallooing is of ufe, a time when it does hurt,
and a time when it is perfectly indifferent: but long
praftice and great attention to hunting can only teach
the application.
“ Hounds at their nrft entrance cannot be encou¬
raged too much. When they are become handy, love
a fcent, and begin to know what is right, it will then
be foon enough to chaftife them for what is wrong; in
which cafe one fevere beating will fave a great deal of
trouble. When a hound is hogged, the whipper-in fhould
make ufe of his voice as well as his wdiip. If any be
very unfteady, it will not be amifs to fend them out by
themfelves when the men go out to exercife their horfes.
If you have hares in plenty, let fome be found fitting,
and turned out before them; and you will find that
the moft riotous will not run after them. If you in¬
tend them to be fteady from deer, they fhould of¬
ten fee deer, and then they will not regard them ;
and if after a probation of this kind you turn out a
cub before th«m, wdth fome old hounds to lead them
on, you may affure yourfelf they will not be unfteady
long.”
It is proper to put the young hounds into the pack
when they ftoop to a fcent, become handy, know a rate,
and flop eafily. A few only are to be put to the pack
at a time ; and it is not advifable even to begin this till
the pack have been out a few times by themfelves,
and “ are gotten well in blood.” They fhould be low
in flefli when you begin to hunt; the ground being ge¬
nerally hard at that time, fo that they are liable to be
fhaken.—By hounds being handy, our author means their
being ready to do whatever is required of them; and
particularly, when caft, to turn eafily which way the
huntfman pleafes.
Mr Beckford begins to hunt with his young hounds
in Auguft. The huntfman in the preceding months
keeps his old hounds healthy by giving them proper
exercife, and gets his young hounds forward ; and for
this purpofe nothing anfw’ers fo well as taking them
frequently out. The huntfman fhould go along with
them, get frequently off his horfe, and encourage them
to come to him :—too much reftraint will frequently
incline the hounds to be riotous. Our author frequent¬
ly wralks out his hounds among fheep, hares, and deer.
Sometimes he turns down a cat before them, which
they kill; and, when the time of hunting approaches,
he turns «ut young foxes or badgers ; taking out fome
of the moft fteady of his old hounds to lead on the
young ones. Small covers and furze-brakes are drawn
with them to ufe them to a halloo, and to teach them
obedience. If they find improper game and hunt it,
they are flopped and brought back ; and as long as Hounds
they will flop at a rate, they are not chaftifed. At II
fuch times as they are taken out to air, the huntfman H^u-quang.
leads them into the country in which they are defign-
ed to hunt; by which means they acquire a knowledge
of the country, and cannot mifs their way home at any
time afterwards. When they begin to hunt, they are
firft brought into a large cover of his own, which has
many ridings cut in it; and wdiere young foxes are
turned out every year on purpofe for them. After
they have been hunted for fome days in this manner,
they are lent to more diftant covers, and more old
hounds added to them. There they continue to hunt
till they are taken into the pack, which is feldom later
than the beginning of September ; for by that time
they will have learned what is required of them, and
feldom give much trouble afterwards. In September
he begins to hunt in earneft ; and after the old hounds
have killed a few foxes, the young ones are put into
the pack, two or three couple at a time, till all have
hunted. They are then divided ; and as he feldom has
occalion to take in more than nine or ten couple, one
half are taken out one day, and the other the next, till
they are fteady.
To render fox-hunting complete, no young hounds
fhould be taken into the pack the firft feafon ; a re-
quilite too expenfive for moft fportfmen. The pack
ftiould confift of about 40 couple of hounds, that have
hunted one, two, three, four, or five fealons. The
young pack fhould confift of about 20 couple of young
hounds, and an equal number of old ones. They Ihould
have a feparate eftabliihment, and the two kennels
fhould not be too near one another. When the feafon
is over, the bell of the young hounds fhould be taken
into the pack, and the draught of old ones exchanged
for them. Many muft be bred to enable a fportfman
to take in 20 couple of young hounds every feafon.
It will always be eafy to keep up the number of old
hounds; for wrhen your own draft is not fufficient,
drafts from other packs may be obtained, and at a
fmall expence. When young hounds are hunted toge¬
ther for the firft feafon, and have not a fufficient num¬
ber of old ones along with them, it does more harm
than good.
Kennel of Hounds. See Kennel.
HOUNSLOW, a town of Middlefex, 10 miles from
London. It is fituated on a heath of the fame name y
and belongs to two parifhes, the north fide of the ftreet
to Hefton, and the fouth fide to Ifleworth. It is fitu¬
ated on the edge of a heath of the fame name, and near
it are powder-mills. It has fairs on Trinity-Monday,
and Monday after September 29. Here is a charity-
fchool and a chapel. In this place was formerly a
convent of mendicant friars, who, by their inftitution,
were to beg alms for the ranfom of captives taken by
the infidels.—The heath is noted for robberies and
horfe-races.
HOU-QUANG, a province of China, occupying near¬
ly the centre of the empire : the river Yang-tfe-kiang
traverfes it from weft to eaft ; and divides it into two
parts, the northern and fouthern. This province (the
greater part of which is level, and watered by lakes,
canals, and rivers) is celebrated for its fertility; the
Chinefe call it the ftcre-houfe of the empire ; and
it is a common faying among them, that “ the abun¬
dance
Hour,
Hours.
H O U [ 643 ] H O U
dance of Kiang-fi could furnifli all Cliina with a break-
faft 5 but the province of Hou-quang alone could fup ply-
enough to maintain all its inhabitants.” Some princes
of the race of Hong-vou formerly refided in this pro¬
vince } but that family was entirely deftroyed by the
Tartars when they conquered China. The people here
boaft much of their cotton cloths, fimples, gold-mines,
wax, and paper made of the bamboo-reed. The north¬
ern part of the province contains eight fou, or cities
of the firft clafs, and fixty of the fecond and third.
The fouthern comprehends feven of the firft clafs, and
fifty-four of the fecond and third, exclufive of forts,
towns, and villages, wdiich are everywhere to be found.
HOUR, in chronology, an aliquot part of a natu¬
ral day, ufually a 24th, but fometimes a 1 2th. The
origin of the word hora, or »^as, comes, according to
fome authors, from a furname of the fun, the father
of hours, whom the Egyptians call Horus. Others
derive it from the Greek to terminate, dijlinguijh,
&.C. Others from the word v§oy, urine; holding, that
Trifmegiftus was the firft that fettled the divifion of
hours which he did from obfervation of an animal con-
ftcrated to Serapis, named cijnocephalus, wdfich makes
water 12 times a-day, and as often in the night, at equal
intervals.
An hour, with us, is a meafure or quantity of time,
equal to a 24th part of the natural day, ornytthemeron ;
or the duration of the 24th part of the earth’s diurnal
rotation. Fifteen degrees of the equator anfwer to an
hour 5 though not precifely, but near enough for com¬
mon ufe. It is divided into 60 minutes ; the minute
into 60 feconds, &tc.
The divifion of the day into hours is very ancient.;
as is fhown by Kircher, Oedipt. JE.gypt. tom. ii. p. ii.
claff. vii. c. 8.: though the paffages he quotes from
Scripture do not prove it.—The moft ancient hour is
that of the 1 2th part of the day. Herodotus, lib. ii.
obferves, that the Greeks learnt from the Egyptians,
among other things, the method of dividing the day
into twelve parts.—The aftronomers of Cathaya, &c.
Biihop Beveridge obferves, ftill retain this divifion.
They call the hour chag ; and to each chag give a pe¬
culiar name, taken from fome animal : The firft is call¬
ed zeth, “ moufe the fecond, chiu, “ bullock the
third, zcot, “ leopard;” the fourth, mau, “ hare ;” the
fifth, c/iiu, “ crocodile,” &c.
The divifion of the day into 24 hours, was not
known to the Romans before the firft Punic war.—
Till that time they only regulated their days by the
rifing and fetting of the fun. They divided the 12
hours of their day into four, viz. prime, which com¬
menced at fix o’clock ; third, at nine ; Jixth, at twelve,
and none, at three. They alio divided the night into
four watches, each containing three hours.
HOURS, Hor^, in the ancient mythology, were
certain goddeffes, the daughters of Jupiter and Themis ;
at firft only three in number, Eunomia, Dice, and
Irene, to which were afterwards added two more, Car-
po and Thallote.
Homer makes them the doorkeepers of heaven. O-
vid allots them the employment of harncffing the hories
pf the Sun :
Jungere equos Titan velocibus imperat Horis.
And fpeaks of them as Handing, at equal diftances,
about the throne of Sol:
 cl, pojitce fpatiis equalibus, Horae.
The poets reprefent them as dreffed in fine coloured or
embroidered robes, and gliding on with a quick and
eafy motion.
Hours, Horee, in the Romith church, are certain
prayers performed at flated times of the day; as ma
tins, vefpers, lauds, &c. The leffer hours are, prime,
tierce, Jixth, and none. They are called hours, or ca-
?ionical hours, as being to be rehearfed at certain hours
prefcribed by the canons of that church, in comme*'
moration of the myfteries accomplfthed at thofe hours.
Thefe hours were anciently alfo called courfe, curfus:
F. Mabillon has a differtation on them, entitled, De
Curfu Gallicano.
The firft conftitution enjoining the obfervation of the
canonical hours is of the ninth century, being found in
a capitular of Heito biihop of Bafil dire&ed to his cu¬
rates, importing that the priefts lhall never be abfent
at the canonical hours either by day or night.
Houa-G/afs, a popular kind of chronometer or clep-
fydra, ferving to meafure the flux of time by the de-
fcent or running of fand out of one glafs veflel into an¬
other. The belt hour-glaftes are thofe which, intlead
of fand, have egg-lhells w-ell dried in the oven, then
beaten fine and fitted.—Hour-glaffes are much ufed at
fea for reckoning, &c.
HOURIS, in modern hiftory, is a name given by
the Mahometans to thofe females that are defigned
for the faithful in Paradife. Thefe are not the fame
with whom they have lived on earth, but formed
for this purpofe with fingular beauty and undecaying
charms.
HOUSE, a habitation, or place built with conveni-
encies for dw-elling in. See Architecture.
Houses, among the Jew-s, Greeks, and Romans,
were flat on the top for them to walk upon, and had
ufually flairs on the outfide, by which they might a-
fcend and defcend without coming into the houfe. Each
houfe, in fa<ft, was fo laid out, that it enclofed a quad¬
rangular area or court. This court w-as expofed to the
weather, and being open to the Iky, gave light to the
houfe. This was the place where company was recei¬
ved, and for that purpofe it was ftrewed with mats or
carpets for their better accommodation. It was paved
wdth marble or other materials, according to the own¬
er’s ability, and provided wdth an umbrella of vellum
to Ihelter them from the heat and inclemencies of the
w'eather. This part of their houfes, called by the Ro¬
mans impluviuru, or cava ccdium, wras provided with
channels to carry off the water into the common fewers.
The top of the houfe w-as level, and covered with a
ftrong plafter by w-ay of terrace. Hither, elpecially
amongft the Jews, it was cuftomary to retire for me¬
ditation, private converfe, devotion, or the enjoyment
of the evening breezes.
The Grecian houfes were ufually divided into two
parts, in which the men and women had diftrnft man-
lions afligned. The part afligned to the men w’as to¬
wards the gate, and called ; the apartment
of the women was the fartheft part of the houfe, and
called yvmuun'ln. Jews, Greeks, and Romans, fuppo-
4 M 2 fed
Houie.
H O U
J tlieir houfes to be polluted by dead bodies, and to
Hand in need of purification.
House is alio uled for one of the eftates of the king¬
dom of Britain aflembled in parliament. Thus we fay,
the houfe of lords, the houfe of commons, &c. See
Peers, Commons. &c.
House is alio ufed for a noble family, or a race of
illustrious perfons iflued from the fame Hock. In this
lenie we lay, the houle or family of the Stuarts, the
Bourbons, the houfe of Hanover' of Auftria, of Lor-
rain, of Savoy, &c.
Cheap, cnJ'lji ond expeditious Method of confruchng
Houses, which have been found to be very ufeful hofpitals
for the recovery of the Jick, and therefore wail probably
make very wholefome places of rejidence for the healthy.
—— Ihe firft thing to be done is to choofe a dry and airy
fituation, on a gravelly or chalky foil if poffible ; upon
tnis lay down the plan of your building, make one end
of it face that quarter from whence the pureft and
healthielt winds may be expe&ed to blow, of a
breadth that can be conveniently roofed. Then, if
boarding does not come fo cheap, drive flakes, at
about 6 feet diftance from each other, into the ground,
fo as to Hand about fix feet above it; and, interlacing
them with wattles, coat the wattles on the fide next
the weather with frefh ftraw; and make the roof in
the fame manner, but thicker, or of thatch in the
uiual way, with a hole at the very top of it, to open
occafionally. Let the end of the building facing the
wholefomefl quarter lie open fome feet back, fo as to
form a porch, where the convalefcents may take the
air without danger of any injury from the weather.
A large chimney and kitchen grate may be eredled at
the other end. If the foil happens to be ch*lky or
gravelly, you may hollow it four or five feet deep,
within a foot or eighteen inches of the walls $ but let
the fleps into this hollow lie far enough within the
porch, that no water may get into it, and, if of chalk,
the fleps may not grow llippery in wet weather. From
time to time open the vent-hole at the roof; by means
of which all the unwdiolefome infedtious air, as being
warmer, and confequently lighter, than that which is
pure and wholefome, will be driven out by the mill¬
ing in of the frefh air *, a purpofe, w’hich the little o-
penings that may be left in the fides and roofs of
Inch rude and hafly buildings, will, even of themfelves,
anfwer fo wrell, as fufficiently to compenfate any cold
they may let in, even in the coldell months. Let
the floor likewife be feraped three or four inches
deep every five or fix days, and what comes off re¬
moved to fome diftance. Halls of this kind, 50 feet
long and 20 broad, coll but a trifle to build ; yet,
with thefe precautions (even without the addition of
clean ftraw for every new patient to lie on, inclofed
in clean waflied facks fit for the purpofe, which come
infinitely cheaper than the bare cleaning of flock or
even feather-beds, fuppofing it peflible to wafh fuch
beds), proved of infinitely more advantage in the reco-
veiy of lick foldiers, than the low-roofed rooms of
the farm-houfes of the Me of Wight, or even the
better accommodations of Carifbrooke caflle in the
fame ifland, in which there perifhed four times the
number of fick that there did in thefe temporary re¬
ceptacles j which were firft thought of by Doflor
[ 644 ]
H O U
Brocklelby, on occafion of fome terrible iiifeclions
from confined animal effluvia.
Is it not furprifing, that we have not availed our-
felves more of the above difeovery in natural hiftory,
being, perhaps, the moll important the moderns can
boaft of, in the moll ufetul fcience, viz. the fuperior
lightnefs of unwholelbme and infectious air ! The up¬
per falhes in moll houfes, even of thofe who pretend
to fome knowledge in thefe matters, are generally
immoveable, by means of which no part of the foul
air above the level of the loweft rail of the other falh’s
greateft rife can efcape by the window; and, if it
efcapes by the doors, it is generally for want of a
vent in the higheft part of the roof, merely to accu¬
mulate in the upper ftory of the houfe, and add to the
infetlion, which the great quantities of old furniture
ufually ftored up there are of themfelves but too apt
to create, when care is not frequently taken to open
the windows of it. Thus, the chief benefit to be ex¬
pelled from lofty rooms is in a great meafure loll.
Whereas, were the upper lalhes contrived to come
down, all the air might be eafily changed, and that
almolt infenfibly, by letting them down an inch or
two. Nay, the upper falh might be often let entire¬
ly down with lefs danger or inconvenience from cold,
than the lower thrown up the tenth part of an inch,
though the doing of the former would be attended
■with infinitely more advantage to the health of the
inhabitants than the latter. It is, perhaps, on this
principle, that we are to account for the good health
enjoyed by the poor who live crowded in damp cellars,
and often with great numbers of rabbits, poultry, and
even fwine about them. Thefe cellars are open to the
ftreet, with doors reaching from the floor to the very
ceiling, but never fo clofe at bottom or at top as to
prevent a free circulation of air 5 in confequence of
which, that all-vivifying fluid, as fall as it is fpoiled
by palling through the lungs of the inhabitants and
their ftock, or is infefted by their infenfible perfplra-
tion, excrements, &c. is driven out and replaced by
the frelh air.
House, in aftrology, denotes the twelfth part of the
heavens.
The divifion of the heavens into houfes, is founded
upon the pretended influence of the liars, when meet¬
ing in them, on all fublunary bodies. Thefe influences
are fuppofed to be good or bad 5 and to each of thefe
houfes particular virtues are afiigned, on which aftro-
logers prepare and form a judgment of their horofeopes.
The horizon and meridian are two circles of the cele-
ftial houfes, which divide the heavens into four equal
parts, each containing three houfes ; fix of which are
above the horizon and fix below it j and fix of thefe
are called eafern and fix weflern houfes.
A fcheme or figure of the heavens is compofed of
1 2 triangles, all called houfes, in which are marked the
liars, figns, and planets, fo included in each of thefe
circles. Every planet has likewife two particular houfes,
in -which it is pretended that they exert their influence
in the ftrongeft manner j but the fun and moon have
only one, the houfe of the former being Leo, and that
of the latter Cancer.
The houfes in aftrology have alfo names given them
according to their qualities. The firft is the houfe of
life t
Ho ufe.
j
H O U [ 045 ] H O U*
Houfe. life : this is the afcendant, which extends five degrees
above the horizon, and the reft below it. The fecond
is the houfe of riches; the third, the houfe of brothers j
the fourth, in the lovveft part of the heavens, is the
houfe of relations, and the angle of the earth ; the fifth,
the houfe of children ; the fixth, the houfe of health j
the feventh, the houfe of marriage, and the angle of the
weft 5 the eighth, the houfe of death ; the ninth, the
houfe of piety •, the tenth, the houfe of offices 5 the
eleventh, the houfe of friends ; and the twelfth, the
houfe of enemies.
* Sts Villa. Country House, is the villa* of the ancient Ro¬
mans, the quinta of the Spaniards and Portuguefe, the
cloferie and cajfine of the French, and the vigna of the
Italians.
It ought always to have wood and water near it,
thefe being the principal beauties of a rural feat. The
trees make a far better defence than hills, as they yield
9 cooling and healthy air, ffiade during the heat of
fummer, and very much break the feverities of the win¬
ter feafon.
It Ihould not be fituated too low, on account of the
moifture of the air j and, on the other hand, thofe built
on places expofed to the winds are expenfive to keep
in repair. In houfes not above two ftories high, and
upon a good foundation, the length of twro bricks, or
18 inches, for the heading courfe, will be fufficient for
the ground-w*ork of any common ftrutlure •, and fix or
feven courfes above the earth, to a water-table, where
the thicknefs of the walls is abated or taken in, on
either fide the thicknefs of a brick, viz. two inches and
a quarter. But for large and high houfes of three,
four, or five ftories, with garrets, their walls ought to
be three heading courfes of bricks, or 28 inches at
leaft, from the foundation to the firft water-table j and
at every ftory a water-table, or taking in, on the in-
fide, for "the fummers, girders, and joifts to reft upon,
laid into the middle, or one quarter of the wall at leaft,
for the better bond. But as for the partition-wall, a
brick and half wdll be fufficiently thick ; and for the
upper ftories a brick length or nine inch brick wall
luffice.
Hot-House. See Stove and Hypocaustum.
House-Breahing, or Robbing, is the breaking into
and robbing a houfe in the day-time ; the fame crime
being termed burglary when done by night: both
are felony without benefit of clergy.
House and Window Duty, a branch of the king’s
f See extraordinary revenue f.—As early as the conqueft,
mention is made in domefday book of fumage or fu-
gage, vulgarly called fmohe-farthings ; which were paid
by cuftom to the king for every chimney in the houfe.
And we read that Edward the Black Prince (foon af¬
ter his fuccenes in France), in imitation of the Engliffi
cuftom, impofed a tax of a florin upon every hearth in
his French dominions. But the firft parliamentary
eftablifhment of it in England was by ftatute 13 and 14
Car. II. c. 10. v,'hereby an hereditary revenue of 2s.
for every hearth, in all houfes paying to church and
poor, was granted to the king for ever. And, by fub-
fequent ftatutes, for the more regular afieflment of this
tax, the conftable and two other fubftantial inhabitants
of the parifti, to be appointed yearly (or the furveyor
appointed by the crown, together with fuch conftable
or other public officer), were, once in every year, em¬
powered to view the infide of every houfe in the pa- Houfe-leek?
rifli. But, upon the Revolution, by flat. 1. W. and M. HoulehoU.
c. 10. hearth-money was declared to be “ not only
a great oppreffion to the poorer fort, but a badge of
llavery upon the whole people, expofing every man’s
houfe to be entered into and fearched at pleasure, b»
perfons unknown to him ^ and therefore, to ereff a lad¬
ing monument of their majefties goodnefs, in every
houfe in the kingdom the duty of hearth-money was
taken away and abolilhed.” This monument of good¬
nefs remains among us to this day : but the profpeft
ot it was fomewhat darkened, when in fix years after-
w'ards, by ftatute 7 W. III. c. 18 = a tax was laid up¬
on all houfes (except cottages) of 2S. now advanced to
3s. per houfe, and a tax alfo upon all windows, if they
exceeded nine, in fuch houfe. Thefe rates have been
from time to time varied, being now extended to all
windows exceeding fix j and power is given to furvey-
ors, appointed by the crown, to infpecf the outfide of
houfes, and alfo to pafs through any houfes, two days
in the year, into any court or yard, to infpedft the win¬
dows there.
Schemes of the different rates of duty upon houfes
and windows may be feen in the Almanacks, or in
Kcarjley''s Tax-Tables publilhed yearly.
House-Leek. See Sevum and Sempervivum, Bo¬
tany Index.
HOUSEHOLD, the whole of a family confidered
colledtively, including the miftrefs, children, and fer-
vants. But the houfehold of a fovereign prince in¬
cludes only the officers and domeftics belonging to his
palace.
The principal officers of his majefty’s houfehold are,
the lord fteward, lord chamberlain of the houfehold,
the groom of the Hole, the mafter of the great ward¬
robe, and the mafter of the horfe.
The civil government of the king’s houfe is under
the care of the lord fteward of the king’s houfehold $
who, being the chief officer, all his commands are
obferved and obeyed. His authority extends over all
the other officers and fervants, except thofe of his ma¬
jefty’s chapel, chamber, and liable, and he is the judge
of all crimes committed either w'ithin the court or the
verge.
Under him are the treafurer of the houfehold, the
comptroller, cofferer, the mafter of the houfehold, the
clerks of the green-cloth, and the officers and fervants
belonging to the accounting-houfe, the marlhalfea, the
verge, the king’s kitchen, the houfehold kitchen, the
acatery, bake-houfe, pantry, buttery, cellar, paltry,
&c. Next to the lord fteward is the lord-chamberlain
of the houfehold, who has under him the vice-cham¬
berlain, the treafurer, and comptroller of the chamber j
48 gentlemen of the privy chamber, 1 2 of whom wait
quarterly, and two of them lie every night in the privy-
chamber j the pages of the prefence-chamber j the mace-
bearers, cup-bearers, carvers, muficians, &c. See Lard
Chamberlain of the Houfehaid.
The groom of the Hole has under him the xi other
lords of the bed-chamber, who wait weekly in the bed¬
chamber, and by turns lie there a-nights on a pallet-
bed ; and alio the grooms of the bed-chamber, the
pages of the bed-chamber and back-ftairs, &c. See
Groom of the Stole.
The mafter or keeper of the great wardrobe has un¬
der
H O U [ 646 ] H O U
Haufing der lura ra deputy, comptroller, clerk of the robes,
}} . brufher, &c. and a number of tradd'men and artificers,
louftania. , r r > 1 • ’
  — , who are ail ivvorn iervants to the king.
The mailer of the horfe has under his command the
equerries, pages, footmen, grooms, coachmen, farriers,
faddlers, and all the other officers and tradefmen em¬
ployed in his majefty’s ftables.
Next to the civil lift of the king’s court, is the mi¬
litary, confiding of the band of gentlemen penfion-
ers the yeomen of the guards, and the troops of the
lioufehold 3 of which the two firft guard the king
above flairs.
When the king dines in public, he is waited upon
at table by his majefty’s cup-bearers, carvers, and
gentlemen fewers 5 the muficians playing all the time.
The dinner is brought up by the yeomen of the guard,
and the gentlemen fewers fet the dilhes in order. The
carvers cut for the king, and the cup-bearer ferves him
the drink with one knee on the ground, after he has
firft tafted it in the cover.
HOUSING, or Houss-Lih'e, in the fea-language,
a imall line, formed of three fine ftrands or twills of
hemp, fmaller than rope-yarn. It is chiefly ufed to
feize blocks into their ftrops, to bind the corners of
the fails, or to faften the bottom of a fail to its bolt-
rope, &c. See BoLT-Rope.
Housing, or Houfee, a cover laid over the faddle of
a horfe, in order to fave it from the weather, dirt, &c.
The word is formed of the French houjje, which figni-
fies the fame thing} though it anciently denoted a kind
of hood worn by country people.—The cavaliers ap¬
peared with their embroidered houfings.
Housing, among bricklayers, a term ufed for a
brick which is warped, or is call crooked or hollow in
burning ; in fuch a cafe, they fay it is hovjtng.
HOUSSA, the metropolis of an empire in Africa,
on the banks of the Niger, the population of which, ac¬
cording to the account of an Arab named Shabeni,
which he delivered to the African AlTociation, was
only equalled by that of London and Cairo. The fame
perfon deferihed the government as a limited monarchy,
which adminiftered jultice in a fevere manner, although
in conformity to written laws. The rights of landed
property are guarded by the inftitutions of particular
hereditary officers, whole duties imply no ordinary
degree of refinement and civilization. The merchants
of Houfla have been celebrated for their probity, while
the ladies are faid not to be very remarkable for their
conjugal fidelity. The art of writing is common, but
their alphabet is entirely different from the Arabic and
Hebrew. Thefe obfervations appear to be confirmed
by the teftimony of Mr Park *, and to fuch as may be
difpofed to doubt the poflibility of fo much refinement
in the interior of a country deemed favage, it will be
neceffary to obferve, that many of the Carthaginians
may have retired to the fouthern parts of Africa, on
the deftrutlion of their own cities, and carried with
them fome portion of the arts, faiences, and commercial
knowledge, for the knowledge of which we are affured
that their anceftors were once fo famous. According
to fome maps of North Africa, particularly that of
Major Rennel, the city of Houffa lies in Lat. 16. 20. N.
and Long. 4. 30. E.
HOUSTONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un- Hou-
der the 47th order, Stellate?. See Botany//wke. tcheou-foi!,
HOU-TCHEQU-fou, a city of China, in the pro- HoiIzoua-
vince of Tche-kiang. It is a city of the firft clafs ; , 11 as' f
and is fituated on a lake, from which it takes its name. " v ~
.1 lie quantity ol filk manufaftured here is almoft incre¬
dible.^ To give fome idea of it we ftiall only lay, that
the tribute paid by a city under its juiifdiftion, named
Te-tjin-hien, amounts to more than 500,000 tae/s or
ounces of filver. Its dill rift contains feven cities, one
of which is of the fecond, and fix of the third, clafs.
HOUZOUANAS, a wandering people, whofe coun¬
try, according to M. Vaillant, is fituated between 160
and 290 E. Long, but in what latitude appears to be
unknown, although it is extremely probable that it
commences about the 23d parallel, and ftretches to¬
wards the north a confiderable w"y. It is the opinion
of the above-mentioned author, that the Houzouanas
are the origin of all the eaftern and weftern tribes of
the Hottentots : and as to the Houzouanas themfelves,
they feem wholly ignorant of their own origin } for
when they are interrogated upon this fubjeft, their an-
fwer invariably is, that they live in the country which
their anceftors inhabited, which in point of information
is no anfwer at all. They have been often confounded
by the planters with the Boffimen, who are not a dif-
tindl people, but a band of fugitives and freebooters.
The Houzouanas have nothing in common with them,
and only form alliances among themfelves. So great
are their courage and habits of plunder, that all fur¬
rounding nations are afraid of them, and even the very
Hottentots, according to Vaillant, tremble to enter
their territories. They are often guilty of ftiedding
human blood, yet this does not appear to originate from
an innate love of carnage, but merely for the purpofe of
making juft reprifals.
T hey furvey the adjacent countries from the fummits
of their mountains, and make incurfions to carry oft*
cattle or daughter them upon the fpot •, but although
they rob, they never kill, except in their own defence,
or by way of retaliation, fo that they are by no means
the unrelenting cannibals which fome have reprefented
them. Like the Arabs, who are alfo plunderers, they
adhere with unlhaken fidelity to their engagements, and
the traveller who puts himfelf under their proteftion by
civilly purchafing their fervices, may reft affured of
being defended to the laft drop of their blood ; which
is more than can be faid for the people of many coun¬
tries profefllng to be civilized.
Amidft all this fuperiority to the other natives of
Southern Africa, their ftature is lowq fo that a perfon
among them meafuring five feet four inches in height,
is confidered as very tall;—a proof that intelleftual ex¬
cellence is not always to be met with in men of a gi¬
gantic ftature. Their complexion is not fo black as
that of the Hottentots, but their heads are rounder to¬
wards the chin. The heat of the climate renders
clothing unneceffary, and the conftant habit of going
naked, makes them equally indifferent to the burning
fands of the level country, or the froft and fnow of the
lofty mountains. They have no weapons but bows and
arrows, in the ufe of which they difeover remarkable
dexterity. Their huts appear as if cut vertically through
the middle, fo that it wuuld require two of them exa<ft-
♦
3
HOW [ 647 ] HOW
Howard, ly to make one of the Hottentots. The Houzouanas
 vr““—1 are remarkably nimble, confidering the climbing of
mountains as nothing more than an amufement; and
they conduced M. Vaillant, that traveller informs us,
over fuch tremendous precipices as the Hottentots would
have deemed wholly impaffable. The praflice of mak¬
ing lignals by means of nofturnal fires, is known in all
favage countries •, but the Houzouanas are faid to dif-
play fuch uncommon fagacity and prudence in the ar¬
rangement and variations of pofition from time to time,
as to render it impoffible for the furrounding tribes to
penetrate their defigns.
HOWARD, Henry, earl of Surrey, a foldier and
a poet, the fon and grandfon of two lord treafu.ers,
dukes of Norfolk, wTas born probably about the year
1520, and educated in Windfor caftle, with young
Fitzroy earl of Richmond, natural fon to King Hen¬
ry VI11. Wood fays, from tradition, that he was fome
time a Undent at Cardinal College, Oxford. In his
youth he became enamoured of the Fair Geraldine,
whom his fonnets have immortalized. In 1532, Howard
with his companion Richmond was at Paris, where
they continued fome time. The latter died in 1536,
after which our young hero made a tour to Italy,
and at Florence, like a true enamorata, publilhed a
challenge againfl all comers, whether Chriftians, Jews,
Saracens, Turks, or cannibals, in defence of the beau¬
ty of his fair Geraldine } and was viftorious in the
tournament inftituted by the grand duke on the occa-
lion. The duke, we are told, was fo charmed with
his gallant exploits, that he -would gladly have retained
him at his court; but he rejected the invitation, being
determined to maintain the fuperlative beauty of his
Geraldine in all the principal cities in Italy. This
romantic refolution was however fruftrated by the
command of his fovereign, Henry VIII. to return to
England.
In 1540, he fignalized himfelf in a tournament at
Weftminfter, againft Sir John Dudley, Sir Thomas
Seymour and others. In 1542, he marched, under
the command of his father, againft the Scots } and in
the fame year was confined in Windfor caftle for eat¬
ing fleih in Lent, contrary to the king’s proclamation.
In 1544, on the expedition to Boulogne in France, he
was appointed field-marfhal of the Englilh army ; and
after the taking of that towm, in 1546, made captain-
general of the king’s forces in France. He w7as at this
time knight of the garter. In the fame year, attempt¬
ing to intercept a convoy, he was defeated by the
French, and foon after fuperfeded in his command by
the earl of Hertford.
Surrey, after his return, to England, confcious of his
former fervices, and peevifh under his difgrace, could
not help retlefling on the king and council. This was
his firft ftep towards deftrublion. He had married
Frances, the daughter of John earl of Oxford ; and,
after her death, is faid to have made love to the prin-
cefs Mary. For this the Seymours, rivals of the Nor¬
folk family, and now in favour with the king, accufed
him of afpiring to the crown, adding, that he already
prefumed to quarter part of the royal arms with his
own : but, whatever might be the pretence, the caufe
of his ruin was the jealcufy and powrer of his enemies.
In fhort, the deftrublion of the Howards being deter¬
mined, Surrey, and his father, the duke of Norfolk, .
were committed to the Tower, in December 1546;
and on the 13th of January following, Surrey was tried
at Guildhall by a common jury, and beheaded on
Tow7er-hill on the 19th day of the fame month, nine
days before the death of the king j who thus, that the
meafure of his crimes might be full, finiftied his life
wath the murder of his beft fubjeft. The accufations
brought againft this amiable and innocent young noble¬
man on his trial, were fo extremely ridiculous, that
one is aftoniftied how it was poffible, even in the moft
defpotic reign, to find a judge and jury fo pufillani-
moufty villanous as to carry on the farce of juftice on
the occafion. We boaft of our excellent conftitution,
and our trial by juries j but this example may teach
us, that our conftitution and our juries are not incom¬
patible with defpotic monarchy. He was firft inter¬
red in the church of All-hallows, Barkin, near Tower-
hill •, and aftemards in the reign of King James I. re¬
moved to Farmingham in Suffolk, by his fon Henry
earl of Northampton.
As to the character of this unfortunate earl, all our
poets have fung his praife. Mr Walpole begins his
anecdotes of Surrey with thefe words: “ We now
emerge from the twilight of learning to an almoft claf-
fic author, that ornament of a boifterous, yet not un-
poliftied court, the earl of Surrey, celebrated by Dray¬
ton, Dryden, Fenton, Pope, illuftrated by his own
mufe, and lamented for his unhappy death : a man (as
Sir Walter Raleigh fays) no lefs valiant than learned,
and of excellent hopes.” Leland calls him the con-
fcript enrolled heir of Sir Thomas Wyatt, the elder,
in his learning and other excellent qualities j and the
author of The Art of Englijh Poetry fays, that the earl
of Surrey, and Sir Thomas Wyatt, may be juftly call¬
ed the reformers of our poetry andftyle. His poems
were publilhed in 1357, 1 2mo; and in 1565, 1574,
1583, 1387, 8vo. Several of the fonnets are by Sir
Thomas Wyatt and others.
Howard, Charles, an able ftatefman and experi¬
enced feaman, was the fon of Lord William Howard,
baron of Effingham, and born in 1536. He ferved
under his father, who was lord high admiral, of Eng¬
land, till the acceflion of Queen Elizabeth. In January
1373, he fucceeded his father in his title and eftate :
after which he fucceflively became chamberlain of the
houfehold and knight of the garter ; and in 1385 was
made lord high admiral, at that critical juncture when
the Spaniards were fending their Armada, in their opi¬
nion, to the affured conqueft of this kingdom. When
he received intelligence of the approach of the Spanifh
fleet, and faw the prodigious confequence it was to get
out the few ftiips that were ready at Plymouth, lie not
only gave orders in every thing himfelf, but wrought
alfo with his own hands, and the firft night left the
port with fix fliips. The next morning, though he
had only 30 fail, and thofe the fmalleft of the fleet, he
attacked the Spanifh navy j but firft difpatched his
brother-in-law, Sir Edward Hobby, to the queen, to
defire her to make the proper difpofition of her land •
forces for the fecurity of the coaft, and to haften as
many fhips as poflible to his afliftance. Flis valour was
confpicuoufly difplayed in his repeated attacks of a fu-
perior enemy. The coolnefs of his temper wras no lefs
confpicuous 5 and it was owing to his magnanimity
and prudence that the viflory was fo great. The queen
expreffed
i id.
HOW [ 648 ] H O
expreffed ber fenfe of his merit in the mod honourable fore we reached Bred (fays he *)
terms; and granted him a penfion for life. In 1596, * - . • - - .
w
I differed the extre- Howard.
he commanded in chief at fea, as Eifex did by land,
the forces fent againd Spain, when his prudence and
moderation were among the principal caufes of the fuc-
cefs the Engliih met with in that great and glorious
enterpiife ; fo that, upon his return the next year, he
was advanced to the dignity of earl of Nottingham.
The next eminent fervice in which his lorddiip was
engaged was in 1599, when the Spaniards feemed to
meditate a new invadon. Her majedy, who ahvays
placed her fafety in being too quick for her enemies,
drew together, in a fortnight’s time, fuch a fleet, and
fueh an army, as took away all appearance of fuccefs
from her foreign and domeflic enemies; and Are gave
the earl the foie and fupreme command of both the
fleet and army, with the title of lord lieutenant general
of all England, an office unknown in fucceeding times.
When age and infirmity had unfitted him for adtion,
he refigned his office, and fpent the remaining part of
his life in eafe and retirement, till the time of his de-
ceafe, which happened in 1624, in the 87th year of
his age.
Howard, John, Efq ; a man of Angular and tranf-
cendant humanity, w>as the fon of a reputable tradefman
in St Paul’s church-yard. He was born about the year
17 25 or 1726; and at a proper age wras put apprentice
to Mr Nathaniel Newnlram, a wholefale grocer in Wat-
Jing flreet. His father died, leaving only this fon and
a daughter, to both of whom he bequeathed handfome
fortunes 5 and by his wdll directed that his fon flrould
not be confidered of age till he w^as five and twenty.
Elis conftitution was thought very w^eak, and his health
appeared to have been injured by the neceffary duties
of his apprenticeflrip j and therefore, at the expiration
of it, he took an apartment in a lodging houfe in
Church-flreet, Stoke Newington, Middlefex 5 but not
meeting with the tendereft treatment there, he removed
to another lodging-houfe in the fame ftreet, which was
kept by a widow lady Mrs Sarah Lardeau, a wTorthy
fenfible woman, but an invalid. Here he w^as nurfed
with fo much care and attention, that he refolved to
marry his landlady out of gratitude for her kindnefs.
In vain fhe expoflulated with him upon the extravagance
of fuch a proceeding, he being about 28 and ffie about
51 years of age, and 20 years older in conftitution :
but nothing could alter his refolution, and they were
privately married about the year 175 2. She was poffeffed
of a fmall fortune, wffiich he prefented to her After.
During his refidence at Newington, the minifter of the
diffenting meeting-houfe there refigned his office, and
a fucceffor was eledled ; and Mr Howard, who was bred
a diffenter, and ftcdfaftly adhered all his life to that pro-
feffion, propefed to purchafe the leafe of a houfe near
the meeting-houfe, and to appropriate it as a parfonage-
houfe for the ufe of the minifter for the time being, and
contributed 50I. for that purpofe. His wife died No¬
vember 10. 1755, aged 54; and he was a fincere and
affectionate mourner for her death. About this time
it is believed, he was eledled F. R. S. In the year 1756
he had the fortune to experience fome of the evils
w hich it aftenvards became the buftnefs of his life to
redrefs. He embarked that year in a Lifbon packet,
the Hanover, in order to make the tour of Portugal j
when the veffel was taken by a French privateer. “ Be-
3
rnity of thirft, not having for above 40 hours one drop
of water, nor hardly a morfel of food. In the caftle * 0n Pri‘
at Breft I lay fix nights upon ftraw ; and obferving7^ 4t0’
how cruelly my countrymen were ufed there and at'7
Morlaix, whither I was carried next, during the two
months I was at Oarhaix upon parole, I cori'efponded
with the Engiiffi prifoners at Breft, Morlaix, and Din-
nan : at the laft of thofe towns w^ere feveral of our flflp’s
crew, and my fervant. I had fufficient evidence of
their being treated wdth fuch barbarity, that many
hundreds had periffied, and that 36 were buried in a
hole at Dinnan in one day. When I came to England,
ftill on parole, I made knowm to the commiffioners of
fick and wounded feamen the fundry particulars, which
gained their attention and thanks. Remonftrance was
made to the French court : our failors had redrefs ; and
thofe that were in the three prifons mentioned above,
were brought home in the firft cartel (hips. Perhapsr
(adds Mr Howard) what I fuffered on this occafion
increafed my fympathy with the unhappy people whofe
cafe is the fubjecl of this book.”
He afterwards, it is faid, made the tour of Italy j
and at his return fettled at Brokenhurft, a retired and
plealant villa in the New Foreft, near Lymington in
Hampfhire, having, April 25. 1758, married a daugh¬
ter of Edward Leeds, Efq 5 of Croxton, Cambridge-
fliire, king’s ferjeant. This lady died in 1763 in child¬
bed, of her only child, a fon, who unfortunately became
lunatic. After her death Mr Howard left Lymington,
and purchafed an eftate at Cardington, near Bed¬
ford.
“ While he lived here in retirement (fays Mr Pal¬
mer-1-), it was his meat and drink to make his neigh-Funeral
hours happy. His neat but humble manfion was ever Sermons o»
hofpitable to a few feleft friends, but was never the ^ Jeati of
feene of riot or luxurious banqueting. Though polite Mr
to all, he neither fought nor admitted the company o{a,d’
the profligate, however diftinguiftied by rank or for¬
tune.—His charity had no bounds, except thofe of
prudence j and was not more commendable for the ex¬
tent of it, than for the manner in which it was exer-
cifed. He gave not his bounty to countenance vice
and idlenefs, but to encourage virtue and induftry. He
was Angularly ufeful in furniflung employment for the
labouring poor of both fexes, at thofe feafons when
a fcarcity of work rendered their fituation moft com-
paflionable. And at other times, though never inat¬
tentive to the tale of wo, he w as not eafily impoied
upon by it, but made himfelf acquainted with the cafe.
He had indeed a general acquaintance with the cafes
and characters of the poor around him, and made it
his bufinefs to vifit the abodes of affliftion. In cir-
cumftances of bodily diforder, he often atfted the part
of a phyfician as well as a friend. But his kindnefs
was not confined to the bodies of his fellow-creatures,
it extended to their fpiritual and immortal part. He
carefully watched over the morals of his neighbour¬
hood, and ufed his advice, his admonitions, and in¬
fluence, to difcountenance immorality of all kinds, and
to promote the knowledge and pradlice of religion.
As a moft effedlual means to this great end, he pro¬
vided for the inftrudtion of poor children, by erecting
and fupporting fchools which he carefully fuperintend-
ed. In fliert, he was an univerfal blefling to the vil¬
lage
H O W
Howard, lage where he refided, in every part of which are to
be leen the pleafing monuments of his munificence and
tafte.—His liberality extended alfo to adjacent places,
in which there are many who will call him bleffed.
Nor was it confined to perfons of his own religious
perfuafion, but comprehended the neceffitous and de¬
ferring of all parties ^ while he was particularly ufe-
ful in ferving the intereft of the Chriflian fociety to
which he belonged. What wonder if fuch a man were
univerfally beloved ? Was it poffibie he Ihould have
an enemy ? One however he had (and I never heard
of more), an idle and diffolute wretch, who, having
been often reproved by him for his vices, formed the
defperate refolution to murder him as he was going to
public worfhip, which he aknolt always did on foot.
But providence remarkably interpofed to preferve fo
valuable a life, by inclining him that morning to go on
horfeback a different road.”
But the fphere in which he had hitherto moved was
too narrow for his enlarged mind. Being named in
1773 to t^le °ffice fheriff of Bedfordihire, from
that time his fcene of ufefulnefs was extended. His
office, as he himfelf obferves, brought the diltrefs
of prifoners more immediately under his notice. A
fenfe of duty induced him perfonally to vifit the
county-jail, where he obferved fuch abufes and fuch
fcenes of calamity, as he had before no conception of •,
and he foon exerted himfelf in order to a reform. With
a view to obtain precedents for certain regulations
which he propofed, he went to infpedl the prifons in
feme neighbouring counties. But finding in them equafi
room for complaint and commiferation, he determined
to vifit the principal prifons in England. The farther
he proceeded, the more {hocking were the fcenes pre-
fented to his view ; which induced him to refolve upon
exerting himfelf to the utmoft, in order to a general
reform in thefe horrid places of confinement; confi-
dering it as of the higheft importance, not only to the
wretched objedls themfelves, Upt to the community at
large. Upon this fubjed he was examined in the houfe
of commons in March 1774, when he had the honour
of their thanks. This encouraged him to proceed in
his defign. He revifited all the prifons in the king¬
dom, together with the principal houfes of correction.
He alfo in 1775 enlarged his circuit by going into
Wales, Scotland, and Ireland, where he found the
fame need of reformation.
One grand objedl which he had in view w^as, to
put a flop to that ffiocking dillemper called the jail-
fever ; which raged fo dreadfully in many of the pri¬
fons, as to render them to the laft degree offenfive and
dangerous: A diilemper, by which more had been
taken off than by the hands of the executioner ; and
which, in feveral inftances, had been communicated
from the prifons into the courts of juftice, and had
proved fatal to the magiftrates and judges, and to mul¬
titudes of perfons jvho attended the trials, as wTell as
to the families of difeharged felons and debtors. An¬
other end he propofed was, to procure the immediate
releafe of prifoners, who, upon trial, were acquitted,
but who often continued long to be unjuflly detained
for want of being able to pay the accuftomed fees : As
alfo to abolifh many other abfurd and.cruel ufages which
had long prevailed. But the great objed of all was, to
introduce a thorough reform of morals into our prifons ;
Vol. X. Part II. ?
HOW
where he had found the moft flagrant vices to prevail in
fuch a degree, that they wrere become feminaries of wick-
ednefs and villany, and the molt formidable nuifances to
the community} in confequence of the promifeuous in-
tercourfe of prifoners of both fexes, and of all ages and
deferiptions j wdiereby the young and lefs experienced
were initiated, by old and hardened finners, into all the
arts of villany and the myfteries of iniquity ; fo that, in-
ftead of being reformed by their confinement (which
fliould be the chief end of punifhment), thofe that
were difeharged became more injurious to fociety than
before.
In order to the attainment of theie great obje£ls,
Mr Howard fpared no pains nor expence, and cheer¬
fully expofed himfelf to much inconvenience and ha¬
zard •, particularly from that malignant diftemper, of
which he iaw many dying in the moft loathfome dun¬
geons, into W'hich none, who were not obliged, befides
himfelf, wmuld venture. “ I have been frequently
(fays Mr Howard) afked what precautions I ufed to
preferve myfelf from infedtion in the prifons and hofpi-
tals which I vifited. I here anfwer, next to the free
goodnefs and mercy of the Author of my being, tem¬
perance and cleanlinefs are my prefervatives. Truft-
ing in divine providence, and believing myfelf in the
way of my duty, I vifit the moft noxious cells ; and
while thus employed, I fear no evil. I never enter an
hofpital or prifon before breakfaft ; and in an offenfive
room, I feldpm draw my breath deeply.”
His laudable endeavours he had the pleafure to fee,
in fome inftances, crowned with fuccefs 5 particularly
in regard to the healthinefs of prifons, fome of which
were rebuilt under his infpedlion. Through his inter-
pofition alfo, better provifion has been made for the in-
ftruclion of prifoners, by the introdudlion of bibles and
other pious books into their cells, and a more con-
ftant attendance of clergymen. The gaolers likewife
have, by aft of parliament, been rendered incapable of
felling ftrong liquors, which had been the fource of
much drunkennefs and diforder. But a minute detail
ef particulars is not to be expefted here ; for thefe the
reader is referred to Mr Howard’s publications, which
fhow that much is yet wanting.
But in order to a more general and happy regula¬
tion, and the reformation of criminals, he determined
to vifit other countries, to fee the plans there adopted;
in hope of collefting fome information which might be
ufeful in his own country. For this purpofe he tra¬
velled into France, Flanders, Holland, Germany, and
Switzerland. Afterwards through the Prufiian and
Auftrian dominions. He vifited alfo the capitals of
Denmark, Sweden, Ruffia, and Poland, and fome ci¬
ties in Portugal and Spain. In all thefe expenfive and
hazardous journeys, he denied himfelf the ufual grati¬
fications of travellers, and declined the honours which
were offered him by perfons of the firft diftinftion, ap-
plying himfelf folely to his one grand objeft. To him
the infpeftion of a jail, or hofpital, was more grate¬
ful than all the entertainments of a palace. With what
aftonifhment and gratitude he was received by their
miferabie inhabitants may eafily be imagined, fince
while he made obfervations on their fituation, he medi¬
tated their relief; and many diftreffed prifoners abroad,
as well as at home, partook of his bounty, and fome
were liberated by it j for he confidered all of every na-
4 N tion,
1 649 ]
Howard.
HOW [65
Howard, tion, and people, and tongue, as brethren. Nor was
y he {paring of advice, or of reproof, as he faw occa-
lion, to perfons of rank and inHuence, whereby the
miferies of their countrymen might be relieved. As
he courted the favour of none, neither did he fear
the frowns of any j but with a manly freedom and a
Chriftian fortitude, fpoke his mind to crowned heads
(particularly the late emperor of Germany) in a man¬
ner to which they were not accuftomed ; which, how¬
ever, in a perfon cf fuch difinterefted views, procured
him reverence and efteem, and in fome inftances
proved eft’edlual for relieving the miferable and opprel-
led. On his return, he publifhed in 1777, “ ^
State of the Prifons in England and Wales, with
Preliminary Obfervations, and an Account of fome
foreign Prifons.” 410. And in 1778 he took a
third journey through the Pruflian and Auftrian do¬
minions, and the free cities of Germany, and like-
wife extended his tour through Italy, and revifited
fbme of the countries he had before feen. The obfer¬
vations he made in this tour were publithed in an ap¬
pendix, 17805 containing alfo fome remarks refpedt-
ing the management of prifoners of war, and the hulks
on the Thames. But wilhing to acquire fome further
knowledge on the fubjedf, he in 1781 again revifited
Holland and fome cities in Germany. He vifited alfo
the capitals of Denmark, Sweden, Ruifia, and Po¬
land ; and in 1783 fome cities in Portugal and Spain,
and returned through France, Flanders, and Holland.
The fubftance of all thefe travels was afterwards
thrown into one narrative, which was publifhed in
1784. He alfo publithed a curious account of the Baf-
tile, in 8vo. 5 that infamous French prifon, happily now
no more.
His travels and exertions, however, were not yet at
an end. Pie conceived a further defign, which was
to vifit the principal lazarettoes in France and Italy,
in order to obtain information concerning the beft me¬
thods to prevent the fpreading of the plague, with a
view to apply them with refpect to other infedtious
diforders. Not gaining all the fatisfadlion here which
he wifhed for, he proceeded to Smyrna and Conftan-
tinople, where that mofl: dreadful of human diftempers
adlually prevailed “ pleafing himfelf (as he faid) with
the idea of not only learning, but of being able to
communicate fomewhat to the inhabitants of thofe di-
ftant regions.” In the execution of this defign, though
he w’as fo much expofed to danger, and adlually caught
the plague, “ that merciful Providence (as he him¬
felf pioufly remarks) which had hitherto preferved
him, was pleafed to extend his protedtion to him in
this journey alfo, and to bring him home once more
in fafety.” In his return he revifited the chief pri¬
fons and hofpitals in the countries through which he
pafied 5 and afterwards went again to Scotland, and
then to Ireland, where he propofed a new and very
important objedt ; namely, to infpedl the Proteflant
Charter Schools, in forme of which he had before ob-
ferved fhameful abufes, which he had reported to a
committee of the Irifh Houfe of Commons. In this
more extenfive tour, he took a particular account of
what he obferved amifs in the conduct of this noble
charity, with a view to a relormation, and not without
confiderable fuccefs. In the courfe of thefe journeys,
garticular cities and communities were not unmindful
o ] HOW
to pay him proper refpedt. At Dublin, he was created Howa d
by the univeriity a Dodtor of Laws 5 and the city of ——
Glafgow and the town of Liverpool did honour to
themlelves by enrolling him among their members.
Upon his return home, having again infpedied the
prifons in England, and the hulks on the Thames, to
fee what alterations had been made for the better
(which he found to be very confiderable, though yet
imperfedt), he publifhed the relult of his lalt laborious
invefiigations, in “ An Account of the Principal La¬
zarettoes in Europe, with various Papers relative to the
Plague, together with further Obfervations on fome
Foreign Priibns and Hofpitals, and additional Remarks
on the prefent State of thofe in Great Britain and Ire¬
land,” with a great number of curious plates. The
work likewife contained Obfervations on Penitentiary
Houfes, which had been encouraged by adl of par¬
liament, for the corredfion and reformation of crimi¬
nals, of which he and Dr Fothergill had been nomi¬
nated by the king to be fuperintendants. Befide thefe.,
he publiihed the Grand Duke of Tufcany’s “ new Code
of Criminal Law, with an Englifli Tranflation :” and
of all his publications he gave avray a vaft number of
copies among his acquaintance in the molt liberal man¬
ner. Plis laying open the horrors of defpotifm in a
neighbouring country had very nearly expofed him to
the fufferings of them 5 and had it not been for the
timely notice of our ambaffador, he had ended his days
in the Baftile.
Not fatisfied, however, with what he had already
done, he concludes his “ Account of Lazarettoes”
with announcing his “ intention again to quit his coun¬
try, for the purpofe of revifiting Ruflia, Turkey, and
fome other countries, and extending his tour in the
eaft. I am not infenfible (fays he) of the dangers that
muft attend fuch a journey. Trufling, however, in
the protedlion of that kind Providence which has hi¬
therto preferved me, I calmly and cheerfully commit
myfelf to the difpofal of unerring wildom. Should
it pleafe God to cut off my life in the profecution of
this defign, let not my condubt be uncandidly imputed
to ralhnefs or enthufiafm, but to a ferious deliberate
convi&ion that I am purfuing the path of duty, and
to a fincere defire of being made an inftrument of more
extenfive ufefulnefs to my fellow-creatures than could
be expelled in the narrower circle of a retired life.”
Accordingly, to the great concern of his friends, he
fet out in fummer 1789 on this hazardous enterprifej
the principal objeft of which w7as to adminilter a me¬
dicine in high repute at home, in malignant fevers
under a ftrong perfuafion that it would be equally effi- Powder,
cacious in the plague. In this fecond tour in the
eaft “ it did pleafe God to cut oft' his life :” for, ha¬
ving fpent fome time at Cherfon, a new fettlement of
the emprefs of Ruflia, on the mouth of the Dnieper
or Boryfthenes, toward the northern extremity of the
Black fea, near Oczakow, he caught, in vifiting the
Ruffian hofpital of that place, or as fome fay a young
lady who was ill of the fame complaint, a malignant
fever, which carried him off on the 20th of January,
after an illnefs of about twelve days : and after ha--
ving been kept, according to his e.xprefs diretlions .
to his fervant, five days, he was buried, by his own de¬
fire, in the garden of a villa in the neighbourhood, be-
longing to a French gentleman from whom he had
received
HOW
[ 651 ]
HOW
Howard received great civilities, by bis faithful fervant who had
II attended him on his former journeyings, and whom he
Howe, exprefsly enjoined not to return home till five weeks
” from his death. While abfent on his firft tour to Tur¬
key, &.c. his charafter for aftive benevolence had fo
much attradled the public attention, that a fubfcrip-
tion was fet on foot to ere£t a ftatue to his honour, and
in no long fpace above 1500I. •was fubfcribed for that
purpofe. But fome of thofe who knew Mr Howard belt,
never concurred in the fcheme, being well allured that
he would neither countenance nor accede to it j and in
* See Gent, confequence of two letters from Mr Howard hi: nfelf *
Mag. vo. to the fubferibers, the defign was laid afide. It has,
$vii.p.ioi. however, been refumed fince his death: And furely,
of all the ftatues or monuments ever eredted by pub¬
lic gratitude to illuftrious charadlers either in ancient
or modern times, none was ever erefted in honour of
worth fo genuine and admirable as his—who devoted
his time, his ftrength, his fortune, and finally facri-
ficed his life, in the purfuits of humanity :—who (to
^ Speech at adopt the -expreflive words of Mr Burke f) “ vifited
Guildhall in all Europe [and the eaft], not to furvey the fumptu-
Brifiol, oufnefs of palaces, or the ftatelinefs of temples j not
*780. make accurate meafurements of the remains of an¬
cient grandeur, nor to form a fcale of the curiofity of
modern art; not to colledt medals, or to collate manu-
feripts: but to dive into the depth of dungeons \ to
plunge into the infection of hofpitals j to furvey the
manfions of forrow and of pain j to take the gauge
and dimenfions of mifery, depreflion, and contempt j
to remember the forgotten 5 to attend to the negle&ed ;
,to vifit the forfaken ; and to compare and collate the
diftreffes of all men in all countries. His plan is ori¬
ginal j and it is as full of genius as it is of humanity.
It is a voyage of difeovery, a circumnavigation of
charity ; and already the benefit of his labour is felt
more or lefs in every country.”
HOWDEN, a town in the eaft riding ofYork-
flrire, 180 miles from London, Hands on the north
fide of the Oufe, has a market on Saturdays, and four
fairs in the year. Here -was formerly a collegiate
church of five prebendaries; adjacent to which the
biihops of Durham, who poffefs many eftates here with
a temporal jurifdiftion, have a palace. One of them
built a very tall fteeple to the church here, whither the
inhabitants might retire in cafe of inundations •, to
which it is very liable from the great frelhes that come
down the Oufe fometimes at ebb. This part of the
County is from hence called Howdenfhire, and is wa¬
tered by a conflux of feveral large rivers that fall in¬
to the Humber. At Howdendike is a ferry over the
Oufe.
HOWE, Richard, Earl, an Englifh naval com-
~ mander of diftinguilhed eminence, was born in the
year 172^, being the fecond fon of Lord Vifcount
Howe, by the daughter of Baron Kilmanfegg. From
his early attachment to the life of a mariner, he quitted
the fchool of Eton at the age of 1 4, and went on board
the Severn, the honourable Captain Legge being com¬
mander, deftined for the South feas under Commodore
Anfon. Mr Howe next anpeared in the Burford,
Captain Lafhington commander, who being killed in
an expedition againll the Caraccas, Commodore Knowles
made Mr Howe an adtjng lieutenant. At the age of
SO he was promoted to the rank of commander in the
Baltimore Hoop of war, and he joined a fquadron at
that time cruiiing off the coaft of Scotland, where he
met with an opportunity of difplaying his undaunted
courage and intrepidity, by engaging and beating off
two French frigates of 30 guns each, by the afiiflance
of another armed ihip, notwithllanding he was feverely
wounded in the head during the aiffion. This fervice
w-as immediately and very juftly rewarded wath the
rank of poft-captain. He was foon after appointed to
the rank of captain on board Commodore Knowles’s
oxvn fhip of 80 guns, with which he returned to Eng¬
land in the year 1748. When hoftilities again com¬
menced, he commanded the Dunkirk of 60 guns, in
North America ; which (hip conilituted part of the
fquadron under Admiral Bofcawen, and with which
he captured a French man of war of fuperior metal off
the coaft of Newfoundland •, viz. the Alcide of 64
guns. In order to annoy the coaft of France, he re¬
ceived, in the year 1758, the command of a fmall
fquadron, with which he effefted the deftruftion, at St
Malo, of a number of magazines and (hips. When he
ferved on board the Effex, Prince Edward, afterwards
duke of York, failed with him, at which time he power¬
fully contributed to the redudlion of the town of Cher¬
bourg. In 1758 his elder brother fell in North Ame¬
rica in the fervice of his king and country, on which
event the young commodore fucceeded to the family
title and eftate. In the following year he participated
of the honourable viftory gained by Sir Edward Hawke
over the French fleet under Admiral Conflans. He
afterwards ferved in the Channel, and was captain of
the Amelia, the ftiip of admiral the duke of York. On
the reftoration of peace, he was nominated one of the
lords of the admiralty, and fome time afterwards, trea-
furer of the navy. He was in the year 177Q, raifed to
the rank of rear-admiral of the blue, and chofen com¬
mander-in-chief on the Mediterranean ftation. In
1775, he rofe to the ftation of rear-admiral of the
blue ; in confequence of which rapid promotions, Lord
Hawke paid him the following compliment in the houfe
of peers : “ I advifed his majefty to make the promo¬
tion. I have tried my Lord Howe on important occa-
fions; he never alked me how he was to execute any
fervice, but always went and performed it.”
In the fummer of 1776, Lord Howe appeared off
Maffachufets, as commander-in-chief of his Britannic
'majefty’s fleet adling in North America, and in the ca¬
pacity of a commiflioner for refloring the bleflings of
an amicable reconciliation. All the provincial govern¬
ors w’ere made acquainted with his arrival by means of
circular letters, expreflive alfo of the full extent of the
authority invefted in him and his fellow eommiflicners *,
but as congrefs did not deem the conditions which thefe
letters contained to be at all fatisfadlory, they were
ordered to be inferted in all the gazettees for the exa¬
mination of the people. His powers being thus circum-
feribed at the very commencement, he could only adt
in the capacity of a naval commander, in which he aid¬
ed the operations of the land forces with uncommon
fkill. It was not to be imagined, however, that much
glory could redound to his lordfliip from fuch an une¬
qual conteft, till the jumflion of France with America
placed the contending parties more upon a level. On
the arrival of Admiral D’Eftaign in the month of July
1778, off Sandy Hook, Lord Howe was certainly in a
4 N 2 very
Howe.
Howe.
HOW [65
Very critical fituation *, but by an exertion of uncom¬
mon fkill and dexterity, the French commander thought
it prudent to retire, when he was purfued by Lord
Howe to Rhode ifland, after he obtained a reinforce¬
ment under Admiral Byron. The intentions of the
enemy were completely counteradled, and the campaign
w-as finally terminated with honour. Here he refigned
his command, and came over to England ; but in 1782
he was promoted to the rank of admiral of the blue,
made a vifeount of Great Britain, and chofen command¬
er of the fleet which was fent for the relief of Gibral¬
tar. ihe combined fleets of France and Spain wTere
about a third fuperior to that under Lord Howe, who
with 34 fail of the line appeared off Gibraltar in the
month of O&ober, being driven into the Mediter¬
ranean by contrary winds. Although he was purfued
by the combined fleet, he found means to fupply the
fortrefs with provifions. He checked the enemy by a
partial afb’on, and notvvithftanding he offered to give
them battle, it was declined on their part ; and he had
the fatisfadlion to execute his commiflion prior to his
return home, in fpite of the numerous difficulties which
he had to encounter.
He was nominated firfi; lord of the admiralty on
the termination of the war, wffiich he both refigned
and refumed by different changes of adminiftra-
tion. In the year 1787 he wms chofen admiral of the
white, and created an earl of Great Britain in the fol¬
lowing year. When hoftilities wTere renewed wath
France in 1793, his lordihip accepted the command of
the channel fleet, at the exprefs defire of his Britannic
majefty, but he had it not in his power to do any thing
decifive till the fummer of 1794. On the ever me¬
morable 1 ft of June, with a fleet confiding of 25 fail of
the line, he gave battle to a French fleet of 26, gain¬
ing a moft fignal vidtory over the enemy, capturing
feven of their flrips, one of which wras fo lhattered as to
go to the bottom, and feveral others were, in the lan¬
guage of feamen, very much crippled. His lordfhip
had the good fortune not to lofe a flap, and compara¬
tively but a few men, confidering the prodigious lofs in
this refpedt fuftained by the enemy. The gratitude of
the nation was fuitable to the importance of this naval
vidtory, and it is more than probable that the firft of
June will never be forgotten. In 1795 he w^as made
general of marines j but the infirmities which feldom
fail to be the concomitants of old age, induced him to
refign his naval command in the year 1797, and on his
final retreat he was prefented with the honours of the
garter. His great influence as a beloved officer, con¬
tributed greatly to ftifle a fpirit of mutiny and difeon-
tent,which at this time exhibited alarming fymptoms
among the feamen of his majefty’s fleets. He terminat¬
ed his brilliant and honourable career on the 5th of
Auguft 1799’ t^le 73^ year of his age, leaving none
but female ’ iffue behind him. His lordfhip’s .valour,
a ways cool and fteady, was confequently of that nature
which enables a commander to make the moft of his
fituation ; his judgment was found and penetrating,
which prevented him from being eafily impofed upon by
external appearances ; and his feamanihip was of the
moft confummate and mafterly kind. It is with plea-
fure we clofe this concife account of his lordfliip’s pu¬
blic life by obferving, that his country was deeply fen-
fible of the value and importance of his fervices, a truth
2 ] HOW
fully evinced by the honours and preferments which it
heaped upon him.
HowE-lJlandy a fmall ifland of the South fea, dif-
covered by Captain Wallis, called by the inhabitants
of the Society iflands Mofie/ia ; lies in S. Lat. 16. 46.
and W. Long. 134. 8.
Lord Hojve's I/land, a fmall ifland in the neigh-
bourhood of New South Wales, difeovered on Febru-
ary 17th, 1788. S. Lat. 31. 36. E. Long. 159. 04.
It is of an aiched figure, lying from north-weft to
iouth-eaft, the two extremities including a fpace of
about fix miles, though, by realon of the curved future
of the ifland itfelf, it is near feven in length. It is
deeply indented in the middle of the eaftern part by
a bay named Rofs’s bay, and on the oppofite and
weftern part has another named Prince William Hen¬
ry’s bay ; fo that the whole has the appearance of two
iflands joined together by an ifthmus, which in fome
places is not above half a mile broad. On the fouth-
ern part of that divifion which lies moft to the north¬
ward are two confiderable bays, named Callam’s and
Hunter’s bay j and on the fouth-weftern part of the
other are two high mountains, the moft foutherly na¬
med Mount Gow'er, and the other Mount Lidgbird.
The convex part of the ifland lying towards the north-
eaft, and the concave fide towards the oppofite quarter,
is terminated by twTo points named Point Ring and
Point Philip. No frefti water was found on the ifland;
but it abounds with cabbage-palms, mangrove, and
manchineel trees, even up to the fummits of the moun¬
tains. There are plenty of gannets, and a land fowl of
a dufky brown colour, with a bill about four inches
hmgj and feet hirte thoie, ot a chicken. Ihefe w'ere
found to be remarkably fine meat, and w’ere very fat.
There are many large pigeons, and the white birds
found in Norfolk ifland were alio met v’ith in this
place. The bill of this bird is red, and very ftrong,
thick, and ffiarp pointed. Great numbers of fine’
turtle frequent this ifland in fummer, but go to the
northward in winter. Thefe, it was imagined, would
prove of great fervice to the colony at Port Jackfon ;
but, from fome caufe or other, it appears they have hi¬
therto been difappointed. Plenty of filh were caught by
a hook and line. At the diftance of about four leagues
from Lord Howe’s ifland is a very remarkable and
high rock, to which the name of Ball’s Pyramid has
been given. This ifland may be approached without
danger ; but about four miles from the fouth-weft part
of the pyramid there is a very dangerous rock, which
ffiow'S itfelf above the furface of the water, and appears
not to be larger than a boat. The fouthern part of
the ifland is lined with a fandy beach, which is guard¬
ed againft the fea by a reef of coral rock, at the di¬
ftance of half a mile from the beach, through wffiich
there are feveral fmall openings for boats •, but there is
nowhere a greater depth of water within the reef than
four feet. By the account of Mr Watts, who vifited
this ifland in his return from Port Jackfon, the ifthmus
which joins the two parts has evidently been overflow¬
ed, and the ifland disjoined, as in the very centre the
men faw large beds of coral rocks and great quantities
of ffiells ; and on the eaft, which leems in general to
be the weather-fide, the fea has thrown up a bank of
fand from 25 to 30 feet high, which ferves as a bar¬
rier againft future inundations. The ifland alfo ap¬
pears
Howe.
HOY [ 653 ] H U A
pears to have fuffered by volcanic eruptions, as great
quantities of pumice-ftones and other matters of that
kind were found upon it. Mr Audio alfo found the
whole reef which fhelters the wed bay a burnt-up mafs.
The time he vidted the ifland was that of the incuba¬
tion of the gannets, of which there wTere then prodigi¬
ous numbers, their neds being only hollows made in
the land, there not being any quadrupeds on the
ifland to didurb them. Befides the large pigeons al¬
ready mentioned, they met with beautiful parrots and
parroquets a new fpecies of the coote, as well as of
the rail and magpie. They found likewife a very
beautiful fmall bird of a brown colour with a yellow
bread, and yellow on the wing, w’hich leemed to be a
Inecies of humming bird. They found alfo a black
bird like a fheervvater, having a hooked bill •, and which
burrows in the ground. The only infefts met with
here were the common earth worm and ants.: which
lad w’ere in great plenty. Befides the trees already
mentioned, they found leveral efculent vegetables, as
fcurvy-grafs, celery, fpinach, endive, and famphire. ,
HOWITZ, a kind of mortar, mounted upon a field-
carriage like a gun. The diderence between a mortar
and a howiu is, that the trunnions of the fird are at
the end, and at the middip in the lad. The invention
of howitzes is of much later date than mortars, for
they really had their origin from them. The condruc-
tions of howitzes are as various and uncertain as thofe
of mortars, excepting the chambers, wdiich are all
cylindric. They are didinguiflied by the diameter of
the bore ; for indance, a ten inch howutz is that the
diameter of w'hich is 10 inches j and fo of the fmaller
ones.
HOWTH, a promontory which forms the northern
entrance of the bay of Dublin, having a fmall village
about feven miles north-ead from that city in the pro¬
vince of Leinder. It gives title of earl to the family
of St Lawrence, who wTere fo called from a viftory ob¬
tained by them over the Irifh on St Lawrence’s day
1177, their former name being Tridram; and this
place has continued in polfedion of the family above
600 years. N. Lat. 53. 21. W. Long. 6. 22. The
diores off this hill are rocky and precipitous, affording,
however, a few7 harbours for fmall craft. It w7as form¬
erly called Ben-hedar, i. e. “ the Birds promontory
and celebrated for having Dun Criomthan, or the rath
or royal palace of Criomthan eredfed on it, he having
been chief or king of that didridl, and memorable for
making feveral luccefsful defcents on the coad of
Britain againd the Romans in the time of Agricola.
Howth, though now7 dript of trees, was formerly co¬
vered with venerable oaks, and was a feat of the Dru¬
ids ; one of their altars dill remains in a fequedered
valley on the ead fide of the hill. The maniion-houfe
is built in form of a cadle, and w7as probably eredted
by Sir Armoricus Trittram. Near the houfe dands
the family chapel, and on the wedern fliore are the
ruins of St Mary’s church, with fome ancient monu¬
ments of Lord Howth’s ancedors. Due wed of Howth
houfe are the ruins of St Fenton’s church.
HOY, a fmall veffel, chiefly ufed in coading, or car¬
rying goods to or from a drip, in a road or bay, where
the ordinary lighters cannot be managed with fafety or
convenience.
It wrould be very difficult to defcribe precifely the
marks of didindHon between this veffel and fome others
of the fame fize, which are alfo rigged in the fame man¬
ner ; becaufe wdvat is called a /wy in one place, w7ould
affurne the name of a /loop or /mack in another; and
even the people wdro navigate thefe veffels, have, upon
examination, very vague ideas of the marks by which
they are didinguiflied from thofe above mentioned.
In Holland, the hoy has two mads; in England, it
has but one, where the main-fail is iometimes extend¬
ed by a boom, and fometimes without it. Upon the
whole, it may be defined a fmall veffel, ufually rigged
as a iloop, and employed for carrying paffengers and
luggage from one place to another, particularly on the
fea-coad.
Hoy, one of the Orkney iflands, which lie off" the
north coaft of Scotland, is fituated between the Bland
of Pomona and the north coad of Caithnefs, and is fe-
parated from the fmall idand of Graemfay by a found
of a mile broad. The wfliole idand is nearly occupied by
three large hills, of which that to the north-ead riles
from a broad bafe to the height of 1200 feet. Some
veins of lead and iron have been dilcovered in this
ifland. Birch trees of confiderable fize feem to have
been produced on it in former times. But at prefent
its vegetable prodmffions, excepting what are fit for
{beep padure, are extremely limited. A few hardy al¬
pine plants and dunted (drubs include the wfliole. The
number of inhabitants does not exceed 520. The
Dwarfie done is the only monument of antiquity in the
ifland. This is a large mafs of iandftone 32 feet long,
18 broad, and yi feet thick abbve the furface. It
is hollowed within, and divided into three apartments,
one of which, called the dwarfs bed, is five feet eight
long, by tivo feet broad. It has probably been the re¬
treat of a hermit. Tradition fays, that it was the habi¬
tation of a giant. Waas or Waes, which is often con-
fidered as a diftinft ifland, makes part of Hoy. It is
diflinguiflied for the excellence of its harbours, particu¬
larly the Longhope, one of the fineft and lafed in Eu¬
rope. Waas contains 750 inhabitants.
HOYE, a town of Germany, in Wedphalia, and
capital of a county of the fame name. It is feated on
the river Wefer, and is fubjefl to the eleftor of Hano¬
ver. E. Long. 9. o. N. Lat. 53. 5.
HUAHEINE, one of the Society Ijlands, in the
South fea, fftuated in S. Lat. 16. 43. W. Long. 150.
52. and is about feven or eight leagues in compafs. Its
furface is hilly and uneven, and it has a fafe and con¬
venient harbour. It w7as fird difcovered by Captain
Cook in 1769. It is divided by a deep inlet into two
peninfulas conneifled by an idhmus, which is entirely
overdowed at high water. From the appearance of its
hills it may be concluded, that the country has at fome
period or other been the feat of a volcano. The iummit
of one of them had muck the appearance of a crater,
and a blackifh fpongy earth was feen upon one of its
fides, w'hich feemed to be lava; and the rocks and clay
every where had a burnt appearance. The idand is
plentifully fuppliedxw7ith water by many rivulets which
defcend from the mountains and broken rocks. The in¬
habitants are nearly as fair as Europeans ; and their
conduft is bolder than that of the inhabitants of the
other Society idands. They are a dout large-made
people, fome of the tailed being fix feet three inches
in height; they are extremely indolent, and feem to
have
Hoy
Huaheine,
HUD [6,
have as little curiofity as fear. The dogs are in great
favou with all their women, “ who could not have ca-
reffed them (fays Mr Forfter) with a more ridiculous
afledlion if they had been European ladies of falliion.”
Here was feen a middle-aged woman, whofe breads
Avere full of milk, offering them to a little puppy who
had been trained up to fuck them. The fight difgufted
ihofe who faw it fo much, that they could not for¬
bear exprefiing their diflike to it; but the woman fmil-
ed, and told them that fhe allowed young pigs to do the
fame. It appeared afterwards that this woman had loll
her child. Some of the gentlemen were prefent at a
dramatic entertainment on this ifland : the piece repre-
iented a girl running away from her parents j and feem-
ed to be levelled at a female paffenger who had come
in Captain Cook’s (hip from Otaheite, and who hap¬
pened to be prefent at the reprefentation. It made
fuch an impreffion on the girl, that the gentlemen could
fcarce prevail upon her to fee the piece out, or to re¬
frain from tears while it was afting. It concluded
with the reception fhe wTas fuppofed to meet v.dth from
her friends, which was made out not to be a very
agreeable one.—Thefe people introduce extempore
pieces upon occafion •, and it is mofl probable that this
was meant as a fatire upon the girl above mentioned,
and to difeourage others from afting in the fame man¬
ner.
HUBERT, St, a towm of the Netherlands, on
the confines of Liege, with a very fine abbey, where
they bring thofe that are bit by mad animals to be cured.
E. Long. 5. 25. N. Lat. 34. 32.
HUBNER, John, a learned geographer of Ger¬
many, taught geography at Leipfic and Hamburg
with extraordinary reputation ; and died at Hambuig
in 1732, aged 63. His principal work is A Geogra¬
phical Treatife, printed at Bafil in 1746, in 6 vols i2mo.
HUDSON, Jeffrey. See Dwarf.
Hudson, Henry. Of this eminent naval difeover-
er we know nothing prior to the year 1607, when he
w7as employed by fome London merchants in a fmall
veffel, for exploring a north-eaft paffage to China and
Japan. He fet fail on the ill of May with only ten
men and a boy, and reached as high as 8o° of N. Lat.
where being flopt by the ice, he returned to England
in the month of September following. In his next
voyage he landed at Nova Zembla, but could make no
farther eafl, and he returned in Auguft next year.
The Dutch Eaft India Company fitted him out in 1609,
with a crew of 20 men, Englifh and Dutch, and after
in vain attempting to penetrate eaflward, he fleered for
the American coall, and w7ent as far as Chefapeak bay.
His crew mutinying, he durft not attempt a w'efterly
paffage through DavL’s flrait, and therefore returned
home.
His knowledge in confequence of thefe voyages in*
creafed his ardour for difeovery, and he again made an
offer of his fervices to the Dutch Eafl India Company,
which were not accepted $ and for his lafl voyage, Sir
Thomas Smith, Sir Dudley Digges, and feme of his
friends fitted him out. On the 17th of April he fet
fail, and came in fight of Greenland on the 4th of June.
Sailing weft ward, he reached the mouth of the flrait
which bears his name, through which he advanced
along the coall of Labrador, which he*called Nova Bri-
ijpnnin. Here he hoped he had difeoveted the. long-
t
4 ] HUB
wifhed-for paffage; but he found he was only in a bay,
in the fouthern part of which he determined to winter.
After this he fitted out his fhallop for farther difeover-
ies, but as he had no means of revidtualling his fhip, he
dilfributed his laft remaining bread with tears in his
eyes, among his people, and returned home. His mu¬
tinous crew entered his cabin by night, tied his hands
behind his back, and fet him afhore at the well end of
the flraits, wnth eight of the crew who were mofl at¬
tached to him. They were never more heard of, and
it is probable they were fwallowed up by the waves.
Such vyas the unfortunate end of this adventurous ma¬
riner !
Hudson, William, a celebrated Englifh botanifl,
was born at Weflmoreland about 1730. He was
bound apprentice to an apothecary in London, whofe
bufinefs he took, and proved a friend to the widow and
daughters. It appears from the teflimony of Dr Pul-
teney, that he had a refidence in the Britiih mufeum,
but we are not informed in what capacity. He was
alfo F. R. S. and died of a paralytic diilemper in May
1793. He poffeffed a coinprebenfive knowledge of
Englifli plants, which induced him to undertake an ar¬
rangement of Englifh botany according to the Linnaean
clafiification, a talk which had been previoufly attempt¬
ed by Dr Hill, but the execution was very imperfedl.
Hudfon’s Flora Anglica appeared in 1762, in one
volume 8 vo, the Latin preface to which was written b7
the ingenious Mr Stillingfleet, and received with great
applaufe, and contributed greatly to the adoption in
England of the fexual fyflem.
The merits of Mr Hudfon are thus deferibed by Dr
J. E. Smith. “ His memory requires no fludied eulo-
gium here, as every page of the prefent work is an in¬
dex to his labours. May the writer of this leave no
more errors behind him as an author, or as a man.”
Mr Hudfon well underftood the infects and fhells of
Great Britain, and always meditated a Fauna Britanni-
ca. His temper is faid to have been gentle, rather
clofe, but kind to thofe who gained his efteem.
Hudson's Bay, a large bay of North America, ly¬
ing between 51 and 69 degrees of latitude, difeovered
in 1610 by Henry Hudfon. This intrepid mariner,
in fearching after a north-weft paflage to the South feas,
difeovered three ftraits, through which he hoped to find
out a new way to Afia by America. He had made
two voyages before on the fame adventure $ the firft
in 1607, and the fecond in 1608. In his third and laft,
1610, he entered the ftraits that lead into this new
Mediterranean, the bav known by his name; coafted
a great part of it; and penetrated to eighty degrees
and a half into the heart of the frozen zone. His
ardour for the difeovery not being abated by the difficul¬
ties fie ftruggled with in this empire of winter, and
world of froft and fnow, he llaid here until the enfu-
ing fpring, and prepared in the beginning of 1611
to purfue his difeoveries $ but his crew, who fuffered
equal hardfhips, without the fame fpirit to fupport
them, mutinied, feized upon him and fever, of thofe
who were moft faithful to him, and committed them
to the fury of the icy feas in an open boat. Hudfon
and fiis companions were either fwallowed up by the
waves, or gaining the inhofpitable coaft were deftroyed
by the lavages j but tjie Jhip and the reft of the men
returned home. Other attempts towards a difeovery
were
Hud Ton's
Bay.
HUD [65
were made ;n 1612 and 166*] } and a patent for plant¬
ing the country, with a charter for a company, rvas
obtained in the year 1670. In 1746 Captain Ellis
wintered as far north as 57 degrees and a half, and
Captain Chriftopher attempted farther difcoveries. in
1761. But befides thefe and the late voyages, which
fatisfy us that we mull not lock for a paffage on this
fide of the latitude 67 degrees north, we are indebted
to the Hudfon’s Bay company for a journey by land ;
which throw's much additional light on this matter, by
affording what may be called demonftration, how much
farther north, at lead in fome parts of their voyage,^
drips mud go, before they can pafs from one fide of
America to the other. The northern Indians, w7ho
come down to the company’s fadlories to trade, had
brought to the knowledge of our people a river, winch
on account of much copper being found near it, had
obtained the name of the Copper-mine river. Ihe
company being defirous of examining into this matter
with precilion, direaed Mr Heanw, a young gentle¬
man in their lervice, and wTho having been brought
up for the navy and ferved in it the war before lad,
was extremely well qualified for the purpofe, to pro¬
ceed over land under the convoy of thofe Indians, for
that river, which he had orders to furvey if pcffiule
quite down to its exit into the fea •, to make obferva-
tions for fixing the latitudes and longitudes } and to
bring home maps and drawings both of it and the
countries through which he diould pafs. Accordingly
Mr Hearne fct out from Prince of Wales’s Fort, on
Churchill river, latitude 58° 47^ north, and longi¬
tude 940 7T wTed from Greenwich, on the 7 th of
December 1770* On the 13th of June ne reached
the Copper-mine river, and found it all the way, even
to its exit into the fea, encumbered with dioals and
falls, and emptying itfelf into it over a dry flat of the
fliore, the tide being then out, which feemed by^ the
edges of the ice to rife about 12 or 14 feet. Ibis
rile, on account of the falls, wall carry it but a very
final! w’ay wuthin the river’s mouth, fo that the water
in it had not the leaf! brackifh tafte. Mr Hearne was
neverthelefs fure of the place it emptied itfelf into be¬
ing the fea. or a branch of it, by the quantity of whale¬
bone and feal fkins which the Efquimaux had at their
tents, and alfo by the number of feals which he faw
upon the ice. The fea at the river’s mouth was full of
ifiands and fhoals as far as he could fee by the afiilf-
ance of a pocket telefcope ; and the ice was not yet
(July 17th) broken up, but thawed away only for
about three quarters of a mile from the (bore, and for
a little way round the ifiands and fhoals which lay off
the river’s mouth. But he had the moft extenfive View
of the fea when he w'as about eight miles up the river }
from which flation the extreme parts of it borenorth-wei?
by weft and north-eaft. By the time Mr Hearne had
finilhed his furvey of the river, which was about one
o’clock in the morning on the 18th, there came on a
very thick fog and drizzling rain} and as he bad lound
the river and fea in every refpeft unlikely to be of any
utility, he thought it unneceflary to wait for fair wea¬
ther to determine the latitude more exaftly by obferva-
tion •, but by the extraordinary care he took in obferv-
ing the courfes and diftances, walking from Congeca-
thavvhachaga, where he had two very good obferva-
tions, he thinks the latitude may be depended on with-
5 1 hud
in 20' at the utmoft. It appears from the map which Butlfon s
Mr Hearne conftruCled of this lingular journey, that, —
the mouth of the Copper-mine river lies in latitude 7 2°
north and longitude 2 50 weft from Churchill river; that
is, about 1190 weft of Greenwich. Mr Hearne’s jour¬
ney back from the Copper-mine river to Churchill laft-
ed till June ^oth 1772; fo that he was abfent almofi a
year and feven months. The unparalleled hardfhips
he fuffered, and the effential fervice he performed,
met with a fuitable reward from his mafters, and he
was made governor of Prince of Wales’s Fort on
Churchill river. But though the adventurers failed
in the original purpofe for which they navigated this
bay, their projeft, even in its failure, has been of great
advantage to tins country, as is fhowm under the ar¬
ticle Company
The country lying round Hudlon’s bay is called
New Britain, or the country of the Efquimaux ; com¬
prehending Labrador, now North and South Wales.
The entrance of the bay from the ©cean,. after leaving
to the north Cape Earewell and Davis’s ftraits, is
between Refolution ifles on the north, and Button s
ifies on the Labrador coaft to the fouth, forming
the eaftern extremity of the ftraits diftinguifhed by
the name of its great difcoverer. The coafts are very
high, rocky, and rugged at top ; in fome places precipi¬
tous, but fometimes exhibit large beacnes. The illes of
Salilbury, Nottingham, and Digges, are alfo very lofty
and naked. JLhe depth of water in the middle ox the
bay is a hundred and forty fathoms. From Cape
Churchill to the fouth end of the bay are regular found¬
ings ; near the (bore fhallow, with muddy or iandy bot¬
tom. To the north of Churchill the foundings are ir¬
regular, the bottom rocky, and in fome parts the rocks
appear above the furface at low water. From Moofe
river or the bottom of the bay to Cape Churchill the
land is fiat, marlhy, and wooded with pines, birch, larch,
and willows. From Cape Churchill to Wager’s Water
the coafts are all high and rocky to the very fea, and
woodlefs, except the mouths of Pockerekelko and Seal
rivers. The hills on their back are naked, nor arc
there any trees for a great diftance inland.
The mouths of all the rivers are filled with fhoals ;
exceptrtbat of Churchill, in which the largeft (hips
may lie ; but ten miles higher, the channel is obftrudi¬
ed with fand banks ; and all thefe rivers, as far as has
been navigated, are full of rapids and cataracts ironi-
ten to fixty feet perpendicular. Down thefe rivers the
Indian traders find a quick paffage; but their return
is a labour of many months. As far inland as the
company have fettlements, which is fix bundled miles
to the weft, at a place called Hudfon Houfe, lat. 53.
long. 106. 27. from London, is a fiat country : nor is
it known how far to the eaftward the great chain
feen by our navigators from the Pacific ocean branches
off.
The climate even about Haye’s river, in only lat,
£7. is during winter exceffively cold. I he (nows be¬
gin to fall in Otlober, and continue falling by inter¬
vals the whole winter ; and when the iroft is moft ri¬
gorous, in form of the fineft fand. The ice on the
rivers is eight feet thick. Port-wine freezes into a
folid mafs ; brandy coagulates. 'Ihe very breath fell
on the blankets of the beds in the form of a hoar froft,
and the bed-clothes often were found frozen to the wall.
Th<4-
HUD
r e
Hudion s The fun rlfes In the (horteft day at five minutes part
i. ’ , nine, and fets five minutes before three. In the longeit
day the fun rifes at three, and fets about nine. The ice
begins to uifappear in Pvlay, and hot weather commences
about the middle of June, which at times is fo violent
as to fcorch the face of the hunters. Thunder is not
frequent, but very violent. Tut there mull be great
diuerence of heat and cold in this vaft extent, which
reaches from lat. 50. 40. to lat. 63. north.—During
winter the firmament is not without its beauties. Mock
funs and halos are not unfrequent 5 they are verv bright,
and richly tinged with all the colours of the rainbow.
.1 he fun rifes and fets with a large cone of yellowilh light.
I ne night is enlivened with the Aurora Torealis, which
fpreads a thoufand different lights and colours over
the whole concave of the fky, not to be defaced even
by the fplendour of the full moon; and the liars are of
a fiery rednefs.
The eattern boundary of the bay is Terra di La¬
brador ; the northern part has a ftfaight coall facing the
bay, guarded with a line of ifles innumerable. A vafl
bay, called the Archiwinnipy fea, lies within it, and
opens into Hudfon’s bay by mdms of Gulf Hazard,
thiough which the beluga whales dart in great num¬
bers. Here the company had a fettlement for the fake
of the fithery, and for trading with the Efquimaux ;
but deferted it as unprofitable about the year 1758 or
J759- I he eailern coaft is barren pall the efforts of
cultivation. I he furface is everywhere uneven, and
covered with mafies of ftone of an amazing fize. It is
a country of fruitlefs valleys and frightful mountains,
fome of an affonilhing height : the firfl watered by a
chain of lakes, formed not from fprings but rain and
fnow, fo chilly as to be produftive of only a few fmall
trout. The mountains have here and there a blighted
fhrub, or a little mofs. Ihe valleys are full of crooked
Hunted trees, pines, fir, birch, and cedars, or rather
a fpecies of juniper. In lat. 60. on this coaff, vege¬
tation cfeafes. I he whole fhore, like that on the well,
is faced with iilands at fome dilfance from land. The
inhabitants among the mountains are Indians; along
the coaffs Efquimaux. Ihe dogs of the former are
very fmall ; of the latter large, and headed like a fox.
Notwithftanding they have rein-deer, they never train
them for the fledge ; but apply the dogs to that ufe.
Walrufes vifit a place called Nuchvunk, in lat. 60.
during winter ; from thence the natives purchafe the
teeth with which they head their darts. Davis fuf-
pe£Ied that he had found a paffage on this coafl in
1586, to the We (fern ocean; but it proves no more
than a deep bay.
_L he laudable zeai of the IVIoravian clergy induced
them to fend, in the year 1752, miffionaries from
Greenland to his country. They fixed on Nifbet’s har¬
bour for their fettlement ; but the firlf part was partly
killed, partly driven away. In 1764, under the pro-
tedlion of our government, another attempt was made.
The mifiionaries were well received by the Efquimaux,
and the mifiion goes on with fuccefs.
The animals of thefe countries are, the moofe
deer, flags, rein-deer, bears, buffaloes, wolves, foxes,
beavers, otters, lynxes, martins, fquirrels, ermines, wild
cats, and hares. The rein-deer pafs in vafl; herds to¬
wards the north in O&ober, feeking the extreme cold.
The male polar bears rove out at fea, on the floating
2
56 ] HUE
ice, mofl of the winter, and till June : the females lie Hud fan's
concealed in the woods, or beneath the banks of ri- -^a7
vers till March, when they come abroad with their ,, H
twin cubs, and bend their com fie to the fea in fearch 1^fand
of their conforts. Several are killed in their paffage : ■—
and thofe which are wounded fhow vafl; fury, roar
hideoufly, and bite and throw up into the air’ even
their own progeny. The females and the young, when
not interrupted, continue their way to fea. In June
the males return to fhore, and by Auguft are joined
by their conforts, with the cubs/by that time of a
confiderable fize. The feathered kind are, geefe,
buflards, ducks, partridges, and all manner of wild¬
fowls. Indeed multitudes of birds retire to this re¬
mote country, to Labrador and Newfoundland, from
places mofl remotely fouth, perhaps fiom the Antilles;
and fome even of the mofl; delicate little fpecies.
Mofl: of them, with numbers of aquatic fowls, are
feen returning fouthward with their young broods to
more favourable climates, The favages, in fome re-
Ipedls, regulate their months by the appearance of birds;
and have their goofe month from the vernal appearance
of geefe from the iouth. All the grous kind, ravens,
cinereous crows, titmoufe, and Lapland finch, brave the
fevereff winter ; and feveral of the falcons and owls
feek Ihelter in the woods. Of fifii, there are whales,
morfes, feals, cod-fifh, and a white fiflh preferable to her¬
rings; and in their rivers and frelh waters, pike, perch,
carp, and trout.
All the quadrupeds of thefe countries are clothed
with a dole, loft, warm fur. In fummer there is here,
as in other places, a variety in the colours of the feveral
animals ; when that feafon is over, which holds only
for three months, they all aflume the livery of winter,
and every fort of bealts, and moft of their fowls, are of
the colour of the fnow ; every thing animate and inani¬
mate is white. ' This is a furpriling phenomenon. But
what is yet more tirprifing, and what is indeed one of
the moft linking things, that draw the moft inattentive
to an admiration of the wifdom and goodnefs of Provi¬
dence, is, that the dogs and cats from Britain that have
been carried into Hudfon’s bay, on the approach of
winter have entirely changed their appearance, and ac¬
quired a much longer, fofter, and thicker coat of hair
than they had originally.
HuDsoN's-Bay Company. See Company.
HuDSON's-River, a large river of North America
which rifes on the eaft of Lake Ontario, and running
by Albany, and on the back of the fouth part of Netw
England through part of New-York, falls into the bay
of the fea beyond the weft end of Long-Illand, and be¬
low the town of New-York.
HUDSONIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
dodecandria clafs. See Botany Index.
HUE and Cry, in Law, the pnrfuit of a perfon
who has committed felony on the highway.—Of this
cuftom, wftich is of Britilh origin, the following de-
duclion is given by Mr Whitaker. “ When it was
requifite for the Britons to call out their warriors into
the field, they ufed a method that was particularly
marked by its expeditioufnefs and decifivenefs, and re¬
mains partially among us to this moment. They raifed
a cry, which v,as immediately caught by others,
and in an inftant tranlinitted from mouth to mouth
through all the region. And, as the notice paffed
along'
HUE [ 657 ] HUE
along, the warriors fnatched their arms* and hurried
away to the rendezvous. We have a remarkable de-
fcription of the fa6l in Ccelar* and there fee the alarm
propagated in 16 or 17 hours through 160 miles in a
line. And the fame practice has been retained by the
Highlanders to our own time. When the lord of a
clan received intelligence of an enemy’s approach, he
immediately killed a goat with his own fword, dipped
the end of a half-burnt flick in the blood, and then
gave it and the notice of the rendezvous to be carried
to the next hamlet. The former fymbolically threat¬
ened fire and fword to all his followers that did not in-
Uantly repair to the latter. The notice was defpatcbed
from hamlet to hamlet with the utmoft expedition $
and in three or four hours the whole clan was in arms,
and affembled at the place appointed. This was within
thefe few years the ordinary mode by which the chief¬
tains affembled their followers for war. The firft per-
fon that received the notice, fet out with it at full fpeed,
delivered it to the next that he met, who inllantly fet
out on the fame fpeed, and handed it to a third.
And in the rebellion of 1745, it was fent by an un¬
known hand through the region of Breadalbane ; and
flying as expeditiouily as the Gallic fignal in Csefar,
traverfed a tradl of 32 miles in three hours. This
quick method of giving a diffufive alarm is even pre-
ferved among ourfelves to the prefent day j but is
applied, as it feems from Cstfar’s account above to have
been equally applied among the Celtae, to the better
parpofes of civil polity. The hutejium and clamour of
our laws, and the hue and cry of our own times, is a
wellvknown and powerful procefs for fpreading the no¬
tice and continuing the purfuit of any fugitive felons.
The cry, like the clamour of the Gauls or the fummons
of the Highlanders, is taken from town to town and
from county to county $ and a chain of communication
is fpeedily carried from one end of the kingdom to the
other.”
HUER, a name given to certain fountains in Ice¬
land, of a moft extraordinary nature ; forming at
times jets d'eaux of fealding water ninety-four feet high
and thirty in diameter, creating the moft magnifi¬
cent gerbes that can be imagined, efpecially when
backed by the fetting fun. They arife out of cylindri¬
cal tubes of unknown depths: near the furface they
expand into apertures of a funnel ftiape, and the mouths
fpread into large extent of ftala&itical matter, formed
of fucceflive fcaly concentric undulations. The play¬
ing of thefe ftupendous fpouts is foretold by noifes
roaring like the cataraft of Niagara. The cylin¬
der begins to fill: it rifes gradually to the furface,
and gradually increafes its height, fmoking amazing¬
ly, and flinging up great ftones. After attaining
its greateft height, it gradually finks till it totally
difappea»s. Boiling jets d'eaux and boiling fprings
are frequent in moft parts of the iijand,. In many
parts they are applied to the culinary fifes of the natives.
The moft capital is that which is cajled Geyer, or Geyfer^
in a plain rifing into fmall hills, dnd in the midft of an
amphitheatre, bounded by the mdft magnificent and va-
rious ftiaped icy mountains j among which the three¬
headed Hecla loars pre-eminent. See Iceland, N° 4.
—Thefe huers are not confined to the land $ they
rife in the very fea, and form fealding fountains amidrt
the w aves. Their diftance from the land is unknown ;
Vol. X. Part II.
but the new volcanic ifle, twelve miles off the point
of Reickenes, emitting fire and fmoke, proves that the
fubterraneous fires and waters extend to that fpace } s
for thofe awful effe&s arife from the united fury of
thefe two elements.
HUE SC A, an ancient and confiderable tewm of
Spain, in the kingdom of Arragon, with a bilhop’s fee
and a univerfity. It is feated on the Iffuela, in a foil
producing excellent wine, in W. Long. o. 2. N. Lat.
42. 18.
HUESCAR, or Guescar, a town of Spain, in the
kingdom of Granada, feated on a plain, in W. Long.
2. 20. N. Lat. 37. 32.
HUESNE, or Huena, a fmall ifland in the Baltic
fea, in the Sound, where w'as the famous obfervatory
of Tycho Brahe. E. Long. 12. 38. N. Lat. 55. 34.
HUET, Peter Daniel, a very learned French
writer, born at Caen in Normandy, on the 8th of Fe¬
bruary 1630. He difeovered, from his infancy, a great
inclination to the ftudy of polite literature and the fei-
ences, and at firft applied himfelf to the law ; but Des
Cartes’s principles, and Bochart’s facred geography,
made him change his ftudies for thofe of philofophy,
mathematics, the languages, and antiquities. His ad¬
miration for Bochart made him defirous of knowing
him. He contra£led a very ftri£l friendftiip wdth him,
and accompanied that learned man to Sw-eden. Here
Chriftina would have engaged him in her fervice ; but
he, fenfible of her inconftant temper, returned to
France. All he brought with him was a copy of a MS.
of Origen, which he tranferibed at Stockholm. He
refufed feveral offers from Chriftina after {he abdicat¬
ed and went to Rome, and from Guftavus her fucceffor.
In 1670, Mr Boffuet being appointed by the king pre¬
ceptor to the dauphin, his majefty chofe Mr Huet for
his colleague, with the title oifub-preceptor to the prince.
It was he that formed the plan of the commentaries in
ufum De/phini, and direfted the execution. His fentir
ments of piety determined him to enter into holy or¬
ders, which he did at the age of 46. Soon after this,
he was prefented by the king to the abbey of Aunay 5
and in 1685 wTas nominated to the bifhopric of Solffons,
which he changed for the fee of Avranches. After go¬
verning that diocefe ten years, he refigned, and was
made abbot of Fontenay near Caen. His love to his
native place determined him to fix there. But law-
fuits coming upon him, he retired to Paris, and lodged
among the Jefuits in the Maifon ProfeJJe, whom he
had made heirs to his library. A fevere diftemper
weakened his body extremely, but not the vivacity of
his genius : he wrote his own life in a very elegant
ftyle j and died in 1721, aged 91. He was a man of
very agreeable converfation; and of great probity, as
well as immenfe erudition.-—The following are the
titles of his principal works. 1. De claris interpreti-
husy et de optima genere interpretandi. 2. An edition
of Origen’s Commentaries on the Holy Scriptures, in
Greek and Latin. 3. A Treatife on the Origin of the
Romans. 4. Demonjlratio evangelica, folio. 4. Qucef-
tiones Alnetance de concordia rationis et Jidei. 6. Ot the
Situation of the terreftrial Paradife, in French. 7. A
Hiftory of the Commerce and Navigation of the An¬
cients, which has been tranfiated into Englifti. 8. Com-
mentarius de rebus ad eum pertinentibus. 9. Huetiana.
JO. Latin and Greek verfes, &c.
4 O
Hue fed
Huet.
HUGELY,
HUG [6
HugUy HUGHLY, or Hoogly, a town of Afia, Jn the
Huguenots °f Bengal, feated on the moft wefterly branch
■ J of the river Ganges. It is now nearly in ruins, but
was in the beginning of the 18th century a place of
large extent, reaching about two miles along the river-
hde, and had a great trade in all the commodities of
that country ; affording rich cargoes for 50 or 60 (hips
annually, beiides what was brought in carriages to the
neighbouring towns. Saltpetre was brought hither from
Patna in veffels above 50 yards long and five broad.
The inhabitants are chiefly Indians j but there are alfo
Portuguefe, Engliih, and other Europeans. E. Long.
88. 28. N. Lat. 32. 30.
HUGO Capet, chief of the third race of the kings
of France, being count of Paris and Orleans : he was
railed to the throne for his military valour and public
virtues in 987. See France, N3 38.
HUGONIA, a genus of plants belonging to themo-
nadelphia clafs; and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bota¬
ny Index.
HUGUENOTS, an appellation given by way of
contempt to the reformed or Proteilant CalviniFs of
France.
The name had its firfl rife in 1560 ; but authors are
not agreed as to the origin and occafion thereof: but
one of the two following feems to be the leaf! forced
derivation.
One of the gates of the city of Tours is called the
gate Fourgon, by corruption from feu Hugon, i. e. the
late Hugon. This Hugon was once count of Tours
according to Eginhardus in his life of Charles the
Great, and to fome other hiftorians. He was it feems
a very wicked man, who by his fierce and cruel tem¬
per made himfelf dreadful •, fo that after his death he
was fuppofed to walk about in the night-time, beating
all thole he met with : this tradition the judicious
Thuanus has not fcrupled to mention in his hiitory.
Davila and other hiitorians pretend, that the nickname
of Huguenots was firft given to the French Protellants,
becaule they ufed to meet in the night-time in fubter-
raneous vaults near this gate of Hugon 5 and what
feems to countenance this opinion is, that they were
firft called by the name of Huguenots at this city of
Tours.
Others aflign a more illuftrious origin to that name ;
and fay that the leaguers gave it to the reformed, be-
caufe they wTere for keeping the crown upon the head
of the line defeended from Hugh Capet $ whereas
they were for giving it to the houfe of Guife, as de¬
feended from Charles the Great.
Others again derive it from a French and faulty pro¬
nunciation of the German word edignojfen, fignifying
confederates, and originally applied to that valiant part
of the city of Geneva, which entered into an alliance
with the Swifs cantons, in order to maintain their li¬
berties againft the tyrannical attempts of Charles III.
duke of Savoy.
jL hefe confederates were called Eignots, whence Hu¬
guenots.
The perfecution which they underwent has fcarce its
parallel in the hiftory of religion : though they obtain¬
ed a peace from Henry III. in 1576, it was only of
fhort continuance j and their fufferings, mitigated by
the famous edict of Nantes, granted to them in 1598
58 ] H U M
by Henry IV. were again renewed, after the revocation Hulk
of that edidt, by Louis XIV. in 1685. II
HULK, an old (hip of war, fitted with an appara- Iiu'‘iC'
tus to fix or take out the mails of his majefty’s Ihips, as
occalion requires.
I ne malt of this veffel is extremely high, and withal
properly ftrengthened by Jhrouds and fags, in order
to fecure what are called the Jheers, which ferve, as
the arm of a crane, to hoiit out or in the malts of any
Ihip lying alongfide. The ftieers are compofed of fe-.
veral long malls, whofe heels reft upon the fide of the
hulk, and having their heads declining outward from
the perpendicular, fo as to hang over the velfel wdiofe
malts are to be fixed or difplaced. The tackles, which
extend from the head of the malt to the Iheer-heads,
are intended to pull in the latter towards the malt-
head, particularly when they are charged with the
weight of a malt after it is raifed out of any Ihip,
which is performed by ftrong tackles depending from
the Iheer-heads. The effort of thefe tackles is produ¬
ced by two caplterns, fixed on the deck for this pur-
pofe.
Hulk, is alfo a name bellowed on any old veffel
laid by as unfit for further fervice. It is probably de¬
rived from the o\xot§t(, or veffels of burthen, of the an¬
cient Grecians.
HULL, in the fea-language, is the main body of a
Ihip, without either mails, yards, fails, or rigging. Thus
to frilee a hull in a llorm, is to take in her fails, and to
lalh the helm on the lee-fide of the fhip j and to hull, or
lie a-htill, is laid of a Ihip whofe fails are thus taken in,
and helm lafhed a-lee.
Hull, a river in Yorklhire, which falls into the
Flumber at Kingston upon Hull. See Kingston.
HUMAN, in general, is an appellation given to
whatever relates to mankind : thus we fay, the human
foul, human body, human laws, &c.
HUMANITY, the peculiar nature of man, where¬
by he is diftinguifhed from all other beings.
HUMANITIES, in the plural, fignify grammar, rheto¬
ric, and poetry, knowm by the name of literce humanio-
res; for teaching of which, there are profeffors in the
univerfities of Scotland, called humanifs.
HUMBER, a river formed by the Trent, Oufe,
Dement, and feveral other ftreams. By means of in¬
land navigation, it has a communication with the rivers
Merfey, Dee, Ribble, Severn, Thames, Avon, &c.
which navigation, including its windings, extends a-
bove 500 miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancafter, Weftmoreland,. Chefter, Staf¬
ford, Warwick, Leicefter, Oxford, Worcefter. It di¬
vides Yorklhire from Lincolnlhire, and falls into the
German ocean near Holdernefs.
HUME, David, Efq. a celebrated philofopher
and hiftorian, was born in the fouth part of Scotland
on the 26th of April O. S. in the year 1711. Being
the younger fon of a country gentleman of good family,
but no great fortune, his patrimony was of confequence
infufficient to fupport him. For this reafon he was def-
tined for the bar, and paffed through his academical
courfes in the univerfity of Edinburgh ; but being more
inclined to ftudies of a different nature, he never put on
the gown, nor even took the introductory fteps for that
purpofe. The writings of Locke and Berkeley had di¬
rected the attention of the generality of learned men to-
HUM f 6
Hume. wards metaphyfics ; and Mr Hume having early ap-
—v—" plied himfelf to ftudies of this kind, publilhed in 1739
the two firft volumes of his Treatife of Human Nature,
and the third the following year. He had the mortiii-
cation, however, to find his book generally decried •,
and to perceive, that the taife for fyftematic writing
was now on the decline. He therefore divided this trea¬
tife into feparate Eflays and Diifertations, which he af¬
terwards publifhed at different times with alterations and
improvements.
In 1742, Mr Hume publifhed two fmall volumes,
confifting of Ellays moral, political, and literary.
Thefe were better received than his former publica¬
tion ; but contributed little to his reputation as an au¬
thor, and flill lefs to his profit ; and his Ifnall patri¬
mony being now almoif fpent, he accepted an invita¬
tion from the marquis of Annandale to come and live
with him in England. With this nobleman he flaid a
twelvemonth •, during which time his fmall fortune was
confiderably increafed. He then received an invitation
from General St Clair, to attend him as a fecretary to
his expedition, which was at firlt meant againft Canada,
but afterwards ended in an excurfion againft the coaft
of France. In 1747, he received an invitation from
the general to attend him in the fame ftation in his mi-
litarv embaffy to the courts of Vienna and Turin. He
then wore the uniform of an officer •, and was introdu¬
ced at thefe courts as aid-de-camp to the general, along
with Sir Harry Erfkine and Captain Grant, afterwards
General Grant. In 1749, he returned to Scotland, and
lived two years with his brother at his country-houfe ;
where he compofed the fecond part of his effays, called
Political Difcourfes. And now the general approbation
of his performances was indicated by a more extenfive
fale than formerly, and likewife by the numerous an-
fwers publifhed by different perfons in order to counter-
aft their fuppofed pernicious tendency. In 1752, were
publilhed at Edinburgh his Political Difcourfes, the
only work of his which was well received on its firft
appearance ; and the fame year at London, his Inquiry
concerning the Principles of Morals, which in his own
opinion was incomparably the beft of all his perform¬
ances. This year alfo he was appointed librarian to the
faculty of advocates at Edinburgh \ the principal ad¬
vantage refulting from which employment was, that he
had by that means the command of a large library. He
then formed the plan of writing the Hiftory of Eng¬
land : but deeming the wdiole to be too extenfive, he
confined his hiftory to that of Britain under the houfe
of Stuart. The book was almoft univerfally decried on
its firft appearance, and foon after feemed to fink in
oblivion. Dr Herring, primate of England, and Dr
Stone, primate of Ireland, were the only literati of the
author’s acquaintance who approved of the work, and
fent him meffages not to be difcouraged.
Notwithftanding the approbation of thefe eminent
men, however, Mr Hume’s fpirits were fo much funk
by his bad fuccefs, that he had fome thoughts of retir¬
ing to France, changing his name, and bidding adieu
to his own country for ever •, but his defign wTas ren¬
dered impracticable by the breaking out of the war of
1 7^5 between France and Britain. He then publilhed
his Natural Hiftory of Religion ; to which an anfwer
was publilhed, foon after its appearance, in the name
of Dr Hurd bithop of Litchfield and Coventry ; of
9 ] II U M
which, however, he fince difclaimed being the foie Hume,
author. In 1756, the fecond volume of the Hd-~
tory of the Stuarts was publifhed, two years after the
appearance of the firft. This was better received,
and helped to retrieve the character of the former
volume. Three years after, his Hiftory of the Houfe
of Tudor made its appearance ; which was almoft as ill
received as the Hiftory of the Stuarts had been, the
reign of Elizabeth being particularly obnoxious. The „ -
author, however, had now learned to detpife popular
clamours; and continued to finifh at his leifure the
more early part of the Englifh hiftory, which was
publifhed in 1761, and was received with tolerable
fuccefs.
Mr Hume being now turned of fifty", and having ob¬
tained by the fale of his books a competent and mde-
pendent fortune, retired into his native country of
Scotland, determined never more to fet his foot out of
it. From this refolution, however, he was diverted
by the earl of Hertford •, whom he attended as fecre¬
tary on his embafly to Paris in 1763. In 1765, the
earl being appointed lord-lieutenant of Ireland, Mr
Hume was intruded with the foie management of the
bufinefs of the ftate till the arrival of the duke of
Richmond towards the latter end of the year. In
1767, he returned to Edinburgh, with a much larger
income, procured to him by the earl of Hertford, than
he formerly had ; and now formed the fame defign he
had formerly entertained, namely, of burying himfelf
in his philofophical retreat. In this, however, he was
again diiappointed, by receiving an invitation from Ge¬
neral Conway to be under fecretary } and this invita¬
tion he was prevented from declining, both by the
character of the perfon, and his connexions with Lord
Hertford. In 1769 he returned to Edinburgh, pof-
leffed of 1000I. a-year, healthy, and though fome-
what ftricken in years, yet having a prolpeCt of long
enjoying his eafe, and of feeing the increafe of his re¬
putation. Of his laft illnefs and character, he him¬
felf gives the following account. In fpring 1775,
I wras ftruck with a diforder in my bowels ; which at
firft gave me no alarm, but has fince, as I apprehend
it, become mortal and incurable. I now reckon upon
a fpeedy diffolution. I have fuffered very little pain
from my diforder ; and what is more ftrange, have,
notwithftanding the great decline of my perfon, never
fuffered a moment’s abatement of my fpirits j info-
much, that were I to name the period of my life
which I fhould molt choofe to pafs over again, I might
be tempted to point to this latter period. I poffe'fs
the fame ardour as ever in ftudy, and the fame gaiety
in company. I confider, befides, that a man of fixty-
five, by dying, cuts off only a few years of infirmities j
and though I fee many fymptoms of my literary repu¬
tation breaking out at laft with additional luftre, I
know that I could have but few years to enjoy it. It
is dilficult to be more detached from life than I am at
prefent.
“ To conclude, hiftorically, with my own charaCler,
I am, or rather wras (for that is the ftyle I muft now
ufe in fpeaking of myfelf, which emboldens me the
more to fpeak my fentiments)—I was, I lay, a man of
mild difpofitions, of command of temper, of an open,
focial, and cheerful humour, capable of attachment,
but little fufceptible of enmity, and of great moderation
4 O 2 in
HUM [ 660 ] H U M
Hurneda- jn all my pailions. Even my love of literary fame, my
non ruling palfion, never foured my temper, notwithftand-
Humilia- ray frequent difappointments. My company was
tion. not unacceptable to tbe young and carelefs, as well as
1 1 to the fludious and literary j and as I took particular
pleafure in the company of modeft vromen, I had no
reafon to be difpleafed with the reception I met with
from them. In a word, though moil; men anywdfe
eminent have found reafon to complain of calumny, I
never was touched, or even attacked, by her baleful
tooth : and though I w'antonly expofed myfelf to the
rage of both civil and religious factions, they feemed
to be difarmed in my behalf of their wonted fury. My
friends never had occaiion to vindicate any one circum-
ftance of my charafler and condu6t: not but that the
zealots, we may well fuppofe, would have been glad
to invent and’propagate any ftory to my difadvantage,
but they could never find any which they thought
would wear the face of probability. I cannot fay there
is no vanity in making this funeral oration of myfelf,
but I hope it is not a mifplaced one j and this is a mat¬
ter of fa£f which is eafily cleared and afcertained.”
His fears concerning the incurablen jfs of his diforder
proved too true. He died on the 25th of Auguft
1776 5 and was interred in the Calton burying-ground,
Edinburgh, wdiere a monument is erected to his me¬
mory.
HUMECT AT ION, formed of humour, moifture,
moiftening, in pharmacy, the preparing of a medicine,
by fleeping it a while in w'ater, in order to foften and
moiften it when too dry j or to cleanfe it, or prevent
its fubtile parts from being diffipated in grinding, or the
like.
Humectation is alfo ufed for the application of
moiftening remedies.
In this fenfe we fay, embrocations, emplafters, unc¬
tions, hume&ations, fomentations, &c.
HUMERUS, or Os Hvmmri, in Anatomy, the up-
permoft bone of the arm, popularly called the Jhoulder-
bone; extending from the fcapula, or ftioulder-blade, to
the upper end of the cubitus, or elbow. See Anatomy
Index.
HUMIDITY, that quality in bodies whereby they
are capable of wetting other bodies. This differs very
much from fluidity j and feems to be merely a relative
thing, depending on the congruity of the component
particles of the liquor to the pores of fuch particular
bodies as it is capable of adhering to, penetrating a
little into, or wTetting. Thus, for inftance, quickfilver
is not a moift thing with regard to our hands or clothes 5
but may be called fo in reference to gold, tin, or lead,
to whole furfaces it will perfectly adhere, and render
them foft and moift.
HUMIL1ATI, a congregation of religious in the
church of Rome, eftablifhed by fome Milanefe gentle¬
men on their releafe from prifon, where they had been
confined under the emperor Conrad, or, as others fay,
under Frederick I. in the year 1162. This order,
which acquired great wealth, and had no lefs than 90
monafteries, was abolilhed by Pope Pius V. in 1570,
and their houfes given to the Dominicans and Cordeli¬
ers, for their luxury and cruelty.
HUMILIATION, the aft of humbling, i. e. of a-
bating a perfon’s pride, and bringing him lower in his
opinion.
In this fenfe humiliation Hands diftinguilhed from Humility
mortification : humiliation brings down the mind ; !l
mortification fubdues the flelh. Humour.
HUMILITY, in Ethics, is a virtue confifting in
the moderate value which a perfon puts upon himfelf,
and every thing relating to him. Or, more particular¬
ly, it confifts in not attributing to ourfelves any excel¬
lence or good which we have not j in not overrating
any thing which wTe have or do; in not taking an im¬
moderate delight in one’s felf; in not affuming more of
the praife of a quality or aftion than belongs to us j
and in a lowly fenfe and acknowledgment «f our imper-
feftions, errors, and fins. This virtue expreffes itfelf
in the modefty of our appearance, of our purfuits, and
of our behaviour towards other men. It is diftinguilh-
ed from affeftation, baftifulnefs, and meannefs.
HUMMING-bird. See Trochilus, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
HUMOUR, from the Latin humor, in its original
fignificaticfn, Hands for moifture in general; from
whence it has been reftrained to fignify the moifture of
animal bodies, or thofe fluids which circulate through
them.
It is diftinguiflied from moifture in general in this,
that humours properly exprefs the fluids of the body ;
when in a vitiated ftate, it would not be improper to
fay, that the fluids of fuch a perfon’s body wTere full of
humours.
The only fluids of the body, which, in their natural
and healthful ftate, are called humours, are thofe in the
eye 5 wre talk of the aqueous humour, the cryftalline
humour, without meaning any thing that is morbid or
difeafed : yet when we fay in general, that fuch a per¬
fon has got a humour in his eye, wTe underftand it in the
ufual fenfe of a vitiated fluid.
As the temper of the mind is fuppofed to depend up¬
on the ftate of the fluids in the body, humour has come
to be fynonymous with temper and difpofition. A per¬
fon’s humour, however, is different from his difpojition,
in this, that humour feems to be the difeafe of a difpo¬
fition : it would be proper to fay that perfons of a fe-
rious temper or difpofition of mind, were fubjeft to me¬
lancholy humours ; that thofe of a delicate and tender
difpofition, wrere fubjeft to peevifh humours.
Humour may be agreeable or difagreeable : but it is
ftill humour ; fomething that is whimfical, capricious,
and not to be depended upon. An ill-natured man may
have fits of good-humour, which feem to come upon
him accidentally, without any regard to the common
moral caufes of happinefs or mifery.
A fit of cheerfulnefs conftitutes the whole of good-
humour ; and a man who has many fuch fits, is a good-
humoured man : yet he may not be good-natured j
wdiich is a charafter that fuppofes fomething more con-
ftant, equable, and uniform, than what is requifite to
conftitute good humour.
Humour is often made ufe of to exprefs the quality
of the imagination, w'hich bears a confiderable refem-
blance to wit.
Wit expreffes fomething that is more defigned, con¬
certed, regular, and artificial j humour, fomething that
is more wild, loofe, extravagant, and fantaftical fome¬
thing which comes upon a man by fits, which he can
neither command nor reftrain, and which is not per-
feftly confiftent with true politenefs. Humour, it has
0 been
HUN [ 661 ] HUN
Humphrey been faid, is often more diverting than wit; yet a man
II of wit is as much above a man of humour as a gentle-
Hur.dred. man js a|30ve a buffoon j a buffoon, however, will of-
L ' ten divert more than a gentleman. The duke of Buck¬
ingham, however, makes humour to be all in all •, wit,
according to him, fhould never be ufed, but to add an
agreeablenefs to fome proper and juft fentiment, which,
without fome fuch turn, might pafs without its effecl.
See Wit.
HUMPHREY, Dr Lawrence, a very learned
Englifh divine in the 16th century, who, during the
perfecution under Queen Mary, retired with other Pro-
teftant refugees to Zurich. He returned on the accef-
fton of Queen Elizabeth *, and was made prefident of
Magdalene college, Oxford, dean of Gloucefter, and
then dean of Winchefter. He was a great and general
fcholar, an able linguift, and a deep divine •, and pub-
lilhed, i. De reiigionis confervatione et reformatione,
deque primatu regum. 2. De ratione interpretandi auc-
tores. 3. Optimates ; Jive de nobilitate, ejufque origine.
4. Sermons, and other works. He died in 1590.
HUMULUS, the hop, a genus of plants belonging
to the dioecia clafs j and in the natural method ranking
under the 53d order, Scabridee. For the culture and
• ufes of hops, fee Hop.
HUNDRED, HUNDREDUM, or Centuria, a part
or divifion of a county •, which was anciently io called
from its containing an hundred families, or from its
furnifhing an hundred able men for the king’s wars.
After King Alfred’s dividing this kingdom into coun¬
ties, and giving the government of each county to a
fheriff, thefe counties were divided into hundreds, of
which the conftable was the chief officer. The grants
of hundreds were at firft made by the king to parti¬
cular perfons : but they are not now held by grant or
prefcription, their jurifdiction being devolved to the
county-court j a few of them only excepted, that have
been by privilege annexed to the crown, or granted to
fome great fubjedls, and ftill remain in the nature of a
franchife.
Hvndukd Court. This is only a larger Court Bu-
ron, being held for all the inhabitants of a parti¬
cular hundred inftead of a manor. The free fuitors
are here alfo the judges, and the fteward the regifter,
as in the cafe of a court-baron. It is likewife no
court of record 5 refembling the former in all points,
except that in point of territory it is of a greater ju-
rildidlion. This is faid by Sir Edward Coke to have
been derived out of the county-court for the eafe of the
people, that they might have juftice done them at their
own doors, without any charge or lofs of time : but
its conffitution was probably coeval with that of hun¬
dreds themfelves, which were formerly obferved to
have been introduced though not invented by Alfred,
being derived from the policy of the ancient Germans.
The centeni, we may remember, were the principal in¬
habitants of a diftrifl compofed of different villages,
originally in number an hundred, but afterwards only
called by that name ; and who probably gave the fame
denominatiou to the diftridl out of which they w'ere
chofen. Csefar fpeaks pofitively of the judicial power
exercifed in their hundred-courts and courts-baron.
“ Principes regionum, atque pagorumj (which we may
fairly conftrue, the lords of hundreds and manors)
“ inter fuos jus dicunt, controverjiafque tninuuntP And
Tacitus, who had examined their conftitution ftill Hungary.^
more attentively, informs us not only of the authority
of the lords, but that of the centeni, the hundreders,
or jury j who were taken out of the common freehold¬
ers, and had themfelves a {hare in the determination.
“ E/iguntur in conciliis et principes, qui jura per pagos
vicofque reddunt: centeni jingulis, ex plebe comites, con-
jiiium Jimul et audiorites, adfuntP This hundred-court
was denominated hcereda in the Gothic conftitution.
But this court, as caufes are equally liable to removal
from hence as from the common court-baron, and by
the fame writs, and may alfo be reviewed by writ of
falfe judgment, is therefore fallen into equal difufe with
regard to the trial of aftions.
HUNGARY, a kingdom of Europe, the greateft
part of which was anciently called Pannonia. It had
the name of Hungary from the Hunns, a Scythian or
Tartar nation, who fubdued it in the ninth century.
It lies between the 18th and 2 2d degrees of eaft long,
and betwixt the 45th and 49th degrees of north lat.
being bounded to the north by the Carpathian moun¬
tains, which feparate it from Poland ; to the fouth
by Servia, and the river Drave, which feparates it
from Sclavonia} to the weft by Moravia, Auftria,
and Stiria ; and to the eaft by Walachia and Tran-
fylvania. It is about 240 miles in length, and 235
in breadth ; and is divided into the Upper and Lower
Hungary, the former being that part which lies to¬
wards the eaft, and the latter that which lies towards
the weft.
The northern parts of the kingdom are mountain¬
ous and barren, but healthy ; the fouthern, on the
contrary, are level, and exceeding fruitful, but not
very healthy. The country along the Danube, from
Freiburg to Belgrade, for upwards of 200 miles, is
one continued plain, and no foil can be more fertile ;
but the air, by reafon of the many fwamps and mo-
raffes, is not fo wholefome as on the higher and
drier grounds, Here are mines of gold, lilver, cop¬
per, iron, lead, quickftlver, cinnabar, antimony, yel¬
low orpiment, fulphur, vitriol, marcafite, fait native
and fadlitious, faltpetre, magnets, albeftos or ftone-
llax, marble of feveral colours, alabafter, with dia¬
monds, and all forts of precious Hones. Corn is in
fuch plenty, that it is fold for one fixth of its price
in England. Their grapes are large and lufcious j
and their wines preferred to any in Europe. They have
vaft numbers of cattle and horfes, the latter moftly
moufe-coloured, with buffaloes, deer, wild fowl, game,
and fiftr, and many fpecies of wild beafts, particularly
chamois goats, bears, and lynxes. Of vegetables, be-
fides vines, and the common forts, here afe tobacco,
faffron, buck-wheat, millet, melons, and chefnuts.
Here alfo are excellent warm baths, and fprings of
various kinds and qualities. The chief mountains of
Hungary are the Crapack or Carpathian, which is
the general name for all thofe that feparate this king¬
dom from Poland, Moravia, Silefia, and fome part ol
Auftria. The fides of moft of them are covered
with wood, and their tops with fnow. The chief ri¬
vers are the Danube, the Drave, the Save, the Wag
or Waag, the Gran, the Temes, the Raab, and Theifs,
all well flocked with fifli. There are feveral lakes
among the Carpathian mountains, and fome alfo in the
lowlands.
The
HUN
ary- The inhabitants are a mixture of the defcendants oi
the ancient Huns, Sclavopians, Camani, Germans,
Walachians, Greeks, Jews, Turks, and a wandering
people called Zigduns, faid to be of uncertain origin,
but probably the fame as thofe we called gypfies. The
Hungarians are faid to be of a fanguine choleric tem¬
per, and fomewhat fierce, cruel, proud, and revenge¬
ful. They have been always reputed good foldiers,
being mucn more inclined to arms, martial ex'ercifes,
and hunting, than to arts, learning, trade, or 3gri-
culture. ihe nobility affetl great pomp and magni¬
ficence, and are much addidted to feafting and carou-
liiig. 1 he men in general are flrong and well pro¬
portioned. ihey (have their beards, but leave vvhif-
kers on the upper lip ; wearing fur caps on their
heads, a clofe-bodied coat girt with a fafh, with a
Ihoit cloak or mantle over all, fo contrived as to be
buckled under the arm, and leave the right hand at
liberty. Their horfe are called huffars, and their foot
heyduhes. The former wear a broad-fword or fci-
nntar, and carry a hatchet or battle-axe. Their
hoifes are fleet, but not near fo large as the German
horfes, and therefore they Hand up on their fhort flir-
rups when they ftrike. The heydukes ufually wear
feathers in their caps, according to the number of
the enemies they pretend to have killed. Both horfe
and foot are an excellent militia, very good at a pur-
luit, or ravaging and plundering a country, but not
equal to regular troops in a pitched battle. The wo¬
men, when they go abroad, wrear fhort cloaks and
a veil.
1 here are fouir languages fpoken in this country,
viz. the Hungarian, which, like the people, is of Scy¬
thian origin, and has little or no affinity with any
European tongue; the German, Sclavonian, Wala¬
chian, and Latin. The laid is fpoken, not only by the
better fort, but alfo by the common people, though
very corruptly. The people called Zigduns have alfo
a particular jargon.—Chrilfianity was planted in Hun¬
gary in the ninth and tenth centuries. In the fix-
teenth the reformation made a great progrefs in it ;
but at prefent, though the Roman Catholics hardly
make a fourth part of the inhabitants, their religion
is predominant, the Proteftants enjoying only a bare
toleration. Befides feveral fedfs of Proteftants, here
are alfo great numbers of the Greek church and Jews;
the laft pay double taxes of all kinds. Befides Jefuits
colleges and other convents, there are feveral univerfi-
ties tor the Roman Catholics. The Lutherans alfo
and Calvinifts have their gymnafiums and fchools, but
under divers reftrictions.
. -^s to the traffic of this country, it is almoft whtolly
in the hands of the Greeks and Jews. The exports
conuft chiefly of wine, horfes, cattle, metals, mine¬
rals, faffron, wool, and leather. Hungary, in par¬
ticular, furnifhes Auftria, and other countries weft of
it, with vaft droves of cattle, as well as a variety of
excellent wines, of which thofe of Tockay are rec¬
koned the beft. I he principal manufaffures are thofe
of copper, brafs, iron, and other hard wares. Great
quantities of brafs and iron are exported, wrought and
unwrought.
Hungary at firft, like moft other countries, was
divided into many little piincipalities and ftates, which
at length were united under one head, who had the
1
[ C62 1
HUN
title oi diike. rIhe laft of thefe dukes was Geyfa ; who, Hi
becoming a profelyte to Chriftianity, was baptized ; 11
after which he religned the government to his fon ~~"
Stephen, wffio took the title of king, anno i ooo. But
as the throne was filled by eledion, though generally
out of the fame family, the difpofal of die crown was
difputed oetween the I urkifli and German emperors
for near 200 years: but after the year 1527, when
herdinand archduke of Auftria was advanced to the
throne, the Auflrians found means to influence the
eledbons in fuch a manner, as to keep the crown in
their family till 1687, when it was fettled heredita¬
rily on their heirs male ; and now, in confequence of
an a£l made by the diet at Prefhurg in 1723, in cafe
of the failure of heirs-male, it is to defcend to females.
The ftates of the kingdom confift of the prelates, the
barons, the gentry, and the royal towns. To the
firft clafs belong two archbifhops, about a dozen bi-
fhops, near as many abbots and provofts, with the
Pauline- and Prgemonftratenfian Jefuits To the fe-
cond, the ftadtholder or palatine, who reprefents the
king ; the court-judge ; the ban or viceroy of Dalma¬
tia, Croatia, and Sclavonia ; the ftadtholder of Tran-
fylvama ; the great treafurer, the great cup-bearer, the
ftewrard of the houfehold, the mafter of the horfe, the
lord cnamberlain, the captain of the yeomen of the
guards, and the grand marfhal of the courts, who are
fly led the great barons, together with the inferior bans
or counts and barons. To the third clafs belong the
gentry, fome of whom have noble manors, and others
only the privileges of nobles. To the fourth clafs be¬
long the royal free cities, which are not fubjeft to the
counts, but hold immediately of the king. The gen¬
try alfo, who hold of the archbiffiops and biffiops,
have the fame privileges as the Hungarian nobility.
The common people are vaflals to the lords on whole
lands they live, wffiether thefe lands belong to the crown,
the clergy, nobility or gentry.
The ordinary revenue of this kingdom is .faid to ex¬
ceed a million fterling, arifing from the mines, duties
on cattle, royal demefnes, falt-works, contributions,
cuftoms, &c. The fortifications and garrifons con-
ftantly maintained on the frontiers againft the Turks,
are a great expence to the government. Hungary
can eafily bring into the field 100,000 men, regulars
and militia; for there are 50,000 in a&ual pay, and
the provinces furniffi the other 50,000 when they are
wanted.
Hungary Water, a diftilled water prepared from
the tops of flowers of rofemary ; fo denominated from
a queen of Hungary, for whofe ufe it was firft made.
See Pharmacy.
HUNGER, an uneafy fenfation occafioned by long
abftinence from food when the body is in a healthy
ftate.—See Abstinence ; Fasting ; and Anatomy,
N° 103.
The following ufeful obfervations upon hunger or
famine are extrafted from a paper by Dr Percival in
the fecond volume of the Manchefter Tranfa&ions.
In famine, life may be protra&ed (the do&or
obferves) with lefs pain and mifevy, by a moderate
allowance of water. For the acrimony and putre-
faffion of the humours are obviated by fuch dilu¬
tion, the fmall veflels are kept permeable, and the
lungs are furnilhed with that moifture which is ef-
fential
(
Hnrr
* Lib. 6.
t JDr Gold
fmitb's HiJ).
of tb* Fai th,
vol. ji. ijfi.
IT U N
feiitlal to the performance of their functions. Fon-
J tanus, a writer of refpedfable authority in the eflima-
tion of Morgagni, relates the hiftory of a woman
who obftinately refufed to take any fultenance, except
twice, during the fpace of 50 days, at the end of which
period ihe died. But he adds, that fhe uled water by
way of drink, though in fmall quantity. Redi, -who
made many experiments (cruel and unjuftifiable in my
opinion), to afcertain the effedts of failing on fowls,
obferved, that none were able to fupport life beyond
the ninth day to whom drink was denied j whereas one
indulged with water lived more than 20 days.
Hippocrates has obferved, that children are more
aftefted by abilinence than young perfons ; thefe, more
than the middle-aged •, and the middle-aged, more than
old men. The power to endure famine, however, mull
depend no lefs upon the ilate of health and ilrength
than on the age of the fufterer. There are alfo parti¬
cular conftitutions which do not fuft'er much pain from
the calls of hunger. Dr Percival was informed by a
young phyfician from Geneva, that when he was a Un¬
dent at Montpelier, he failed three nights and four days,
with no other refreihment than a pint of water daily.
His hunger was keen, but never painful, during the
irrit and fecond days of his abilinence j and the two
following days, he perceived only a faintnefs when he
attempted either bodily or mental exertion; A fenfe of
coldnefs was diftufed over his whole frame, but more
particularly affedled the extremities. His mind was
in a very unuiual ilate of puiillanimity ; and he experi¬
enced a great tendency to tears whenever he recollec¬
ted the circumilance which had been the occafion of
his failing. During the whole period, the alvine ex¬
cretions were fuppreffed, but not thofe by the kidneys :
and at the clofe of it, his fkin became tinged with a
ihade of yellow. The firil food he took was veal broth j
which had fomething of an intoxicating effefl, produ-
cing a glow of rvarmth, and railing his fpirits, fo as to
render him aihamed of his defpondency. Perhaps in
the cafe of Sextius JBaculus, as recorded in the com¬
mentaries of Csefar *, the extraordinary courage and
prowefs which he fuddenly exerted, might be aided by
the exhilarating effefl of fuilenance, which, under fuch
circumilances, it is probable he would no longer decline.
The faff, however, evinces, that neither his ficknefs
nor the fenfations of hunger had been fo violent as
much to impair his ilrength of body or vigour of
mind. Pomponius Atticus, the celebrated friend of
Cicero, who put a voluntary end to his life in the 77th
year of his age by refufing all food, appears to have
experienced eafe from his diforder, rather than any
acute fufferings by famine. “ Sic cum bidub cibo fe
abilinuiflet, fubito febris deceflit, leviorque morbus efle
coepit : tamen propoiitum nihilo fecius perigit. Ita-
que die quinto, poilquam id confilium inierat, deceffit.”
(Corn. Nepos in Vit. Pomp. Attic.') From the former
circumilance it has been conjeflured, that he did not
wholly deny himfelf the ufe of water, or of feme other
diluent. But though a few examples of this kind may
be adduced, we have the evidence of numerous melan¬
choly fafls to ihow, that the preffure of want is agoni¬
zing to the human frame. “ I have talked (fays an
ingenious writer |) with a captain of a ihip, who
was one of fix that endured it in its extremity, and who
was the only perion that had not loil his fenfes when
[ 663 ] HU N
they received accidental relief. He allured me his Hunger.
pains at firil were fo great, as to be often tempted to   
eat a part of one of the men who died, and which the
reft of his crew ablually for fome time lived upon.
He faid, that during the continuance of this paroxyfm,
he found his pains infupportable, and was defirous at
one time of anticipating that death which he thought
inevitable : But his pains, he faid, gradually decreafed
after the iixth day (for they had water in the ihip, which
kept them alive fo long), and then he was in a ftate
rather of languor than defire ; nor did he much with-
for food, except when he faw others eating ; and that
for a while revived his appetite, though with diminiih-
ed importunity. The latter part of the time, when
his health was almoil deftroyed, a thoufand ilrange
images rofe upon his mind j and every one of his fenfes
began to bring him wrong information. The moil
fragrant perfumes appeared to him to have a fetid fmelly
and every thing he looked at took a greenifh hue, and
fometimes a yellow. When he was prefen ted with
food by the Ihip’s company that took him and his
men up, four of whom died fhortly after, he could
not help looking upon it with loathing inftead of
defire ; and it was not till after four days that his
ftomach was brought to its natural tone; when the
violence of his appetite returned with a fort of canine
eagernefs.”
To thofe who by their occupations are expofed to
fuch dreadful calamities, it is of ferious importance to
be inftrubled in the means of alleviating them. The'
American Indians are faid to ufe a compofition of the
juice of tobacco, and the fliells of fnails, cockles, and
oyfters calcined, whenever they undertake a long jour¬
ney, and are likely to be deftitute of provifions. It is
probable the ftiells are not burnt into quicklime, but on¬
ly fo as to deftroy their tenacity, and to render them
fit for levigation. I he mafs is dried, and formed into
pills, of a proper fize to be held between the gum and
lip, which, being gradually diffolved and fwallowed, ob-
tund the fenfations both of hunger and of thirft. To¬
bacco, by its narcotic quality, feems well adapted to
counterafl the uneafy impreffions which the gaftric
juice makes on the nerves of the ftomach when it is
empty; and the combination of teftaceous powder
with it may tend to corredl the fecretion that is fup-
pofed to be the chief agent in digeftion, and which, if
not acid, is always united with acidity. Certain at
leaf! it is, that their operation is both grateful and fa-
lutary j for we find the luxurious inhabitants of the
Egll Indies mix them with the betel nut, to the chew¬
ing of which they are univerfally and immoderately ad¬
dicted. Perhaps fuch abforbents may be ufefully ap¬
plied^ both to divide the dofes and to moderate the
virulence of the tobacco. For, in the internal exhibi¬
tion of this plant, much caution is required, as it pro¬
duces ficknefs, vertigo, cold clammy fweats, and a
train of other formidable fymptoms, when taken in too
large a quantity. During the time of war, the im-
preifed failors frequently bring on thefe maladies, that
they may be admitted into the hofpitals, and releafed
from fervitude. It would be an ealy and fafe experi¬
ment to afcertain the efficacy, and to adjuft the ingre¬
dients, of the Indian compofition mentioned. And
there is reafon to believe, that the trial would be in
fome degree fuccefsful j for it is known that fmoking
• tobacco*
HUN [ 664 ] HUN
Hunger, tobacco gives relief to thofe habitual pains of the fto-
mach which appear to arife from the irritation of the
gaflric fecretions. The like effeft is fometimes produ¬
ced by increafing the flow of faliva, and fwallowing
what is thus difcharged. And Dr Percival has related
the cafe of a gentleman, who ufed to maflicate, many
hours daily, a piece of lead, which being neither
hard, friable, nor offenfive to the palate, fuited his
purpofe, as he thought, better than any other fub-
flance. He continued the cuftom many years, deri-
ving great eafe from it, and fuffering no fenfible inju¬
ry from the poifonous quality of the metal. On
mentioning this fa6t to a navy furgeon," the doffor was
told, that the failors, when in hot climates, are wont
to mitigate thirll by rolling a bullet in their mouths.
A more innocent mean, the do6for obferves, might be
devifed ; but the efficacy of this evinces, that the fali-
vary glands are for a while capable of furniihing a fub-
ftitute for drink. When a fcarcity of water occurs at
fea, Dr Franklin has advifed, that the mariners ffiould
bathe themfelves in tubs of falt-water : For, in pur-
fuing the amufement of fwimming, he obferved, that,
however thirfty he was before immerfron, he never
continued fo afterwards •, and that, though he foaked
kimfelf feveral hours in the day, and feveral days fuc-
ceffively in falt-water, he perceived not, in confequence
of it, the leaf! tafte of faltnefs in his mouth. He alfo
further fuggefts, that the fame good effeft might per¬
haps be derived from dipping the failor’s apparel in the
fea j and expreffes a confidence that no danger of catch¬
ing cold would enfue.
To prevent the calamity of famine at fea, it has been
propofed by Dr Lind, that the pow’der of falep ffiould
conffitute part of the provifions of every {hip’s com¬
pany. This powder and portable foup, diffolved in
boiling water, form a rich thick jelly j and an ounce
of each of thefe articles furniffies one day’s fubfiftence
to a healthy full grown man. Indeed, from Dr Per-
cival’s experiments it appears, that falep contains more
nutritious matter, in proportion to its bulk, than any
other vegetable production now ufed as food. It has
the property alfo of concealing the naufeous tafte of
fait water j and confequently may be of great advan¬
tage at fea, when the ftock of freffi water is fo far con-
fumed, that the mariners are put upon ffiort allowance.
By the fame—mucilaginous quality, it covers the offen-
livenefs, and even in feme meafure, correCts the acri¬
mony of falted and putrefeent meats. But, as a pre¬
servative againft hunger, falep would be moft efficaci¬
ous combined with an equal weight of beef fuet. By
fwallowing little balls of this lubricating compound at
proper intervals, the coats of the ftomach would be de¬
fended from irritation : and as oils and mucilages are
highly nutritive, of flow digeftion, and indifpofed to
pafs off by perfpiration, they are peculiarly wrell adap¬
ted to fupport life in fmall quantities. This compofi-
tion is Superior in fimplicity, and perhaps equal in ef¬
ficacy, to the following one, fo much extolled by Avi¬
cenna the celebrated Arabian phyfician j to whom we
mre indebted for the introduftion of rhubarb, caflia,
tamarinds, and fenna, into the materia medica. “ Take
fweet almonds and beef-fuet, of each one pound j of
the oil of violets two ounces j and of the roots of marfli-
mallows one ounce : bray thefe ingredients together in
a mortar, and form the mafs into bolufes, about the ftze
a
of a common nut.” Animal fat is Angularly powerful Hunger,
in affuaging the moft acute fenfations of thirft, as ap- v—«v
pears from the narrative of the fufferings experienced by
thofe who were confined in the black hole at Calcutta.
A hundred and forty-fix perfons, exbaufted by fatigue
and military duty, wTere there thruft together into a
chamber of 1 8 cubic feet, having only two windows,
ftrongly barred with iron, from which, in a clofe ful-
tr7 and in fuch a climate as that of Bengal,
little or no circulation of frelh air could be enjoyed.
In a few minutes, thefe unhappy wretches fell into fb
profufe a perfpiration, that an idea can hardly be
termed of it ; and this w^as fucceeded by a raging
thirft, which increafed in proportion as the body wras
drained of its moifture. \Vater ! Water ! became the
univerfal cry j and an old foldier on the outfide, through
pity, furniftied them with a few {kinfuls of it. But
thefe fcanty fupplies, like fprinklings on the fire, fer-
ved only to feed and increafe the flame. From this
experience of its effe£ts, Mr Holwell, their chief, de¬
termined to drink no more 5 and kept his mouth moift
by fucking the perfpiration out of his fliirt fleeves, and
catching the drops as they fell from his head and face.
” You cannot imagine (fays he) how unhappy I wras
if any of them efcaped me.” He came into the pri-
fon without his coat, the feafon being too hot to bear
it $ and one of his miferable companions, obferving the
expedient he had hit upon of allaying his thirft, rob¬
bed him from time to time of a ccnliderable part of
his ftore. This plunderer, whom he found to be a
young gentleman in the fervice of the Eaft India Com¬
pany, afterwards acknowledged, that he owed his life
to the many comfortable draughts wdrich he derived
from him. Before Mr Hohvell adopted this mode of
relief, he had attempted, in an ungovernable fit of
thirft, to drink his own urine: but it was fo intenfe-
ly bitter, that a fecond tafte could not be endured,
wffiereas, he affures us, no Briftol water could be more
foft and pleafant than his perfpiration. And this, we
may prefume, confifted chiefly of animal fat, melted by
exceffive heat, and exuding from the cellular mem¬
brane through the pores of the fkin.
Perfons who have been accuftomed to animal food,
are foon reduced when fupplied only with the farina-
cea. Several years ago, to determine the comparative
nutritive powers of different fubftances, an ingenious
young phyfician, as Dr Percival informs us, made a
variety of experiments on himfelf, to which he unfor¬
tunately fell a facrifice. He lived a month upon bread
and water j and under this regimen of diet he every
day diminiffied much in his weight. But in 1784, a
Undent of phyfic at Edinburgh confined himfelf for
a longer fpace of time to a pint of milk and half a
pound of white bread daily : And he affured our au¬
thor, that he paffed through the ufual labours of ftudy
and exercife without feeling any decay of health or
ftrength, and without any fenfible lofs of bulk. The
cutaneous, urinary, and alvine excretions, were very
fcanty during the whole period j and the difeharge of
faeces occurred only once in a week. In this cafe the
oily and coagulable parts of the milk probably furniffi-
ed a larger proportion of aliment, and at the fame
time contributed to check the wafte by perfpiration
and other difeharges $ for oleaginous fubftances are
retained long in the body by their vifeidity. Dr
Ruffel,
HUN [ 665 ]
Hanger. Ruflel, in his Natural Hiftory of Aleppo, relates, that forptior
u—v in thofe feafons when oil abounds, the inhabitants, by
indulgence in it, are difpofed to fever, and aftedled
with infarctions of the lungs; maladies wdiich indi¬
cate both retention and obftruCtion. Milk has been
fufpe&ed by fome of producing fimilar effe&s, though
in a {lighter degree •, and the free ufe of it has been
on this account forbidden to afthmatics.
Gum arabic might be a good fubftitute for falep in
the compofition already recommended 5 and as it will
give fuch firmnefs to the mafs, as to require manduca-
tion, the faliva, by this means feparated and carried
into the ftomach, w'ould further contribute to affuage
the fenfations both of hunger and of third. See-
GuM-^rabic. This gum, combined with fugar and
the whites of eggs, has been lately extolled in France,
under the name of patigumo, as a remedy for catarrhal
defluxions. Dr Percival has feen cakes made of thefe
ingredients, and thinks they might very well be ap¬
plied to the purpofe of obviating hunger. They are
not perifhable in the hotted climates, may be carried
about the perfon with convenience, and though very
tough are pleafant to the tade. In the formula by
which they are made, the proportion of fugar is too
large, and that of gum arabic too fmall, if the mafs be
intended to affuage the cravings of appetite. Accord¬
ing to our author’s information, the receipt is as fol¬
lows. “ Take of fine fugar four ounces, and of gum
arabic one ounce: Levigate them well together j and
add half an ounce of rofe water, and of the white of
eggs a fufficient quantity.”
In our attempts to recover thofe who have differed
Under the calamities of famine, great circumfpeftion is
required. Warmth, cordials, and food, are the means
to be employed ; and it is evident that thefe may prove
too powerful in their operation, if not adminidered
with caution and judgment. For the body, by long
fading, is redufced to a date of more than infantile
debility ; the minuter veffels of the brain, and of the
■ other organs, collapfe for wTant of fluids to didend
them j the domach and intedines flirink in their capa¬
city ; and the heart languidly vibrates, having fcarcely
fufficient energy to propel the fcanty current of blood.
Under fuch circumdances, a proper application of heat
feems an effential meafure, and may be effecded by pla¬
cing on each fide a healthy man in contact wflth the pa¬
tient. Pediluvia or fomentations may alfo be ufed with
advantage. The temperature of thefe fhould be low’er
than that of the human body, and gradually increafed
according to the effects of their dimulus. New milk,
weak broth, or water gruel, ought to be employed
both for the one and the other •, as nutriment may be
conveyed into the fydem this way, by paffages probably
the mod pervious in a date of fading, if not too long
* Watfons protradled. “ A lad at Newmarket*, a few years ago,
Chemical having been almod darved in order , that he might be
reduced to a proper wTeight for riding a match, was
weighed at nine o’clock in the morning, and again at
H U N
EJays,
vol. iii.
p. IOX.
ten ; and he was found to have gained near 30 ounces
in weight in the courfe of an hour, though he had only
drank half a glafs of wine in the interval. The wine
probably dimulated the aftion of the nervous fydem,
and incited nature, exhauded by abdinence, to open
the abforbent pores of the whole body, in order to fuck
in fome nourifhment from the air.” But no fuch ab-
VoL. X. Part II.
s this can be expelled in a date of extreme
weaknefs and emaciation gradually induced 5 becaufc
the lymphatics mud partake of the general want of tone
and energy. And notwithdanding the falutary effedlsu
of wine in the cafe of the jockey, wTho, it is likely,
had been reduced by fweating as well as by abdinence,
fuch a ffimulant might prove dangerous, and even fatal
in other cafes. It appears fafer therefore to advife the
exhibition of cordials in very fmall dofes, and at fird
confiderably diluted. Slender wine-whey will perhaps
bed anfwer this purpofe •, and afford, at the fame time,
an eafy and pleafant nouriihment. When the domach
has been a little drengthened, an egg may be mixed
with the whey, or adminidered under lome other agree¬
able form. The yolk of one was, to Cornaro, fufficient
for a meal 5 and the narrative of this noble Venetian,
in whom a fever was excited by the addition of only
two ounces of food to his daily allowance, ffiows, that
the return to a full diet fliould be conduced with great
caution, and by very flow gradations.
HUNGERFORD, a town of Berkfliire in Eng¬
land, feated on the river Kennet, in a low and watery
foil. It is a great thoroughfare in the Bath and Bridol
road, fixty-five miles from London j and was formerly
called Ingleford-Charnamjlreet. The condable of this
town, who is chofen annually, is lord of the manor,
which he holds immediately of the crown. They have
a horn here which holds about a quart, and appears by
an infcription on it to have been given by John of
Gaunt, together with a grant of the royal filhery, in a
part of the river which abounds with good trouts and
craw-filh. Here is a market on Wednefdays, and fair
in Augud.
HUNNINGUEN, a town of Germany, in Alface,
and in Suntgaw, fubjeft to the French 5 feated on the
Rhine, and fortified by Vauban. E. Long. 11. 40.
N. Lat. 47. 42.
HUNNS, a fierce and favage nation, who formerly
inhabited that part of Sarmatia bordering on the Palus
Mieotis and the Tanais, the ancient boundary between
Europe and Afia. Their country, as defcribed by Pro¬
copius, lay north of Mount Caucafus, which, extend¬
ing from the Euxine to the Cafpian feas, parts Afiatic
Sarmatia from Colchis, Iberia, and Albania; lying on
the iflhmus between the twro feas above mentioned.
Here they refided unknown to other nations, and them-
felves ignorant of other countries, till the year 376.
At this time, a hind purfued by the hunters, or, ac¬
cording to fome authors, an ox dung by a gad-fly, ha¬
ving paffed the marfh, was followed by fome Hunns to
the other fide, where they difeovered a country much
more agreeable than their own. On their return, hav¬
ing acquainted their countrymen with what they had
feen, the whole nation palled the marfh, and falling
upon the Alans, who dwelt on the banks of the Tasais,
almod exterminated them. They next fell upon the
Odrogoths, wffiom they drove out of their country, and
forced to retire to the plains between the Borydhenes
and the Tanais, now known by the name of Podo-
lia. Then attacking the Vifigoths, they obliged them
to fhelter themfelves in the mod mountainous parts of
their country ; till at lad the Gothic nations finding it
impoffible to withdand fuch an inundation of barbarians,
obtained leave from the emperor Valens to fettle in
Thrace.
4 P ' fK«:
Hunger-
ford
11
Hunns.
H U N f 666 ] H U NT
The Hunns thus became matleis ox all die country
between the Tanais and Danube in 376, where they
continued quietly till the year 388, when great num¬
bers of them were taken into the pay of Theodofius I.
but, in the mean time, a party of them, called the
Nephthalite or White Hunns, who had continued in A-
lia, overran all Mefopotamia, and even laid fiege to
Edeffa, where they w’ere repulfed with great daughter
by the Romans. The European Hunns frequently paf-
fed the Danube, committing the greateft ravages in the
weflern empire \ fometimes they fell upon the eaftern
provinces, where they put all to fire and fvvord. They
were often defeated and repulfed by the Romans, but
the empire was now too weak to fubdue or confine them
from making excuriions •, fo that they continued to
make daily encroachments, and became every day
more formidable than before. In 41 x, the Hunns,
der Att.la, threatened the weflern empire with total
deitruClion. This monarch, having made himfelf ma¬
iler of all the northern countries from the confines of
Pe rfia to the banks of the Rhine, invaded Maefia,
Thrace, and Illyricum ; where he made fuch progrefs,
that the emperor not thinking himfelf fafe in Conflanti-
nop’e, withdrew into Alla. Attila then broke into
Gaul ; where he took and deftroyed feveral cities, maf-
fucnng the inhabitants with the greatel! cruelty. At
lafl he wms driven out with great daughter by Aetius
the Roman general, and Theodoric king of the Goths,
and could never afterwards make any great progrefs.
About tire year 452 or 493 Attila died, and his king-
'.dom was immediately fplit into a number of fmall ones
by his numerous children, who waged perpetual war
with each other. The Hunns then ceafed to be formi¬
dable, and became daily lefs able to cope w'ith the other
barbarous nations whom Attila had kept in fubjedtion.
Still, however, their dominion was confiderable ; and
in the time of Charles the Great they were mailers of
Tranfylvania, Walachia, Servia, Carniola, Carinthia,
and the greater part of Auftria, together with Bofnia,
Sclavonia, and that part of Hungary which lies beyond
the Danube. In the year 776, while Charles wms in
Saxony, two princes of the Hunns, Caganus and Jugunus,
fent ambaO'adors to him, dedring his friendfhip and al¬
liance. Charles received them with extraordinary marks
of frienddrip, and readily complied with their requeft.
However, they entered, not long after, into an alliance
with Tatfila duke of Bavaria, who had revolted from
Charles, and raifed great didurbances in Germany.
Charles didembled his refentment till he had entirely re¬
duced Bavaria, when he refolved to revenge himfelf on
the Hunns for thofe fuccours they had underhand given
to his enemy. Accordingly, he ordered levies to be
made throughout his dominions 5 aud having by that
means affembled a very numerous army, he divided it
into two bodies, one of which he commanded himfelf,
and the other he committed to the care of his generals.
1 he two armies entered the country of the Hunns at
different places, ravaged their country far and near,
burnt their villages, and took all their ftrong holds.
This he continued for eight years, till the people were
almoff totally extirpated ; nor did the Hunns ever af¬
terwards recover themfelves, or appear as a diftincff na¬
tion.
There were two different nations that went by the
name of Hunns; the Nephthalite or White Hunns} and
the Sarmatian or Scythian Hunns. The former inha- Hunns,-
bited a rich country, bordering to the north on Perfia,
and at a great diltanee from the Sarmatian or Scythian
Hunns, with w’hom they had no intercourfe, nor the
iealt refemolance either in their perfons or manners.
1 hey were a powerful nation, and often ferved again ft
the Romans in the Perfian armies •, but in the reign of
the emperor Zeno, being provoked by Perozes king of
Perfia laying claim to part of their country, they de¬
feated the Perfians in two pitched battles/ flew then-
king, overran all Perfia, and held it in fubjeftion for
the fpace of two years, obliging Cabades, the fon and
fucceffor of Perozes, to pay them a yearly tribute.
Thefe Hunns, called by the writers of thofe times the
white Hunns, did not wander, like the others, from
place to place j but, contented with their own country,
which fupplied them with all neceffaries, they lived un¬
der a regular government, fubjedl; to one prince, and
feldom made inroads, unlefs provoked, either into the
Perfian or Roman territories. They lived according
to their own laws, and dealt uprightly with one ano¬
ther, as w-ell as with the neighbouring people. Each
of their great men ufed to choofe twenty or more com¬
panions to enjoy with him his wealth, and partake of
all his diverfions 5 but, upon his deceafe, they tvere all
buried with him !n the fame grave. This cuflom fa¬
vours of barbarity ; but in every other refpecl, tire
Nephthalite were a far more civilized nation than the
Scythian Hunns, who, breaking into the empire, filled
molt of the provinces of Europe with blood and daugh¬
ter.
The latter were, according to Ammianus Marcelli-
nus, a favage people, exceeding in cruelty the molt bar¬
barous nations. They begin to praftife their cruelty,
fays Jornandes, upon their own children the very fir It
day they come into the world, cutting and mangling
the cheeks of their males, to prevent the growth of
hair, which they muff have looked upon, contrary to the
fentiments of other nations, as unbecoming and unman¬
ly. _ They had, perhaps, in this practice another view,
which Jornandes feems to infinuate elfewhere, viz. to
ftrike terror into the enemy with their countenances,
thus deformed and covered with fears. They had no
other food but roots and raw- meat, being quite unac¬
quainted wdth the ufe of fire, and no houfes at all, not
even huts j but lived conftantly expofed to the air in
the woods, and on the mountains, where, from their
infancy, they were inured to hunger, third, and all
manner of hardlhips : nay, they had fuch an averfion
to houfes, which they called xXvt fepu/chres of the living,
that, when they went into other countries, they could
hardly be prevailed upon to come within the walls of
any houfe, not thinking themfelves fafe w-hen fhut up
and covered. They ufed even to eat and deep on horfe-
back, fcarce ever difmounting j which, in all likeli¬
hood, induced Zoflmus to write, that the Hunns could
not walk. They covered their nakednefs with goats
Ikins, or the fldns of a fort of mice fewed together.
Day and night were indifferent to them, as to buying,
felling, eating, and drinking. They had no law, nor
any kind of religion j but complied with their inclina¬
tions, whatever they prompted them to, without the
leaf! redraint, or diflindlion between good and evil. In
war, they began the battle with great fury, and a hi¬
deous noife ; but if they met with a vigorous oppofition,
their
their fury began to abate after the full onfet 5 and
when once put into diforder, they never rallied, but ded
in the utmofl confufion. They were quite unacquaint¬
ed with the art of befleging towns *, and authors obferve,
that they never attacked the enemy’s camp. They were
a faithlefs nation, and thought themfelves no longer
bound by the moft folemn treaties, than they found
their advantage in obferving them. Hence we often
find them, upon the lead profpeft of obtaining more ad¬
vantageous conditions, breaking into the Roman em¬
pire, in defiance of the mod folemn oaths and engage¬
ments. Several corps ofHunns, after their coming in¬
to Europe, ferved in the Roman armies againd the
Goths and other barbarous nations 5 nay, they were
ready, for hire, to fight againd each other, being blind
to every other regard and confideration.
HUNTER, a name given to a horfe qualified to
carry a perfon in the chace. The drape of the horfe
defigned for this fervice, flrould be drong and well knit
together, as the jockeys exprefs it. Irregular or un¬
equal diapes in thefe creatures are always a token of
weaknefs. The inequalities in fhape which diow a horfe
improper for the chace, are the having a large head
and a fmall neck, a large leg and a fmall foot, and the
like. The head of the hur»ter drould indeed always be
large, but the neck diould alfo be thick and drong to
fupport it. The head diould be lean, the npdrils wide,
and the windpipe draight.
The hunter, in order to his behaving -well in the
field, ought to have great care and indulgence in the
liable : he ought to have as much red and quiet as may
be, to be kept well fupplied with good meat, clean lit¬
ter, and fredi water by him ; he diould be often drefled,
and fuffered to deep as much as he pleafes. He diould
be fo fed, that his dung may be rather foft than hard,
and it mud be of a bright and clean colour. All this
may be eafily managed by the continual obfervance and
change of his food, as occafion requires. After his
ufual fcourings he ihould have exercifes and madies of
fweet malt, or bread and beans ; or wheat and beans
mixed together, are to be his bed food, and beans and
oats his word.
Some very great fportfmen are for keeping their
horfes out at grafs all the buck-hunting feafon, never
taking them up into the dable at all, but allowing them
in the field as much oats with their grafs as they will
eat. The horfe may be thus rid three days in the week
for the whole feafon, and never damaged by it, nor
ever Ihowing any marks of harm afterwards.
The whole ihape of a horfe intended for a hunter,
fhould be this : The ears fliould be fmall, open, and
pricked \ or though they be fomewhat long, yet if they
ftand up ere£l and bold like thofe of a fox, it is a fign
of toughnefs or hardinefs. The forehead fhould be long
and broad, not flat, or, as it is ufually termed, mare¬
faced, but rifing in the middle like that of a hare j the
feather fliould be placed above the eye, the contrary
being thought by fome to threaten blindnefs. The eyes
fhould be full, large, and bright; the noflrils not only
large, but looking red and frefh within j for an open
and frefn noftril is always efteemed a fign of a good
wind. The mouth fhould be large, deep in the wicks,
and hairy. The wind-pipe fliould be large, and appear
flraight when he bridles his head ; for if, on the con¬
trary, it bends like a bow on his bridling, it is not
formed for a free paffage of the breath. This deteT in
a horfe is expreffed among the dealers by the phrafe
cock-throppled. The head fhould be fo fet on to the
neck, that a fpace may be felt between the neck and
the chine •, when there is no fuch fpace, the horfe is
faid to be bull-necked ; and this is not only a blemifh
in the beauty of the horfe, but it alfo occafions Ins'
wind not to be fo good. The creft fhould be ftrong,
firm, and wrell rifen $ the neck fhould be ftraight and
firm, not loofe and pliant j the breaft fliould be flrong
and broad, the ribs round like a barrel, the fillets large,
the buttocks rather oval than broad, the legs clean,
flat, and ftraight; and, finally, the mane and tail
ought to be long and thin, not fhort and bufhy, the
lafi being counted a mark of dulnefs. When a hunter
is thus chofen, and has been taught fuch obedience,
that he will readily anfwer to the. rider’s fignals both
of the bridle and hand, the voice, the calf of the leg,
and the fpurs \ that he knows how to make his way
forward, and has gained a true temper of mouth, and
a right placing of his head, and has learned to flop
and to turn readily, if his age be fufficiently advanced,
he is ready for the field. It is a rule with aU haunch
fportfmen, that no horfe fliould be ufed in hunting till
he is full five years old j fome will hunt them at four,
but the horfe at this time is not come up to his true
ftrength and courage, and will not only fail at every
tough trial, but will be fubjeff to ftrains and accidents
of that kind, much more than if he wTer.e to be kept
another year firft, when his ftrength would be more
confirmed.
When the hunter is five years old, he may be put to
grafs from the middle of May till Bartholomew-tide y
for the weather between thefe is fo hot, that it will be
very proper to fpare him from work. At Bartholomew7-
tide, the ftrength of the grafs beginning to be nipped
by frofts and cold dews, fo that it is apt to engender
crudities in the horfe, he fhould be taken up while bis
coat is yet fmooth and fleek, and put into the liable.
When he is firfl brought home, he fhould be put in
fome fecure and fpacious place, where he may evacuate
his body by degrees, and be brought not all at once to
the warm keeping ; the next night he may be flabled
up. It is a general rule with many not U) clothe and
liable up their horfes till two or three days after they
are taken from grafs, and others who put them in the
liable after the firfl night, yet will not drefs and clothe
them till three or four days afterward •, but all this, ex¬
cept the keeping the horfe one day in a large and cool
place, is needlefs caution.
There is a general pradlice among the grooms, in
many places, of giving their hunters wheat-ftraw' as
foon as they take them up from grafs. They fay they
do this to take up their bellies *, but there feems much
reafon to difapproxv of this. The change is very vio¬
lent, and the nature of the ftraw fo heating and drying,
that there feems great reafon to fear that the ailringent
nature of it would be prejudicial, more than is at firft:
perceived. It is always found that the dung is hard af¬
ter this fdbd, and is voided with pain and difficulty,
which is in general very wrong for this fort of horfe-
It is better therefore to avoid this ftraw-feedmg, and ter
depend upon moderate airing, warm clothing, and
good old hay and old corn, than to have recourfe to
any thing of this kind.
Whea
H U N
Hunter. When the horfe has evacuated all his
a i'fi - c
been properly fliod, and the fhoes have had time to
fettle to lits feet, he may be ridden abroad, and treat¬
ed in this manner : the groom ought to vifxt him early
in the morning, at five o’clock in the long days, and
at fix in the fliort ones ; he rnuft then clean out the
liable, and feel the horfe’s neck, Hank, and belly, to
find the if ate of his health. If the flank feels foft and
flabby,, there is a neceffity of good diet to harden it,
otherwife any great exercife will occafion fwellings
an . goutinefs in the heels. After this examination, a
handful.or two. of good old oats, well fifted, ihould be
given him ; this will make him have more inclination
to water, and will alfo make the water fit better on his
itoiriach, than if he drank faffing. After this he is to
be tied up and dreffed. If in the doing of this he
opens his mouth, as if he would bite, or attempts to
kick at the perfon, it is a proof that the teeth of the
currycomb, are too. fharp, and muff be filed blunter.
If after this he continues the fame -tricks, it is through
wantonnefs, and he ihould be corre£ted for it with the
whip. I he intent of currying being only to raife
the uuff, this is to be brufhed off afterwards with a
horfe-tail nailed to a handle, or any other light brufh.
I hen he is to be rubbed down with the brufh, and
duffed a fcond time 5 he fhould then be rubbed over
with a wet hand, and all the loofe hairs, and whatever
foulnefs there is, fhould be picked off. When this
is done, and he is wiped dry as at firft, a large faddle-
clotli is to be put on, reaching down to the fpurring
place 5 then .the faddle is to be put on, and a cloth
thrown over it that he may not take cold: then rub
down his legs, and pick his feet with an iron picker,
and let the mane and tail be combed with a wet mane-
comb. Lalfly, it is a cuffom to fpurt fome beer in his
mouth juft before the leading him out of the liable.
He fhould then be mounted, and walked a mile at
leaft to fome running water, and there watered j but
he muff only be buffered to take about half his water at
one drinking.
It is the cuffom of many to gallop the horfe at a vio¬
lent rate as foon as he comes out of the water ; but this
is extremely wrong for many reafons. It endangers
the breaking a horfe’s wind more than any other prac¬
tice, and often has been the occafion of burffing very
good horfes. It ufes them alfo to the difagreeable trick
ue ffi-h Hi many horfes, of running away as foon as ever
they come out of the water : and with fome it makes
them av.erfe to drinking, fo that they will rather en¬
dure thirff, and hurt themfelves greatly by it, than
bring on the violent exercife which they remember al¬
ways follows it. The better way is to walk him a little
alter he is out of the water, then put him to a gentle
gallop for a little while, and after this to bring him to
t he water again. I his fhould be done three or four
times, till he wall not drink any more. If there is a
Lilly piace.near the watering place, it is always well to
ride up to it 5 if otherwife, any place is to be chofen
where there is free air and fun. I'hat the creature may
enjoy the benefit of this, he is not to be galloped, but
.valked about in this place an hour, and then taken
home to the liable. The pleafure the hoife himfelf
takes in thefe airings when well managed is very evi¬
dent.; for he will gape, yawn, and fhrug up his body :
und in thefe, whenever he would Hand ffill to ffal?,
[ 668 ] IT u N
and has dung, or liffen to any noife, he is not to be hindered
fiom it, but encouraged in every thing of this kind.
ihe advantages of thefe airings are very evident*
they purify the blood, teach the creature how to make
his breathing, agree with the reft of the motions of his
ouy, and give him an appetite to his food, which
lunters and racers that are kept flailed up are otherwife
Hunter.
very apt to lofe. On returning from airing, the litter
of the. {fable Ihould be frefli, and by ffirrimx this and
whiffling, he will be brought to ffale. Then he is to
be led to his flail, and tied up, and again carefully rub¬
bed down ; then he fhould be covered with a linen
cloth next his body, and a canvas one over that, made
to fit him, and reaching down to his legs. This, as the
duke of Newcaftle obferves, is a cuftom which we learn¬
ed of the Turks, who are of all people the molt nice
and careful of their horfes. Over this covering there
mould be put a body-cloth of fix or eight ftraps ; this
keeps, his belly in fltape, and does not hurt him. This
clothing will be fufficient while the weather is not very
fharp ; but in fevere feafons, when the hair begins to
nfe and Hart in the uncovered parts, a woollen doth is
to be added, and this will always prove fully fufii-
Different hones, and different feafons, make variety
of the degree of clothing necelfary ; but there always is
an obvious rule to point out the neceffary changes, the
roughnefs of the coat being a mark of the want of
clothing,. and the fmoothnefs of it a proof that the
clothing is fufficient. Therefore if at any time the
hair is found to flart, it is a notice that iome farther
clothing is to be added.
If the horfe fweat much in the night, it is a fign
that he is over fed and wants exercife ; this therefore is
eafily remedied. An hour or more after the horfe is
come in from his airing, the groom ffiould give him a
wifp of clean hay, making him eat it out of his hand ;
after this let the manger be well cleaned out, and a
quartern of oats clean fifted be given him. If he eats
up this with an.appetite, he ffiould have more given
him ; but if he is flow and indifferent about it, he muff
have no more. The bufinefs is to give him enough
but not to cloy him with food.
If the horfe gets fleffi too fall on this home feeding,
he is. not to be ifinted to prevent it, but only his exer¬
cife increafed; this will take down his fleffi, and at the
fame time give him ffrength and wind. After the feed¬
ing in the morning is over the liable is to be ffiut up,
only leaving him a little hay on his litter. He need be
no more looked at till one o’clock, and then only rub¬
bed down, and left again to the time of his evening-
watering, which is four o’clock in the fummer and
three in the winter. When he has been watered, he
muff be kept out an hour or two, or more if neceffary,
and then taken home and rubbed as after the morning
watering. Then he is to have a feed of corn at fix
o’clock, and another at nine at night ; and being then
cleaned, and his litter put in order, and hay enough left
for the night, he is to be left till morning. This is the
direction for one day, and in this manner he is to be
treated, every day for a fortnight; at the end of which
time his fleffi. will be fo hardened, his wind fo impro¬
ved, and his mouth fo quickened, and his gallop
brought to fo good a ftroke, that he will be fit to be
put to moderate hunting. During the time that he is
ufed
HUN [ 669 ] H
Hunter, ufed to hunting, he mud be ordered on his days of reft partnerfhip with Dr Cullen
 v ' exa£tly as he is directed for the fortnight when he is in
preparation *, but as his exercife is now greatly increa-
fed, he mult be allowed a more ftrengthening food,
mixing fome old fplit beans at every feeding with his
oats.
And if this is not found to be fufficient, the following
bread mud be given : let two pecks of old beans and
one peck of wheat be ground together, and made into
an indiderently fine meal ; then knead it into dough
with fome w7arm water and a good quantity of yealt ;
let it lie a time that it may rife and fwell, which will
make the bread the lighter j then make it into loaves of
a peck each, and let it be baked in a flow oven, that it
may be thoroughly done without being burnt j when it
is taken out of the oven, it mud be fet bottom upwards
to cool", when it is one day old the crud is to be chip¬
ped off, and the crumb given him for food. When this
is ready, he fliould have fome of it at lead once in the
day : but it is not to be made the only food, but fome
feeds are to be of oats alone, fome of oats and this bread,
and fome of oats and beans mixed together. The mak¬
ing a variety in this manner being the bed of all me¬
thods for keeping up the appetite, wdiich is often apt to
fail.
The day before the horfe is to hunt, he mud have
no beans, becaufe they are hard of digedion, but only
fome oats with this bread : or if he will be brought to
eat the bread alone, that will be bed of all. His even¬
ing feed fhould on this day be fomewhat earlier than
ufual ; and after this he is only to have a wifp of
hay out of the groom’s hand till he return from hunt-
ing. ;
Hunter, Dr William, a celebrated anatomid and
phylician, was born on the 23d of May 1 7 1 8, at Kilbride
in the county of Lanerk in Scotland. He was the fe-
venth of the children of John and Agnes Hunter, who
refided on a fmall ellate in that parilh called Long Cal-
derwood, which had been long in the poffeflion of his
family. His great grandfather by his father’s fide,
was a younger fon of Hunter of Hunterdon, chief of
the family of that name. At the age of fourteen his
father fent him to the college of Glafgow. In this fe-
minary he paffed five years, and by his prudent beha¬
viour and diligence acquired the edeem of the profef-
fors, and the reputation of being a good fcholar. His
father had defigned him for the church : but the idea
of fubfcribing to articles of faith was fo repugnant to
the liberal mode of thinking he had already adopted,
that he felt an infuperable averfion to his theological
purfuits. In this' date of mind he happened to be¬
come acquainted with Dr Cullen, the late celebrated
profeffor at Edinburgh, who was then jud edabliflied
in practice at Hamilton under the patronage of the
duke of Hamilton. Dr Cullen’s converfation foon de¬
termined him to lay afide all thoughts of the church,
and to devote himfelf to the profeflion of phyfic. His
father’s confent having been previoufly obtained, Mr
Hunter in 1737 went to refide with Dr Cullen. In
the family of this excellent friend and preceptor he
palled nearly three years : and thefe, as he has been
often heard to acknowledge, were the happied years
of his life. It was then agreed, that he fhould go and
profecute his medical dudies at Edinburgh and Lon¬
don, and afterwards return to fettle at Hamilton in
Dr Foart
Simmons s
account of
the life and
’ivritings of
Dr IV.
Hunter,
U N
He accordingly let' out Hunter,
for Edinburgh in November 1740; and continued there
till the following fpring, attending the ledtures of the
medical profeffors, and amongd others thofe of the late
Dr Alexander Monro, who many years afterwards, in
allufion to this circumdance, ityled himfelf his old
mqfler.
Mr Hunter arrived in London in the dimmer of
1741, and took up his refidence at Mr, afterwards Dr,
Smellie’s, who was at that time an apothecary in Pall
Mall. He brought with him a letter of recommenda-*
tion to his countryman Dr James Douglas, from Mr
Foulis printer at Glafgow, who had been ufeful to the
dodtor in colledling for him different editions of Ho¬
race. Dr Douglas was then intent on a great anato¬
mical work on the bones, which he did not live to
complete, and was looking out for a young man of
abilities and indudry wdiom he might employ as a dif-
fedlor. This induced him to pay particular attention
to Mr Hunter j and finding him acute and fenfible, he
defired him to make him another vifit. A fecond con¬
verfation confirmed the dodtor in the good opinion he
had formed of Mr Hunter ", and without any farther
hefitation he invited him into his family to aflid in his
diffedtions and to fuperintend the education of his
fon.—Mr Hunter having accepted Dr Douglas’s invi¬
tation, was by his friendly aflifiance enabled to enter
himfelf as a furgeon’s pupil at St George’s Hofpital
under Mr James Wilkie, and as a diffedting pupil un¬
der Dr Frank Nichols, who at that time taught ana¬
tomy with confiderable reputation. He like wife at¬
tended a courfe of ledtures on experimental philofophy
by Dr Defaguliers. Of thefe means of improvement
he did not fail to make a proper ufe. He foon became
expert in diifedlion, and Dr Douglas was at the ex¬
pence of having feveral of his preparations engraved.
But before many months had elapfed, he had the mif-
fortune to lofe this excellent friend.—The death of Dr
Douglas, however, made no change in the fituation of
our author. Pie continued to refide with the dodlor’s -
family, and to purfue his ftudies with the fame diligence
as before.
In 1743 he communicated to the Royal Society an
effay on the Structure and Difeafes of articulating
Cartilages. This ingenious paper, on a fubjedt which
till then had not been fufficiently inveftigated, affords
a linking teflimony of trnl rapid progrefs he had made
in his anatomical inquiries. As he had it in contem¬
plation to teach anatomy, his attention was diredted
principally to this objedi •, and it defervcs to be men¬
tioned as an additional mark of his prudence, that he
did not precipitately engage in this attempt, but
paffed feveral years in acquiring fuch a degree of know¬
ledge and fuch a colledfion oi preparations, as might
infure him fuccefs. Dr Nichols, to whom he com¬
municated his fcheme, and who declined giving lec¬
tures about that time in favour of the late Dr Law¬
rence, did not give him much encouragement to pro¬
fecute it. But at length an opportunity prefented it-
felf for the difplay of his abilities as a teacher. A fo-
ciety of navy furgeons had an apartment in Covent -
Garden, where they engaged the late Mr Samuel Sharpe
to deliver a courfe of lectures on the operations of fur-
gery. Mr Sharpe continued to repeat this eourfe,
till finding that it interfered too much with his other
engagements;, .
H U N f 670 ] HUN
engagements, he declined the talk in favour of Mr
Hunter ; who gave the fociety fo much fatisfadtion,
that they requerted him to extend his plan to anatomy,
and at firtl he had the ufe of their room for his lec¬
tures. This happened in the winter of 1746. He
is faid to have experienced much folicitude when he
began to fpeak in public : but the applaufe he met with
foon infpired him with courage ; and by degrees he
became fo fond of teaching, that for many years be¬
fore his death he was never happier than when employ¬
ed in delivering a ledlure. The profits of his two firit
courfes were confiderable *, but by contributing to the
wants of different friends, he found himfelf at the re¬
turn of the next feafon obliged to defer his leisures for
a fortnight, merely becaule he had not money enough
to defray the neceffary expence of advertifements.
In 1747 he was admitted a member of the corpora¬
tion of furgeons •, and in the fpring of the following
year, toon after the clofe of his ledlures, he fet out in
company with his pupil, Mr James Douglas, on a
tour through Holland to Paris. His ledlures fuffered
no interruption by this journey, as he returned to Eng¬
land foon enough to prepare for his winter-courfe,
which began about the ufual time.
At firft he praftiled both furgery and midwifery 5
but to the former of thefe he had always an averfion.
His patron, Dr James Douglas, had acquired confider¬
able reputation in midwifery ; and this probably indu¬
ced Mr blunter to direct his views chiefly to the fame
line of pradtice. His being elected one of the furgeon
men-midwives, firft t'o the Middlefex, and foon after-
rvards to the Britith Lying-in Hofpital, aflifted in
bringing him forward in this branch of his profeflion,
in which he vras recommended by feveral of the moft
eminent lurgeons of that time, who refpedted his ana¬
tomical talents and wilhed to encourage him. But
thefe were not the only circumftances that contributed
to his fuccefs. He owed much to his abilities, and
much to his perfon and manner, which eminently qua¬
lified him for the practice of midwifery.
In 1750 he feems to have entirely relinquifhed his
views in furgery; as in that year he obtained the de¬
gree of Dodfor of Phyfic from the univerfity of Glaf-
gow, and began to pradfife as a phyfician. About
this time he quitted the family of Mrs Douglas, and
went to refide in Jermyn-ftreet. In the fummer of
1751 he revifited his native country, for which he al¬
ways retained a cordial affedlion. His mother was ftill
living at Long Calderwood, which was now become
his property by the death of his brother James. Dr
Cullen, for whom he always entertained a fincere re¬
gard, was then eftabliftred at Glafgow, and had ac¬
quired confiderable reputation both as a pradlitioner
and teacher of phyfic ; fo that the two friends had
the pleafure of being able to congratulate each other
on their mutual profperity. During this vifit he
ihowed his attachment to his little paternal inheritance
by giving many inftrudlions for repairing and impro-
ving it, and for purchafing any adjoining lands that
might be offered for fale. After this journey to Scot¬
land, to which he devoted only a few weeks, he was ne¬
ver ablent from London, unlefs hhi profeftional engage¬
ments, as fometimes happened, required his attendance
at a diftance from the capital.
In 1755, on the refignation of Dr Layard, one of
3
the phyficians of the Britifti lying-in hofpital, we find
the governors of that inftitution voting their “ thanks
to Dr Hunter for the fervices he had done the hofpi¬
tal, and for his continuing in it as one of the phyfi¬
cians fo that he feems to have been eftabliftied in
this oftice without the ufual form of an eledion. The
year follow ing he was admitted a licentiate of the Royal
College of Phyficians. Soon afterwards he was eleded
a member of the Medical Society ; and to the Obferva-
ttons and Inquiries publiflied by that fociety, he at dif¬
ferent periods contributed feveral valuable papers.
In 1762, we find him warmly engaged in controver-
fy, fupporting his claim to different anatomical difeo-
veries, in a work entitled Medical Commentaries, the
ftyle of which is corred and fpirited. As an excufe
for the tardinefs with which he brought forth this
work, he obferves in his introdudion, that it required
a good deal of time, and he had little to fpare ; that
the fubjed was unpleafant, and therefore he was very
feldom in the humour to take it up. In this publica¬
tion he confined himfelf chiefly to a difpute with the
prefent learned profeffor of anatomy at Edinburgh,
concerning injedions of the tefticle, the duds of the
lachrymal gland, the origin and ufe of the lymphatic
veffels, and abforption by veins. He likewife defend¬
ed himfelf againft a reproach thrown upon him by
Profeffor Monro fenior, by giving a concife account of
a controverfy he was involved in with Mr Pott con¬
cerning the difeovery of the Hernia Congenita. It
was not long before Mr Pott took occafion to give the
public his account of the difpute 5 and, in reply.
Dr Hunter added a fupplement to his commenta¬
ries. No man was ever more tenacious than Dr Hun¬
ter of what he conceived to be his anatomical rights.
This was particularly evinced in the year 1780, when
his brother communicated to the Royal Society a dif¬
eovery he had made 25 years before, relative to the
ftrudure of the placenta, the communication between
it and the uterus, and the vafcularity of the fpongy
chorion. At the next meeting of the fociety, a letter
was read, in which Dr Hunter put in his claim to the
difeovery in queftion. This letter was followed by a
reply from Mr John Hunter, and here the difpute
ended.
In 1762, when the queen became pregnant, Dr Hun¬
ter was confulted : and two years afterwards he had
the hon^ir to be appointed phyfician extraordinary to
her majefty.
About this time his avocations were fo numerous,
that he became defirous of leffening his fatigue j and
having noticed the ingenuity and affiduous application
of the late Mr William Hewfon, F. R. S. who was
then one of his pupils, he engaged him firft as an af-
fiftant, and afterwards as a partner in his ledlures.
This connexion continued till the year 1770, when
fome difpute happened, which terminated in a repa¬
ration. Mr Hewfon was fucceeded in the partnerfhip
by Mr Cruiklhank, whofe anatomical abilities were de-
fervedly refpefted.
In 1767, Dr Hunter was elected a fellow of the
Royal Society : and in the year following communi¬
cated to that learned body obfervations on the bones,
commonly fuppofed to be elephants bones, which have
been found near the river Ohio in America. This
was not the only fubjeft of natural hiftory on which
our
Hunter.
HUN [67
Hunter, our author employed his pen ; for in a fubfequent vo-
-—r*—1 lume of the Pbilofophical Tranfaftions, we find him
offering his remarks on fome bones found in the rock
of Gibraltar, and which he proves to have belonged to
fome quadruped. In the fame work, likewife, he pub-
lifhed an account of the nyl-ghau, an Indian animal
not defcribed before. In 1768, Dr Hunter became a
fellow of the Society of Antiquaries; and the fame year,
at the inftitution of a Royal Academy of Arts, he was
appointed by his majelly to the office of profeffor of ana¬
tomy. This appointment opened a new field for his abi¬
lities j and he engaged in it, as he did in every other pur-
fuits of his life with unabating zeal. He now adapted
his anatomical knowledge to the objefts of painting and
fculpture, and the novelty and juftnefs of his obferva-
tions proved at once the readinefs and extent of his
genius. In January 1781, he was unanimoufly defied
to fucceed the late Dr John Fothergill as prefident of
the Medical Society. As his name and talents wTere
known and refpected in every part of Europe, fo the
honours conferred on him were not limited to his own
country. In 1780, the Royal Medical Society at Pa¬
ris elefted him one of their foreign aflbeiates; and in
1782, he received a fimilar mark of diftindion from
the Royal Academy of Sciences in that city.
The moft fplendid of Dr Hunter’s medical publica¬
tions was the Anatomy of the Human Gravid Ute¬
rus. The appearance of this work, which had been
begun fo early as the year 1751 (at which time 10 of
the 34 plates it contains were completed), wras retard¬
ed till the year 1775, only by the author’s defire of
fending it into the world with fewer imperfections.
This great work is dedicated to the king. In his pre¬
face to it, tve find the author very candidly acknow¬
ledging, that in molt of the diffedionshe had been af-
fllted by his brother Mr John Hunter, “ whofe accu¬
racy (he adds) in anatomical refearches is fo u'ell known,
that to omit this opportunity of thanking him for
that affiitance would be in fome meafure to difregard
the future reputation of the work itfelf.” Pie like-
tvife confeffes his obligations to the ingenious artills
who made the drawings and engravings ; “ but par¬
ticularly to Mr Strange, not only for having by his
hand fecured a fort of immortality to two of the plates,
but for having given his advice and affillance in every
part with a Heady and difinterefted friendlhip. An ana¬
tomical defeription of the gravid uterus was a work
which Dr Hunter had in contemplation to give the
public. He had likewife long been employed in col-
leding and arranging materials for a hiftory of the va¬
rious concretions that are formed in the human body.
Among!! Dr Hunter’s papers have been found twm
introdudlory ledlures, which are written' out fo fairly,
and with fucli accuracy, that he probably intended no
farther'correftion of them before they fhould be given
to the world. In thefe leffures Dr Hunter traces the
hiftory of anatomy from the earlieft to the prefent
times, along with the general progrefs of fcience and
the arts. He confiders the great utility of anatomy .
in the pradlice of phyfic and furgery •, gives the an¬
cient divifions of the different fubffances compofing the
human body, which for a long time prevailed in ana¬
tomy ; points out the moll advantageous mode of cul¬
tivating this branch of natural knowdedge } and con¬
cludes with explaining the particular plan of his own
i ] HUN
ledlures. Befides thefe manuferipts, he has alio lett
behind him a confiderable number of cafes of diffec-
tion •, moilly relating to pregnant women.
The fame year in which the Tables of the Gravid
Uterus made their appearance, Dr Hunter communi¬
cated to the Royal Society an Effay on the Origin of
the Venereal Difeafe. In this paper he attempted to
prove, that this dreadful malady was not brought from
America to Europe by the crew of Columbus, as had
been commonly fuppofed, although it made its firil
appearance about that period. After this paper had
been read to the Royal Society, Dr Hunter, in a con-
verfation with the late Dr Mufgrave, was convinced
that the teftimony on which he placed his chief depen¬
dence was of lefs weight than he had at firft imagined,
as many of Martyr’s letters afford the moft convincing
proofs of their having been written a conliderable time
after the period of their dates. He therefore very
properly laid afxde his intention of giving his et-
fay to the public. In the year 1777 Dr Hunter join¬
ed with Mr Watfon in prefenting to the Royal Society
a ftrort account of the late Dr Maty’s illnefs, and of
the appearances on diffeddion ; and the year following
he publifhed his Refleddions on the Sedlion of the
Symphyfis Pubis.
We muft now go back a little in the order of
time to deferibe the origin and progrefs of Dr Hun¬
ter’s mufeum, without fome account of which the hi¬
ftory of his life would be very incomplete.
When he began to pradftife midwifery, he was de-
ftrous of acquiring a fortune fufficient to place him in
eafy and independent circumitances. Before many
years had elapfed, he found bimfelf in pofleftion of a
fum adequate to his wdfhes in this reipedf •, and this he
fet apart as a refource of which he might avail himfelf
whenever age or infirmities ftiould oblige him to re¬
tire from bufinefs. After he had obtained this com¬
petency, as his wealth continued to accumulate, he
formed a laudable defign of engaging in fome fcheme
of public utility, and at firft had it in contempla¬
tion to found an anatomical fchool in this metro¬
polis. For this purpofe, about the year I775» du¬
ring the adminiftration of Mr Grenville, he preferr¬
ed a memorial to that minifter, in which he requefted
the grant of a piece of ground in the Mews, for the
lite of an anatomical theatre. Dr Hunter under¬
took to expend 7000I. on the building, and to en¬
dow a profefforfhip of anatomy in perpetuity. This
fcheme did not meet with the reception it deferved.
In a con variation on this fubjeift foon afterwards with
the earl of Shelburne, his lordfhip expreffed a widi
that the plan might be carried into execution by fub-
feription, and very generoufiy requefted to have his
name fet down fora thoufand guineas. Dr Hunter’s
delicacy would not allow him to adopt this propofal.
He chofe rather to execute it at his own expence j and
accordingly purchafcd a fpot of ground in Great Wind-
rnill-ftreetj where he erefted a fpacious houfe, to which
he removed from Jermyn-ftreet in 1770. In this
building, befides a handfome amphitheatre and other
convenient apartments for Ins leilures and diffeeftions,
there was one magnificent room, fitted up with great
elegance and propriety as a mufeum. Of the magni¬
tude and value of his anatomical colle&ion fome idea
may be formed, when we confider the great length of
years
Hunter-
Hunter.
H U N [ 67
years lie employed in the making of anatomical prepa¬
rations and in the diffeftion of morbid bodies, added
to the eagernefs with which he procured additions
from the collections of Sandys, Hewfon, Falconer,
Blackall, and others, that were at different times offer¬
ed for fale in this metropolis. His fpecimens of rare
difeafes were likevvife frequently increafed by prefents
from his medical friends and pupils ; who, when any
]
HUN
thing of this fort occurred to them, very juftly thought
they could not difpole of it more properly than by
placing it in Hr Hunter’s mufeum. Speaking of an
acquiiition in this way in one of his publications, he
lays, “ I look upon every thing of this kind which is
given to me, as a prefent to the public 3 and confider
myfelf as thereby called upon to ferve the public with
more diligence.”
Before his removal to Wxndmill-ftreet, he had con¬
fined his colledtion chiefly to fpecimens of human and
comparative anatomy and of difeafes 3 but now he ex¬
tended his views to fcffils, and likewife to the promo¬
tion of polite literature and erudition. In a ihort fpace
of time he became poffeffed of “ the moft magnificent
treafure of Greek and Latin books that has been accu¬
mulated by any perfon now living fince the davs of
Mead.” A cabinet of ancient medals contributed like¬
wife much to the richnefs of his mufeum. A defcrip-
tion of part of the coins in this colleflion, (truck by the
Greek free cities, was afterwards publilhed by the
Doctor’s learned friend Mr Combe. In a claflical de¬
dication of this elegant volume to the queen, Dr blunter
acknowledges his obligations to her majefty. In the
preface fome account is given of the progrefs of the
collection, which has been brought together fince the
year 1770, with lingular tafte, and at the expence of
upwards of 20,cool. In 1781, the mufeum received a
valuable addition of (hells, corals, and other curious
(ubjeCts of natural hiftory, which had been collected by
the late worthy Dr Fothergill, who gave directions by
his will, that his collection (hould be appraifed after his
death, that Dr blunter (hould have the refufal of it at
500I. under the valuation. This was accordingly done,
and Dr Hunter purchafed it for the fum of 1 2col. The
fame of this mufeum fpread throughout Europe. Few
foreigners diftinguiffied for their rank or learning vifited
this metropolis without requefting to fee it. Men of
fcience of our own country always had eafy accefs to
it.—Confidered in a collective point of view, it is per¬
haps without a rival.
Dr Hunter, at the head of his profeflion, honoured
with the efteem of his fovereign, and in poffeffion of
every thing that his reputation and wealth could con¬
fer, feemed now to have attained the fummit of his
wifhes. But thefe fources of gratification were embit¬
tered by a difpofition to the gout, which harafled him
frequently during the latter part of his life, notwith-
itanding his very abftemious manner of living. On Sa¬
turday the 15th of March 1783, after having for feve-
ral days experienced a return of a wandering gout, he
complained of great head-ach and naufea. In this (late
he went to bed, and for feveral days felt more pain than
ufual both in his Itomach and limbs. On the Thtirf-
day following he found himfelf fo much recovered, that
he determined to give the introductory leCture to the
operations of furgery. It was to no purpofe that his
friends urged to him the impropriety of fuch an at-
3
tempt. He wTas determined to make the experiment, Hunter.
and accordingly delivered the leCture ; but towards the  v—■
conclulion his (Length was (o exhaufted that he fainted
away, and was obliged to be carried to bed by two fer-
vants. The following night and day his Symptoms
were fuch^as indicated danger 3 and on Saturday morn¬
ing Mr Combe, who made him an early vifit, was
alarmed on being told by Dr Hunter himlelf, that du¬
ring the night he had certainly had a raralytic Broke.
As neither his fpeech nor his pulfe were affeCted, and
he was able to raife himfelf in bed, Mi-Combe encou¬
raged him to hope that he wras miltaken. But thb
event proved the doCtor’s idea of his complaint to be
but too well founded 3 for from that time till his death,
which happened on Sunday the 30th of March, he
voided no urine without the afliffance of the catheter,
which was occafionally introduced by his brother 3 and
purgative medicines were adminiftered repeatedly with¬
out procuring a pafiage by ftool. Thefe circumftances,
and the abfence of pain, feemed to (how, that the in-
teftines aud urinary bladder had loft their fenfibility and
power of contraction 3 and it was reafonable to prefume
that a partial palfy had affeCled the nerves diftributed
to thofe parts.
By his will, the ufe of his mufeum, under the di-
reClion of truftees, devolves to his nephew Matthew
Baillie, B. A. and in cafe of his death to Mr Cruik-
fliank for the term of thirty years 3 at the end of which
period the whole colleClion is bequeathed to the uni-
verfity of Glafgow. The fum of eight thoufand
pounds fterling is left as a fund for the fupport and aug¬
mentation of the colleClion.
Dr Hunter was regularly ftiaped, but of a (lender
make, and rather below a middle (lature. His man¬
ner of living was extremely fimple and frugal, and
the quantity of his food was fmall as well as plain. He
was an early rifer 3 and when buiinefs was over, was
conftantly engaged in his anatomical purfuits, or in
his mufeum. There was fomething very engaging in
his manner and addrefs; and he had fuch an appearance
of attention to his patients, when he was making his
inquiries, as could hardly fail to conciliate their confi¬
dence and efteem. In confultation with his medical
brethren, he delivered his opinions with diffidence and
candour. In familiar converfation he was cheerful and
unafluming. As a teacher of anatomy he has been
long and defervedly celebrated. He was a good
orator 3 and having a clear and accurate conception
of what he taught, he knew how to place in di-
(finCl and intelligible points of view the moft abftrufe
fubjeCls of anatomy and phyfiology. Among other
methods of explaining and illuftrating his dodrines,
he ufed frequently to introduce fome appofite (lory or
cafe that had occurred to him in his praCIice 3 and few
men had acquired a more interefting fund of anecdotes
of this kind, or related them in a moie agreeable man¬
ner.
Hunter, Jo/in, an eminent furgeon, was the young-
eft child of John Hunter of Kilbride, in the county of
Lanerk. He was born at Long Calderwoed on the
13th of July 1728. His father died when he was about
ten years of age, from which circumftance his mother
was induced to grant him too much indulgence. In
confequence he made no progrefs at the grammar-fehool,
and was almoft wholly illiterate at the age of 20, when
■ . he
HUN t C73 ] H U N
Hunter, he arrived in London. His brother Dr W. Hunter,
was at that time the moft eminent teacher of anatomy,
and John exprefled a wiili to aihft him in his re-
fearches. The doclor, anxious to make trial of his ta¬
lents, gave him an arm to diilett for the mufcles,< with
proper inllruclions iiow it was to be performed’, and the
dexterity with which he managed his undertaking ex¬
ceeded the expeiflations of his brother.
Having acquired fome reputation from this firft at¬
tempt, his brother employed him in a more difficult
diffedtion, which was an arm wherein all the arteries
were injedled, and thefe and the mufcles were to be
preferved and expofed. In the execution ot this talk
he alfo gave the higheft fatisfaddion, and his brother
predidled that he would become a good anatbmilf, and
never want employment. Under the inltrudions of
his brother and Mr Symonds his affiftant, he enjoyed
every favourable opportunity of increalxng his anatomi¬
cal knowdedge, hnce that fchool monopolized all the
difiedions then carried on in London.
He was admitted into partnerihip with his brother
in the winter of 1 755, and a certain department of the
ledures was allotted to him, and he alfo ledured when
the dodor wTas called away to attend his patients. The
mind of Mr Hunter was peculiarly fitted for the lludy
of anatomy, and the indefatigable ardour with which
he prolecuted it, is fcarcely to be equalled. He ap¬
plied to human anatomy for ten years, during which
period he made himfelf mailer of every thing then
known, and alfo made fome confiderable additions. He
was the firit wffio difcovered the exiftence 6f the lym¬
phatic veiTels in birds.
With fuch eagernefs did he apply himfelf to the
fludy of comparative anatomy, that he even applied to
the keeper of wild bealts in the Towrer for the bodies
of fuch as died there, and to all thofe who were in the
habit of exhibiting wild beads to the public. He made
a purchafe of every rare animal that came in his way,
which, together with thofe prefented to him by his
friends, he gave to the (bowmen to keep till they died,
the more effectually to prevail with them to affift him in
his labours. So much was his health impaired by un¬
wearied attention to his favourite purfuits, that in 1760
his friends advifed him to go abroad, as he exhibited
many fymptoms of an incipient confumption. In Oc¬
tober that year he was appointed a furgeon on the ftaff
by the infpe^lor-general of hofpitals (Mr Adair) and
in the fpring of the enfuing year he went to Belleille
with the army.
He ferved during the continuance of the war, as fe-
nior furgeon on the ftaff, when he acquired his know¬
ledge of gun-ihot wounds. He fettled in London on
his return to England ; but finding that his half pay
and private practice could not fupport him, he taught
pradlical anatomy and furgery for feveral winters. He
built a boufe near Brompton, where he purfued the
ftudy of comparative anatomy with unabated ardour.
He difcovered the changes which animal and vegetable
fubftances undergo in the ftomach by the a£lion of the
gaftric juice ; the mode in which a bone retains its
(hape during its growth •, and explained the procefs of
exfoliation, by which a dead piece of bone is feparated
from the living.
On the 5th of February 1767, he was chofen F. R. S.
In the year 1768 he became a member of the incorpo-
Vol. X. Part II.
ration of furgeons, and in the following year was eledt-
ed one of the furgeons of St George’s hofpital, through
the influence of his brother. He publifhed his treatife
on the natural hiftory of the teeth in May 177U and in
July the fame year he married Mils Home, daughter of
Mr Home, furgeon to Burgoyne’s regiment of light
horfe. His private practice and profetlional reputation
advanced with rapidity after his marriage, and although
his family increafed, he devoted much of his time to the
forming of his collection. He difcovered the caufe of
failure in the cure of every cafe of hydrocele, and pro-
pofed a mode of operating in which that event may cer¬
tainly be avoided. He afcertained that ftmple expofure'
to the air can neither produce nor increafe inflammation j
and he confidered the blood as alive in its fluid fcate. He
alfo difcovered that the ftomach after death is fometimes
aCled on and diflolved by the gaftric juice, refpeCling
which he communicated a paper to the Royal Society.
Comparative anatomy occupied the greater part of
his time and attention, and he fuffered no opportunity
to efcape him. He differed the torpedo in i773j and
laid an account of its eleCtrical organs before the Royal
Society. A young elephant which had been prefented
to the queen, having died, it was given to Dr Lfunter,
which afforded our author an opportunity of examining
the ftruCture of that monftrous animal, as did alfb two
others which died in the queen’s menagerie. In the
year 1774, he publifhed an account in the Philofophi-
cal Traniactions, of certain receptacles of air in birds,
communicating with the lungs, and lodged in the mufeu-
lar parts and hollow' bones of thefe animals. Several ani ¬
mals belonging to the fpecies called Gymnutus eleclricus
of Surinam having been brought alive to Britain in 1775,
their eletftrical properties excited a confiderable fhare
of the public attention, and Mr Hunter purchafed many
of them after they died, for the purpofe of profecuting
his favourite experiments. He publifhed an account of
their eletlrical organs in the Philofophical Tranfadlions
for 1775} and in the fame volume appeared his experi¬
ments on the pow'er of animals and vegetables to pro¬
duce heat.
Mr Hunter was appointed furgeon extraordinary to
his majefty in 1776; in the autumn of which year he
grew extremely ill, when both himfelf and his friends
apprehended that his life was in danger, but he happily
recovered fo far as to be able to publifh the fecond part
of his treatife on the Teeth in 1778, which completed
the fubjeft j and in 1779 he publiffied in the Philofo¬
phical Tranfablions his account of the Free Martin.
He was chofen a fellow of the Royal Society of Sciences
and Belles Lettres at Gottenburg, and in 1783 he be¬
came a member of the Royal Society of Medicine and
the Royal Academy of Surgery in Paris.
In the building which he formed for his valuable
collection, there was a room 52 feet by 28, lighted
from the top, with a gallery all round, for* containing
his preparations. At this time he had reached the
height of his career as a furgeon, with his mind and
body in full vigour j and his hands were capable of per¬
forming whatever was fuggefted by his capacious mind,
and his judgment was fully ripened by long expe¬
rience.
He removed a tumor from the head and neck of a
patient in St George’s Hofpital, as large as the head
to which it was attached j and by bringing the cut
4 0. edges
Hunter.
HUN
__ edges of the /kin into contact, the whole was almoft
healed by the firlt intention. He diffebted or cut out
a tumor on the neck, which one of the belt burgeons
in this country declared that none but a fool or a mad¬
man • would ever attempt ; yet the patient perfe&ly
recovered. He difcovered a new method of performing
the operation for the popliteal aneurifm, by taking up
the femoral, artery on the anterior part of the thigh,
without doing any thing to the tumor or the ham.
1 his, from many fublequent experiments which have
been fuccefsfuily performed, muft be allowed to /land
high among the modern improvements in furgery.
Mi Hunter was engaged in a very extenfive private
practice > was burgeon to St George’s Hofpital j he
gave a very long courfe of ledtures during the wunter
leafon ; he carried on his inquiries in comparative ana¬
tomy j he had a fchool of practical human anatomy in
his own houie, and was continually employed in fome
experiments refpedling the animal economy. In 1786
he was chofen deputy furgeon-general to the army, at
whicn time he publiihed his work on the venereal di-
jeale, the £rit edition of w'hich met with a very rapid
fale.
In the year .1787 he publifhed a treatife on the ef-
fedf of extirpating one ovarium on the number of young,
which procured him the annual gold medal of Sir John
Copley. His collection was now brought into a date
of arrangement, which he /hewed to his friends and ac¬
quaintances twice a year, and in May to noblemen and
gentlemen, who were only in town during the fpring.
Vv hen Mr ^Adair died, Mr Hunter was appointed in-
fpector-general of hofpitals, and furgeon-general to the
aimy. Ibis event happened in 1792, at which time
he was elefted honorary-member of the Chirurgo-Phy-
lical Society of Edinburgh, and one of the vice-prefi-
dents.of the Veterinary College of London, then firft
eltablifhed. He publi/hed alfo three papers on the
treatment of inflamed veins, on introfufception, and on
the mode of conveying food into the ftoinach in cafes
of paralyfis of the cefophagus.
1 he colleflion of comparative anatomy left by Mr
Hunter remains an unequivocal teftimony of his perfe-
\erance and abilities, and an honour to the country in
which he was educated. In it is beheld the natural
gradation from the lowed date in which life is found
to .exit!, up to the mod perfebl and complex of the
animal creation—man himfelf.
Mr Hunter enjoyed a good date of health, for the
hrd 40 years of his life, during which he had no com¬
plaint of any confequence, except an inflammation of
his lungs in 1759. rf^e attack of the gout which
he ever experienced was occafioned by an affebtion of
the mind, and every fubfequent fit originated from the
fame fource.
Hunter was of a fliort dature, uncommonly drong
and active, well formed, and capable of great bodily
exertion. His countenance was open, animated, and
d^f.1y.\mPreiTed thoughtfulnefs towards the clofe
of his life. . Lavater feeing a print of him, is faid to
have exclaimed, that man thinks for himfelf.” For
the lad twenty years of his life he drank nothing
tronger than tvater, and wine at no period agreed with
his .domach. He was eafily irritated, but not foon
pacified when once provoked. He was an enemy to
Mimulation, and Lee even to a fault. Few men re-
r 67+ 1
HUN
quire fo little relaxation as Mr Hunter did, for he fel- Hunting,
dom flept above four hours in the night, but always *
an hour after dinner. In private prablice he w’as fcru-
puloufly honed in declaring his opinion of the cafe be¬
fore him, and ready on all occafions to confefs his ig¬
norance of what he did not underdand. He fometimes
fpoke hardily of his cotemporaries 5 which did not ori¬
ginate from envy, but from a full convidion that fur¬
gery was as yet in its infancy, and he himfelf a novice
in his own art.
On Oclober the 16th 1793, wllen in his ufual date
of health, he w^ent to St George’s Hofpital, and meet¬
ing with lome things which irritated his mind, and not
being perfeclly mader of the circumdances, he with¬
held his fentiments ; in which date of redraint he went
into the next room, and turning round to Dr Robert-
fon, one of the phyficians of the hofpital, he gave a
deep groan and dropt down dead, being then in his
65th year, the fame age at which his brother Dr Hun¬
ter had died.
HUN 1 ING, the exercife or diverfion of purfuing
four-footed beads of game. See the article Game.
hour-footed beads are hunted in the fields, woods,
and thickets, and that both with guns and gre-
hounds.
Birds, on the contrary, are either fliot in the air,
or taken with nets and other devices, which exercife is
called fow/ing; or are they are purfued and taken by
birds of prey, which is called hawking. See the arti ¬
cles Fowling, Hawking, Falconry, Shooting,
Bird-Catching, and Decoy.
F. de Launay, profeffor of the French law's, has an
exprefs treatife of hunting. From thofe words of God
to Adam, Gen. i. 26, and 28, and to Noah, Gen. ix.
2, 3. hunting was confidered as a right devolved or
made over to man •, and the following ages appear to
have been of the fame fentiment. Accordingly we
find, that among the more civilized nations it made
one of their diverfions 5 and as to the wilder and
more barbarous, it ferved them wdth food and neceila-
ries. The Roman jurifprudence, which was formed on
the manners 0/ the firil ages, made a law of it, and efla-
bliflied it as a maxim, that as the natural right of things
which have no mailer belongs to the firft poiMbr, wild
beafts, birds, and fifties, are the property of whomfo-
ever can take them firft.
But the northern nations of barbarians who overran
the Roman empire, bringing with them a ftronger
tafte for the diverfion, and the people being now' poflef-
fed of other and more eafy means of fubfiflence from the
lands and pofleflions of thofe they had vanqui/hed, their
chiefs and leaders began to appropriate the right of
hunting, and, inftead of a natural right, to make it a
royal one. Thus it continues to this day ; the right of
hunting, among us, belonging only to the king, and
thofe who derive it from him.
The hunting ufed by the ancients w^as much like
* that now praclifed for the rein-deer ; which is feldoin
hunted at force, or with hounds ; but only drawn with
a blood-hound, and foreftalled with nets and engines.
Thus did they with all beafts; whence a dog is never
commended by them for opening before he has difco¬
vered where the beaft lies. Hence, they were not in
any manner curious as to the mufic of their hounds, or
the compofitioa of their kennel or pack, either for
deepnefs.
HUT [
Hunting, deepnefs, loudnefs, or fweetnefs of cry, vvlitcli^ is a
1 v—u principal point in the hunting of our days. Their
huntfmen, indeed, were accuftomed to (hout and make
a great noife, as Virgil obferves in the third of his
Georgies : Ingentem clamore prernes ad retia cervum.
But that confufion was only to bring the deer to the
nets laid for him. '. . .
The Sicilian way of hunting had fomething in it
very extraordinary.—The nobles or gentry being in¬
formed which way a herd of deer paffed, gave notice
to one another, and appointed a meeting; every one
bringing with him a crofs-bow or long-bow, and a
bundle of Haves Ihod with iron, the heads bored, with
a cord paffing through them all : thus provided, they
came to the herd, and, calling themfelves about in a
large ring, furrounded the deer.— I hen, each taking
his Hand, unbound his faggot, fet up his Hake, and
tied the end of the cord to that of his next neighbour,
at the dillance of ten feet from one another.— Then
taking feathers, died in crimfon, and faltened on a
thread, They tied them to the cord •, fo that with the
leaft breath of wind they would whirl round.—Which
done, the perfons w7ho kept the Hands withdrew, and
hid themfelves in the next covert. Then the chief ran¬
ger entering within the line with hounds to draw after
the herd, roufed the game with their cry ; which flying
towards the line, were turned off, and, Hill gazing on
the lhaking and Ihining feathers, wandered about as if
kept in with a real wall or pale. The ranger Hill pur-
fued, and calling every perfon by name as he palled by
their Hand, commanded him to Ihoot the firfl, third, or
fixth, as he pleafed : and if any of them miffed, or
fingled out another than that affigned him, it was
counted a grievous difgrace. By fuch means, as they
paffed by the leveral flations, the whole herd was kill¬
ed by the feveral hands. Pier. Hieroglyphic, lib. vii.
cap. 6.
Hunting formed the greateH part of the employment
of the ancient Germans, and probably of the Britons
alfo, when they were not engaged in w7ar. We are in¬
formed by fome ancient hiflorians, that this was the
cafe even as late as the third century with the uncon-
quered Britons who lived beyond Adrian’s wall } nav,
that they fubfiffed chiefly by the prey they took in this
way. The great attachment Ihown by all the Celtic
nations to hunting, however, proceeded moil probably
from its being a kind of apprenticefhip to ivar. . Thus
their youth acquired that courage, Hrength, fwiftnefs,
and dexterity in handling their arms, which made them
fo formidable in time of war to their enemies. 1 hus
alfo they freed the country from many mifehievous ani¬
mals which abounded in the foreils, furnifhing them¬
felves alfo with materials for thofe feaffs which feem to
have conflituted their greateff pleafure. I he young
chieftains had thus likewife an opportunity of paying
court to their miflreffes, by difplaying their bravery and
agility, and making them prefents of their game •, nay,
fo flrong and univerfal was the paflion for hunting a-
mong the ancient Britons, that young ladies of the
higheff quality and greateH beauty fpent much of their
67S ] HUN
time in the chace. They employed much the fame wea- Hunting.
pons in hunting that they did in war, viz. long fpears, v “
javelins, and bows and arrows $ having alfo great num¬
bers of dogs to aflill them in finding and purfuing their
game. Thefe dogs, we are alfo told, were much ad¬
mired among other nations, on account of their fwift¬
nefs, flrength, fiercenefs, and exquiflte fenfe of fmell-
ing. They were of feveral different kinds, called by
different names, and formed a confiderable article of
commerce. They were highly valued by all the Celtic
nations, infomuch that fome very comical penalties were
inflidled upon thofe -who were convidled of Healing
them (a). From the poems of Oflian alfo it appears,
that the Britons were not unacquainted with the art of
catching birds with hawks trained for that purpofe j
but they feem to have been abfolutely ignorant of the
method of catching fifh j for there is not a fingle allu
fion to this art in all the works of that venerable bard.
Their ignorance of this art is both confirmed and ac¬
counted for by Dio Niceus, who affures us, that the
ancient Britons never tafied fifh, though they had in¬
numerable multitudes in their feas, rivers, and lakes.
“ By the by (fays Dr Henry), we may obferve that
this agreement between the poems of Oflian and the
Greek hillorian, in a circumflance fo lingular, is at
once a proof of the genuine antiquity of thefe poems,
and that the Greek and Roman writers were not fo ill
informed about the affairs and manners of the ancient
Britons as fome have imagined.”
The Mexicans, whatever imbecility may be impu¬
ted to them in other refpefls, were very.dexterous in
hunting. They ufed bows and arrows, darts, nets,
fnares, and a kind of tubes named carbottane, through
which they fhot by blowing out little balls at birds.
Thofe which the kings and great men made ufe of
were curioufly carved and painted, and likewife adorn¬
ed with gold and filver. Befides the exercife of the
chace which private individuals took either for amufe-
ment or to provide food for themfelves, there were ge¬
neral hunting-matches, fometimes appointed by the
king j at others, undertaken with a view to provide
plenty of vidlims for facrifices. A large wood, gene¬
rally that of Zacatapec, not far diflant from the ca¬
pital, was pitched upon as the feene of thefe grand
hunting-matches. Here they chofe the place beff
adapted for fetting a great number of fnares and nets.
The wood was inclofed by fome thoufands of hunters,
forming a circle of fix, feven, or eight miles, accord¬
ing to the number of animals they intended to take.
Fire w7as then fet to the grafs in a great number of
places, and a terrible noife made with drums, horns,
Ihouting, and whiffling. The hunters gradually con-
tradled their circle, continuing the noife till the game
were inclofed in a very fmall fpace. They were then
killed or taken in fnares, or with the hands of the
hunters. The number of animals taken or deftroyed
on thefe occafions was fo great, that the firff Spanifh
viceroy of Mexico would not believe it without ma¬
king the experiment himfelf. The place chofen for
his hunting-match was a great plain in the country or
4 & 2 the
(a) Si quis canem veltraum aut fegutium vel petrunculum, pnefamferit involare, jubemus ut comiftas, corara
^mni populo, pofferiora ipfius ofculetur.
Hnntin
, „ ■ .H U N [676
 the, 5)t^nies’ |y,ng between the villages of Xilotepec
and b. Giovani del Rio 5 the Indians being ordered to
proceed according to their ufual cufloms in the times
or their paganifm. The viceroy, attended by a vafl re
tinue of Spaniards, repaired to the place appointed
where accommodations were prepared for them in houfes
ot wood eretfed for the purpofe. A circle of more
than 15 miles was_ formed by j 1,000 Otomies, who
Started inch a quantity of game on the plain, that the
viceroy was quite aftonidied, and commanded the great¬
er part of them to be fet at liberty, which was accord¬
ingly done. 1 he number retained, however, was Itill
incredibly great, were it not attefted by a witnefs of
the higheft credit. On this occafion upwards of 600
C eer and wild goats, 100 cajotes, with a furprifing
number of hares, rabbits, and other fmaller animals
-1 he plam ft11! retains the Spanifli name Caxadcro,
which figmfies the “ place of the chace.”
The Mexicans, befides the ufual methods of the
chace, had particular contrivances for catching certain
anrmais. Thus, to catch young affes, they^made a
Imall hre in the woods, putting among the burning
coals a particular kind of done named cacalottl, “ raven
or black done,” which burlls with a loud noife when
heated. _ a he fire was covered with earth, and a little
maize laid around it. The afles quickly affembled with
their young, m order to feed upon the maize; but
while they were thus employed, the done burd, and
icared away the old ones by the explofion, while the
young ones, unable to fly, where carried off by the
hunters. Serpents were taken even by the hands
leizing them intrepidly by the neck with one hand’
and lewing up their mouths with the other. This me-
thod is dill pradtifed. They fliowed the greated dex¬
terity m tracing the deps of wild beads, even when
an Turopean could not have difcerned the fmalled
print of their feet. The Indian method, however, was
by obfervmg fometimes the herbs or leaves broken
down by their feet; fometimes the drops of blood which
tell from them when wounded. It is faid that fome of
the American Indians diow dill greater dexterity in
dilcovermg the trafts of their enemies, which to an
fi.uiopean would be altogether imperceptible.
Hunting was a favourite diverfion of the great and
bloody conqueror Jenghiz Khan, if indeed we can apply
the word diverfion to a monder whofe mind was fet
upon the dedrudhon of his own fpecies, and who only
endeavoured to make the murder of brutes fubfervient
to that of men, by keeping his foldiers in a kind of
warfare with the beads when they had no human ene¬
mies to contend with. His expeditions were conduft-
ed on a plan fimilar to that of the Mexicans already
mentioned ; and were no doubt attended with dill
greater luccefs, as his numerous army could inclofe a
much greater fpace than all the Indians whom the
Spanifli viceroy could mufler. The Ead Indian princes
din fliow tne fame inclination to the chace; and Mr
f7!a"e’ Yu° a.ttend^d ^be hunting excurfions of Afoph
U1 Dowlah vifir of the Mogul empire and nabob of
Oudem 1785 and 1786, gives the following account
of the method pradifed on this occafion. g
The time chofen for the hunting party is about the
beginning of December; and the diverfion is continued
tin tne nests, wincn pnttim„ i • • ^
i
HUN
,:ii ,1 , v \ J vcrjlon is continued
t 1 the heats, which commence about the beginning of
March, oblige them to dop. During this time ‘
cult of between 400 and 6oo miles is generally made *
the hunters bending their courfe towards the fkirts
of the northern mountains, where the country is wild
and uncultivated. The vifir takes along with him
not only bs court and feraglio, but a great part of
the inhabitants of his capital. His immediate atten-
dants may amount to about 2000; but befides thefe he is
alfo followed by 500 or 600 horfe, and feveral battalions
of regular fepoys with their field-pieces. Four or five
tundied elephants are alfo carried along with him ; of
which fome are uled for riding, others for fighting,
and fome for clearing the jungles and foreds of the
game. About as many fumpter horfes of the beauti¬
ful Ferfian and Arabian breeds are carried along with
1 VI g-rrat many wheel carriages drawn by bul¬
locks likewife attend, which are ufed chiefly for the
convenience of the women ; fometimes alfo he has an
111 r Chalfe °r tw°’ and fometimes a chariot ; but
all thefe as well as the horfes are merely for fliow, the
viiir himfelf never ufing any other conveyance than
an e ephant, or fometimes when fatigued or indifnofed
a palanquin. The animals ufed in the fport are prin-
cipally gre-hounds, of which there may be about ’00 •
he ^s alfo about 200 hawks, and a few trained leo¬
pards for hunting deer. There are a great number
of markfmen whofe profeflion it is to flioot deer ■
with many fowlers, who provide game: as none of
the natwes of India know how to ftioot game with
mall (hot, or to hunt with flow hounds. A vafl num¬
ber of matchlocks are carried along with the company
with many Engliih pieces of various kinds, 40 or co
pairs of piflols, bows and arrows, beiides fwords, dag¬
gers, and fabres without number. There are alfo nets
of various kinds fome for quail, and others very large
for fiflung, which are carried along with him upon ele¬
phants, attended by fifliermen, fo as always to be ready
for throwing into any river or lake that may be met
with. Every article that can contribute to luxury or
pleafure is likewife carried along with the army A
great many carts are loaded with the Ganges water, and
even ice is tranfported for cooling the drink. The
nuts of the feafon and frefli vegetables are daily fent
o him from his gardens by bearers ftationed at the
diftance of every ten miles; by which means each ar¬
ticle is conveyed day or night at the rate of four miles
an hour. Befides the animals already mentioned,
there are alfo fighting antelopes, buffaloes, and rams in
great numbers; alfo feveral hundred pigeons, fome
gales^Itc0^5’ Wlt ^ 3 Vaft Vanety of Parrots> nightin-
To complete the magnificence or extravagance of
this expedition, there is always a large bazar, or mo¬
ving town, which attends the camp ; confining of flioo-
keepers and artificers of all kinds, money changers
dancing-women ; fo that, on the mofl moderate calcu-
Jation, the whole number of people in his camp can-
not be computed at fewer than 20,000. The nabob
himfelf, and al the gentlemen of his camp, are provi¬
ded with double fets of tents and equipage, which are
always fent on the day before to the place to which he
intends to go; and this is generally eight or ten miles
m whatever direftion moft game is expe&ed ; fo that
y the time he has fimflied his fport in the morning,
he finds his whole camp ready pitched for his recep¬
tion. r
Hunting.
a cir-
The
H U N
[ 677 ]
HUN
Hunting- The nabob, with the attending gentlemen, proceed
'v~—'' in a regular moving court or durbar, and thus they
keep converfing together and looking out for game.
A great many foxes, hares, jackals, and fometimes
deer, are picked up by the dogs as they pafs along:
the hawks are carried immediately before the elephants,
and let fly at whatever game is fprung for them, which
is generally partridges, bullards, quails, and different
kinds of herons *, thefe lalt affording excellent fport
with the falcons or lharp-winged hawks. Wild
boars are fometimes darted, and either fhot or run
down by the dogs and horfemen. Hunting the tyger,
however, is looked upon as the principal diverfion,
and the difcovery of One of thefe animals is accounted
a matter of great joy. The cover in which the tyger
is found is commonly long grafs, or reeds of fuch a
height as frequently to reach above the elephants 5 and
it is difficult to find him in fuch a place, as he com¬
monly endeavours either to deal off, or lies fo dole to
the ground that he cannot be roufed till the elephants
are almod upon him. He then roars and fkulks away,
but is fhot at as foon as he can be feen 5 it being gene¬
rally contrived that the nabob (hall have the compli¬
ment of firing firff. If he be not difabled, the tyger
continues to fkulk along, followed by the line of ele¬
phants ; the nabob and others ihooting at him as often
as he can be feen till he falls. The elephants them-
felves are very much afraid of this terrible animal, and
difcover their apprehenfions by {bricking and roaring
as foon as they begin to fmell him or hear him growl ;
generally attempting to turn away from the place where
he is. When the tyger can be traced to a particular
fpot, the elephants are difpofed of in a circle round
him •, in which cafe he will at lad make a defperate
attack, fpringing upon the elephant that is neared, and
attempting to tear him with his teeth or claws. Some,
but very few, of the elephants, can be brought to at¬
tack the tyger •, and this they do by curling up their
trunks under their mouths, and then attempting to
tofs, or otherwife dedroy him with their tulks, or to
crufh him with their feet or knees. It is conddered
as good fport to kill one tyger in a day •, though iome-
times, when a female is met with her young ones, two
or three will be killed.
The other objefls of purfuit in thefe excurfions are
wild elephants, buffaloes, and rhinocerofes. Our au¬
thor was prefect at the hunting of a, wild elephant of
vad fize and drength. An attempt was fird made to
take him alive by furrounding him with tame ele¬
phants, while he was kept at bay by crackers and other
fire-works ; but he condantly eluded every edbrt of
1 this kind. Sometimes the drivers of the tame ele¬
phants got fo near him, that they threw drong ropes
over his head, and endeavoured to detain him by faden-
ing them around trees ; but he condantly fnapped the
ropes like pack-threads, and purfued his way to the
fordft. Some of the dronged and mod furious of the
fighting elephants were then brought up to engage
him; but he attacked them with iuch fury that they
were all obliged to defid. In his druggie with one
of them he broke one of his tufks, and the broken
piece, which was upwards of two inches in diameter,
of'folid ivory, flew up into the air feveral yards above
their heads. Orders were now given to kill him, as
it appeared impoflible to take him alive ; but even this
was not accomplifhed without the greatefl difficulty. Hunting
He twice turned and attacked the party who purfued
him; ancl in one of thefe attacks druck the elephant
obliquely on which the prince rode, threw him upon
his fide, but then palled on withput offering farther-
injury. At lad he fell dead, after having received as
was fuppoled upwards of icoo balls into his body.
Notwithdanding the general paffio.* among mod na¬
tions for hunting, however, it has by many been deem¬
ed an exercife inconfident with the principles of hu¬
manity. The late king of Pruffia expreffed himfelf on
this fubjeft in the following manner. _ “ The chace
is one of the mod fenfual of pleafures, by which the
powers of the body are drongly exerted, but thofe
of the mind remain unemployed. It is an exerciie
which makes the limbs drong, a&ive, and pliable:
but leaves the head without improvement. It confids
in a violent defire in the purfuit, and the indulgence
of a cruel pleafure in the death, of the game. I am
convinced that man is more cruel and favage than any
bead of prey : We exercife the dominion given us over
thefe our fellow-creatures in the mod tyrannical man¬
ner. If we pretend to any fuperiority over the beads,
it ought certainly to confid in reafon ; but we commonly
find that the mod padionate lovers of the chace re¬
nounce this privilege, and converfe only with their
dogs, horfes, and other irrational animals. This ren¬
ders them wild and unfeeling ; and it is probable that
they cannot be very merciiul to the human Ipecies.
For a man who can in cold blood torture a poor inno¬
cent animal, cannot feel much compadion for the dif-
treffes of his own fpectes. And, befides, can the chace
be a proper employment fora thinking mind ?”
The arguments ufed by his majedy againd hunting
feem indeed to be much confirmed by confidering the
various nations who have mod addibled themfelves to
it. Thefe, as mud be feen from what has already been
faid, were all barbarous ; and it is remarkable, that
Nimrod, the fird great hunter of whom we have any
account, was likewife the fird who oppreded and en-
daved bis own Ipecies. As nations advanced in civili¬
zation, it always became neceffary to redrain by law
the inclination of the people for hunting. This was
done by the wife legidator Solon, led the Athenians
flrould neglefl the mechanic arts on its account. The
Lacedemonians, on the contrary, indulged themfelves
in this diverdon without controul; but they were bar¬
barians, and mod cruelly oppreded thofe whom they
had in their power, as is evident from their treatment .
of the Helots. The like may be faid of the Egyptians,
Perfians, and Scythians ; all of whom delighted in war,
and opprefled their own fpecies. The Romans, on
the other hand, who were fomewhat more civilized,
were lefs additted to hunting. Even they, however,
were exceedingly barbarous, and found it neceffary to
make death and daughter familiar to their citizens from
their infancy, Hence their diverdons of the amphi¬
theatre and circus, where the hunting of wild beads
was diown in the mod magnificent and cruel manner ;
not to mention their dill more cruel fport of gladia¬
tors, &c.
In two cafes only does it feem poffible to reconcile
the pradlice of hunting with humanity ; viz. either
when an uncultivated country is overrun with noxious-
animals ; or when it is neceflary to kill wild animals
for
HUN [ 678 ] M U N
Jluntin^-, % I'1 the former cafe, the noxious animals are man it muft be a pofitive good : add to which, that a
v killed becaufe they themfelves would do fo if they were man lives in hope of an endlefs and glorious life, while
allowed to live ; but if we kill even a lion or a tyger a brute has no fuch hope ; fo that, if to kill a brute
merely for the pleafure of killing him, we are undoubt- on our author’s principles, be no cruelty, to kill a man
edly chargeable with cruelty. , In like manner, our mo- muft be an a& of tendernefs and mercy l’
dern foxhunters exprefsly kill foxes, not in order to Another argument, no lefs inconclufive, is our au-
deftroy the breed of thefe noxious animals, but for the thor’s fuppofing that death from difeafe is much more
pleafure of feeing them exert all their power and cun- to be dreaded in a brute than a violent death. Were
ning to fave their lives, and then beholding them torn brutes naturally in as helplefs a ftate as man, no doubt
in pieces after being half dead with fatigue. This re- their want of fupport from fociety in cafes where they
ftnement in cruelty, it feems, is their favourite diver- are attacked by ficknefs would be very deplorable * but
lion •, and it is accounted a crime for any perfon to it muft be confidered that the parallel betwixt the two
deftroy thefe animals in felf-defence, as appears from fpecies is in this refpedft by no means fair. A brute
the following paffage in Mr Beckford’s treatife on has everywhere its food at hand, and is naturally ca-
hunting. “ Befides the digging of foxes, by which pable of refilling the inclemencies of the weather j but
method many young ones are taken and old ones de- man has not only a natural inability to procure food
ftroye 1, traps, &c. are too often fatal to them. Far- for himfelf in the way that the brutes do, but is, be.
mers for their lambs (which, by the bye, few foxes fides, very tender and incapable of refilling the incle-
cver kill), gentlemen for their game, and old women mency of the air. Hence, a man unaflilled by fociety
for their poultry, are their inveterate enemies. In the muft very foon perilh 5 and, no doubt, it would be
country where I live, moll of the gentlemen are fportf- much more merciful for people to kill one another at
men ; and even thofe who are not, ftiow every kind once, than to deprive them of the benefits of fociety, as
of attention to thofe who are. I am forry it is other- is too frequently done in various ways needlefs to be
wife with you; and that your old gouty neighbour mentioned at prefent. A brute, however, has nothing
Ihould deftroy your foxes, I muft own concerns me. I to fear. As long as its ftomach can receive food, na-
know fome gentlemen, who, when a neighbour had de- ture offers an abundant fupply. One that feeds unon
llroyed all their foxes, and thereby prevented them from grafs has it always within reach ; and a carnivorous
purfuing a favourite amufement, loaded a cart with fpa- one will content itfelf with worms or infedts, which as
niels, and went all together and deftroyed his phea- long as it is able to crawl, it can (till make a fhift to
fants. I think they might have called this very pro- provide j but fo totally helplefs is man when left to
perly lex talionis : and it had the defired effedl ; for as himfelf in a ftate of weaknefs, that many barbarous
the gentleman did not think it prudent to fight them nations have looked upon the killing of their old and
all, he took the wifer method, he made peace with infirm people to be an a£t of mercy,
them. He gave an order that no more foxes Ihould Equally unhappy is our author in his other argu-
be deftroyed, and they never afterwards killed any of ments, that the quick tranfition from a ftate of per-
his pheafants.” fedf health to death mitigates the feverity. The tran-
In the firft volume of the Manchefter Tranfadlions fition is not quick. The fportfmen eftimate their di-
we have a differtation upon the diverfions of hunting, verfion by the length of the chace j and during all that
fhooting, &c. as compatible with the principles of hu- time the creature muft be under the ftrongeft agonies
manity. One argument ufed by the author is, that of terror; and what perfon of humanity is there who
death is no pofitive evil to brutes. “ It would per- muft not feel for an animal in this fituation ? All this
haps (fays he) be too hafty an affertion to affirm, that is affented to by our author, who fays, “ Hard is the
death to brutes is no evil. We are not competent to heart who does not commiferate the fufferer.” Is not
determine whether their exiftence, like our own, may this an acknowledgment on his part, that before a
not extend to fome future mode of being, or whether peribn can become a thorough fportfman, he muft
the prefent limited fphere is all in which they are in- harden his heart, and ftifle thofe amiable fenfations of
terefted. On fo fpeculative a queftion little can be compaffion, which on all occafions ought to be encou-
advanced with precifion j nor is it neceffary for the in- raged towards every creature, unlefs in cafes of necef-
veftigation of the fubjeft before us. If we may be al- fity. But in the prefent cafe no neceffity is or can
lowed to reafon from what we know, it may be fafely be pretended. If a gentleman choofes to regale him-
conjeflured, that death to brutes is no pofitive evil: we felf with venifon of any kind, he may breed the animals
have no reafon to believe they are endowed with fore- for the purpofe. We call Domitian cruel, becaufe he
fight ; and therefore, even admitting that with them took pleafure in catching flies, and dabbing them with
the pleafures of life exceed its pains and cares, in ter- a bodkin. A butcher is excluded from fitting on a
minating their exiftence, they only fuffer a privation jury on account of his being accuftomed to fights which
of pleafure.” are deemed inhuman j but whether it is more inhuman
On this extraordinary piece of reafoning we may to knock down an ox at once with an axe, or to tear
.obferve, that it would hold much more againft the hu- him in pieces with dogs (for they would accomplifti
man fpecies than againft the brutes. There are few the purpofe if properly trained), muft be left to the
amongft us willing to allow that the pleafures we en- fportfmen to determine.
joy are equivalent to our pains and cares : death there- Laftly, the great argument in favour of hunting, that
fore muft be to us a relief from pain and mifery, while it contributes to the health of the body and exhilaration
to the brutes it is a privation of pleafure. Hence, if of the fpirits, feems equally fallacious with the reft. It
h be no pofitive evil for a brute to fuffer death, to a cannot be proved that hunters ere more healthy or long-
* lived
Hunting'.
I
HUN [ 679 ] HU N
■Hunting. lived tiian other people. That exercife will contribute
—1 "■•y-— ' to the preiervation of health, as well as to the exhila¬
ration of the mind, is undoubted •, but many other kinds
of exercife will do this as -well as hunting. A man
may ride from morning to night, and amufe himfelf
with viewing and making remarks on the country
through which he paiTes; and furely there is no per-
fon will fay that this exercife will tend to impair his
health or fink his fpirits. A man may amufe and
exercife himfelf not only with pleafure, but profit alfo,
in many different ways, and yet not accultom himfelf
to behold the death of animals with indifference. It
is this that conffitutes the cruelty of hunting *, becaufe
we thus wilfully extinguifii in part that principle natu¬
rally implanted in our nature, which if totally eradi¬
cated would fet us not only on a level with the moil fe¬
rocious wild beafts, but perhaps confiderably below
them •, and it muff always be remembered, that what¬
ever pleafure terminates in death is cruel, let us ufe as
many palliatives as we pleafe to hide that cruelty from
the eyes of others, or even from our own.
The gentlemen and mafters of the fporthave invented
a fet of terms which may be called the hunting-lan¬
guage. The principal are thofe which follow :
1. For beafts as they are in company.—They fay, a
herd of harts, and all manner of deer. A hey of roes.
A founder of fwine. A rout of wmlves. A richefs of
martens. A brace or leajh of bucks, foxes, or hares.
A couple of rabbits or coneys.
1. For their lodging.—A hart is faid to harbour.
A buck lodges. A roe beds. A hare feats or forms.
A coney fits. A fox kennels. A marten trees. An
otter watches. A badger earths. A boar couches.—
Hence, to exprefs their dulodging, they fay, Unharbour
the hart. Roufe the buck. Start the hare, holt the
coney. Unkennel the fox. Untree the marten. Vent
the otter. Dig the badger. Rear the boar.
3. For their noife at rutting time.—A hart belleth.
A buck growns or troats. A roe bellows. A hare
beats or taps. An otter whines. A bo-ax freams. A
fox barks. A.bz&gttjhrieks. A wolf howls. A goat
rattles.
4. For their copulation.—A hart or buck goes to
rut. A roe goes to tourn. A boar goes to brim. A
hare or coney goes to buck. A fox goes to clickitting.
A wolf goes to match or make. An otter hunteth for
his kind.
5. For the footing and treading.—Of a hart, we
fay the fot. Of a buck, and all fallow-deer, the view.
Of all ‘deer, if on the grafs and fcarce vifible, the
foiling. Of a fox, the print ; and of other the like ver¬
min, the footing. Of an otter, the marks. Of a boar,
the track. The hare when in open field, is faid to
fore ; when Ihe winds about to deceive the hounds, (lie
doubles ; when (he beats on the hard highway, and her
footing comes to be perceived, fhe pricketh : in fnow, it
is called the trace of the hare.
6. The tail of a hart, buck, or other deer, is call¬
ed the fing/e. That of a boar, the wreath. Of a
fox, the brufo or drag; and the tip at the end, the
chape. Of a wolf, the fern. Of a hare and coney,
the fcut.
7. The ordure or excrement of a hart and all deer,
is called fewmets or fewmifhing. Of a hare', cfotiles Hunting.,
or crotifing. OF a boar, le/jes. Of a fox, the billiting ; "" v
and of other the like vermin, the fuants. Of an otter,
x\\e.fpraints.
8. As to the attire of ffeer, or parts thereof, thofe
of a flag, if perfect, are the bur, the pearls, the little
knobs on it, the beam, the gutters, the antler, the fur-
antler, royal, fur-royal, and all at top the croches. OF
the buck, the bur, beam, brow-antler, black-antler, ad¬
vancer, palm, and fpellcrs. If the croches grow in the
form of a man’s hand, it is called zpalmed head. Heads
bearing not above three or four, and the croches pla¬
ced aloft, all of one height, are called crowned heads.
Heads having double croches, are czW&A forked heads,
becaufe the croches are planted on the top of the beam
like forks.
9. They fay, a litter of cubs, a nef of rabbits, a
fquirrel’s dray.
10. The terms ufed in refpe£t of the dogs, &c. are
as follow.—Of gre-hounds, two make a brace; of
hounds, a couple. Of grehounds, three make a leajh ;
of hounds, a couple and half.—They fay, let ftp a
grehound *, and, caf off a hound. The firing wherein
a grehound is led, is called a leafh ; and that of a
hound, a lyome. The grehound has his collar, and
the hound his couples. We fay a of hounds, and
a pack of beagles.
Hunting, as pra<ffifed among us, is chiefly per¬
formed with dogs •, of which we have various kinds,
accommodated to the various kinds of game, as hounds,
gre-hounds, blood-hounds, terriers, &c. See Canis,
Hound, &c.
In the kennels or packs they generally rank
them under the heads of caterers, drivers, flyers, tyers.
&c.
On fome occafions, nets, fpears, and inftruments for
digging the ground, are alfo required : nor is the hunt¬
ing horn to be omitted.
The ufual chafes among us are, the hart, buck, roe,,
hare, fox, badger, and otter.—We fliall here give fome-
thing of what relates to each thereof : firft premifing
an explanation of fome general terms and phrafes, more
immediately ufed in the progrefs of the fport itfelf \ what
belongs to the feveral forts of game in particular being
referved for the refpedlive articles.
When the hounds, then, being caft off, and finding
the fcent of fome game, begin to open and cry ; they
are faid to challenge. When they are too bufy ere
the fcent be good, they are faid to babble. When too
bufy where the fcent is good, to bawl. Wken they
run it endwife orderly, holding in together merrily,
and making it good, they are faid to be in full cry.
When they rim along without opening at all, it is call¬
ed running mute.
When fpaniels open in the firing, or a grehound in
the courfe, they are faid to lapfe.
When beagles bark and cry at their prey, they are
faid to yearn.
When the dogs hit the fcent the contrary way, they
are faid to draw amifs.
When they take frefii fcent, and quit the former
chafe for a new one, it is called hunting change.
When they hunt the game by the heel or track, they
are faid to hunt counter.
Whea^
HUN [ 680 ] HUN
Hunting. ^ When the chafe goes off, and returns again, tra-
/v verfing the fame ground, it is called hunting the foil.
When the dogs run at a whole herd of deer, inftead
of a fingle one, it is called running riot.
Dogs let in readinefs where the game is expedled to
come by, and caff off after the other hounds are paffed,
are called a relay. If they be caff oft' ere the other
dogs be come up, it is called vauntlay.
When, finding where the chafe has been, they make a
proffer to enter, but return, it is called a blemijh.
A leffon on the horn to encourage the hounds, is
named a call, or a recheat. That blown at the death
of a deer, is called the mart. The part belonging to
the dogs of any chafe they have killed, is the reward.
1 hey fay, take of a deer’s Ikin ; Jlrip or cafe a hare,
fox, and all forts of vermin •, which is done by begin¬
ning at the fnout, and turning the Ikin over the ears
down to the tail.
Hunting is pradlifed in a different manner, and with
different apparatus, according tof the nature of the beafts
which are hunted, a defcription of whom may be found
under their refpedlive articles, infra.
With regard to the feafons, that for hart and buck-
hunting begins a fortnight after midfummer, and lafts
till Holy-rood day} that for the hind and doe, begins
on Holy-rood day, and lafts till Candlemas •, that for
fox-hunting begins at Chriftmas, and holds till Lady-
day ; that for roe-hunting begins at Michaelmas, and
ends at Chriftmas-, hare-hunting commences at Mi¬
chaelmas, and lafts till the end of February 5 and where
the wolf and boar are hunted, the feafon for each begins
at Chriftmas, the firft ending at Lady-day, and the lat¬
ter at the Purification.
When the fportfmen have provided themfelves with
nets, Ipears, and a hunting horn to call the dogs to¬
gether, and likewife with inftruments for digging the
ground, the following diredtions will be of ufe to them
in the purfuit of each fort of game.
Badger-HuNTing. In doing this, you muft feek
the earths and burrows where he lies, and in a clear
moonlhine night go and flop all the burrows, except
one or two, and therein place fome facks, faftened
with drawing firings, which may fhut him in as foon
as he ftraineth the bag. Some ufe no more than to
fet a hoop in the mouth of the fack, and fo put it into
the hole; and as foon as the badger is in the fack and
ftraineth it, the fack fiippeth off the hoop, and follows
him to the earth, fo he lies tumbling therein till he
is taken. Thefe facks or bags being thus fet, caft off
the hounds, beating about all the woods, coppices,
hedges, and tufts, round about, for the compafs of a
mile or two j and what badgers are abroad, being a-
larmed by the hounds, will foon betake themfelves to
their burrow's; and obferve, that he who is placed to
watch the facks, muft ft and clofe and upon a clear
wind: otherwife the badger will difeover him, and will
immediately fly fome other way into his burrown But
if the hounds can encounter him before he can take his
famftuary, he will then Hand at a bay like a boar, and
make good fport, grievoufly biting and clawing the
dogs, for the manner of their fighting is lying on their
backs, ufing both teeth and nails; and by blowing up
their fkins, defend themfelves againft all bites of the
dogs, and blows of the men upon their nofes. And
for the better prefervation of your dogs, it is good
a
to put broad collars about their necks made of gray Hunting,
{kins. 0 ——y—   
When the badger perceives the terriers to begin to
yearn him in his burrow, he will flop the hole betwixt
him and the terriers, and if they ftill continue baying,
he will remove his couch into another chamber or part
ol the burrow, and lo from one into another, barrica¬
ding the way before them, as they retreat, until they
can go no further. If you intend to dig the badger
out of his burrow, you muft be provided with the fame
tools as for digging out a fox ; and belides, you fli-ould
have a pail of water to refrefh the terriers, when they
come out of the earth to take breath and cool them¬
felves. It will alfo be neceffary to put collars of bells
about the necks of your terriers, which making a noife
may caufe the badger to bolt out. The tools ufed
for digging out of the badger, being troublefome to
be carried on men’s backs, may be brought in a cart.
In digging, you muft confider the fituation of the
ground, by which you may judge where the chief an¬
gles are •, for elle, inftead of advancing the work, you
will hinder it. In this order you may befiege them in
their holds, or caftles} and may break their platforms,
parapets, cafements, and work to them with mines and
countermines until you have overcome them.
Having taken a live and lufty badger, if you would
make fport, carry him home in a fack and turn him
out in your court-yard, or lome other inclofed place,
and there let him be hunted and worried to death by
your hounds.
There are the followung profits and advantages which
accrue, by killing this animal. Their flelh, blood, and
greafe, though they are not good food, yet are very
ufeful for phyficians and apothecaries for oils, ointments,
falves, and powders for ihortnefs of breath, the cough
of the lungs, for the ftone, fprained finew7s, colt-aches,
&c. and the fkin being wTell dreffed, is very warm
and good for old people who are troubled with paraly¬
tic diftembers.
Boar-HvNTiNG. See Boar.
Buck-HuNTiNG. Here the fame hounds and methods
are ufed as in running the flag ; and, indeed, he that can
hunt a hart or ftag well, will not hunt a buck ill.
In order to facilitate the chace, the game-keeper
commonly feledls a fat buck out of the herd, which he
{hoots in order to maim him, and then he is run down
by the hounds.
As to the method of hunting the buck. The com¬
pany generally go out very early for the benefit of the
morning. Sometimes they have a deer ready lodged j
if not, the coverts are drawm till one is roufed : or
fometimes in a park a deer is pitched upon, and forced
from the herd, then more hounds are laid on to run the
chace. If you come to be at a fault, the old ftaunch
hounds are only to be relied upon till you recover him
again : if he be funk, and the hounds thruft him up, it
is called an imprime, and the company all found a re¬
cheat j when he is run down, every one ft rives to get
in to prevent his being torn by the hounds, fallow deer
feldom or never {landing at bay.
He that firft gets in, cries hoo-up, to give notice that
he is down, and blows a death. When the company are
all come in, they paunch him, and reward the hounds,
and generally the chief perfon of quality amongft them
takes fey, that is, cuts his belly open, to fee how fat he
is.
H U . N [68
Hunting, is. When this is done, every one has a chop at his neck ;
''“"■v and the head being cut off, is Ihowed to the hounds, to
encourage them to run only at a male deer, which they
fee by the horns, and to teach them to bite only at the
head: then the company all Handing in a ring, one
blows a fingle death ; which being done, all blow a
double recheat, and fo conclude the chace with a gene¬
ral halloo of hoo-up, and depart the field to their feve-
ral homes, or to the place of meeting j and the huntf-
or fome other, hath the deer caff crofs the but¬
tocks of his horfe and fo carries him home.
Fox-Hunting makes a very pleafant exercife, and is
either above or below ground.
i. Above ground. To hunt a fox with hounds you
muff draw about groves, thickets, and bullies near vil¬
lages. When you find one, it will be neceffary to ftop
up the earth the night before you defign to hunt, and
that about midnight; at which time he is gone out to
prey : this may be done by laying two white flicks
acrofs in his wray, which he wall imagine to be fome gin
or trap laid for him j or elfe they may be Hopped up
with black thorns and earth mixed together.
Mr Beckford is of opinion that for fox-hunting the
pack fhould con fill of 25 couple. The hour mod fa¬
vourable for the diverfion is an early one ; and he thinks
that the hounds fhould be at the cover at fun-rifing.
The huntfman Ihould then throw in his hounds as
quickly as he can, and let the two whippers-in keep
wide of him on either hand j fo that a fingle hound
may not efcape them j let them be attentive to his
halloo, and let the fportfmen be ready to encourage
or rate as that diredls. The fox ought on no account
to be hallooed too foon, as in that cafe he wmuld moll
- certainly turn back again, and fpoil all the fport.—
Two things our author particularly recommends, viz.
the making all the hounds Heady, and making them all
draw. “ Many huntfmen (fays he) are fond of having
them at their horfe’s heels 5 but they never can get fo
well or fo foon together as when they fpread the cover;
befides, I have often known, when there have been only
a few finders, that they have found their fox gone down
the wfind, and been heard of no more that day. Much
depends upon the firff finding of your fox ; for I look
upon a fox well found to be half killed. I think people
are generally in too great a hurry on this occafion.
1 here are but few inilances where fportfmen are not
too noify, and too fond of encouraging their hounds,
which feldom do their buiinefs fo Well as when little is
faid to them. The huntfman ought certainly to begin
with his foremofl hounds; and I fliould wifli him to
keep as clofe to them as he conveniently can ; nor can
any harm arife from it, unlefs he fliould not have com¬
mon fenfe. No hounds can then flip down the wind
and get out of his hearing j he will alfo fee how far
they carry the fcent, a neceflary requifite ; for without
it he never can make a cafl with any certainty.—You
will find it not lefs neceffary for your huntfman to be
active in prefling his hounds forward when the fcent is
good, than to be prudent in not hurrying them beyond
it when it is bad. It is his bufinefs to be ready at all
times to lend them that afliflance which they fo fre¬
quently need, and which when they are firfl at a fault
is then moil critical. A fox-hound at that time will
exert himfelf moll j he afterwards cools and becomes
more indifferent about his game. Thofe huntfmen who
Vol. X. Part II.
1 ] HUN
do not get forward enough to take advantage of this Hunting,
eagernels and impetuofity, and direct it properly, feldom
know enough of hunting to be of much ufe to them af¬
terwards. Though a huntfman cannot be too fond of
hunting, a whipper-in eafily may. His bufinefs will
leldom allow him to be forward enough with the hounds
to fee much of the fport. His only thought therefore
fliould be to keep the hounds together, and to contri¬
bute as much as he can to the killing of the fox ; keep¬
ing the hounds together is the fureff means to make
them Heady. When left to themfelves they feldom re-
fufe any blood they can get 5 they become conceited j
learn to tie upon the fcent 5 and befides this they fre¬
quently get a trick of hunting by themfelves, and are
feldom good for much afterwards.
“ Every country is foon known ; and nine foxes out
of ten, with the wind in the fame quarter, will follow
the fame track. It is eafy therefore for the whipper-
in to cut ftiort, and catch the hounds again. With a
high fcent you cannot pufli on hounds too much.
Screams keep the fox forward, at the fame time that
they keep the hounds together, or let in the tail-
hounds : they alfo enliven the fport ; and, if difcreetly
ufed, are always of fervice ; but in cover they fliould
be given with the greatell caution. Halloos feldom
do any hurt when you are running up the wind, for
then none but the tail-hounds can hear you : when you
are running down the wind, you fliould halloo no more
than may be neceflary to bring the tail-hounds for¬
wards; for a hound that knows.his bufinefs feldom
wants encouragement when he is upon a fcent.—Moll
fox-hunters wilh to fee their hounds run in a goodJhjle.
I confefs I myfelf am one of thofe ; I hate to fee a
firing of them ; nor can I bear to fee them creep where
they can leap. A pack of harriers, if they have time,
may kill a fox, but I defy them to kill him in the flyle
in which he ought to be killed ; they muff hunt him -
down. If you intend to tire him out, you muff expeft
to be tired alfo yourfelf; I never wifli a chace to be
lefs than one hour, or to exceed two : it is fufficiently
long it properly followed : it will leldom be longer un¬
lefs there be a fault fomewhere ; either in the day, the
huntiman, or the hounds.
“ Changing from the hunted fox to a frefli one is as
bad an accident as can happen to a pack of fox-hounds,
and requires all the ingenuity and obfervation that man
is capable of to guard againfl it. Could a fox-hound
dijlinguifli a hunted fox as the deer-hound does the deer
that is blown, fox-hunting would then be perfect. A
huntfman fliould always liften to his hounds while they
are running in cover ; he fliould be particularly atten¬
tive to the headmoff hounds, and he fliould be conflant-
ly on his guard againfl a Ikirter ; for if there be two
fcents, he muff be wrong. Generally fpeaking, the
beft fcent is leaft likely to be that of the hunted fox :
and as a fox feldom fuffers hounds to run up to him as
long as he is able to prevent it ; fo, nine times out of
ten, when foxes are hallooed early in the day, they are
all frelli foxes. The hounds moil likely to be right are
the hard-running line-hunting ones; or fuch as the
huntfman knows had the lead before there arofe any
doubt of changing. With regard to the fox, if he
break over an open country, it is no fign that he is hard
run ; for they feldom at any time will do that unlefs
they are a great way before the hounds. Alfo if he run
4 R up
HUN [68
Hunting, up the wind j—they feldom or never do that when they
^ _ have been long hunted and grow weak ; and when they
run their foil, that alfb may direft him. All this re¬
quires a good ear and nice obfervation ; and indeed in
that conlifts the chief excellence of a huntfman.
“ When the hounds divide and are in two parts, the
whipper-in, in hopping, muft attend to the huntfman
and wait for his halloo, before he attempts to flop ei¬
ther: for want of proper management in this refpeft I
have known the hounds Hopped at both places, and
both foxes loft. If they have many fcents, and it is
quite uncertain which is the hunted fox, let him Hop
thofe that are fartheft down the wind ; as they can hear
the others, and will reach them fooneft : in fuch a cafe
there will be little ufe in flopping thofe that are up the
wind. When hounds are at a check, let every one be
filent and Hand ftill. Whippers-in are frequently at
this time coming on witlr the tail-hounds. They fhould
never halloo to them when the hounds are at fault ; the
kaft thing does them harm at fuch a time, but a hal¬
loo more than any other. The huntfman, at a check,
had better let his hounds alone ; or content himfelf
. with holding them forward, without taking them off
their nofes.—Should they be at a fault, after having
made their own caft (which the huntfman flrould always
firft encourage them to do), it is then his bufinefs to
affift them further ; but except in fome particular in-
ftances, I never approve of their being call; as long as
they are inclined to hunt. The firft: caft I bid my
huntfman make is generally a regular one, not choofing
to rely entirely on his judgment : if that ftiould not fuc-
ceed, he is then at liberty to follow his own opinion,
and proceed as obfervation or genius may direft. When
fiich a caft is made, I like to fee fome mark of good
fenfe and meaning in it; whether down the wind, or
towards fome likely cover or ftrong earth. However,
as it is at beft uncertain, I always wifti to fee a regular
caft before I fee a knowing one ; which, as a laid re-
fource, fhould not be called forth till" it be wanted :
The letting hounds alone is but a negative goodnefs
in a huntfman j whereas it is true this laft fhow's real
genius ; and to be perfedl, it muft be born wdth him.
There is a fault, however, which a knowing huntfman
is too apt to commit: he will find a frefh fox, and then
claim the merit of having recovered the hunted one.
It is always dangerous to throw hounds into a cover to
retrieve a loft fcent j and unlefs they hit him in, is not
to be depended on.
“ Gentlemen, when hounds are at fault, are too apt
themfelves to prolong it. They fhould always flop
their horfes fome diftance behind the hounds ; and if it
be poflible to remain filent, this is the time to be fo.
They fhould be careful not to ride before the hounds
or over the fcent j nor fhould they ever meet a hound
in the face unlefs with a defign to flop him. Should
you aft any time be before the hounds, turn your horfe’s
head the way they are going, get out of their track,
and let them pafs by you. In dry weather, and parti¬
cularly in heathy countries, foxes will run the roads.
If gentlemen at fuch times will ride clofe upon the
hounds, they may drive them miles without any fcent.
—High mettled fox-hounds are feldcm inclined to flop
while horfes are clofe at their heels. No one fhould
ever ride in a dire&xon which if perfifted in would
2 ] HUN
cany mm amongit the hounds, unleis he be
diftance behind them.
I he firft moment that hounds are at fault is a cri¬
tical one for the fport-people, wdio fhould then be very
attentive. "1 hok who look forward may perhaps fee
the fox ; or the running of fheep, or the purfuit of
crows, may give them fome tidings of him. Thofe
who liften may fometimes take a hint which way he
is gone from the chattering of a magpie •> or perhaps
be at a certainty from a diftant halloo : nothing that
can give any intelligence at fuch a time ought to be
neglefted. Gentlemen are too apt to ride all toge-/
ther : were they to fpread more, they might fometimes
be of fervice j particularly thofe wdro, from a know¬
ledge of the fport, keep down the wind : it wmuld
then be difficult for either hounds or fox to efcape their
oblervation.—You flrould, however, be cautious how
you go to a halloo. The halloo itfelf muft; in a great
meafure dxred you j and though it afford no certain
rule, yet you may frequently guefs whether it can be
depended upon or not. At the fowiog-txme, when
boys are keeping off the birds, you will fometimes be
deceived by their halloo j fo that it is beft, w hen you
are in doubt, to fend a whipper-in to know the cer¬
tainty of the matter.”
great minuns*.
Hounds ought not to be caft as long as they are able
to hunt. It is a common, though not a very juft idea,
that a hunted fox never flops j but our author informs
us that he has known them flop even in wheel ruts in
the middle of a down, and get up in the middle of the
hounds. The greateft danger of lofing a fox is at the
firft finding him, and when he is finking ; at both which
times he frequently will run ffiort, and the eagernefs of
the hounds will frequently carry them beyond the fcent.
When a fox is firft found, every one ought to keep be¬
hind the hounds till they are well fettled to the fcent ;
and when the hounds are catching him, our author
wiffies them to be as filent as poffible ; and likewife to
eat him eagerly after he is caught. In fome places
they have a method of treeing him*, that is, throwing
him acrofs the branch of a tree, and fuffering the hounds
to bay at him for fome minutes before he is thrown a-
mong them ; the intention of wThich is to make them
more eager, and to let in the tail-hounds j during this
interval alfo they recover their wind, and are apt to
eat him more readily. Our author, however, advifes
not to keep him too long, as he fuppofes that the hounds
have not any appetite to eat him longer than while they
are angry with him.
2. Under-ground. In cafe a fox does fo far efcape
as to earth, countrymen muft; be got together with fho-
vels, fpades, mattocks, pick-axes, &c. to dig him out,
if theythink the earth not too great. They make their
earths as near as they can in ground that is hard to dig,
as in clay, ftony ground, or amongft the roots of trees \
and their earths have commonly but one hole, and that
is ftraight a long way in before you come at their couch.
Sometimes craftily tlxey take poffeffion of a badger’s old
burrow, which hath a vaidety of chambers, holes, and
angles.
Now to facilitate this way of hunting the fox, the
huntfman muft be provided with one or two terriers to
put into the earth after him, that is, to fix him into an
angle j for the earth often confifts of many angles : the
C ufe
Hi U N [ 683 ]
ufe of the terrier is to know where he lies j for as foon will tane th
as he finds him, he continues baying or barking, fo that
which way the noife is heard that tvay dig to him.
Your terriers mud be garnifhed with bells hung in col¬
lars, to make the fox bolt the fooner ; befides, the col¬
lars will be fome fmall defence to the terriers.
The indruments to dig withal are thefe ; a fharp-
pointed fpade, which ferves to begin the trench where
the ground is harded and broader tools will not fo wTell
enter *, the round hollowed fpade, which is ufeful to
dig among roots, having very diarp edges 5 the broad
flat fpade to dig withal, when the trench has been pret¬
ty wrell opened, and the ground fofter; mattocks and
pick-axes to dig in hard ground, where a fpade will do
but little fervice j the coal-rake to cleanfe the hole,
and to keep it from flopping up ; clamps, wherewith
you may take either fox or badger out alive to make
fport with afterwards. And it would be very conve¬
nient to have a pail of water to refredr your terriers
with, after they are come out of the earth to take
breath.
Hare-IfvNTiNG. As, of all chafes, the hare makes
the greated padime, fo it gives no little pleafure to
fee the craft of this fmall animal for her felf-preferva-
tion. If it be rainy, the hare ufually takes to the
high-ways j and if die come to the fide of a young
grove, or Ipring, die feldom enters, but fquats down
till the hounds have over-fliot her •, and then die wall
return the very way die came, for fear of the w'et and
dewr that hangs on the boughs. In this cafe, the huntf-
man ought to flay a hundred paces before he comes
to the wood-fide, by which means he wall perceive whe¬
ther die return as aforefaid j which if die do, he mud
halloo in his hounds j and call them back 5 and that
prefently, that the hounds may not think it the counter
die came fird.
The next thing that is to be obferved, is the place
where the hare fits, and upon what wind die makes her
form, either upon the north or fouth wind : die will not
willingly run into the wind, but run upon a fide, or
down the wind •, but if die form in the water, it is a
fign die is foul and meaded : if you hunt fuch a one,
have a fpecial regard all the day to the brook-fides ; for
there, and near pladies, die will make all her erodings,
doublings, &c.
Some hares have been fo crafty, that as foon as they
have heard the found of a horn, they would indantly
dart out of their form, though it was at the didance of
u quarter of a mile, and go and fwirn in fome pool, and
red upon fome ruth bed in the midd of it} and would
not dir from thence till they have heard the found
of the horn again, and then have darted out again,
fwimming to land, and have dood up before the hounds
four hours before they could kill them, fwimming
and ufmg all fubtilities and erodings in the water.
Nay, fuch is the natural craft and fubtility of a hare,
that fometimes after die has been bunted three hours,
die will dart a frefh hare, and fquat in the fame form.
Others having been hunted a confiderable time, will
creep under the door of a (beep cot, and hide them-
felves among the dieep •, or, when they have been hard
hunted, will run in among a dock of dieep, and will
by no means be gotten out from among them till the
hounds are coupled up, and the dieep driven into their
pens. Some of them (and that feems fomewhat flrange)
HUN
ground like a coney, and that is called 1
going to the vault. Some hares will go up one fide of
the hedge, and come down the other, the thicknefs of
the hedge being the only didance between the comics.
A hare that has been forely hunted, has got upon a
quickfet hedge, and run a good way upon the top
thereof, and then leapt oft upon the ground. And they
will frequently betake themfelves to furze bullies, and
will leap from one to the other, whereby the hounds are
frequently in default.
Having found where a hare hath relieved in fome
pafture or corn-field, you mud then conftder the feafon
of the year, and what weather it is: for if it be in the
fpring-time, or fumtner, a bare will not then let in
bufnes, becaufe they are frequently infeded with pil-
mires, fnakes, and adders; but will fct in corn-fields,
and open places. In the winter-time, they fet near
towns and villages, in tufts of thorns and brambles,
efpeaVly when the wind is northerly or fcutherly.
According to the feafon and nature of the place where
the hare is accuftomed to lit, there beat with your
hounds, and fiart her j which is much better fport than
trailing of her from her relief to her form.
After the hare has been fiarted and is on loot,
then ftep in where you faw her pafs, and halloo in your
hounds, until they have all undertaken it and go on
with it in full cry : then recheat to them with your
horn, following fair and foftly at fird, making not too
much noife either with horn or voice 5 ior at the fird,
hounds are apt to overdicot the chace through too much
heat. But when they have run the fpace of an hour,
and you fee the hounds are well in with it, and dick
well upon it, then you may come in nearer with the
hounds, becaufe by that time their heat will be cooied,
and they will hunt more foberly. But above all tilings,
mark the fird doubling, which mud be your direion
for the whole day *, for all the doublings that, d.e diall
make afterwards will be like the former \ and accord¬
ing to the policies that you dial! fee her ufe, and the
place where you hunt, you muft make your compafies
great or little, long or fhort, to help the defaults, al¬
ways feeking the molded and mod. commodious places
for the hounds to feent in.
To conclude : Thofe who delight in hunting the
hare mud rife early, left they be deprived of the feent
of her footfteps.
Hart or Stag Hunting. Gefner, fpeaking or hart¬
hunting, obferves, that this wild, deceitful, and fubtile
bead, frequently deceives its hunter by windings and
turnings. Wherefore the prudent hunter mult train his
dogs with words of art, that he may be able to fet them
on and take them off again at pleafure.
Firft of all, he flrould encompafs the bead: in her
own layer, and fo unliarbour her in the view of the
dogs, that fo they may never lofe her dot or footing.
Neither muft he fet upon every one, either of the herd
or thofe that wander folitary alone, or a little one j
but partly by fight, and partly by their footing and
fumets, make a judgment of the game, and aho ob-
ferve the largenefs of his layer.
The huntfman, having made thefe difeovenes in or¬
der to the chace, takes off the couplings of the dogs j
and fome on horfeback, others on foot, follow the cry,
with the greateft art, obfervation, and fpeed } remem¬
bering and intercepting him in his fubtile turnings and
4 R 2 headings j
n£
! ,• . H U N t 684
j ngS ’ ™\tn arU aSllity taping hedges, gates, pales,
ditches ; neither fearing thorns, down hills, nor woods
but mounting a frefh horfe if the firit tire. Follow the’
largeft head of the whole herd, which mull be fingled
out ot the chace ; which the dogs perceiving muft
follow ; not following any other. The dogs are ani¬
mated to the fport by the winding of horns, and the
voices of the huntfmen. But fometimes the crafty beaft
fends forth his little fquire to be facrificed to the dogs
and hunters, inftead of himfelf, lying clofe the mean
time. In this cafe, the huntfman muft found a retreat,
creak oft the dogs, and take them in, that is, leam them
agam, until they be brought to the fairer game 5 which
rnefh with fear, yet ftill ftriveth by flight, until he be
weaned and breathlefs._ The nobles call the beaft «
•U'.'/e //ar/, who, to avoid all his enemies, runneth into
the greateft herds, and fo brings a cloud of error on
the dogs, to obftrua their further purfuit j fometimes
alio bearing fome of the herd into his footings, that fo
he may toe m re eafily efcape by amufing the dogs.
Aiterwan s he betakes himfelf to his heels again, ftill
running with the wind, not only for the fake of refrefh-
ment, but alio becaufe by that means he can the more
t uny hear trie voice of his purfuers whether they be far
trr.m him or near to him. But at laft being again dif-
covered by the hunters and fagacious fcent of the dogs
he flies into the herds of cattle, as cows, ilieep, &c.’
leaping on a cow or ox, laving the fore parts of his
body thereon, that fo touching the earth only with his
hinder feet he may leave a verv fmall or no fcent at
ail behind for the hounds to difcern. But their ufual
manner is, when they fee themfelves hard befet and
every way intercepted, to make force at their enemy
with their horns, wdio ftrft comes upon him, unlefs they
be prevented by fpear or fword. When the beaft is
flam, the huntfman with his horn windeth the fall of
the beaft ; and then the whole company comes up
blowing their horns in triumph for fuch a conqueft • a-
mong whom, the fkilfulleft opens the beaft, and’re¬
wards the hounds with what properly belongs to them
1
hun
for their future encouragement ; for which purpofe the
huntfmen dip bread in the fkin and blood of the beaft
to give to the hounds.
It is very dangerous to go in to a hart at bay: of
which there are two forts, one on land and the other
m water. Now, if the hart be in a deep water, where
you cannot well come at him, then couple up your
dogs ; for fhould they continue long in the water it
would endanger their fur bating or foundering. In this
cafe, get a boat, and fwim to him, with dagger drawn
or clfe with rope that has a noofe, and throw it over
his horns : for if the water be fo deep that the hart
iwims, there is no danger in approaching him : other-
wife you muft be very cautious.
As to the land-bay, if a hart be burnifhed, then you
muft conftder the place j for if it be in a plain and open
p ace, where there is no wmod nor covert, it is dange¬
rous and difficult to come in to him 5 but if he be on a
hedge-ftde, or 111 a thicket, then, wffiile the hart is fta-
nng on the hounds, you may come foftly and covertly
behind him, and cut his throat. If you mifs your aim,
and the hart turn head upon you, then take refuge at
fome tree j and when the hart is at bay, couple up
your hounds j and when you fee the hart turn head to
fwordall°P 10 r°Undly t0 him’ and kil1 him wIth your
Direchons at the Death of a Hart or Buck. The
ftrft ceremony, wffien the huntfman comes in to the death
of a deer ,s fo cry “ ware haunch,” that the hounds
may not break into the deer; which being done, the
next is the cutting his throat, and there blooding the
youngeft hounds, that they may the better love a dem¬
and learn to leap at his throat : then the mort having
been blown and all the company come in, the belt
perfon who hath not taken fay before, is to take up the
knife that the keeper or huntfman is to lay acrofs the
belly of the deer, fome holding by the fore legs, and
tie keeper or huntfman drawing down the pizzle, the
perfon who takes fay, is to draw the edge of the knife
eifurely along the middle of the belly, beginning near
the bnlket, and drawing a little upon it, enough in the
length and depth to difcover how fat the deer is : then
he that is to break up the deer, firft flits the fkin from
the cutting of the throat downwards, making the arber
that fo the ordure may not break forth, and then he
paunches him, rewarding the hounds with it.
In the next place, he is to prefent the fame perfon
who took fay, with a drawn hanger, to cut off the
head of the deer. Which being done, and the hounds
rewarded, the concluding ceremony is, if it be a flag-
to bfow a triple mort ; and if a buck, a double one :
and then all who have horns, blow a recheat in concert
and immediately a general whoop, whoop.
• Otter-HuNTiNG is performed with dogs, and alfo
with a fort of inftruments called otter ftears; with
which when they find themfelves wounded, they make
to land, and fight with the dogs, and that moft fu-
noufly as if they were fenfible that cold water would
annoy their green wounds.
There is indeed craft to be ufed in hunting them ;
but they may be catched in fnares under water, and
by river-fides : but great care muft be taken, for they
bite forely and venomoufly; and if they happen to re¬
main long in the fnare, they will not fail to get them-
ielves free by their teeth.
In hunting them, one man muft be on one fide of
the river, and another on the other, both beating the
banks with dogs; and the beaft not being able to
endure the water long, you will foon difcover if there
be an otter or not m that quarter ; for he muft come
out to make his fpraints, and in the night fometimes
to teed on grafs and herbs.
If any of the hounds finds out an otter, then view
the loft grounds and moift places, to find out which
way e bent his head; if you cannot difcover this by
t e marks, you may partly perceive it by the fpraints :
and then follow the hounds, and lodge him as a hart
or deer. . But if you do not find him quickly, you
n-Vmag‘ne *S 8one to couch Somewhere farther
oft from the river; for fometimes they will go to feed
a confiderable way from the place of their reft, choo-
ftng rather to go up the river than down it. The per-
fons that go; a-hunting otters, murt carry their fpears,
to watch his vents, that being the chief advantage:
and if they perceive him fwimming under water, they
mult endeavour to ftrike him with their fpears, and
1 they mifs, muft purfue him with the hounds, which
it they be good and perfe&ly entered, will go chant-
ing
HUN [
Hunting, ing and trailing along by the river-fide, and win beat
•v"-”'' every root of a tree, and ofier-bed, and tuft of bul-
rufhes j. nay, they will fometimes take water, and bait
the beaft, like a fpaniel, by which means he will hard¬
ly efcape.
Roe-buck Hunting is performed divers ways, and
very ealily in the woods.
When chafed, they ufually run againft the wind,
becaufe the coolnefs of the air refrelhes them in their
courfe } therefore the huntfmen place their dogs with
the wind : they ufually, when hunted, firft take a
large ring, and afterwards hunt the hounds. They
are alfo often taken by counterfeiting their voice,
which a Ikilful huntfman knows how to do by means
of a leaf in his mouth. When they are hunted, they
turn much and often, and come back upon the dogs
dire&ly j and when they can no longer endure, they
take foil, as the hart does, and will hang by a bough
in fuch a manner, that nothing of them {hall appear
above the water but their fnout, and they will fuffer
the dogs to come juft upon them before they will
ftir.
The venifon of a roe-buck is never out of feafon, be¬
ing never fat, and therefore they are hunted at any
time j only that fome favour ought to be ftiown the
685 ] HUN
hare has been killed, in a nipping frofty morning, can Hunt
endure to ftand till the fweat be frozen on his back, ^
fo that he can endure to be pierced with the cold as
well as the heat; and then, even in that extremity of
cold, to ride another chafe as brilkly, and with as much
courage as he did the former $ that horfe which can
thus endure heats and colds is moft valued by fportf-
men. Therefore in order to make a judgment of the
goodnefs of a horfe, obferve him after the death of the
firft hare, if the chafe has been any thing brilk :
when he is cold, he {brinks up his body, and draws his
legs up together, it i& an infallible fign of want of vi¬
gour and courage : the like may be done by the ftack-
ening of his girths after the firft chafe, and from the
dulnefs of his teeth, and the dulnefs of his counte¬
nance, all which are true tokens of faintnefs and being
tired $ and fuch a horfe is not to be relied on in cafe
of a wager.
Here it will not be improper to take notice of the
way of making matches in former times, and the mo¬
dern way of deciding wagers. The old way of trial
was, by running fo many train-fcents after hounds,
as was agreed upon between the parties concerned,
and a bell-courfe, this being found not fo uncertain,
but more durable than hare-hunting ; and the advan-
doe while {he is big with fawn, and afterwards till tage confifted in having the trains led on earth moft
her fawn is able to Ihift for himfelf; but fome roe-
does have been killed with five fawns in their bellies.
He is not called, by the Ikilful in the art of hunting,
a great roe-buck, but a fair roe-buck j the herd of them
is called a bevy: and if he hath not bevy-greafe upon
his tail, when he is broken up, he is more fit to be dog’s
meat than man’s meat. The hounds muft be rewarded
fuitable to the qualifications of the horfes. But now
others choofe to hunt the hare till fuch an hour, and
then to run this wild-goofe chafe ; a method of ra¬
cing that takes its name from the manner of the flight
of wild-geefe, which is generally one after another ;
fo the two horfes after running of twelvefcore yards,
had liberty, which horfe foever could get the leading,
with the bowels, the blood, and feet flit afunder, and to ride what ground he pleafed, the hmdmoft horfe
boiled altogether $ this is more properly called a dofe
than a reward.
HuNTiNG-Match. The firft thing that is to be
confidered by one who defigns to match his horfe for
his own advantage, and his horfe’s credit, is not to flat¬
ter himfelf with the opinion of his horfe, by fancying
that he is a fwift, when he is but a flow gallopper j
and that he is a whole-running-horfe, that is, that
he will run four miles without a fob at the height of
his fpeed, when he is not able to run two or three.
Very probably fome gentlemen are led into this error,
by their being miftaken in the fpeed of their hounds,
who for want of trying them againft other dogs that
have been really fleet, have fuppofed their own to be
fo, when in reality they are but of a middling fpeed $
and becaufe their horfe, when trained, was able to
follow them all day, and upon any hour, to command
them upon deep as well as light earths, have there¬
fore made a falfe conclufion, that their horfe is as
fwift as the beft j but, upon trial againft a horfe that
has been rightly trained after hounds that were truly
fleet, have bought their experience perhaps full dear.
Therefore it is advifable for all lovers of hunting to
procure two or three couple of tried hounds, and once
or twice a-week to follow after them at train-fcent; and
when he is able to top them on all forts of earth, and
to endure heats and colds ftoutly, then he may better
rely on his fpeed and toughnefs.
That horfe which is able to perform a hare-chafe of
five or fix miles brilkly and courageoufly, till his body
be as it were bathed in fweat j ,and then, after the
being bound to follow him, within a certain diftance
agreed on by articles, or elfe to be whipped . up by
the triers or judges which rode by •, and whichever
horfe could diftance the other won the match.
But this chafe, in itfelf very inhuman, was foon found
to be very deftru£Hve to good horfes, efpecially when
two good hodes were matched ; for neither being able
to diftance the other till both were ready to fink under
their riders through weaknefs, oftentimes the match
was fain to be drawn and left undecided, though both
the horfes were quite fpoiled.
This brought up the cuflom of train-fcents, which
afterwards was changed to three heats and a ftraight
courfe ; and that the lovers of horfes might be encou¬
raged to keep good ones, plates have been erefted in
many places in Britain. The fewer of thefe before
you come to the courfe, if your horfe be fiery and
mettled, the better j and the Ihorter the diftance, the
better. Alfo, above all things, be fure to make your
bargain to have the leading of the firft train *, and then
make choice of fuch grounds where your horfe may
beft Ihow his fpeed, and the fleeteft dogs you can
procure : give your hounds as much law before you
as your triers will allow, and then making a loole,
try to win the match with a wind : but if you fail in
this attempt, then bear your horfe, and have him for
the courfe ; but if your horfe be flow, but well-wind¬
ed, and a true fpurred nag, then the more train-fcents
you run before you come to the ftraight-courfe, the
better. But here you ought to obferve to gain the
leading of the firft train j which in this cafe you muft
H U Q [ 686 ]
Hunting- lead -upon fucli deep earths, that it may not end near fands of the rivers
^ --r —r wm4waic,> tuai. ic uurtj nuc cau near
°n any light ground : for this is the rule received among
Hu-quang. *lorfemen> that the next train is to begin where the
i——1 jail ends, and the lad train is to be ended at the dart¬
ing place of the courfe ; therefore remember to end
your lad on deep earths, as w-ell as the fird.
HUNTINGDON, the county-town of Hunting¬
don fhire in England, feated upon an eafy afcent, on
tile north fide of the river Oufe. It wTas made a free
borough by King John, confiding of a mayor, i 2 al-
deimen, burgeffes, &.c, by whom the two members of
parliament are chofen. It had anciently 15 parilhes,
and has now but two; in one of which, called Si Jo/m's,
Oliver Cromwell was born, in 1599. Here was for¬
merly a cadle, built by William the Conqueror, which
afterwards belonged to David, a prince of Scotland,
with the title of ear/; but Henry VIII. gave it to
George Hadings, with the earldom annexed, in whofe
family it ftill continues. It ftarids on the great north
road; and has a bridge built of free-done over the
Oufe, W'hich is made navigable for finall redels as high
as Bedford. It is the place where the affizes are kept,
and where the-county-jail dands. It has a good market¬
place, and feveral convenient inns, befides a grammar-
fchool ; and is very populous. W^ Eong. o. c. N.
Eat. 52. 17.
Huntingdonshire, a county of England, bounded
on the fouth by Bedfordlhire ; on the wed by Nor-
thamptonlhire, as alfo on the north ; and by Cam-
bridgediire on the ead ; extending 26 miles in length
from north to fouth, 20 in breadth from ead to wed,
and near 67 in circumference. This county, which is
in the diocefe of Lincoln, is divided into four hundreds,
and contains 6 market-towns, 29 vicarages, ySparilhes,
256 villages, about 6841 houfes, and in 1801, nearly
38,000 inhabitants ; but fends only four members to
parliament, namely, two knights of the fhire, and two
members for Huntingdon. It is a good corn country ;
tin, &c.
H U II
  > and in the mines they have iron* Hurst
  In diort, there is fuch a variety of all forts H
of commodities* that it is called the magazine of the Hlirr*cane;
HURA, in Botany, a genus of plants belonging to
the monoecia clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 38th order, 'Tricoccce. See Botany
Index.
HURDLE, is the name of a fledge ufed to draw
traitors to the place of execution.
HURDLES, in Fortification, are made of twigs of
willows or ofiers interwoven clofe together, fodained
by long dakes. They are made in the figure of a
long fquare, the length being five or fix feet, and the
breadth three and a half. The clofer they are wattled
together, the better. They ferve to render the bat¬
teries firm, or to confolidate the paflage over muddy
ditches ; or to cover traverfes and lodgments for the
defence of the workmen againd fire-works or ftones
throwm againd them.
T he Romans had a kind of military execution for
mutineers, called putting, to death under the hurdle.
1 he manner of it was this : The criminal was laid at
his length in a (hallow water, under an hurdle, upon
which was heaped dones, and fo prefied down till he
wras drowned.
Hurdles, in Hujbandry, certain frames made ei¬
ther of fplit timber, or of hazel-rods wattled toge¬
ther, to ferve for gates in inclofures, or to make fheen-
folds, &c.
HURDS, or Hords, of flax or hemp; the coarfer
parts feparated in the drelfings from the tear, or fine
duff. See Flax.
HURL-bone, in a horfe, a bone near the middle
of the buttock, very apt to go out of its fockets wdth
al hurt or drain.
HURLERS, a number of large dones, fet in a kind
of fquare figure near St Clare in Cornwall, fo called
7 k T • Tga0n7 3 8°°" corn country; ol iquare figure near St Clare in Cornwall, fo called
and abounds in padures, efpecially on the eadern fide, from an odd opinion held by the common people, that
which is fenny. The red is diyerfified by rifing hills they are fo many men petrified, or changed into dones,
and fhady groves, and the river Oufe waters the fouthern for profaning the fabbath-day by hurling the ball, an
exercife for whirh flip npr>nl/» „
part
The air of this county is in mod parts pleafant and
wholefome, except among the fens and meres, though
they’are not fo bad as the hundreds of Kent and Effex.
T he foil is fruitful, and produces great crops of corn,
and the hilly parts afford a fit padure for fheep. They
have great number^of cattle; and plenty of water-fowl,
fifh, and turf for firing ; which lad is of great forvice
to the inhabitants, there being but little wood, though
the whole county w-as a fored in the time of Henry II.
The only river befides the Oufe is the Nen, which runs
through Whittlefey mere.
HU-QUANG, a province of the kingdom of China,
in Afia, which has a great river called Tang, and Tfie-
chiang, which runs acrofs it frcjm ead to wed. It is
ni vin^n ittt-/-v t‘Vw» ^-1 17.-E    .  ^ i
 r*v*«‘**“5 uy mining UlC 0311, an
exercife for which the people of that country have been
always famous.
The hurlers are oblong, rude, and unhewed. Many
authors fuppofe them to have been trophies erefted in
memory of fome battle : others take them for bounda¬
ries to didinguifh lands. Ladly, others, with more
probability, hold them to have been fepulchral monu¬
ments.
HURLY-burly, in vulgar language, denotes con-
fufion or tumult, and is faid to owe its origin to two
neighbouring families, Hurleigh and Burleigh, which
filled their part of the kingdom with conted and vio¬
lence.
HURON, a vad lake of North America, fituated
.vvm7 runs a1crois 7 Ir<»m ealt to welt, it is between 84* and 89° W. Long, and between 430 and
divided into the north mid fouth parts, the former of 46° of N Eat from whence the country contiguous
which contains eight cities of the fird rank, and 60 of to it is called the country of the Hurons, whofe language
t e fecond and third ; and the latter, feven of the fird is fpoken over a great extent in the fouthern carts of
o A L»ic 11111 idtAiv, 311(1 00 or
the fecond and third ; and the latter, feven of the fird
rank, and five of the fecond and third. It is a flat,
open country, watered everywhere with brooks, lakes’
and rivers, in which there are great numbers of fifli.
Here is plenty of wild fowls ; the fields nourifh cattle
without number, and the foil produces corn, and va¬
rious kinds of fruits. There is gold found in the
3
jv bn,* ij vj me juur uns, vvuuic language
is fpoken over a great extent in the fouthern parts of
America.
HURRICANE, a general name for any violent
dorm of wind ; but which is commonly applied to thofe
dorms which happen in the warmer climates, and
which greatly exceed the mod violent dorms known
in this country. The ruin and defolation accompany-
ing
HUS [ 687 ] HUS
Hurricane ing a hurricane (fays Dr Mofely *) cannot be defcribed.
il Like fire, its refiftlefs force confumes every thing in its
HvflwjxL j.rac]^ ;n t},e mofl; terrible and rapid manner. It is ge-
. '( ' . nerally preceded by an aweful ftillnefs of the elements,
* Treat fe on and a clofenefs and miftinefs in the atmofphere, which
Tropical makes the fun appear red, and the ftars larger. But a
Jjifca/cs, dreadful reverfe fucceeding—The fey is fuddenly over-
ficc. Svo. cai^ ancj wJld—The fea riles at once from a profound
calm into mountains—The wind rages and roars like
the noife of cannon—The rain defcends in deluges—A
difmal obfcurity envelopes the earth with darknefs—The
fuperior regions appear rent with lightning and thun¬
der—The earth often does and always feems to tremble
—Terror and confternation diftradt all nature—Birds
are carried from the woods into the ocean; and thofe
whofe element is the fea, feek for refuge on land—The
frightened animals in the field affemble together, and
are almofi: fuffocated by the impetuofity of the wind in
fearching for feelter ; which, when found, ferves them
only for dedrudlion—The roofs of houfes are carried to
vail diftances from their walls, which are beat to the
ground, burying their inhabitants under them—Large
trees are torn up by the roots, and huge branches fei-
vered off, and driven through the air in every diredtion,
with immenfe velocity—Every tree and ferub that with-
ftands the thock, is (tripped of its boughs and foliage—
Plants and grafs are laid fiat on the earth—Luxuriant
fpring is changed in a moment to dreary winter.—This
direful tragedy ended, when it happens in a town, the
devaftation is furveyed with accumulated horror j the
harbour is covered with wrecks of boats and vefiels j
and the (hore has not a veltige of its former date re¬
maining. Mounds of rubbilh and rafters in one place,
heaps of earth and trunks of trees in another, deep
gullies from torrents of water, and the dead and dy¬
ing bodies of men, women, and children, half buried,
and fcattered about, where (Ireets but a few hours be¬
fore were, prefent the miferable furvivors with a (hock¬
ing conclufion of a fpeflacle to be followed by famine,
and when accompanied by an earthquake by mortal
difeafes.
Thefe deftruclive phenomena are now thought to
arife from eleddricity, though the manner in which it
. acds in this cafe is by no means known. It feems pro¬
bable, indeed, that not only hurricanes, but even the
mod gentle gales of wind, are produced by the action
of the eledlric fluid ; for which fee Wind, Whirl¬
wind, &c. Meteorology Index.
HURST, Hyrst, or Herst, are derived from
the Saxon hy rji, i. e. a wood, or grove of trees. There
are many places in Kent, Suflex, and Hampfirire,
which begin and end with this fyllable ; and the reafon
may be, becaufe the great wood called Andrefwald ex¬
tended through thofe counties.
HuRST-Cq/ile, a fortrefs of Hampflaire in England,
not far from Limington. It is feated on the extreme
point of a neck of land which (hoots into the fea, to¬
wards the ifle of Wight, from which it is didant two
miles.
HUSBAND, a man joined or contradled with a
woman in marriage. See Marriage.
HusBAND-Land, a term ufed in Scotland for a por¬
tion of land containing fix acres of fock and feythe
land *, that is, of land that may be tilled with a plough,
and mowen with a feythe.
HUSBANDRY, as defined by fome, includes not HufljauJry
only agriculture, but feveral other branches connefied
with it, fuch as the rearing of cattle, the management, _  
of the dairy, making butter and cheefe, railing flax, tim¬
ber, &c. See Agriculture.
Virgilian Husbandry, a term ufed by authors to ex-
prefs that fort of huflnndry, the precepts of which are
fo beautifully delivered in Virgil’s Georgies. The huf-
bandry in Englknd is Virgilian in general, as is feen
by the method of paring and burning the furface, ol
raftering or crofs-ploughing, and of the care in deflroy-
ing weeds, upon the fame principle, and by much the
fame means. In thofe parts of England along the
fouthern coad, where the Romans principally inhabi¬
ted, not only the praftice, but the expreflions, are in
many refpe&s the fame with thofe of the ancient Ro¬
mans, many of thejterms ufed by the ploughmen being
of Latin origin, and the fame with thofe ufed by thofe
people on the like occafions. And on a drift obferva-
tion, more of Virgil’s hufbandry is at this time praftifed
in England than in Italy itfeli. This change in the
Italian hufbandry is, however, much more to the credit
of that people, than the retaining the Virgilian fcheme
is to ours.
Tull, wdio has edabliihed a new method of hufban¬
dry, obferves, that it is upon the whole fo contradic¬
tory to this old plan, that it may be called the untt-
Virgilian hujbandry; and adds, that no prafiice can be
worfe than the Virgilian.
HUSK, the fame with what botanids call the calyx
or cup of a flower. See Calyx, Botany Index.
HUSO. See Accipenser, Ichthyology Index.
HUSS, John. See Hussites.
HUSSARS, are the national cavalry of Hungary
and Croatia. Their regimentals confid in a rough
furred cap, adorned with a cock’s feather (the officers
either an eagle’s or a heron’s); a doublet, with a pair
of breeches to which the dockings are faftened, and
yellow or red boots: befides, they occafionally wear a
(fiort upper waidcoat edged with fur, and five rows
of round metal buttons; and in bad weather a cloak.
Their arms are a fabre, carbine, and piilols. They
ate irregular troops : hence, before beginning an at¬
tack, they lay themfelves fo flat on the necks of their
horfes, that it is hardly poflible to difeern their force ;
but being come within piflol-fhot of the enemy, they
raife themfelves with fuch furprifing quicknefs, and
begin the fight with fuch vivacity on every fide, that,
unlefs the enemy is accudomed to their method of
engaging, it is very difficult for troops to preferve
their order. When a retreat is neceffary, their horfes
have fo much fire, and are fo indefatigible, their equi¬
page fo light, and themfelves fuch excellent horfemen,
that no other cavalry can pretend to follow theme
They leap over ditches, and fwim over rivers, with
furprifing facility. They never encamp, and confe-
quently are not burdened with any camp-equipage,
faving a kettle and a hatchet to every fix men. They
always lie in the woods, out-houfes, or villages, in the
front of the army. The emperor, queen of Hungary,
and king of Pruilia, have the greated number of troops
under this name in their fervice.
HUSSITES, in ecclefiafiical hidory, a party of re¬
formers, the followers of John Hufs.
John Hufs, from whom the Huffites take their
name, , /
H U S [ 688
Huflites name, tvas born ;n a little village in Bobemia, called
and lived at Prague in the higheft reputation,
both on account of the fanftity of his manners and the
purity of his do&rine. He was diftinguifhed by his
uncommon erudition and eloquence, and performed
at the fame time the funftions of profeffor of divinity
in the univerlity, and of ordinary paftor in the church
of that city. He adopted the fentiments of Wickliff'e,
and the Waldenfes; and in the year 1407 began openly
to oppofe and preach againft divers errors in doftrine,
as well as corruptions in point of difcipline, then reign¬
ing in the church. Hufs likewife endeavoured to the
utmoft of his power to withdraw the univerfity of
Prague from the jurifdidHon of Gregory XII. wdiom
the kingdom of Bohemia had hitherto acknowledged
as the true and lawful head of the church. This oc-
cafioned a violent quarrel between the incenfed arch-
bilhop of Prague and the zealous reformer, which the
latter inflamed and augmented from day to day, by his
pathetic exclamations againft the court of Rome, and
the corruptions that prevailed among the facerdotal
order.
There were other circumftances that contributed to
inflame the refentment of the clergy againft him. He
adopted the philofophical opinions of the realifts, and
vehemently oppofed and even perfecuted the nomina-
lifts, whofe number and influence were confiderable in
the univerfity of Prague. He alfo multiplied the num¬
ber of his enemies in the year 1408, by procuring
through his great credit, a fentence in favour of the
Bohemians, who difputed with the Germans concern¬
ing the number of fuffrages which their refpedtive na¬
tions were intitled to in all matters that were carried
by ele&ion in this univerfity. In confequence of a de¬
cree obtained in favour of the former, which reftored
them to their conftitutional right of three fuffrages,
ufurped by the latter, the Germans withdrew from
Piague, and, in the year 1409, founded a new aca¬
demy at Leipfick. This event no fooner happened,
than Hufs began to inveigh with greater freedom than
he had before done againft the vices and corruptions of
the clergy, and to recommend, in a public manner, the
writings and opinions of Wickliffe, as far as they re¬
lated to the papal hierarchy, the defpotifm of the court
6f Rome, and the corruption of the clergy. Hence
an accufation was brought againft him, in the year
1410, before the tribunal of John XXIII. by whom
he was folemnly expelled from the communion of the
church. Notwithftanding this fentence of excommuni¬
cation, he proceeded to expofe the Romiih church
with a fortitude and zeal that were almoft univerfally
applauded.
This eminent man, whofe piety was equally fincere
and fervent, though his zeal wras perhaps too violent,
and his prudence not always circumfpedt, was fum-
moned to appear before the council of Conftance. Se¬
cured, as he apprehended, from the rage of his ene¬
mies by the faie condudt granted him by the emperor
Sigifmund, for his journey to Conftance, his refidence
in that place, and his return to his own country, John
Hufs obeyed the order of the council, and appeared
before it to demonftrate his innocence, and to prove
that the charge of his having deferted the church of
Rome was entirely groundlefs. However, his enemies
fo far prevailed, that by the moft fcandalous breach of
3
] HUT
public faith, he was caft into prifon, declared a here- Huflltes
tic becaufe he refufed to plead guilty againft the die- II
tates of his confcience, in obedience to the council, and IIut'-“d':jn;
burnt alive in 1415 j a punifhment which he endured 'r~
witli unparalleled magnanimity and refignation.
The fame unhappy fate was borne by Jerome of
Prague, his intimate companion, who attended the
council, in order to fupport his perfecuted friend. Je¬
rome, indeed, was terrified into temporary fubmiffion ,
but he afterwards refumed his fortitude, and main¬
tained the opinions, which he had for a while defert¬
ed through fear, in the flames in which he expired in
1416.
_ Phe difciples of Hufs adhered to their mafter’s doc¬
trine after his death with a zeal which broke out in¬
to an open war, that w^as carried on whh the moft fa+
vage and unparalleled barbarity. John Zifka, a Bo¬
hemian knight, in 1420, put himfelf at the head of
the Hufiites, w ho were now become a very confiderable
party, and threw' off the defpotic yoke of Sigifmund,
who had treated their brethren in the moft barbarous
manner. Zifka was fucceeded by Procopius, in the
year 1424. The ads of barbarity that were commit¬
ted on both fides were fhocking and horrible beyond
expreflion : for notwithftanding the irreconcileable op-
pofition between the religious fentiments of the con¬
tending parties, they both agreed in this one horrible
principle, that it was innocent and lawful to perfecute
and extirpate with fire and fword the enemies of the
true religion ; and fuch they reciprocally appeared to
each other. Thofe commotions in a greater meafure
fubfided, by the interference of the council of Bafil,
in the year 1433.
Ihe Huflites, who wTere divided into two parties, viz^
the Calixtines and Taborites, fpread over all Bohemia
and Hungary, and even Silefia and Poland ; and there
are fome remains of them ftill fubfifting in all thofe
parts.
HUS1INGS (from the Saxon wmrd hujiinge, i. e.
concilium, or curia), a court held in Guildhall before
the lord-mayor and aldermen of London, and reckoned
the fupreme court of the city. Here deeds may be
inrolled, outlawries fued out, and replevins and writs
of error determined. In this court alfo is the ele&ion
of aldermen, of the four members of parliament for
the city, &c. This court is very ancient, as appears
by the laws of Edw'ard the Confeffor. Some other ci¬
ties have likewdfe had a court bearing the fame name,
as Winchefter, York, &c.
HUSUM, a town of Denmark, in the duchy of
Slefwick, and capital of a bailiwick of the fame name,
with a ftrong citadel, and a very handfome church. It
is feated near the river Ow, on the German fea ; and
is fubjeeff to the dukes of Holftein-Gottorp. E. Long.
9. 4. N. Lat. 54. 5.
HUTCHESON, Dr Francis, a very elegant Wri¬
ter and excellent philofopher, was the fon of a diffent-
ing minifter in the north of Ireland, and was born on
the 8th of Auguft 1694. He early difeovered a fu-
perior capacity ; and having gone through a fchool-
education, began his courfe of r-hilofophy at an aca-
demy, whence he removed to the univerfity of Glaf-
gow, where he applied himfelf to all the parts of lite¬
rature, in which his progrefs was fuitable to his un¬
common abilities.
He
HUT' [ 689 ] HUT
HutchefoP- He then returned to Ireland : and entering into the
L—"Y—miniftry, was jull about to be fettled in a fmall con¬
gregation of diffenters in the north of Ireland, when
Ibme gentlemen about Dublin, who knew his great
abilities and virtues, invited him to take up a private
academy there. He complied with the invitation, and
met with much hiccefs. He had been fixed be*, a
fhorl time in Dublin, when his lingular merits and
accomplilhments made him generally known ; and his
acquaintance was lought by men of all ranks, who
had any tafte for literature, or any regard for learn¬
ed men. Lord Vifcount Molefworth is faid to have
■taken great pleafure in his converfation, and to have
a trilled him with his criticifms and obfervations up¬
on his “ Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty^ and Vir¬
tue,” before it came abroad. He received the fame
favour from Dr Synge, lord bilhop of Elphin, with
whom he alfo lived in great friendfhip. The firft edi¬
tion of this performance came abroad without the au¬
thor’s name, but the merit of it wmuld not fuffer him
to be long concealed. Such was the reputation of the
w ork, and the ideas it had raifed of the author, that
Lord Granville, who was then lord lieutenant of Ire¬
land, fent his private fecretary to inquire at the book-
feller’s for the author , and when he could not learn
his name, he left a letter to be conveyed to him : in
confequence oi which he foon became acquainted with
his excellency, and was treated by him, all the time
he continued in his government, with dillinguiihed
marks of familiarity and efteem.
From this time his acquaintance began to be Hill
more courted by men of dillinblion either for flation
or literature in Ireland. Archbilhop King, the au¬
thor of the celebrated book De origine mali, held him
in great efleem j and the friendlhip of that prelate was
of great ufe to him in fereening him from two different
attempts made to profeente him for daring to take
upon him the education of youth, wdthout having qua¬
lified himfelf by fubferibing the ecclefiaftical canons,
and obtaining a licence from the bilhop. He had
alfo a large (hare in the efteem of the primate Bolter,
who through his influence made a donation to the
univerlity of Glafgow of a yearly fund for an exhibi¬
tioner to be bred to any of the learned profeffions.
A few' years after his Inquiry into the Ideas of Beauty
and Virtue, his Treatife on the Paffions wras publilhed :
both thefe works have been often reprinted -7 and al¬
ways admired, both for the fentiment and language,
even by thofe who have not aflented to the philofophy
of them, nor allowTed it have any foundation in na¬
ture. About this time he wrote fome philofophical pa¬
pers accounting for laughter, in a different way from
Hobbes, and more honourable to human nature: wdiich
papers were publilhed in the collection called Hiberni-
cus's Letter's.
After he had taught in a private academy at Dublin
for feven or eight years with great reputation and
fuccefs, he was called, in the year 1729, to Scotland,
to be a profeifor of philofophy in the univerlity of
Glafgow. Several young gentlemen came along with
him from the academy, and his high reputation drew
many more thither both from England and Ireland.
Here he fpent the remainder of his life in a manner
highly honourable to himfelf and ornamental to the
univerffty of which he was a member. His whole
Vol. X. Part II.
time was divided between his ftudits and the duties of Hatchtn-
his office j except what he allotted to friendlhip and ion>
fociety. A firm conftitution and a pretty uniform Htufon'
ftate of good health, except fome few flight attacks
of the gout, feemed to promife a longer life y yet he
did not exceed the 53d year of his age. Pie was mar¬
ried, foon after his fettlement in Dublin, to Mrs Mary
Wilfon, a gentleman’s daughter in the county of Long¬
ford ; by whom he left behind him one fon, Francis
Hutchelon, doctor of medicine. By this gentleman
was publilhed, from the original manufeript of his fa¬
ther, “ A iyftem of Moral Philofophy, in three books,
by Francis Hutchefon, LL. D. at Glafgow, 1755,’.*
in two volumes, qto.
HUTCHINSON, John, a philofophical rvriter,
whofe notions have made no inconfiderable noife in
the world, was born in 1674. Lie ferved ihe duke of
Somerfet in the capacity of fteward -, and in the Courfe v
of his travels from place to place employed Limfelf in
collecting foffils : we are told, that the large and noble
collection bequeathed by Dr Woodward to the uni-
veriity of Cambridge was aCtually made by him, and
even unfairly obtained from him. When he left the
duke’s iervice to indulge his ftudies with more free¬
dom, the duke, then mafter of ths horfe to George I.
made him his riding furveyor, a kind of finecure place
of 200I. a year with a good houfe in the Meufe. In
17 24 he publilhed the firlt part of Mqfes's Princifiia,
in which he ridiculed Dr Woodward’s Natural Eliltory
of the Earth, and exploded the doCtrine of gravita¬
tion eftabliihed in Newton’s Principia: in 1727, he
publilhed a fecund part of Mofes's Principia, con¬
taining the principles of the Scripture Philofophy.
from this time to his death, he publilhed a volume
every year or two, which, with the MSS. he left be-
Trind, were publilhed in 1748, in 12 vols 8vo. On
the Monday before his death, Dr Mead urged him to
be bled y faying pleafantly, “ I will foon fend you to
Mofes,” meaning to his ftudies : but Mr Hutchin-
fon taking it in the literal fenfe, anfwered in a mut¬
tering tone, “ I believe, DoCtor, you willand was fo
difpleafed, that he difmifled him for another phyfician ;
but died in a few days after, Auguft 28. 1737. Sin¬
gular as his notions are, they are not without fome
defenders, who have obtained the appellation of Hut-
chinfonians. The reader may find a diftinCI and cora-
prehenfive account of the Hutchinfonian fyftem in a
book intitled, Thoughts concerning Religion, &c printed
at Edinburgh 1743 j and in a letter to a bilhop, an¬
nexed to it, firft; printed in 1732.
HUTTON, Dr James, phylician and naturalift,
was the fon of Mr William Hutton, a refpeCtable mer¬
chant in Edinburgh. He was born on the 3d of June
1726, and loft his father while he was very young, the.
charge of his education devolving on his mother, who
determined that it Ihould be very liberal. Having finifti-
ed his grammar-fehool education at the high fchool of
Edinburgh, he entered the univerfity at the age of 14
in the year 1740. He always confidered himfelf as
greatly indebted to Profeffor Stevenfon’s leCtures on lo¬
gic, not becaufe they made him a logician, but becaufe
they accidentally gave him a predileClion for chemiftry
which he retained and cherifhed to the clofe of life.
As an iiluftration of fome particular doCIrine, the pro-*
feffor obferved, that while the acids can fingly diffolve
4 3 ‘ ' the
HUT f 690 ] HUT
Tfutt-'r. the bafer metals, they mufl unite their ftrength before
^ they can have anv influence upon gold*, that metal is
only to be diffolved by nitro-muriatic acid, formerly de¬
nominated aqua regia. From this remark he found hvs
third: for chemical knowledge daily increafe, and fought
ior information from every quarter.
He always evinced talents fufficient to encourage the
profecution of his ftudies 5 but it was the wifli ot his
friends that he (hould turn his attention to bufinefs,
with which he complied though contrary to his own
inclinations. In 1743 he was put an apprentice to Mr
George Chalmers, writer to the fignet, where he foon
difeovered the ruling propenfity of his mind ; for when
he Ihould have been tranferibing law papers, he was
amufing his fellow apprentices with experiments in che-
miftry. Mr Chalmers perceiving this, generoufly freed
him from his obligations to ferve him, dellring him to
turn his attention to fome other employment more con¬
genial to his views. He fixed his choice on the ftudy
of medicine as nearly related to his favourite purfuits,
and after fpending about three years at Edinburgh, he
itudied two years at Paris, and returning home by the
How Countries, took his degree of doftor of medicine
at Leyden, in September 1749- The fubjedt of his
thefis was, De Sanguine et Cireulatione :h Microcofmo.
When he arrived in London, about the end of 1 749,
lie conceived the defign of fettling in the world. He
jullly conjeflured that Edinburgh did not hold out for
him any flattering profpedb in the capacity of a phyfi-
cian, as the principal practice was in the hands of a few
eminent phyficians who had been long eftablilhed. He
accordingly wrote to his friends in Edinburgh with
much anxiety, as to the fubjeft of his future profpe&s
in life. To Mr .Tames Davie, a young man nearly of
his own age, with whom he contracted a friendlhip
which death only could extinguilh, he alfo communi¬
cated the perplexed ftate of his mind. Their mutual
knowledge of the nature of fal ammoniac led them to
eilablilh this manufacture, which afterwards became a
molt lucrative concern to both. The fentiments of Mr
Davie were communicated to Dr Hutton while yet in
London, which probably was the chief reafon why he
refolved to abandon entirely the practice of phylic.
On his return to Edinburgh, in the year I75°>
refolved to devote all his attention to agriculture, which
might probably be occafioned by his having fucceeded
to a fmall property in Berwickfliire on the death of his
father. Mr Playfair of the univerlity of Edinburgh
has aferibed it, and we apprehend with great propriety,
to the native fimplicity of his charadler, and the mode¬
ration of his views, which were always free from am¬
bition. His attachment to the life of a farmer was in-
Creafed by his acquaintance with Sir John Hall of Dun-
glafs, a gentleman who was very ingenious, a friend
and lover of fcience, and one who well underftood agri¬
culture. Determined to make himfelf mailer of rural
economy, Dr Hutton wrent into the county of Norfolk,
where he Continued fot forne time in the houfe of a
farmer, who was at once his preceptor and his holt.
The farmer’s name w7as John Dybold, whofe praftical
knowledge of agriculture Dr Hutton always mentioned
in terms of the highell refpedl.
During his tefidence in this county, which was to
him a paradife, he made frequent excurlions into dif¬
ferent parts of England 3 and although information re-
fpefling rural economy was the great and primary ob- Hutton,
jedl of his purfuit, yet it was here that he firlt com-*' '"‘““v—*»
menced the itudy of mineralogy, to ferve him as an a-
mufement on the road. He acquainted his friend Sir
John Hall, that he was become remarkably fond of
Undying the furface of the earth, and was narrowly ex¬
amining every pit, or ditch, or bed of a river that fell
in his way. The agricultural knowledge he acquired
in Norfolk increafed his defire to pay a vifit to Flan ¬
ders, the only place in Europe where hulhandry can
boall of the greateft antiquity. He fet out accordingly
in the fpring of 1754, and returned to England during
the fummer of the fame year. Soon after his arrival
in London, he obferved in a letter to Sir John Hall ;
“ had I doubted of it before 1 fet out, I fliould have
returned fully convinced that they are good hulhand-
men in Norfolk.”
About this time he returned to his native country,
and was for fome time at a lors what place to fix upon
for the purpofe of carrying into effedl his agricultural
improvements. His own farm at length became his
choice, and a ploughman whom he had brought with
him from Norfolk gave the firlt fpecimen of excellent
tillage ever exhibited in that part of Scotland. To Dr
Hutton the country is indebted for the introduction of
the new hulhandry into a county where it may be faid
to have made more altonilhing progrefs than in almolt
any other part of the Britifti empire. In the year
J 764, he made an excurfion into the north of Scotland,
in company with Commiflioner Clerk, who was after¬
wards Sir George Clerk, a man of lingular worth and
abilities. They went by Crieff, Dalwhinnie, Fort Au-
guitus, and Invernefs, and returned along the coaft by
Aberdeen to Edinburgh. To increafe his knowledge
of geology was Dr Hutton’s chief aim in this tour, to
which he was now determined to pay the moft unremit¬
ting attention. About the year 1768 he devoted his
whole time to fcientific purfuits, and having met with a
favourable Opportunity of letting bis farm to advan¬
tage, he took up his conlxant relidence in Edinburgh.
He now turned his attention very much to the lludy of
chemillry, and we believe he was the firft who difeover¬
ed that mineral alkali is contained in zeolite. The
fame faCt has fince been confirmed by the experiments
of that celebrated mineralogift M. Klaproth, as well as
by thofe of Dr Kennedy, which have led to others of a
fimilar nature.
Dr Hutton gave the world his firfi: publication in
1777, which was a fmall pamphlet of 37 pages, en¬
titled, Conjiderat'ions on the nature, quality, and dii-
Jlinclions of Coal and Culm. It was defigned to anlwer
a queftion which began to be much agitated, whether
the fmall coal of Scotland is the fame with the culm of
England ? and whether it ought to be carried coalf-
wife free of all duty ? This created a keen contell be¬
tween the proprietors and revenue officers, the one in-
fiffing that it fliould, and the other that it ihould not
pay any duty. It was difeufifed before the board of
cufloms in Scotland, and even occupied the attention
of the privy council. The fmall coal of Scotland
was finally exempted from the payment of duty, to
which the pamphlet of Dr Hutton greatly contri¬
buted.
During a period of 30 years the attention of the doc¬
tor Was turned towards geological ftudies, to qualify
him
HUT [69
him for writing on his favourite topic, a nevy theory of
the earth. Long before that theory made its appear¬
ance in the world, he had completed the great outline
of it, which was only {hewn to a few confidential friends.
He was firft induced to publilh it by communicating an
abridgement of it to the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Of the merits or defers of this theory ( for an account of
which, fee Geoloc**), our readers muft judge for them-
felves. It has found a very able advocate in Profeffor
Playfair of the univerfity of Edinburgh, whofe illuftra-
tions of it have received a very candid and ingenious re¬
ply from an anonymous writer, who entitles his book, A
comparative view of the Huttoman and Neptunean fyjiems
of geology. Dr Hutton’s theory did not meet with that
reception from the public which the doctor’s admirers ex¬
pected, and which it is probable he looked for himfelf.
Profeffor Playfair thinks it was in a great meafure owing
to the obfcurity with which he wrote, fo repugnant to
the perfpicuity of his converfation } but as the world had
received fo many unfatisfaftory theories before, it is not
improbable that men were become difgufted with every
thing of the kind, and almoft determined to refufe a
hearing to every fubfequent attempt.
A theory of rain from the fame author appeared in
the firft volume of the Edinburgh TranfaClions. He
had made meteorology his ftudy for a confiderable
time •, and his theory has been pronounced one of the
few to be met with in that department of knowledge
which is deferving of the name. Soon after this publi¬
cation, Dr Hutton gave the world, in three volumes
quarto, An invejligation of the principles of knowledge^
and of the progrefs of reafon from fenfe to fcience and
philofophy. His elements of agriculture, the refult of
much ftudy and long experience, was the laft work
which he feemed anxious to publilh, but it was left in
manufeript at his death, which took place in 1796-7.
On the 26th of March he was feized with a (hivering,
which induced him to fend for his friend Mr Ruffel,
who attended him as furgeon j but before it was pofli-
ble for that.gentleman to arrive, all medical aid w'as
abfolutely vain. Having with fome difficulty ftretch-
ed out his hand to Mr Ruffel, he inftantly expired.
To the name of a philofopher Dr Hutton was moft
juftly entitled, by virtue of his natural talents, acqui-
fitions, and temper. The direCHon of his ftudies W’as
rather uncommon and irregular } but for that very rca-
fon it was peculiarly fitted to develope his quick pene¬
tration and originality of thought, by which his intel-
leClual charafter was ftrikingly marked. The vaft ac-
quifitions of wealth and fortune never excited more live¬
ly fenfations of pleafure in the minds of men, than thofe
which arofe in the mind of Dr Hutton on hearing of a
new invention, or the being made acquainted with a new
truth. This pleafure, which appeared almoft ridiculous to
thofe who could not enter into his views, was not con¬
fined to any one branch of fcience •, for in the language
of Profeffor Playfair, “ he would rejoice over Watt’s
improvements on the fteatn engine, or Cook’s difeove-
ries in the South fea, with all the w’armth of a man
who wras to {hare in the honour or the profit about to
accrue from them.” Dr Hutton was not exclusively at¬
tached to the company of men of letters, whofe conver¬
fation was entirely dire£led to fubje&s of literature ; for
be could occafionally unbend himfelf, and enjoy the
innocent hilarity of promifeuous company, when he
1 ] HUY
freely indulged in the gratification of his ndtive plea- Huxir.g
• tiny ifcns
Dr Hutton was never married, but kept boufe with . ^ '<
his three lifters, who were ornaments to their fex, and
had the foie management of his domeftic concerns. One
of them, Mifs Ifabella, furvived her worthy brother,
and lived to lament a death which was certainly a lofs
to the literary wmrld, as a very large Ihare of his know¬
ledge unavoidably perilhed with himfelf. He left no
particular direftions behind him as to the difpofal of his
colle&ion of foftils, which was accordingly prefented to
Dr Black, wbo gave it to the Royal Society of Edin¬
burgh, on condition that it Ihould be completely ar¬
ranged, and always kept feparate, for the purpofe of il-
laftrating the Huttonian Theory of the Earth. '
HUXING of pike, among fiftiermen, a particular
method of catching that fifti.
For this purpofe, they take 30 or 40 as large blad¬
ders as can be got 5 blow' them up, and tie them clofe
and ftrong; and at the mouth of each tie a line, longer
or ftiorter according to the depth of the water. At
the end of the line is fattened an armed hook, artfully
baited : and thus they are put into the water with the
advantage of the wdnd, that they may gently move up
and down the pond. When a matter pike has ftruck
himfelf, it affords great entertainment to fee him bounce
about irt the water with a bladder fattened to him j at
laft, when they perceive him almoft fpent, they take
him up.
HUY, a towm of the Netherlands, in the biftiopric
of Liege, and capital of Condrafs. It is advantageoufly
feated on the river Maefe, over which there is a bridge!.
E. Long. 5. 22. N. Lat. 50. 32.
HUYGENS, Christian, one °f the greateft ma¬
thematicians and aftronomers of the 17th century, was
the fon of Conftantine Huygens, lord of Zuylichem,
who had ferved three fucceffive princes of Orange in
the quality of fecretary j and was born at the Hague,
in 1629. He difeovered from his infancy an extraor¬
dinary fondnefs for the mathematics; in a little time
made a great progrefs in them ; and perfected himfelf
in thofe ttudies under the famous profeffor Schooten,
at Leyden. In 1649, went t0 Holltein and Den¬
mark, in the retinue of Henry count of Naffau; and
was extremely defirous of going to Sweden, in order
to fee Des Cartes, but the count’s Ihort ftay in Den¬
mark would not permit him. He travelled into France
and England; W'as, in 1663, made a member of the
Royal Society; and, upon his return into France,
M. Colbert, being informed of his merit, fettled a con¬
fiderable penfion upon him cb engage him to fix at Pa¬
ris ; to which Mr Huygens confented, and ftaid there
from the year 1666 to 1681, where he was admitted
a member of the Academy of Sciences. He loved a
quiet and ftudious manner of life, and frequently re¬
tired into the country to avoid interruption, but did
not contratt that motofenefs which is fo frequently the
effeft of folitude and retirement. He w'as the firft who
difeovered Saturn’s ring, and a third fate.llite belong¬
ing to that planet, which had hitherto efcaped the eyes
of aftronomers. He difeovered the means of render¬
ing clocks exa£t, by applying the pendulum, and ren¬
dering all its vibrations equal by the cycloid. He
brought telefcopes to perfection, made many other
ufefttl difeoveries, and died at the Hague in 1695. He
4 S 2 ' was
HUY [69
. H"yfun\ was the author of feveral excellent works. The prin¬
cipal of thefe are contained in two colle&ions j the firft
ol which was printed at Leyden in 1682, in quarto,
under the title of Opera varia ; and the fecond at Am-
ilerdam in 1728, in two volumes quarto, entitled Opera
reliqua*
SUM, the name of feveral Dutch painters,
the moil celebrated of whom was John, whofe fub-
jedts were flowers, fruit, and landfcapes. Accor-
tlmg to Mr Pilkington, this illuilrious painter hath
furpaffed all who have ever painted in that flyle ; and
-iis works excite as much furprife by their finifliing as
they excite admiration by their truth. He was born
at Amflerdam in 1682, and was a difciple of Julius
van Huyfum his father. He fet out in his profeflion
with a molt commendable principle, not fo much to
paint for the acquilition of money as of fame ; and
therefore he did not aim at expedition, but at deli¬
cacy, and, if poflible, to arrive at perfection in his
art. Having attentively ifudied the pi&ures of Mig-
non? and all other artiils of diilindlion who had paint¬
ed in his own. Uyle, he tried which manner would
foonell lead him to imitate the lightnefs and Angu¬
lar beauties of each flower, fruit, or plant, and then
fixed on a manner peculiar to himfelf, w'hich feems
almotl inimitable. His pictures are fmifhed with in¬
conceivable truth ; for he painted every thing after
nature 5 and was fo Angularly exact, as to watch even
the hour of the day in which his model appeared in
its greateft perfection. By the judicious he wTas ac¬
counted to paint with greater freedom than Mignon
or Breughel 5 with njore tendernefs and nature than
Mario* da jFiori, Michael Angelo di Campidoglio, or
Segers ; with more mellownefs than De Heem, and
greater force of colouring than Baptifl. His reputa¬
tion rofe to fuch a height at lafl, that he fixed immo¬
derate prices on his works; fo that none but princes,
or thofe of princely fortunes, could pretend to become
purchafers. Six of his paintings were fold at a public
fale in Holland for prices that were almoft incredible.
One of them, a flower-piece, for fourteen hundred and
fifty guilders; ' a fruit-piece for a thoufand and five
guilders 5 and the fmaller pictures for nine hundred.
The vaft Aims which Van Huyfum received for his
works, caufed him to redouble his endeavours to ex¬
cel 5 no perfon was admitted into his room while he
was painting, not even his brothers ; and his method
of mixing the tints, and preferving the luftre of his
colours, was an impenetrable fecret, which he never
would difclofe. Yet this conduft is certainly not to
his honour, but rather an argument of a low mind,
fearful of being equalled or furpaffed. From the fame
principle, he would never take any difciples, except
one lady, named Haverman ; and he grew envious and
jealous even of her merit. By feveral domeftic difquiets
his temper became changed ; he grew’ morofe, fretful,
and apt to withdraw himfelf from fociety. He had
many enviers of his fame, which has ever been the
fevere lot of the inoft deferving in all profeflions 5 but
tie continued to work, and his reputation never dimi-
mihed. It is univerfally agreed that he has excelled
all who have painted fruit and flowers before him, by
the confeffed lupericrity of his touch, by the delicacy
of his pencil, and by an amazing manner of finiihing ;
nor does it appear probable that any future artift will
2 1 H Y A
hecome his competitor. The care which he took to
Huy fun
punfy his oils and prepare his colours, and the various u;
experiments he made to difcover the moft luftrous and
duiable, are inftances of extraordinary care and induf- 1
tiy as well as capacity. From having obferved fome ^
n ir r .V'.0rjS t^at were perfeftly finilhed, fome only
um finilhed, and others only begun, the principles by
which he conduced himfelf may perhaps be difcover-
able. His cloths were prepared with the greateit
care, and primed with white, with all poflible purity
to prevent his colours from being obfcured, as he laid’
them on very lightly. He glazed all other colours
except the clear, and tranfparent, not omitting even
the white ones, till he found the exaft tone uf the co-r
lour 5 and over that he finiflied the forms, the lights,
the lhadows, and the reflexions, which are all execu¬
ted with precifion and warmth, without drynefs or
negligence. 'J he greatefl truth, united with the great-
elt brilliancy, and a velvet ioftnefs on the furface of
ms objefts, are vifible in every part of his corapofi-
tions j and as to his touch, it looks like the pencil of
nature. Whenever he reprefented flowers placed in
vafes, he always painted tbofe vafes after fome elegant
model, and the bas-relief is as exquiiitely finiflied as
any of the other parts. Through the whole he fliows
a delicate compofition, a fine harmony, and a moft
happy effeX. of light and fliadow. Thofe piXur.es
v\hich he painted on a clear ground are preferred to
others of his hand, as having greateft luftre, and as
they demanded more care and exaXnds in the flnifli-
mg ; yet there are fome on a darkilh ground, in which
appears rather more force and harmony. It is obser¬
ved of him, that in the grouping of his flowers, he
generally defigned thofe which were brighteft in the
centre, and gradually decreafed the iorce of his colour
from the centre to the extremities.' The birds nefts
and their eggs, the feathers, infeXs, and drops of dew,
are exprefled with the utmoft truth, fo as even to de¬
ceive the IpeXator. And yet, after all this merited and
juft praife, it cannot but be confeffed, that fometimes his
fruits appear like wax or ivory, without that peculiar
ioftnefs and warmth which is conftantly obfervable in
nature. Befide his merit as a flower painter, he alfo paint¬
ed landfcapes with great applaufe. They are well com-
pofcd ; and although he had never feen Rome, he adorn¬
ed his fcenes with the noble remains of ancient magnifi,
cence which are in that city. His piXures in that ftyle
are well coloured, and every tree is diftinguiflied by a
touch that is proper for the leafing. The grounds are
well broken, and difpofed with tafte and judgment $
tne figures are defigned in the manner of Laireffe,
highly finiflied, and touched with a great deal of fpirit j
and through the whole compofition the fcene reprefents
Italy, in the trees, the clouds, and the ikies. He died
in 1749, aged 67.
HUZZOOR, a Hindoftan word, fignifying The pre*
fence ; applied, by way of eminence, to the Mogul’s
court. According to polite ufage, it is now applied to
the prefence of every nabob or great man.
IIuzzqor Neves y the iecretary who refides at court,
and keeps copies of all the fir matins ^ records, or letters.
HYACINTH, in Natural Hifiory, a genus of pel¬
lucid gems, whofe colour is red with an admixture of
yellow. See Mineralogy Index.
HYACINTHUS, hyacinth, a genus of plants,
belonging
Hyacinth’a
i|
Hybla.
H Y B [r 693 ] H Y D
belonging to the hexandria clafs 5 and in the natural
method ranking under the 1 oth order Coronarice, See
Botany Index.
HYAC1NTHIA, in antiquity, feafts held at Spar¬
ta, in honour of Apollo, and in commemoration of his
favourite Hyacinth.
This Hyacinth was the fon of Amyclas king of
Sparta, and was beloved both by Apollo and Zephy-
rus. The youth Ihowing moll inclination to the for¬
mer, his rival grew jealous ) and, to be revenged, one
day as Apollo was playing at the difcus, i. e. quoits,
with Hyacinth, Zephyrus turned the direction of a
quoit which Apollo had pitched full upon the head of
the unhappy Hyacinth, who fell down dead. Apollo
then transformed him into a dower of the fame name
and as a farther token of refpeft, they fay, command¬
ed this feaft. The Hyacinthia lafted three days j the
firft and third whereof were employed in bewailing the
death of Hyacinth, and the fecond in fealting and re-
joicing.
HYADES, in AJlronomy, are feven ftars in the
bull’s head, famous among the poets for the bringing
of rain. Whence their name from the Greek
iu* “ to rain.” The principal of them is in the left
eye, by the Arabs called aldebaran.
The poets feign them the daughters of Atlas and
Pleone. Their brother Hyas being torn to pieces by
a lionefs, they wept his death with fuch vehemence,
that the gods, in compaffion to them, tranflated them
into heaven, and placed them in the bull’s forehead,
where they continue to weep j this conftellation being
fuppofed to prefage rain. Others reprefent the Hyades
as Bacchus’s nurfes \ and the fame with the Dodonides,
who fearing the refentment of Juno, and flying from
the cruelty of King Lycurgus, were tranflated by Ju¬
piter into heaven.
HYZENA. See Cams, Mammalia Index.
HYZENIVS LAPIS, in Natural Hi/lory, the name,
of a ftone faid to be found in the eyes of the hyrena.
Pliny tells us, that thofe creatures were in old times
hunted and deftroyed for the fake of thefe flones, and
that it was fuppofed they gave a man the gift of pro¬
phecy by being put under his tongue.
HYBERNACULUM, in Botany, winter-quar¬
ters ; defined by Linnaeus to be part of the plant
which defends the embryo herb from injuries during
the feverities of the winter. See Bulb and Gemma.
HYBLA, in Ancient Geography, or Megara :
which laft name it took from the Megareans, who led
thither a colony j called alfo Hybla Parva, and Galeotls.
In Strabo’s time Megara was extinct, but the name
Hi/bla remained on ac«ount of its excellent honey named
from it. It was lituated on the eafl: coaft of Sicily, be¬
tween Syracufe and the Leontines. Galeotee, and Mega-
renfes, the names of the people, who were of a prophetic
ipirit, being the defcendants of Galeus the fon of Apol¬
lo. Hyblceus the epithet.—The Hyblcei colies, fmall
eminences at the fprings of the Alabus near this place,
were famous for their variety of flowers, efpecially
thyme ; the honey gathered from which was by the
ancients reckoned the belt in the world, excepting that
of Hymettus in Attica. By the modems it was call¬
ed Mel Pq/Ji, for the fame reafon, namely, on account
of its excellent honey, and extraordinary fertility, till
it was overwhelmed by the lava of Attna 5 and having
then become totally barren, its name was changed to- Kybia
Mai PaJJi. In a fecond eruption, by a /jiower of allies ^ ^
from the mountain, it foon reaflumed its ancient beau- . .. 'I-
ty and fertility, and for many years was called Bel
PaJJi: and laft of all, in the year 1669, it was again
laid under an ocean of fire, and reduced to the molt
wretched fterility 5 fince which time it is again known
by the appellation of Mai PaJJi. However, the lava,
in its courfe over this beautiful country, has left feveral
little iflands or hillocks, juft fuflicient to fliow what ir
formerly was. Thefe make a lingular appearance in
all the bloom of the molt luxuriant vegetation, fur-
rounded and rendered almoft. inaccefiible by large fields
of black and rugged lava.
Htcula Major, in Ancient Geography, was fituated in
the tract lying between Mount ZEtna and the river Sy-
methus. In Paufanias’s time defolate.
IlrBLA Minor, or Henea, in Ancient Geography, an
inland town of Sicily, fituated betxveen the rivers Oanus
and Herminius ; now Ragusa.
HYBRIDA planta, a monltrous production of
two different fpecies of plants, analogous to a mule
among animals. The feeds of hybrid plants will not
propagate.
HYBRISTICA, (of injuryJ) in antiquity, a fo-
lemn feait held among the Greeks, with facrifices and
other ceremonies j at which the men attended in the ap¬
parel of women, and the women in that of men, to do
honour to Venus in quality either of a god or a goddefs,
or both. Or, according to the account given by others,
the hybriflica was a feaft: celebrated at Argos, wherein
the women being drefled like men, infulted their huf-
bands, and treated them with all marks of fuperiority,
in memory of the Argian dames having anciently de¬
fended their country with Angular courage againft Cleo-
menes and Demaratus.
Plutarch fpeaks of this feaft in his treatife of the
great actions of women. The name, he obferves, fig-
nifies infamy 5 w'hich is well accommodated to the oc-
cafion, wherein the women ftrutted about in men’s
clothes, while the men were obliged to dangle in petti¬
coats.
HYrD ATIDES, in Medicine, little tranfparent ve-
ficles or bladders full of water, fometimes found folitary,
and fometimes in clufters, upon the liver and various
other parts, efpecially in hydropical cafes.
HYDATOSCOPIA, called alfo Hydromancy, a
kind of divination or method of foretelling future
events by water.
HYDE, Edward, earl of Clarendon, and lord
high-chancellor of England, was a very eminent ftatef-
man and hiftorian, fon of Henry Hyde, a private
gentleman, refident at Dinton in Wiltfhire, where his
lordflup was born, in the month of February 1608.
The firft rudiments of his education he received in his
father’s houfe, the vicar of the parifh being his pre¬
ceptor, under whofe tuition he made fuch rapid pro-
grefs, that he was fent to Oxford at the age of 13,
wdiere he ftudied only for one year in Magdalen-hall,
as his father entered him in the Middle Temple, that
he might be trained up to the profefiion of the law.
He repaired to London at the age of 17, being coun¬
tenanced and prote&ed by his uncle, who was after¬
wards chief juftice of the court of king’s bench. On
the death of his uncle he wjas ftill a ftudent, yet fuch a
heavy
H Y D
Hyde, heavy misfortune did not deter him from the profecu-
tion of his defigns. Asa licentioufnefs of manners
was at that time extremely prevalent, the well-difpot'ed
part of the community confidered early marriage as a
commendable prefervative againit irregularity of con-
du6l j and therefore in compliance with an opinion fo
refpedable, Mr Hyde united himfelf in wedlock with a
beautiful young lady, when he was only in the 21ft
year of his age, whom he had the misfortune to lofe in
fix months after the celebration of their nuptials, {he
having fallen a vi&im to that loathfome malady the
fmailpox. After a widowhood of three years continu¬
ance, he married the daughter of Sir Thomas Aylef-
bury, with whom he lived 36 years in conjugal felici¬
ty. He confidered it as a fortunate circumitance that
he was made acquainted at an early period with a num¬
ber of very dillinguifhed characters, among whom we
find the names of Lord Falkland, Selden, Kenelm Dig-
by, Carewq Sheldon, May, Waller, Hales of Eton,
Morley, Chillingworth, and others j of whom he has
made refpeftable mention in memoirs written by him-
ielf; and to their inftru&ive converfation he nobly af-
cribes the principal part of his literary acquifitions.
His diffidence is very amiably expreffed in thefe words 5
“ that he never was fo proud, or thought himfelf fo
good a man, as when he was the worft man in the com¬
pany.”
Being concerned in a caufe in behalf of the mer¬
chants of London, he was thus introduced to the notice
of Archbiffiop Laud, commiffioner of the treafury, by
whom he was treated wuth much refpedt, and had his
advancement in the profeffion of the law greatly pro¬
moted. His eafy circumftances and refpeftable connec¬
tions powerfully contributed to bring him forward and
increafe his bufinefs as a barrifter. But in the multi¬
plicity of caufes wffiich he was employed to bring be¬
fore different courts, he never loll fight of polite litera¬
ture, on the lludy of which he bellowed indefatigable
attention, and in his general deportment he exhibited
more of the poliffied gentleman than of the mere law¬
yer. So great was the reputation wffiich by this time
he had acquired, that in 1640 he was chofen burgefs
for Wotton-Baffet and Shafteffiury, in the parliament
fummoned by Charles I. on account of the Scotch re¬
bellion. As public grievances firff attrafted the atten¬
tion of this new parliament, Hyde brought forward a
ilatement of the illegal oppreffions and mal-praftices of
the earl marffial’s court ; but as it wras foon diffolved,
a radical inveftigation of the conduft of that court w^as
for a time prevented. The borough of Saltaffi made
choice of him for the new parliament, in which he
pleaded fo efteftually againft the earl marfhal’s court as
to procure its fuppreffion. He now' totally abandoned
the profeffion of a barrifler, and wffiolly confined him¬
felf to the difcuffion of public bufinefs $ and as he was
generally fuppofed to be attached to no particular par¬
ty, he was frequently appointed chairman of commit¬
tees in the tranfaftion of the moft important affairs.
Hyde was reprefented to his majefty in fuch a fa¬
vourable light, that the king requefied a private inter¬
view with him, in the courfe of which he exprefled his
great obligations to him for his meritorious fervices, and
was much pleafed with his zealous attachment to the
church. After this interview he may be confidered as
idevoted to the royal caufe j and in order to make a
H Y D
proper eftimate of his fubfequent conduft, it will be ne-
ceffary for our readers to attend to his town declaration.
He informs us that he had “ a very particular paffion
and devotion for the perfon of the king j and a moft
zealous efteem and reverence for the conftitution of
government, which he believed to be fo equally poifed,
that if the lead branch of the prerogative was torn off,
the fubjeft fuffered by it ; and he was as much troubled
wffien the crowni exceeded its juft limits.” He believed
the church of England to be moft admirably calculated
for the promotion of literature, piety, and peace, per¬
haps of any other in the whole world, and deemed the
application of any part of its revenue to civil purpofes
to be the moft abominable facrilege and unpardonable
robbery. He alfo confidered the removal of bilhops
from the houfe of peers as a violation of the principles
of juftice, which made him an enemy to every innova¬
tion in the church from confcientious motives.
When the commons publiffied their remonftrance on
the ftate of the nation, Hyde drew up a reply to it,
merely to gratify his own perfonal indignation, accord¬
ing to his owm confeffion, without the Imalleft intention
of making it public, although it is more than probable
that Lord Higby was made acquainted with its con¬
tents. He was, however, at length prevailed upon to
allow it to appear as the king’s anfwer with the advice
ofhis council. This procured him an offer of the office
of folicitor-general, which he thought proper to decline,
although he undertook the management of the king’s
affairs in parliament, in conjunftion with Lord Digby
and Sir John Colepepper. He oppofed the king’s af-
fent to the bill for depriving the biffiops of their feats
in the houfe of peers, in wffiich the fovereign afted in
dirtfft oppofition to the fentiments of his profeffed
friend, by giving his affent. In the year 1642 his
majefty fent for Hyde to York, where he contributed
his affiftance in drawing up various papersrin the caufe
of the falling monarch. He was recalled by parlia¬
ment, but he refufed to obey the fummons wi bout
the royal permiffion, which excluded him from pardon
by a vote of the houfe.
Soon after the breaking out of hoftilities between the
king and parliament, wffien the court of the former w^as
held at Oxford, Hyde was appointed chancellor of the
exchequer, fworn a member of the privy-council, and
created a knight. He continued with his majefty till
the month of March, 1644, wffien he was appointed to
accompany Prince Charles to the weft, and afterwards
to the ifiand of Jerfey, where Sir Edward Hyde con¬
tinued during two years after the departure of the
prince, profecuting his ftudies with indefatigable in-
duftry, and compofing a hiftory of thofe memorable
tranlaftions in which he himfelf had borne a diftinguifh-
ed part. He likewife publiihed a reply to the parlia¬
mentary declaration of February 1647, in which it w as
declared improper to fend any mere addreffes to the
king. In 1648 he received orders to attend the prince
at Paris, wffio having in the meantime fet out for Hol¬
land, Sir Edward took {hipping for Dunkirk, 'i he
prince wras at the Hague when he received the melan¬
choly intelligence of his royal father’s fate. Upon this
the council of the young king determined to fend am-
baffadors to Spain, and for this purpofe made choice of
Sir Edward Hyde and Lord Collington, who arrived at
Madrid in 1694; and when their reiidence n that me¬
tropolis
[ 694 ]
,
H Y D [ 695 ] H Y D
Hvde. ttopolls was no longer neceffary, Sir Edward returned
—v to Paris. The king’s court at the Hague was torn by
diffenfion, which made Sir Edward apply for, and ob¬
tain leave to retire to Antwerp, the refidence of his
wife and children, as he clearly perceived that his
perfonal attendance was not likely to be productive of
any fubltantial good. This retreat afforded him li¬
terary and domeitic happinefs, and was better fuited to
the reduced Hate of his finances. The princefs of O-
range, eldeft daughter of the unfortunate Charles I.
having afligned Sir Edward a houfe at Breda free of
rent, out of gratitude for his warm attachment to her
father, he was prevailed upon to remove to that city.
In the year 1657 he was appointed lord high-chan¬
cellor of England ; a nomination which to our readers
may probably feem ridiculous, as coming from a king
who was not poffefled of a kingdom ; but it fhould be
remembered that the young fovereign was of an eafy and
too pliable a difpofition, incapable of'denying any re-
quefi; and therefore as applications were continually
made to him for contingent grants and reverfions, he
jullly confidered it as a prudent ftep to raife a man to
that high rank, who had fufficient firmnefs to rejeCl
all improper requiiitions.
It is but doing jultice to the memory of Sir Edward
Hyde to fay, that he was the moft confidential and
faithful minifter of Charles II. at the time of the reflo-
ration $ and by the confent of all parties, the many
public and private difficulties which this event occa-
fioned, were fettled by him with much wifdom, integri¬
ty and honour. Notwithftanding he was a warm ad¬
vocate for the royal prerogative, it fays much for the
wifdom of his head and the goodnefs of his heart, that
he was an enemy to the extenfion of it beyond the li¬
mits prefcribed by the conflitution; for when it was
propofed to raife a great ftanding revenue, which would
have made the king independent of parliament, it met
from Sir Edward the warmeft oppofition, and he re-
ftrained the zeal of the royalifts, and their defire of
revenge. His zeal for epifcopacy was, however, car¬
ried to an extravagant height, as it led him to wifh for
the annihilation of every veffige of prefhyterianifm.
He was chofcn chancellor of the univerfity of Oxford
in 1660, and at the fame time created a peer j being
in the year following made Vifcount Combury and earl
of Clarendon. But as his new dignity was far fuperior
to his fortune, the crown made feveral grants to him to
enable him to fupport it. This fudden elevation, and
the ftriftnefs of his moral deportment, which bordered
on aufterity, did not fail to create a number of enemies
in fuch a licentious court as that of Charles II.
It would perhaps be improper to omit a remarkable
circumllance refpefting his daughter, who was a maid
of honour to the princefs of Orange, as it had every ap¬
pearance of affecting his future fortune in a very ma¬
terial degree. The duke of York was fo captivated
with the charms of his lordfhip’s daughter, that he en¬
tered with her into a private contraft of marriage^
when he found it impracticable to triumph over her
virtue, or procure her for a miltrefs. Finding herfelf
pregnant, flie boldly infixed that the duke (hould make
an open avowal of their marriage, which rendered it
neceffary to make the king acquainted with itj. but
when it reached the ears of her father, he behaved on
the occafion in. fuch a manner, as greatly to tarnifli a
character fo illufttious. He faid he would rather fee
his daughter the duke’s miftrefs than his confort; ad-
vifed to confine her in the Tower, and even aflerted
that (he ought to lofe her head. He was afraid of the
king’s indignation, from a fuppofition that he was privy
to the marriage, which there is no good reafon for be¬
lieving, yet fuch an apprehenfion might bring fucb ex-
preffions from him as were wholly incompatible with
the feelings of a parent. His extravagant notions of
royalty might alfo have their own weight in producing
fuch an unnatural conduCd, fince he would conceive the
blood of majefty to be contaminated by fuch an alli¬
ance. To the honour of Charles he behaved on the
occafion in a very commendable manner ; arid not-
vvitbfiandir.g the rage of the queen-mother, the bafe
conduCt of the duke in denying his marriage, and at¬
tempting by calumny to impeach the chaitity of his
confort, (he was at length acknowledged as the du-
chefs of York, and became the mother of two Englilh
queens.
Earl Clarendon’s influence with the crown was na¬
turally increafed by this marriage, while it as naturally
procured him the envy of his fellow courtiers, and pa¬
ved the way to his fubfequent degradation. The fale
of Dunkirk to the French was viewed as diflionourable
by the nation at large, although perhaps on the fcore
of economy and found policy it was capable of vindi¬
cation. To this we may add the unpopular meafure of
oppofing the bill for granting liberty of confcience, as
it brought on him the difpleafure both of the king and
of all religious feClaries. Even the unfortunate war
with the Dutch was charged to his account, although
he was known to be its enemy from its very commence¬
ment. Rigidly virtuous himfelf, the libidinous courfe
of life purfued by his mafier could not fail to give him
offence, and he certainly difpleafed the king by the
freedom of his reproofs. In defiance, therefore, of all
his former fervices, he was bafely abandoned to the in¬
dignation of the people, and driven from every office
of public truft in the month of Augufi: 1667. He was
charged with the crime of high-treafon by the houfe
of commons, but the peers refufed to commit him upon
their charge; but while the difpute between the two
houfes was yet undetermined, Clarendon received his
majefty’s orders to quit the kingdorri. His apology to
the peers was burnt by the common executioner, and a
bill of banifhment was iffued againfl: him for flying
from juftice. While he proceeded from Calais to
Rouen, the court of France fent an order to him to
quit that kingdom, which bodily diftrefs at that time
rendered impracticable, upon which the cruel order was
reverfed. The favage rage of fome Englifhmen nearly
deprived him of his life as he paffed from Rouen to
Avignon after his recovery ^ but the court of France
punifhed the perpetrators of the deed. At Montpel¬
lier he met with very refpe&ful treatment during a re¬
fidence of four years, which time he devoted to the
vindication of his conduCl. Having fpent fome time at
Moulins, be fixed his refidence at Rouen,,u here he ter¬
minated his career in December 1674, in the 68th year
of his age. His remains were brought to England, and
interred in the abbey of Weftminfler.
Lord Clarendon was the author of Contemplations
and Reflections on the Pl’alms j Animadverfions on a
book of Mi Creffy’s in the Roman Catholic Controver-
fyt-
Hyde.
H Y D
iy j A bnef view of the Errors in Hobbes’s Leviathan ;
Hiftory of the grand Rebellion 5 his own Life and a
Continuation of his Hiftory, publifhed by the univer-
fity in 1759. In a literary point of view his lordihip
is only known as an hifiorian ; and his hiflory of the
civil war is regarded by competent judges as an im¬
portant fource of information. The writings of Cla¬
rendon referable thofe of a man who takes a decided
part, yet his reprefentations are generally allowed to be
moderate and juft. His language is not devoid of
beauty 5 but his injudicious ufe of the relative pronoun
often renders him obfcure ; few howevr have ever ex¬
celled him in the delineation of charafters.
Hyde, Dr Thomas, profeflbr of Arabic at Oxford,
and one of the moft learned writers of the 17th cen-
tury, was born in 16365 and ftudied firft at Cam¬
bridge, and afterwards at Oxford. Before he was 18
years of age, he was fent from Cambridge to London to
aftill Mr Brian Walton in the great work of the Poly¬
glot Bible ; and about that period undertook to tran-
feribe the Perfian Pentateuch out of the Hebrew cha-
rafters, which Archbilhop Ulher, who well knew the
difficulty of the undertaking, pronounced to be an im-
poffible talk to a native Perfian. After he had happi¬
ly fucceeded in this, he affifted in corredling feveral
parts of Mr Walton’s work, for which he was perfect¬
ly qualified. He was made archdeacon of Gloucefter,
canon of Chrift-church, head keeper of the Bodleian
library, and profeffor both of Hebrew and Arabic in
the univerfity of Oxford. He was interpreter and fe-
cretary of the Oriental languages, during the reigns of
•v^harles II. James II. and ^Villiam III.5 and was
perfectly qualified to fill this port, as he could converfe
in the languages which he underftood. There never
was an Engliffiman in his fituation of life who made fo
great a progrefs 5 but his mind was fo engroffed by his
beloved ftudies, that he is faid to have been but ill
qualified to appear to any advantage in common con-
verfation. Of all his learned works (the very cata¬
logue of which, as obferved by Anth. Wood, is a cu-
riolity), his Religio Veterum Perfarum is the molt ce¬
lebrated. Dr Gregory Sharpe, the late learned and
ingenious malter of the Temple, has collected feveral
of his pieces formerly printed, and republilhed them
with fome additional diflertations, and his life prefixed,
in two elegant volumes quarto. This great man died
on the 18th of February 1702. Among his other
works are, 1. A Latin tranflation of Ulug Beig’s obfer-
vations on the longitude and latitude of the fixed ftars 5
and 2. A catalogue of the printed books in the Bod-
ieian library.
HYDNUM, a genus of the natural order of fungi,
belonging to the cryptogamia clafs of plants. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HYDRA, in fabulous hiftory, a ferpent in the
marlh of Lerna, in Peloponnefus, reprefented by the
poets with many heads, one of which being cut oft*,
another immediately fucceeded in its place, unlefs the
wound was inftantly cauterized. Hercules attacked
this monfter 5 and having caufed lolaus to hew down
wood for fiaming brands, as he cut off the heads he ap¬
[ 696 ]
H Y D
plied the brands to the wounds, by which means he
deftroyed the hydra.
'This hydra with many heads is faid to have been
only a multitude of ferpents, which infefted the marlhes
of Lerna near Mycene, and which feemed to multiply
as. they were deftroyed. Hercules, wath the affiftance
of his companions, cleared the country of them, by
burning the reeds in which they lodged.
Hydra, in AJlronamy, a fouthern conftellation, con-
fifting of a number of^ftars, imagined to reprefent a
water ferpent. Xhe ftars in Hydra, in Ptolemy’s cata¬
logue, are twenty-feven ; in Tycho’s, nineteen ; in He-
velius’s, thirty-one.
Hydra, in Zoology, a genus of the order of zoo-
phyta, belonging to the clafs of vermes. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
HYDRAGOGUES, among phyficians, remedies
which evacuate a large quantity of water in dropfies.
The word is formed of water, and uyuv to draw)
or lead; but the application of the term proceeds upon
a miftaken fuppofition, that every purgative had fome
particular humour which it would evacuate, and which
could not be evacuated by any other. It is now, how¬
ever, difeovered, that all ftrong purgatives will prove
hydragogues, if^ given in large quantity, or in wmak
conftitutions. The principal medicines recommended
as hydragogues, are the juice of elder, the root of iris,
foldanella, mechoacan, jalap, &c.
HYDRANGEA, a genus of plants belonging to
the decandria clafs, and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 13th order, Succulentce. See Botany///Aw.
HYDRASTIS, a genus of plants, belonging to the
polyandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Bo¬
tany Index.
HYDRARGYRUM, a name given to mercury, or
quickfilver. I he wTord is formed of aqua, wa¬
ter,” and «egyi>5«s, argentum, “ filver 5” q. d. water of
fiver, on account of its refembling liquid or melted
filver.
HYDRAULICS, the fcience of the motion of
fluids, and the conftrudtion of all kinds of inftruments
and machines relating thereto. See Hydrodyna¬
mics.
HYDRENTEROCELE, in Surgery, a fpecies of
hernia, wherein the inteftines defeend into the ferotum,
together with a quantity of water.
HYDROCEPHALUS, a preternatural diltenfion
of the head to an uncommon fize by a ftagnation and
extravafation of the lymph 5 w’hich, when colledled in
the infide of the cranium, is then termed internal; as
that colle£ted on the outfide is termed external. See
Medicine Index.
HYDROCHARIS, the little water -lily, a
genus of plants belonging to the dioecia clafs, and in
the natural method ranking under the firft order, Palmce.
See Botany Index.
HYDROCOTYLE, water-navelwort, a ge¬
nus of plants belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in
the natural method ranking under the 45th order, Urn-
hellatcv. See Botany Index.
Hydra
I!
Hydroco-
tyie.
2
HYDRODYNAMICS.
[ 697 ]
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Definition. treats 0f tjie pOWer of water, whether it a&s by preflure
or by impulfe. In its more enlarged acceptation, how¬
ever, it treats of the preffure, equilibrium, cohefion,
and motion of fluids,/and of the machines by which
water is railed, or in which that fluid is employed as
the firlt mover. Hydrodynamics is divided into two
branches, Hydrojlatics and Hijdraulicx. Hydroftatics
comprehends the preffure. equilibrium, and cohefion of
fluids, and Hydraulics their motion, together with the
machines in which they are chiefly concerned.
HISTORY.
Hydrody¬
namics, in
fome re-
fpedls, a
modern
fcience.
Dhcoveries
of Archi¬
medes.
Inventions
of Ctefibius
and Kero.
Forcing
fump.
Egyptian
wheel.
2. The fcience of hydrodynamics was cultivated
with lefs fuccefs among the ancients than any othet
branch of mechanical philofophy. When the human
mind had made confiderable progrefs in the other de¬
partments of phyfical fcience, the doctrine of fluids had
not begun to occupy the attention of philofophers; and,
if we except a few propofltions on the preffure and
equilibrium of water, hydrodynamics mull be regarded
as a modern fcience, which owes its exiftence and im¬
provement to thofe great men who adorned the 17th
and 18th centuries.
3. Thofe general principles of hydroflatics which
are to this day employed as the foundation of that part
of the fcience, were firfl; given by Archimedes in his
work De Injidentibus Hutrido,' dboi\t 250 years before
the birth of Chrift, and were afterwards applied to ex¬
periments by Marinus Ghetaldus in his Archimedes
Promotus. Archimedes maintained that each particle
of a fluid mafs, when in equilibrio, is equally preffed
in every direiffion ; and he inquired into theKconditions,
according to which a folid body floating in a fluid
fliould affume and preferve a polition of equ.librium.
We are alfo indebted to the philofopher of Syracufe
for that ingenious hydroflatic procefs by which the
purity of the precious metals can be afcertained, and
for the fcrew engine which goes by his name, the
theory of which has lately exerciftd the ingenuity of
fome of our greateft mathematicians.
4. In the Greek fchool at Alexandria which flourifh-
ed under the aufpices of the Ptolemies, the firft at¬
tempts were made at the conftruflion of hydraulic ma¬
chinery. About 12o years after the birth of Chrift,
the fountain of compreflion, the fyphon, and the for¬
cing pump, were invented by Ctefibius and Hero *, and
though thefe machines operated by the elafticity and
weight of the air, yet their inventors had no diftinfl
notions of thefe preliminary branches of pneumatical
fcience. The fyphon is a Ample inftrument which is
employed to empty veffels full of water or fpirituous
liquors, and is of great utility in the arts. The forcing
pump, on the contrary, is a complicated and abftrufe
invention, which could fcarcely have been expended in
the infancy of hydraulics. It was probably fuggefted
to Ctefibius by the Egyptian wheel or Neriay which
Vox, X. Part II.
was common at that time, and which was a kind of, .
chain pump, confifting of a number of earthen pots
carried round by a wheel. In fome of thefe machines
the pots have a valve in their bottom which enables
them to defcend without much refiftance, and dimi-
nifhes greatly the load upon the wheel ■, and if we fup-
pofe that this valve was introduced fo early as the time
of Ctefibius, it is not difficult to perceive how fuch a
machine might have led this philofopher to the inven¬
tion of the forcing pump.
5. Notwithftanding thefe inventions of the Alexan-^'a^our’°f
drian fchool, its attention does not feem to have been
diredted to the motion of fluids. The firft attempt tonusin
inveftigate this fubjedl was made by Sextus Julius draulics.
Frontinus, infpedlor of the public fountains at Rome
in the reigns of Nerva and Trajan j and we may juftly
fuppofe that his work entitled De Aquceduchbus urbis
Romce Commentarius contains all the hydraulic know¬
ledge of the ancients. After defcribing the Roman
aquedudls, and mentioning the dates of their eredlion,
he conliders the methods which were at that time em¬
ployed for afcertaining the quantity of water difcharged
from adjutages, and the mode of diftributing the waters
of an aquedudl or a fountain. He juftly remarks that
the expence of water from an orifice, depended not on¬
ly on the magnitude of the orifice itfelf, but alfo on the
height of the water in the refervoir j and that a pipe
employed to carry oft' a portion of water from an aque-
du£t, ihould, as cirCutnfiances required, have a polition
more or lefs inclined to the original dire&ion of the
current. But as he was unacquainted with the true
law of the velocities of running water as depending
upon the depth of the orifice, we can fcarcely be fur-
prifed at the want of precifion which appears in his re- ,
fults.
6. The labours of the ancients in the fcience of hy¬
drodynamics terminated with the life of Frontinus. T. he
fciences had already begun to decline, and that night
of ignorance and barbarifm was advancing apace, which
for more than a thoufand years brooded over the nations
of Europe. During this lengthened period of mental
degeneracy, when lefs abftrufe ftudies ceafed to attra6l
the notice, and roufe the energies of men, the human
mind could not be fuppofed capable of that vigorous
exertion, and patient induftry, which are fo indifpenfable
in phyfical refearches. Poetry and the fine arts, ac- Labours ol
cordingly had made confiderable progrefs under the jail eo'
patronage of the family of Medici, before Galileo began
to extend the boundaries of fcience. Tins great man,
who deferves to be called the father and reftorer of
phyfics, does not appear to have directed his attention
to the doclrine of fluids : but his difcovery of the uni¬
form acceleration of gravity, laid the foundation of its
future progrefs, and contributed in no fmall degree to
aid the exertions of genius in feveral branches of
fcience.
7. Caftelli and Torricelli, two of the difciples ofOf’Caftelli.
Galileo, applied the difcoveries of their mafter to the
fcience of hydrodynamics. In 1628 Caftclii publilhed
4 T a
HYDRODYNAMICS.
698
■ H ftory- . ^ iniall hoik, iii which he gave a very fatisfa<fl:ory ex¬
planation of feveral phenomena in the motion of fluids.
But he committed a great paralogifm in fuppofing the
OfTorri- Ve?°aty of the water proportional to- the depth of the
celli. ' ^)nfi.ce below the furface of the veffel. loricelli ob-
ferving that in ■d.jet a'eau where the water ruflied through
a fmall adjutage, it rofe to nearly the fame height with
the refervoir from which it was fupplied, imagined that
it ought to move with the fame velocity as if it had fallen
through that height by the force of gravity. And
hence he deduced this beautiful and important propofl-
tion, that the velocities of fluids are as the fquare roots
of the pi e flu res, ablf railing from the reflflance of the
pii^ and tne friilion of the orifice. This theorem was
puohihed in 1643* rn his treatile De Motu Gravium
vaturaliter accelerato. It was aftenvards confirmed
by the experiments of Raphael Magiotti, on the ex¬
pence of water difeharged from different adjutages under
different preffures 5 and though it is true only in fmall ori-
hces, it gave a new turn to the fcience of hydraulics.
Sh Pafcal. 8. After the death of the celebrated Pafcal, who
tb(covered the preflure of the atmofphere, a treatife on
the equilibrium of fluids was found among his manu¬
scripts, and was given to the public in 1662. In the
hands of Pafcai, hydroflatics aflumed the dignity of a
Icience. i he laws of the equilibrium of fluids were
demonffrated in the moft perfpicuous and fimple man¬
ner, and amply confirmed by experiments. The dif-
covery of Toricelli, it may be fuppofed, would have in¬
cited Pafcal to the fludy of hydraulics. But as he has
not treated this fubjedl in the wmrk which has been
mentioned, it was probably compofed before that dif-
covery had been made public.
Of Mari- 9. The theorem of Toricelli was employed by many
*tte' fucceeding writers, but particularly by the celebrated
Mariotte, whofe labours in this department of phyfics
deferve to be recorded. His Traile du Mouvement dts
eaux, which was publiffred after his death in the year
1686, is founded on a great variety of well conduced
experiments on the motion of fluids, performed at Ver-
failles and Chantilly. In the difeuffion of fome points, he
has committed confiderable raiftakes. Others he has
treated very fuperficially, and in none of his experiments
does he feem to have attended to the diminution of efflux
arifing from the contra&ion of the fluid vein, when the
orifice is merely a perforation in a thin plate 5 but he
appears to have been the firft who attempted to aferibe
the difcrepancy between theory and experiment to the
retardation of the water’s velocity arifing from fridlion.
His cotemporary Guglielmini, who was infpe&or of
the rivers and canals in the Milanefe, had aferibed this
diminution of velocity in rivers, to tranfverfe motions
arifing from inequalities in their bottom. But as Ma¬
riotte obferved fimilar obftruflions, even in glafs pipes,
where no tranfverfe currents could exiff, the caufe affign-
ed by Guglielmini feemed deftitute of foundation. The
French philofopher therefore regarded thefe obftruc-
tions as the effects of fridlion. Fie fuppofes that the
filaments of w?ater which graze along the fides of the
pipe lofe a portion of their velocity ; that the contigu-
*3US filaments having on this account a greater velocity,
rub upon the former, and fuffer a diminution of their
celerity ; and that the other filaments are affeded with
ftmilar retardations proportional to their diftance from
the axis of the pipe. In this way the medium velocity
of the current may be diminifhed, and confequently the Hiftdtyt,
quantity of water difeharged in a given time, muff, ' v—
from the eMs of friftion, be confiderably lels than
that which is computed from theory.
10. 1 hat part of the fcience of hydrodynamics which
relates to the^ motion of rivers feems to have originated The motio#
in Italy. I his fertile country receives from the Appen-nvers
nines a great number of torrents, which traverfe feveralfirft atten<b
principalities before they mingle their waters with thofe^A in
m the Po, into which the greater part of them fall. ^
To defend themfelves from the inundations with which
they were threatened, it became neceifary for the in¬
habitants to change the courfe of their rivers; and
while they thus drove them from their owm territories
they let them loofe on thole of their neighbours. Hence
arofe the continual quarrels which once raged between
the Bolognefe, and the inhabitants of Modena and Fer¬
rara. The attention of the Italian engineers was necef-
larily direefed to tnis branch of fcience ; and hence a
greater number of works were written on the fubjedt in
Italy than in all the reft of Europe.
11. Guglielmini was the firff who attended to Theory of
the motion of water in rivers and open canals. Em- 9‘sfliel-
bracing the theorem of Toricelli, which had been con- mini'
firmed by repeated experiments, Guglielmini concluded
that each particle in the perpendicular fedfion of a cur¬
rent has a tendency to move wdth the fame velocity as
if it ifl’ued from an orifice at the fame depth from the
furface.. The confequences deducible from this theory
of running waters are in every refpedl repugnant to ex¬
perience, and it is really furprifing that it fliould have
been fo haftily adopted by fucceeding writers. Gug-
lielmini himfelf was fufficiently fenfible that his parabo¬
lic theory was contradiaory to faa, and endeavoured
to reconcile them by fuppofing the motion of rivers
to be obiiruaed by tranfverfe currents arifing from ir¬
regularities in their bed. The folution of this difficulty
as given by Mariotte was more fatisfadory, and was
afterwards adopted by Guglielmini, who maintained alfo
that the vifeidity of water had a coniiderable fhare in
retarding its motion.
l 2. 1. he efie£ls of frnftion and vilcidity in dimmifh- Tfifcoverie*
ing the velocity of running water were noticed in the of Sir Ifaat
Principia of Sir Ifaac Newton, who has thrown much Newton-
light upon feveral branches of hydrodynamics. At a time
when the Cartefian fyffem of vortices univerfally prevail
ed, this great man found it neceffary to inveffigate that
abluid hypothefis, and in the courfe of his inveftigation
lie has fliewn that the velocity of any ftratum of the vor¬
tex is an arithmetical mean between the velocities of
the ft rata which enclofed it ; and from this it evidently
follows, that the velocity of a filament of water moving
in a pipe is an arithmetical mean between the velocities
of the filaments which furround it. Taking advantage
of thefe refults, it was afterwards (hewn by M. Pitot
that the ictaidations arifing from fir 1 cl ion are inverlely
as the diameters o; the pipes in which the fluid moves.
The attention of Newton was alfo direfted to the dif-
charge of water from, orifices in the bottom of veffels..
He iuppofed a cylindrical velfel full of water to be per¬
forated in its bottom with a fmall hole by which the
water efcaped, and the veflel to be fupplied with water
in luch a manner that it always remained full at the
fame height. He then fuppofed this cylindrical column
of water to be divided into two parts; the firft being
a
H Y D H O D ^
HLflory. a liyperboloid generated by the revolution of a hyper-
w^v   bola of the fifth degree around the axis of the cylinder
which (hould pafs through the orifice 5 and the fecond
the remainder of the water in the cylindrical veffel.
He confidered the horizontal ftrata of this hyperboloid
as always in motion, while the remainder of the water
was in a ftate of reft *, and imagined that there was a
kind of cataraft in the middle of the fluid. When the
refults of this theory were compared with the quantity
of water aiftually difcharged, Newton concluded that
the velocity with which the water iffued from the ori¬
fice was equal to that which a falling body would re¬
ceive by defcending through half the height of water
in the refervoir. This conclufion, however, is aofolute-
ly irreconcileable with the known fa£t, that jets of wa¬
ter rife nearly to the fame height as their refervoirs,
and Newton feems to have been aware of this obje&ion.
In the fecond edition of his Principia, accordingly,
which appeared in 1714? Sir Ifaac has reconfidered his
theory. He had difcovered a contra&ion in the veiu
of tluid which iffued from the orifice, and found that
at the difiance of about a diameter of the aperture, the
feflion of the vein was contra£led in the fubduplicate
ratio of 2 to 1. He regarded therefore the feftion of
the contracted vein as the true orifice from which the
difcharge of water ought to be deduced, and the velo¬
city of the effluent water as due to the whole height of
water in the relervoir j and by this means his theory
became more conformable to the refults of experience.
This theory however, is ftill liable to ferious objeftions.
The formation of a cataract is by no means agreeable
to the laws of hydroftatics 5 for when a veffel is ^emp¬
tied by the efflux of water through an orifice in its
bottom, all the particles of the fluid direft themfelves
toward this orifice, and therefore no part of it can be
confidered as in a ftate of repofe.
The ofcilla- 13- The fubjeft of the ofcillation of waves, one of the
tion of moft difficult in the fcience of hydrodynamics, was firft
waves firft inveftigated by Sir Ifaac Newton. By the 44th propofi-
eonfidered t;on 0f the 2d’book of his Principia, he has furniftied us
by Neutcn.^k a met]10(j 0f afCertaining the velocity of the waves
of the fea, by obferving the time in which they rife
and fall. If the two vertical branches of a fyphon
which communicate by means of a horizontal branch
be filled with a fluid of known denfity, the two fluid co¬
lumns when in a ftate of reft will be in equilibrio and
their furfaces horizontal. But if the one column is
raifed above the level of the other, and left to itfelf, it
will defcend below that level, and raife the other co¬
lumn above it j and after a few ofcillations, they will
return to a ftate of repofe. Newton occupied himlelf
in determining the duration of thefe ofcillations, or the
length of a pendulum ifochronous to their duration ;
and he found by a fimple procefs of reafoning, that, ab-
ftradling from the eftedfts of fridlion, the length of a
fynchronous pendulum is equal to one-half of the
length of the fyphon, that is, of the two vertical
branches and the horizontal one, and hence he dedu¬
ced the ifochronifm of thefe ofcillations. From this
Newton concluded, that the velocity of waves formed
on the furface of water either by the wind or by means
of a ftone, was in the fubduplicate ratio of their fize.
When their velocity therefore is meafured, which can
be eafily done, the fize of the waves will be determined
' N A M I C S. 699
by taking a pendulum which ofcillates in the time that ^Hifiory. ^
a wave takes to rife and fall. _ _ _ Labours of
14. In the year 1718 the Marquis Poleni pubhffied ^ jyjar_
at Padua his work De Cojlelhs per qu<£ devivantur ^u|s PolenL
Fiuviorum aquee, &c. He found from a great number
of experiments, that if A be the aperture of the orifice,
and D its depth below the furface of the refervoir, the
quantity of water difcharged in a given time will be as
2 AD X while it ought to be as 2 AD, if the
1.000
velocity of the iffuing fluid was equal to that acquired
by falling through D. By adapting to a circular ori¬
fice through which the water efcaped, a cylindrical
tube of the fame diameter, the marquis found that the
quantity difcharged in a determinate time was confider-
ably greater than when it iffued from the circular
orifice itfelf j and this happened whether the water
defeended perpendicularly or iffued in a horizontal di-
reflion.
15. Such was the ftate of hydrodynamics in I73^»®an.‘?.\^ei'1’
when Daniel Bernouilli publiflied his Hvclrodijnarnica,feu ‘ j ^
de viribus et motibus Fluidorum Commentani. His theory tjie mot;on
of the motion of fluids was founded on two fuppofitions, 0f fluids
which appeared to him conformable to experience.
He fuppofed that the furface of a fluid, contained in a
veffel which was emptying itfelf by an orifice, remains
always horizontal $ and it the fluid mafs is conceived to
be divided into an infinite number of horizontal ftrata
of the fame bulk, that thefe ftrata remain contiguous to
each other, and that all their points detcend vertically,
with velocities inverfely propoi'tional to their breadth,
or to the horizontal feftions of the refervoir. In order,
to determine the motion of each ftratum, he employed
the principle of the confervaiio viriuni vivarum, and ob¬
tained very elegant folutions. In the opinion of the
abbe Boffut, his work is one of the fineft productions
of mathematical genius. _
16. The uncertainty of the principle employed by ^
Daniel Bernouilli, which has never been demonftrated^ a|Kjl dU*
in a general manner, deprived his refults of that conll-ger_
dence which they wmuld otherwife have deferved j andnouilli,
rendered it defireable to have a theory more certain, who wfolvc
and depending folely on the fundamental laws of me-gigr^gy
chanics. Maclaurin and John Bernouilli, who were ofmore due<51;
this opinion, refolved the problem by more direct me-methods,
thods, the one in his Fluxions, publiflied in 1742 ; and
the other in his Hydraulic a nunc primum deleft a, et di-
refte demonjlrata ex principiis pure mechanicis, which
forms the fourth volume of his works. 1 he method
employed by Maclaurin has been thought not fufficient-
ly rigorous •, and that of John Bernouilli is, in the opi¬
nion of La Grange, defe&ive in perfpicuity and preci-
fion.
17. The theory of Daniel Bernouilli was oppofed D’Alem-
alfo by the celebrated D’Alembert. When generali-“Pf!56*
fing James Bernouilli’s Theory of Pendulums, he dif-pje ^dy.
covered a principle of dynamics fo fimple and general, namics to
that it reduced the laws of the motion of bodies to that the motion
of their equilibrium. He applied this principle to theofflm(ls*
motion of fluids, and gave a fpecimen of its application
at the end of his Dynamics in 1743. It was more
fully developed in his Iraittf des bluides, which was
publifhed in 1744, where he has refolved, in the moft
fimple and elegant manner, all the problems which re-
4 T 2 late
)
70° H Y D R O D
rc:ftoly- ; late to the equilibrium and motion of fluids. He makes
ufe of the very fame fuppofitions as Daniel Bernouilli,
tiiough his calculus is ertabliflied in a very different
manner. He conffders, at every inffant, the acfual
motion of a ftratum, as compofed of a motion which it
had in the preceding initant, and of a motion which it
has loft. The laws of equilibrium between the motions
loft*, furniflr him with equations which reprefent the
motion of the fluid. Although the fcience of hydrody¬
namics had then made confiderablc progrels, yet it wTas
chiefly founded on hypotheffs. It remained a defide-
rat#m to exprefs by equations the motion of a particle
of the fluid in any affigned direcftion. Thefe equations
were found by D’Alembert, from two principles, that
a redlangular canal, taken in a mafs of fluid in equili-
brio, is itfelf in equilibrio ; and that a portion of the
fluid, in pafling from one place to another, preferves
the fame volume when the fluid is incompreflible, or
dilates itfelf according to a given law when the fluid is
elaftic.. His very ingenious method was publiftied in
1752? 1° bis E/fai fur la refijlancc des fluider. It was
brought to perfection in his Opufcules Mathematiques,
and has been adopted by the celebrated Euler.
Before the time of D’Alembert, it was the great
object of philofophers to fubmit the motion of fluids to
general formulae, independent of all hypothefis. Their
attempts, however, were altogether fruitlefs •, for the
method of fluxions, which produced fuch important
changes in the. phyfical faiences, was but a feeble auxi¬
liary in the fcience of hydraulics. For the refoluiion
or the queftions concerning the motion of fluids, we
are indebted to the method of partial differences, a new
calculus, with which Euler enriched the fciences. This
great difcovery was firft applied to the motion of water
by the celebrated D’Alembert, and enabled both him
and Euler to reprefent the theory of fluids in formula;
reftrained by no particular hypothefis.
18. An immenfe number of experiments on the mo-
*i,r- , * - °‘ vva':er bi PTes and canals were made by Pro-
Michelotti. feflbr Michelotti of Turin, at the expence of the fove-
reign. In thefe experiments the water iflued from holes
of different fizes, under prefifures of from five to twenty-
two feet, from a tower conftruaed of the fineft ma-
fonry. Bafons built of mafonry, and lined with ftucco,
received the effluent water, which was conveyed in ca¬
nals of brickwork, lined wfith ftucco, of various forms
and declivities. The whole of Michelotti’s experiment*
were conduced with the utmoft accuracy j and his re-
fidts are, in every refpeft, entitled to our confidence.
Of the abbe 19. _ The experiments of the abbe Boflut, whofe la-
Befltit. hours in this department of fcience have been very af-
fiduous and fuccefsful, have, in as far as they coincide,
afforded the fame refults as thofe of Michelotti. Though
performed on a fmaller fcale, they are equally entitled
to our confidence, and have the merit of being made in
cafes which are moft likely to occur in pradtice. In
order to determine what were the motions of the fluid
particles in the interior of a veffel emptying itfelf by
an orifice, M. Boffut employed a glafs cylinder, to the
bottom of which different adjutages were fitted j and he
found that all the particles defcend at firft vertically,
but that at a certain diftance from the orifice they turn
from their firft dire61ion towards the aperture. In con-
kquence of thefe oolique motions, the fluid vein forms
a kind of truncated conoid, whofe greateft bale is the
Experi¬
ments of
Y N A M I C S.
orifice Itfelf, having its altitude equal to the Mdius of Hiitory.
the orifice, and its bafes in the ratio of q to 2. It ap- ' v——
pears alfo, from the experiments of Boffut, that when
Vend ilfues through an orifice made in a thin plate
the expence of water, as deduced from theory, is to’
rl nememPenC? as t0 I0> as 8 to 5 ; and, when
the fluid iffues through an additional tube, two or three
inches long, and follows the Tides of the tube, as 16 to
r^^g the effecls °* fri&ion, he found,
1. lat Imall orifices gave lefs water in proportion than
great ones, on account of fridlion j and, 2. That when
the height of the referveir was augmented, the contrac¬
tion Oi the fluid vein was alfo increafed, and the ex¬
pence of water diminifhed ; and by means of thefe two
laws he was enabled to determine the quantity of water
ditcharged, with all the precifion he could wifh. In
his experiments on the motion of water in canals and
tubes, he found that there was a fenfible difference be¬
tween the motion of water in the former and the latter.
Under the fame height of refervoir, the fame quantity
ot water always flows in a canal, whatever be its length
and declivity 5 whereas, in a tube, a difference in length
and declivity has a very confiderable influence on the
quantity of water difeharged.—According to the theory
of the.refinance of fluids, the impulfe upon a plane fur-
face, is as the product of its area multiplied by the
iquare of the fluid’s velocity, and the fquare of the fine
of the.angle of incidence. The experiments of Boffut
made in conjunction with D’Alembert and Condorcet’
prove, that this is fenfibly true when the impulfe is ner-
pendicular; but that the aberrations from theory* in-
creafe with the angle of impuliion. They found, that
when the angle of impulfion was between 5o° and 90°
the ordinary theory may be employed, that the refift-
ances thus found will be a little lefs than they ought to
be and the more fo as the angles recede from oo*.
Ihe attention of Boffut was diredled to a variety of
other interelling points, which we cannot flop to no¬
tice, but for which, mull refer the reader to the works
of that ingenious author.
m°; )Th<k°fcTiilation °f waves> which was firft dif-Inquiries of
cuffed by. Sir Ifaac Newton, and afterwards by D’A- M. Flau-
lembert, in the article Ondes, in the French Ency-£ergues
clopafflia, was now revived by M. Flaugergues, who c"ncerning
attempted to overthrow the opinions of thefe philo-
lophers. . He maintained, that a wave is not the effeft wave*."
of a motion m the particles of water, by which they rife
and fall alternately, in a Terpentine line, when moving
from the centre where they commenced : but that it is
a kind of intumefcence, formed by a depreffion at the
place.where.the impulfe is firft made, which propagates
itfelf in a circular manner when removing from the
point of impulfe. A portion of the water, thus elevat¬
ed, he imagines, flows from all fides into the hollow
formed at the centre of impulfe, fo that the water be¬
ing, as it were, heaped up, produces another intumef¬
cence, which propagates itfelf as formerly. From this
theory, M. Flaugergues concludes, and he has confirm¬
ed the conclufion by experiment, that all waves, whe¬
ther great or fmall, have the fame velocity.
21. This difficult fubjed has alfo been difeuffed byAndofM
M. de la Grange, in. his Mecanique Analytique. Hedela
found, that the velocity of waves, in a canal, is eoual Grange,
to that which a heavy body would acquire by falling
through a height equal to half the depth of the water
Part I.
H)drofta- In the canal. If this depth, therefore, be one foot,
tics {]-[£ velocity of the waves will be 5.495 feet in a fe-
conJ • and if the depth is greater or lels than this, their
velocity will vary in the fubduplicate ratio of the depth,
provided it is not very confiderable. If we fuppofe
that, in the formation of waves, the water is agitated
but to a very fmall depth, the theory of La Grange
may be employed, whatever be the depth of the water
and the figure of its bottom. This fuppofition, which
is very plaufible, when we confider the tenacity and ad-
hefion of the particles of water, has alfo been confirmed
by experience.
Experi- 22. The molt fuccefsful labourer in the fcience of
merits and hydrodynamics, was the chevalier Buat, engineer in
the^cheva- ordinary to the king of France. Following in the fteps
lier de of the abbe Loflut, he profecuted the. inquiries of that
Buat. philcfopher with uncommon ingenuity •, and in the
year 1786, he publilhed his Pnncipes (PHy dr antique,
which contains a fatisfa&ory theory of the motion of
fluids founded folely upon experiments. 1 he che¬
valier du Buat confidered, that if water were a per¬
fect fluid, and the channels in which it. flowed infi¬
nitely fmooth, its motion would be continually accele¬
rated, like that of bodies defeending in an inclined
plane. But as the motion of rivers is not continually
accelerated, and foon arrives at a Hate of uniformity, it
is evident that the vifeidity of the water, and the fric¬
tion of the channel in which it defeends, mull equal the
accelerating force. M. Buat, therefore, affumes it as
a propofition of fundamental importance, that when
water flows in any channel or bed, the accelerating
force, which obliges it to move, is equal to the fum of
all the refinances which it meets with, whether they
arife from its own vifeidity or from the fndlion of its
bed. This principle was employed by M. Buat, in
the firft edition of his work, which appeared in 1779 *,
but the theory contained in that edition was founded
on the experiments of others. He loon faw, howrever,
that a theory fo new, and leading to refults fo different
from the ordinary theory, fhould be founded on new
experiments more direft than the former, and he was
employed in the performance of thefe from 1780 to
1783/ The experiments of Boffut having been made
only on pipes of a moderate declivity, M. Buat found
it necefiary to fupply this defefl. He ufed declivities of
every kind, from the fmalleft to the greateft \ and made
his experiments upon channels, from a line and a half
701
in diameter, to feven or eight fquare toiies. All thefe Hydmfta-
experiments he arranged under fome circumftances of .^cs 1
refemblance, and produced the following propofition,
wrhich agrees in a molt ivonderful manner with the im-
menfe number ©f fails which he has brought toge¬
ther, viz. V=^-^——0.3 Xfi'—0.1, where
j-—LV j-f-x.6
d is the hydraulic mean depth, ,r the Hope of tne pipe,
or of the furface of the current, and V the velocity
with which the water iiTues. The theory of M. Buat,
with its application to practice, will be found in the ar¬
ticles River and WjTER-IVorks.
23. M. Venturi, profeffor of natural philofophy in Refearches
the univerfity of Modena, has lately brought to lightot M.Ven-
fome curious facts refpeiting the motion of water,_ inturi1
his work on the “ Lateral Communication of Motion
in Fluids.” He obferved, that if a current of water is
introduced with a certain velocity into a veiTel filled
with the lame fluid at reft, and if this current palling
through a portion of the fluid is received in a curvili-
neal channel, the bottom of which gradually rifes till
it paffes over the rim of the veffel itfelf, it will carry
along with it the fluid contained in the veffel 3 fo that
after a ihort time has elapfed, there remains only the
portion of the fluid which was originally below the
aperture at which the current entered. This phenome¬
non has been called by Venturi, the lateral communi¬
cation of motion in fluids 3 and, by its afliftance, he
has explained many important fadts in hydraulics. He
has not attempted to explain this principle 3 but has
(hewn, that the mutual adtion of the fluid particles does
not afford a fatisfadtory explanation of it. The work
of Venturi contains many other interefting difeuflions,
which are worthy of the attention of every reader.
24. The fcience of hydrodynamics has of late years Esperi-
been cultivated by M. Eytelwein of Berlin, whofe prac-meets of
tical conclufions coincide nearly with thofe of Boffut 3—
by Dr Matthew Young, late bilhop of Clonfert, who8
has explained the caufe of the increafed velocity of ef¬
flux through additional tubes, and by Mr Vince, Dr
T. Young, Coulomb, and Don George Juan ; but the
limits of this work will not permit us to give any fur¬
ther account of their labours at prefent. We mult now
proceed to initiate the reader into the fcience itfelf, be¬
ginning with that branch of it which relates to the pref-
fure, equilibrium, and cohefion of non-elaftic fluids.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
PARTI. HYDROSTATICS.
Definition 25* HYDROSTAl ICS is that branch of the fei-
of hydro- ence of hydrodynamics which comprehends the preffure
katics. ancj equilibrium of non-elaltic fluids, as water, oil, mer¬
cury, &c. 3 the method of determining the fpecific
gravities of fubftances, the equilibrium of floating bo¬
dies (a), and the phenomena of capillary attraction.
Definitions and Preliminary Obfiervations.
Definition l6. A fluid is a collection of very minute particles,
©fa fluid, cohering fo little among themfelves, that they yield to
the fmalleft force, and are eafily moved among one
another.
27. Fluids have been divided into perfeR and imper- perfedt
feEl. In perfeCt fluids the conftituent particles are fup- fluids,
pofed to be endowed with no cohefive force, and to be
moved among one another by a preffure infinitely fmall.
But, in imperfeCt or vifeous fluids, the mutual cohefion Imperfedt
of their particles is very fenfible, as in oil, varnifti,fluids,
melted glafs, Sec. 3 and this tenacity prevents them
from yielding to the fmalleft preflure. Although wa¬
ter, mercury, alcohol, &c. have been claffed among
perfeCt fluids, yet it is evident that neither thefe nor
any other liquid is pofieffed of perfeCt fluidity. When
a glafs veffel is filled with water above the brim, it af¬
fumes a convex furface 3 and wdien a quantity of it is
thrown
(a) The difeuffion of this fubjeCt is referved as an introduction to the article Suir-Building,
702
Hydrofta
tics.
Florentine
experi¬
ment.
Compreffi-
bil'ty of
Wuter firft
noticed by
Lord £a-
'Fluids di¬
vided into
comprtf-
fible and
incomprtf-
fible.
Compi edi¬
bility of
water af-
certained
by Mr Can¬
ton-
H Y D R O D Y
tliroxvn on tlie floor, it is difperfed into a variety of
j globules, which can fcarcely be feparated from
one another. Even mercury, the moft perfed of all
the duids, is endowed with fuch a cohelive force among
its particles, that if a glafs tube, with a fmall bore, is
immerfed in a veffel full of this fluid, the mercury will
be lower in the tube than thefurface of the furrounding
iiuid if a fmall quantity of it be put in a glafs veffql,
wath a gentle riling in the middle of its bottom, the
mercury will defert the middle, and form itfelf into a
ring, confiderably rounded at the edges j or iffeveral
drops of mercury be placed upon a piece of flat glafs,
they will affume a fpherical form ; and if brought with¬
in certain limits, they will conglobukte and form a
Angle drop. Now, all thefe phenomena concur to
prove, that the particles of water have a mutual attrac¬
tion for each other j that the particles of mercury have
a greater attradfion for one another, than for the parti¬
cles of glafs ; and, confequently, that thefe fubflances
are not entitled to the appellation of perfed fluids.
28. It was univerfally believed, till within the laft
45 years, that water, mercury, and other fluids of a fi-
milar kind, could not be made to occupy a Imaller
fpace, by the application of any external force. This
opinion was founded on an experiment made by Lord
Bacon, who inclofed a quantity of water in a leaden
globe, and by applying a great force attempted to
comprefs the water into lefs fpace than it occupied at
firft : The water, however, made its way through the
pores of the metal, and flood on its furface like' dew.
The fame experiment was afterwards repeated at Flo¬
rence by the academy del Cimento, who filled a filver
globe with w'ater, and hammered it with fuch force as
to alter its form, and drive the water through the pores
of the metal. I hough thefe experiments were gene¬
rally reckoned decilive proofs of incompreflibility, yet
Bacon himfelf feems to have drawn from his experi¬
ment a very different conclufion j for after giving an
account of it, he immediately adds, that he computed
into how much /ejs fpace the water was driven by this
violent prejfure (b). This paffage from Lord Bacon
does not feem to have been noticed by any writer on
hydroftatics, and appears a complete proof that the
compreflibility of w'ater was fairly deducible from the
ifl'ue of his experiment. In confequence of the reliance
which was univerfally placed on the refult of the Flo¬
rentine experiment, fluids have generally been divided
into com prefib le and incomprefible, or elafic and non-
elaficfluids: water, oil, alcohol, and mercury, being re¬
garded as incompreflible and non-elaftic; and air, fleam,
and other aeriform fluids, as compreflible or elaftic.
29. About the year 1761, the ingenious Mr Canton
began to confider this fubjeft with attention, and diflruft-
ing the refult obtained by the academy del Cimento,
refolyed to bring the queftion to a decifive iffue (c).
Having procured a fmall glafs tube, about two feet
long, with a ball at one end, an inch and a quarter in
diameter, he filled the ball and part of the tube with
N A M I C S. Part I.
mercury, and brought it to the temperature of 50® of H>dioiTa-
Jbahrenheit. The mercury then flood fix inches and a dcs.
half above the ball; but after it had been railed to the' v '
top ot the tube by heat, and the tube fealed hermeti-
caJly, then, upon bringing the mercury to its former-
temperature of 50°, it flood TW of an inch higher in
the tube than it did before. By repeating the fame
experiment with water exhaufled of air, inflead of mer¬
cury, the water flood fdo of an inch higher in the
tube than it did at fir A. Hence it is evident, that
wnen toe weight of the atmofphere was removed, the
water and^mercury expanded, and that the water ex¬
panded Ty_ of an jooh more tjlan tjle meromy. p
placing the apparatus in the receiver of a condenfinn-
engine, and condenfing the air in the receiver, he in-
crealed the preffure upon the water, and found that it
delcended in the tube. Having thus afeertained the
iadf, that water and mercury are compreflible, he fub-
jerfed other fluids to limilar experiments, and obtained
the refults in the following table.
. Millionth Parts. Specific Gravity.
Compreflion of mercury 3 ^3-595
fea-water, 40 1.028
rain-water, 46 1.000
oil of olives, 48 0.918
fpirit of wine, 66 0.846
Left it fliould be imagined that this fmall degree of
compreflibility arofe from air imprifoned in the water,
Mr Canton made the experiment on fome water which
had imbibed a confiderable quantity of air, and found
that its compreflibility was not in the lead augmented.
By infpetfing the preceding table, it will be feen that
the compreflibility of the different fluids is nearly in the
inverfe ratio of their fpecific gravities.
30. The experiments of Mr CantonTiave been late-and con.
ly confirmed by Profefl'or Zimmerman. He found that by
fea-water was comprefled T^th part of its bulk whenZimmer“
inclofed m the cavity of a ftrong iron cylinder, and un-111*"’
der the influence of a force equal to a column of fea-
vyater 1000 feet high. From thofe fadfs, it is obvious
that fluids are lulceptible ol contradlion and dilatation,
and that there is no foundation in nature for their be¬
ing divided into compreflible and incompreflible. If
fluids are compreflible, they will alfo be elaflic ; for
w-hen the comprefling force is removed, they will reco¬
ver their former magnitude j and hence their divifion
into elaftic and non-elaftic is equally improper.
31. The do&rines of hydroftatics have been dedu-
ced by different philoiophers from different properties
oi fluids. Euler has founded his analyfis on the follow¬
ing property, “ that when fluids are fubjeaed to any
preffure, that preffure is fo diffufed throughout the
mafs, that when it remains in equilibrio all its parts
are equally preffed in every diredion (d).” D’Alem¬
bert at firft (e) deduced the principles of hydroftatics
from the property which fluids have of rifling to the flame
altitude in any number of communicating veffels; but he
afterwards
(B) Bacon’s works, by Shaw, vol. 11. p. 521. Novum Organum, part ii. led. 2. aph. 47. S 222.
(c) bee tne^ Fhilolophical Franfadions for 1762 and 1764, vols lii. and liv.
(d) Nov. Comment. Petropol. tom. xiii p. 305.
,(e) Melanges de Literature^ d'Hifloire, et Philofophie.
1
Chap. I. HYDRODYNAMICS.
Prepare, afterwards * adopted the fame property as Euler,
of from the foundation which it furnifhes for an algebrai-
, ca^ calculus. The fame property has been employed
* Traitcdes by Boifut, Prony, and other writers, and will form the
Fluidestt frit propolition of the following chapter.
§ 20.
Chap. I. On the Prejfure and Equilibrium of Fluids.
The parts
of a fin d
fubjerted
to any pref-
fare, are
equally
prefied in
every di¬
rection.
Plate
CCLXUI.
Fig. x.
Fig.
Proposition I.
^2. When a mafs of fluid, fuppofed without
weight, is fubje£ted to any preflure, that pref-
fure is fo difFufed throughout the whole, that
when it remains in equilibno all its parts are
equally prefled in every dire£lion.
As it is the diftinguilhing property of fluids that
their particles yield to the fmalleft preffure, and are ea-
fily moved among themfelves ( 26.), it neceffarily fol¬
lows, that if any particle is more prelfed towards one
fide than towards another, it wall move to that fide
where the preffure is lead •, and the equilibrium of the
fluid mafs will be inftantly deftroyed. But by the hy¬
pothesis the fluid is in equilibno, confequently the par¬
ticle cannot move towards one fide, and muft therefore
be equally preffed in every diredlion.
In order to illuftrate this general law, let EF (fig. 1.)
be a veffel full of any liquid, and let m u, op be two ori¬
fices at equal depths below its furface } then, in order to
prevent the water from efcaping, it will be neceffary to
apply two piftons, A and B, to the orifices m «, 0 p with
the fame force, whether the orifice be horizontal or ver¬
tical, or in any degree inclined to the horizon 5 fo that
the preffure to which the fluid mafs is fubjedl, which in
this cafe is its own gravity, muft be diftributed in every
diredlion. But if the fluid has no weight, then the pref¬
fure exerted againfl the fluid at the orifice 0p, by means
of the pifton B, will propagate itfelf through every part
of the circular veffel EF, fo that if the orifices m n, t it
are fhut, and rs open, the fluid would rufh through
this aperture in the fame manner as it would ruffi through
mn or t u, were all the other orifices fliut. This propofi-
tion, however, is true only in the cafe of perfect
fluids; for when there is a fenfible cohefion between the
particles, as in water, an equilibrium may exift even
%vhen a particle is lefs prefied in one dire&ion than in
another *, but this inequality of preffure is fo exceed¬
ingly trifling, that the propofition may be confidered
as true, even in cafes of imperfeft fluidity.
Prop. II.
33. If to the equal orifices m n, t «, 0 p, r s of a
veflel, containing a fluid deftitute of weight, be
applied equal powers A, B, C, D, in a perpen¬
dicular direction, or if the orifices m «, &c. be
unequal, and the powers A, B, &c. which are
refpe£i:ively applied to them be proportional to
the orifices, thefe powers will be in equilibrio.
It is evident, from the laft propofition, that the pref¬
fure exerted by the power B is tranfmitted equally to
the orifices m n, r s, t u, that the preffure of the power
C is tranfmitted equally to the orifices m n, 0 p, t u, and
fo on with all the other powers. Every orifice thrn is
influenced vrith the fame preffure, and, confequently,
7°3
none of the powers A, B, C, D, can yield to the a&ion Preflire,
of the reff. The fluid mafs, therefore, will neither
change its form nor its fituation, and the powers A, B, <, ^ 1
C, D will be in equilibrio.—If the powers A, B, C, D
are not equal to one another, nor the orifices mn, op,
r s, t u •, but if A : n : 0p, and fo on with the
reft, the fluid will ftill be in equilibrio. Let A be
greater than B, then mn will be greater than op', and
whatever number of times B is contained in A, fo ma¬
ny times will 0/) be contained in mn. If A—2B,
then mn—2 0 p, and fince the orifice m n is double of
0p, the preflure upon it muft alfo be double and, in
order to refift that preffure, the power A muff alfo be
double of B ; but, by hypothefis, Arrz B, confequent¬
ly the preffures upon the orifices, or the powers A, B,
will be in equilibrio. If the power A is any other mul¬
tiple of B, it may be dhewn in the fame way that the
fluid will be in equilibrio.
Prop. III.
34. The furface of a fluid, influenced by the force
of gravity and in equilibrio in any veifel, is ho¬
rizontal, or at right angles to the direction of
gravity. %
Let the furface of the fluid be fuppofed to affume the The furface
waving form APEB. Any particle P in the furface ^c"'
of the fluid is influenced by the force of gravity, which ^onaa
may be reprefented by PS, and which may be decora-
pofed into two forces P m, P « in the diredlion of the
two elementary portions of the furface P m, P« (fee
Dynamics, 148). But lince the particle P is in a flate of
equilibrium, the force of gravity afting in the diredtion
P m, P n mufl be defiroyed by equal and oppofite forces,
exerted by the neighbouring particles againft P in the*
direcftion m P, « P ; therefore the forces P m, P n are
equal to the forces m¥, n¥. Now the particle P be¬
ing in equilibrio, muft be equally preffed in every di-
redtion (32.) Wherefore the forces P w, P« are
equal, and by the dodirine of the compofition of forces
(fee Dynamics, 133. D), the angle mVn formed by
the two elementary portions P ra, P « of the furface of
the fluid, mufl be biiedled by PS, the line which re-
prefents the diredfion of gravity. The fame may be
proved of every other point of the furface of the fluid j
and therefore this furface muft be horizontal or perpen¬
dicular to the diredfion of gravity.
35. This propofition may be otherwife demonftrated.
From the principles of mechanics, it is obvious, that
when the centre of gravity of any body is at reft, the
body itfelf is at reft ; and that when this centre is not
fupported, the body itfelf will defcend, till it is pre¬
vented by fome obftacle from getting farther. In the
fame manner the centre of gravity of a fluid mafs will,
defcend to the loweft point poflible \ and it can be
fhewn that this centre will be in its loweft pofition when
the furface of the fluid mafs is horizontal. For let pjo-. ^
FGHI (fig. 2.) be any (urface, whether folid or fluid,
and C its centre of gravity, the point C is nearer the
line HI when FG is parallel to HI and rectilineal,
than when it has any other form or pofition. WTten
the furface FGHI is fufpended by the point C, or ba¬
lanced upon it, it will be in equilibrio ; but if the line
F is made to affume any other form as Fr r/G, by re¬
moving the portion Q 0p oi the furface to r s t, the -
equilibrium.!
7°4 H Y I),R O D
p^effure, equilibrium will be deftroycd, and the fide FG will
Fluids. PrePonderate. In order, therefore, to reftore the equi-
— . i librium, the furface muft be balanced on a point c far¬
ther from HI ; that is, the centre of gravity of the fur-
face I rstop 1H is c. In the lame way it may be fhewn,
that whatever be the form of the bounding line FG,
the quantity of furface remaining the fame, its centre
of gravity will be neareil HI, when FG is reailineal
and parallel to it.-—On the truth contained in this pro-
polition depends the art of levelling, and the conflruc-
tion of the fpirit level, for an account of which fee Le¬
velling.
36. As the diredlion of gravity is in lines which
meet near the centre of the earth ; and as it ap¬
pears from this propofition, that the furface of fluids
is perpendicular to that diredfion, their furface will be
a portion of a fpheroid fimilar to the earth. When the
lurface has no great extent, it may be fafely confidered
as a plane ; but wFen it is pretty large, the curvature
of the earth muft be taken into the account.
Prop. IV.
37. The furface of a fluid influenced by the force
of gravit y, and contained in any number of com¬
municating veflels, however different in form
and pofition, will be horizontal.
i"ur^ace_ Tet ABCDF. be a fyftem of communicating veffels
in an UI ^Tich a quantity of fluid is conveyed : It will rife
number of to ^ ^ame height in each veffel, and have a horizontal
communi- furface ABCDE. Suppofe AGFE a large veffel full
eating vef- of water. By the lait propofition, its furface ABCDE
felsis ho- will be horizontal. Now, if any body be plunged into
Fig-V" ^ veffel, the cylinder C for inftance, the furface of
the fluid will ftill be horizontal; for no reafon could be
affigned for the water’s rifing on one fide of this body
any more than on another. Let us now take out the cy¬
linder C, and immerge into the fluid, focceflively, the
folid bodies A a, B Zq C c, D r/, then after each immer-
fion the furface will ftill be horizontal ; and when all
thefe folids are immerged, the large veflel AF will be
converted into the fyftem of communicating veflels re-
4* prefented in fig. 4. ; in wdrich the furface of the fluid
will, of confequence, be horizontal.
38. This propofition may be alfo demonftrated by
fuppofing the parts A a, B Z>, C c, D </, converted into
ice without changing their former magnitude. When
this happens, the equilibrium will not be difturbed ; and
the fluid mafs AF, whofe furface was proved to be ho¬
rizontal by the laft propofition, will continue in the
fame ftate after the congelation of fome of its parts.
I hat is, the furface of the fluid in the communicating
veffels A, B, C, D, E will be horizodtal.
This pro- 39- When the communicating veffels are fo fmall
pofition is that they may be regarded as capillary tubes, the fur-
11tru‘' face of the fluid will not be horizontal. From the at-
commum- trai^:,*on which all fluids have for glafs, they rife to a
eating vef- greater height in fmaller tubes than in larger ones, and
fels are ca- the quantity of elevation is in the inverfe ratio of the
;pilI?ry diameters of the bores. In the cafe of mercury, and
probably of melted metals, the fluid fubftance is de-
preffed in capillary tubes, and the depreflion is fubjecl
to the fame law. The fubjeft of capillary attraiflion
es.
Y N A M I C S. part j
mill be treated at length in a fubfequent part of this P.dTi.re,
article. &C of’
40. This propofition explains the reafon why the fur- . rluids-
face of fmall pools in the vicinity of rivers is always on v
a level with the furface of the rivers themlelves, when
there is any fubterraneous communication between the
river and the pool. I he river and the poal may be con
fidered as communicating veffels.
Prop. V.
41. If a mafs of fluid contained in a veflel be in
equilibrio, any particle whatever is equally pref-
fed in every dire&ion, with a force equal to the
weight of a column of particles whofe height is
equal to the depth of the particle prefled below
the furface of the fluid.
Immerfe the fmall glafs tube mp, into the veffel AB Fig c,
filled with any fluid ; then if the tube is not of the ca¬
pillary kind, the fluid will rife to n on the fame level
with the furface AB of the fluid in the veffel. Now it
is evident, that the particle/) at the bottom of the tube
mp is prefled downwards by the fuperiheumbent column
of particles n />, which is equal to the depth of the par¬
ticle p below the furface of the fluid. But fince the
mafs of fluid is in equilibrio, the particle p is preffed
equally in every diredtion ; Therefore, the particle p is
preffed equally in every dire&ion by a force equal to the
fuperincumbent column ?ip.
Prop. VI.
42. A very fmall portion of a veflel of any forrm
filled with a fluid, is prefled with a force which
is in the compound ratio of the number of par¬
ticles contained in that furface, its depth below
the furface of the fluid, and the fpecific gravity
of the fluid.
Let D/> EB be the veffel, and rs a very fmall por¬
tion of its furface, the preffure upon r r is in the com¬
pound ratio of the number of particles in r s, and np its
depth below^ the horizontal furface DB. Suppofe the
glafs tube fnp to be inferted in the infinitely fmall aper¬
ture />, then, abftrafting from the influence of capil¬
lary attradlion, the fluid in the glafs tube will afeend to
tn on a level with DB, the furface of the fluid in the
veffel, and the particle p will be preffed with a column
of particles, whofe height is np. In the fame way it
may be fhewn, that every other particle contained be¬
tween r and s is preffed with a fimilar column. Then,
fincepxvp w’ill reprefent the preffure of the column
np on the particle />; if N be the number of particles in
the fpace rs, NXwill be the force of the column
fupported by the Ipace r s. And as the weight of this
column muft increafe with the fpecific gravity of the
fluid, SxNx«/> will reprefent its preffure, Sbeing the
fpecific gravity of the fluid.
Prop. VII.
43. The preffure upon a given portion of the bottom
of a veffel, whether plane or curved, filled with
any
Chap. I.
Prefi'ure, any fluid, is In the compound ratio of the area
^Mdf t^at Port'on> ant^ t^ie mean altitude of the fluid,
. _ s~ < that is, the perpendicular defiance of the centre
of gravity of the given portion from the furface
of the fluid *, or, in other words, the preflure is
equal to the weight of a column of fluid whofe
bafe is equal to the area of the given portion, and
whofe altitude is the mean altitude of the fluid.
Fig. 5. Let AEGB be the veflel, and AFB the furface of
the fluid which it contains. Let GH be a given por¬
tion of its bottom, and C the centre of gravity of that
portion : Then (hall CF be the mean altitude of the
fluid.—Conceive the portion GH to be divided into an
infinite number of fmall elements H //, G g, &c. then
(42.) the preflure fuftained by the elements H h, G^,
will be refpeftively S X H X H tu,- S X G X G Sec.
the fp'ecific gravity of the fluid being called S. But it
follows from the nature of the centre of gravity, that
the fum of all thefe produfts is equal to the produft of
the whole portion GH into CF the diftance of its
centre of gravity from the horizontal furface of the
fluid (e). Therefore the preflure upon the portion
pH is in the compound ratio of its furface converted
into a plane, and the mean altitude of the fluid.
Hydroftatic 44. From this propofition we may deduce what is ge-
paradox. nerally called the Hydrq/latic paradox, viz. that thepref-
fure upon the bottoms of vejjels filled with fluid does not
depend upon the quantitij of fluid which they contain, but
upon its altitude; or, in other words, that any quantity of
fluid, howeverfmall, may be made to balance any quantity
Fig. 6. or any weighty however great. Let ACOQRPDB be a
veflel filled with water, the bottom QR will fuftain the
fame preflure as if it fupported a quantity of water equal
to MQRN. It is evident (43.) that the part EF is preff-
ed with the column of fluid ABEF, and that the part
DG equal to CD is puflied upwards with the weight of
a column equal to ABCD. Now, as a£Hon and reac¬
tion are equal and contrary, the part DG reads upon
FH with a force equal to the weight of the column
ABCD, and FH evidently fuftains the fmaller column
DGFH ; therefore FH fuftains a preflure equal to the
weight of the two columns ABCD and DGFH, that
is, of the column BIHF. In the fame way it may be
fhewn, that any other equal portion of the bottom
QR fuftains a fimilar preflure; and therefore it fol¬
lows, that the preflure upon the bottom QR is as
great as if it fupported the whole column MNQR.
Fig* 8. 45. The fame truth may be deduced from Prop. IV.
Vol. X. Part II.
7^5
For fince the fluid in the two communicating veffels Preffure,
AB, CD will rife to the fame level, whatever be their ^,c . ,0/
fize, the fluid in AB evidently balances the fluid in CD ; : ' .
and any furface m n is prefled with the fame force in the
dire&ion B m by the fmall column AB, as it is prefled
in the diredion D m by the larger column CD.
46. Cor. 1. From this propofition it follows, that Corollaries,
the whole preflure on the fides of a veflel which are
perpendicular to its bafe, is equal to the weight of a
redangular prifm of the fluid, whofe altitude is that of
the fluid, and whofe bafe is a parallelogram, one fide
of which is equal to the altitude of the fluid, and the
other to half the perimeter of the veflel.
Cor. 2. The preflure on the furface of a hemifphe-
rical veffel full of fluid, is equal to the produd of its
furface multiplied by its radius.
Cor. 3. In a cubical veflel the preflure againft one fide
is equal to half the preflure againft. the bottom ,j and the
preflure againft the fides and bottom together, is to that
againft: the bottom alone as three to one. Hence, as
the preflure againft the bottom is equal to the weight of
the fluid in the veflel, the preflfure againft both the fides
and bottom wall be equal to three times that weight.
Cor. 4. The preflure fuftained by different parts of
the fide of a veffel are as the fquares of their depths be¬
low the furface 5 and if thefe depths are made the ab-
feiffa of a parabola, its ordinate will indicate the cor-
refponding preflures.
Definition. Definftiom
47. The centre of preffure is that point of a furface
expofed to the preflure of a fluid, to which if the total
preffure were applied, the effed upon the plane would
be the fame as when the preffure was diftributed over
the whole furface : Or it is that point, to which if a
force equal to the total preffurc were applied in a
contrary diredion, the one would exadly balance the
other, or, in other words, the force applied and the to¬
tal preflure would be in equilibria.
Prop. VIII.
48. The centre of preflure coincides with the
centre of percuffion.
Let AB be a veffel full of water, and CE the fee-To fiad the
tion of a plane whofe centre of preffure is required, centre of
Prolong CE till it cuts the furface of the water in M. Preffure.
Take any point D, and draw DO, EP, CN perpendi¬
cular to the furface MP. Then ifM be made the axis
of fufpenfion of the plane CE, the centre of percuffion
4 U 0f
HYDRODYNAMICS.
(FV This will be evident from the following propofition. If every indefinitely fmall part of a furface be multi¬
plied by its perpendicular diflance from a given plane, the fum of the produtls will be equal to the produB of the whole
furface, multiplied by the perpendicular diflance of its centre of gravity from the fame plane. In Plate CCLXI1I.
Fig. 7. let a, c reprefent two weights fufpended at their centre of gravity by the lines a A, c C attached to the
horizontal plane of which A BC is a fedion, and let b be the common centre of gravity of thele weights, and b B
the diftance of this centre from the given plane, then cx« A-j-cXc C—a-fcX^ B-—Draw an, cm at right
angles to b B. Then fince b is the common centre of gravity of the weights a, c, we fhall have by the fimflar
tnangles an b, emb (Euclid VI. 4.) n b ; m bxz(b a : b czz) c\a (See Mechanics, Centre of Gravity). Hence
« X« b—cXor 0 X « B—b BtmcX^B—m B, or a x « b—a Xb xb B—cXB ; then, by tranfpofition
a X # b c x mVj—q x b B-f-c X ^ Brra-}- C-}-Z» B. But n B=a A and w/B=c C, therefore, by fubftitutjon ax# A
-f-c Xc C=a-j-cX£B. By fuppofing the two weights a and c united in their common centre of gravity, the fame
demonftration may be extended to any number of weights.
H Y D ROD
of the plane CE revolving round M will alfo be the
centre of prelTure. If MCE moves round M as a
centre, and llrikes any object, the percullive for e of
any point C is as its velocity, that is, as its diftance
CM from the centre of motion ; therefore the percuf-
five force of the points C, I), E, are as the lines CM,
DM, EM. But the preiTures upon the points C, D, E,
are as the lines CN, DO, EP, and thefe lines are to
one another as CM, DM, EM ; therefore the percuf-
five forces of the points C, D, E, are as the preffurcs
upon thefe points. Confequently, the centre of prelTure
will always coincide with the centre of percuffion.
Sect. II. Injlruments and Experiments for ilhijirating
the Prefhre of Fluids.
forTnuftrat ^^ ^avc already fhewn in art. 41. that the pref-
ing the hy- re uPon tlie bottoms ofveffels filled with fluids does not
droftatic ’ depend upon the quantity of fluid which they contain,
paradox. but upon its particular altitude. This propofition
has been called the Hydroftatical Paradox, and is ex-
CGXXIV cellent1iy Uluftrated by the following machine. In
Y N A M I C S.
Part I.
Fig. 1.
fig. I. AB is a box which contains about a pound of
water, and abed a glafs tube fixed to the end C of the
beam of the balance, and the other end to a moveable
bottom which lupports the water in the box, the bot¬
tom and wire being of equal wTeight with an empty
-fcale hanging at the other end of the balance. If one
pound weight be put into the empty fcale, it will make
the bottom rife a little, and the water will appear at the
bottom of the tube rt, confequently it will preb with a
force of one pound upon the bottom. If another pound
be put into the fcale, the wrater will rife to Zq twice as
high as the point a, above the bottom of the veffei. If
a third, a fourth, and a fifth pound be put fucceffively
into the fcale, the w^ater will rife at each time to c, d,
and e, the divifions ab, be, cd, de being all equal. This
will be the cafe, however fmall be the bore of the glafs
tube j and fince when the water is at b, c, d, e, the pref-
fures upon the bottom are fucceflively twice, thrice,
four times, and five times as great as when the water
was contained within the box, we are entitled to con¬
clude that the preffure upon the bottom of the veffei
depends altogether on the altitude of the water in the
glafs tube, and not upon the quantity it contains. If
a long narrow tube full of water, therefore, be fixed
in the top of a calk likewife full of water, then though
the tube be fo fmall as not to hold a pound of the
fluid, the preflure of the water in the tube will be
fo great on the bottom of the cafk as to be in danger
of burfling it; for the preffure is the fame as if the
caik was continued up in its full llze to the height of
The fmall- the tube, and filled with water. Upon this principle
it has been affirmed that a certain quantity of water,
mayeIerterhowevef may ’oe tendered capable of exerting a
a force e- force equal to any affignable one, by increafing the
qual to any height of the column, and ditninilhing the bafe on which
affignable it prefies. This, however, has its limits; for when the
.0l)e- tube becomes fo fmall as to belong to the capillary
kind, the attrattion of the glafs will fupport a confider-
able quantity of the water it contains, and therefore
Conftruc- djnflnifh the preflure upon its bafe.
p-eo ding6 5D' Preceding machine muff be fo conftrufted,
mach.ne. dtat the moveable bottom may have no fri£tion againfl:
i’ig. a. the infide of the box, afld that no water may get be¬
tween it and the box. The method of tffe&ine- this
will be manifeft from fig. 2. where ABCD is a fec-
tion of the box, and a b c d its lid, which is made very
light. Tbe moveable bottom E, with a groove round
its edges, is put into a bladder fg, which is tied clofe
around it in the groove, by a itrong waxed thread. The
upper part of the bladder is put over the top of the box
at a and d all around, and is kept firm by the lid abed,
fo that if water be poured into the box throimh the a-
perture 11 in its lid, it will be contained in the fpace
d Egb, and the bottom may be raifed by pullino- the
wire z fixed to it at E.
51. The upward preffure of fluids is excellently il- The up-
lultrated by the hydroftatic bellows. The form givenwarc*
to this machine by the ingenious Mr Fergufon r
tures, vol. 11. p. 111.) is reprefented in fig. 3. where trated'by '
ABCD is an oblong fquare box, into one of whofe tffie hydro,
tides is fixed the upright glafs tube a I, which is bentftatic beI-
into a right angle at the lower end as at i, fig. 4.;iows'
To this bent extremity is tied tbe neck of a °large *lgS'3’4’
bladder K, which lies in the bottom of the box. Over^
this bladder is placed the moveable board L, figs. 3.
and 4. in which the upright wire M is fixed. Lead¬
en weights NN, with holes in their centre, to the a-
mount of 16 pounds, are put upon this wire, and prefs
with all their weight upon the board L. The crofs
bar p is then put on, in order to keep the glafs tube in
an upright pofition 3 and afterwards the piece EFG
for keeping the weights NN horizontal, and the wire
M vertical. Four upright pins, about an inch long,
are placed in the corners of the box, for the purpofe of
fupporting the board L, and preventing it from prefling
together tne fides of the bladder. When the machine
is thus fitted up, pour water into the tube I till the
bladder is filled up to the board L. Continue pouring
in more water, and the upward preffure which it will
excite in the bladder will raife the board with all the
weights NN, even though the bafe of the tube Ihould be
fo fmall as to contain no more than an ounce of water.
52. That the preffure of fluids arifes from their gravi- Experiment
ty, and is propagated in every direiffion, may be prov-for dewing
ed by the following experiment. Infert into" an empty that the
veffei, a number of glafs tubes bent into various angles,
Into their lower orifices introduce a quantity of mercury, fronAheir
which will reft in the longer legs on a level with thefe gravity, and
orifices. Let the veffei be afterwards filled with water;is Pr.°P'Sa*
and it wUl be feen, while the veffei is filling, that theA^aiorA7
mercury is gradually preffed from the lower orifices to-' lC ‘10n°
wards the higher, where the water is prevented from
entering. Now, in confequence of the various angles
into which the glafs tubes are bent, the lower orifices
point to almoft every direflion 3 and therefore it fol¬
lows, that the preffure of the fuperincumbent wTater is
propagated in every dire&ion. When a ftraight tube
is employed to (hew the upward preffure of fluids, the
mercury which is introduced into its lower extremity
muft be kept in by the finger till the height of the
water above the orifice is equal to fourteen times the
length of the column of quickfilver : When the finger
is removed the mercury will afeend in the tube. ' Experiment
53. The preffure of the fuperior ftrata of fluids upon^
the inferior ftrata may be ftiown in the following man- pA'i^ftrata
ner. Immerfe two tubes of different bores, but not of prefs upon
the capillary kind, in a veffei of mercury. The mer- the inferior
cury will rife in the tube on a level with its furfaceftrata of
. fluids.
Chap. I
i’reffuifi
Sic. o*
Fill'd'-
Defciiption
of the fy-
phon.
Fig. 6.
m tlie vcffel. Let water be then poured upon the
mercury fo as not to enter the upper orifices of the
tubes, the preflure of the water upon the inferior fluid
will caufe the mercury to afcend in the tubes above the
level of that in the veffel, but to. the feme height in
both tubes. The columns of quickfilver in the two
tubes are evidently fupported by the ptvffure of the
water on the inferior fluid. The fame experiment may
be made with oil and tinged water, the latter being
made the inferior fluid.
54. The fyphon is an inflrument which Ihews the
HYDRODYNAMICS. 7*7
through the fyphon a cr/into the cup until a perre«.c
equilibrium is obtained by an equality between the co¬
lumns of wTater a e and h b.
& \ of
Fluids.
gravitation of fluids, and is frequently employed for
decanting liquors. It is nothing more than a bent tube
EABCF, having one of its legs longer than the other.
The ihorter kg BCF isimmerfed in the fluid contained
in the veffel D; and if, by applying the mouth to the
orifice E. the air be lucked out of the tuoe, the wate».
in the veffel D will flow off till it be completely emp¬
tied. Now it is obvious that the atmofphere which has
a tendency to raife the water in the Ihorter leg EB by
its preffure on the fiirface of the water at C, has the
fame tendency to prevent the water from faking from
the orifice E, by its preflure there, and therefoie if the
fyphon had equal legs as AB, BC, no water could
poflibly iffue from the orifice E. But when the leg
EB is longer than BC, the column of fluid which, it
contains being likewife longer, will by its fuperior
weight caufe the water to flow from the orifice E, and
the velocity of the iffuing fluid will increafe as the dif¬
ference between the two legs of the iyphon is made
greater.
Expe.imen. 55- I" «*»
for fhewing depends upon the gravitation ot fluids, 1V1. Faical
that the ef- devifed the following experiment. In the large g.lafs
ieft of the veffel faften by means of bees wax two cylindrical
fyphon de- containing tinged water, whofe furface is
about an inch higher in the one than in tbe^other.
Into the tinged water infert the legs of a glais fyphon
c d, having an open tube e fixed into the middle of it,
and put a wooden cover on the veffel with a hole, in
its centre to receive the tube and keep it in a vertical
pofition. Then through the funnel/, fixed in another
part of the cover, pour oil of turpentine into the larger
veffel till it flow into the cups a, b, and rife above the
arch of the iyphon. The preffure of the oil upon the
tinged water in the cups will caufe the water to pafs
through the fyphon from the higher cup to the lower,
till the Surfaces of the water in both the cups be redu¬
ced to a level. In order to explain this, fuppofe a hori¬
zontal plane e b to pafs through the legs of the fyphon,
and the tinged water in the cups, the parts of this
plane within the kgs when the fyphon is full, will be
equally prefled by the columns of tinged water ce, db
within the fyphon j but the equal parts of this plane
between the circumference of each leg of the fyphon,
and the circumference of each cylindrical cup, their
diameters being equal, will fuftain unequal preifures
from their fuperincumbent columns, though the alti¬
tudes of thefe cplumns be equal. lor Since the preflure
uoon e is exerted by a column of oil a c, and a column
of water a c, whereas the preflure upon b is exerted by
a column of oil h d, and a column of water lib \ the
column c e which contains the greateft quantity of wa¬
ter, will evidently exert the greatest force, and by its
preffure will drive the tinged water from the cup a,
pends on
the gtavi
tation of
fluids.
7-
Sect. III. Application of the Principles of Hydrojlatics
to the Conjiruclion of Dykes, Ac. for rejijiing the
preffure of water.
Definition. Definition.
A dyke is an obstacle either natural or artificial,
which oppofes itfelf to the conftant effort of water to
fpread itfelf in every direction.
In difeuffing this important branch of hydraulic Different
architecture, we muft inquire into the thicknefs and^g^m
form which mult be given to the dyke in order to refilldyke majr-
the preffure of the water. In this inquiry tne dyke yield to the
may be considered as a folid body which the water preflure of
tends to overthrow by turning it round upon, its pofle- waten
rior angle Cj or it may be regarded as a Solid, whofe ^
foundation is immoveable, but which does not refill the
preffure of the water through the whole of its height,
and which may be feparated into horizontal leftions by
the efforts of the fluid. A dyke may be conffdered alfo
as a folid body which can be neither broken nor over¬
turned, but which may be pulbed horizontally from its
bale, and can preferve its liability only, by the friction of
its bafe on the ground which fupports it. On thele con¬
ditions are founded the calculations in the following pro-
pofition which contain the molt ufeful information that
theory can fuggeft upon the conftruClion of dykes.
Prop. I.
57. To find the dimenfions of a dyke which the
water tends to overthrow' by turning it round of a dyke
its polterior angle. wlien the
1 ^ , water tends
Let ABCD be the feftion oi the dyi^e, conhderto uirn ^
ed as a continuous folid, or a piece of firm mafonry,round its
HK the level of the water which tends to overthrow itpofterior
by turning it round its pofterior angle C, fuppofed to
be fixed, and let AC, BD, be right lines or known
curves. It is required to determine CD the thicknefs
which muft be given to its bafe to prevent it from be¬
ing overturned.
To the furface of the water HK draw the ordinates
PM,/>/« infinitely near each other, and let fall from
the points H and M the perpendiculars HT, MX.
Draw the horizontal line ML and raife the perpendi¬
cular CL, and fuppofe
HP
PM
P/> or MV the fluxion of k
Wm the fluxion of y
HT
DT
CD
The momentum of the area ABCD, or the
force with which it refills being turned
round the fulcrum C = E
The fpecific gravity of water — s
The fpecific gravity of the dyke — v.
58. It is obvious from art. 41. that every element fuf-
tains a perpendicular preflure proportional to the height
PM. Let RM perpendicular to M rn reprefent the
4 U 2 force
are,
of
iorcc exerted by the column of water M m t> and let
s- Rn* dtC0mpOe(! int?,tvvo other forces, one of which
is horizontal and has a tendency to turn the dvke
3d the pr; fnd the ?ther ry is verticai ^d
ends to prefs the dyke upon its bafe. The force RQ is
evidently __j xy X Mw, (42.) and therefore the horizon-
tal part of it will be only ry X X But the tri.
angles ROM, MVm are evidently fimilar- confequent-
ly : RM=zVm : Mm; hence _ JL
v, r in- . RM Mm Mm
therefore by fubllitution we have the force RQ^rr
syxMm x and dividing by Mm, we have RQ^
~syy. The force R£, therefore, will always be the
i ne as the force againft V m, whatever be the nature
or the curve BD. Now the momentum of this force
-nh relation to the fulcrum C, or its power to make
revolve round C, is meafured by the perpen-
mular CL let fall from the centre of motion to the
-uecuon in which the force is exerted (See Mecha-
mcs)^ confequently this momentum will be syyxCL
-syyxa—y (fince CL=llT—PM~a—y)-s a y'y
—syyy, whofe fluent is ^ which by fuppo-
jing y~a becomes £ r a* for the total momentum of the
horizontal effort of the water to turn the dyke round
C. The vertical force RY or QM, which preffes the
dyke upon its bafe, is evidently j-^ x Mxbut
RM
on account of the fimilar triangles XS — rn„CP
RM ~ e‘
quently by lubftitution we fliall have the force RY
X •
=sy x M m x ^=syx, after divifion by M m. The
momentum, therefore, of the vertical force RY with
relation to C, or its power to prevent the dyke from
moving round the fulcrum C, will be rw ^x CX • CX
being the arm of the lever by which it ads, or the
perpendicular let fall from the fulcrum upon the direaion
of the force Now CX=CD-DT+TX or HP, that
IS lA-ss—£-1^, therefore the momentum of the force
R\ =syx X55 b+x, and the fum of the fimilar mo¬
menta from F to H will be the fluent f Syx,
the combined momentum of all the vertical forces
which refill the efforts of the horizontal forces to turn
he dyke round C But th, efforts of the horizontal
oices are affo refifted by the weight of the dyke whofe
momentum we have called Z, therefore crZ, r being
dyke’win be the
L 1 -tbe ‘tyke. ^ We have now three forces ading at
once viz. the horizontal force of the water ftrivinf to
overturn the dyke, and the vertical force of the water
ombmed with the momentum of the dyke, ftriving to
Preffure,
&c. of
Fluids.
refift its overthrow, therefore we fliall have an equili-
bnum between thefe three forces, when the momentum
ot the horizontal forces is made equal to the momen-
tum of the vertical forces, added to that of the dyke
itleir, conlequently ]
h s f {*—b +x) syx + rZ.
t Is nece5a7’ however, to give more liability
to the dyke than what is juft requifite to preferve its equi¬
librium, we mull make its dimenfions fuch as to refill
a force greater than the horizontal forces, a force for
example, « times the momentum of the Wizontal
orces (g). I he equation will therefore become
(R) nXT$sa'=J'(K—b-j-x)syx~l-FZ,
which comprehends every poflible cafe of liability, for
ft kT.W1^ the.Sfb.lh7 of the dyke to have double the
itabmty of equilibrium, we have only to mak- 2
I he preceding general equation is fufceptible of a va¬
riety of applications according to the nature of the
curves which form the fides of the dyke. It is at pre¬
lent worthy of remark that fince the momentum of the
horizontal forces is always the fame whatever be the
curvature of the fides AC, RD, and fince the momen-
tuin of the_ vertical forces increafes as the angle CDH
immiflies, it follows that it will always be advantageous
° the angle CPH and give as much Hope as
poflible to the fides of the dyke. ^
60. Let us now confider the conditions that may be Equation
neceffary to prevent the dyke ABCD from Hiding on containing
its bafe CD. Since the bafe of the dyke is fuppofedthe condi"
horizontal, the force which the dyke oppofes to thee*
honzomU effoni of ,he water ark fo^.v
hefion of the dyke to its bafe and from the refillance pofition
friamn. _ Fhefe two forces, therefore, combined tJhat the
Wit 11 trip wpicrhi- nr fr»^ A■«»R ^1 r « • . dyke may
. # »^ tiicreiore, combined
with the weight of the dyke, form the force which re-PP may
fills the horizontal efforts of. the water j an equili-SfbX"
rmm will confequently obtain when the three firfl
forces are made equal to the lall. But the force of
adhefion, and the refiltance of friaion, being unknown
may be made equal to the weight of the dyke multi!
plied by the conllant quantity m, which mull be deter-
mmed by experience. Now calling A the area of the fec-
r10n,XBCP,’ we fo^.have A for its weight, and m , A.
for the refinance which is oppofed to the horizontal ef¬
forts of the water. But we have already feen that the
horizontal forces of the water upon M are equal to
syy whofe fluent a' (when a=y) is the fum of all
the horizontal forces, confequently when an equilibrium
takes place between thefe oppofing forces we fliall have
(II.) mo-Arz^s a*, or A— — x
t 2m
We. might have added to the weight of the dyke the
vertical preffure of the water, but it has been negleded
for the purpofe. of having the dyke fufficiently ftrong
to refill an additional force. 6
61. We
Chap. I. H Y D R O D
preffure, 61. We fhall now proceed to inquire into the form
&c- of which the general equation affumes when the fides of the
. s' i dyke are redfilineal. Let AC, BD, fig. 9. be two lines
Form of the inclined to the horizon under given angles ACD, BDC,
general and let AB, CD be two horizontal lines. Retaining
equation conftru(qion and fymbols in art. 57. let fall AQ^,
tkteTofthe BZ perpendicular to CD, and make AQ^~ BZ—</;
dyke are CQnrr and DZ~/J.
rectilineal.
Y N A M I C S.
and by multiplication
d’z.'z, d r1 %
Z-
d r' r* drr
709
PrefTure,
6c c. of
Fluids.
By fubftituting this value of Z in the general equa¬
tion in art. 54. we fhall have
(III.) nxisa3
Yig. ' On account of the fimilar triangles HPM, FTH we a-dr'd drr
sb z a
~ V
• b b a <r d z z <r dr’
   h
b y
fhall have a : b—y : x, and therefore „v——. Subflitu-
a
ting this value of a, inftead of x in the general equa¬
tion, art. 54. we have J*(»— b + x^sy xz=J'^—(z—b
sbzyy 'Myy + *Jl£ = imaking
+
Refuiting
equation
for finding
the thick-
nefs of a
dyke, when
both its
y = a)
sbz a
2a
sb1 a
3“*
„ •, now the momentum of the dyke
26
ABCD with relation to C, is equal to the whole area
of the dyke ABCD colledled in its centre of gravity,
and placed at the end of a lever whofe length is the
horizontal diftance of that centre of gravity from the
fulcrum C. But the area of ABQZ = QZ x ZB
~z—d—rxd; the area of the triangle AC£)
= —and the area of the triangle BZD
DZxZB
2
d d
will be =2:—d—rXdxr-\
z—d-
The lever by
which the triangle BZD adts, when colledled in its cen¬
tre of gravity I, is evidently C i; but by the property of
the centre of gravity Dfrr|DZ——, hence C /—CD
3
—T) i=z —, confequently the energy of the trian¬
gle BZD to refift the efforts of the wrater adting hori-
d T* 'IT*
zontally will be =: — x « • The lever of the
2 3
• • • 2r
triangle ACQ^ is plainly C j-—|C^)r=—, confequent¬
ly the momentum of AC£) colledled in its centre of
• . d r av
gravity S will be = — X —• Having thus found the
2 3
momentum of the redfangle ABQZ, and of the triangles
BZD, ACQ, the fum of thefe momenta will be the
momentum Z, with which the dyke oppofes the hori¬
zontal efforts of the water, therefore we fhall have
z-
d—r X d X r-j-
'— r . d d
X *
2 d
T"
\_d r zr
+ -T-X ~
2 3
a quadratic equation which will determine in general fides are
the bafe z of a dyke when its fides are redtilineal andre<ftilineal
inclined at any angle to the horizon. and inclin-
62. When the angle ACQ is a right angle, or when ec*'
the pofterior fide AG of the dyke is perpendicular to
the horizon, the quantity r becomes “ 0, and the
laft term of the preceding equation in which r appears
will vanifli, confequently the equation will now be-Refuking
come equation
, when the
('TV ^ .. vx1 <.^3 sbza sbba o-dzz <r r7 2; pofterior
6‘ 2 fide of the
rd d d dyke is ver-
_1 . tieal.
1 <
Now the lever by which the
22
area ABQZ colledled in its centre of gravity F, adls
upon the fulcrum, is evidently =.C/'rzrCQ-j-QyiziCQ
-HQZ = r+A__.
 , confequently th« momentum
by wrhich the area ABCD refifts the horizontal forces
that confpire to give it a motion of rotation about C
63. When the angles ACQ and BDZ are both right, Refulting
the dyke becomes redtanguiar, with its fides perpendi-6^1^1”11,
cular to its bafe. In this cafe both r and d become tides of the
each —0, and therefore all the terms in which they are .yke are
found will vanifh. In this cafe too DT=rZ> becomes ^kcah
— 0, and therefore the terms in which it appears wull
likewife vanifh. The general equation will' now be¬
come
(V.) a xl-sa3 =
a pure quadratic.
64. In order to flrew the application of the preceding- APP!kation
formulae, and at the fame time the advantages "of inclm-of t,lie for'
ing the fides of the dyke, let us fuppofe the depth* 0f'‘"u
the water and alfo the height of the dyke to be 18 feet,
fo that B will coincide with H. Let us alfo fuppofe,
what is generally the cafe in pradtice, that the declivity
of the fides is £ of their altitude, that is DZrrCQ^—
Let the fpecific gravity of the dyke be to that of water
as 1 2 to 7 j and fuppofe it is wifhed to make the flabili
ty.of the dyke twice as great as the liability of equili¬
brium, that is, to make it capable of refilling a force
twice as great as that which it really fuftains) Then,
upon thefe conditions, w’e lhall have BZrzHT or a~d
~ 1 8 feet ; CQzrDZ—DT or rJ — r — b ~ ^ feet j
s—l'y 0- = i2, and //z=2. By fubftituting thefe nu¬
merical values in the general equation N° III. it be- -
comes
39
a quadratic equation which after redudlion will give
1 2 feet nearly. When 25= 1 2 the area of the dyke
ABCD will be 162 fq uare feet.
65. Let us now fuppofe the fides of the dyke to be Advantage-
vertical, the equation N° V. wall give us z~ 11 feet!)f nclir.ing
2 inches, which makes the area of the dyke more than1'®10 ai
2QT fquare feet. The area of the dyke with inclined’ ^ dyk"
fides
Ti o H Y D R 0 D
Preffure, ficies is therefore to its area with vertical hides nearly as
Fluids 4 to 5 : and hence we may conclude that a dyke with
u—-v—   inclined hides has the fame liability as a dyke with ver¬
tical lides j while it requires ~ lei's materials.
Prop. ii.
To find the <5,5. 'f0 fin(] tbe dimenfions of a dyke which can
.aimeniions • i n* i • i r ' i .
of the dyke neither Hide upon its bale, nor turn round its
when the pofterior angle; but which is compofed of hori-
—f zontal fe£lions, which may be feparated from
itYtPohote each other.
rizontal fee- r r ■
tions or la- hi halving this propofition we mull find the curva-
minae. ture of the fide expofed to the prefiure of the water, which
will make all the different lections or horizontal laminae
p. equally capable of refitting the different forces which
I0* tend to 1'eparate them. If the lamina NM does not re¬
fill the column PM, which partly preffes it in the di-
redtion MN as powerfully as the lamina nm refills the
horizontal prefiure of the column pm, the lamina NM
is in danger of being feparated from the lamina n m.
But if all the laminae NM, n m refift with equal force
the horizontal effedls of the water, and if the dyke
cannot be made to Hide upon its bafe nor turn round its
pollerior angle T, it cannot poffibly yield to the pref¬
fure of the water; for it is impoffible to feparate one
lamina from another, unlefs the one oppofes a lefs re¬
finance than the other. To fimplify the inveftigation
as much as poffible, let us fuppoie the pollerior fide of
the dyke to be vertical, and the depth of the water to
he equal to the height of the dyke.
67. Let ABC be the fedtion of the dyke, AK the
furface of the water, AC the curvature required, AB
its pollerior fide ; MN n m a horizontal lamina infinite¬
ly fmall, in the diredlion of which the dyke has a ten¬
dency to break in confequence of the efforts of the wa¬
ter upon AM.
If the dyke Ihould break in the diredlion MN, the
fuperior part AMN will detach itfelf from the inferior
part MNBC, by moving from M towards N ; and at
the moment when the impulfe takes place it will have
a fmall motion of rotation round the point N. We
mull therefore determine the forces which act upon the
lamina MN n m, and form an equation expreffing their
Enumera. equilibrium round the point N. The forces alluded to
forces are ev‘dcntly, 1. The horizontal efforts of the water ;
%vh ch adt 2. The vertical efforts of the water; 3. The weight
upon the of the part AMN; and, 4. The adhefion of the two
dyke. furfaces MN, m n. Of thefe four forces the firll is
the only one which has a tendency to overthrow the
portion AMN of the dyke ; and its efforts are refilled
by the three other forces. In order to find the mo¬
menta of thefe forces with regard to the point N let us
fuppofe
AP=NM —a;
PM  =y
The ipecific gravity ot water z=s
The fpecinc gravity of the dyke ~<r
Then we (hall have,
Momentum , _ The momentum of the horizontal forces of the
ofehefe vvater will be by the fame reafoning that was
forces. 1 j • . ^ ^
emploved in art. 57.
Y N A M I C S. Part I.
2. The momentum of the part AMN of the dyke Preffure,
will be = a- x !/ the area of the furface AMN, multi- Fluids.
« plied by the dillance of its centre of gravity from the ful- ' r
ijxxy
crum N, which is equal to
J
See Mechanics.
xy
68. In order to fimplify the calculus, and at the
fame time increafe the liability of the dyke, we Ihail
negleft the vertical force of the water, and the adhe¬
fion of the two furfaces MN, m n. The only forces
therefore which we have to confider, are the horizontal
efforts of the water acting againll the momentum of
the fuperior part AMN. By making an equilibrium
between thefe forces we lhall have the following equa¬
tion.
\fxxy .
\sif~Tjxy X  :— = i X Jxxy
fxy
By taking the fluxion wre have
\sijxy — ^a-xxx y. Dividing by y we have
s y1 = \ try, x1, which by reduction becomes
y
J— X *•
j-
The line AMC therefore is rectilineal, and the bafe
BC is to the altitude BA as ^/s : ^/v ; that is, as the
fquare root of the fpecific gravity of water is to the
fquare root of the fpecific gravity of the dyke.
69. In order to prevent the fuperior portion AMN Equation
from Aiding on its bafe MN, we mult procure an equili-containing
brium between the adhefion of the furfaces MN, tn n'con<li-
and the horizontal force exerted by the water. ^ow qui'nVn hun
the fum of all the horizontal forces exerted by the wa-0n the
ter is (by art. 58.) \syl, and the adhefion may be re-fuppofi-
prefented by fome multiple m, of its weight, the conftant ”on t^iat
quantity 7n being determined by experience. The
hefion will therefore be m X <rfxy, and the equation of lts
equilibrium will be
^sy‘ z=. my rjxy, the fluxion of which is
s y y — tny <r x y. Dividing by y we have
s y — m <r x, and therefore
x : y ~ s : m <r n.
Hence the bafe BC of the dyke is to its altitude BA
as the fpecific gravity of water is to a multiple m of the
fpecific gravity of the dyke, m being a conllant quantity
which experiments alone can determine.
In a work by the Abbe Boffut and M. Viallet, entitl¬
ed Recherches fur la Conjiru&ion la plus avantageufe des
Digues, the reader will find a general folution of the
preceding problem, in which the vertical efforts of the
water and the adhefion of the furfaces are confidered.
This able work, which we have followed in the pre¬
ceding inveftigation, contains much praClical informa¬
tion on the conftruClion of dykes of every kind ; and
may be confidered as a continuation of the fecond part
of Belidor’s ArckiteBure Hydraulique,
2
Chap.
Chap. n.
Of Specific
Gravities.
Specific
gravity
defined.
Plate
CCLXV.
Fig. I.
Confiruc¬
tion of the
barometer.
Bodies im-
merfed in a
fluid are
prefied up¬
wards with
a force e-
tjual to the
weight of
the quan¬
tity of fluid
difplaqed.
H Y D R O D
Chap. II. Of Specific Gravities.
Definition.
70. The abfolute weights of different bodies of the
fame bulk are called their fpecifc gravities or dcnfties ;
and one body is faid to befpecifically heavier, orfpccif-
cally lighter than another, when under the fame bulk it
contains a greater or lefs quantity of matter. Brafs,
for example, is faid to have eight times the fpecific gra¬
vity of water, becaule one cubic inch of brafs contains
eight times the quantity of matter, or is eight times hea¬
vier than a cubic inch of water.
Prop. I.
7 1 .Fluids prefling againfl each other in two or more
communicating vellels, will be in equilibrio when
the perpendicular altitudes above the level of
their jun&ion are in the inverfe ratio of their
fpccific gravities.
If a quantity of mercury be poured into the veffel
FMN, it will be in equilibrio when it rifes to the fame
level AH1B in both tubes. Take away an inch of
mercury ACDH, and fubftitute in its room 13*- inches
of water FCDG. Then fince mercury is 134: times
heavier than w'ater, 13^ inches of water will have the
fame abfolute weight as one inch of mercury, and tlm
equilibrium will not be difturbed \ for the column of
water FD will exert the fame prelfure upon the furface
CD of the mercury, as the fmaller column of mercury
did formerly. The furface of the mercury, therefore,
will remain at IB : now, fince AB, CE, are horizon¬
tal lines, AC will be equal to LK j but FC was made
13I. times AC, therefore FC=i34 times IK, that is
FC : IK~i3 l : 1, the ratio between the fpecific gravi¬
ties of mercury and water.
7 2. On this propofition depends the theory of the baro¬
meter. Let a quantity of mercury be introduced into
the tube FMN, and let the preffure of the atmofphere
be removed from the furface IB ; the preffure ol the air
upon the other furface CD will be the fame as if the
tube FD were continued to the top of the atmofphere,
and therefore, inftead of the column of water FD we
have a column of air equalto the height of the atmofphere
rifling againfl the mercury CDMIB \ the mercury
confequently will rife towards N, lo that its height will
he to the height of the atmofphere as the fpecific gra¬
vity of air is to the fpecific gravity of mercury ; but
as the denfity of the air diminiflies as it recedes from the
earth, we mull take the fpecific gravity of the air at a
mean height in the atmofphere. It is obvious from the
propofition, that the altitude o? the column of mercury
which balances the column of air muff be reckoned from
CD the level of their junefion ; and that, when the
fpecific gravity of the air is diminilhed, the mercury
will fall, and will again rife when it regains its former
denfity.
Prop. II.
73. If any fyody is immerfed in a fluid, or floats
~ on its furface, it is prefled upwards with a force
equal to the weight of the quantity of fluid dif-
placed.
Y n a M 1 c S. 711
Let wH be the feftion of a body immerfed in the Of Specific
veffel AB filled with a fluid. Any portion mn of its GraVities-.
upper furface is preffed dowmwards by the column of oenTotifira-
fluid CmnD (43.) j but the fimilar portion EF of its non when
lower furface is preffed upwards with a column of fluid a parallelo-
equal to CEFD, therefore the part EF is prelied up-
wards with the difference of thefe forces, that is, with a
force equivalent to the column of fluid m EF/;, forpjg>2<
CEFD—CmnD—mJLFn. In the fame way it may
be {hewn, that the remaining part FH is prefled up¬
wards with a force equal to the wTeight of a column
a FH 0) and therefore it follows, that the redlangle
rnfLHo is prefied upwards with a force equivalent to a
column 7//EHc>, that is, to the quantity of fluid dif-
placed.
74. If the body floats in the fluid like CH in the veffel When the
AB (fig. 3-) the fame confequence will follow j forparallelopi-
the body CH is evidently preffed upwards with a force fn 'the'fluid.
equivalent to the column that is, to the part Fig. 3.
immerfed or the quantity of fluid difplaced. Now as
the fame may he demonftrated of every other feclion of
a fulid parallelepiped, we may conclude, that the pro¬
portion is true with refpefl to every folid whofe fedtion
is redlangular.
75. When the folid has any other form as CD, however W hen the
irregular, we may conceive its fection to be divided into p^’
a number of very fmall redlangles no : then (41 •) theform>
fmall portion of the folid at n is prefled downwards by fig. 4.
a column of particles m n, and the fmall portion at 0 is
preffed upwards by a column of particles equal to no;
therefore the difference of thefe forces, viz. the column
no, is the force with which the portion 0 is preffed up¬
wards. In the fame manner it can be fliewm, that every
other fimilar portion of the lower furface of the folid,
CD is preffed upwards rvith a force equal to a column
of particles whofe height is equal to the vertical breadth
of the folid 5 but all thefe columns of particles mult oc¬
cupy the fame fpace as the folid itfelf, therefore any
folid body immerfed in a fluid, or floating on its furface,
is prefled upwards with a force equal to the weight of
the quantity of fluid difplaced.
76. Cor. 1. When a body floats in a fluid, the The weight
weight of the quantity of fluid difplaced is equal toot at^0jat*.
the weight of the floating folid. For fince the folid is equaUothe
in equilibrium wnth the fluid, the force which caufes it weight of
to defeend mull be equal to the force which preffes it’he quan-
upwards •, but the force which keeps a part of the folid of
immerged in the fluid is the weight of the folid, andL,ii>lace ’
the force which preffes the folid upwards, and prevents
it from finking, is equivalent to the wTeight of the quan¬
tity of fluid difplaced (73.); therefore thefe forces
and the weights to which they are equivalent muff be
equal.
77. Cor. -2. A folid weighed in a fluid lofes as much
of its weight as is equal to the weight of the quantity
of fluid difplaced j for fince the body is prefied up¬
wards with a force equal to the weight of the fluid dif¬
placed (73.), this preffure a£ls in direfl oppofition to
the natural gravity or abfolute weight of the folid, and
therefore diminifhes its ahfolute weight by a quantity
equal to the weight of the fluid difplaced. The part of
the weight thus loft is not deftroyed : It is only fuftained
by a force afting in a contrary dirediion.
78. Cor. 3. A folid immerfed in a fluid will fink,,
if its fpecific gravity exceed that of the fluid: It will
flo^t;
7la H Y D R O D
(VSperific float on the iurface, partly immerfed, if its fpccific pra-
vity be lefs than that of the fluid; and it will remain
wholly immerfed wherever it is placed, if the fpecific
gravities oi the folid and fluid are equal. In the firlt
cafe, the force with which the folid is prefied down¬
wardly exceeds the upward preffure, and therefore it
rauft fink. In the fecond cafe, the upwrard preflure ex¬
ceeds the preflure downwards, and therefore the body
mult float; and, in the third cafe, the upward and
downward preflures being equal, the folid will remain
wherever it is placed.
^ 79. Cor. 4. The fpecific gravities of two or more
Ai'uids are to one another as the loflesof weight fuftained
by the fame folid body, and fpecifically heavier than the
iiuids, when weighed in each fluid refpeflively. The
iolid in this cafe dilplaces equal quantities of each fluid;
but the lofies of weight are refpedlively as the abfolute
weights of the quantities difplaced (Cor. 2.), therefore
the Ipecific gravities, which are as the abfolute weights
of equal quantities of any body (70.), muft be as the
lofles of weight fuftained by the immerfed folid.
80. Cor. 5. The fpecific gravity of a folid is to that of
a fluid as the abfolute weight of the folid is to the lofs
of weight which it fuilains w hen weighed in the fluid.
For fince the lofs of weight fuftained by the fblid is
equal to the aofolute weight of the quantity of fluid
difplaced, or of a quantity of fluid of the fame bulk
as the folid, the fpecific gravities, which (70.) are in
the ratio of the abfoiute weights of equal volumes, muft
be as the abfolute weight of the folid to the lefs w'eight
which it fultains.
81. Cor. 6. The fpecific gravity of a folid floating
in a fluid, is to the fpecific gravity of the fluid itfelf, as
the bulk of the part immerfed is to the total bulk of
• the folid.
82. Cor. 7. Bodies which fuftain equal Ioffes of
weight are of the fame bulk. For, fince the lofles of
weight are as the weights of the quantities of fluid dif¬
placed, and as the quantities difplaced are as the bulks
of the folids which difplace them, the bulks muft be
equal when the Ioffes of w’eight are equal.
83. The preceding corollaries may be expreffed alge-
Tbe pre-
rolhrfesde-i)raica1^’ and may ^ deduced from a general equatfon
tfuced fromin following manner. Let B be the total bulk of
an equation a floating body, and C the part of it which is immer-
of equili- fe(] • iet $ be the fpecific gravity of the folid, and s that
bnum. 0f t]le fluid. Then it is obvious, that the abfolute
weight of the folid will be expreffed by B X S, and the
abfolute weight of the fluid difplaced by C X •* ; for
the fluid difplaced has the fame bulk as the part of the
folid which is immerfed. In order that ah equilibrium
may obtain between the folid and fluid, we muft have
BxSrrCX-r: Now, when J"^S, we have By^C,
fo that the folid will float, which is the fecond cafe of
Cor. 3.—When S“.r we have B=C, which is the
third cafe of Cor. 3.—When S~^s we have C^B,
that is, the body will link below the furface ; and it
will defcend to the bottom, for it cannot be fufpended
in the fluid without fome power to fupport it; and if
fuch a power were neceffary, we ftiould have E x S
"^Cx-r, which is contrary to the equation of equili¬
brium.
84. From the equation B x S= C X r we have (Eu¬
clid VI. 16.) S : J'=:B : C, which is Cor. 6.—When the
Y N A M I C S. Faitl
bo<1y is completely immerfed ne hare B=C, In which Of Specific
cale the equation becomes B X SsrB X J1 j and when the Gravities.
lolid is fpecifically heavier than the fluid, it will require   
a counterweight to keep the folid fufpended in the fluid.
Let W be the counterweight neceffary for keeping the
folid fufpended in the fluid, then in the cafe of an equi¬
librium the equation will be Bx.r+W=Bx8, or
B X S WrrB x x, tr S x B X S—W = S x B x J1,
whence (Euclid VI. tb.) S : j-=B x S ; B x S W
which is Cor. 5. ’
85. If the fame folid body is plunged in a fecond
fluid of a different fpecific gravity from the firft, let <r
be the fpecific gravity of the fecond fluid, and w the
counterweight neceffary to keep the folid fufpended in
it. The equation for the firft fluid was B X J-f-Wrr:
BxS (84.), and the equation for the fecond fluid will
be B X x 8 ; therefore we fliall have, by the
firft equation, SxB—W=:xxB, and by the fecond
S X B—lurry x B, and confequently j X B : s- X B ~
S x B—W : S X B—zv, or (Euclid V. 16.) r : S x
B—W : S X B-—w, which is Cor. 4.; for the Ioffes of
weight in each fluid are evidently reprefented by
S X B—W and S X B—w.
86. If B and exprefs the bulks of two folids, S
and j- their fpecific gravities, r the fpecific gravity of
tne fluid, and W, w the counterweights which keep
them in equilibrium with the fluid. Then with the fo¬
lid S the equation will be SxB—W~r x B (85.);
and with the folid s the equation will be j X ^ w~
*Xb. Wherefore, if the two folids fuftain equal Ioffes
of weight, we fhall have S X B—Wrrr X b—w, fince
each fide of the equation reprefents the lofs of weight
fuftained by each folid refpeftively. Confequently, ^x
X b, and dividing by <r, we have B=^, which is
corollary 7.
. 87- From the preceding propofition and its corolla-Method of
ries, we may deduce a method of dete&ing adultera-dete<^in£
tion in the precious metals, and of refolving the pro- a.cIu^era-
blem propofed to Archimedes, by Hiero king of Syra-u°£ ^ ^
racufe. Take a real guinea, and a counterfeit one
made of copper and gold. If the latter be lighter than
the former, when weighed in a pair of feales, the im-
pofition is inftantly detefted : But ftiould their weight
be the fame, let the two coins be weighed in water,
and let the lofs of weight fuftained by each be carefully
obferved, it will then be found that the counterfeit
will lofe more of its weight than the unadulterated coin.
For, fince the fpecific gravity of copper exceeds that of
gold, and fince the abfolute weights of the coins were
equal, the counterfeit guinea muft be greater in bulk
than the real one, and will therefore difplace a greater
quantity of water, that is (77.), it will lofe a greater
part of its weight.
88. Hiero, king of Syracufe, having employed a Problem
goldfmith to make him a crown of gold, fufpe&ed that propofed
the metal had been adulterated, and inquired at Archi-,J> H‘ero to
medes if his fufpicions could be verified or difproveddVchlinc'
without injuring the crown. The particular method
by,which Archimedes dete&ed the fraud of the gold¬
fmith is not certainly known ; but it is probable, that
he did it in the following manner. A quantity of gold,
of the fame abfolute weight as the crowrr, would evi¬
dently have the fame bulk alfo, if the crown were pure
gold, and would have a greater bulk if the crown w ere
made
Chap. II•
Of Specific made of adulterated gold. By weighing, therefore,
Gravities. the quantity of gold and the crown in water, and ob-
ferving their refpetlive Ioffes of weight, Archimedes
found that the crown loft more of its weight than the
quantity of gold; and therefore concluded, that as the
crown muft have difplaced a greater portion of water
than the piece of gold, its bulk muft likewife have been
greater, and the metal adulterated of which it was
compared^
Prop. III.
Bp. If two immifceable fluids, of different fpecific
gravities, and a folid of an intermediate fpecific
gravity, be put into a vefiel, the part of the folid
in the lighter fluid will be to the whole folid, as
the difference between the fpecific gravities of
the folid and the heavier fluid, is to the differ¬
ence between the fpecific gravities of the two
fluids.
^ Let AB (fig. 5.) be the veflel which contains the
two fluids, fuppofe mercury and water, and the folid
CD. The mercury being heavier than water will fink
to the bottom and have m n for its furface, and the
water will occupy the fpace AB /» «. The folid hav-
ing a greater fpecific gravity than water, will fink in
the water (78.) *, but having a lefs fpecific gravity than
mercury, it will float in the mercury. It will, there¬
fore, be fufpended in the fluids, having one por¬
tion C in the water, and the other portion D in the
mercury. Now let S be the fpecific gravity of the
mercury, s the fpecific gravity of the water, «■ that of
the folid, C the part of the folid in the water, and D
the part in the mercury. Then the bulk of the folid is
C-f-D, and its weight <7 X C-f-D : The quantity of wa¬
ter difplaced by the part C, or the lofs of weight fuf-
tained by the part C, will be C X and the quantity
of mercury difplaced, or the lofs of weight fuftained by
part D, will be D X S. But as the folid is fufpended
in the fluids, and therefore in equilibrio with them,
the whole of its weight is loft. Confequently, the
part of its weight which is loft in the water, added to
the part loft in the mercury, muft be equal to its wdiole
weight, that is, C X r-j-D X S=r crxC-j-D, orrC-}-
SD rr s-C-f-<7 D. Tranfpoling <r C and SD, vve have
j C—s- C~ SD—tr D, or C X -r—r = D X s—and
(Euclid VI. 16.) C : Dzrrr—a- : S—v. Then, by in-
verfion and compofition ^Euclid V. Propofitions B and
18.) C : C + D=rS—cr : S—r. O. E. DJ   
90. Cor. 1. From the analogy C : D=.r—<7 :
we learn that the part of the folid in the heavier fluid,
is to the part in the lighter fluid, as the difference be¬
tween the fpecific gravities of the folid and the lighter
fluid, is to the difference between the fpecific gravities
of the folid and the heavier fluid.
91. Cor. 2. When s is very fmall compared with S,
we may ufe the analogy C : C-f-D—cr: s, though in
cafes w'here great accuracy is neceffary this ought not
to be done. When the fpecific gravity of a body,
lighter than water, is determined by comparing the
part immerfed with the whole body, there is evidently
a fmall error in the refult; for the body is fufpended
partly in water and partly in air. It is in fa£t a folid
of an intermediate fpecific gravity floating in two im-
Vol. X. Part II.
HYDRODYNAMICS. 7[3
mifceable fluids, and therefore its ipecific gravity fliould
be afcertained by the prefent propofition.
Prop. IV.
92. If two bodies, whether folid or fluid, be mix¬
ed together fo as to form a compound fubitance,
the bulk of the heavier is to the bulk of the
lighter ingredient, as the difference between the
fpecific gravities of the compound, and the
lighter ingredient, is to the difference between
the fpecific gravities of the compound and the
heavier ingredient.
Let S and s be the fpecific gravities of the two in- To fin(j
predients, «• the fpecific gravity of the compound, and bulk of the
B, £ the bulks of the ingredients •, then the bulk of
the compound will be B and its weight ^ X g^ities
B+7. The W’eight of the ingredient B will be and that of
B X S, and that of the other ingredient bx* i and as the com-
the weight of the compound muft be equal to the ?^lIkve®‘
weight of its ingredients, wre have the following equa¬
tion. (7 b+tr B=i:BS-4-£ S, and by tranfpofing o-b and
BS, we (hall have B a-—BS“£ s—b <r, or B X ^ b —
b x s—«•; therefore (Euclid VI. 16.) B : b zz:s—«• :
7HS. £).E.D.
93. In the preceding propofition, it has been taKen ^
for granted that the magnitude of the compound is *
exadftly equal to the fum of the magnitudes ot the two or
ingredients. This, however, does not obtain univer-fluid, is
fally either in fluids or folids j for an increafe or dimi- fume tunes
nution of bulk often attends the combination of two f
different ingredients. A cubical inch of alcohol, fprthefumof
example, combined writh a cubical inch of wTater, will the bulks of
form a compound which will meafure lefs than two cu- its ingredi-
bical inches •, and a cubical inch of tin, when incorpp-cu¬
rated in a fluid ftate wfith a cubical inch of lead, will
form a compound, whofe bulk will exceed tw?o cubical
inches. The preceding.propofition, however, is, even
in thefe cafes, of great ufe in afeertaining the increafe
or decreafe of bulk fuftained by the compound, by
comparing the computed wdth the obferved bulk. See
Specific Gravity.
Prop. V. Problem.
94. How to determine the fpecific gravities of bo¬
dies whether folid or fluid.
The fimpleft and moft natural way of finding the To jeter_
fpecific gravities of bodies would be to take the ab- mine the
folute weights of a cubic inch, or any other determinate fpecific gra-
quantity, of each fubftance ; and the number thus found 10*
would be their fpecific gravities. But as it is difficult to
form two bodies of the very lame fize, and often impofii-
ble, as in the cafe of precious flones, to give a determi¬
nate form to the fubflance under examination, we are obli¬
ged to weigh them in a fluid, and deduce their fpecific
gravities from the Ioffes of weight which they feverally
fuftain. Water is the fluid which is always employed for
this purpofe, not only becaufe it can be had without
difficulty, but becaufe it can be procured of the lame
temperature, and of the fame dernity in every part of
the world. The fpecific gravity of water is always
called 1 000, and with this, as a llandard, the fpecific
gravity of every other fubftance is compared. Thus, if
4 X *
7H
H Y D R O 1) Y N A M I C S.
Part I.
Of Specific a certain quantity of water weighed four pounds, and
(/ lavitlf S- o -firmlor »-/C — j , 4 1- .
fol'd hea¬
vier than
water.
a iinnlar quantity of mercury 56 pounds, the fpecific
gravity of the mercury would be • ailed 14, becaufe as
4 : S/1-' ■' 14- In order, therefore, to determine the
• ^en^es bodies, we have occafion for no other in-
baiance. *K ^rume,lt a common balance with a hook fixed be¬
neath one of its feales. When fitted up in this way, it
has been called the hydrqjlalic balance, which has al¬
ready been deferibed under the article Balance, Hy-
dtojlatical.
To find the 95* When the fubjiance Hs heavier than its bulb of
fpecific gra water. Suipend the lolid by means of a fine filver
vityofa wire to the hook beneath the fcale, and find its weight
in air. Fill a jar with pure diftilled water, of the tem¬
perature of 62° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, and find
the weight of the folid when immerfed in this fluid.
The difference of thefe weights is the lofs of weight fuf-
tamed by the folid. Then, (80.) as the lofs of weight
is to the wTeight of the folid in air, fo is 1.000 the fpeci¬
fic gravity of water to a fourth proportional, which
will be the fpecific gravity of the folid. But as the
third term of the preceding analogy is always i.coo, the
fourth proportional, or denfity of the folid, will always
be had by dividing the weight of the folid in air by
its lofs of weight in w^ater. If the folid fubftance con-
fiits of grains of platina or metallic filings, place it in a
Imall glafs bucket. Find the weight of the bucket in
air, when empty, and alfo its weight when it contains
the fubfiance. The difference of thefe weights wall be
the weight of the fubltance in air. Do the very fame in
wrater, and its weight in water will be had. Its fpecific
gravity will then be found as formerly.—If the body is
fallible in water, or fo porous a.s to abforb it, it fhould
be covered wnth varnifh or fome un&uous fubflance.
When it is weighed in water, it fliould never touch the
fides of the glafs jar, and it muft be carefully freed
from any bubbles of air that happen to adhere to it.
96. When the fubftance it lighter tlian its bulk of wa-
fpecific gra- ler.—Fallen to it another folid heavier than water, fo
that they may fink together. Find the weight of the
than water' £Ien^er body, and alfo of the compound body, both in
air and in water ; and by fubtraciing their weight in
water from their weight in air, find how much weight
they have feverally loft. Then fay as the difference
between their Ioffes of weight is to the weight of the
light body in air, fo is x.ooo to the fpecific gravity of
the body.
lofind the 97. When the fubfance is a powder which abforbs
vity'of )ow~ "u<2;,?r, or is foluble in it.— Place a glafs phial in one
qer's fcale, and counterpoife it by weights in the other. Fill
this phial with the powder to be examined ; and hav¬
ing rammed it as clofe as poflible to the very top, find
the weight of the powder. Remove the powder from
the phial, and fill it with diftilled water and find its
weight, he weight of the powder, divided by the
weight of the water, will be the fpecific gravity of the
former.
Tc find the. 98. When the fubfance is a fluid, its fpecific gravity
gra may ke determined very accurately by the method in
the preceding article, or by the following method de¬
duced from article 79.—Take any folid fpecifically hea¬
vier than water, and the given fluid. Find the lofs of
weight which it fuftains in water, and alfo in the given
fluid. Then, fince the fpecific gravities are as the
Ioffes of weight fuftained by the fame folid, the fpecific
To find the
vity of
Saids.
gravity' of the fluid required will be found by dividing Of Specific
the lofs of weight fuftained by the folid in the given Gravities,
fluid, by the lofs of weight which it fuftains in water. y~—^
Sect. II. On the Hydrometer.
, 99. In order to determine, with expedition, theftrength Hydrome-
of fpirituous liquors, which are inverfely proportional^1 Inven*
to their fpecific gravities, an inftrument more fimple,[ Hy~
though lefs accurate, than the hydroftatic balance, hasF
been generally employed. This inftrument is called a
hydrometer, fometimes an areometer and gravimeter,
and very erroneoufly a hygrometer by fome foreign au¬
thors. It feems to have been invented by Hypathia,
the daughter of Theon Alexandrinus, who flouriihed
about the end of the fourth century j though there is
fome foundation for the opinion that the invention is due
to Archimedes.
IOO. The hydrometer of Fahrenheit, which is one ofFaIiren-
the fimpleft that has been conftrufted, is reprefented in heft’s hy.
fig. 6. and may be formed either of glafs or metal.
AB is a cylindrical ftem, and C, D two hollow balls &
appended to it. Into the lower ball D is introduced a
quantity of mercury, fufficient to make the ball C fink
to F, a little below the furface of diftilled water. If
this apparatus be plunged into a fluid lighter than wa¬
ter, the ball C will fink farther below the furface •, and
and if it be immerfed in a heavier fluid, it will rife near¬
er the farface. In this way we can tell whether one
fluid is more or lefs denfe than another. But in order
to determine the real fpecific gravities of the fluids, the
hydrometer muft either be loaded with different weights,
or have a fcale AB engraven on its ftem. The former
of thefe methods was employed by Fahrenheit. Hav¬
ing placed fome fmall weights on the top A, he mark¬
ed any point E, to which the inftrument funk in
diftilled water. By weighing the inftrument thus load¬
ed, he found the weight of a quantity of water equal to
the part immerfed (76.) When the hydrometer was
placed in a fluid denier than water, he loaded it with
additional weights till it funk to the fame point E. The Hydrome-
weight of the hydrometer being again found, gave himt r with
the weight of a quantity of the denier fluid equal to the weights,
part immerfed ; but as the part immerfed wras the fame
in both cafes, the weights of the hydrometer were equal
to the abfolute weights of equal quantities of the two
fluids ; and confequently the fpecific gravities of the
water and the other fluid were in the ratio of thefe
weights. When the fluid, whofe denfity is required,
has lefs fpecific gravity than water, fome of the weights
are to be removed from the top A till the inftrument
finks to E ; and the denfity of the fluid to be deter¬
mined as before.—Inftead of making the weight of^ydrome
the hydrometer variable, it is more Ample, though ter with an
lefs accurate, to have a fcale of equal parts upon the engraved
ftem AB. In order to graduate this fcale, immerfe^cale*
the hydrometer in diftilled water, at the temperature of
6o° Fahrenheit, fo that it may fink to B near the bot¬
tom of the ftem, which may be eafily effefted, by dimi-
nilhing or increafing the quantity of mercury in the
ball D. At B place the number 1.000, which ftiews
that every fluid, in which the hydrometer finks to B,
has its fpecific gravity 1.000, or that of diftilled water.
The hydrometer is then to be plunged in another fluid
lefs denfe than water, fuppofc oil, whofe fpecific gra-
vity
Chap. II.
H Y D R O D
Of Specific vity may be .900, and tbe point A marked, to which
Gravities. jt fintSt Every fluid, therefore, in which the hydro-
v metei. finks to A, has its fpecific gravity .900 ; and if
the fcale AB be divided into equal parts, every inter¬
mediate degree of fpeciflc gravity between .900 and
1.000 will be marked. If the fcale AB be divided in¬
to four parts in the points E, F, G, the fluid in which
the hydrometer finks to G will have .Q75 ^or *I:S
cific gravity } the fpecific gravity of that in which it
finks to F will be .950, and fo on with the other points
of divifion. If it is required to extend the range of the
inftrument, and to make it indicate the deniities of
fluids fpecifically lighter than water, we have only .to
load it in fuch a manner as to make it fink to the mid¬
dle of the fcale F in diltilled water j and by taking tuo
fluids, between whofe denfities the fpecific gravity of
every other fluid is contained, excepting mercury and
metals in a fluid ftate, to determine, as before, the ex¬
tremities of the fcale.
101. When the weight of the hydrometer is variable,
let E be the point to which it finks in two different
fluids ; and let W be the abfolute weight neceffary to
make it fink to E in the denfer fluid, and W p the
weight neceffary to make it fink to the fame point in
the lighter fluid. Let 8, s be the fpecific gravities of
the two fluids, and V the volume of the part of the hy¬
drometer that is conftantly immerfed. Ihen (83-)
W~S X v, W-4"p — S x V. From the firft equation
we have, Vrr^r-, and from the fecond equation Vzr
o
Y.rr^ confequently ^ and by reduction
j—ill—Thus, by knowing W and the
Theorem
for hydro¬
meters in
which the
weight is
variable.
Fig. 6.
Theorem
for hydro¬
meters in
which the
•weight is
conftant.
Defcription
of various
hydrome¬
ters.
Jones’s hy¬
drometer.
w
weight p, and alfo S the fpecific gravity of one of the
fluids, which will be 1.000 if that fluid be water, we
can find s the fpecific gravity of the other fluid.
102. When the weight of the hydrometer is conftant,
and the denfity of the fluid indicated by the depth to
which it defcends, let F, E be the points to which it
finks in two different fluids, whofe fpecific gravities are
S, j, W the abfolute weight of the hydrometer, V the
volume of the part immerfed when the hydrometer has
funk to E, and v its volume when funk to F. Ihen
we have WrcSxV, and W=xX^, confe-
sxv
quently .r X *’=S X V, and j == —the abfolute
weight W, therefore, of the hydrometer be known, and
alfo the volumes V, v, and tbe fpecific gravity S of one
of the fluids, which may be water, the fpecific gravity
of the other fluid may be determined by the preceding
formula. When the figure of the hydrometer is regu-
lau, the volumes V, v may be determined geometri¬
cally •, but as tbe inftrument is generally of an irregular
form, tbe following method ftiould be employed.
103. The hydrometers of Clarke and Defaguliers dif¬
fer fo little from thofe which have now been defcribed,
that they are not entitled to a more particular defcrip¬
tion. The hydrometer invented by Mr W illiam Jones
of Holborn, is a Ample and accurate inftrument, and re¬
quires only three weights to difcover the ftrengths of
fpirituous liquors from alcohol to water. Like other
inftruments of the fame kind, it is adjufted to the tem¬
perature of 6o° of Fahrenheit ; but as every change of
Y N A M I C S, ^ . 7i5
temperature produces a change in the ipecific gravity of ^.r J ^
the Ipirits, Mr Jones found it neceflary to attach a ther- i ,
mometer to the inftrument, and thus make a proper al¬
lowance for every variation of temperature. Ateoff
all bodies expand with heat and contradf with cold j
and as their volume becomes diftcrent at difterent tem¬
peratures, their fpecific gravities mult aflo (70O be va¬
riable, and will diminifli with an increafe of tempera¬
ture. M. Homberg, and M. Eifenfchmed found that
the abfolute weight ot a cubic inch of brandy was four
drams 42 grains in winter, and only four drams 32 grains
in fummer, and that the difference in fpirits of nitre
was Hill greater. It has been found, indeed, upon an ave¬
rage, that 32 gallons of fpirits in winter will expand to
33 gallons in fummer. As the ftrength of fpirituous
liquors is inverfely as their fpecific gravities, they will
appear much ftronger in lummer than in winter. This
change in their ftrength had been formerly eftimated in
a rough way ; but by the application of the thermome¬
ter, and by adjufting its divifions experimentally, .Mr
Jones has reduced it to pretty accurate computation.
It has already been flated (93.) that where two fub- ^
fiances are combined, the magnitude of the compound
body is fometimes greater and lometimes lefs than the
fum of the magnitudes of the two ingredients, and that
this mutual penetration particularly happened in the
mixture of alcohol and water. In ftrong fpirits, this
concentration is fometimes fo great, as to produce a di¬
minution of four gallons in the 100 } for if to 100 gal¬
lons of fpirit of wine found by the hydrometer to be
66 gallons in the 100 over proof, you add 66 gallons
of water to reduce it to proof, the mixture will conflll
only of 162 gallons inftead of 166 of proof Ipirits.
-This mutual penetration of the particles of alcoiiol and
water has alio been confidered in Mr Jones’s hydrome¬
ter, which we ftiall now defcribe with greater minute-
nefs.
104. In fig. 7. the whole inftrument is reprefented p]atc
with the thermometer attached to it. Its length AB CCLXY.
is about inches : the-ball C is made of hard brafs, Fig- 7*
and nearly oval, having its conjugate diameter about 11
inches. The liem AI3 is a parallelepiped, on the four
fides of which the different ftrengths of fpirits are en¬
graved : the three fides which do not appear in fig. 7.
are reprefented in fig. 8. with the three weights nutn-Fig.
bered 1, 2, 3, correfponding with the fides fimilarly
marked at the top. If the inftrument when placed in
the fpirits finks to the divifions on the Item without a
weight, their ftrength will be ihewn on the lide AD
marked 0 at the top, and any degree of ftrength from
74 gallons in the 100 to 47 in the 100 above proof,
will thus be indicated. If the hydrometer does not fink
to the divifions without a weight, it muft be loaded with
any of the weights I, 2, 3, till the ball C is completely
immerfed. If the weight N° 1 is neceflary, the fide
marked 1 will (how the ftrength of the Ipirits, from
46 to 13 gallons in the ico above proof. If the.weight
N* 2 is employed, the correfponding fide will indicate
the remainder of overproof to proof, marked P in the in¬
ftrument, and likewife every gallon in 100 under proof,
down to 29. When the weight N° 3 is ufed, the fide
fimilarly marked will ihow any ftrength from 30 gal¬
lons in the 100 under proof, down to water, which is
marked W in the fcale. The fmall figures as 4 at 66,
3’ at 61, 2\ at 48 (fig. 7.) indicate the diminution
4X2 of
7i 5
Of'Speci
Gray ta-
Dicas’s liy.
drometer
with a Aid
ing rule.
^vfin’s
vcrfal hy¬
drometer.
Plate
CCLXV.
Fig. p.
Kicholfon's
hydrome¬
ter.
bulk winch takes place when water is mixed with
^ fpirits of wine in order to reduce it to proof: thus, if
the fpirit be 6i gallons in the xco over proof, and if
61 gallons of water are added in order to render it
proof, the magnitude of the mixture will be 3-I gallons
lefs than the fum of the magnitudes of the ingredients,
that is, inftead of being 161 it will be only 1574. gal¬
lons. The thermometer F conne&ed with the hydro¬
meter, has four columns engraved upon it, two on one
fide as feen in the figure, and two on the other fide.
When any of the feales upon the hydrometer, marked
O, I, 2, 3 are employed, the column of the thermome¬
ter fimilarly marked muft be ufed, and the number at
which the mercury Hands carefully cbferved. The di-
yifions commence at the middle of each column which
is marked 0, and is equivalent to a temperature of 60
degrees of Fahrenheit j then, whatever number of di-
vifions the mercury Hands above the zero of the fcale,
the fame number of gallons in the 100 mufl the fpirit
be reckoned weaker than the hydrometer indicates, and
whatever number of divifions the mercury Hands below
the zero, fo many gallons in the 180 muH the fpirit be
reckoned flronger.
105. The patent hydrometer invented by Mr Dicas of
Liverpool, poffeffes all the advantages of that which
has now7 been deferibed, but is fuperior to it in regard
to the accuracy with which it eflimates the aberration
arifing from a change of temperature. It is conHruft-
ed in the common form, with 36 different weights,
which are valued from o to 370, including the divifions
on the Hem ; but the chief improvement confiHs in an
ivory Hiding rule W’hich accompanies the inflrument.
In order to underHand the confiru&ion of this Aid¬
ing rule the reader muH have recourfe to the infiru-
ment itfelf.
106. Quin’s univerfal hydrometer is conflruded in fuch
a manner, as to afeertain, with the greateH expedition,
the Hrength of any fpirit from alcohol to water, and alfo
the concentration and fpecific gravity of each different
Hrength. With the afiifiance of four weights, it dif-
covers likewife the gravity of worts, and is therefore of
more univerfal ufe than any other hydrometer. The
inflrument is reprefented in fig. 9. with the four Hides
of its Hem graduated and marked at the top fo as to
eorrefpond with the weights below. The fide of the Hem
marked A. B, C, D, &c. to Z, fhows the Hrength of
any fpirit from alcohol to w7ater, and the three other
Hides numbered 1, 2, 3 are adapted for w7orts. The
variation of denfity arifing from the contraftion and di¬
latation of the fluid is determined by means of a Aiding
rule, differing very little from that of Mr Dicas. In
order to ufe this inflrument, place any of the weights,
if neceffary, on the flem at C ; find the temperature of
the fpirit by a thermometer, and bring the flar on
the Aiding rule to the degree of heat on the thermome¬
ter’s fcale : then oppofite to the number of the weight
and the letter on the flem, you have the ftrength of the
fpirit pointed out on the Aiding rule, which is lettered
and numbered in the fame way as the inftrument and
weights. In afeertaining the ftrength of worts, the
weight N° 4 is always to continue on the hydrometer,
and the weights, N° 1, 2, 3, are adapted to the Hides
N* f, 2, 3, of the fquare flem, which point out the ex-
aft gravity of the worts.
107. A confiderable improvement on the hydrometer
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Part I.
has lately been made by Mr Nicholfon, who has rendered Of Specific
it capable of afeertaining the fpecific gravities both of Gravities,
folids ana fluids. In fig. 10. F is a hollow ball of cop- v~
per attached to the dilh A A by a flem B, made of har-^^’ 10,
dened ifeel. I o the lower extremity of the ball is af¬
fixed a kind of iron flirrup FF, carrying another dilh
G of fuch a weight as to keep the flem vertical when
the inftrument is afloat. The parts of the hydrometer
are fo adjufled, that when the lower dilh G is empty,
and the upper difti AA contains 1000 grains, it will
fink in diltilled w'ater at the temperature of 6o° of
Fahrenheit, fo that the furface of the fluid may cut the
ftem DB at the point D. In order to meafure :he
fpecific gravities of fluids, let the weight of the inftru¬
ment, when loaded, be accurately afeertained. Then,
this weight is equal to that of a quantity of diftilled
water at the temperature of 60®, having the fame vo¬
lume as that part of the inftrument which is below the
point I) of the ftem. It the hydrometer, therefore, is
immerfed to the point D in any other fluid of the fame
temperature, which may be done by increafing or dimi-
nifiling the weights in the difli AA, the difference be¬
tween this la ft weight and 1000 grains will exprefs the
difference between equal bulks of w7ater and the other
fluid. Now as the weight of the mafs of water is equal
to the weight of the inftrument, which may be called
W, the above mentioned difference or D muft be either
added to or fubtrafted from , W, (according as the
weight in the difti A A was increafed or diminifhed) in
order to have the weight of an equal bulk of the fluid ;
then W_!_D will be to \V as the Ipecific gravity of the
given fluid is to that of water. This ratio will be ex-
preffed with confiderable accuracy, as the cylindrical
ftem of the inftrument being no more than of an
inch in diameter, will be elevated or depreffed nearly
an inch by the lubtraftion or addition of tg of a grain,
and will, therefore, eafily point out any changes of
weight, not lefs than ^ of a grain, or ^T4oo the
whole, which will give the fpecific gravities to five
places of figures. The folid bodies-whole fpecific gra¬
vities are to be determined by this hydrometer, muft not
exceed 1000 grains in weight. For this purpofe, im-
meife the inflrument in diftilled water, and load the up¬
per difti till the furface of the water is on a level with
the point D of the ftem. Then, if the weight required
to produce this equilibrium be exa&ly icoo grains, the
temperature of the water will be 6o* of Fahrenheit ;
but if they be greater or lefs than 1000 grains, the wa¬
ter will be colder or warmer. After noting down the
weight necefiary for producing an equilibrium, unload
the upper difti, and place on it the body whofe fpecific
gravity is required. Increafe the weight in the upper
difti, till the inilrument finks to the point D, and the
difference between this new weight and the weight for¬
merly noted down will be the weight of the body in
air. Place the body in the lower dilh G, and add
weights in the upper difti till the hydrometer again
finks to D. J his weight will be the difference be¬
tween 1000 grains and the weight of the body in wa¬
ter ; and fince the weight of the body in air, and its
weight in water, are afeertained, its lofs of weight
will be known, and confequently its fpecific gravi-De !>arc*'
ty (80.) . meter.
108. The areometer or hydrometer of M. De Parcieux Plate
confifts of a fmall glafs phial EG, about two inches in GCLXVI.
diameter Flg'
S
Chap. II. H Y D R O D
Of Specific diameter and feven inches long, having its bottom as
Gravities f]at as poffible. The mouth is clofed with a cork ftop-
' per, into which is inferted a ftraight iron or brafs wire
CC.LXVI. E.F, about a line in diameter, and 30 inches long.
Fig. 1. When two fluids are to be compared, the bottle is load¬
ed in fuch a manner by the introdudlion of fmall fhot,
that the inllrument, when plunged in the lighted; of the
fluids, finks fo deep as to leave only the extremity of
the wire above its furface, while in the heaviefl: fluid,
the wire is fome inches below the lurface. I he fame
efl'eft may be produced by fixing a little difh F to the
top of the wore, and varying the weights* or by alter¬
ing the thicknefs of the wire. The areometer thus
conftru&ed, will indicate the fmalleft differences of fpe-
cific gravity, and fuch minute variations of denfity, ari-
fing from a change of temperature, which would be im¬
perceptible by any other hydrometer. The motion of
ah inftrutnent of this kind, fays Montucla, was fo fen-
frble, that when immerfed in water of the ufual tempe¬
rature, it funk feveral inches while the rays of the fun
fell upon the water, and inftantly rofe when his rays
were intercepted. In one of the areometers ufed by
Deparcieux, an interval of fix lines in the flem corre-
fponded to a change of denfity about tt§tr whole.
{Mem. de l'Acad. Pans 1766. p.
Wilfon's 109. In order to determine the firength of fpirits with
hydrome- greateft expedition, Profeffor Wdlfon of Glafgow
ter' employed a very Ample method. His hydrometer con-
fifts of a number of glafs beads, the fpecific gravities
of each of which vary in a known ratio. When the
firength of any fpirit is to be tried, the glafs beads,
t7 N A M I C S. 717
which are all numbered, arc to be thrown into it. Of Specific
Some of thole whofe fpecific gravity exceeds that of the iravities,^
fpirit, will fink to the bottom, while others will fwim
on the top, or remain fu pended in the fluid. I hat
which neither finks to the bottom nor fwims on the fur-
face, will indicate by its number the fpecific gravity
of the fpirits (78.)
Sect. III. On Tables of Specific Gravities.
110. As the knowledge of the fpecific gravities of bodies Table of
is of great ufe in all the branches of mechanical phi-gra-
lofophy, w7e have given the following table collefted by'lUes‘
Mr Brewfter, and publilhed in his enlarged edition of
Fergufon’s Lectures, 2d edition. It comprehends the
greater part of Briflbn’s tables, and is one of the moll
extenfive that has yet been publilhed. The names of
the minerals, as given in Kirwan’s Mineralogy, have in
general been adopted \ and fuch as have been difcovered
lince the publication of that work will be found under
the names by which they are defignated in Profeflbr
Jamefon’s Syflem of Orydtognofy. When the fpecific
gravities of any fubftance, as determined by different
authors, feem to be at variance, the different refults ar&
frequently given, and the names of the chemifts pre¬
fixed by whom thefe refults were obtained. The fub-
ftances in the table have, contrary to the ufual prac¬
tice, been difpofed in an alphabetical order. This was
deemed more convenient for the purpofes of reference,
than if they had been divided into claffes, or arranged
according to the order of their denfities.
in. Table of Specific Gravities.
■ • #
A
ACACIA, infpiffated juice of,
Acid, nitric,
muriatic,
red acetous,
white acetous,
diftilled acetous,
acetic,
fulphuric, /
highly concentrated,
nitric, highly concentrated,
fluoric,
formic,
phofphoric,
citric,
arfenic,
of oranges,
of goofeberries,
of grapes,
Aftynolite, glaffy, Kirivan.
TEther, fulphuric,
nitric,
muriatic,
acetic,
Agate, oriental,
onyx,
fpeckled,
cloudy,.
S3
1.2715
1.1940
1.0251
1.0135
1.0095
j.0626
1.8409
2.125
1.580
r.500
0.9942
1-5575
1- °345
1.8731
1.0176
1.0581
1.0241
2.950
3-9°3
0.7396
0.9088
0.7296
o 8664
0.5901
2- 6375
2.607
2*6253
29-75 ?
32- s
29.85
54°-5
Agate, ftained,
veined,
Icelandic,
of Havre,
Jafpee,
HerboriseCy
Irisee,
Air, atmofpheric,.
Barom.
Thermom.
Barom.
Thermom.
Alabafter of Valencia,
veined,
of Piedmont,
of Malta,,
yellow,
Spanilh faline,
oriental white,,
ditto, femi-tranfparent,
ftained brown,
of Malaga pink,
of Dallas,
Alcohol, highly reclified,
commercial,
15 parts water I part
Lavoifier.
14
x3
12
11
2.6324
2.6667
2.348
2.5881
2.6356
2.5891
2-5535
0.00122
0.0012308
2.638
2.691
2.693
2.699
2.699
2.713
2-730
2.762
2.744
2.8761
2.6110
0.8293
0.8371
0.8527
0.8674
0.8815
0.8947
0.9075
Alcohol,:
718
c» Specific Alcohol, io parts water 6
Gravities. ^ ^
^ ' 8 8
9
JO
li
I 2
T4
H Y D R O D
0.9199
0.9427
0.9519
0.9594
0.9674
0-9733
0.9791
0.9852
0.9919
0.8000
1.3586
1-3795
1.0604
1.7140
Mufchenbreel.
Mufchenbroek.
Alder wood.
Aloes, hepatic,
focotrine
Alouchi, odoriferous gum,
Alumine, iulphate of,
faturated folution of
temp.420, Watfon.
Amber, yellow tranf^arent,
opaque,
red,
green,
Ambergris,
Amethylt, common. See Rock cryflal.
Amianthus, long,
penetrated with water,
fliort,
penetrated with water,
Amianthinite from Rafchau,
Bayreuth,
Ammoniac, liquid,
muriate of, Mufchenbroek.
faturated folution of,
temp. 42*, Watfon.
Andalufite, or hardfpar, H'duij.
Anime, oriental,
occidental.
Antimony, glafs of,
in a metallic flate, fufed,
native, Klaproth
fulphur of,
Antimonial ore, gray and foliated, Kirwan. 4.368
radiated, Kirovan. 4.440
*•033
1.0780
1- 0^55
1.0834
1.0829
r o 7800
10.9263
2.750
0.9088
1.5662
2- 3I34
3- 38°3
2.584
2.916
0.8970
M53°
1.072
3-i65
1.0284
1.0426
4.9464
y 6.624
^ 6,860
. 6.720
4.0643
red,
Apple tree,
Aquamarine. See Beryl.
Arcanfon,
Areca, infpilfated juice of,
Ardlizite, or wernerite,
Argillite, or (late clay,
Arnotto,
Arragon fpar,
Arfenic bloom, Pharmacolite,
fufed,
native,
pyrites, common,
La Metherie.
Klaproth.
Mufchenbroek.
3-750
4 090
0.7930
Klaproth
Bergman.
Kirwan.
Stilcz.
La Metherie.
Brijfon.
1.0857
M573
3.606
600
680
0.5956
Hduy, 2.946
Dandrada
Kirwan. ■) 2‘
l2
native, orpiment,
glafs of, (arfenic of the fhops),
Albeftinite,
2.640
8.310
5.67°
4.791
5.600
6. c 22
5.452
3-5942
Kirwan. 4 3--J°0
L3-310
Y N A M I C S.
Afbeitos, mountain cork,
Bergman.
penetrated with
water,
ripe, Brijfon.
penetrated with water,
Harry,
penetrated with water',
unripe,
penetrated with water,
Afii trunk, Mufchenbroek.
dry, Turin.
Afphaltum, cohefive,
compadl,
Alfafoetida,
Aventurine, femitranfparent,
opaque,
Augite, odlaedral bafaltes,
Azure Hone, or lapis lazuli,
oriental,
of Siberia,
Hduy.
Werner.
Reufs.
Brijfon.
Kirwan.
C c.6806
l°-9933
S 1.2492
1 1 *3 49 2
2- 5779
2.6994
3- 0733
3.0808
2.9958
3-0343
0.8450
0.800
11-45°
l 2.060
51.070
11.165
1- 3275
2.6667
2.6426
3.226
3-471
3-777
2.7675
2.896
2- 77I4
2.9454
B
Barolite, or witherite,
Barofelenite, or barytes,
white,
grey>
rhomboidal,
odlaedral,
in ftaladlites,
fulphate of, native, Kirwan.
carbonate of, native,
Bafaltes,
Kirwan.
Bergman.
from the Giant’s caufeway,
prifmatic from Auvergne,
of St Tubery,
Baras, a juice of the pine,
Bay tree, Spanifh, Mufchenbroek.
Bdellium,
Beech-wood, Mufchenbroek.
Beer, red,
white,
Benzoin,
Beryl, oriental aquamarine,
occidental,
or aquamarine, Werner.
fchorlous, or fliorlite, Hduy.
Bezoar oriental,
occidental,
Bifmuth, native, Kirwan.
fulphurated, Kirwan.
ochre, Brijfon.
in a metallic flate, fufed,
Part I.
Of Specific
Gravities.
y 4-3c°
1 4-338
S 4-4co
1 4.865
4-4300
4.4909
4-4434
4.4712
4.2984
y 4.000
i 4-46o
y 4-3o°
C4-338
. 2.979
3.000
2.864
2.42! 5
2.7948
1.0441
0.8220
1-1377
0.8520
I-°338
1.0231
1.0924
3-5491
2.723
f 2.6 co
t 2-759
3- 5I4
1.666
2.233
9.570
6.131
4- 37i
(-9.756
9.822
Bitumen,
Chap. II.
Of Specific Bitumen, of Judea,
Gravities. Black-coal, pitch coal, Wiedemann
Hate coal, Englilh, Kirwan.
H Y D R O D
Eielfchowitz,
cannel coal,
Blende, yellow,
brown, foliated,
black,
Richter.
La Metherie.
Gellert.
Gellert.
Gellert.
Briffbn.
auriferous from Nag-
yag, Von Muller.
Blood, human, Junn.
craffamentum of, Jurin.
ferum of, Jurin.
Boles,
Bone of an ox,
Kirwan.
Weflrumb,
Watfon.
Boracite,
Borax,
faturated folution of,
temp. 420,
Bournonite,
Boxwood, French, Mufchenbroek.
Dutch, Mufchenbroeb.
dry, Jurin.
Brafs, common call,
wiredrawn,
call, not hammered,
1.104
r.308
r 1.250
11-370
C 1.321
11.382
1.270
y 4-044
i 4-048
S 3-770
l 4-°48
3-930
4.166
5-398
1.054
1.126
1.030
1.400
2.000
I. 656
2.566
J. 714
Brazil wood, red,
Brick,
Butter,
Mufchenbfoeh.
i.oro
5-576
0.9120
1.3 280
1.030
7.824
8.544
8.396
1.0310
2.000
0.9423
Cacao butter,
Cachibou, gum,
Calamine,
Calculus humanus,
0.8916
1.0640
Brijfon. 3 525
La Metherie. 4.100
.700
.240
•434
Campechy wood, or logwood, Mufchenbroek. 0.9130
Camphor, o 9887
Caoutchouc, elaftic gum, or India rubber, 0.9335
Caragna, relin of the Mexican tree caragna, 1.1244
Carbon of compadl earth,
, 4.1
t1'
r':
Carnelian, ftalaftite,
fpeckled,
veined,
onyx,
pale,
pointed,
herborisee,
Cat’s eye,
1.3 292
2.5977
2.6137
2.6234
2.6227
2.6301
2.6120
2.6133
Klaproth. ^ 25
grey>
yellow, 2.6573
blackilh, 3-2c93
Catchew, juice of an Indian tree, 1.3980
Cauflic ammoniac, folution of, or fluid
volatile alkali, 0.897
Cedar tree, American, Mufchenbroek. 0.5608
Y N a m 1 c s.
Cedar, wild,
Paleftine,
Indian,
Celeftine,
foliated,
Ceylanite,
Chalcedony, bluilh,
onyx,
veined,
tranfparent,
reddilh,
common,
Chalk,
Cherry-tree,
Chryfoberyll,
Chryfolite of the jewellers,
of Brafll,
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Klaproth.
Hauy.
719
Kirwan.
Mifchenbroek.
Watfon.
Mufchenbroek.
Werner.
H'duy.
Brijfbn.
Werner.
Chryfoprafe,
Chryftal. See Rock.
Chryftalline lens,
Cinnabar, dark red, from Deux
Fonts, Kirwan.
from Almaden, Briffbn
cryllallized, Brijfon.
Cinnamon, volatile oil of,
Citron tree, Mufchenbroek.
Clinkftone, Klaproth.
Cloves, volatile oil of,
Cobalt, in a metallic ftate, fufed,
ore, gray, H'duy.
Ktrwan.
ochre, black, indurated, Gellert.
vitreous oxide of,
Cocoa wood, . Mufchenbroek.
Coccolite, Dandrada.
Columbium, Hatchet.
Copal, opaque,
tranfparent,
Madagafcar,
Chinefe,
Copper, native, Kirwan.
from Siberia, H'duy.
Hungary, Gellert.
ore, compact vireous, Kirwan.
Cornifli, Kirwan.
purple, from Bannat, Kirwan
from Lorraine, Im Metherie.
Kirwan.
Wiedemann.
pyrites,
ore, white,
Kirwan.
Brijfon.
La Metherie.
H'duy.
0.5608
0.5960
1.3150
3-83°
3.500
S3-765
L3-793
2.5867
2.6151
2.6059
2.6640
2.6645
C 2.600
I 2-655
2.252
2.657
0.7150
$ 3-6oo
1 3.720
3.796
2.782
2.692
$ 3-34°
£3.410
$ 2.489
{,3.250
1.100
7.786
6.902
10.218
1.044
0.7263
2-575
1.036
$ 7-645
£7-8xi
S 5-5r 1
£7.721
5-3°9
r 2.019
£ 2.425
2.4405
1.0403
3.316
5-9l8
1.1398
1.0452
1.0600
1 0628
y 7.600
£ 7 800
8.5084
7.728
4.129
5.452
4.956
4.300
4-983
5.467
4.080
4-344
4.500
4.865
Cnope-
Gf Specific
Gravities.
720
H Y D R 0 D
Of Specific^ Copper ore, foliated, florid, red, Wiedemann.
G\ avmes. azure, radiated, Wiedeniann.
BriJJbn.
emerald, La Metherie.
H'duy.
arfeniate, of,
fulphate of, faturated folution
of, temp. 4 2°, Watfon.
drawn into wire,
fufed,
Copper-fand, muriate of copper, La Metherie.
Herr gen.
Cork,
Corundum of India,
of China,
Crofs (tone, or Staurolyte,
Cryolite,
Cube iron ore,
/par,
Cyanite,
Cyder,
Cyprefs-wood, Spanifh,
Mufchenbroek.
Klaproth.
Bournon.
Hduy.
Hever.
Karjlen.
Bournon.
Hduy.
Saujfure,jun.
Hermann.
Mufchenbroek.
D
Diamond oriental, colourlefs,
role-coloured,
orange-coloured,
green-coloured,
blue-coloured,
Brazilian,
yellow,
Dragons blood,
Ebony, Indian,
American,
Elder tree,
Elemi,
Elm trunk,
Emerald,
of Peru,
of Brafil,
Euclafe,
Euphorbium.
Fat of beef,
veal,
mutton,
hogs,
Felfpar, frelh,
Adularia,
Labrador done,
glafTy,
Filbert tree,
Fir, male,
female,
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Werner.
Brijfon.
Hduy.
Hduy,
Hduy.
Struve.
Brifon. |
Fifties eye, name of a mineral,
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
3-950
3‘23l
3.608
2.850
3-3°o
2.549
1.150
8.878
7.788
3- 750
4- 431
o. 2400
3.710
3-875
3.981
2-333
2- 353
2.057
3.000
2.964
3- 5’7
3.622
1.0181
0.6440
3.5212
3-53io
3-? ^00
3-5238
3-5254
3-4444
3-5i85
1.2045
1.2090
0.69 ^o
1.0182
0.6710
2.600
2- 7755
2.723
3- IC55
3.062
1.1244
0.9232
0.9342
0.9235
0.9 .68
2.438
2.500
2 600
2.607
2.704
2.5 ;8
2.589
C.60CO
o 5500
O..;98o
2.5782
Y N A M I C S.
Flint,
olive,
fpotted,
onyx,
of Rennes,
of England,
variegated of Limofin,
veined,
Egyptian,
black,
Fluor, white,
red,
green,
blue,
violet,
fpar,
Blutnenbach.
I
2- 594
2.6057
2.5867
2.6644
2.6538
2.6087
2.2431
2.6122
2.5648
2.582
3- 155
3.182
3.169
3-i78
3.100
3.200
Hduy.
Gadolinite,
Galbanum,
Galena. See Lead Glance.
Galipot, a juice of the pine,
Gamboge,
Garnet, precious of Bohemia, Klaproth.
volcanic,
24 faces,
of Syria,
in dodecahedral chryftals,
Werner.
Kafner.
}
Gas, atmofpheric. See Air.
Gas, azotic, pure—
Barom. 29.75
Barom. 29.85
Therm. 54!-
oxygenous,
hydrogenous,
carbonic acid,
nitrous,
Barom
Therm
ammoniac al,
Werner.
Kafner.
4.050
1.2120
1.0819
1.2220
4085
4.188
4.23°
4-352
2.468
4.000
4.0637
3-576
3.688
0.001146
iMvoifer. 0.001189
. 29.85'!
-544 5
Barom
Therm
vapour, aqueous,
- 29.851
• 544 3
fulphurous, Bar. 29.85!
Ther. 54i 3
acid fulphurous,
acid muriatic,
Girafol,
Davy.
Lavoifer.
Dalton.
Brijfon.
Lavoifer.
Kirwan.
Briffon*
Brijfon.
Kirwan.
Dalton.
Saujfure.
PiBet.
Watt.
Kirwan.
Brijfon
0.001305
0.001387
0.001356
0.000099
0.000095
0.000123
0.001862
0.001845
0.001411
0.001463
0.001302
0.000706
0.000654
0.000735
0.000862
r 0.000874
0.0009 23
0.000751
0.000825
y 0.001886
1 3-I31
0.002539
0.002135
4.000
Glance-coal,
Part T,
Of Specific
G ravine:.
HYDRO
Metherie.
Klaproth.
Chap. it.
Of Specific Glance-coal, flaty,
Gravities.
* Glafs, wliite flint,
crown,
common plate, .
yellow plate,
white or French chryftal,
St Gobins,
gall,
bottle,
Leith cryflal,
green,
borax,
fluid,
of Bohemia,
of Cherbourg,
. of St Cloud,
animal,
mineral,
Gold, pure, of 24 carats, fine, fufed, but
not hammered,
the fame hammered,
Englifh ftandard, 22 carats, fine,
fufed, but not hammered,
guinea of George II.
guinea of George III.
Parifian ifandard 2 2 carats, not ham¬
mer ed, 17.486
the fame hammered, 17.589
Spanifh gold coin, 17-^55
Holland ducats, I9-352
trinket ftandard, 20 carats, not ham-
DYNAMICS.
1.200
1.530
3.00
2.520
2.760
2.520
2.8922
2.4882
2.8548
2- 7325
3- i89
2.6423
2.6070
3-329
2- 3959
2.5596
3- 2549
2.5647
2.2694
19.258
I9-342
18.888
17.150
17.629
mered,
the fame hammered,
Portuguefe coin,
French money 2iy carats fufed,
coined,
French in the reign of Louis XIII,
Granite, red Egyptian,
gray,Egyptian,
beautiful red,
of^Girardmor.
violet of Gyromagny,
red of Dauphiny,
. green,  
radiated,
red of Semur,
gray of Bretagne,
yellowifh.
of Carinthia, blue,
Granitelle,
of Dauphiny,
Graphic ore,
Graphite. See Plumbago.
Grenatite. See Staurotide.
Gum Arabic,
trajacanth,
feraphic,
cherry tree,
Baflbra,
Acajou,
Monbain,
Gutte,
ammoniac,
Gayac,
Vol. X. Part II.
Kirwan.
Muller.
15.709
15-775 '
17.9664
17.4022
7.6474
I7-553I
2.6541
2.7279
2.7609
2-7i63
2.6852
2.6431
2.6836
2.6678
2.6384
2.7378
2.6136
2.9564
3.0626
2.8465
5-723
M523
1.3161
1.201
1.4817
1.4346
1.4456
1.4 206
1.2216
1.2071
1.2289
Gum lac, '1.1390
anime d’orient, 1.0284
d’occident, 1.0426
Gunpowder in a loofe heap, 0.836
fliaken, 0.93 2
folid, 1.745
Gypfum, opaque, 2.1679
cortipadt, fpecimen in the Lefkean
collettion,
721
Of Specific
Gravities.
compaft,
{>■
2-939
872
288
impure, 2.473
foliated, mixed with granular lime-
ftone, Kirwan. 2.725
alabafter, Ward. 1.872
femitranfparent, 2.3062
fine ditto, 2.2741
opaque, 2.2642
rhomboidal, 2.3114
ditto, 10 faces, 2.3117
cuniform, chryftallifed, 2.3060
ftriated of France, 2.3057
of China, , 2.3088
flowered, 2.3059
fpathic opaque, 2.2746
femitranfparent, 3.3108
Gypfum, granularly foliated, in the Lef¬
kean collection, Kirwan. 2.900
mixed with marl, of a flaty form, 2.473
H
Hazel, Mufchenbroek.
Heavyfpar, frefh, ftraight, lamellar, ^4-,
columned, 
Heliotropium,
0.606
300
_ . 5°°
not above 4.500
Kirwan. J 2-629
2.700
Blumenbach. 2.633
Hematites. See Ironftone.
Hollow fpar, Chiaftolite, 2.944
Hone, Razor, white, 2.8763
penetrated with water, 2.8839
Razor white and black,
Honey,
Honeyftone, or Mellilite,
Hornblende, common,
refplendent, Labradore,
Schiller fpar,
fchiftofe,
bafaltic,
Hornftone, or Petrofilex,
ferruginous,
veined,
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Kirwan. T 2'9
I31-
Reu/s.
J (.3.220
Kirwan.
3-333
3 2.530
12-653
2.813
2.747
Hornftone, gray. See Kirwan1 s Mineralogy, 2.654
blackifh gray, 2.744
yellowifh white, 2.1:63
bluifh, and partly yellowifti gray, ^6 26
dark purplilh red iron ftiot, 2.638
4 Y Hornftone,
722
H Y D R O D
OfSpecifc Hornftone, greenifh white, with reddifli foots
Gravjtles- from Lorraine,
Hyalite,
Hyacinth,
Hypocift,
2*532
iron Ihot, brownHh red, outfide
bluifh, gray infide, 2-8i3
Kirwan. 2.110
Karjlen. 4.000
Klaproth, i 4-545
1 (.4.620
‘•5263
Jade, or Nephrite, white,
green,
olive,
from the Eaft Indies,
of SwilTerland,
2.9592
2.9660
2.9829
Kirwan. 2.977
Bnjon.
combined with the boracic acid and
boracited calx, 2.566
lalmin, Spar.tfh, Mufchenbroeh. 0.7700
Jafper, veined, 2-6955
r^, 2.6612
brown, . 2.6911
yellow, 2.7101
violet, 2.7111
gray, 2.7640
cloudy,
green, 2.6274
bright green, ^ 2-3587
deep green, 2.6258
brownifh green, 2.6814
blackifh, 2.6719
blood coloured, 2.6277
heliotrope, 2.6330
onyx, . 2.8160
flowered, red and white, 2.6228
red and yellow, 2.7500
green and yellow, 2.6839
red, green, and gray, 2.7323
red, green, and yellow, 2.7492
univerfal, 2.5630
agate, 2.6608
Jet, a bituminous fubftance, 1.2590
Indigo, 0.7690
penetrated with water, 1*0095
InfpiiTated juice of liquorice, 1.7228
Iridium, ore of, difcovered by Mr Ten¬
nant, Wollajlon. 19.500
Iron, chromate of, from the department of
Var, . _ 4.0326
from the Ouralian mountains, in
Siberia, Lauguier. 4.0579
Sulphate of, faturated folution,
temp. 42.
fufed, but not hammered,
Watfon.
forged into bars,
pyrites, dodecahedral,
from Freyberg,
Cornwall,
cubic,
radiated,
fand, magnetic fand, from Virginia,
*•157
7.200
r 7.600
rr , <-7-788
Hatchet. 4.830
Gel/ert. 4.682
Kirwan. 4.789
BriJJbn. 4.702
Hatchet. 14*698
14-775
4.600
Y N A M T C S.
Iron ore fpecular,
otp fpecular,
micaceous,
Iroaftone, red, ochrey,
compact,
from Siberia,
Kirwan.
Bri/Ton.
Kirwan.
Wiedemann.
Kirwan.
Kirwan.
Lancalhire, -f
(^ Wiedemann.
compaft, brown, from Bay-
reiuh, Kirwan.
Kirwan.
from Tyrol,
cubic,
red hematites,
brown hematites,
iparry, or calcareous,
decompofed,
black, compaft,
clay reddle,
3-55*
3-753
Briffbn. ^ 8"5°3
Kirwan.
Geliert.
Kirwan.
Gel/ert.
Wiedemann.
477
5.005
4.740
3-951
3-789
4.029
Kirwan. -f
ri ./r. 13-8^0
BriJJan. 3.672
Kirwan.
L3-6oo
Wiedemann. 4.076
Briffbn.
Blumenbach.
Kirwan.
3-T39
3-93t
2.673
clay, lenticular,
clay, common, from Cathina at
Rafchau,- Kirwan. 2.936
from Rofcommon in Ire¬
land, Rotheram. 3.471
.csj:} *^™-{tr5s7
clay, reniform iron ore, IVicdemann. 2. ^74
clay, pea ore, Molinghqf.
Iron ore, lowland, from Sprottau, Kirwan
Iferine, a mineral from the Ifer in Bohemia,
Juniper tree, Mujchenbi'oek.
Ivory, dry,
Ivy gum, from the hedera terreftris,
5.207
2.944
4.500
0.5560
1.8250
1.2948
K
Keffekil, or Meerfchaum,
Kinkina,
Klaproth. 1.6000
Mufchenbroek. 0.7840
Labdanum, refin,
in tortisj
Lapis nephriticus,
haematites
judaicus,
manatis,
hepaticus,
obfidianus,
lazuli. See Azure ftone.
Lard,
Lavender, volatile oil of,
Lead glance, or galena, common,
from Derbylhire,
1.1862
2*4933
2.894
4.360
2.500
2.270
2.666
2.348
0.9478
0.894
Geliert. 7.290
Watfon. j^56-5
Part I,
Of Specific
Gravities,
786
Lead
Chap. H.
Lead glance, c6mpa<?t:,
OfSpeific
Gravities.
chryftallized,
radiated,
from the Hartz,
Kautenbach,
Kirfchwalder,
<l?e, corneous,
renxform,
of black lead,
blue,
brown,
H
Kirwan.
Brijfon.
La Metherie.
Kirwan.
Vauquchn.
Vauquehn.
Chenevix.
Bindheim.
Gellert.
Wiedemann.
from Huguelgoet, Klaproth.
Hiiuy.
Gellert.
Chenevix.
ll'duy.
Wantock-
Klaproth.
Klaproth.
Hduy.
Bindheim.
Brijfon.
black,
white from Leadhills,
phofphorated from
head,
Zfchoppau,
Brifgaw,
red j or red lead fpar,
Lead,
yellow, molybdenated,
Brijfon. it.352
Gellert. 11.445
acetite of, Mufchenbroek. 2.395
vitriol from Anglefea, Klaproth. 6.300
Lemon tree, Mufchenbroei. 0.703
Lenticular ore (arfeniate of copper), Bournon. 2.882
Lepidolite, lilalite,
Leuzite,
Lignum vitae,
Limeltone compa&,
foliated,
granular,
green,
arenaceous,
white fluor,
calc, fpar,
Linden, wood,
Klaproth. 2.816
Hduy. 2.854
Klaproth, jj'^o
Mufchenbroek. 13330
f 1.3864
1 2,7200
3 2.710
l 2 837
5 2.700
12.800
3.182
2.742
3-I56
2.700
Mufchenbroek. 0.604
Logwood, or Campechy wood, Mufchenbroek. 0.9x30
M
Mufchenbroek.
Madder root,
Mahogany,
Magnefxa,
fulphate
Kirwan.
of, faturated folution,
0.7690
1.0630
2.3300
temp 42
Magnetic pyrites,
ironftone,
Malachite,
compadf,
Manganefe, ‘
Watfon.
Hatchet.
1.232
4.518
f 4.200
14-939
Brijfon. 3.572
Briffon. 3.641
Mufchenbroek. 3.994
Bergman. 6.850
Hielm. 7.000
N A M I C S.
Manganefe, gray ore of ftriated, Brijfon.
Rinmann.
gray, foliated, Hagen.
red from Kapnick, Kirwan.
black, Dolomieu.
Brijfon.
penetrated with water,
fcaly,
Maple wood, Mujchenbroek.
Marble, Pyrenean,
black Bifcayan,
Brocatelle,
Caililian,
Valencian,
Grenadian white,
Siennian,
Roman violet,
African,
Italian, violet,
Norwegian,
Siberian,
French,
Swifferland,
Egyptian, green,
yellow of Florence,
1
Maftie,
tree,
Medlar tree,
Meerfchaum. See Keffekil.
Melanite, or black garnet.
Mellilite. See Honeyftone,
Menachanite,
Mujchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Karfen.
Werner.
Lampadius.
Gregor.
Mercurial hepatic ore, compaft, Kirwan.
Gellert.
Mercury at 3 2° of heat,
at 6o°
at 212,
in a folid date, 40° below o
Fahr. Biddle.
in a fluid ftate, iff above o, Biddle,
corrofive muriate of, faturated fo¬
lution, temp. 420 Watfon.
natural calx of,
precipitate per fe,
red,
mineralized by fulphur, native
Ethiops. See alfo Cinna-
4.249
,4-756
4.181
3-742
3-233
2.000®
3.OOOO
3.7076
3-9°39
4.1165
0.7550
3.726
2.695
2.650
2.700
2.710
2.705
2.678
2-755
2.708
2.858
2.728
3.728
2.649
2-7 H
2.668
2.516
1.0742
0.8490
0.9440
3.691
3.800
4.270
4.427
7.186
7-352
7-937
13.610
13.580
*3-375
15.612
*3-545
i.03 7
9.230
10.871
{
bar,
Mica, or glimmer,
Hahn.
Brijfon.
Blumenbach.
Milk, woman’s,
mare’s,
afs’s,
goat’s,
ewe’s,
cow’s,
Mineral from Cornwall, fuppofed to be zeo¬
lite, at c 50 Fahrenheit, Gregor.
4Y2
©f Specific
Gravities.
2*233
2.79*
2-934
1.0203
1.0346
*•0355
j.0341
1.0409
1.0324
2.253
Mineral
J
72+ . H Y D R O D
Of SpeCrfic ,
Gravities. Mineral pitch, elaftlc, or afphaltum, Hatchet •> 0,905
^—    l 1.233
Mineral tallow, La MrtherU. 0.930
Molybdena in a metallic ftate, faturated with
water,
native^ Kirwan.
Shumacher.
Briffqn.
Mountain cryflal. See 'Rock Cryltal
Mulberry tree, Sp&nifl), Mufchenbroek. 0.8070
Muncalcite, cryflallized, or rhomb fpar, 2 480
M)"A> 46oo
N
0.770
7.500
4.048
4.667
4-7385
Naphtha,
Nephrite. See Jade.
Nickel in a metallic ftate,
copper,
; *
Bergman.
BriJJbn.
Gellert.
Nickel, ore of, called Kupfernickel of Saxe,
Kupfernickel of Bohemia,
fulphurated,
Nickeline, a metal difcovered by Richter,
ca^> Richter.
. . forged, Richter.
Nignne, or calcareo-liliceous titanic
ore> Vauquelin.
Klaproth.
Lowit%.
Mufchenbroek.
quadrangular,_ Mufchenbroek.
faturated folution of, temperature 420
. Watfon.
Novaculite, or Turkey hone. See Slate, Whet.
O
0.8475
7.421
8.500
9-3333
6.6086
6.6481
7.560
6.648
6.607
6.620
8-55
8.60
3.700
4-445
4-673
1.9000
2.2460
I-°95
Oak, 60 years old, heart of, Mufchenbroek.
Obfidian, or Icelandic agate. See Lapis Obli-
dianus.
1.1700
O&ahedrite,
Oil of filberts,
walnut,
hemp-feed,
poppies,
rape-feed,
lint-feed,
poppy-feed,
whale,
ben, a tree in Arabia,
beech maft,
codfifh,
olives,
almonds, fweet,
volatile ot mint, common,
*olatile of fage,
thyme,
rofemary,
calamint,
cochlearia,
wormwood,
H'duy.
3-857
0.916
0.9227
0.9258
0.9238
0.9193
0.9403
0.929
0.9233
0.9119
0.9176
0.9233
0.9170
0.8982
0.9016
0.9023
0.9057
0.9116
0.9427
0.9073
Y N A M I C S.
Oil, volatile of, tanfy,
Stragan,
Roman camomile,
fabine,
fennel,
fennel-feed,
coriander-feed,
caraway-feed,
dill-feed,
anife-feed,
juniper-feed,
cloves,
cinnamon,
turpentine,
amber,
the flowers of orange,
lavender,
Olibanum, gum,
hyflbp,
Olive tree,
copper ore foliated,
fibrous.
Olivine,
Opal, precious,
common,
Mufchenbroek,
Bour non
Bour non
Werner,
Blumenbach.
Klaproth.
Kirwan.
lemiopal, reddilh, from Telkoba-
. nya» Klaproth.
ligniform, or wood,
Opium,
Ophites. See Porphyry Hornblende.
Opoponax,
Orange tree, Mufchenbroek.
Oi piment, Kirwan. -
Orpiment, red. See Realgar.
Part I.
O.9328 Of Specific
°-9949 Gravities-
0.8942 v
0.9294
0.9294
1.0083
0-8655
0.9049
0.9128
0.9867
°-8577
1.0363
1.0439
0.8697
0.8865
0.8798
0.8938
0.8892
1.1732
. 0.9270
. 4.281
. 4.281
• 3-225
2.114
I i-958
(.2.0J5
2.144
2.540
2.600
i-3365
1.6226
0.7059
3.048
3-435
Pear tree,. Mufchenbroek.
Pearls, oriental,
Peat, hard,
Peruvian bark,
Petrol,
Petrofilex. See Hornftone.
Phofphorite, or Spargel ftone, whitilh, from
Spain, before abforbing wTater,
after abforbing water,
greenilh, from Spain,
Saxon,
Phofphorus,
Pierre de volvic,
Finite,
Pitch ore, or fulphurated uranite,
Kirwan.
Guyton.
Hany.
Klaproth.
Briffon.
Briffon.
Briffon.
Pitch-ftone, black,
yellow,
re^> J-t! KJU'l.
brick, red, from Mifnia, Kirwan.
leek, green, inclining to
°live) Kirwan.
pearl gray, Kirwan.
blackilh, Briffon.
0.6610
2.683
I-329
0.7840
0.8783
2.8249
2.8648
3.098
3.218
1-7I4
2.320
2.980
6.378
6.530
7.500
2.0499
2.0860
2.6695
2.720
2.298
I-97°
2.3191
Pitch-ftone
Chap. IT.
Of Specific Pitch-ftone, olive, Briton. 2.3145
Gravities. dark green, Brijfon. 2.3 149
l_v Pitchy, iron ore, 3-95^
Platina drawn into wire, 21.0417
a wedge of, fent by Admiral Gravina
to Mr Kirwan, 20.663
a bar of, fent by the king of Spain,
to the king of Poland, 20.722
in grains purified by boiling in ni-^" 17..500
trous acid, £18.500
. C 1 5.601
native, -i . t:
’ {_ 17.200
fufed, 14.626
purified and forged, 20.336
compreifed by a flatting mill, 22.069
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Plum tree,
Plumbago, or graphite,
Pomegranate tree,
Mufchenbroeh. 0.7850
y 1.987
*£ 2.267
Kirwan.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroeh.
Poplar wood,
white Spanifh,
Porcelain from China,
Seves, hard,
tender,
Saxony, modern,
Limoges,
of Vienna,
Saxony, called Petite yaune,
Porphyry, green,
red,
red of Dauphiny,
red from Cordova,
green from ditto,
hornblende, or orphites,
itch-flone,
mullen,
fand-ftone,
Potafli, carbonate of,
muriate of, Mufchenbroek.
tartrite of, acidulous, Mufchenbroek.
antimonial,
fulphate of,
Prafium,
Prehnite of the Cape,
Quartz, milky,
elaftic,
Quince tree,
R
Realgar, or red orpiment,
GerTiard.
Kirwan.
Mufchenbroek.
Bergman.
Brijfon.
*•354°
O.3830
0.5294
2.3847
2.1457
2.1654
2.4932
2.341
2.5 I 21
2.5453
2.6760
2.765 I
2.7933
2.7542
2.7278
2.9722
2.452
C 2.600
£ 2.728
2.564
1-4594
1-8365
1.9000
2.2460
2.2980
2.5805
2.697
2.9423
2.610
Refin, or guiacum,
ofjalap,_
Rock or mountain cryftal from Madagafcar,
clove brown, Karjlen.
fnow white from Marmerofch, Karfen.
cryftal, European, pure, gelatinous,
of Brafil,
irifee,
rofe-coloured,
yellow Bohemian,
blue,
. violet, or amethyft,
violet purple, or Carthaginian
amethyft,
pale violet, white amethyft,
brown,
black,
Roucou,
penetrated with water,
Ruby oriental,
Brazilian, or occidental,
fpinell,
ballas,
Rutile, or titarite,
Klaproth.
Hduy.
La Metherie.
Ham/.
Brijfon.
of France, Hduy.
Proof fpirit, according to the Englifh excife
laws, 0.916
Pumice ftone, 0.9145
Pyrites, coppery, 4.9539
cubical, 4.7016
ferruginous cubic, 3.900
ditto round, 4.101
ditto of St Domingo, 3"440
magnetic. See Magnetic Pyrites.
Pyrope, Klaproth. 3.718
Werner. 3.941
Q.
Quartz cryftallized, brown, red, 2.6468
brittle, 2.6404
gras, 2.6459
cryftallized, 2.6546
Sahlite,
Sal gemmae,
Salt of vitriol,
fedative of Homberg,
polychreft,
de Prunelle,
volatile of hartfhorn,
Sandarac,
Santal, white,
yellow,
red,
Sapagenum,
Sapphire, oriental, white,
of Puys,
oriental,
Brazilian, or occidental,
Sarcocolla,
Sardonyx, pure,
pale,
pointed,
veined,
onyx,
herborifee,
blackifh,
Dandrada.
2.652
3-753
2.6240
0.7050
3.225
3- 338
1.2289
1.2185
2.6530
2.605
2.888
2.6548
2.6526
2.6497
2.6701
2.6542
2.5818
2-6535
2.6570
2.65x3
2- 6534
2.6536
0.5956
1.1450
4- 2833
3- 5311
3.7600
3.5700
3-6458
4.102
4.246
725
Of Specific
Gravities.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
Mufchenbroek.
uy.
Hatchet.
Grevil/e.
Brijfon.
Brijfon.
Brijfon.
Brijfon.
Brijfon.
Brijfqn.
Briffon.
3-234
2.143
1.9000
1.4797
2.1410
2.1480
1.4760
1.0920
1.0410 -
0.8090
1.1280
1.2008
3-991
4.076
3-994
3-x307
5" 3-994
1 4.283
y 4.000
£ 4.083
1.2684
2.6025
2.6060
2.6215
2.5951
2.5949
2.5988
2.6284
Saflafras,
.7000
726 H Y D R 0 D Y
oSi,i« ?‘rafraS’ -s, Mufchenbrosh. o.482o
, ^e ~, Scammony, ot AieppoT 1-2354
Smyrna, li2^3
ScaP°lite» Dandrada.\l-6%0°
( o,'
Schiftus. See Slate, Hone, Stone.
Schmelftein, ^ Hauy.
Schorl, blafk, prifmatic, hexahedral,
oftahedral,
enneahedral,
black, fparry,
amorphous, or ancient bafaltes,
cruciform,
violet of JDauphiny,
green,
common.
Briffon,
Gerhard.
Kirwan.
Briffon.
Hduy.
Werner.
tourmaline,
green,
blue,
fSelenite, or broad foliated gypfum,
Serpentine, opaque, green, Italian,
penetrated with water,
ditto, red and black veined,
ditto, veined, black and olive,
femitranfparent, grained,
ditto, fibrous,
ditto, from Dauphiny,
«paque, fpotted black and white
fpotted black and gray,
fpotted red and yellow,
green from Grenada,
deep green from Grenada, 2 7097
black, from Dauphiny, or tfariolite, 2.9339
2.630
3*3636
3.2265
3.0926
3*3852
2.922 c
3.2861
3.2956
3*4529
3.092
3.212
3.086
3*362
3155
2.322
2.4295
2.4729
2.6273
2*5939
2-5859
2*9997
2.6693
2.3767
2.2645
2.6885
2.6849
green from Dauphiny,
green,
yellow,
violet,
of Dauphiny,
Siderocalcite, or brown fpar,
Silver ore fulphurated, Brijfon.
La Metherie.
red,
light red,
footy,
native, common,
antimonial,
auriferous,
ore, dark red,
brittle,
Gellert.
Brijfon.
Bri/fon.
Gellert.
Vauquelin.
Gellert.
Self.
Hduy.
" Se'lb.
Kirwan.
Gellert,
Brijfon,
2.9883
2.8960
2 *7305
2.6424
2*79l3
2*837
6.910
7.200
7.208
5*564
5*5886
5*443
5*592 '
10.0
^333
9 4406
10.000
10.600
5-684
5*5637
2.178
2.340
4.7488
4.804
arfeniated, ferruginous,
penetrated with water,
ore, corneous, or horn ore, Briffon.
Gellert.
virgin, 12 deniers, fine, not hammered, 10.474
12 deniers, hammered, 10.510
Paris ftandard, 11 deniers, io
grains, fufed, 10.175
hammered, 10.376
N A M I C S.
Silver (hilling of George II.
George III.
French money, 10 deniers, 2! grains,
fufed,
French money, 10 deniers, 21 grains,
coined,
Sinople, coarfe jafper,
Slate clay. See Argillite,
common,
or fchiltus, common,
whet, or novaculite,
Ifabella, yellow,
Clone,
freflr polifhed,
adhefive,
new,
filiceous,
penetrated with
water,
10.000
IO*534
10.048
10.408
2.6913
2.6718
2.6718
2.6905
Pait I .
Oi jpecific
Gravities.
Kirwan. J °'7 22
I 2.
Kir xv an.
Klaproth.
.609
2 955
2.1861
2.7664
2.080
2*8535
Kirwan. ^ 2'596
perature 421
Sommite, or nepbeline,
horn, or fchifiofe porphyry,
Smalt, or blue glafs of cobalt,
Soda, fulphate of, Mufcher.broel.
muriate of, MuJ'chenbroei.
faturated folution, tempera¬
ture 4 2°, Watfon.
tartrite of, faturated folution of, Watfon.
fofiil,
faturation folution of, tem-
Watfon.
Hduy.
Spar, common,
heavy,
brown. See Sidero-Calcite.
rhomb. See Muricalcite.
white fparkling,
red ditto,
green ditto,
blue ditto,
green and white do,
tranfparent do.
adamantine, or diamond,
fchiller. See Horn-blende Labrador,
fluor, white,
red, or falfe ruby,
octahedral,
fluor, yellow, or falfe topaz,
green, or falfe emerald,
oCtahedral,
blue, or falfe fapphire,
gj'eenilh blue, or falfe aquamarine
violet, or falfe amethylt,
violet, purple,
Englifti,
of Auvergne,
in ftalaCtkes,
pearled,
calcareous rhomboidal,
of France,
prifmatic,
and pyramidal
_ 2 641
Kirwan. 2'512
i 2.700
2.440
2.2460
2.1250
1.198
1.114
2.1430
1.054
^ 3*2474
$ 2*693
1 2.778
4.430
2.5946
2.4378
2.7045
2.6925
3.1051
2.5644
3.873
3*I555
3.19x1
3*,8i5
3.0967
3.18x7
3*i838
3.1688
3.1820
3 1757
3 i857
3.1796
3*°943
3.1668
2.8378
2*7I5i
2.7146
2.7182
2.7115
pyramidal.
/
Chap. Us
Of Specific
Gravities.
Spargel ftone.
Spermaceti,
Spindle,
Spirit of wine.
Spodumene,
H
pyramidal,
(puant gris),
(puant noir),
or flos ferri,
See Phofporite,
See Alcohol.
Y D R
Klaproth.
Wiedemann.
H'duy.
Dandrada.
Stalaftite tranfparent,
opaque,
penetrated with water,
Staurolite. See Crofs-ftone.
Staurotite, or grenatite, H'duy.
Steatites of Bareight,
penetrated with water,
indurated,
penetrated with water,
Steel, foft,
hammered,
hardened in water,
hammered and then hardened in water,
St John’s wort, infpiffated juice of,
Strontian, Kirwan
O D
2.7141
2.7121
2.6207
2.6747
9-9433
3-57°
3.700
1.192
3.218
2-3239
2.4783
2.5462
Y N A M I C S,
Sylvan, native,
3.286
2.6149
2.661:7
2.5834
2.6322
V-Sss1
7.8404
7.8163
7.8180
1-3263
13.400
‘ 13 644
ore, yellow,
black,
Syringa,
Jacquin, juft.
Muller.
Klaproth.
Muller.
Jacquin, jun.
Muller.
Mufchenbroek,
4- 107
5- 723
6.115
10.678
6.157
8.919
1.0989
727
OfSpecific
Gravities.
T
Tacamahaca, refin,
Talc, black crayon,
ditto German,
yellow,
white,
of mercury,
black,
earthy,
common Venetian,
Tallow,
Tantalite,
Tartar,
Terra Japonica,
Thumerftone,
Klaproth. 3.675
Stone, fand, paving, 2.4158
grinding, 2.^429
cutlers, 2.1113
Fountainbleau, glittering, 2.5616
cryftallized, 2.61 xx
feythe of Auvergne, mean grained, 2.5 638
fine grained, 2.6090
coarle grained, 2.5686
Lorraine, 2.5298
Liege, 2.6356
mill, 2.4835
Briftol, 2.510
Burford, 2.049
Portland, 2.496
rag, 2.470
rotten, 1.981
St Cloud, 2.201
St Maur, 2.034
Notre Dame, 2‘37%
Clicard from Brachet, 2.357
Ouchain, 2.274
rock of Chatillon, 2.122
hard paving, 2.460
Siberian blue, 2.945
touch, 2-4I5
prifmatic bafaltes, 2.722
of the quarry of Boure, 1.3864
of Cherence, 2.4682
Storax, 1.1098
Sugar, white, Mufchenbroek. 1.6060
Sulphur, native, 2.0332
fufed, 1.9907
Sulphuric, or vitriolic acid, 1.841
Sulphurate, triple, of lead, antimony, and cop¬
per, Hatchet. 5.766
Sylvanite, or tellurite, in a metallic Hate,
twice fufed,, 6.343
1.0463
2.080
2.246
2-653
2.704
2.7917^
2.9004
2.6325
C 2.700
2.800
0.9419
Eckeberg. 7.953
Mufchenbroek. 1.8490
1.3980-
Hduy. yd--"13
V 13.300
Gerhard. 3.250
Kirwan. 3.2956
Tin, pure, fronp Cornwall, fufed, Watfon.
fufed and hammered, 7.291
of Malacca, fufed 7.296
fufed and hammered, 7*306
of Gallicia, Gellert. 7.063
of Ehrenfriedenfdorf in Saxony, Gellert. 7.271
pyrites, Klaproth. 4.350
LaMetherie. 4.785
ftone, Gellen. g
Brunich. 6.750
Leysfer. 6.880
black, Briffon. 6.901
red, Briffon. 6.9348
Klaproth.\ 5*^46
1 L 6-970
fibrous, Werner. 7.000
Brunich. 5.800
Blumenbach. 6.450
new, fufed, 7.3013
fufed and hammered, 7.3115
fine, fufed, 7.4789
fufed and hammered,. 7-5 J94
common, 7.9200
called Claire-ctoffe, 8.4869
ore, Corniih,. Brunich. 5.800
Klaproth. 6.450
ftone, white, 6 008
Titanite. See Rutile.
Topaz, oriental, 4.0106^
Brazilian, 3-5365
from Saxony, 3.5640
oriental piftachio 4.0615;,
Saxony white, 3*5535'
Tourmaline. See Shorl.
Tungften,. Leyjfer. 4-355v
Tungltenr
728
Of Specific
Gravities. I ungiten,
H Y D R
Kirvoan.
Bri/Jbn. ^
Klaproth.
Turbeth mineral,
Turpentine, fpirits o£
liquid,
Turquoife, ivory tinged by the blue calx of
copper,
O D
5.800
6.028
6.066
6.01 c
5-570
8-235
0.870
0.991
2.500
2.908
U
Ultramarine, Deformes and Clement,
Uran, Mica, Champeaux.
Uranite in a metallic ftate, Klaproth.
fulphurated. See Pitch ore.
Uranitic ochre indurated, La Metherie.
H'duy.
Uranium, ftone of,
Urine, human^
2.360
3.121 2
6.440
3-I5°
3*2438
7-5°o
S r-015
11.026
Vermeille, a kind of oriental ruby,
Vefuviane,
of Siberia,
Vine,
Vinegar, red,
white,
Vitriol, Dantzic,
. r 4.2299
Wiedemann. 3.575
Klaproth. 3.420
Klaproth. 3*3^5
13-339
H'duy. 3.407
Mufchenbroek. 1.23 7 o
Mufchenbroek. 1.0 2 c 1
1.O135
I-7I5
W.
Walnut-tree of France, Mufchenbroeh.
Water diftilled at 3 2° temperature,
fea,
of Dead fea,
wells
of Bareges,
of the Seine filtered,
of Spa,
of Armeil,
Avray,
Seltzer,
Wavellite, or hydrarjillite, Davy.
Wax, Ourouchi,
bees,
Y N A M I C S.
Wax, tvhite,
Ihoemakers,
Whey, cows,
Willow,
Witherite. See Barolite.
Wine of Torrins, red,
white,
Champagne, white,
Pakaret,
Xeret,
Malmfey of Madeira,
Burgundy,
Jurancon,
Bourdeaux,
Malaga,
Conftance,
Wine of Tokay,
Canary,
Port,
Wolfram,
Wolf’s eye (name of a mineral),
Woodftone,
Mufchenbroeh.
Gmclin.
Elhuyar.
Lconhardi.
Hatchet.
H'duy.
Yew tree, Dutch,
Spanifh,
Yttertantalite,
Mufchenbroeh.
Mufchenbroeh.
Eckeberg.
0.6710
1.0000
1.0263
I.2403
1.0017
I.OOO37
I.OOO15
1.0009
1.00046
I.OOO43
I.0035
2.7000
9.8970
0.9648
Zeolite from Edelfors, red, fcintillant,
white fcintillant,
compafr, 1
radiated, Hduy.
cubic, Hduy.
filiceous,
Zine, pure and comprelfed,
in its ufual ftate,
formed by fublimation and full of ca¬
vities, Kirvoan.
fulphate of, Mufchenbroeh.
faturated folution of, temp. 4 2° Watfon.
Zircon, or jargon, Klaproth.
Karjlen.
Wiedemann.
0.9686
0.897
1.019
0-585°
0.9930
0.9876
0.9979
0.9997
0.9924
1.0382
0.9915
0.9932
0.9939
1.0221
I.0819
t-°538
0.997
5- 705
6- 835
7.000
6- 955
7- 333
2-35°7
2.045
2.675
0.7880
0.8070
5-i3o
2.4868
2.0739
2.1344
2.083
2.716
2-515
7.1908
6.862
5.918
1.9000
1.386
4.615
4.666
4.700
Part I.
Of Specific
Grav.ties.
Fluids do
not rife to
the fame
level in a
fvflem of
communi¬
cating vef-
fels when
their dia-
mete.s are
very mi¬
nute.
Chap. HI. On Capillary AttraBion, and the Cohe-
fion of Fluids.
112. WEhave already feen, when difcuftxng the equili¬
brium of fluids, that when water or any other fluid is
poured into a veffel, or any number of Communicating
veffels, its furface will be horizontal, or it will rife to
the fame height in each veffel, whatever be its form or
pofition. This propofition, however, only holds true
when the diameter of thefe veffels or tubes exceeds the
2
fifteenth of an inch ; for if afyftem of communicating vef¬
fels be compofed of tubes of various diameters, the fluid
will rife to a level furface in all the tubes which exceed
one-fifteenth of an inch in diameter; but in the tubes
of a fmaller bore, it will rife above that level to alti¬
tudes inverfely proportional to the diameters of the
tubes. The power by which the fluid is raifed above
its natural level is called capillary attraBion, and the glafs
tubes which are employed to exhibit its phenomena are
named capillary tubes. Thefe appellations derive their
origin from the Latin word capillus, fignifying a hair,
either
the par¬
ticles cf
•water.
Chap. III. H Y D R O D
Capillary either becaufe the bores of thefe tubes have the finenefs
Attra&ior, Qf a or becaufe that fubftance is itfelf fuppofed to
&tc' be of a tubular ftruflure.
11 2. When we bring a piece of clean glafs in con-
taft with water or any other fluid, except mercury
and fufed metals, and withdraw it gently from its fur-
face, a portion of the fluid will not only adhere to the
glafs, but a fmall force is neceffary to detach this glafs
from the fluid mafs, which feems to refill: any feparation
There is an of its parts. Hence it is obvious that there is an at-
aftra|C"eiion tra<-^on cohefion between glafs and water, and that
between t;^e conftituent particles of water have alfo an attra&ion
glafs and for each other. The fulpenfion of a drop of water
water, and from the lower fide of a plate of glafs is a more pal-
bf tween pable illuftration of the firft of thefe truths j and the
following experiment will completely verify the fecond.
Place two large drops of water on a fmooth metallic
furface, their diftance being about the tenth of an
inch. With the point of a pin unite thefe drops by
two parallel canals, and the drops will inftantly rulh
to each other through thefe canals, and fill the dry fpace
p'ate that intervenes. This experiment is exhibited in fig. 2.
(SCLXVT where AB is the metallic plate C, D the drops of
Fig. a. water, and ot, n the twro canals.
113. Upon thefe principles many attempts have been
made to account for the elevation of water in capillary
tubes 5 but all the explanations which have hitherto been
offered, are founded upon hypothefis, and are very far
Attempt to from being fatisfadtory. Without prefuming to fubfti-
account for flute a better explanation in the room of thofe which
the rile of have been already given, and fo frequently repeated, we
fliall endeavour to illuftrate that explanation of the
phenomena of capillary attradlion which feems liable
to the feweft objeftions. For this purpofe let E be a
drop of water laid upon a clean glafs furface AB.
Every particle of the glafs immediately below the drop
E, exerts an attradHve force upon the particles of water.
This force will produce the fame effedl upon the drop
as a preffure in the oppofite direftion, the preffure of a
column of air, for inftance, on the upper furface of
the drop. The effedf of the attractive force, therefore,
tending to prefs the drop to the glafs will be an en¬
largement of its fize, and the wrater will occupy the
fpace FG $ this increafe of its dimenfions will take
place when the furface AB is held downwards 5 and that
it does not arife from atmofpheric preffure may be Ihown
by performing the experiment in vacuo. Now let AB
^£•3* (%• 2*) be a fe&km of the plate of glafs AB (fig. 3.)
held vertically, part of the water will defcend by its gra¬
vity, and form a drop B, while a fmall film of the fluid
will be fupported at m by the attradlion of the glafs.
Bring a fimilar plate of glafs CD into a pofition paral¬
lel to AB, and make them approach hearer and nearer
each other. When the drops B and D come in contaft,
they will rulh together from their mutual attraflion,
and will fill the fpace 0 p. The gravity of the drops
B and D being thus diminilhed, the film of water at
m and n which was prevented from rifing by their gra¬
vity will move upwards. As the plates of glafs conti¬
nue to approximate, the fpace between them will fill
with water, and the films at m and n being no longer
prevented from yielding to the adlion of the glafs im¬
mediately below them (by the gravity of the water at
op, which is diminilhed by the mutual a£tion of the
VOL. X. Part II.
water in
*ap;l!ary
tubes.
Jig- »•
Y N A M I C S. 729
fluid particles) wall rife higher in proportion to the ap- Capillary
proach of the plates. Hence it may be eafily under- »
flood how the water rifes in capillary tubes, and how
its altitude is inverfely as their internal diameters. For The aiti-
let A, a be the altitudes of the fluid in two tubes oftudes of
different diameters D, </; and let C, c be the twTo cyiin- m ca“
ders of fluid which are railed by virtue of the attradlion are
of the glafs. Now, as the force which raifes the fluid mverfely as
mult be as the number of attrafting particles, that is, as their dia.
the furface of the tube in contaft with the water, that n161615*
is, as the diameter of the tubes, and as this fame force
mull be proportional to its effe£ls on the cylinder of
water railed, we lhall have D : ci—C : c. But (Geome¬
try, Seft. VIII. Theor. XI. Sed. IX. Theor. II.)
C : cr:D1A : d1 a, therefore Dl A : d1 arrD : d) hence
D,A d—d'oT), and DA—or DA=^^, that
is, D : d~a : A, or the altitudes of the water are in¬
verfely as the diameters of the tubes. Since DAzr^f a,
the produa of the diameter by the altitude of the wrater
will always be a conflant quantity. In a tube whofe dia¬
meter is 0.01, or -r— of an inch, the water has beeiv
found to reach the altitude of 5.3 inches; hence the con-
ftant quantity 5.3 X may fitly reprefent the
attraaion of glafs for water. According to the experi¬
ments of Mufchenbroek, the conftant quantity is 0.0 ;
according to Weitbrecht 0.0428 ; according to Monge
0.042, and according to Atwood, 0.0530. When a glafs
tube -was immerfed in melted lead, Gellert found the
depreflion multiplied by the bore to be 0.0054.
114. Having ihus attempted to explain the caufes of Phenomena
capillary aaion, w-e lhall now proceed to confider fome of capillary
of its mofl interefting phenomena. In fig. 4. IVIN is a ^.t^Aion.
veffel of water in which tubes of various forms are im- 1^'
merfed. The water will rife in the tubes A, B, C to
different altitudes m, n, 0, inverfely proportional to
their diameters. If the tube B is broken at a, the
water will not rife to the very top of it at a, but
will Hand at b, a little below the top, whatever be
the length of the tube or the diameter of its bore. If
the tube be taken from the fluid and laid in a horizon¬
tal pofition, the water will recede from the end that
was immerfed. Thefe two fadls feem to countenance jurin’s hy.
the opinion of Dr Turin * and other philofophers, that potbefis.
the water is elevated in the tube by the attraction of *
the annulus, or ring of glafs, immediately above the cy- ^■panf-
linder of water. This hypothefis is fufficiently plaufible;
but fuppofing it to be true, the ring of glafs immedi¬
ately below the furface of the cylinder of fluid Ihould
produce an equal and oppofite effeft, and therefore the
water inftead of rifing fliould be ftationary, being influ¬
enced by twTo forces of an equal and oppofite kind.
115. If a tube D compofed of two cylindrical tubes of Phenomena
different bores be immerfed in water with the wideft °f capillary
part downwards, the water will rife to the altitude p, attraAion*
and if another tube E of the fame fize and form be plun¬
ged in the fluid with the fmaller end downwards, the
wTater will rife to the fame height q as it did in the
tube D. This experiment feems to be a complete re¬
futation of the opinion of Dr Turin, that the water is
railed by the aClion of the annulus of glafs above the
fluid column ; for fince the annular furface is the fame
at q as at />, the fame quantity of fluid ought to be
lupported in both tubes, wTereas the tube E evidently
4 Z raifes
r;g- 4.
Hypotliefis
of Dr Ha-
730
AmS, P‘r“ "?uc,.‘ ^ water than D. But if we admit the
Sic. luppofiticn in ait. 113. tliat the fluid is fupported by the
( whole furface of glals in conta£l with the water, the
phenomenon receives a complete explanation 5 for lince
the lurface of glafs in contaft with the fluid in the tube
-7 15 much lefs than the forface in contaft with it in
v the tub€ D» the quantity of fluid fuftained in the former
the Ptt0 bC mUCh lef;i thC (3Uanth^ buPpoi'ted in
Plicnomcna IT 6. W hen a veffel Ft; xu is plunged in water, and the
attraSionf pai^ ' “ ? 10 filled by fudion till the fluid enter
the part f /, the water will rife to the fame height as
it docs in the capillary tube G, whofe bore is equal to
tie bore of the part i /. In this experiment the portions
of water/vx and uxiv on each lide of the column F.r are
up ported by the preflure of the atmofphere on the furface
of tne water in the velfel MM j for if this veffel be
placed in the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump, thefe
portions of water will not be fuftained. Dr Jurin, in¬
deed, maintains that thefe portions will retain their poli¬
tic n Z7; vacuo, but in his time the exhaufting power of
the air-pump was not fufficiently great to determine a
point of fo great nicety. The column t u x, w hich is
not fuftained by atmofpherical preffure, is kept in its
poiition by the attradion of the water immediately
around and above it, and the column F t u is fupported
by the attraction of the glafs furface with which it is
in contad. According to Dr Jurin’s hypothefis, the
the cplumn t u x \s fupported by the ring of glals im¬
mediately above r, which is a very unlikely luppofition.
ofD H 117-^’be Prec8ding experiment completely overturns
milton and ^ byp0,;beds of Dr Hamilton, afterwards revived by Dr
Dr Mat- Matthew Foung.. Thefe philofophers maintained that
the fluid was fuftained in the tube by the lower ring of
glafs contiguous to the bottom of the tube, that this
ring raifes the portion of waiter immediately below it,
and then other portions fucceflively till the portion of
w’ater thus raifed be in equilibrium with the attradion
Oi tne annulus in queftion. But if the elevation of the
fluid were produced in this way, the quantity fupported
would be regulated by the form and magnitude of the
orifice at the bottom of the tube} whereas it is evident
from every experiment, that the cylinder of fluid fuf¬
tained in capillary tubes has no reference whatever to
the form of the lowTer annulus, but depends folely upon
the diameter of the tube immediately above the ele¬
vated column of water.
118. If the experiments wdnch we have now explained
be performed in the exhaufted receiver of an air-pump,
take place ^ waler wI11 r^e to tbe Pame height as when they are
in the ex- perf°rmed in air. We may therefore conclude, that
haufted re- the afcent of the w'ater is not occafioned, as fome have
ceiverof imagined, by the preffure of the atmofphere ading
more freely upon the furface of the water in the veffel
than upon the column of fluid in the capillary tube.
119. It appears from the following table conftruded by
Mr B. Martin, that different fluids rife to very dif-
™r0Bn^ear'f‘erent heights in capillary tubes, and that fpirituous
afcent of licluors wl?ofe fPecific gravity is lefs than that of water,
uiffeient are not raifed to the fame altitude. Mr Martin’s experi-
fluids in ca- ments were made with a tube about of an inch in dia-
pdlary meter. He found that when capillary tubes charged with
different fluids were fufpended in the fun for months to¬
gether, the enclofed fluid was not in the leaft degree di-
minilhed by evaporation.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Names of the F-'ut.
Common fpring water
Spirit of urine
Tindure of galls
Recent urine
Spirit of fait
Ol. tart. per deliq.
Vinegar
Small beer
Strong fpirit of nitre
Spirit of hartihorn
Cream
Skimmed milk
Aquafortis
Red wine
White wdne
Ale
01. ful. per campanam
Oil of vitriol
Sweet oil
Oil of turpentine
Geneva
Rum
Brandy
White hard varnilh
Spirit of wine
Tindure of mars
Altit.
Indies 1.1
1.1
i.x
1.1
0.9
0.9
°-95
Q-9
0.8 c
0.85
0.8
0.8
•°-75
°-75
o-7J
°*75
0.65
0.65
0.6
°*55
°-55
°-5
°-5
o-5
°-45
°-45
fOonftart
j Nil mb
.048
•°44
•°44
.044
.036
.036
.038
.036
•°34
•°34
.032
.032
.030
.030
.030
.030
.026
.026
.024
.022
.022
.020
.020
.020
.018
.018
Part I,
Capillary
Attraction,
Sic.
thevr
Your
The capil¬
lary phe¬
nomena
an air-
pump.
Experi¬
ments of
tabes.
120. To the preceding table as given by Mr Martin we
have added the conftant number for each fluid, or the pro-
dud of the altitude of the liquid, and the diameter of
the tube (art. 113*)- By this number therefore, we can
fina the altitude to which any of the preceding fluids will
rife in a tube of a given bore, or the diameter of the borfc
wben the altitude of the fluid is kpown } for fince the
conftant number C rr DA (art. 112.) we Ihall have
-- c , . c
^ anc^ ^—'jy* Since the conftant number, how¬
ever, as deduced from the experiments of Martin, may
not be perfedly corred, it would be improper to de¬
rive from it the diameter of the capillary bore when
great accuracy is neceffary. The following method,
therefore, may be adopted as the moil corred that can
be given. Put into the capillary tube a quantity ofMeth04i
mercury, whofe weight in troy grains is W, and letmeafuring
the length L of the tube which it occupies be accurate- ^ inter,
ly afcertained 5 then if the mercury be pure and at the nal diamc-
temperature of_6o° of Fahrenheit, the diameter of the capillary
tube D
X 0.019241, the fpecific gravity of
mercury being 13.580. The weight of a cubic inch
of mercury being 3438 grains, and the folid con¬
tent of the mercurial column being D*L X 0.7854,
we (hall have 1 : 3438= DJL X0.7854 : W. Hence’
(Geqmetry, Sed.IV. Theor. VIII.) DJLx 07854 x
3438“ vV, and dividing we haveD1— ^ 
 DX0.7854X3438
/W
INo.7854X3436’°rP=:'/ rX0-0,92'»'-
If the whole tube be filled with mercury, and if W be
the difference in troy grains between its weight when
empty.
tube*
•D
Chap. HI.
H Y D R O D
Capillary empty, and when filled with mercury, the fame theo-
Attraclion, rem wiH ferve for afcertalning the diameter of the tube.
&c- Should the temperature of the mercury happen to be
L“""'v 32® of Fahrenheit, its fpecific gravity will be 13.619,
which will alter a very little the conllant multiplier
0.019241.
The motion 1 21. When water is rriade to pafs through a capillary
of water in tube of fuch a bore that the fiuid is dilcharged only
capillary ^ fucceffive drops *, the tube, when electrified, will fur-
leratecTby n^' a conftant and accelerated ftream, and the accelera-
eletftricity tion is proportional to the fmallnefs of the bore. A
and by fimilar effebt may be produced by employing warm wa-
heat. ter> Mr Leflie found that a jet of warm water rofe to
a much greater height than a jet of cold water, tnough
the water in both cafes moved through the lame aper¬
ture, and was influenced by the fame preffure. A fy-
phon alfo which di^harged cold water only by drops,
yielded warm water in an invariable ftream.
12 2. Such are the leading phenomena of capillary tubes.
The rife of fluids between two plates of glais remains
to be confidered j and while it furniflies us with a very
beautiful experiment, it confirms the reafoning by
which we have accounted for the elevation of fluids in
cylindrical canals. Let ABEb and CDEF be two
pieces of plate glafs with fmooth and clean furfaces,
having their fides EF joined together with wax, and
and their fides AB, CD kept a little diftance by ano-
On the af-
cent of
fluids be¬
tween two
inclined
plates of
glafs.
Plate
CCLXVI. ther piece of wax W, fo that their interior furfaces,
F‘g- 5-
Fig. 6.
whofe common interfeftion is the line EF, may form a
fmall angle. When this apparatus is immerfed in a
veffel MN full of water, the fluid will rife in fuch a
manner between the glafs planes as to form the curve
Dqom E, which reprefents the furface of the elevated
water. By meafuring the ordinates m n, 0 f>, &c. of this
curve, and alfo its abfciffai F n, F/>, &c. Mr Haukf-
bec found it to be the common Apollonian hyperbola,
havino- for its aflymptotes the furface DF of the
fluid, °and EF the common interfeftion of the two
planes. To the very fame conclufion we are led by
the principles already laid down ; for as the diflance
between the plates diminiflies at every point of the
curve D ^ 0 ra E from D towards E, the water ought
to rife higher at 0 than at q, ftill higher at m, and
higheft of all at E, where the diftance between the
plates is a minimum. To illuftrate this more clearly,
let ABEF and CDEF be the fame plates of glais,
(inclined at a greater angle for the fake of diftin&nefs)
and let E m q D, and E 0 r B be the curves which
bound the furface of the elevated fluid. Then, fince
the altitudes of the water in capillary tubes are in-
verfely as their diameters or the diftances of their op-
pofite" fides, the altitudes of the water between two
glafs plates, fhould at any given point be inverfely as the
diftances of the plates at that point. Now, the diftance
of the plates at the point m is obvioufly m 0, or its equal
n />, and the diftance at <7 is y r or r / ; and fince m n
is the altitude of the water at wz, and q r its altitude at
q, wre have mn'.qr—np\ rt\ but (Geometry,
Se<ft. IV. Theor. XVII.) Yn : Yr—vp : rt; therefore
mn : qr—Yn : Fr, that is, the altitudes of the fluid at
the points wz, q, which are equal to the abfciffie Fzz, Fr
(fig. 5.) are proportional to the ordinates qr, mn, equal
to Fzz, Fr, in (fig. 5.). But in the Apollonian hyper¬
bola the ordinates are inverfely proportional to their re-
fpective abfciilk, therefore the cuave Y)qomY is the corn-.
Y N A M I C S.
mon hyperbola.—As the plates are_infinitely near each Capillary
other at the apex E, the water will evidently rife to ^ t
that point, whatever be the height of the plates. i.nl._v—
1 23. The phenomena which wre have been endeavour¬
ing to explain, are all referable to one llmple faft, that
the particles of glafs have a ftronger attraction for the par* ,
tides of water than the particles of water have for each
other. This is the cafe with almoft all other fluids ex-Mercury
cept mercury, the particles of which have a ftronger
attraClion for each other than for glafs. When capil -^jj^
lary tubes therefore are plunged in this fluid, a new fe-
ries of phenomena prefent themlelves to our confidera-
tion. Let MN (fig. 7.) be a veffel full of mercury.Fig 7.
Plunge into the fluid the capillary tube CD, and the
mercury, inftead of rifing in the tube, will remain fla¬
tionary at E, its depreflion below the level furface AB
being inverfely proportional to the diameter of the
bore. This was formerly afcribed to a repulfive force
fuppofed to exile between mercury and glafs, but we
ihall prefently fee that it is owing to a very different
caufe.'
X 24. That the particles of mercury have a very ftrong Mercnfy
attraClion for each other, appears from the globular form
which a fmall portion of that fluid aflumes, and from attra(cyon
the refiftance which it oppofes to any feparation of its for Jts owjb
parts. If a quantity of mercury is fepftrated into a num- particles
ber of minute parts, all thefe parts will be fpherical j and for
if two of thefe fpheres be brought into contaft, they S a s‘
will inftantly rufti together, and form a Angle drop of
the fame form. There is alfo a very fmall degree of
attraClion exifting between glafs and mercury ; for a
globule of the latter very readily adheres to the
lower furface of a plate of glafs. Now fuppofe a drop
of water laid upon a furface anointed with greafe, to
prevent the attraction of cohefion from reducing it to a Caufe d
film of fluid, this drop, if very fmall, will be fpherical. ^
If its fize is confiderable, the gravity of its parts will cury -m ca,_
make it fpheroxdal, and as the drop increafes in magni-pillary
tude, it will become more and more flattened at its tubes,
poles, like AB in fig. 8. The flrop however, willFlS- 8*
ftill retain its convexity at the circumference, however
oblate be the fpheroid into which it is moulded by the
force of gravity. Let two pieces of glafs 0 A m,p B zz, be
now brought in contaft with the circumference of the
drop; the mutual attraCHon between the particks of
water which enabled it to preferve the convexity of its
circumference, will yield to their fuperior attraction for
glafs •, the fpaces zzz, zz, 0, p, will be immediately . fil¬
led •, and the water will rife on the fides of the glafs,
and the drop will have the appearance of AB in fig. 9.
If the drop AB fig. 8. be now fuppofed mercury inftead Fig. 9'.
of water, it will alfo, by the gravity of its parts, affume
the form of an oblate fpheroid j but when the pieces of
glafs 0 A m, p B 11 are brought clofe to its periphery,
their attractive force upon the mercurial particles is
not* fufticient to counteract the mutual attraction of
thefe particles ; the mercury therefore retains its con¬
vexity at the circumference, and affumes the form of
AB in fig. 10. The fmall fpaces 0, p being filledFig.ro.
by the preffure of the fuperincumbent fluid, while the
fpaces zzz, zz, ftill remain between the glafs and the
mercury. Now if the two plates of glafs A,B be made
to approach each other, the depreflions zzz, zz will ftill
continue, and when the diftance of the plates is fo fmall
that thefe depreflions or indentations meet, the mercury
4 Z 2 will
fig- 5-
th'' folid
and the
fluid.
732 M Y D R O D Y
AtSaTon, Sm!/ln ^ ™d itS defcent will con-
&c. dS t!;e PJeces of glafs approach. Hence the cle-
’   fnMl -M theTfercury In capillary tubes becomes very
mtcll.gtble !£ tw° giafs planes forming a fmall J
xmmerfed in a veffel of mercury, the
utd will fink below the furface of the mercury in
the veffel, and form an Apollonian hyperbola "like
fA- r LIlg ,f°r ItS a%inPtotes the common inter-
veffel" °f thC P and thC 1UrfaCe °f mercury ln the
fion of mer- ^ ^e_ ^cprcflioxi of mercury in capillary tubes is
cu7 in ev,dcntly owing to the greater attraction that fubfifts be-
owfnFuhi’ rr r6 PartldeS °f merCUry’ than b«ween the par-
ZTJlylo- ufZ and ihofe 0f glafs- The difference
an imp. - . cen thele two attractions, however, arifes from an
fccft eontadtJmPerff d conta<ff between the mercury and the capil-
t>etween lary tube occafioned by the interpofition of a thin coat¬
ing of water which generally lines the interior furface of
the tube, and weakens the mutual adion of the glafs and
mercury; for this adion always increafes as the thicknefs
of the interpofed film is diminifhed by boiling. In the
experiments which were made by Laplace and Lavoi-
her on barometers, by boiling the mercury in them for
a Jong time, the convexity of the interior furface of the
mercury was often made to difappear. They even fuc-
cceded in rendering it concave, but could always reftore
the convexity by introducing a drop of water into the
tube. When the ebullition of the mercury is fufficient-
y ftrong to expel all foreign particles, it often rifes to
the level of the furroundmg fluid, and the depreffion is
even converted into an elevation.
1 26. Newton Clairaut, and other geometers, have
maintained that the adion of the capillary tube is fenfible
feem to eA a imall diflance, and that it is extended to the par.
cLTZe" ^ th,C 3X18 °f thetube- Laplace and
..P other philofophers who have lately attended to this fub-
jed fuppofe capillary attradion to be like the refrac-
tive force, and all the chemical affinities, which are not
lenhble except at imperceptible diftances j and it muff
be allowed that this opinion is confident with many of
the phenomena. It has been often obferved that water
riles to the fame height in glafs tubes of the fame bore,
whether they be very thin or very thick. The zones of
the glals. tube therefore, which are at a fmall diftance
Irom the interior furface, do not contribute to the afcent
ol the water, though in each of thefe zones, taken fepa-
rately, the w-ater would rife above its level. When
the interior furface of a capillary tube is lined with a
very thin coating of an unduous fubltance, the water
will no longer afcend. Now if the attradion of the
ri •U-ke were hmilar to the attradion of gravity, of
eledricity, or magnetifm, it ought to ad through bodies
of all kinds, and, notwithftanding the thin coating of
greafe, ffiould elevate the fluid in which it is immerfed.
JBut as the intervention of an attenuated film of greafe
deftroys capillary adion, there is reafon to conclude
that it does not extend to fenfible diftances. The fame
conclufion is deducible from the fad in the preceding
paragraph. 6
127. From thefe fads Laplace concludes, that the at¬
tradion of capillary tubes has not any influence on the
elevation or depreffion of the fluids which they contain
except by determining the inclination of the firft planes’
of the furface of the interior fluid, wffiich are extreme¬
ly neaf the fides of the tube. He fuppofes that when
Capillary
attradion
does not
diftacqe.
©pinion of
Laplace.
N A M t G S. Fart j
traai'r*/Th ° tL,:,r UP°" thc f,uid c-'!ceeds *= at- Ca!„IJ„,‘
traction of the tjuid upon itlcli, the fluid will in that
cafe attach itfelf to the tube, and form an interior tube,
which alone will raife the fluid. ——
1 28. ‘ It is intending, fays Laplace, to afcertain the
Z] °! lurvalurf rFthe Urface of water included in ca¬
pillary tubes of glafs. 1 his may be known by a curious
experiment, which fliews at the fame time the effeds
ot the concavity and convexity of furfaces. It confifls
in plunging in water, to a known depth, a capillary
tube of which the diameter is likewife known/ The
lower extremity of the tube is then to be clofed with
t e finger and the tube being taken out of the water,
its external furface muff be gently wiped. Upon with¬
drawing the finger m this laft iituation, the water is
leen to fubfide in the tube and form a drop at its lower
a e , but the height of the column is always greater
than the elevation of the water in the tube above the
level m the common experiment of plunging it in wa-
T'u jSeXCefs ln the height is owing to the adion
of the drop upon the column on account of its convexi¬
ty j and it is obfervable that the increafe in the eleva-
Uon of the water is more confiderable, the fmaller the
diameter of the drop beneath. The length of the fluid
column which came out by fubfidence to form the drop
determines its mafs; and as its furface is fpherical as
weU as that of the interior fluid, if we know the height
of the fluid above the fummit of the drop, and the dif-
tance of this fummit from the plane of the interior bore
of the tube, it will be eafy to deduce the radii of thefe
two lurfaces Some experiments lead me to conclude
tiat the furface of the interior fluid approaches very
nearly to the figure of an hemifphere.’
1 29-\ The theory which I have adopted, obferves the when a
fame pbnofopher, likewife gives the explanation and mea- fluid is eie-
lure ot a lingular phenomenon prefented by experiment. vated or
Whether the fluid be elevated or depreffed betweendepreffrcJ
two vertical planes, parallel to each other, and plunged
in the fluid at their lower extremities, the planes tend lei vertkai
to come together. Analyfis ffiews us, that if the fluid P^nes, the
be railed between them, each plane will undergo from pIane> tend
without inwards a preffure equal to that of a column
of the fame fluid, of. which the height would be half S h
tne fum of the elevations above the level of the points of
contadl of the interior and exterior furfaces of thc fluid
with the plane, and of which the bafe ffiould be the
parts of the plane compnfed between the two horizon¬
tal lines drawn through thofe points. If the fluid be
depreffed between the planes, each of them will in like
manner undergo from without inwards, a preffure equal
to that of a column of the fame fluid, of which the
height would be half the fum of the depreffions below
the level of the points of contaft of the interior and
exterior furfaces of the fluid with the plane, and -of
which the bafe ftiould be the part of the plane compri-
fed between the two horizontal lines drawn through
thofe points.’ 6
130. Asmofi philofophers feem to agree in thinking. Achard’s
t.iat all the capillary phenomena are referable to the experiments
coliefive o'f /'nrvoi-fiz-iol —♦.c ican the force
   —aic icicrauie to tnecxPerimci
cohelive attraction of the fuperficial particles only of011 t^e *0K'
the fluid, a variety of experiments has been made in,,t':efl/>’.
order to determine the force required to raife a horizon- Surface of
tal folid furface from the furface of a fluid. Mr Ach-;i folid from
ard found that a dife of glafs, French inches in dia-1*16 furface
meter, required a weight of 91 French grains to raifeof'vatc£*
it.
Chap.
HI. H Y D R O D
Capillary it from the furface of the water at 69° of Fahrenheit,
Attraction, which ;s only 37 Englilh grains for each fquare inch.
At 441- of Fahrenheit the force was ^ greater, or 39^
grains, tlie difterence being T|T for each degree of
Fahrenheit. From thefe experiments Dr Young con¬
cludes that the height of afcent in a tube of a given
bore, which varies in the duplicate ratio of the height
of adhefion, is diminiihed about f°r every degree
of Fahrenheit that the temperature is raifed above 50° j
and he conjeftures that there mull have been fome con-
fiderable fource of error in Achard’s experiments, as he
never found this diminution to exceed xq-Vo* Accord¬
ing to the experiments of Dutour, the force neceffary
to elevate the folid, or the quantity of water raifed, is
equal to 44.1 grains for every fquare inch.
Morveau’s 131. According to the experiments of Morveau, the
experiments force neceffary to elevate a circular inch of gold from
necdTVv* 6 ^ ^U1^acc mercuty is 446 grains •, a circular inch of
to raife me hlver, 429 grains . a circular inch of tin,"41 8 grains •,
tals fp m a circular inch of lead, 397 grains ; a circular inch of
the fnrface bifmuth 372 grains j a circular inch of zinc, 204 grains j
of mercury. a c;rcu]ar ;ncb 0f copper, 142 grains ; a circular inch
of metallic antimony, 126', a circular inch of non, 115
grains; and a fimilar furface of cobalt required 8
grains. The order in which thefe metals are arranged
is the very order in which they are moll eafily amalga¬
mated with mercury.
Ontheap- 13 2. The approach of two floating bodies has been
tra^'j1 at*f afc^bcd by fome to their mutual attraflion, and by others
floating bo-to t^ie attra&‘on of the portions of fluid that are raifed
dies. round each by the attradlion of coheflon. Dr Young,
however, obferves that the approach of the two floating
bodies is produced by the excefs of the atmofpheric
preffure on the remote fides of the folids, above its pref-
fure on their neighbouring fides j or, if the experiments
are performed in a vacuum, by the equivalent hydrollatic
preflure or fucfion derived from the weight and imme¬
diate cohefion of the intervening fluid. This force
varies alternately in the inverfe ratio of the fquare of
the diltance ; for wThen the two bodies approach each
other, the altitude of the fluid between them is in-
creafed in the Ample inverfe ratio of the diftance ; and
the mean adlion, or the negative preflure of the fluid
on each particle of the furface, is alfo increafed in the
fame ratio. When the floating bodies are furrounded
by a depreflion, the fame law prevails, and its demon-
llration is (till more Ample and obvious. *
133. A number of experiments on the adhefion of
fluids have been lately made by Count Rumford, w'hich
authorife him to conclude, that on account of the mutual
adhefion of the particles of fluid, a pellicle or film is
formed at the fuperior and inferior furfaces of wTater,
and that the force of the film to refill the defcent of
bodies fpecifically heavier than the fluid increafes with
the vifcidity of the water. He poured a llratum of
fulphuric ether upon a quantity of water, and intro¬
duced a variety of bodies fpecifically heavier than wa¬
ter into this compound fluid. A fewdng needle, gra¬
nulated tin, and fmall globules of mercury, defcended
through the ether, but floated upon the furface of the
water. When the eye was placed below the level of
the. aqueous furface, the floating body, which wras a
Experi¬
ments of
Count
Rumford
on the ad¬
hefion of
<fiuids.
Y N A M I C S. y 733
fpherule of mercury, feemtd fuipended in a kind of Capillary
bag a little below the furface. When a larger fpherul* Att^^on’
of mercury was employed, about the 40th or 50th of,
an inch in diameter, it broke the pellicle and delcended
to the bottom. The fame refults were obtained by
ufing efiential oil of turpentine or oil of olives inltead
of ether. When a firatum of alcohol was incumbent
upon the water, a quantity of very fine powder of tin
thrown upon its furface, defcended to the very bottom,
without feeming to have met wdth any refiftance from
the film at the furface of the water. This unexpected
refult Count Rumford endeavours to explain by fup-
poling that the aqueous film w7as dellroyed by the che¬
mical action of the alcohol. In order to afcertain with
greater accuracy the exiftence of a pellicle at the lurface
of the water, Count Rumford employed a cylindrical glafs
veffel 10 inches high and i-£ inch in diameter, and
filled it with water and ether as before. A number of
fmall bodies thrown into the veffel defcended through
the ether, and floated on the furface of the water.
When the whole was perfectly tranquil, he turned the
cylinder three or four times round with confiderable
rapidity in a vertical pofition. The floating bodies--
turned round along with the glafs, and flopped when it
was flopped 5 but the liquid water below the furface
did not at firft begin to turn along with the glafs ; and
its motion of rotation did not ceafe with the motion of
the veflel. From this Count Rumford concludes that
there w'as a real pellicle at the furface of the water, and
that this pellicle wras ftrongly attached to the fides of
the glafs, fo as to move along with it. When this pel¬
licle was touched by the point of a needle, all the
fmall bodies upon its furface trembled at the fame time.
The apparatus wTas allowed to ftand till the ether had
entirely evaporated, and when the pellicle w*as examin¬
ed with a magnifier, it was in the fame ftate as formerly ;
and the floating bodies had the fame relative pofitions.
134. In order to drew that a pellicle was formed at
the inferior furface of water, Count Rumford poured
water upon mercury, and upon that a ftratum of ether.
Fie threw into the veflel a fpherule of mercury about one-
third of a line in diameter, which being too heavy to be
fupported by the pellicle at the fuperior furface of the
water, broke it, and defcending through that fluid, was
flopped at its inferior furface. When this fpherule wras
moved, and even compreffed with a feather, it flill pre-
ferved its fpherical from, and refufed to mix wfith the
mafs of mercury. When the vifcidity of the water
wTas increafed by the infuflon of gum arabic, much larger
fpherules were fupported by the pellicle. From the
very rapid evaporation of ether, and its inability to fup-
port the lighted particles of a folid upon its furface,Count
Rumford very juftly concludes, that the mutual adhe¬
fion of its particles is very finall.
135. Thofe who with to extend their inquiries con-Referencta
cerning the cohefion of fluids, may confult an ingenious10 W0'liS
paper on Capillary Adtion by Profefibr Lellie, in > the^V116 L?-
Phil. Mag. for 1802} Dr Thomas Young’s Eflay on the3^/4" °
Cohefion of Fluids, in the Phil. Tranf. 1805.5 an Ab-
ftradt of a Memoir of Laplace, in Nicholfon’s Journal,
N* 37.; and an Account of Rumford’s Experiments,
in the fame Journal, N* 60, 61, and 62.
PARTI
HYDRODYNAMICS.
734
Motion of ^
Fluids, Scr,
PART II. HYDRAULICS.
Part II.
Motion of
Fluids, &.Ci
-definition. 136. HYDRAULICS is that branch of the fai¬
ence of hydrodynamics which relates to fluids in
motion. It comprehends the theory of running
water, whether iffuing from orifices in refervoirs by
the prefTnre of the fuperincumbent mafs, or rifing
perpendicularly in jets (Peaux from the preffare of
the atmofphere ; whether moving in pipes and canals,
Or rolling in the beds of rivers. It comprehends alfo
the refiftance or the percuflion of fluids, and the ofcil-
lation of waves.
Chap. I. ’Theory of Fluids ijj'uing from Ortfces in
Refervoirs, either in a Lateral or a Vertical di¬
rection.
Prelimina- 137. If water iffues from an orifice either in the bot-
ry obferva- tom or fide of a refervoir, the furface of the fluid in the
tions. refervoir is always horizontal till it reaches within a
Plate ^ttIe ^ t'le bottom. When a vellel therefore is em-
CCLXVII. plying itfelf, the particles of the fluid defcend in verti-
Fig. i. cal lines, as is reprefented in fig. 1. but when they
have reached within three or four inches of the orifice
vi n, the particles which are not immediately above it
change the direction of their motion, and make for the
orifice in directions of different degrees of obliquity.
The velocities of thefe particles may be decompofed in¬
to two others, one in a horizontal direction, by which
they move parallel to the orifice, and the other in a
vertical direction by which they approach that orifice,
(gaufe of Now, as the particles about C and D move with great-
contrata er obliquity than thofe nearer E, their horizontal ve¬
locities tfiuff alfo be greater, and their vertical veloci¬
ties lefs. But the particles near E move with fo little
obliquity that their vertical are much greater than their
horizontal velocities, and very little lefs than their abfo-
lute ones. The different particles of the fluid, there¬
fore, will ruffe through the orifice m n with very differ¬
ent velocities, and in various direftions, and will arrive
at a certain diftance from the orifice in different times.
On account of the mutual adhefion of the fluid parti¬
cles, however, thofe which have the greateft velocity
drag the reft along with them ; and as the former
move through the centre of the orifice, the breadth of
the ifluing column of fluid will be lefs at 0/> than
the width of the orifice m n.
138. That the preceding phenomena really exift when
a veflel of water is difcharging its contents through an
aperture, experience fufficiently teftifies. If fome fmall
fukftances fpecifically heavier than water be thrown in¬
to the fluid when the veflel is emptying itfelf, they will
at firft defcend vertically, and when they come within a
few inches of the bottom they will deviate from this direc¬
tion, and defcribe oblique curves fimilar to thofe in the
figure. The contraftion of the vein or column of fluid
at op alfo manifeft from obfervation. It was firft
which was difcovered by Sir Ifaac Newton, and denominated the
difcovered contracia. The greateft contradlion takes place
tonNeW" at a P°‘nt 0 wbofe diftance from the orifice is equal to
half its diameter, fo that o m — —-—j and the breadth description
of the vein or column of fluid at 0 is to the width contradla.
of tne o.ifice as 3 to 8 according to Boflut, or as
5.197 to 8 according to the experiments of Miche-
lotti, the orifice being perforated in a thin plate.
But when the water is made to iflue through a fliort
cylindrical tube, the fame contraftion, though not ob¬
vious to the eye, is fo confiderable, that the diameter of
the contrafted vein is to that of the orifice as 6.5 to
8q If A therefore be the real ffze of the orifice in a
thin plate, its correfted fize, or the breadth of the con
trafted vein, will be——^ , and when a cylindri¬
cal tube is employed it will be jn tke
16
cafe the height of the w^ater in the refervoir muft be
reckoned from the furface of the fluid to the point 0,
where the vein ceafes to contraft ; and when a cylindri¬
cal tube is employed, it muft be reckoned from the
fame furface to thp exterior aperture of the tube.
139. Suppofe the fluid ABCD divided into an infinite Relation
number of equal frata or lamince by the horizontalbetween
furfaces MN, g h infinitely near each other; and let1
m nop be a fmall column of fluid which iflues from the at the od..d
orifice in the fame time that the furface MN defcendsfice, and '
to g h. The column mnop is evidently equal to thethat of ‘he
lamina MN5/1, for the quantity of fluid which isin!eriorh-
difcharged during the time that MN defcends to g h,mm££*
is evidently IVINfi^ ,■ and to the quantity difcharged in
that time, the column mnop -was equal by hypothefis.
Let A be the area of the bafe MN, and B the area of
the bafe m n ; let x be the height of a column equal to
MNf/i, and having A for its bafe, and let y be the
height of the column m nop. Then, fince the column
mnop is equal to the lamina MN^//, we fliall have
A.vr=By, and (Geometry, Seft. IV. Theor. IX.) x : y
=A : B ; but as the furface MN defcends to in the
fame time that mn defcends to op, x will reprefent the
mean velocity of the lamina MN§7;, and y the mean ve-
• locity if the column mnop. The preceding analogy,
therefore, informs us, that the mean velocity of any la¬
mina is to the velocity of the fluid ifluing from the orifice
reciprocally as the area of the orifice is to the area of the
bafe of the lamina MNg/L Hence it follows, that, if the
area of the orifice is infinitely fmall, with regard to the
area of the bafe of the lamina into which the fluid is
fuppofed to be divided, the mean vokicity of the fluid
at the orifice will be infinitely greater than that of the
laminae ; that is, while the velocity at the orifice is finite,
that of the laminae will be infinitely fmall.
140. Before applying thefe principles to the theory of
hydraulics, it may be proper to obferve, that feveral
diftinguiftied philofophers have founded the fcience
upon the fame general law from which we have dedu¬
ced the principles of hydroftatics (3 2.). In this way
they have reprefented the motion of fluids in general
formulae j but thefe formulae are fo complicated from the
very
3
Chap. I. HYDRODYNAMICS.
Motion of very nature of the theory, and the calculations are fo
Fluids, &c- intricate, and fometimes impracticable from their length,
that they can afford no affiitance to the practical en¬
gineer.
Definition.
Fig. i. 141. If the water iiTues at mn with the fame velocity V
that a heavy body would acquire by falling freely through
a given height H, this velocity is faid to be due to the
height H, and inverfely the height H is faid to be due
to the velocity V.
Prop. I.
142. The velocity of a fluid ifluing from an infinitely
fmall orifice in the bottom or fide of a vefl'el, is
equal to that which is due to the height of the
furface of the fluid above that orifice, the veflel
being fuppofed conftantly full.
Kg. 2. Let AB be the veffel containing the fluid, its velo¬
city when hTuing from the aperture mn will be that
which is due to the height Dw, or equal to that which
a heavy body would acquire by falling through that
height. Becaufe the orifice m n is infinitely fmall, the
velocity of the laminse into which the fluid may be fup¬
pofed to be divided, will alfo be infinitely fmall (art.
138.). But fince all the fluid particles, by virtue of their
gravity, have a tendency to defcend with the fame ve¬
locity \ and fince the different laminae of the fluid lofe
this velocity, the column must muft be prelfed by the
iuperincumbent column T)mn; and calling S the fpe-
cific gravity of the fluid, the moving force which pufhes
out the column inn s t will be S X D/« X m n (art. 42.).
Now let us fuppofe, that, when this moving force is
pufhing out the column mn s t, the abfolute weight of
the column mn 0p, which may be reprefented by
S X m « X «/>, caufes itfelf to fall through the height np.
Thus, if V, U be the velocities impreffed upon the co¬
lumns m n s ty and mn 0p by the moving forces S X Dot
y^mn, and SxmnXnp; thefe moving forces muft be
proportional to their effedls, or to the quantities of
motion which they produce, that is, to V and
U x « o/>, becaufe the quantity of motion is equal
to the velocity and mafs conjointly •, hence we fhall have
S X Dot X : S X ^ « X np—N X w « r / : \J Yin n op.
But fince the volumes m n s t, m n op are to one another
as their heights m 0, 0 s, and as their heights are run
through in equal times, and confequently reprefent
the velocity of their motion, must may be reprefented
by Vx^« and mnopby \J Ynin^ therefore we fhall
have S x Dot Ymn • S Xmn X n/>—VX V x^ : U x
Uxw«, and dividing by ot tz, SxDot : np—'W1 : Ub
Now let v be the velocity due to the height Dw, then
(fee Mechanics) n p : U5iz:Dot : v1; but fince Sx
Dot : Sx^^V1 : IP; then by (Euclid V. 15.), and
by permutation Dot : V*=np : IP, therefore by fubfti-
tution (Euclid V, 11.) Dot : V1—Dot : <v2, and (Eu¬
clid V. 9.) V*—o1 or \T—v. But V is the velocity
with which the fluid iffues from the orifice m «, and v is
the velocity due to the height Dot \ therefore, fince the
velocities are equal, the propofition is demonftrated.
143. Cor. I. If the veffel AB empties itfelf by the
fmall orifice m n, fo that the furface of the fluid takes
fucceffively the pofitionsDP, QR, ST, the velocities with
which the water will iffue when the furfaces have thefe
pofitions will be thofe due to the heights E.v, Fv, G/z, Modi
for in thefe different pofitions the moving forces are the ^’iu:^s
columns JLmn, Ymn, Gmn. ' ^
144. Cor. 2. Since the velocities of the iffuing fluid
when its furface is at E, F, G, are thofe due to the heights
E«, F/z, G», it follows from the properties of falling
bodies (fee Mechanics), that if thefe velocities were
continued uniformly, the flttid would run through fpaces
equal to 2 E «, 2 F zz, 2 G zz refpedtively, in the fame
time that a heavy body would fall through Ezz, Fzz, Gzz,
refpedtively.
145. Cor. 3. As fluids prefs equally in all dire&ions,
the preceding propofition will hold true, when the orifices
are at the fides of veffels, and when they are formed to
throw the fluid Upwards, either In a vertical or an inclined
diredlion, provided that the orifices are in thefe feveral
cafes at an equal diftance from the upper furface of the
fluid. This corollary holds alfo in the cafe mentioned
in Cor. 1.
146. Cor. 4. When the fluid iffues vertically, it will
rife to a height equal to the perpendicular diftance of the
orifice from the furface of the fluid j for (fee Me¬
chanics,) this is true of falling bodies in general, and
muft therefore be true in the cafe of water : owing to
the refiftance of the air, however, and the fridfion of
the iffuing fluid upon the fides of the orifice, jets of wa¬
ter do not exadtly rife to this height.
147. Cor. 5. As the velocities of falling bodies are as
the fquare roots of the heights through which they fall
(fee Mechanics), the velocity V of the effluent water
when the furface is at E, will be to its velocity v when
the furface is at G, as x^Yrr. VGn , (Cor. 1,) that is,
the velocities of fluids iffuing from a very fmall orifice
are as the fquare roots of the altitude of the water
above thefe orifices. As the quantities of fluids dif-
charged are as the velocities, they will alfo be as the
fquare roots of the altitude of the fluid. This corollary
holds true of fluids of different fpecific gravities, not-
withitanding Belidor {Architec. Hydraul. tom. i. p.
187.) has maintained the contrary j for though a co¬
lumn of mercury Y>m n preffes with 14 times the force
of a fimilar column of water, yet the column mn 0 p of fig- 2
mercury which is pulhed out is alfo 14 times as heavy
as a firailar column of water; and as the refiftance bears
the fame proportion to the moving force, the velocities
muft be equal.
148. Cor. 6. When a veffel is emptying itfelf, if the
area of the laminae into which we may fuppofe it divided,
be everywhere the fame, the velocity with which the
furface of the fluid defcends, and alfo the velocity of
efflux, will be uniformly retarded. For (art. 138.) as
the velocity V with which the furface defcends is to
the velocity v at the orifice, as the area a of the orifice
to the area A of the furface, thenV : tz — a : A ; but the
ratio of zz : A is conftant, therefore V varies as v, th&t
is, V:V/=r,p: if j but, (Cor. 1.) tz:t/r=V7z: V/z', h be¬
ing the height of the furface above the orifice, therefore
V : V'= x/h : •>/h'. But this is the property of a body
projedled vertically from the earth’s furfoce, and as the
retarding force is uniform in the one cafe (lee Mecha¬
nics), it muft alfo be uniform in the other.
149. Cor. 7. If a cylindrical veffel be kept conftantly
full, twice the quantity contained in the veffel -yviH cun
out during the time in which the veffel would have emp¬
tied ..
756
Motion of tied itfelf. For (Cor. 2. and 6.) the fpace through which
. LIIti-s the furface of the fluid at D would defcend if its veloci-
Tig 2. *7 continued uniform being 2D m, double of Dm the
fpace which it actually defcribes in the time it empties
itfelf, the quantity difcharged in the former cafe will
alfo be double the quantity difcharged in the latter :
becaufe the quantity difcharged when the vcflel is kept
full, may be meafured by what the defcent of the fur-
face would be, if it could defcend with its firft velocity.
Fart II.
Motion of
Prop. II. Fluids, &cc.,
151. To find the quantity of water difcharged from
a very fmall orifice in the fide or bottom of a re-
fervoir, the time of difcharge, and the altitude
of the fluid, the vefiel being kept conftantly
full, and any two of thefe quantities being
given.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Fig. 2.
Scholium.
150. The render will probably be furprifed when he
finds in fome of our elementary works on hydroftatics, that
the velocity of the wTater at the orifice is only equal to
that which a heavy body would acquire by falling
through Aa//' the height of the fluid above the orifice.
This w-as firfl: maintained by Sir Ifaac Newton, who
found that the diameter of the vena aintraEla was to
that of the orifice as 2 1 to 25. The area therefore of
the one was to the area of the other as 21* to 25*,
which is nearly the ratio of 1 to vT. But by mea-
furing the quantity of w^ater difcharged in a given time,
and alfo the area of the vena contratia, Sir Ifaac found
that the velocity at the vena contraEla was that which
was due to the whole altitude of the fluid above the ori¬
fice. He therefore concluded, that fince the velocity
at the orifice was to that at the vena contrafla as (h)
1 : vA > and in the latter velocity was that which was
due to the wrhole altitude of the fluid, the former velo¬
city, or that at the orifice, muft be that which is due to
only half that altitude, the velocities being as the
fquare roots of the heights. Now the difference be¬
tween this theory and that contained in the preceding
propofition may be thus reconciled. The velocity
found by the preceding propofition is evidently the
vertical velocity of the filaments at E, which being im¬
mediately above the centre of the aperture m n are not
diverted from their courfe, and have therefore their
vertical equal to their abfolute velocity. But the ver¬
tical velocity of the particles between C and E, and E
and D, is much lefs than their abfolute velocity, on ac¬
count of the obliquity of their motion, and alfo on ac¬
count of their friftion on the fides of the orifice. The
mean vertical velocity, confequently, of the iffuing fluid
will be much lefs than the vertical velocity of the par¬
ticles at E, that is, than the velocity found by the
above propofitiori, or that due to the height D m. Now
the velocity found by Sir Ifaac Newton from meafuring
the quantity of wrater difcharged, was evidently the
mean velocity, which ought to be lefs than the veloci¬
ty given by the preceding propofition, the two velocities
being as 1 : or as 1 : 1.414. The theorem of Newton
therefore may be confidered as giving the mean velocity
at the orifice, while our propofition gives the velocity of
the particles at D, or the velocity at the vena contracta.
Let A be the area of the orifice in n \ W the quantity Txyrr
of water dilcharged in the time T; H the conftant Fig. 2. *
height Dm of the water in the veflel, and let 16.087
feet be the height through which a heavy body de¬
fcend s in a fecond of time. Now, as the times of de-
fcription are proportional to the fquare roots of the
heights defcribed, the time in which a heavy body will
fall through the height H, will be found from the follow¬
ing analogy, v716.087 : Vrizr i: , the‘time
16.087
required. But as the velocity at the orifice is uniform,
a column of fluid whofe bafe is inn and altitude 2H
(Prop. I. Cor. 2.) will iflfue in the time 16.087 Vli, or
fince A is the area of the orifice mn, A X 2H or 2HA will
reprefent the column of fluid difcharged in that time.
Now fince the quantities of fluid difcharged in different
times muft be as the times of difcharge, the velocity at the
a/H~
orifice being always the fame, we fhall have : T
16.087
=T2HA : W, and (Geometry, Se&.IV, Theor.VIII.)
WV'H _.„ArT, 2HATx 16087
r> o — 2HAT or Wnr—■—     , and fince
16.087 Wii
H
Vh~
VH we fhall haveW=raATv^H x 16.087
an equation from which we deduce the following for¬
mulae, which determine the quantity of water dif¬
charged, the time of difcharge, the altitude of the fluid,
and the area of the orifice, any three of thefe four quan¬
tities being given:
W= 2ATy'H x 16.087 A= ~v —
2'iVHx 16.087
H_ W» T_ W  
4AJT*x 16.087 2A\/H=i6.o87
152. It is fuppofed in the preceding propofition that the
orifice in the fide of the veffel is fo fmall that every part
of it is equally diflant from the furface of the fluid.
But when the orifice is large like M (fig. 3.), thepig.3.
depths of different parts of the orifice below the fur¬
face of the fluid are very different, and confequently
the preceding formulae will not give very accurate re-
fults.
(h) When a fluid runs through a conical tube kept continually full, the velocities of the fluid in different
feftions will be inverfely as the area of the feftions. For as the fame quantity of fluid runs through every fedtion
in the fame time, it is evident that the velocity muff be greater in a fmaller fedlion, and as much greater as the
fedlion is fmaller, otherwife the fame quantity of water wmuld not pafs though each feclion in the fame time.
Now the area of the vena contrafia is to the area of the orifice, as 1 : yT> therefore the velocity at the vena con-
traBa muft be to the velocity at the orifice as f~2; 1.
Chap. I. HYDROD
Motion of fults. If we fuppofe the orifice M divided into a num-
Fluids. &c. her of fmaller orifices <7, b} c, it is evident that the
'—’V “ water will ilTue at a, with a velocity due to the height
D a, the water at b, with a velocity due to the height
E b, and the water at c, with a velocity due to the
height Fc. When the whole orifice, therefore, is open¬
ed, the fluid will iffue with different velocities at dif¬
ferent parts of its feftion. Confequently, in order to
find new formulae exprefling the quantity of water dif-
charged, we muff conceive the orifice to be divided
into an infinite number of areas or portions by horizon¬
tal planes j and by confidering each area as an orifice,
and finding the quantity which it wall difcharge in a
given time, the fum of all thefe quantities will be the
quantity difcharged by the whole orifice M.
Prop. III.
153. To find the quantity of water difcharged by
a re£tangular orifice in the fide of a vefiel kept
conftantly full.
Plate Let ABD be the veflel wfith the redlangular orifice
CCLXVII. GL, and let AB be the furface of the fluid. Draw
the lines MNOP, mnop infinitely near each other,
and from any point D draw the perpendicular DC
meeting the furface of the fluid in C. Then regarding
the infinitely fmall rectangle MO mo as an orifice
whofe depth below the furface of the fluid is H, we
fhall have by the firll of the preceding formulae, the
quantity of water difcharged in the time T, or W=r
T .y 16.087 X v^ONx 2 MOxN «, being equal
to H and MO X N « to the area A. As the preceding
formula reprefents the quantity of fluid difcharged by
each elementary reCtangular orifice, into which the
whole orifice GL is fuppofed to be divided, we mult
find the fum of all the quantities difcharged in the
time T, in order to have the total quantity afforded by
the finite orifice in the fame time. Upon DC as the
principal axis, defcribe the parabola CHE, having its
parameter P equal to 4 DC. Continue EG and DK
to H and E. The area NP p n may be expreffed by
NPxNtf. But (Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.)
NP*r=CN X P (P being the parameter of the parabola)
therefore NP= CN X P> and multiplying by N « wre
have NP X N n \/CN X P, which expreffes the area
TSiPpn. Nowt this expreflion of the elementary area being
multiplied by the conftant quantity T V 16.087 X
gives for a produCl T 16.087 X ^CN X 2MO X N/7,
for \/ipp=i VY and M<^ X~= 2 MO. But that
*
produfl is the very fame formula wdiich expreffes the
quantity of water difcharged in the time T by the ori¬
fice MO0/77. Therefore fince the elementary area
MPpm multiplied by the conftant quantity Tv^ 16.087
X gives the quantity of water difcharged by the
* T ^
orifice M O 0 m in a given time, and fince the fame
may be proved of every other orifice of the fame kind
into which the whole orifice is fuppofed divided, we
may conclude that the quantity of water difcharged by
Von. X. Part II.
Y N A M I C S.
73?
the whole orifice GL wiN be found by multiplying Motion of
the parabolic area FHED by the fame conftant quan-
tity T Y 16.087 X
MO
Vf"P
Now the area FHED is
equal to the difference between the areas CDE and
CFH. But (Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.) the
area CDE—^CD X DE $ and fince P—qCD, and
(Conic Sections, Parti. Prop. X.) DE*=CDxP
we have DE1—CD X qCD:^ CD*, that is DEor 2CD,
then by fubftituting this value of DE in the expreflion
of the area CDE, we have CDErz^CD*. The area
CFH—-fCFxFH, confequently the area FHED =
yCD3—-|GF x FH, which multiplied by the conftant
quantity, gives for the quantity of water difcharged,
(-f P* being fubftituted inftead of its equal y CD*,)
Wzo
riVi6 c87x MO x ^ P*—4CFxFH^
v'iP
But by the property of the parabola FH*=:CF X P and
FH=V/CFxP> therefore fubftituting this value of
FH in the preceding formula, and alfo -|v/Pforits
equal Y^P, we have
TTT T YTgYYj X MO X t P‘—t CFx v'cf1<T>
_ wW
and dividing by i*/P gives us  
W- T ^16.087 X MO x }PVP—4 CF Xa CFj
hence
W
T—        
V/16.087 X MOxI P^P —t CFX v/CF’
W
MO-
T V16.087 XjP^P —yCF x ^CF
P=-
9 W
4T Vi6.087
and fince PrrqCD
+ 3CFv'CF
T>
CD—
9 W
16 T V 16.08 j
-f 12CFx VCFA
CF=
9 W
16TV16.087
-
T
In thefe formulae W reprefents the quantity of water
difcharged, T the time of difcharge, MO the horizon¬
tal width of the rectangular orifice, P the parameter of
the parabola —4CD, CD the depth of the water in
the veffel or the altitude of the water above the bot¬
tom of the orifice, and CF the altitude of the water
above the top of the orifice. The vertical breadth of
the orifice is equal to CD—CF.
154. Let x be the mean height of the fluid above the
orifice, or the height due to a velocity, which if communi¬
cated to all the particles of the iffuing fluid, would maktf
the fame quantity of water iffue in the time T, as if all the
particles moved with the different velocities due to their
different depths below the furface, then by Prop. IL
the quantity difcharged orW=2TxMOxCD—CF
X V* X 16.087, the area of the orifice being MO
5 A xCDL_cf*
HYDRODYNAMICS.
X CD—CF, and by making this value of W equal to
its value in the preceding article, we have the follow¬
ing equation.
2T x MO x CD—CFx V'-vx 16.087—T ^ 16.087 _ HF
X MO X -jP^P—yCF VCF, which by divifion and re-
duftion, and the fubilitution of ^P inftead of CD its
equal, becomes
_4(P a/P-—4CF a/CF)s
^p-CYy '
Now this value of x is evidently different from the
diftance of the centre of gravity of the orifice from the
furface of the fluid, for this difiance is or
2
^-P-j-CF
   . But in proportion as CE increafes, the o-
ther quantities remaining the fame, the value of at will
approach nearer the difiance of the centre of gravity
of the orifice from the furface of the fluid ; for when
CF becomes infinite, the parabolic arch CHE will be¬
come a firaight line, and confequently the mean ordi¬
nate of the curve, which is reprefented by the mean ve¬
locity of the water, will pafs through the middle of FD
or the centre of gravity of the orifice.
Prop. IV.
155. To find the time in which a quantity of fluid
equal to ABRT, will ilfue out of a fmall ori¬
fice in the fide or bottom of the vefiel AB, that
is, the time in which the furface AB will de-
fcend to RT.
Plate Draw DE, at an infinitely fmall diftance and pa-
CCLXVII. ra]]ei to AB. The lamina of fluid T) d e K maybe
reprefented by DE Xob; DE exprefling the area of
the furface. When the furface of the water has de-
fcended to DE, the quantity of fluid which will be
difcharged by an uniform velocity in the time T, will
be T A^ 16.087 X 2 A X Vo mt A being the area of the
orifice, as in Prop. II. But as the variation in the ve¬
locity of the water will be infinitely fmall, when the
furface defcends from DE to c, its velocity may be
regarded as uniform. The time, therefore, in which
the furface defcribes the fmall height 0 b will be found
by the following analogy •, T V16.087 X 2 A X Vom : T
TST7 , 7 DE y.o b
~DEX0t> :    -r=r:. Now as this
V 16.087 x 2 A x Vom
formula expreffes the time in which the furface defcends
from DE to dey and as the fame may be fliewn of
every other elementary portion of the height CS, the
fum of all thefe elementary times will give us the value
of T, the time in which the furface AB falls down to
RT. For this purpofe, draw GP equal and parallel
to C», and upon it as an axis, defcribe the parabola
PV£), having its parameter P equal to 4GP. Con¬
tinue the lines AB, DE, d e, RT. fo as to form the or¬
dinates HF, h f UV, of the parabola. Upon GP as
an axis defcribe a fecond curve, fo that the ordinate
GM may be equal to the area of the furface at AB,
divided by the correfponding ordinate G£) of the
parabola, and that the ordinate H may be the quotient
Fig- 5-
Part II.
of the area of the furface at DE divided by the ordi- Motion of
nate HF. Now (Conic Sections, Part I. Prop. X.)Fluias> &c*
HFa=HPxP or HF=a/HPx VF, that is a/HP '
=. —7= ; and fince om — HP ;
a/P
DE
//:
DEx v'P
x' 0 m ff F *
But by the conftrudlion of the curve MN, we have
—=Hr, confequently —JLrrHrX Vp. The elemen-
\ 0 m
tary time therefore, exprefled by —== X 0 ^
will.
A/16.087 X 2 A x a/ato
by the different fubftitutions now mentioned, be
FI r X 0 bx/P
^ or ■ .= X VLr X 0 b. But the
2A A/16.087 2A A/16.087
Vp
faftor —-—confining of conflant quantities is
2AA/16.087
itfelf conftant, and the other fa&or H rxob reprefents
the variable curvilineal area Hrsb. Now as the fame
may be fliown of every other element of the time T,
compared with the correfponding elements of the area
GU / M, it follows that the time T required, will
be found by multiplying the conftant quantity
a/P
by the curvilineal area GU / M; there-
2 A a/ 16.087
fore T:
a/P
X
GU t M
and the time in which
a/ 16.087 2'^"
the fuiface defcends to 77177^ or in which the veffel emp¬
ties itfelf, will be equal to ——— x
A^ib.oSy 2A
Cor. The quantity of fluid difcharged in the given
time T may be found by meafuring the contents of the
veffel AB between the planes AB, and RT, the de-
fcent of the furface AB, viz. the depth CS, bein*
known.
Prop. V.
156. To find the time in which a quantity of fluid
equal to ABRT will iflue out of a fmall orifice in
the fide or bottom of the cylmdrical vefiel AB,
that is, the time in which the furface AB will
defcend to RT.
Let us fuppofe that, a body afcends through the Plate
height 77i C with a velocity increafing in the fame man- CCLXVII.
ner as if the veffel AB were inverted, and the body FiS- 6l
fell from 771 to C. The velocity of the afcending body
at different points of its path being proportional to the
fquare roots of the heights defcribed, will be expreffed by
the ordinates of the parabola PVQ. The line DE be¬
ing infinitely near to de, as foon as the body arrives
at b it will defcribe the fmall fpace bo or kYi in a
portion of time infinitely fmall, with a velocity repre¬
fented by the ordinate HF. Now the time in which
the body will afcend through the fpace w C or its equal
\/pG    
PG will be ——. becaufe a/i6.087 * VPG
V'PG
/16.087
V 16.087
(See Mechanics) ; and if the velocity
imprefled
Chap. I.
Motion of impre'iTecl upon the body when at C were conti-
I'luids, &.c. nued uniformly, it would run through a fpace equal
to 2GP or GO in the time -^=±2=-. But (Dyka-
^ V16.C87
Mies, 22.) the times of defcfiption are as the fpaces
defcribed direiflly, and the velocities inverfely, and
HYDRODYNAMICS.
739
.^■p. Motion of
the latter inftead of H r, which is equal to it by FlnkU See,
VF H/i VT
conftrudlion, will beoome = X rr
^16.087 x/i6'0$"l
x ^ , E>E reprefenting, in this and in the fob
delcrioea airecuy, anu me X jtlr
therefore the time of deferibing the fpace 2GP or GQ^ lowing propofition, the area of the furface of the fluid at
./bri mnlt-inlu firfl nf the.fe exorelfions by
tmifornily, viz. the time —■ ■ will be to the time
v'16.087
, -r , GQ. ll/l
of deferibing the fpace n H uniformly, as, qq" : pqy*
, • GQ
that is, as or I
H/i
Vpg_
V16.0SJ
H h
HF
G^__
\/PG
\/16.087
v — the time in which the afeending body will
HF
D. Now, if we multiply the firft of thefe expreifions by
DE, and the fecond by A, we lhall find the two pro¬
ducts equal; confequently (Euclid. \ I. 16.) the firil ex-
preflion is to the fecond, or the time of the body’s afeent
through h H is to the time of the furface s defeent
through H //, as the area A of the orifice is to the area
DE of the bafe of the cylindrical velfel j and as the
fame may be demonftrated of every elementary time
in which the afeending body and the defeending fur-
1 T-r ; -r 1 . u ,«■ pr K^ina emml to ’P ^ace deferibe equal fpaces, it follows that the whole
defenbe H h uniformly ; but PG being equal to ^ wbich 'tllc afcending body will defenbe the
the parameter ot the parabola, we fnall have VYg h(,. ht m Q m pG; to the ,vhole time in which the
“ V7^P = , vF Subflituting this value of v'PG in furface AB will defeend to m n, or in which the veffel
the lalt formula, we lhall have for the expreflion of the will empty as the area A of the orifice is to the
t v7P H/i / prp
time of deferibing H h uniformly X a 0f t}le furface DE, that is A : DE = J
V 10.007 16.087
But by Prop. IV. the time in which the furface DH de- ^
feends into the pofition d h, that is, in which it deferibes . / x    the time in which the velfel
FF ' l6’o87 a ,
H h, is reprefented by —p—==. X Hr X 0 ^ or AB will empty itfelf. If RT n /z be the velfel,
may ^ fliewn }n ^ fatne manner, that the
/FO
time in which it will empty itfelf will be V x g 0g y ’
DE, DE being equal to RT. But the difference
zAv716.087
— y .2 Therefore the time in which the
v'16.087 ” 2A
afeending body moves through ^H, is to the time in which
TV7 P
the defeending furface moves through Has \/YFo87 '
A
H h
Fp
V16.087 ^A
HrxH/z
between the time in which the veflel A.B m n empties
itfelf, and the time in which the veffel RT m n empties
, which expreffionl itfelf, will be equal to the time required the Propo-
fition, during whicli the furfacc AB deicends to Ivx*
  v i   
after being multiplied by 2, and after fubflituting in This time therefore will be
/PG
~*/ 16.
.087
X
DE /PU DE DEFPG—DEFPU
6.087A A
A v'i6.o87j
T_DEXyPG-v/PU ^
A F 16.087
po=(E:1AAi_v-pg)
pG=(T’AdY—+-/pu)‘
TTr. 2T, AxDEFpgFi6.o87--T*A*xi6.o87
PG—PU or UG—  — 
As the quantity of fluid difeharged while the furface AB defeends to RT Is equal to DEX UG, we fhall ha\£
2T, AXDEFPGx 16.087—T*A*x i6.°87
w=de X m 
dHexFpgxFPU
TF 16.087
A F 16.087.
Fpg—FPU
5 A *
Prop.
HYDROS
Prop. VI.
157. If two cylindrical veffels are filled with water,
the time in which their furfaces will defcend
through fimilar heights will be in the compound
latio of their bafes, and the difierence between
the fquare roots of the altitudes of each furface
at the beginning and end of its motion, diredtly,
and the area of the orifices inverfely.
^ A'B'wz', «' be the twe veflels ; then
by the laft propofition, the time T, in which the furface
A.B of the firft defcends to RT, will be to the time T'
in which the furface A'B' of the fecond defcends to
R'T' ^DE X y/PGx y/PU, D;Erx y'FG'—y/PMJ'
^^16.087 ° AVi6.o8t~ ’
or, by dividing by ^16.087, as DE x v/pG
A
(o ^E-x./PG-^ ftE„
158. Cor. Hence the time in which two cylindrical
veftels full of water will empty themfelves, will be in the
compound ratio of their bafes and the fquare roots of
• heir altitudes dire£Uy, and the area of the orifices in¬
verfely 5 for in this time the furfaces AB, A' B' defcend to
/««,OTVrefpeaively, andtherefore v'PG--PU=^/PG>
740
Motion of
Fluids, See.
Y N A M I C S.
fmee PU vanilhes, the times will be
P'E'x y^P G'
Part JI.
BEX •v/pG Motion of
as   .Fluids, &c.
Prop. VII.
'SV; To explain the theory and conftruaion of Theory of
clepfydrse or water clocks. clepfydi*
or w’ater-
A clepfydra, or water clock, is a machine which clocks-
filled with water, meafures time by the defeent of the’
fluid furface. See Part III. on Hydraulic Machinery.
It has already been demonftrated in Prop. IV. that Fie c
the times in which the furface AB defcends to BE *
and RT, &c. are as the areas GM r H, GM t U, &c.
If fuch a form therefore is given to the vefiel that
the areas GMr H, GM t U, &c. increafe uniformly as
the times, or are to one another as the numbers j, 2, 3,
4, 5, &c. the times in which the furface AB defcends
to BE, and Rl, &c. will be in the fame ratio, and the
vefiel will form a machine for meafuring time. If the
veffel is cylindrical and empties itfelf in 12 hours, its
altitude may be divided in fuch a manner that the fluid
furface may take exa&ly an hour to defcend through
each divifion. Let the cylindrical velfel, for example,
be divided into 144 equal parts, then the furface of the
water, when the twelve hours begins to run, will be
144 parts above the bottom of the vefiel j when one
hour is completed, the furface ■will be 1 21 parts above
the bottom, and fo on in the following manner.
Hours. o
Di/lance of each Hour 1
above the bottom. 4 144
Number of Parts in 1
each Hour. 4 ^3
1 2 3 4 5
121 100 81 64 49
21 19 17 15 *13
6 7 8 9
36 25 16 9
11 9 7 5
10 11 12
410
3 1
lor fince the velocity with which the furface AB
defcends, the area of that furface being always the
jame, is as the fquare roots of its altitude above the ori-
flee (Prop. I. Cor. 6.) $ and fince the velocities are as
the times of defeription, the times will alfo be as the
fquare roots of the altitudes, that is, when
12 li 10 9 &c. are the times
344 121 100 81 will be the altitudes cf the fur¬
face. Q,.E.B.
Prop. VIII.
Lateral 160. To explain the lateral communication of mo-
communi- t}on jn fluids,
cation of
motion in This property of fluids in motion was difeovered by M.
Fis 9 Venturi, profeflbr of natural philofophy in the univerfity
* of Modena, who has illuftrated it by a variety of ex¬
periments in his work on the lateral communication of
motion in fluids. Let a pipe AC, about half an inch
in diameter and a foot long, proceeding from the re-
fervoir AB, and having its extremity bent into the
• form CB, be inferted into the vefiel CBG, whofe fide
BG gradually rifes till it paffes over the rim of the
veffel. Fill this veflel with water, and pour the fame
fluid into the refervoir AJB, till, running down the pipe
AC, it forms the ftream EGH. In a (hort while, the
water in the veflel CBG will be carried off-by the current
EG, which communicates its motion to the adjacent
fluid. In the fame way, when a ftream of water runs
through air, it drags the air along with it, and produces
wind. Hence we have the water blowing machine Water
which conveys a blafi: to furnaces, and which fliall be blowing
defenbed in a future part of this article. The lateralmachine'
communication of motion, whether the Unrounding
fluid be air or water, is well illuftrated by the follow^
ing beautiful experiment .of Venturi’s. In the fide of Fig. 9.
the refervoir AB infert the horizontal pipe P about an
inch and a half in diameter, and five inches long. At the
point 0 of this pipe, about feven-tenths of an inch from
the refervoir, fatten the bent glafs tube onm, whofe ca¬
vity communicates with that of the pipe, whilft its other
extremity is immerfed in coloured water contained in the
fmall velfel F. V hen water is poured into the refervoir
AB, having no connexion with the pipe C, fo that it
may iflue from the horizontal pipe, the red liquor will
life towards m in the incurvated tube onm. If the de¬
fending leg of this glafs fyphon be fix inches and a half
longer than the other, the red liquor will rife to the very
top of the fyphon, enter the pipe P, and running out with
the other water will in a ftiort time leave the velfel F
empty. Now the caufe of this phenomenon is evidently
this : When the water begins to flow from the pipe P,
it commynicates with the air in the fyphon onm, and
drags
Chap. I.
Motion of drags a portion along with it. The air in the fyphon
Fluids, &-c-js therefore rarefied, and this procefs of rarefa&ion is
v conftantly going on as long as the water runs through
the horizontal pipe. The equilibrium between the ex¬
ternal air prelling upon the fluid in the veflel F, and
that included in the fyphon, being thus deflroyed, the
red liquor will rife in the fyphon, till it communicates
with the ifluing fluid, and is dragged along with it
through the orifice of the pipe P, till the veffel F is
emptied.
Prop. IX.
161. To find the horizontal diftance to which fluids
will fpout from an orifice perforated in the fide
of a veflel, and the curve which it will de-
fcribe.
Iheory of Let AB be a veflel filled with water, and C an ori-
otdique ^ce ^e’ inclined to the horizon as to difcharge
jets. ' t^ie in the direftioi\ CP. If the ifluing fluid
Plate were influenced by no other force except that which
CCLXVIII. impels it out of the orifice, it would move with an uni-
ilS- *• form motion in the direction CP. But immediately
upon its exit from the orifice C it is fubjeft: to the force
of gravity, and is therefore influenced by two forces,
one of which impels it in the direftion CP, and the
other draws it downwards in vertical lines. Make CE
equal to EG, and CP double of CS the altitude of the
fluid. Draw PL parallel to CK and join SL. Draw
alfo EF, GH parallel to CN, and FM, HN parallel to
CG, and let CM, CN reprefent the force of gravity, or
the fpaces through which it would caufe a portion of fluid
to defcend in the time that this portion would move
through CE, CG refpedfively by virtue of the impulfive
force. Now, it follows from the compofition of forces,
(Dynamics, i35.) that the fluid at C, being folicited in
the direction CE by a force which would carry it through
CE in the fame time that the force of gravity would make
it fall through CM, will defcribe the diagonal CF of the
parallelogram CEFM, and will arrive at F in the fame
time that it would have reached E by its impulfive
force, or M by the force of gravity ; and for the fame
reafon the portion of the fluid will arrive at H in the
fame time that it would have reached G by the one
force, and N by the other. The fluid therefore being
continually deflected from its reftilineal diredfion CP by
the force of gravity, will defcribe a curve line CEHP,
which will be a parabola: for fince the motion along CP
mult be uniform, CE, CG will be to one another as the
times in which they are deferibed; and may therefore
reprefent the times in which the fluid would arrive at E
and G, if influenced by no other force. But in the time
that the fluid has deferibed CE gravity has made it fall
through EF, and in the time that it would have deferibed
HYDRODYNAMICS.
74*
CG, gravity has caufed it to fall through GH. Now, Motion of
fince the fpaces are as the fquares of the times in which Ffnds, &c.
they are deferibed, (Dynamics, 37. 2.) we (hall have v' '
Eh : GH—CE1: CG1. But on account of the paral¬
lelograms CEFM, CGHN, EF and GH are equal to
CM and CN refpe&ively, and MF, NH to CE, CG
refpeftively ; therefore CM : CNcr MF1: NH1, which
is the property of the parabola, CM, CN being the
abfeiflae, and ME, NH the ordinates (Conic Sections,
Part I. Prop. IX. Cor.)
162. On account of the parallels LP, CX, LC, GX, the
triangles LCP, GCX are fimilar, and therefore (Geom.
Seft. IV. Theor. XX.) CG : CX—PC : PL and GX: CX
= CL : PL.
CXx CL
„ „„ CXx PC ,
Hence CG =   , and GX =
PL ’
CX x 2CS
PL
but fince PC = 2 CS, we have
CG
PL
and fince GX=GX—HX, we fhall have
GH-
CXxCL
-HX. But, as the parameter of the
PL
parabola CRK is equal to 4 CS (1), w'e have, by the
property of this conic feaion, NH’zr CNX4 CS, or
CG1r=4GHxCS j therefore, by fubftituting in this equa-
tion the preceding values of CG and GH, we fliall have
CX1 x CS—CX x CL x PL—HX x PL2. Now, it is
evident, Lorn this equation, that HX is nothing, or
vanilhes when CX=:o, or when CX——- for
CS
HX being =0, HXxPL1, wall alfo be —o, and the
equation will become CX1 xCS = CXxCLxPL, or
dividing by CX and CS, it becomes CX==-^-^J-Il.
CS
But when HX vaniflies towards K, CX is equal to
CT v PT
CK, confequently CK= Bifeft CK in T,
then CT
CK
: 2
andCT =
CS
CL x PL
2 CS
Draw TR per-
132
4 CS-
Then if Hm be drawm at right angles to HX, we
fliall have CX r= C I —H m—  H//z and HX
2 CS
pendicular to CK, and TR will be found
CL
—R i—R,w———R m. After fubftituting thefe
values of CX and HX in the equation CX1xCS=:CX
X CL X PL—HX X PL1, it wdll become, after the ne-
PL1
ceflfary reductions, H m —-7^7 X R m. The
curve
CRK
(1) The parameter of the parabola deferibed by the ifluing fluid,- is equal to four times the altitude'of the fluid
above the orifice. For fince the fluid iffues at C with a velocity equal to that acquired by falling through SC if
this velocity were continued uniform, the fluid would move through 2 CS or CP, in the fame time that a heavy
body would fall through SC. Draw P£ parallel to CS, and QW to CP ; then fince £ is in the parabola, the
fluid wall defenbe CP uniformly in_the fame time that it falls through CW by the force of gravity, therefore
CW=CS. Now CP=2 CS, and CP1^: 4 CS*=4 X CS X CS=r4 X CS X CW *, but it is a property of the pa¬
rabola, that the fquare of the ordinate WO or CP is equal to the produft of the abfeiffa CW and the parameter,
therefore 4 CS is the parameter of the parabola.
742
Motion of CRK is therefore a parabola vvhofe vertex is R, its axis
Fluids, See. PJ-^
‘“'■"''V—1 RT and its parameter R m being an abfciiTa of the
axis, and H m its correfponding ordinate. Now, mak¬
ing rtrrCS, the altitude of the refervoir *, R = radius ;
m—VL the fine of the angle PCL •, and /?—CL, the
cofine of the fame angle, CP bein^ radius. Then CP :
PL—R : tn, therefore PLxR'—CPx^r, and dividing
by R and fubftituting 1 a or 2 CS inldead of its equal
2 a m and by the very fame reafon-
Fig. 2.
HYDRODYNAMICS. Part II.
plitude or dildance.CK, to which the fluid will reach on Motion of
a horizontal plane, will be 4NG, or quadruple the fineFimds, &c,
of the angle formed by the direction of the jet and v
a vertical line, the chord of the arch CG being ra-
CP, we have PL—
ing, we have CL=
“ _Rir
CL x PL
R
R
Hence RT:
CL*
:4CS
vill be
divided by 4 fir, or RT X an<A CT —
and the parameter
2 CS 2rtxR*'
, , , PL
of the parabola —
4 ax m n  m n
:2<J X
R’
-4'7 X t> »•
CS—oxR* r ^ R*
163. Hence w*e have the following conflru6Hon. With
{CH as radius, deferibe the femicircle SGC, which the
direction CR of the jet or iffuing fluid meets in G. Draw
GN perpendicular to CS, and having prolonged it to¬
wards R, make GR equal to GN. From R let fall RT
perpendicular to CK and meeting it in T, and upon
RT, CT deferibe the parabola CRK having its vertex
in R, this parabola fhall be the courfe of the ifluing
fluid. For by the conftrudion NR or CT—2 GN, and
on account of the fimilar triangles SGC, CGN, SC .
SG=rCG : GN ; hence SC X GN = SG X CG, or
2 GN, or CTrr2 But from the fimilarity of
triangles CS : CG—SG : GN and CS : CGrrCG : CNj
confequently, when CG is radius or =R, GN will be
the fine ni of the angle GCS, and CN its cofine n ;
and wTe fhall then have, by Euclid VI. 16. and reduc¬
tion SG=
CSX m
and CGru
CSx «•
By fubflitut-
R ’R
mg thefe values of SG and CG in the equation CT —
2SGxCG . rT_ 2 CSxw CS X fi _
 SC ’ we liave CT ^ SC X -R ~ -
2 CS xm X CS X w __ 2CSXm n „*nn
csxr’xR - R* x R1 ■
But the
CT1
parameter P of the parabola CRK is equal to
becaufe it is a third proportional to the abfeiffa and its
ordinate, therefore P=^T^rh~* Now RT rr CN,
R* x RT*
and CN —becaufe CN : NG=tot : w, or CN
m
—RTrrfl X 5“ by fubflituting the preceding value ofNG.
R*
Therefore the parameter P=:T ^/
—^ a x w-hich is the fame value of the parameter
as was found in the preceding article, and therefore ve¬
rifies the conftruftion.
164. Cor. 1. Since NGzrGR and CI zrTK, the am-
OiUS.
165. Cor. 2. If S/z be made equal to CN, and ng be
drawn parallel to CT, and g r he made equal to n g
then if the direhiion of the jet be Cg, the fluid will
deferibe the parabola C r K whofe vertex is r, and will
meet the horizontal line in K, becaufe «^=NG, and
4 n ij—4 NGzrCK. The fame may be fhewm of every
other pair of parabolas whofe vertices R r are equidil-
tant from ac 3. horizontal line palling through the cen¬
tre of the circle.
166. Cor. 3, Draw the ordinate a b through the cen¬
tre a, and fmee this is the greateft ordinate that can be
drawm, the diftance to which the water will fpout, being
equal to 4 a, will be the greateil when its line of di-
rettion palfes through b, that is, when it makes an
angle of 450 with the horizon.
167. Cor. 4. If an orifice be made in the velfel AB
at N, and the water iffues horizontally in the diredtion
NG, it will deferibe the parabola NT, and CT will
be equal to 2 NG. For (by Prop. IX. note) the para¬
meter of the parabola NT is equal to 4 NS, and by
the property of the parabola Cl*^ NC X 4 NS, or
*-CT= 2 V^NC X NS $ but by the property of the circle
;Geom. Seft. IV. Theor. XXVIII.) NGl=NC x NS
and NGzr VNC X NS, hence CT= 2NG. If the fluid is
difeharged from the orifice at fo that '6n~ CN, ng wdll
be —NG, and it will fpout to the fame difiance CT.
Prop. X.
168. To determine the preflure exerted upon pipes
by the water which flows through them.
Let us fuppofe the column of fluid CD divided into an Fig. 3.
infinite number of laminae EF f e. Then friftion being
abftradled, every particle of each lamina will move with
the fame velocity when the pipe CD is horizontal. Now
the velocity at the vena contradta mn may be expreffed
by v/A, A being the altitude of the fluid in the refervoir.
But the velocity at the vena contraBa is to the velocity
in the pipe, as the area of the latter is to the area of the
former. Therefore 5 being the diameter of the vena
contraBa, and d that of the pipe CD, the area of the
one will Ire to the area of the other, as 2* : d%, (Geo¬
metry, Se£h VI. Prop. IV.) confequently we (hall have
</* : 'p — ’JK. : -, the velocity of the water in the
pipe. But fince the velocity */K is due to the altitude
S1 J K
A, the velocity —will be due to the altitude
d*
Now as each particle of fluid which fucceflively
reaches the extremity DH of the pipe, has a tendency
to move with the velocity ^/A, while it moves only
with the velocity —the extremity D « of the pipe
will fuftain a preffure equal to the difference of the pref-
Ja v" A
fures produced by the velocities \/A and —, that is,
by
2
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Chap. II.
Experi- §4A a r • rr
mer.ts on by a preliure A , A reprefentmg the preuure
the Motion ( \
toi . which produces the velocity \/A, and —the preflure
which produces the velocity
$VA
But this preffure
is diilributed through every part of the pipe CD, con-
fequently the preflure fultained bv the Tides of the pipe
... , . J4A
will be A j-.
a*
169. Cou. 1. If a very Imall aperture be made in the
fide of the pipe, the water will iffiie with a velocity due to
Jt A
the height A . When the diameter J of the ori¬
fice is equal to the diameter d of the pipe, the altitude
becomes A—A or nothing j and if the orifice is in this
cafe below the pipe, the water will defcend through it
by drops. Hence we fee the millake of thofe who
have maintained, that when a lateral orifice is pierced
in the fide of a pipe, the water will rife to a height due
to the velocity of the included water.
170. Cor. 2. Since the quantities of water, difcharged
by the fame orifice, are proportional to the fquare roots of
the altitudes of the refervoir, or to the preifures exerted
at the orifice, the quantity of water difcharged by a la¬
teral orifice may be eafily found. Let W be the quan¬
tity of water difcharged in a given time by the propofed
aperture under the prefiure A, and let w be the quan-
A.
tity difcharged under the preffure A —. Then W :
a*
___
A confequently, zu X \/AzrW X
PA
aJ A—— W v
V <1* and w= X
W
v/A
'Therefore, fince W may be determined by the experi¬
ments in the following chapter, zv is known.
Chap. II. Account of Experiments on the Motion
of Water difcharged from vejfels^ either by Ori¬
fices or additional Tubes, or running in Pipes or
open Canals.
Ratio be- 171. In the preceding chapter, we have taken notice of
tween the the contra&ion produced upon the vein of fluid ifluing
venaconhe ^rom an or^ce a plate> and have endeavoured
tratta and to ascertain its caufe. According to Sir Ifaac Newton,
the orifice, the diameter of the vena contradia is to that of the ori¬
fice as 21 to 25. Polenus makes it as 11 to iq ; Ber-
nouilii as 5 to 7; the Chevalier dc Buat as 6 to 9; Baffin
as 41 to 50; Michelotti, as 4 to 5; and Venturi, as 4 to
y. This ratio, however, is by no means conftant. It
varies with the form and pofition of the orifice, with the
thicknefs of the plate in which the orifice is made, and
like wife with the form of the veflel and the weight of
the fuperincumbent fluid. But thefe variations are too
trifling to be regarded in pradtice.—We fhall now lay
before the reader an account of the refults of the
experiments of different phiiofophers, but particular¬
ly thofe of the Abbe Boffut, to whom the fcience is
deeply indebted both for the accuracy and extent of
his labours.
743
Experi-
Sect. I. On the Quantity of Water difcharged from Vef- racnts °n
fels conjlantly full by Orifices in thin Plates.
172. In the following experiments, which were fre- Quantities
quently repeated in various ways, the orifice was pierced °f water
in a plate of copper about half a line thick. When the^1^^^
orifice is in the bottom of the veflel, it is called a hori-
•zontal orifice, and when it is in the fide of it, it is call- plates, ac-
ed a lateral orifice. cording to
the expert-
Table I. Shezving the Quantity of Water difcharged in I^^°'
one minute, by orifices differing in form and poftion.
Altitude of
the fluid a-
bove the
centre of
the orifice.
Ft. In. Lm.
II 8 IO
9, O O
4OO
5°7
Form and pofition
of the orifice
Circular and Horizontal
Circular and Horizontal
Circular and Horizontal
Redlangular and Hori¬
zontal
Horizontal and Square
Horizontal and Square
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
Lateral and Circular
The ori¬
fice's dia¬
meter.
6 lines
I inch
2 inches
1 inch by
3 lines
1 inch, fide
2 inch, fide
6 lines
l inch
6 lines
1 inch
I inch
N0 of
cub. in.
difchar¬
ged in a
minute
23 H
9281
37203
2933
11817
47361
2018
8i35
1353
5436
628
173. From the refults contained in the preceding table,
we may draw the following conclufions.
1. That the quantities of water difcharged in equal
times by different apertures, the altitudes of the fluid,
being the fame, are very nearly as the areas of the ori¬
fices. That is, if A or a reprefent the areas of the
orifices, and W, w the quantities of water difcharged,
W : w~A : a.
2. The quantities difcharged in equal times by the
fame aperure, the altitude of the fluid being different,
are to one another very nearly as the fquare roots of
the altitudes of the water in the refervoir, reckoning
from the centres of the orifices. That is, if H, h be
the different altitudes of the fluid, we fliall have
W : u>zr \ f h.
3. Hence' we may conclude in general that the quan¬
tities difcharged in the fame time by different apertures,
and under different altitudes in the refervoir, are in the
compound ratio of the areas of the orifices, and the
fquare roots of the altitudes.—Thus, if W, zv be the
quantities difcharged in the fame time from the ori¬
fices A, a, under the fame altitude of water j and if
W', u> be the quantities difcharged in the fame time by
the fame aperture a under different altitudes H, h : then
by the firft of the two preceding articles
W: w~A : a, and by the fecond
zv : W— fa : \fh. Multiplying thefe ana¬
logies together, gives us.
W w : W' zv—A fa;, afli, and dividing by zv,
W ;W' r: A^/H :afh.
'This
744
H Y D R G D Y
Comparifon
between
the theore¬
tical and
the real dif-
charges
from a cir¬
cular ori-
fcce.
This rule is fuffieiently corre£l in praftice ; but when
great accuracy is required, the following remarks mult
be attended to.
4. Small orifices difcharge lefs water in proportion
than great ones, the altitude of the fluid being the fame.
The circumference of the fmall orifices being greater
in proportion to the iffuing column of fluid than the cir¬
cumferences of greater ones, the friction, which increafes
with the area of the rubbing furfaces, will alfo be great¬
er, and will therefore diminifh the velocity, and confe-
quently the quantity difcharged.
5. Hence of fcveral orifices whofe areas are equal,
that which has the fmalleft circumference will difcharge
more water than the reil under the fame altitude of
fluid in the refervoir, becaufe in this cafe th^ friftion
■will be leaft.—Circular orifices, therefore, are the moft
advantageous of all, for the circumference of a circle
is the fhorteft of all lines that can be employed to inclofe
a given fpace.
6. In confequence of a fmall increafe which the con-
traflion of the vein of fluid undergoes, in proportion as
the altitude of the water in the refervoir augments, the
quantity difcharged ought alfo to diminifh a little as that
altitude increafes.
By attending to the preceding obfervations, the re-
fults of theory may be fo corre&ed, that the quantities of
water difcharged in a given time may be determined
with the greateft accuracy poflible.
174. The abbe Boffut has given the following table
containing a comparifon of the theoretical with the real
difeharges, for an orifice one inch diameter, and for
different altitudes of the fluid in the refervoir. The
real difeharges were not found immediately by experi¬
ment, but were determined by the precautions pointed
out in the preceding articles, and may be regarded to
be as accurate as if direct experiments had been employ¬
ed. The fourth column -was computed by M. Prony.
Table II. Comparifon of the Theoretic with the Real
(iifeharges frovi an orifice one inch in diameter.
'onftant al-
itude of the
water in the
refervoir a-
bove the
centre ofthe
orifice.
Theoretical
difeharges
through a
circular ori¬
fice tnt irch
in diameter.
Real difehar¬
ges in the
fame time
through the
fame orifice.
Paris Feet.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
'12
!3
T4
15
Cubic inches.
43Sl
6196
7589
8763
9797
10722
11592
12292
I3I44
13855
I453°
15180
I5797
19395
16968
Ratio of the theoreti¬
cal to.the real dif¬
eharges.
Cubic inches.
2722
3846
4710
5436
6075
6654
7i83
7672
8i35
8574
8990
9384
9764
10130
10472
1 to 0.62133
I to 0.62073
I to 0.62064
I to 0.62034
I to 0.62010
I to o 62000
I to 0.61965
I to 0.61911
I to 0.61892
x to 0.61883
I to 0.61873
I to 0.61819
I to 0.61810
I to 0.6x795
I to 0.61716
N A M I C S. Part II.
175. It is evident from the preceding table, that the Experi-
theoretical, as well as the real difeharges, are nearly pro-
portional to the fquare roots of the altitudes of the fluid of~
in the refervoir. Thus, if we take the altitudes 1 and 4, 1^—_j
whofe fquare roots are as 1 to 2, the real difeharges Dedudhion
taken from the table are 2722, 5436, which are to onetrorn
another very nearly as x to 2, their real ratio being as in*»
1 to 1.997.
The fourth column of the preceding table alfo fhows
us that the theoretical are to the real difeharges nearly
in the ratio of I to 0.62, or more accurately, as 1 to
0.61938; therefore 0.62 is the number by which we
muff multiply the difeharges as found by the formulae
in the preceding chapter, in order to have the quantities
of water aftually difcharged.
176. In order to find the quantities of fluid difcharged Applica-
by orifices of different fizes, and under different altitudes t'00 and
of water in the refervoir, we muil ufe the table in the u^e °^t^e
following manner. Let it be required, for example, to
find the quantity of water furnifhed by an orifice three
inches in diameter, the altitude of the water in the re¬
fervoir being 30 feet. As the real difeharges are in
the compound ratio of the area of the orifices, and the
fquare roots of the altitudes of the fluid, (art. 1 73. n* 3.),
and as the theoretical quantity of water difcharged by an
orifice one inch in diameter, is by the fecond column
of the table 16918 cubic inches in a minute, we fliall
have this analogy, iv/l5 : g\/^oz=i6^6H : 215961
cubic inches, the quantity required. This quantity being
diminiflied in the ratio of 1 to .62, being the ratio of the
theoretical to the aftual difeharges, gives 133896 for the
real quantity of water difcharged by the given orifice. But
(by n° 5. of art. 173.) the quantity difcharged ought to
be a little greater than 133896, becaufe greater ori¬
fices difebarge more than fmall ones ; and by n° 6. the
quantity ought to be leis than x33896, becaufe the al¬
titude of the fluid is double that in the table. Thefe
two caufes, therefore, having a tendency to increafe and
diminifh the quantity deduced from the preceding table,
we may regard 133896 as very near the truth. Had
the orifice been lefs than one inch, or the altitude lefs
than 15 feet, it would have been neceffary to diminiiL
the preceding anfwer by a few cubic inches. Since the
velocities of the iiluing fluid are as the quantities dil-
charged, the preceding refults may be employed alfo
to find the real velocities from thofe which are deduced
from theory.
177. As the velocity of falling bodies is 16.087 feet
per fecond, the velocity'due to 16.087 ^eet be 32.174
feet per fecond, and as the velocities are as the fquare
roots of the height, we {hall have ^16.087 : Vli—
34.174 : V the velocity due to any Other height, con-
„ , ,T 32.174-v/H 32.i74\/H n ^ /TT
fequently V~4 - =- — zrS.oibv/H,
\l 16.087 4*011
fo that 8.016 is the coefficient by which we muft al¬
ways multiply the altitude of the fluid in order to have
its theoretical velocity.
178. According to the experiments of M. Eytelwein, Refujts 0f
publifhed at Berlin in 1801, in his treatife Handbuch z/er EytelweirPs
Mechanik undder Hydrau/ik, the following are the ratios experi-
between the theoretical and a&ual difeharges, and thernents*
coefficients by which the height may be multiplied in
order to find the velocities of the iffuing fluid.
3
Table
Chap. II.
hydrodynamics.
Table III. Refulis of Eytehvein's Experiments.
74-5
Nc
Nature of the orifices employed.
When the orifice has the form of the contrafted ilream
For wide openings whofe bottom is on a level with that of the relervoir
For fluices with walls in a line with the orifice
For bridges with pointed piers _ .
For narrow openings whofe bottom is on a level with that of the reservoir
For fmaller openings in a fluice with fide walls
For abrupt projections and fquare piers of bridges
For openings in fluices without fide walls
For orifices in a thin plate
Ratio between the
theoretical and
real difeharges.
Goefficients
for finding
the veloci-
I to 0.973
1 to 0.961
I to 0.961
I to 0.961
I to 0.861
I to 0.861
I to 0861
I to 0.635
I to 0.625
7.8
7-7
7-7
7-7
6.9
6.9
6.9
5-1
5-o
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
179. IVI. Eytelwein has likewife fhown, that the
quantity of rvater difeharged from redangular orifices
in the fide of a refervoir extending to the furface, may
be found by taking two-thirds of the velocity due to
the mean height, and allowing for the contraction ac¬
cording to the form of the orifice.
Sect. II. On the Quantity of Water difeharged from
VeJJels confantly full, by fmall Tubes adapted to Cir¬
cular Orifices.
Quantities l%0. The difference between the natural difeharges, and
of water thofe deduced from theory, arifes from the contraction
difeharged 0f the fluid vein, and from the friCtion of the water
by fmail againft the circumference of the orifice. If the opera-
lubes. any q£ thefe caufes could be prevented, the
quantities of water aCtually difeharged would approach
nearer the theoretical difeharges. There Is no proba¬
bility of diminifhing friCHon in the prefent cafe by the
application of unguents } but if a fhort cylindrical tube
be inferted in the orifice of the veffel, the water will
follow the Aides of the tube, the contraction of the fluid
vein will be in a great meafure prevented, and the ac¬
tual difeharges will approximate much nearer to thofe
deduced from theory, than when the fluid iffues through
a Ample orifice.
1 81. If a cylindrical tube two inches long, and two
^indHcal inches in diameter, be inferted in the refervoir, atjd if this
tube is two orifice is flopped by a pifton till the refervoir is filled
inches long with wTater, the fluid, when permitted to efcape, will
and two in nT)^ follow the fides of the tube, that is, the tube will
dia!t,eter» not be filled with water, and the contraction in the
lein boon- vein of fluid will take place in the fame manner as if
traced as the orifice were pierced in a thin plate. When the
in fimple cylindrical tube was one inch in diameter, and two
erifices. inches long, the water followed the fides of the tube,
Plate ancl the vein of fluid ceafed to contrad. While M.
CCLXVIIL pj0{put was repeating this experiment, he prevented the
‘S- 4' efcape of the fluid by placing the inftrument MN, con¬
fiding of a handle and a circular head, upon the inte¬
rior extremity of the tube, and found, to his great fur-
prife, that when he withdrew the inftrument MN, to
give paflage to the water, it fometimes followed the
Aides of the tube, and fometimes detached itfelf from
them, and produced a contraCHon in the fluid vein
fimilar to that which took place when the firft tube
Vol, X. Part II.
was employed. After a little praClice, he could pro¬
duce either of thefe effeCls at pleafure. The fame phe¬
nomenon was exhibited when the length of the tube
was diminiflied to one inch fix lines $ only it was morp.
difficult to make the fluid follow the circumference of
the tube. This effeCl was ftill more difficult to pro¬
duce, when its length was reduced to one inch; and
when it Was fo fmall as half an inch, the water uni¬
formly detached itfelf from its circumference, and
formed the vena contraBa.
%
182. Table IV. Shewing the Quantities of Water dif¬
eharged by Cylindrical Tubes one inch in diameter with
Quantities
of fluid dif*
charged
from cylin¬
drical tubes
of the fame
diameters
but differ¬
ent lengths.
The experiments in the preceding table were made
with tubes inferted in the bottom of the veffel. When
the tubes were fixed horizontally in the fide of the re¬
fervoir, they furnifhed the very fame quantities of fluid,
their dimenfions and the altitude of the fluid remaining
the fame.
It appears from the preceding refults, that the quan¬
tities of water difeharged increafe with the length of
the tube, and that thefe quantities are very nearly as
the fejuare roots of the altitudes of the fluid above the
interior orifice of the vertical tube.
We have already feen that the theoretical are to
real difeharges, as 1 to 0.62, or nearly as 16.1 to
10. But by comparing the two laft experiments in
the preceding table, it appears that the quantity of
fluid difeharged by a cylindrical tube where the water
follows its fides, is to the quantity difeharged by the
fame tube when the vena contraBa is formed, as 13 to
JO; and fince the fame quantity muft be difeharged by
the latter method as by a fimple orifice, we may con-
5 B elude
different lengths.
Conftant altitude
of the fluid above
the fuperior bafe
of the tube being
11 feet 8 inches
and 10 lines.
Variable lengths of the rube'
exprefled in lines.
Cubic inches
difeharged
n a minute
The tube being filled C ^
with the iffuing fluid )
The tube not filled 1 ^,
with the iffuing fluid j
12274
12188
12168
9282
746
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Part II.
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
dude that the quantity difcharged according to theory,
and that which is difcharged by a cylindrical tube and
ky a fimple orifice, are to one another .very nearly as
the numbers 16, 13, 10. Though the water there¬
fore follows the fides of the cylindrical tube, the con-
traiftion of the fluid vein is not wholly deltroyed j for
the difference between the quantity difcharged in. this
cafe, and that deduced from theory, is too greatrto be
afcnbed to the increafe of friction which arifes from
the water following the circumference of the tube.
1 83. In order to determine the effeft of tubes of dif¬
ferent diameters, under different altitudes of water in
the refervoir, M. Boffut inffituted the experiments
the refults of which are exhibited in the following table.
"I ABLE V. Shewing the Quantities of Water difcharged
by Cylindrical Tubes two inches long, with different
Diameters.
Quantities
of water
tlifcharged
by cylindri¬
cal tubes ofg
the lame
length but
different di-
*&meters.
Ccmftant altitude
of the water above
the orifice.
Diameter of the tube.
Feet. Inches. Lines
The tube being filled ^ 6
with the iffuing fluid. [_ 10
The tube not filled f 6
with the iffuing fluid. ^10
The tube being filled 6
with the iffuing fluid, l 10
The tube not filled f 6
with the iffuing fluid. £ 10
Quantity of
water dif¬
charged in .
minute.
Cubic mchei
1689
47°3
1293
3598
1222
34°2
935
2603
184. By comparing the different numbers in this
table w7e may conclude,
1. That the quantities of wTater difcharged by diffe¬
rent cylindrical tubes of the fame length, the altitude
of the fluid remaining the fame, are nearly as the areas
of the orifices, or the fquares of their diameter.
2. That the quantities difcharged by cylindrical
tubes of the fame diameter and length, are nearly as
the fquare roots of the altitude of the fluid in the refer¬
voir.
3. Hence the quantities difcharged during the fame
time, by tubes of different diameters, under different al¬
titudes of fluid in the refervoir, are nearly in the com¬
pound ratio of the fquares of the diameters of the tube,
and the fquare roots of the altitudes of the water in the
refervoir.
4. By comparing thefe refults with thofe which were
deduced from the experiments with fimple orifices, it
will be feen that the difcharges follow the fame laws in
cylindrical tubes as in fimple orifices.
185. The following table is deduced from the fore¬
going experiments, and contains a comparative view of
the quantities of water difcharged by a fimple orifice,
according to theory, and thofe difcharged by a cylin¬
drical tube of the fame diameter under different alti¬
tudes of water. The numbers might have been more
accurate by attending to fome of the preceding re¬
marks ; but they are fufficiently exaft for any prasffi-
cal purpofe. The fourth column, containing the ratio
between the theoretical and a-flual difcharges, was com¬
puted by M. Prony.
Experi-
Table VI. Comparifon of the Theoretical with the Real me(its on
Difcharges from a Cylindrical Tube one inch in Dia~t^et^°}'oa
meter and two inches Long. ‘0 vU'
Companfjti
of ibetheo¬
retical with
the real difi.
charges in
cylindrical
tubes.
Conftant al¬
titude of the
water in the
refetvoir a-
bove the
centre of the
onfice.
Pari- Feet
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
r3
J4
!5
Theoretical
diLharges
through a cir¬
cular orifice
one inch in
diameter.
Realdilcharges
inthefametime
by a cylindiica
tube one inch in
diameter and
t’wo inches
long.
Cubic inches
43Sl
6196
7589
8763
9797
10732
11592
12392
I3I44
13855
I453°
i5i8o
!5797
I^393
16968
oubic ncaes.
3539
5002
6126
7070
7900
8654
9340
9915
I0579
11151
11693
12205
12699
I3I77
13620
Ratio of the
theoretical to
the real dif¬
charges.
I to O
I to O
to O
to o
to o
to O
to O
I to O
I to O
I to o
I to o,
i to o.
I to o.
i to o.
I to o.
81781
.80729
.80724
,80681
80638
,80638
'80573
80496
80485
80483
80477
80403
80390
80382
80270
By comparing the preceding table with that in art;
174. we fhall find that cylindrical tubes difcharge a
much greater quantity of water than fimple orifices of
the fame diameter, and that the quantities difcharged
are as 81 to 62 nearly. This is a curious phenomenon,
and will be afterwards explained.
186. The application of this table to other additional
tubes under different altitudes of the fluid, not contain¬
ed in the firft column, is very fimple. Let it be re¬
quired, for example, to find the quantity of water dif¬
charged by a cylindrical tube, 4 inches in diameter,
and 8 inches long, the altitude of the fluid in the re¬
fervoir being 25 feet. In order to refolve this queftion,
find (by art. 176.) the theoretical quantity difcharged,
which in the prefent inflance will be 350490 cubic
inches, and this number diminilhed in the ratio of 1 to
0.81 wull give 284773 for the quantity required. The
length of the tube in this example was made 8 inches,
becaufe, when the length of the tube is lefs than twice
its diameter, the water does not eafily follow its interior
circumference. If the tube were longer than 8 inches,
the quantity of fluid difcharged would have been
greater, becaufe it uniformly increafes with the length of
the tube j the greateft length of the tube being always
fmall, in comparifon with the altitude of the fluid in the
refervoir.
187. Hitherto we have fuppofed the tube to be exact¬
ly cylindrical. When its interior furface, however, is
conical, the quantities difcharged undergo a coniidera-
ble variation, which may be eflimated from the follow¬
ing experiments of the marquis Poleni, publiihed in his
work De Cafellis per quce derivantur fuviorum aquce,
&c. which appeared at Padua in 1718.
Table
Chap. IT.
Expet i-
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids
HYDRODYNAMICS.
747
Experi-
. mentson
Table VII. Shewing the Quantities of Water difcharged by Conical Tubes of different Diameters. the Motion
Quantities
of water
difc havged
by conical
tube.ac¬
cording to
the experi¬
ments of M.
Poleni.
j Conftant alti¬
tude of the water
in the refervoir,
j 256 lines, or 1
foot 9 inches and
4 lines.
Length of
each tube
92 lines,
or 7
inches
8 lines.
Apertures Employed.
Orifice in a thin plate,
Cylindrical tube,
ill Conical tube,
2d Conical tube,
3d Conical tube,
4th Conical tube,
Interior
diarret' r.
26 lines
26
33
42 ■
60
118
Exterior
diameter.
26 lines
26
26
26
26
26
Quantitydifcharged Cin einwh chy^ojccub.
in a min. in cubic ft. i nches were ddcharged.
Jds??
23434
24758
24619
24345
23687
4' 36"
3' 7"
2' 57"
2' 58"
y o',
3' 5"
From thefe experiments we are authorized to con¬
clude, 1. That the real diicharges are lefs than thofe de¬
duced from theory, which in the prefent cafe is 27425
cubic inches in a minute, and 2. T. hat when, the inte¬
rior orifice of the tube is enlarged to a certain degree,
the quantity difcharged is increafed 5 but that when this
enlargement is too great, a contraction takes place with¬
out the exterior orifice, and the quantity difeharged
fullers a diminution. If the fmalleft bale of the . coni¬
cal tube be inferted in the fide of the refervoir, it will
furnilh more water than a cylindrical tube whofe diame¬
ter is equal to the fmallefl diameter of the conical tube j
for the divergency of its fides changes the oblique mo¬
tion which the particles would otherwife have had, when
palling from the refervoir into the tube.
188. The experiments of Poleni and BolTut having
been made only with tubes of a conical and cylindricalExperi-
form, M. Venturi was induced to inllitute a let of .ex-^ntsof
periments, in which he employed tubes of . the various ^ ^beS
forms exhibited in fig. 4. The refults of his refearches0f various
are contained in the following table, for which we have forms,
computed the column containing the number of cubic plate
inches difeharged in one minute, in order that the ex- CCLXVIIK
periments of the Italian philofopher may be more eafilyf'S- 4*
compared with thofe which are exhibited in the pre¬
ceding tables. The conftant altitude of the water in
the refervoir was 32.5 French inches, or. 34.642 Eng-
liih inches. The quantity of water which flowed out
of the veflel in the times contained in the firft column
was 4 French cubic feet, or 4.845 Englith cubic feet.
The meafures in the table are all Englilh, unl^fs the
contrary be exprefled.
Table VIII Shewing the Quantities of Water difcharged from Orifces of various forms, the confant Altitude oj
the Fluid being 32.5 French, or 34.642 Enghfh inches.
N°
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Nature and dimenfions of the tubes and orifices.
A Ample circular orifice in a thin plate, the diameter of the aperture being
1.6 inches, _ _ , o • t. 1
A cylindrical tube 1.6 inches in diameter, and 4.8 inches long,
A tube fimilar to B, figure 4. which differs from the preceding, only m ha¬
ving the contra£lion in the lhape of the natural contracted vein,
The ftiort conical adjutage, A, figure 4. being the firft conical part of the
The tube D, figure. 4. being a cylindrical tube adapted to the fmall conical
end A, mn being 3.2 inches long,
The fame adjutage, mn being 12.8 inches,
The fame adjutage, m n being 25.6 inches,
The tube C, conlifting of the cylindrical tube of Exp. 2. placed over the co¬
nical part of A, . . r. /■
The double conical pipe E, ab~ac=:i.6 inches, cd-o.^ inches, ef=i.^t
inches, and the length c e of the outer cone =4.351 inches, .
The tube F, confifting of a cylindrical tube 3.2.inches long, and 1.376 inches
in diameter, interpofed between the two conical parts of the preceding,
Time in which
4 Paris cub. ft.
were difcharged
Paris cubic in¬
ches difcharged.
in a minute.
Seconds.
41
31
31
42
42-5
45
48
32-5
27-5
28.5
I0II5
i3378
i3378
9874
9758
9216
8640
12760
15081
14516
Important 189. Thefe experiments of Venturi inform us of a
fadlsdedu- curious faff, extremely ufeful to the pradheal hydiau-
cible from fift. They inconteftably prove, that when water is
Venturi’s conveyed through a ftraight cylindrical pipe of an un-
^trsU limited length, the difeharge of water may be increafed
only by altering the form of the terminations of the
Fig 4. pipe, that is, by making the end of the pipe A of the
fame form as the vena contract a, and by rorming the
other extremity BC into a truncated cone, having its
length BC about 9 times the diameter of the cylin¬
drical tube AB, and the aperture at C to that at B, as
x 8 to 10. By giving .this form to the pipe, it will, dif¬
eharge more than twice as much water in a given, time,
the quantity difcharged by the cylindrical pipe being to
tional
tubes.
748 . H Y D R O 13
Esperi- tlie quantity difcharged by the pipe of the form ABC,
t^Modo., as 10 to 24-
of Fluids. I9Cl M. Venturi alfo found, that the quantities of wa-
-y——' ter difchavged out of a ftraight tube, a curved tube form¬
ing a quadrantal arc, and an elbowed tube with an angle
of 90°, each branch having a horizontal polition, are
to one another nearly as the numbers 70, 50, 45.
Hence we fee the difadvantages of finuofities and bend¬
ings in conduit pipes. In the conltruclion of hydraulic
machines, any variation in the internal diameter of the
pipe ought to be carefully avoided, excepting thofe al¬
terations at the extremities which we have recommend¬
ed in the preceding paragraph.
E'telwein’s I^1‘ ** aPPears from tbe refearches of Eytelwein,
experiments^151* w^en the fhorteft tube that will make the water
on addi- follow its fides is applied to the refervoir, the quantity
difcharged will be to that deduced from theory, as
0.810 to 1.000, and the multiplier for finding the ve¬
locity will be 6.5. When the lengths of the tubes are
increafed from two to four times their diameter, the
ratio of the aftual and theoretical difcharges will be
0.822 to 1.000, and the conftant multiplier for finding
the velocity will be 6.6. In employing a conical tube
approaching to the figure of the vena contraBa, the
ratio of the difcharges was as 0.92 to 1.00, and when
its edges were rounded off, as 0.98 to 1.00 computing
from its lead feftion. He found alfo that the fmalleft
quantity of -water was difcharged, when the interior
extremity of the tube projected within the refervoir,
the quantity furnilhed in this cafe being reduced to one-
half of what was difcharged when the tube had its pro¬
per pofition.
192. When a cylindrical tube is applied to an ori-
: ^Ce’ 0^,^<lue motion of the particles which enter it
farnifh i tbe vertic&l velocity of the particles,
more water therefore, is increafed, and confequently the quantity
than orifices of water difcharged. M. Venturi maintains that the
of the fame preffure of the atmofphere increafes the expence of wra-
ter through a Ample cylindrical tube, and that in coni¬
cal tubes, the preffure of the atmofphere increafes the
expenditure in the ratio of the exterior fedlion of the
tube to the fedlion of the contrafted vein, whatever
be the pofition of the tube.
193. Of all the tubes that can be employed for dif-
employed to chnrging water, that is the moft advantageous which
difcharge has the form of a contracted vein. Hence, it will be a
water. truncated cone with its greateft bafe next the refervoir,
having its length equal to half the diameter of that
bafe, and the area of the two orifices as 8 to 5, or their
diameters in the fubduplicate ratio of thefe numbers,
viz. as v/8 : v/5-
Sect. III. Experiments on the Exhaujlion ofVeffels.
Difficulty 194. It is almoft impoflibleto determine the exaft time
in deter- in which any veffel of water is completely exhaufted.
tirne'whe^ ^^len t^le ^urface °f tbe fluid has defeended within a
a veffel is ^cw inches of the orifice, a kind of conoidal funnel is
completely formed immediately above the orifice. 1'he preffure of
exhaufted. the fuperincumbent column being therefore removed,
the time of ejdiauftion is prolonged. The w’ater falls
in drops j and it is next to impoffible to determine the
moment when the veffel is empty. Inftead, therefore,
of endeavouring to afeertain the time in which veffels
are completely exhauffed, the abbe Bofiut has determi-
Y N A M I C S. Part II.
ned the times in which the fuperior furface of the fluid Experi-
defeends through a certain vertical height, and his re- mer'tsen
fults will be found in the following table. l©f Flu ids'1
Table IX. Shewing the tunes in which Vejfels are part-
/ hj exhaujied.
Reafon
diameter.
Ik ft form
for tubes
Primitive
altitude of
the water
in the
vefTel.
Paris Feet
11.6666
PG
Conftailt
area of a
horizontal
fetff on of
the veffi-l.
Square Feet
{
DE
Di.i meter
of the circu-
ar orifice.
Inches.
1
2
1
2
8 54
Depreffion
of the up¬
per furface
of the
fluid.
Feet.
4
4
9
9
PG—PU
Time in
which this
depreffion
’takes
pla^e.
VTm. Sec.
7
1 5
20 244
Plate
ccLxvir.
Figs. 5, 6.
195. In order to compare thefe experimental refults Companfon
with thofe deduced from theory, we muft employ the t^ie exPe*
formula (in Prop. V. 156.) where the time in which
the furface defeends through any height is T — refuits ot-
DE X V^G—^/PU . , . , ^ „ r theory.
  —   , in which DE is the area of a fec-
A v 16.087
tion of the veffel, PG the primitive altitude of the fur¬
face above the centre of the orifice, PU the altitude
of the furface after the time T is elapfed, A the area of
the orifice, and 16.087 t^e fpace through which a hea¬
vy body defeends in one fecond of time. That the pre¬
ceding formula may be correfted, we muft fubftitute
0.62 A or , inltead of A, in the formula, 0.62, A
being the area of the vena contraBa ; and as the mea-
fures in the preceding table are in Paris feet, we mutt
ufe 15.085 inrtead of 16.087, the former being the di-
ftance in Paris feet, and the latter the diftance in Eng-
lifli feet, wdiich falling bodies deferibe in a fecond. The
formula, therefore, will become T~^ * ——1—iH,
0.62 Av 15.085
and when the computations are made for the different
diameters of the orifices and the different deprelfions of
the fluid furface, the refults will be had, which are ex¬
hibited in the laff column of the following table, con¬
taining the values of T, according to theory and expe¬
rience.
Table X. Comparifon of the refults of Theory with
thofe of Experience. >
Diameter
of the circu¬
lar orifice.
Inches.
1
2
1
2
Depreffion
of the up¬
per furface
of the
fluid.
Feet.
4
4“
9
9
Time of the
depreffion
of rhe fur¬
face by ex¬
periment.
Min. Sec.
7 2si
1 J2
20 244
5 6
Time of the
depreffion
of the fur¬
face by the
formula.
Min. Sec.
7 22.36
I 5°-59
20 l6
5 4
Difference
between the
theory and
the expe¬
riments.
Seconds.
1.41
8.50
2.00
It
Chap. II. H Y D R O D
Experi- It appears from this table, that the times of difcharge,
ments on by experiment, differ very little from thole deduced
the Motion from the correaed formula •, and that the latter always
ofFIulds‘ err in defea. This may arife from 0.62 being too
great a multiplier for finding the correaed diameter or
the orifice.—When the orifices are in the fides of the
refervoir, the altitude PG, PU of the furface may be
reckoned from the centre of gravity of the orifice, un-
lefs when it is very large.
y N A M I c S. 749
Experi-
Sect. IV. Experiments on Vertical and Oblique ’jets, ments on
, the Motion
196. We have already feen that, according to theory, of Fiuicis.
vertical jets fliould rife to the fame altitude as that of »
the refervoirs from which they are fupplied. It will ap- yert;cal
pear, however, from the following experiments of Boffut, jets do not
that jets do not rife exaaiy to this height. This arifesrife to the
from the friftion at the orifice, the refiltance of the air/a me a n^-
and other caufes which lhall afterwards be explained.
tude as that
of their re¬
fervoirs.
Table XI Comamin, the Altitude, to which Jet, rife through Adjutage, of different form,, the Altitude of the
RefirvoTleing Eleven Feet, reehoning from the upper furface of,he hrwntal lube, mn F, op R.
Plate.
CCLXVIIT.
Fig. 6.
Inch. Lines,
3 8
Diameter
of the ho-
lizontal
tubes m P,
n R, each
being fix
feet long.
8
8
9*
9t
9^
Form of the
orifices.
Simple 7
orifice 3
Referen¬
ces to
Fig. 6.
Diameter
of the ori¬
fice.
\
Altitude of the
jet when rifing
vertically,
reckoning irom
H
G
F
Conical 1
tube j
Cylindri- 1
cal tube. 3
Simple! 7
orifice J
E
D
M
L
K
Lines.
2
4
8
Feet. Inch. Lines
IO O 10
94 b7 7°
4 by 70
2
4
8
Feet. Inch. Lines.
IO 4 6
IO
10
10
6
6
1
x 1
7
10
4
6
o
10
o
Altitude of the
jet when in¬
clined a little
to the ver¬
tical.
Defcription of the jets.
10
IO
The vertical jet beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful, not much
enlarged at the top.
All the jets occafionally rife to different
heights. This very perceptible in
the prefent experiment. The ver¬
tical jet much enlarged at top. The
inclined one lefs fo, and more beau¬
tiful.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The vertical jet beautiful.
The jet beautiful.
The jet much deformed, and very much
enlarged at top.
the column much broken j and the
fucceffive jets are detached from
each other.
197. It appears, from the three firft experiments of the
preceding table, that great jets njre higher than fmall
ones ; and from the three laft experiments, fmall
Ratio be- jets rife higher than great ones when the honosontal tube
tween the is very narrow* .There is therefore a certain proper-
diameters t5on between the diameter of the horizontal tube And
0fdhrVeUad-that of the adjutage or orifice, which will give a maxi-
jntage for mum height to the jet. This proportion may be found
producing in the following manner. Let D be the. diameter of
a maximum tbe tube, d'that of the adjutage, a the altitude Bm of
height to tbe refervoir, b the velocity along the tube *, and as the
thcJtt* velocity at the adjutage is conftant, it may be expreffed
by Va’ Now, (art. 150. note) the velocity in the.tube
is to the velocity at the adjutage as the area of their re-
fpeftive fe&ions, that is, as the fquare of the diameter
of the one is to the fquare of the diameter of the other.
Therefore, \/a : £ = D* : d\ and consequently b —
c!ldzJt. If there is another tube and another adjutage,
the correfponding quantities may be the fame letters in
the Greek charader, viz. A, $, *, /3, and we ihall have
the equation /3 • If we wiih, therefore, that the
two jets be furnilhed in the fame manner, then if the
velocity in the firft tube leaves to the firft jet all the
height poffible, the velocity in the fecond tube leaves
alfo to the fecond jet all the height poffible, and we
dx \l a tt tv» * 2  
fhall have £=/3, or ~-= Hence D : A ~
ddfa '.Ufa, that is, the fquares of the diameters of
the horizontal tubes ought to be to one another m the
compound ratio of the fquares of the diameters of the ad¬
jutages, and the fquare roots of the altitudes of the refer-
HYDRODYNAMI
750
mem7rn ^OW* It: aPPears frcm the experiments of Ma-
tbe Motion n,0.tte (Tra‘te' (lc mouvement des eaux), that when the
of Fluids Y^tude of the refervoir is 16 feet, and the diameter of
—v   t^le adjutage fix lines, the diameter of the horizontal
tube ought to be 28 lines and a half. By taking this
as a ilandard, therefore, the diameters of the horizontal
tube may be eafily found by the preceding rule, what¬
ever be the altitude of the refervoir and the diameter
of the adjutage.
It refults from the three laft experiments, that the
jets rife to the fmaller height when the adjutage is
a cylindrical tube (fee D fig. 6.), that a conical adju¬
tage throws the fluid very much higher, and that when
the adjutage is a fimple orifice the jet riles higheft of
198. By comparing the preceding experiments with
Fig. 6, fhofe of Mariotte, it appears, that the differences be¬
tween the heights of vertical jets, and the heights of the
refervoir, are nearly as the fquares of the heights of the
jets. 1 hus, ab : cd—lLb1: Ya1 j therefore, if a i be
known by experiment, we fhall have and
. # EZ/
by adding c d to F */, we fhall have the altitude of the
refervoir. But if F c were given, and it were required
to find Yd, the height of the jet, we have, by the pre-
Yb2Xcd
ceding analogy, Yd*z=   . But c^/is an unknown
a b
quantity, and is equal to Fc—F^/,therefore, by fubffitution,
Eb*
F./1-
Eb1 x Yc—Yd
  FA1  
Fd\x±f-xEJ=-
xYc
a b ’ ^ a b ^‘ a fa
which is evidently a quadratic equation, which, after re-
duflion, becomes Yd—Et1 xYc E Id E b*
ab 4 2 *
A fmall in- 199- From a comparifon of the 5th and 6th columns
clination of of the table, it appears that a fmall inclination of the
thejet in- jet> to a vert;cai lJnej makes it rife higher than when it
afeends exaflly vertical (k) ; but even then it ftill falls
fliort of the height of the refervoir. When the water
firft efcapes from the adjutage, it generally fprings higher
than the refervoir ; but this effeft is merely momentary,
as the jet inftantly fubfides, and continues at the alti-
- tudes exhibited in the foregoing table. The great fize
than the'61 t^le jet at *tS ^ormat*on» an<i kjs fubfequent dimi-
refervoirat nutj°n» kave been aferibed by fome philofophers to the
its com- elaflicity of the air which follows the w7ater in its paf-
mence- fage through the orifice j but it is obvious, that this air,
which moves along with the fluid, can never give it an
impulfive force. In order to explain this phenomenon,
let us fuppofe the adjutage to be flopped then the air
which the water drags along wuth it, will lodge itfelf
at the extremity of the adjutage, fo that there will be
no water contiguous to the body which covers the ori¬
fice. As foon as the cover is removed from the adju¬
tage, the imprifoned air efcapes; the water immediate¬
ly behind it ruihes into the fpace which it leaves, and
thus acquires in the tube a certain velocity which in-
creafes at the orifice in the ratio of the area of the fec-
tion of the tube to the area of the fedion of the orifice
(art. 150. note). When the orifice is fmall in compa-
creafes its
altitude.
The jet
ment.
M I C S. Part If.
nfon with the tube, the velocity of the iiluing fluid muff Experi-
be confiderable, and will raife it higher than the re- ment5 on
fervoir. But as the jet is refilled by the air, and re-thf
tarded by the defending fluid, its altitude diminifhes, v°-
and the fimple preflure of the fluid becomes the only
permanent fource of its velocity. The preceding phe¬
nomenon was firft noticed by Torricellius *, who feems * Dt Mot*
to aferibe the diminution in the altitude of the jet to the Projeao-
gravity of the defeending particles. rum‘ Oper.
2CO. The following table exhibits all that is neceffary Gecmel'
in the formation of jets. The two firft columns are taken IJ' 192‘
from Mariotte f, and fhew the altitude of the refervoir f Traite du
requifite to producing a jet of a certain height. 1 he Mouvtment
third column contains, in Paris pints, 36 of which are*'" Eaux'
equal to. a cubic foot, the quantity of water difeharged ^
in a minute by an orifice fix lines in diameter. The 1 ^A
fourth column, computed from the hypothefis in art. 197. 0
contains the diameters of the horizontal tubes for an
adjutage fix lines in diameter, relative to the altitudes
in the.fecond column. The thicknefs of the horizontal
tubes will be determined in a fubfequent lection.
Table XII. Containing the Altitudes of Refervoirs, the
Diameters of the Horizontal Tubes, <b'c. for Jets of
different heights.
Altitude of
the jet.
Paris Feet.
5
10
20
25
3°
35
40
45
5°
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
95
100
Altitude of the
refervoir.
Feet, inches.
5 1
10
15
21
27
33
39
45
51
58
65
72
79
86
93
101
109
117
I25
I33
Quantity of wa
ter difcharged
in a minute from
an adjutage 6
fines in diam.
Pans Pint*.
32
45
56
65
73
81
88
95
101
108
II4
120
I25
I3I
136
142
J47
I52
*58
163
Diameters of the
horizontal tube'
fuited to the two
preceding co¬
lumns.
Line*
21
26
28
31
33
34
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
201. We have already feen that jets do not rife to
the heights of their refervoirs; and have remarked
that the difference between theory and experiment arifes
from the friction at the orifice, and the refiltance of the
air. The diminution of velocity produced by fridtion
is very fmall, and the refiltance of the air is a~yery in-
confiderable
(k) This was alfo obferved by Wolfius, Opera Mathematica, tom. i. p. 802. Schol. iv.
I
t
Chap. II. H Y D K O D
Experi- confiderable fource of retardation, unlefs when the jet
ment-ior. rifes to a great altitude. We muft feek therefore for
thf ??°r another caufe of obftrudfion to the rifmg jet, which
 u‘ ‘s'. when combined with thefe, may be adequate to the ef-
* Wolfii fe£t produced. Wolfius* has very properly afcribed
Opera Ma- the diminution in the altitude of the jet to the gravity
themat. tom. 0f the falling water. When the velocity of the fore-
moll particles is completely fpent, thofe immediately
C ° behind by impinging againft them lofe their velocity,
and, in confequence of this conftant ftruggle between
the afeending and defeending fluid, the jet continues
at an altitude lefs than that of the refervoir. Hence
we may difeover the reafon why an inclination of the
jet increafesits altitude ; for the defeending fluid falling
a little to one fide does not encounter the rifing parti¬
cles, and therefore permits them to reach a greater alti¬
tude than when their afeenfion is in a vertical line.
Wolfius obferves, in proof of his remark that the di¬
minution is occafloned alfo by the weight of the afeend¬
ing fluid, that mercury rifes to a lefs height than water:
but this cannot be owing to the greater fpecific gravity
of mercury 5, for though the weight of the mercurial
particles is greater than that of water, yet the mo¬
mentum with which they afeend is proportionally great¬
er, and therefore the refiflance which oppofes their ten¬
dency downwards, has the fame relation to their gravi¬
ty, as the refiftance in the cafe of water has to the
weight of the aqueous particles.
20 2. The theory of oblique jets has already been
mention difeuffed in Prop. IX. art. 161. The two following ex-
obliquejets. periments of Boffut contain all that is neceffary to be
known in pradlice. When the height NS of the refer-
Vvvttt voir AB was 9 feet, and the diameter of the adjutage at
PjV 2 N, 6 lines, a vertical abfciiTa CN of 4 feet 3 inches and
7 lines, anfvvered to a horizontal ordinate CT of 11 feet
3 inches and 3 lines. When the altitude NS of the
refervoir was 4 feet, the adjutage remaining the fame, a
vertical abfeifla CN of 4 feet 3 inches and 7 lines, cor-
refponded with a horizontal ordinate CT of 8 feet 2inches
and 8 lines. The real amplitudes, therefore, are lefs than
thofe deduced from theory ; and-both are very nearly
as the fquare roots of the altitudes of the refervoirs.
Hence, to find the amplitude of a jet when the height
of the refervoir is 10 feet, and the vertical abfeiffa the
Y N A M I C S. 75i
fame, we have feet : 4/16 feet~il feet 3 inches E'pe 1-
3 lines : 15 feet 4 lines, the amplitude of the jet re- ™
quired. This rule, however, wall apply only to fmall ot nuids.
refervoirs j for when the jets enlarge, the curve which ——v
they deferibe cannot be determined by theory, and
therefore the relation between the amplitudes and the
heights of the refervoirs mufl: be uncertain.
Sect. V. Experiments on the Motion of Water in Con¬
duit Pipes.
203. The experiments of the chevalier de Buat, will
be given at great length in the article WATER-Worksy
for which we have been indebted to the late learned
Dr Robifon. That the reader, however, may be in
poffeflion of every thing valuable on a fubjedt of fuch
public importance, we {hall at prefent give a concife
view of the experiments of Couplet and Boffut, and of
the pradtical conclufions which they authorize us to
form.
204. It muft be evident to every reader, that, wdien
water is condudled from a refervoir by means of a long
horizontal pipe, the velocity with which the water en¬
ters the pipe will be much greater than the velocity
with which it iflues from its farther extremity ; and,
that if the pipe has various flexures or bendings, the ve¬
locity with which the water leaves the pipe will be ftill
farther diminiftied. The difference, therefore, between
the initial velocity of the water, and the velocity with
which it iffues, will increafe with the length of the pipe
and the number of its flexures. By means of the
theory, corredled by the preceding experiments, it is
eafy to determine with great accuracy the initial velo¬
city of the water, or that with which it enters the
pipe 5 but on the obftrudlions which the fluid experi¬
ences in its progrefs through the pipe, and on the caufes
of thefe obftrudtions, theory throws but a feeble light.
The experiments of Boffut afford much inftrudfion on
this fubjedt *, and it is from them that we have arranged
the following table, containing the quantities of water
difeharged by pipes of different lengths and diameters,
compared with the quantities difeharged from additional
tubes.
Table
HYDRODYNAMICS.
752 HYDRODYNAMICS. Part II.
Expeii- Experi-
the Motion Table XIII.—Containing the Quantities of tVater difcharged by Conduit Pipes of different lengths and dianteters, the Motion
of Fluids.
compared with the Quantities difcharged from additional tubes inferted in the fame Refervoir.
of Fluids.
Conftant
altitude of
the water
n the refer¬
voir above
the axis ot
the tube.
Feet.
Length of
the conduit
Pipes.
Feet.
Quantity of
water dif¬
charged in a
minute by an
additional
tube.
Quantity of
water dif¬
charged by
the conduit
pipe in a mi¬
nute
Tuoe and pipe 16 lines dia>
Cubic Inches.
Cubic Inches
Ratio between
the quantities of
water furniflied
by the tube and
the p pe of 16
line1; diameter.
Quantity of
water dif¬
charged by
an additional
lube in a mi¬
nute
Quantity of
water dif¬
charged by
the coflduit
pipe in a mi¬
nute.
Tube and pipe 24 line^ dtam.
Cubic Inches. Cubic Inches
Ratio betiveen
the quantities of
Water furnifhed
by the tube and
the pipe of 24
lines diameter.
3°
•60
90
120
150
180
3°
60
90
120
180
633°
6330
6.33°
633°
633°
633°
8939
8939
8939
8939
8939
8939
2778
1957
1587
1178
1052
4066
2888
23 52
2011
1762
1583
1 to .4389
t to .3091
I to .2507
I to .2134
I to .1861
I to .1662
I to .4548
I to
I to
I to
I to
1 to
‘3231
.2631
.22 CO
.1971
.177°
M243
I4243
M243
14243
14243
M243
2011 2
2011 2
201X2
201X2
201X2
201X2
7680
5564
4534
3944
3486
11219
8190
6812
5885
5232
47IQ
1 to .5392
I to .3906
I to .3183
I to .2769
I to .2448
I to .2190
I to .5578
I to .4072
I to .3387
I to .2926
I to .2601
I to .2341
8
from'the0115 20^’ column of the preceding table contains
preceding t^ie quantity of water difcharged through an additional
table. cylindrical tube 16 lines in diameter, or the quantity
difcharged from the refervoir into a conduit pipe of
the fame diameter; and the fourth column contains the
quantity difcharged by the conduit pipe. The fifth
column therefore, which contains the ratio between
thefe quantities, will alfo contain the ratio between
the velocity of the water at its entrance into the con¬
duit pipe, which we lhall afterwards call its initial ve¬
locity, and its velocity when it iflues from the pipe,
which (hall be denominated its final velocity; for
the velocities are as the quantities difcharged, when
the orifices are the fame. The fame may be laid of the
6th, 7th, and 8th columns, with this difference only,
that they apply to a cylindrical tube and a conduit
pipe 24 lines in diameter.
Caufeofthe 206. By examining fome of the experiments in the
retardation f0reg0;ng table, it will appear, that the water fometimes
•in moving ^°^es Toths of its initial velocity. The velocity thus
loft is con fumed by the friflion of the water on the fides of
the pipe, as the quantities difcharged, and confequently
the velocities, diminifh when the length of the pipe is in-
creafed. In fimple orifices, the friftion is in the mverfe ra¬
tio of their diameter 5 and it appears from the table, that
the velocity of the water is more retarded in the pipe 16
lines in diameter, than in the other, which has a dia¬
meter of 24 lines. But though the velocity decreafes
•when the length of the tube is increafed, it by no
means decreafes in a regular arithmetical progreffion,
as fome authors have maintained. This is obvious
from the table, from which it appears, that the differ¬
ences between the quantities diicharged, which repre-
fent alfo the differences between the velocities, always
(kcreafet whereas the differences would have been equal,
2
pipes.
had the velocities decreafed in an arithmetical progref
fion. The fame truth is capable of a phyfical explana¬
tion. If every filament of the duid rubbed againft the
fides of the conduit pipe, then, fince in equal times they
all experience the fame degree of fridlion, the velocities
muff diminilh in the direft ratio of the lengths of the
tubes, and will form a regular arithmetical progreffion,
of which the firft term will be the final, and the
laft the initial velocity of the water. But it is only the
lateral filaments that are expofed to friftion. This re¬
tards their motion j and the adjacent filaments which
do not touch the pipe, by their adhefion to thofe which
do touch it, experience alfo a retardation, but in a lefs
degree, and go on with the reft, each filament fuftain-
ing a diminution of velocity inverfely proportional to
its diftance from the fides of the pipe. The lateral
filaments alone, therefore, provided they always remain
in contaft with the fides of the pipe, will have their
velocities diminilhed in arithmetical progreflion, while
the velocities of the central filaments will not decreafe
in a much flower progreflidn 5 confequently, the mean
velocity of the fluid, or that to which the quantities
difcharged are proportional, will decreafe lefs rapidly
than the terms of an arithmetical progreflion.
207. When the altitude of the refervoir was two feet, The retar-
the diminution of difeharge, and confequently of velocity, dation de-
was greater than when the height of the refervoir was ®illI1jM:s as
only one foot. The caufe of this is manifeft. Fri&ion ^P refer!
increafes with the velocity, becaufe a greater number voir in-
of obftrudtions are encountered in a certain time, and creafes.
the velocities are as the fquare roots of the altitudes *,
therefore friftion mull alfo be as the fquare roots of the
altitudes of the relervoir. On fome occalions Coulomb
found that the fri&ion of folid bodies diminilhed with
an augmentation of velocity, but there is no ground
for
Chap. II.
H Y D R O D
Experi- for fupponng that this takes place in the cafe of
raents on fluids.
^of Fluids. When the pipe is inclined to the horizon, as
i i „ > CGh, the water will move with a greater velocity than
In inclined in the horizontal tube CG h f In the former cafe, the
P’P5*.the relative gravity of the water, which is to its abfolute
the'flimUs grav*1:y as F./’to Cfy or as the height of the inclined
increafed plane to its length, accelerates its motion along the tube,
by its rela- But this acceleration takes place only when the inclina-
tivegiavity. tion is conliderable j for if the angle which the direc~
Plate tion of the pipe forms with the horizon were no
vP„L^VIII*more than one degree> the retardation of fri&ion would
completely counterbalance the acceleration of gravity.
1 hus when the pipe CF, 16 lines in diameter, was 177
feet, and was divided into three equal parts in the points
D and E, fo that CD was 59 feet, CE 118 feet j and
when CF was to F/^as 2124 to 241, the quantity of
water difcharged at F was 5795 cubic inches in a mi-
nute, the quantity difcharged at E was 5801 cubic
inches in a minute, and the quantity at D 5808 cubic
Fig. 7.
Y N A M I C S. 753
inches. The quantities difcharged therefore, and con- Experi-.
fequently the velocities, decreafed from C to F; whereas ,me^s on
if there had been no fridlion, and no adhefion between1 ^ Fl“^n
the aqueous particles, the velocities would have increaf-. ——v— >
ed along the line CF in the fubduplicate ratio of the Fridlion de¬
altitudes CB, Dwz, E//, and Fo; AB being the fur-ftr°ys dns
face of the water in the refervoir. The preceding
numbers, reprefenting the quantities difcharged at F, E, when t'he
and D, decreafe very llowly ; confequently by increafing inclination
the relative gravity of the water, that is, by inclining of the pipe
the tube more to the horizon, the effects of friction mayis 6° 3l/'
be exadtly counterbalanced. This happens when the
angle fCY is about 6° 31', or when Fyis the eighth
or ninth part of CF. The quantities difcharged at
C, D, E, and F, will be then equal, and fri£tion will
have confumed the velocity ariling from the relative
gravity of the included water.
209. In order to determine the effects produced by-
flexures or flnuoflties in conduit pipes, M. Boffut made
the following experiments.
Table XIV. Shewing the Quantities of Water difcharged hij reBilinea! and curvilineal Pipes 50 Feet long, and
I Inch in Diameter.
Experi¬
ments with
curvilineal
pipes.
Altitude of
the Wat r
in the Re¬
fervoir.
Feet. Inches
O 4
Form of the conduit Pipes.—-See Figures S. and 9.
The redtilineal tube MN placed horizontally,
The fame tube fimilarly placed,
The fame tube bent into the curvilineal form ABC,
fig. 8. each flexure lying flat on a horizontal plane,
ABC being a horizontal fedlion,
The fame tube fimilarly placed,
The fame tube placed as in fig. 9. where ABCD is a
vertical fedtion, the parts A, B, C, D rifing above a
horizontal plane, and the parts ay b, c lying upon it,
The fame tube fimilarly placed,
Quantities
of Water
difcharged
in a Minute.
Cubic Inches
576
IO50
540
IO3O
520
1028
210. 1. The two firfi: experiments of the foregoing
table ffiew, that the quantities difcharged diminilh as
the altitude of the refervoir. This arifes from an
increafe of velocity, w'hich produces an increafe of
friction.
2. The four firft experiments (hew, that a curvili¬
neal pipe, in which the flexures lie horizontally, dif-
charges lefs water than a redtilineal pipe of the fame
length. The fridtion being the fame in both cafes, this
difterence muff arife from the impulfe of the fluid
againft the angles of the tube-, for if the tube formed
an accurate curve, it is demonftrable that the curva¬
ture would not diminifti the velocity of the wrater.
3. By comparing the iff and 5th, and the 2d and
6th experiments, it appears, that when the flexures are
vertical, the quantity difcharged is diminiflied. This
alfo arifes from the imperfedtion of curvature.
4. It appears from a comparifon of the 3d and 5th,
with the 4th and 6th experiments, that when the flex¬
ures are vertical the quantity difcharged is lefs than
when they are horizontal. In the former cafe, the mo¬
rion of the fluid arifes from the central impulfion of the
Vol. X. Part II.
water, retarded by its gravity in the afeending parts of
the pipe, and accelerated in the defeending parts j where¬
as the motion, in the latter cafe, arifes wholly from the
central impulfion of the fluid. To thefe points of differ¬
ence the diminution of velocity may fomehow or other
be owing.
When a large pipe has a number of contrary flexures,
the air fometimes mixes with the water, and* occupies
the higheft parts of each flexure as at B and C, fig. 9. By Fig. 9.
this means the velocity of the fluid is greatly retarded,
and the quantities difcharged much diminiflied. This
ought to be prevented by placing fmail tubes at B and
C, having a fmall valve at their top.
211. A fet of valuable experiments on a large fcaleFxperi-
were made by M. Couplet upon the motion of water intrien:s of
conduit pipes, and are detailed in the Memoirs of the CouPlet"
Academy for 1732, in his paper entitledDer Recherches
fur /<• mouvement des eaux dans les tuyaux de conduite.
Thefe experiments are combined with thofe of the Abbe
Boifut in the following table, which gives a diftinft
view of all that they have done on this fubjeft, and will
be of great ufe to the practical hydraulift.
Table
754-
Esperi-
HfYDRODYMAMICS.
Part II.
Espei i-
th^Motion * Containing the refults of the Experiments of Couplet and Bq/fut on Conduit Pipei differing in form^ length, ments on
of Fluids'1 diameter, and in the materials of which they are compofed,—under different Altitudes of water in the Refervoir. t^£pj0^0a
Table con¬
taining tbe
refults of
the experi¬
ments of
Couplet ami
jBofiut on
conduit
pipes of va¬
rious kinds
Ahitude of the
Water in the
Refervoir.
Feet. Inch. Linel.
O 4 0
I
O
I
o
I
1
2
1
2
20
*3
6
z
2
O
O
O
O
I
1
2
12
O
4
o
4
o
o
o
o
o
II
4 8
8 4
9 °
9 °
7 °
3 °
5 3
5 7
ii 4
4 9
9 1
i o
1 3
12 i 3
4 7 6
20 3 o
Length
of the
Conduit
Pipe.
Feet.
5°
5°
5°
5°
5°
5°
180
180
180
180
177
118
1S9
1782
1782
1782
1710
1710
7020
7020
7020
7020
7020
3600
3600
4740
14040
Diame¬
ter of
vhe Con¬
duit
Pipes.
Lines.
12
12
I 2
12
12
12
l6
16
24
24
16
l6
l6
48
48
48
72
60
60
60
60
60
144
216
216
144
Nature, Pofition, and Form of the Conduit Pipes.
RefHHneal and horizontal pipe made of lead,
The fame pipe limilarly placed,
The fame pipe with feveral horizontal flexures,
Same pipe,
The fame pipe with feveral vertical flexures,
Same pipe,
Reftilineal and horizontal pipe made of white iron,
Same pipe,
Reflilineal and horizor>tal pipe made of white iron,
Same pipe,
Reftilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined fo that CF
(fig. 7.) is to F/'as 2124 is 241,
Redlilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the lafl:,
Redlilineal pipe made of white iron, and inclined like the lafl:,
Conduit pipe almoft entirely of iron, with feveral flexures both
horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe almoft entirely of iron, with feveral flexures both
horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe, partly ftone and partly lead, with feveral flexures
both horizontal and vertical,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Same pipe,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with flexures both horizontal and
vertical,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with feveral flexures both horizon¬
tal and vertical,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with feveral flexures both horizon¬
tal and vertical,
Conduit pipe made of iron, with feveral flexures both horizon¬
tal and vertical,
Ratio between the
Quantities which
would be difehar-
gedifthe Fluid ex¬
perienced no rdif-
tance in the pipes,
and the Quantities
actually difehar-
ged;—ortheRatio
between the ini¬
tial and the final
Velocities of the
Fluid.
to 0.281
to O.305
to 0.264
to 0.291
to 0.254
to 0.290
fo o.i 66
to 0.177
to 0.218
to 0.234
I to 0.2000
I to 0.2500
I to 0.354
I to 0.350
I to 0.0376
I to 0.0387
I to 0.0809
I to 0.0878
I to 0.0432
I to 0.0476
I to 0.0513
I to 0.0532
I to 0.0541
I to 0.0992
I to 0.1653
I to 0.0989
I to c.0517
Application 21 2. In order to (hew the application of the preceding
and life of refults, let us fuppofe, that a fpring, or a number of
the prec< d- fpringS combined, furnilhes 40,000 cubic inches of w?a-
ing table. ter jn one mjnute . an3 that it is required to conduff
it to a given place 4 feet below' the level of the
fpring, and fo fituated that the length of the pipe muft
be 2400 feet. It appears from Table VI. art. 185. that
the quantity of w'ater furniftied in a minute by a (hort
cylindrical tube, vchen the altitude of the fluid in the
refervoir is 4 feet, is 7070 cubic inches; and lince the
quantities furnifhed by two cylindrical pipes under the
fame altitude of water are as the fquares of their dia¬
meters, we (hall have by the following analogy the dia¬
meter of the tube necelfary for difeharging 40,000 cu¬
bic inches in a minute 5 1/70720 : ^40000—12 lines
or 1 inch : 28.4 lines, the diameter required. But by
comparing fome of the experiments in the preceding
table, it appears, that when the length of the pipe is
nearly 2400 feet, it will admit only about one-eighth of
the water, that is, about 5000 cubic inches. T hat the
pipe, however, may tranfmit the whole 40000 cubic
inches, its diameter muft be increafed. . The following
analogy,therefore, will furnifti us wfith this new diameter 5
5000: -1/40000;= 28.54 lines : 80.73 lines, or 6 inches
O^r-zr
Chap. n. HYDRODYNAMICS.
Experi- 8 r^- lines, the diameter of the pipe which will difeharge
755
ments on 4000o cub. inches of water when its length is 2400 feet,
flie Motion ^ _
of Fluids. SF.CT. VI. Experiments on the Prejfurc exerted upon Pipes
1—'"v 1 by the vjaler which Jlows through them.
Experi¬
ments on 213. The preflkre exerted upon the fides of conduit
the preflure pjpgsby the included water, has been already inveftigated
^iipesm£ theoretically in Prop. X. Part II. The only way of
afeertaining by experiment the magnitude of this lateral
preffure is to make an orifice in the fide of the pipe,
and find the quantity of water which it discharges in a Expen-^
given time. This lateral preffure is the force^ which the MotioM
impels the water through the orifice} and therefore the 0f p[llic[.-
quantity difeharged, or the effeft produced, muff be al- 1
ways proportional to that preflure as its producing
caufe, and may be employed to reprefent it. I he fol¬
lowing table, founded on the experiments of Boffut, con¬
tains the quantities of water difeharged from a lateral
orifice about 3^ lines in diameter, according to theory
and experiment.
Table XVI. Containing the Quantities difeharged by a Lateral Orifice, or the Prejfures on the Sides of Piper,
according to Theory and Experiment.
altitude
of the
Water in
the Re-
fervoir.
Length
of the
Conduit
Pipe.
Feet.
I
I
I
I
I
1
2
2
2
2
2
2
Feet.
30
60
90
120
I5°
180
3°
60
90
120'
lS°
180
Quantities of Water
difeharged in 1 Mi¬
nute, according to
Theory.
Quantities of Water
dilcharged in 1 Mi¬
nute according to
Experiment.
Cubic Inches.
176
186
190
191
192
*93
244
259
264
267
268
269
Cubic Inches.
I7I
186
190
191
J93
194
240
256
261
264
26;
266
It appears from the preceding table, that the real
lateral preflure in conduit pipes differs very little from
that which is1 computed from the formula j but in. or¬
der that this accordance may take place, the orifice
muft be fo perforated, that its circumference is exactly
perpendicular to the direction of the wrater, otheiwife a
portion of the water difeharged would be owing to the
direft motion of the included fluid.
SectIVII. Expe r im en Is on the Motion of Water in Canals.
Experi- 2U- Among the numerous experiments which have
ments on keen male on this important fubjeft, thofe of the Abbe
of wafer m Boifotleem entitled to the greateit confidence. His expe-
hodzonta? rime, w were made on a rectangular canal 105 feet long
canals. long, 5 inches broad at the bottom, and from 8 to 9
inches deep* The orifice which tranfmitted the w&’-
ter from the refervoif into the canal was rectangular,
having its horizontal bafe conftantly 5 inches, and its
vertical height fometimes half an inch, and at other
times an inch. The fides of this orifice were made of
copper, and rifing perpendicularly from the fide of the
refervoir they formed two vertical planes parallel to each
other. This projecting orifice was fitted into the canal,
which was divided into 5 equal parts of 21 feet each,
and alfo into 3 equal parts of 35, and the time was
noted which the w-ater employed in reaching thefe
points of divifion. The arrival of the water at thefe
points was fignified by the motion of a very fmall water
wheel placed at each, and impelled by the Itream.
When the canal was horizontal^ the following refults
were obtained.
Table XVII. Containing the Velocity of Water in a ReBangular Hori%ontal Canal 105 Feet long, under different
Altitudes of Fluid in the Refervoir.
Redu&ions
from the
Altitude of the water 1 Ft. In.
in the refervoir. j 11 8
Verticalbreadthof the "I
orifice. 3
inch
Ft. In. \ Ft. In.
7 8!38
4 an inch. 1 i an inch.
I
Ft. In.
11 8
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
3 8
inch.
1 inch.
Time in which the f 2"
number of feet in 5—
column feventh are <| I o—
run through by the j 16—
water. L 23
3-
7
13—
20—
28-f
3"+
9
17 +
27 +
38 +
2"
h
4
7
11
16 ’
2" +
5
9
J4
20
1 inch.
3 -
6 +
11 +
18-j-
26
Space run through
by the water.
Feet.
21
42
63
84
215. It appears from column ift, that the times fuccef-
preceding fively employed to run through fpaces of 21 feet each, are
mt'nts’ as tlie Ilum5jcxs 2> 3—> 5> 6, 7 +, which form nearly an
arithmetical progreflion, vvhofe terms differ nearly by r,
fo that by continuing the progreflion we may determine
very nearly the time in which the fluid would run
5 C 2 through
756
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
through any nunihrer of feet not contained in the yth
column. The fame may be done with the other co¬
lumns of the table.
Jf w^e compute theoretically the time whichthe wa¬
ter Ihould employ in running through the whole length
of the canal, or 105 feet, we (hall find, that under the
circumftances for each column of the preceding table
the times, reckoning from the firft column, are 6".3 $o,
7".834,_ii/'33o, 6".35o, ii"33C. It ap¬
pears, therefore, by comparing thefe times with thefe
found by experiment, that the velocity of the ftream is
very much retarded by friftion, and that this retarda-
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Part IT.
tion is lefs as the breadth of the orifice is increafed j for Expert- *
fince a greater quantity of w?ater iffues in this cafe from ments on
the refervoir, it has more power to overcome the ob-the Motio11
ftacles which obftrudl its progrefs. The figns + and ,of FllI!ds- f
affixed to the numbers in the preceding table indi¬
cate, that theie numbers are a little too great or too finall.
216. f he following experiments were made on inclined Experf-
canals with different declivities, and wall be of great on
ufe to the practical hydraulift. The inclination of thethe ve!oci«7
canal is the vertical diftance of one of its extremities^wateria
from a horizontal line which paffes through its othercanabT1
extremity.
Table of the
velocity oi
water in
redlangu-
lar inclined
canals.
Table XVII I. Containing the Velocity of Water in a Rett angular inclined Canal 105 Feet long, and under differ¬
ent ffkitudes of Fluid in the Refervoir.
Altitude of w’ater in
the refervoir.
In.
8
Inclination of the
canal.
In.
3
Ft. In.
7 8
Ft. In.
3 8
Ft. In.
0 3
Ft. In.
0 3
Height of the orifice \ ^ .
4- an inch. 11 -j-
22
Inclination of the
canal.
{Fo
In.
6
Height of the orifice
1 inch.
ificej 3'
4"+
T4 +
2(5
Ft. In.
o 6
6"+
184-
34 +
Ft. In.
11 8
Ft. In.
o 6
Ft. In.
7 §
Ft. In.
o 6
Ft. In.
3 8
Ft. In.
o 6
3U X
T
114-
Fa In.
o 6
4"—
9 +
ip-
inclination of the
canal.
S Ft. In.
1 2 o
Height of the orifice j 2
I inch. i 7
J3
Inclination of the
canal.
n-
In.
o
Height of the orifice J 2 -f-
1 inch.
1
6
10
Inclination of the
canal.
Feet.
11
In the three firft co¬
lumns the height
of the orifice was
4. an inch, and in
the three laft 1
inch.
Half fee.
2 +
7
12
17
21 +
Inclination
canal.
of the
Feet.
11
Height of the orifice
14 inches.
Halffee.
2
5
8 +
12
I5 +
Ft. In.
2 O
4-
9—
J5—
Ft. In.
6 o
3
7 +
12
Feet.
11
Half fee.
3 +
8 +
J3 +
18-j-
23 +
Feet.
11
Half fee.
3—
6
10—
*3 +
17
23-
Fa In,
1 o
3 -
7-f-
14
Fa In.
2 o
4
ioi
17i
Ft. In.
6 o
4
9—
14—
Feet.
11
Haffee.
4 +
10
16
22
28
Feet.
11
Halffee.
3 +
7
11 -f-
*5
20
Fa In.
4 °
2"+
64-
12
Fa In.
9 °
2"-f
6—
Feet.
11
Half fee,
2
5
9
J3
*7
4+
r4
25 +
Fa In.
1 o
4
9
16
6
18—
3r +
Fa In.
1 o
5-
12
21
Fa In.
4 o
3" +
8
T3
Fa In.
9 °
3" +
6i
10
Feet.
II
Half fee.
3 +
7
1 r
J9
Ft. In.
4 °
4+
9 +
Ft. In.
9 o
4 —
8 
12—
Feet.
11
Half fee.
3
8
13
18—
22
| Time in which ttie number of feetin ihelaft sol.js ru^hroughbytlwwaterrj
Space run through
by the Water.
Feet.
35
70
35
70
io5
35
7u
io5
35
70
i°5
21
42
63
84
105
21
42
63
84
105
Chap.
Experi-
II. II Y D R O D Y
21/. In the preceSing experiments the velocity of the
^ water that iifues from the refervoir was on-
but when the current is once eftablilhed,
merits on portion of water that iifues from the refervoir was on
,h??r,tnly°bfeved; • ' '  
. and its velocity permanent, it moves with greater ra-
*lhe veloci-piciity, and there is always a fixed proportion between
iy of the tbe velocity of the firit portion of water and the perma-
firft portion nent vejocity of the eftabliihed current. The caufe of
that iffees difference Boffut does not feem to have thoroughly
froni there-comprehended, when he afcribes it to a diminution of
fervoir is friction when 'the velocity becomes permanent. The
velocity of the firfi: portion of water that iffues from the
refervoir was meafured by its arrival at certain divifions
of the canal, confequently the velocity thus determined
was the mean velocity of the water. The velocity of
fcribes this t])e eitabliihed current, on the contrary, was meafured
to^adinrnu ^ bodies floating upon its furface, at the centre
t on of fric¬
tion.
lefs than
that of the
eftabliihed
current.
Boffut a-
757
Experi¬
ments on
the Motion
of Fluids.
N A M I C S.
of the canal, therefore the velocity thus determined was
the fuperjicial velocity of the ftream. But the veloci¬
ty of the fuperficial central filaments muff be the great-
ell of all, becaufe being at the greatell diltance from
the fides and bottom of the canal they are lefs affefled It is owing
by fridlion than any of the adjacent or inferior filaments,10 a
and are not retarded by the weight of any fuperincum- theyL^T^c/-
bent fluid. The fuperficial velocity of the current a/velocity
muft of confequence be greater than its mean velocity, havingbeen
or, in other words, the velocity of the eftablilhed cur- meafured in
rent muft exceed the velocity of the firft portion Oftlieonecajei
water. 1 he following table contains the experiments mean vei0_
of Boffut on this fubjeift ; the canal being of the fame city in the
fize as in the former experiments, but 600 feet long,01*161*
and its inclination one-tenth of the whole, or 59.702
feet.
Table XIX. Containing a Comparifon between the Velocity of the Firjl Portion of Water, and that of the Efa~
blijhcd Current.
Altitude of the
water in the
refei voir.
Vertical breadth of the orifice
1 inch.
Vel. oi the ift
portion of
water.
Vcl. of the
eftabliflied
current.
Vertical breadth of the orTice
2 inches.
Vel. of the 1 ft
poition of
water.
Vel. of the
efh.bliftiei
current.
Space run
through by
the water.
Feet Inches
4 °
Second'.
10
20 +
31—
42—
52 *^
62 +
11
23
35
46 +
58
69
12 +
25 T
39
11—
22
32
Seconds.
8
17
26
35
43 +
52
10
20
30
40
49
58
1 2
23 +
33
9
18—
27
Seconds.
8
!7
26
35—
43 +
52—
9
J9
29
39
49
58
J5
31
47
i3l
26!
394-
Seconds,
7
Mt
22
29 +
37—
44 +
8—
16
24 T
32
40
48
!3
264-
39t
23
334-
Feet.
100
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
300
400
500
600
100
200
3 00
100
200
300
The com- 218. In all the experiments related in this chapter, and
mon theoiy jn +ofe Gf the Chevalier Buat, which are given in the ar-
tioncft fluidstid6 WATER-Works, the temperature of the water em-
defedlive in ployed has never been taken into confideration. That
not confi- the fluidity of water is increafed by heat can fcarcely
dering the admit of a doubt. Profeffor Leflie, in his ingenious
ture^oi the PaPer on Capillary Adlion, has proved by experiment
water em- 3 jet warnl water will fpring much higher
ployed. than a jet of cold water, and that a fyphon which dif-
charges cold water only by drops, will difcharge water
of a high temperature in a continued ftream. A limi-
lar fa6t was obferved by the ancients. Plutarch (l) in Warm
particular affures us, that the clepfydrae or water clocks ter moves
went flower in winter than in fummer, and he feems to faffer t!iari
attribute this retardation to a diminution of fluidity..00^ water;
It is therefore obvious, that warm water will iffue from
an aperture with greater velocity than cold water, and
that the quantities of fluid difcharged from the fame
orifice, and under the fame, preffure, will increafe with
the temperature of the fluid. Hence we many dif-
cover the caufe of the great difcrepancy between the
experiments of different philofophers on the motion of
fluids.
(l) EXavvUTcc y#£ n fv^poryis to vSag ttohi tix^v y.xi trapiXTaiciis, us in tv a rxtq x-Xi^/v^xtg xxrxiixduv, fipxeitov yxp
itowo-i xh/xmos vi Sign;. Aquam enim impellent frigus gravem facit et crajfam, quod in clepfydris licet obfervare ;
Hirdius enim trahunt hyeme quam erf ate. Plutarch, Quef. Natural.
?58
On t’nc fluids
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Their experiments were performed in different
'cf Fkh'lT c^raates anc^ at different feafons of the year j and, as the
temperature of the water would be variable from thefe
and from other caufes, a variation in their refults was
the inevitable confequence.
219. The writer of this article has a fet of experiments
in view, by which he expeds to determine the precife
effects of heat upon the motion of fluids, and to furnifh
feds of heat the practical hydraulift with a more correct formula
on the mo- than that of the Chevalier Buat, for finding, under any
Experi¬
ments for
determin¬
ing the ef
tion of
fluids.
given circumftances, the velocity of water and the
quantities difeharged. He hopes alfo to be able to de¬
termine whether or not the friction of water in conduit
pipes varies, as in the cafe of folid bodies, with the na¬
ture of the fubflances of which the pipes are formed ;
and to afeertain the effefts of different unguents in di-
minifhing the refiftance of fridlion. The refult of thefe
experiments will probably be communicated in a fuh-
fequent article of this work.
Chap. III. On the Rejijlatice of Fluids.
^thefard 220‘ ^ art^e K-ESISTANCE the reader
cle Resist-wi^l ^lat important fubjeft treated at great length,
ance of and with great ability, by the late learned Dr Robifon.
Fluidt. The refearches of preceding philofophers are there
given in full detail ; their different theories are com¬
pared with experiments, and the defedls of thefe mi¬
nutely confidered. Since that article was compofed,
this intricate fubjeft has been inveftigated by other
writers, and though they have not enriched the fcience
of hydraulics with a legitimate theory of the refiftance
of fluids, the refults of their labours cannot fail to be in-
terefting to every philofopher.
ofCoidomb 2 21" celebrated Coulomb has very fuccefsfully em¬
ployed the principle of torfion, to determine the «ohe-
lion of fluids, and the laws of their refiflance in very
flow motions. His experiments are new, and were per¬
formed wdth the greateft accuracy ; and the refults
which he obtained wTere perfeftly conformable to the
dedudfions of theory. We iball therefore endeavour to
give the reader fome idea of the difeoveries which he
has made.
22 2. When a body is ftruck by a fluid with a velocity
exceeding eight or nine inches per fecond, the refiftance
has been found proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
city, whether the body in motion ftrikew the fluid at reft,
or the body is ftruck by the moving fluid. But when
the velocity is fo flow as not to exceed four-tenths of an
inch in a fecond, the refiftance is reprefented by two
terms, one of which is proportional to the Ample velo¬
city, and the ether to the fquare of the velocity. The
firft of thefe fources of refiftance arifes from the cohe-
fion of the fluid particles wdiich feparate from one ano¬
ther, the number of particles thus feparated being pro¬
portional to the velocity of the body. The other caufe
of refiftance is the inertia of the particles, which when
ftruck by the fluid, acquire a certain degree of velocity
proportional to the velocity of the body 5 and as the
number of thefe particles is alfo proportional to that ve¬
locity, the refiftance generated by their inertia muft
be proportional to the fquare of the velocity.
*Princifia. 223. When Sir Ifaac Newton* was determining the
Lb. ii. prop. refifl;ance ■which the air oppofed to the ofcillatory motion
of a globe in fmall ofcillatious, he employed a formula of
3
Fart II,
three terms, one of them being as the fquare of the ve- On the
locity, the fecond the \ power of the velocity, and the Refinance
third as the Ample velocity^ and fn another part of the °^‘U!^S‘,
work he reduces the formula to two terms, ,one of Opinions of
which is as the fquare of the velocity, and the other Newton,
conftant. D. Bernouilli {Comment. Petropol. tom. iii. Bernouilli,
and v.) alio fuppofes the refiftance to be reprefented by an£!Gravt^
two terms, one as the fquare of the velocity, and the0^6’
other conftant. M. Gravefende {Elements of Nat. Phil.
art. 1911), has found that the prelfure of a fluid in
motion againft a body in reft, is partly proportional to
the fimple velocity, and partly to the fquare of the ve¬
locity. But when the body moves in a fluid at reft, he
found (art. 1975) the refiftance proportional to the
fquare of the velocity, and to a conftant quantity.—
When the body in motion therefore, meets the fluid at
refl, thefe three philofophers have agreed, that the for¬
mula which reprefents the refiftance of fluids confifts of
two terms, one of which is as the fquare of the veloci¬
ty, and the other conftant. The experiments of Co«-
lomb, however, inconteftably prove, that the preffure
which the moving body in this cafe fuftains, is repre¬
fented by two terms, one proportional to the fimple ve¬
locity, and the other to its fquare, and that if there is a
conftant quantity, it is fo very fmall as to efcape de-
tedlion.
224. In order to apply the principle of torfion to the Apparatus
refiftance of fluids, M. Coulomb made ufe of the appa- employed in
ratus reprefented in fig. 1. On the horizontal arm Coulomb’s
LK, which may be fupported by a vertical ftand, is^fnts"
fixed the fmall circle f e, perforated in the centre, fo
as to admit the cylindrical pin b a. Into a flit in the CCLXIX
extremity of this pin is faftened, by means of a fcrew,Fig. r.
the brafs wire ag, whofe force of torfion is to be com¬
pared with the refiftance of the fluid ; and its lower ex¬
tremity is fixed in the fame way into a cylinder of cop¬
per gd, whofe diameter is about four-tenths of an inch.
The cylinder is perpendicular to the dife DS, whofe
circumference is divided into 480 equal parts. When
this horizontal dife is at reft, which happens when the
torfion of the brafs wire is nothing, the index RS is
placed upon the point o, the zero of the circular feale.
The fmall rule R m may be elevated or depreffed at
pleafure round its axis n, and the ftand GH which fup-
ports it may be brought into any pofition round the
horizontal dife. The lower extremity of the cylinder
g d\s immerfed about two inches in the velfel of water
MNOP, and to the extremity d\s, attached the planes,
or the bodies whofe refiftance is to be determined when
they ofcillate in the fluid by the torfion of the brafs
wire. In order to produce thefe ofcillations, the dife Method cf
DS, fupported by both hands, muft be turned gently ufing it.
round to a certain diftance from the index, without de¬
ranging the vertical pofition of the fufpended wire.
The dife is then left to itfelf; the force of torfion
caufes it to ofcillate, and the fucceflive diminution of
thefe ofcillations are carefully obferved. A fimple
formula gives in weights the force of torfion that
produces the ofcillations 5 and another formula well
known to geometers, determines (by an approximation
fufficiently accurate in practice), by means of the fuc--
ceflive diminution of the ofcillations compared with
their amplitude, what is the law of the refiftance, rela¬
tive to the velocity, which produces thefe diminu¬
tions.
The
Chap. HI.
rcfenibles
that em¬
ployed by
Newton
and other
On the 225. The method employed by Coulomb, in redu-
Refiftance c-np. experiments, is iimilar to that adopted by
of Fluids. ^e"Tton an(j 0ther mathematicians, when they wifhejl
Themethod to determine the refillance of fluids, from the fucceffive
adopted by diminutions of the ofcillations of a pendulum moving in
Coulomb a refilling medium ; but is much better fitted for de-
tefling the fmail quantities which are to be eftimated
in fuch refearches. When the pendulum is employed,
the fpecific gravity of the body, relative to that of the
fluid, mufl be determined j and the leaf! error in this
philofophers p0jnt ieaqs to very uncertain refults. When the pen-
ved°the of- dulum is in different points of the ai;c in which it of-
cillations cillates, the wire or pendulum rod is plunged more or
of a pendu- lefs in the fluid ; and the alterations which may refult
lum m re- from this are frequently more confiderable than the
Mmg me- pmaq quantities which are the object of refearch. It
is only in fmall ofcillations, too, that the force which
Difadvan- brings the pendulum from the vertical, is proportional to
tagesofa the angle which the pendulum rod, in different pofi-
pendulum. tjons^ forms wJth this vertical line 3 a condition which
is neceffary before the formulas can be applied. But
fmall ofcillations are attended with great difad vantages;
and their fucceflive diminutions cannot be determined
but by quantities which it is difficult to effimate ex¬
actly, and which are changed by the fmallefl: motion
either of the fluid in the veffel, or of the air in the
chamber. In fmall velocities, the pendulum rod expe¬
riences a greater refiftance at the point of floatation
than at any other part. This refiftance, too, is very
changeable 3 for the water rifes from its level along the
pendulum rod to greater or lefs heights, according to
the velocity of the pendulum.
Advantages 226. Thefe and other inconveniences which might
of compa- p,e mentioned, are fo infeparable from the ufe of the
ManceVf6* Pen<^u^uin» t^at Newton and Bernouilli have not been
fluids with ahle to determine the laws of the refiftance of fluids
the force of in very flow motions. When the refiftance of fluids
torfion. js compared with the force of torfion, thefe difadvan-
tages do not exift. The body is in this cafe entirely
immerfed in the fluid ; and as every point of its furface
ofcillates in a horizontal plane, the relation between
the denfities of the fluid and the ofcillating body has
no influence whatever on the moving force. One or
two circles of amplitude may be given to the ofcilla¬
tions 3 and their duration may be increafed at pleafure,
either by diminiftiing the diameter of the wire, or in-
creafing its length 3 or, which may be more convenient,
by augmenting the momentum of the horizontal dife.
, Coulomb, however, found that when each ofcillation
was fo long as to continue about 100 feconds, the leaft
motion of the fluid, or the tremor occafioned by the
pafling of a carriage, produced a fenfible alteration on
the refults. The ofcillations beft fitted for experiments
of this kind, continued from 20 to 30 feconds, and the
amplitude of thofe that gave the moft regular refults,
was comprehended between 480 degrees, the entire di-
vifion of the dife, and 8 or 10 divilions reckoned from
the zero of the feale. . From thefe oblervations it will
be readily feen, that it is only in very flow motions that
an ofcillating body can be employed for determining
the refiftance of fluids. In fmall ofcillations, or in quick
circular motions, the fluid ftruck by the body is conti¬
nually in motion 3 and when the ofcillating body returns
to its former pofition, its velocity is either increafed or
HYDRODYNAMICS. 759
retarded by the motion communicated to tile Hold, anti
not extinguiftied. . , , 0 of Fluids.
227. In the firft fet of experiments made by Cou¬
lomb, he attached to the lower extremity of the cylin-when the
der g d a. circular plate of white iron, about 195 milli-velocity is
metres in diameter, and made it move fo flowly, that^O
the part of the refiftance proportional to the fquare of the
the velocity, wholly difappeared. For if, in any parti- ance pro-
cular cafe, the portion of the reftftance proportional to portional to
the fimple velocity, Ihould be equal to the. portion that the fquare^
is proportional to the fquare of the velocity when the ^ty
body has a velocity of one-tenth of an inch per fecond 3 pears,
then, when the velocity is 100 tenths of an inch per
fecond, the part proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
city will be a hundred times greater than that, pro¬
portional to the fimple velocity ; but if the velocity is
only the loodth part of the tenth of an inch per .fe¬
cond, then the part proportional to the fimple velocity
will be 100 times greater than the part proportional
to the fquare of the velocity. _ , .
228. When the ofcillations of the white iron plate
were fo flow, that the part of the refiftance which vai'ies experiments
with the fecond power of the velocity was greatly in" on the re (in¬
ferior to the other part, he found, from a variety of ex- ance of wa-
periments, that the refiftance which diminiftied the ofcil- h°-
lations of the horizontal plate was uniformly proper- j^fXnov-
tional to the fimple velocity, and that the other part of ing round
the refiftance, which follows the ratio of the fquare of its centre in
the velocity, produced no fenfible change upon the mo-the plane of
tion of the white iron dife.—He found alfo, in eon-
formity with theory, that the momenta of refiftance in.
different circular plates moving round their centre in
fluid, are as the fourth power of the diameters of thefe
circles 3 and that, when a circle of 195 millimetres
(6.677 Englhh inches) in diameter, moved round its
centre in water, fo that its circumference had a ve¬
locity of 140 millimetres (5.512 Englifti inches) per
fecond, the momentum of refiftance which the fluid
oppofed to its circular motion was equal to one-tenth of
a gramme (1.544 Englifti troy grains) placed at the
end of a lever 143 millimetres (5.63 Englifti inches) in
length.
229. M. Coulomb repeated the fame experiments in similar re-
a veflel of clarified oil, at the temperature of 16 de-fult obtain-
grees of Reaumur. Fie found, as before, that the mo-ji^mclari-
menta of the refiftance of different circles, moving
round their centre in the plane of their fuperficies, were Rat:0 h<--
as the fourth power of their diameters 3 and that the XumXaXco-
difficulty with which the fame horizontal plate, moving hef10n 0f
with the fame velocity, feparated the particles of oil, ot the par-
was to the difficulty with which it feparated the parti- ncles of oil,
cles of water, as 17.5 to 1, which is therefore the ratio
that the mutual cohefion of the particles of oil has to fioa of- rhc'
the mutual cohefion of the particles of water. paiticiesof
230. In order to afeertain whether or not the refift-water,
ance of a body moving in a fluid was influenced by the The refill-
nature of its furface, M. Coulomb anointed the furface ‘ince in-
of the white iron plate with tallow, and wiped it part- XhXXatureX
ly away, fo that the thicknefs of the plate might not 0f ^ fur_
be fenlibly increafed. The plate was then made to lace of the
ofcillate in water, and the ofcillations were found to di- moving bo-
minifti in the fame manner as before the application of^^-
the unguent. Over the furface of the tallow upon the
plate, he afterwards fcattered, by means of a fieve, a
quantity
I
'760
t“e quantity of coarfe fand which adhered to the greafy fur-
nf Flukk ^acf 5 but vv^en t;‘le phate, thus prepared, was caufed to
  ofcillate, the augmentation of reliitance was fo fmall,
that it could fcarcely be appreciated. We may there¬
fore conclude, that the part of the refinance which is
proportional to the fimple velocity, is owing to the mu¬
tual adhefion of the particles of the fluid, and not to the
adhefion of thefe particles to the furface of the body,
j. , - 231. If the part of the refiftance varying with the
ments for 1'imP|e velocity were increafed w'hen the white iron plate
finding- if v'35 immerged at greater depths in the water, we might
the relift- luppofe it to be owing to the friction of the water on the
crerdVd b" lloriiionta! which, like the fridtion of folid bodies,
increaling ^10u^ proportional to the fuperincumbent preflure.
the fuper- ^ order to fettle this point, M. Coulomb made the
incumbent white iron plate ofcillate at the depth of tw^o centi-
ilmd. metres (.787 Englilh inches), and alfo at the depth of
50 centimeters (19.6855 Englifh inches), and found no
difference in the refiftance ; but as the furface of the wa¬
ter was loaded with the whole weight of the atmofphere,
and as an additional load of 50 centimetres of water could
fcarcely produce a perceptible augmentation of the re¬
fiftance, M. Coulomb employed another method of de¬
ciding the queftion. Having placed a veffelfullof wra-
ter under the receiver of an air-pump, the receiver hf-
ing furnifhed with a rod and collar of leather at its top,
he fixed to the hook, at the end of the rod, a harpfi-
ch@rd wire, numbered 7 in commerce, and fufpended to
it a cylinder of copper, like^, fig. 1. which plunged
in the water of the veffel, and under this cylinder he
fixed a circular plane, whofe diameter wms 101 milli¬
metres (3.976 Englifh inches). When the ofcillations
were finiflied, and confequently the force of torfion no¬
thing, the zero of torfion was marked by the aid of an
index fixed to the cylinder. The rod was then made
to turn quickly round through a complete circle, wEich
gave to the wire a complete circle of torfion, and the
fucceffive diminutions of the ofcillations were carefully
obferved. The diminution for a complete circle of tor¬
fion was found to be nearly a fourth part of the circle
for the firft ofcillation, but always the fame whether
the experiment was made in a vacuum or in the atmo¬
fphere. A fmall pallet 50 millimetres long (1.969
Englifh inches) and 10 millimetres broad, (0.3937
Englifh inches) wEich ftruck the water perpendicular
to its plane, furnifhed a fimilar refult. We may there¬
fore conclude, that when a fubmerged body moves in a
fluid, the preffure which it fuftains, meafured by the al¬
titude of the fuperior fluid, does not perceptibly increafe
the refiftance; and confequently, that the part of
this refiftance proportional to the fimple velocity, can
in no refpedl be compared with the fri&ion of foiid
bodies, wEich is always proportional to the prefiure.
232. The next objeft of M. Coulomb was to afcertain
ft ft an ce of’ tlie refiftance experienced by cylinders that moved
Cylinders veiT ^owl7» ^ perpendicular to their axes; but as the
movingper- particles of fluid ftruck by the cylinder neceffarily par-
pendicular took of its motion, it was impoflible to negleft the part
to their 0f the refiftance proportional to the fquare of the velo¬
city, and therefore he was obliged to perform the ex¬
periments in fuch a manner that both parts of the re¬
finance might be computed. The three cylinders
which he employed were 249 millimetres (.9803 Eng¬
lifh inches) long. The firft cylinder was '0.87 milli¬
metres (0.0342 Englifh inches or ,V of an inch) in
Part II/
circumference, the fecond it.2 millimetres (.04409 On the
Englifh inches), and the third zi.l millimetres Refiftance
(.88307 Englfth inches). They were fixed by their F‘ul(is-
middle under the cylindrical piece dg, fo as to form two The refift-
horizontal radii, v.Eofe length wras 124.5 millimetresance due to
( .4901 Englifh inches) or half the length of each Cy-the
linder. After making the necefiary experiments andve!ocity iS
computations, he found that the part of the refiftance "oniTm the
proportional to the fimple velocity, which, to avoid cir-circumfer.
cumlocution, we fhall call r, did not vary with theences ft1®
circumferences of the cylinders. The circumferencesc*lindei's-
of the firft and third cylinders were to one another as
24 : 1, whereas the refiitances wrere in the ratio of 3: 1.
I he lame conclufion was deduced by comparing the
experiments made with the firft and fecond cylinder.
233* bi order to explain thefe refults M. Coulomb of
very juftly fuppofes, that in confequence of the mutual1*1’5,
adhefion of the particles of water, the motion of the cy¬
linder is communicated to the particles at a fmall di-
ftance from it. The particles which touch the cylinder
have the fame velocity as the cylinder, thofe at a great¬
er diftance have a lefs velocity, and at the diftance of
about one-tenth of an inch the velocity ceafes entirely,
fo that it is only at that diftance from the cylinder that
the mutual adhefion of the fluid molecules ceafes to in¬
fluence the refiftance. The refiftance r therefore fhould
not be proportional to the circumference of the real
cylinder, but to the circumference of a cylinder whofe The refift-
radius is greater than the real cylinder by one-tenth ofaPc® flue te
an inch. It confequently becomes a matter of import-
ance to determine with accuracy the quantity which
muft be added to the real cylinder in order to have the af tothecir-
radius of the cylinder to which the refiftance r is pro-cumference
portional, and from which it muft be computed. Cou-of thc CY'
lomb found the quantity by which the radius fhould be li‘Jit,ers, .
increafed to be 1.5 millimetres (Tf^ of an EngliE^iVre
men) iQ that the diameter of the augmented cylinder augmented
will exceed the diameter of the real cylinder by double by
that quantity, or of an inch. of aa inch.
234. The part of the refiftance varying with theTherefift-
fquare of the velocity, or that arifing from the inertiaance ‘lu® to
ofthe fluid, which we fhall call R, was likewife not1*16/?"^ °/
proportional to the circumferences ofthe cylinder ; but ^loc^y
the augmentation of the radii amounts in this cafe only tionT/tothe
inch, which is only one-fifth of the aug-circiunfer-
mentation neceffary for finding the refiftance r. Theences of the
reafon ot this difference is obvious; all the particles 0fCy*'nd^s.
the fluid when they are feparated from each other
pofe the fame refiftance, whatever be their velocity; augmented
confequently as the value of r depends only on the ad- by
hefion of the particles, the refiftances due to this ad- of an inch,
hefion will reach to the diftance from the cylinder
where, the velocity of the particles is 0. In comparing Caufeofthis
the different values of R, the part of the refiftance difference.,
which varies as the fquare of the velocity, all the par¬
ticles are fuppofed to have a velocity equal to that of
the cylinder ; but as it is only the particles which touch
the cylinder that have this velocity, it follows that the
augmentation of the diameter neceffary for finding R
muft be lefs than the augmentation neceffary for find¬
ing r. Relation
235. In determining experimentally the part of the oetwe^n
momentum of refiftance proportional to the velocity, by ^ceand"
two cylinders of the fame diameter, but of differentthediame-
lengths, M, Coulomb found that this momentum wasters ofthe
proportional cylinders.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Chap. ill. H Y D R O D
On the proportional to the tliird power of their lengths. The
Refiftance fame refult may be deduced from theory ; for fuppofing
of Fluids. eac]1 Cyiinder divided into any number of parts, the
length of each part will be proportional to the whole
length. The velocity of the correfponding parts will
be as thefe lengths, and alfo as the diftance of the fame
parts from the centre of rotation. The theory like-
wife proves, that the momentum of refiftance depending
on the fquare of the velocity, in two cylinders of the
fame diameter but of different lengths, is proportional
to the fourth power of the length of the cylinder.
236. When the cylinder 0.9803 inches in length, and
o 04409 inches in circumference, was made to ofcillate
in the fluid with a velocity of 5.51 inches per fecond,
the part of the refiftance rwas equal to 58 milligrammes,
or .8932 troy grains. And when the velocity was
0.3937 inches per fecond, the refiftance r was 0.00414
grammes, or 0.637 troy grains.
237. The preceding experiments were alfo made in
the preced- the oil formerly mentioned ; and it likewdfe appeared,
ing experi- froro their refults, that the mutual adhefion of the
when m-de Part*c^es was to the mutual adhefion of the par-
Real refift¬
ance of a
given cy¬
linder.
R efult of
in oil.
Y N A M I C S. 76]
the fame in both. As this part of the refiftance depends On the
on the quantity of particles put in motion, and not on their
adhefion, the refillances due to the inertia of the par-1  ‘ ~\
tides will be in different fluids as their denfities.
238. In a fubfequent memoir Coulomb propofes to de- Coulomb
termine numerically the part of the reiiftance proportional Pr°m‘^es 1°
to the fquare of the velocity, and to afcertain the refift-
ance of globes with plain, convex, and concave furfaces.on tiie re_
He has found in general that the refiftance of bodies notfiftance of
entirely immerfed in the fluid is much greater than that Adds,
of bodies which are wholly immerfed 5 and he promifes to
make farther experiments upon this point. We intended
on the prefent occafion to have given the reader a more
complete view of the refearches of this ingenious philofo-
pher; but thefe could not well be underftood without
a knowledge of his inveftigations refpefting the force
of torfion, which we have not yet had an opportunity of
communicating. In the article Mechanius, however,
we fhall introduce the reader to this interefting fubject j
and may afterwards have an opportunity of making
him farther acquainted with thofe refearches of Cou¬
lomb, of which we have at prefent given only a general
view.
239. The fubjeft of the refiftance of fluids has been re-Rcfearclv«S
cently treated by the learned Dr Hutton of Woolwich.0^ f)r’Hut.*
His experiments were made in air, with bodies of vari-ton■
ous forms, moving with different velocities, and inclined
at various angles to the dire&ion of their motion. The
following table contains the refults of many interefting '
experiments. The numbers in the 9th column reprefent
the exponents of the power of the velocity which the re- r
fiftances in the 8th column bear to each other.
tides of water as 17 to 1. But though this be the
cafe, M. Coulomb difcovered that the quantity by
which the radii of the cylinder mufl: be augmented in
order to have the refiftance r, is the very fame as when
the cylinder ofcillated in water. This refult was very
unexpe&ed, as the greater adhefion between the parti¬
cles of oil might have led us to anticipate a much
greater augmentation. When the cylinders ofcillated
both in oil and water with the fame velocity, the part
of the refiftance R produced by the inertia of the fluid
particles which the cylinder put in motion, was almoft
Table I. Shewing the Refijlance of Hemifpheres, Cones, Cylinders, and Globes, in different P of lions, and moving
with different Velocities.
Velocity per fe-
cond.
Feet.
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
r3
XS
16
J7
18
20
Small he-
mifphere,
4I: inches
dia. flat fide
Mean proporti
onal numbers.
Ounces av.
.028
.048
.072
.103
.141
.184
•233
.287
•349
.418
.492
•573
.661
•754
.853
•959
1.073
1.196
140
Large hemiiphere Cl¬
inches diameter.
Flat fide.
Ounces av.
.051
.096
.148
• 211
• 284
.368
.464
•573
.698
.836
.988
I,I54
I-336
i-538
I-757
1.928
2.998
2.542
Round fide
Ounces av.
.020
•°39
.063
.092
.123
.160
.199
.242
.292
•347
.409
.478
•552
•634
.722
.818
.921
I-033
Cone 6| inches diameter
Vertex.
Safe.
288
IX9
Ounces av.
.028
.048
.071
.098
.129
.168
.211
.260
•3I5
•376
•44°
.512
•589
•673
.762
.858
•959
1.069
Ounces av.
.064
.109
.162
.22 C
.298
.382
.478
•587
.712
.850
I.OOO
1.166
I.346
I.546
x-763
2.002
2.260
2.540
Cylinder 6|
inches dia¬
meter.
Globe C|
inches dia¬
meter.
126
29I
Vol. X. Part II.
Ounces av.
.050
.090
•I43
.20 c
.278
.360
•456
•565
.688
.826
•979
I*I45
1.327
1.526
x-745
1.986
2.246
2.528
285
Ounces av
.027
°47
068
°94
x25
162
205
255
310
37°
435
5°5
581
663
752
848
949
057
124
Power of the vel
to which the re-
fiftance is proper
tional.
2.052
2.C42
2.036
2.031
2.031
2-033
2.038
2.044
2.047
2,051
2.040
5 D
From
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Part II.
Refults of
the preced¬
ing experi¬
ments.
Experi¬
ments with
a globe
1.965 _
inches in
diameter.
240. From the preceding experiments we may draw
the following conclufions: 1. That the refiftance is nearly
proportional to the furfaces, a Imall increafe taking place
when the furfaces and the velocities are great. 2. The
refiftance to the fame furface moving with different velo¬
cities, is nearly as the fquare of the velocity } but it ap¬
pears from the 9th column that the exponent increafes
with the velocity. 3. The round and fiiarp ends of folids
fuftain a greater refiftance than the flat ends of the
fame diameter. 4. The refiflance to the bafe of the
hemifphere is to the refiftance on the convex fide, or
the whole fphere, as 2-f to 1, inftead of 2 to 1, as given
by theory. 5. The refiftance on the bafe of the cone is
to the refiftance on the vertex nearly as 2^ to 1 *, and
in the fame ratio is radius to the fine of half the
angle at the vertex. Hence in this cafe the refiftance
is direftly as the fine of the angle of incidence, the
IranfVerfe feifion being the fame. 6. The refiftance of
the bafe of a hemifphere, the bafe of a cone, and the
bafe of a cylinder, are all different, though thefe bafe#
be exactly equal and fimilar.
241, The following table contains the refiftance fuf-
tained by a globe 1-965 inches in diameter. The fourth
column is the quotient of the refiftance by experiment,
divided by the theoretical refiftance.
Table II. Containing the Rejijlance to a Globe 1.965
Inches in Diameter, moving with various Velocities,
according to Theory and Experiment.
Velocity
of the
Globe
per fe-
cond.
Refiftance by
experiment
Refiftance
by theory.
Feet.
5
10
*5
20
25
30
40
5°
too
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
900
1000
1100
1200
1300
1400
1500
1600
1700
1800
190°
2000
Oz. avoir.
O.O06
O.0245
O.IOO
0.157
0.23
0.42
0.67
2.72
II
25
45
72
107
I5I
205
271
35°
442
546
661
785
916.
1051
1186
M47
1569
Ratio be¬
tween the
experimental
and theoreti¬
cal refiftance.
Oz. avoir.
O.OO5
0.020
O.O44
O.079
0.123
O.I77
0.3M
O.491
!.964
7.9
18.7
3I-4
49
71
96
26
i59
196
238
283
33 2
385
44 2
503
568
636
7°9
786
Power of the
velocity to
which the re¬
fiftance is pro¬
portional.
1.20
I.23
I.25
1.27
1.28
1.20
1.36
1.38
1.40
1.41
*43
I-47
1.63
1.70
1.78
1.86
1.90
I,99
2.04
2.07
2.09
2.08
2*07
2.04
2.00
2.022
2.059
2.068
2.075
2.059
2.041
2.039
2,039
2.044
2-051
2-059
2*067
2-077
2*086
2-095
2*102
2*107
2*111
2*113
2*113
2*111
2.108
2.IO4
2.098
On the
Refiftarce
242. It appears from a comparifon of the 2d, 3d, and
4th columns, that when the velocity is fmall the re-
fiftance by experiment is nearly equal to that deduced of *liuds
from theory ; but that as the velocity increafes, the
former gradually exceeds the latter till the velocity is
1300 feet per fecond, when it becomes twice as great.
The difference between the two refiftances then in¬
creafes, and reaches its maximum between the veloci¬
ties of 1600 and 1700 feet. It afterwards decreafes
gradually as the velocity increafes, and at the velocity
of 2000 the refiftance by experiment is again double
of the theoretical refiftance.—By confidering the num¬
bers in column 5th it will be feen, that in flow motions
the refiftances are nearly as the fquares of the velocities j
that this ratio increafes gradually, though not regularly,
till at the velocity of 1500 or 1600 feet it arrives at its
maximum. It then gradually diminilhes as the velo¬
city increafes.
Conclufions fimilar to thefe were deduced from ex¬
periments made with globes of a larger fize.
243. The following table contains the refiftance of a
plane inclined at various angles, according to experi¬
ment, and according to a formula deduced from the
experiments.
Table III. Containing the Rejijlances to a Plane in-
dined at various Angles to the Line of its Motion.
Inclination
of the plane.
Degrees.
O
5
10
*5
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
75
80
85
90
Refiftances by
experiment.
Oz. avoir.
.OOO
.015
.044
.082
•I33
.200
.278
.362
.448
•534
.619
.684
.729
.770
.803
.823
.835
•839
.840
Refiftance* by
the formula
o.84j,-84,g
Oz. avoir.
OOO
009
°35
076
I3I
l99
278
363
45°
535
613
680
736
778
808
826
836
839
840
Sines of the
angles to ra¬
dius .840.
.000
•°73
.146
.217
.287
•355
.420
.482
*540
*594
*643
.688
*727
.761
.789
.811
.827
.838
.840
244. The plane with which the preceding experiments
w'ere performed was 3 2 fquare inches, and always mo¬
ved with a velocity of 12 feet per fecond. The refift¬
ances which this plane experienced are contained in
column 2d. From the numbers in that column Dr
Hutton deduced the formula .84 j 1,s+,ir, where r is the
fine, and c the cofine of the angles of inclination in the
firft column. The refiftances computed from this for¬
mula are contained in column 3d, and agree very near-
Chap.
m. H Y D R O D Y
On the ly with the refinances deduced from experiment. The
Refinance column contains the lines of the angles in the firft
.of Flint};. cojumn t0 a ra(iiUs .84, in order to compare them with
the reliltances which have obvioufly no relation either
to the fines of the angles or to any power of the fines.
From the angle of O to about 6o° the refiftances are
lefs than the lines 5 but from 6o° to 90° they are fome-
what greater.
Refearches
of Mr
Vinee»
Determina.
tion of the
refiftance
when the
body mo¬
ved in the
fluid.
245. The experiments of Mr Vince were made With
bodies at a confiderable depth below the fur face of wa¬
ter; and he determined the refifiance which they expe¬
rienced, both w’hen they moved in the fluid at reft, and
when they received the impulfe of the moving fluid.
In the experiments contained in the following table,
the body moved in the fluid wTith a velocity of 0.66
feet in a fecond. The angles at which the planes
ftruck the fluid are contained in the firft column.
.The fecond column Ihcws the refiftance by experiment
in the dire&ion of their motion in troy ounces. The
third column exhibits the refiftance by theory, the per¬
pendicular diftance being fuppofed the fame as by ex¬
periment. The fourth column Ihews the power of the
line of the angle to which the refiftance is proportional,
and was computed in the following manner. Let 0 be
the fine of the angle, radius being 1, and r the refift¬
ance at that angle. Suppofe r to vary as j-m, then we
have r”1: sm — :r; hence sm =.  and
0.2321
and by fubfti*
Angle of
inclination.
Degrees.
IO
20
3°
40
5°
60
70
80
90
Refiftance by
experiment.
Troy ounces.
0.011 2
O.O364
O.O769
O.II74
0.1902
0.2125
0.2237
0.2321
Refifiance by
theory.
Troy ounces.
0.0012
O.OO93
O.O29O
O.0616
O.IO43
O.I476
O.1926
0.2217
O.232I
Power of the fine
of the angle to
which the refin¬
ance is proportion¬
al.
Exponents.
i-54
i*54
1.38
1.42
2.41
N A M I C S. 763
to our theory neglefting that part of the force which Ofallatioit
after refolution afts parallel to the plane, but which ac- 0 g^11 s>
cording to experiments is really a part of the force which
afts upon the plane.
247. Mr Vince made alfo a number of experiments Experi-
on the refiftance of hemifpheres, globes, and Cylinders, WIt
Which moved with a velocity of 0.542 feet per fecond.
He found that the refiftance to the fpherical fide of a globes, and
hemifphere was to the refiftance on its bafe as 0.034 is cylinders,
to 0.08339 ; that the refiftance of the flat fide of a
hemifphere wras to the refiftance of a cylinder of the
fame diameter, and moving with the fame velocity, as
0.08559 is to 0.07998 ; and that the refiftance to a
complete globe is to the refiftance of a cylinder of the
fame diameter, and with the fame velocity, as 1 : 2.23.
248. The following refults were obtained, when tne^616™^2,4
plane was ftruck by the moving fluid. The 2d column re^ance
of the following table contains the refiftance by experi- when the
ment, and the 3d column the refiftance by theory from body is
the perpendicular force, fuppofing it to vary as the fine ftruck by
of the inclination. ^^movin^
Table V. Containing the Rejijlance of a Plane Jlruck
by the Fluid in Motion, and inclined at different
Angles to the dire&ion of its Path.
r Log. r — Log. 0.2321
therefore m — —  —  
Log. s.
tuting their correfponding values, inftead of r and s we
ftiall have the values of m or the numbers in the fourth
column.
Table IV. Containing the Refiftance of a Plane Surface
moving in a Fluid, and placed at different Angles to
the Path of its Motion.
Angle of
inclination.
Degrees.
90
80
70
60
5°
40
30
20
10
Refiftance by 1 Reliftance by
experiment. I theory.
Oz. dwts. grs. : Oz. dwts. gn-.
I 17 12
*7
12
18
4
18
12
6
o
12
12
10
10
18
12
4
17
16
12
18
4
18
12
6
246. According to the theory the refiftance Ihould
vary as the cube of the fine, whereas from an angle of 90°
it decreafes in a lefs ratio, but not as any conftant power,
nor as any function of the fine and cofine. Hence the
aftual refiftance always exceeds that which is deduced
from theory, afluming the perpendicular refiftance to be
♦he fame. The caufe of this difference is partly owing
249. It appears from the preceding refults, that the
refiftance varies as the fine of the angle at which the
fluid ftrikes the plane, the difference between theory
and experiment being fuch as might be expe&ed from
the neceffary inaccuracy of the experiments.
By comparing the preceding table with Table IV.
it will be found that the refiftance of a plane moving
in a fluid is to the refiftance of the fame plane when
ftruck by the fluid in motion as 5 to 6. In both thefe
cafes the aftual effedft on the plane muft be the fame,
and therefore the difference in the refiftance can arife
only from the a&ion of the fluid behind the body in
the former cafe.
Chap. IV. On the Of dilation of Fluids, and the Uun¬
dulation of Waves.
Prop. I.
250. The ofcillations of water in a fyphon, eon-
filling of two vertical branches and a horizontal water in a
one, are ifochronous, and have the fame dura- fyphon,
5 D 2 tion
^ 6+
Ofcillation
of Fluids,
Sec.
HYDRODYNAMIC S,
lion as the olcillations of a pendulum, whofe
length is equal to half the length of the ofcilla-
ting column of water.
Part IT.
3*
Into the tube MNOP, having its internal diame¬
ter everywhere the fame, introduce a quantity of water.
When the water is in equilibrio, the two furfaces AB,
CD will be in the fame horizontal line AD. If this
equilibrium be difturbed by making the fyphon ofcil-
late round the point the water will rife and fall al¬
ternately in the vertical branches after the fyphon is at
reft. Suppofe the water to rife to EF in the branch
MO, it will evidently fall to GH in the other
branch, fo that CG is equal to AE. Then it is evi¬
dent, that the force which makes the water ofcillate,
is the weight of the column EFKL, which is double
the column EABF j and that this force is to the
whole weight of the water, as 2AE is to AO PD.
Nowt, let P be a pendulum, whofe length is equal to
half the length of the ofcillating column AOPD, and
which deferibes to the lowed: point S arches PS, equal
to AE; then 2 AE : AOPDrrAE : QP, becaufe AE
is one-half of 2 AE, and QP one-half of AOPD.
Confequently, finee AOPD is a conftant quantity, the
force which makes the w'ater ofcillate is always propor¬
tional to the fpace W'hich it runs through, and its olcil¬
lations are therefore ifochronous. The force which
makes the pendulum deferibe the arch PS, is to the
weight of the pendulum as PS is to PQ, or as AE is
to PQ, ftnee AE=PS ; but the force which makes the
water ofcillate, is to the weight of the whole water in
the fame ratio; confequently, fince the pendulum P,
and the column AOPD, are influenced by the very
fame force, their ofcillations muft be performed in the
fame time. Q.. E. D.
251. Cor. As the ofcillations of water and of pen¬
dulums are regulated by the fame laws, if the ofcillat¬
ing column of water is increafed or diminilhed, the
time in wdiich the ofcillations are performed will in-
creafe or diminilh in the fubduplicate ratio of the
length of the pendulum.
Scholium.
252. This fubjeft has been treated in a general man¬
ner, by Newton and different philofophers, who have
ihewn how to determine the time of an ofcillation,
whatever be the form of the fyphon. See the Principia,
lib. ii. Prop. 45, 46. Boffut’s Traite d'Hydrodyna-
tnique, tom. i. Notes fur le Chap. II. Part II. Ber-
nouilli Opera, tom. iii, p. 125. and Encyclopedic, art.
Otldes.
Prop. II.
©ntheun- 253. The undulations of waves are performed in
dulation cf the fame time as the ofcillations of a pendulum
whofe length is equal to the breadth of a wave,
or to the diftance between two neighbouring
cavities or eminences.
Fig. 4. In the waves ABCDEF, the undulations are
performed iii fuch a manner, that the higheft parts
A, C, E become the loweft; and as the force which
depreffes the eminences A, C, E, is always the weight Ofdilauon
of water contained in thefe eminences, it is obvious, 01 F‘u,ds>
that the undulations of waves are of the lame kind as , &'c’ .
the undulations or ofcillations of water in a fyphon. It *""" v '
follows, therefore, from Prop. I. that if we take a
pendulum, whofe length is one-half BM, or half the
diftance between the higheft and loweft parts of the
wave, the higheft parts of each wave will defeend to
the loweft parts during one ofcillation of the pendulum,
and in the time of another ofcillation will again be¬
come the higheft parts. The pendulum, therefore, wdll
perform two ofcillations in the time that each wave
performs one undulation, that is, in the time that each
wave deferibes the fpace AC or BD, between two
neighbouring eminences or cavities, which is called the
breadth of the wave. Now if a pendulum, whofe
length is one-half BM, performs two ofcillations in the
above time, it will require a pendulum four times that
length to perform only one ofcillation in the fame time,
that is, a pendulum whofe length is AC or BD, fince
4X tBM=2 BM=AC or BD. Q>. E. D.
Scholium.
254. The explanation of the ofcillation of waves con¬
tained in the two preceding propofitions, was firft given
by Sir Ifaac Newton, in his Principia, lib. ii. Prop. 44.
He confidered it only as an approximation to the truth,
fince it fuppofes the waves to rife and fall perpendicu¬
larly like the water in the vertical branches of the fy¬
phon, while their real motion is partly circular. The
theory of Newton was, neverthelefs, adopted by fuc-
ceeding philofophers, and gave rife to many analogous
difeuflions refpedling the undulation of waves. Very New theory
lately, however, an attempt has been made by M. Fiau- of the for-
gergues, to overturn the theory of Newton. From a matlon of
number of experiments on the motion and figure of^aVpjSa^y
waves, an account of •which may be feen in the Journal
des Spavans, for October 1789, M. Flaugergues con¬
cludes, that a wave is not the refult of a motion in the
particles of water, by which they afeend and defeend
alternately in a ferpentine line, when moving from the
place where the water received the Ihock ; but that it
is an intumefcence which this fhock occafions around
the place where it is received, by the depreflion that
is there produced. This intumefcence afterwards
propagates itfelf circularly, while it removes from
the place where the Ihock firft raifed it above the
level of the ftagnant water. A portion of the ftagnant
water then flows from all fides into the hollow formed
at the place where the (hock was received ; this hollow
is thus heaped wdth fluid, and the water is elevated fo
as to produce all around another intumefcence, or a new
•wave, w'hich propagates itfelf circularly as before.
The repetition of this effeeft: produces on the furface of
the w'ater a number of concentric rings, fucceftively
elevated and depreffed, which have the appearance of
an undulatory motion. This interefting fubjedt has
alfo been diicuffed by M. La Grange, in his Mecha-
nique Analytique, to which we muft refer the reader
for farther information. See alfo fome excellent re¬
marks on this fubjeft, in Mr Leftie’s Effay on Fleat,
p. 225. and note 29.
PART
hydrodynamics.
Chap. I.
On Water-
Wheels.
PART III. ON HYDRAULIC MACHINERY.
765
On Water-
Wheels.
Hydraulic 255. TO defcribe the various machines in which
machines, water is the impelling power, would be an endlefs and
unprofitable talk. Thole machines which can be dri¬
ven by wind, fleam, and the force of men or horfes, as
well as they can be driven by water, do not properly
belong to the fcience of hydraulics. By hydraulic ma¬
chinery, therefore, we are to underftand thofe various
contrivances by which water can be employed as the
impelling power of machinery j and thole machines
which are employed to raife water, or which could
not operate without the afliftance of that lluid.
Chap. I. On IVater-Wheels.
Different 256. Water-wheels are divided into three kinds,
kinds of overlhot-wheels, breaft-wheels, and underlhot-wheels,
water- which derive their names from the manner in which
wheels. water is delivered upon their circumferences.
Sect. I. On OverJhot-lVheels.
Defcription 257- An overlhot-wheel is a wheel driven by the
of an over- weight of water, conveyed into buckets ditpoied on its
fhot-wheel. circumference. It is reprefented in fig. 5. where ABC
1 late js circumference of the wheel furnilhed with a num-
™ ber of buckets. The canal MN conveys the water in-
to the fecond budget from the top A. a. I he equili¬
brium of the wheel is therefore deftroyed •, and the
power of the bucket A n, to turn the wheel round its
centre of motion O, is the fame as it the weight 01 the
water in the bucket were fufpended at m, the extremi¬
ty of the lever O «*, c being the centre of gravity of
the bucket, and O w a perpendicular let fall from the
fulcrum O to the direction c m, in which the force, is
exerted. In confequence of this deftruSion of equili¬
brium, the wheel will move round in the direction AB,
the bucket A a will be at d, and the empty bucket b
will take the place of A a, and receive water from the
fpout N. The force afting on the wheel is now the
w ater in the bucket d afling with a lever n O, and
the water in the bucket A a afling with a lever m O.
The velocity of the wheel will therefore increafe with
the number of loaded buckets, and vvith their dinance
from the vertex of the wheel ; for the lever by which
they tend to turn the wheel about its axis, increafes as
the buckets approach to c, where their power, repre¬
fented by e O, is a maximum. After the buckets have
palled e, the lever by which they aft gradually dimi-
nilhes, they lofe by degrees a fmall portion of their wa¬
tery and as foon as they reach B it is completely difehar-
ged. When the wTheel begins to move, its velocity
will increafe rapidly till the quadrant of buckets b e is
completely filled. While thefe buckets are defeending
through the inferior quadrant e P, and the buckets on
the left hand of b are receiving water from the fpout,
the velocity of the wheel wall ftill increafe *, but the in¬
crements of velocity will/be fmaller and fmaller, lince the
levers by which the inferior buckets aft are gradually
diminiIhing. As foon as the higheft bucket A c has
reached the point B where it is emptied, the whole fe-
micircumference nearly of the wheel is loaded with wa¬
ter •, and when the bucket at B is difeharging its con¬
tents, the bucket at A is filling, fo that the load in
the buckets, by which the wheel is impelled, will be
always the fame, and the velocity of the wheel will be¬
come uniform.
258. In order to find the powyer of the loaded arch Method of
to turn the wheel, or, which is the fame thing, to find computing
a weight which fufpended at the oppofite extremity C, ^n^u°m Qf
will balance the loaded arch or keep it in equilibrio, tiie water
we muft multiply the weight of water in each bucket in the load-
by the length of the virtual lever by which it afts, ed arch-
and take the fum of all thefe momenta for the momen¬
tum of the loaded arch. It will be much eafier, how¬
ever, and the refult will be the fame, if tve multiply
the weight of all the water on the arch AB, by the
diftance of its centre of gravity G, from the fulcrum
or centre of motion O. Now, by the property of the
centre of gravity (See Mechanics), the diftance of the
centre of gravity of a circular arch from its centre, is a
fourth proportional to half the arch, the radius, and the
fine of half the arch. Since the vertical bucket b has no
power to turn the wheel if it were filled, and fince two
or three buckets between B and P are always empty, we
may fafely fuppofe that the loaded arch never exceeds •
1600, fo that if R radius of the wheel in feet, we.
{hall have the length of half the loaded arch, or 8o°r=
2 RkS-M^XtoV^X 5 and the diftance of
the centre of gravity from the fulcrum O, =zGO=
R x Sin. 80 Now, if N be the number of buckets
i6^N Qr 4^ be the number of
9
and if
Rx 1*396
in the wheel, ,
360
buckets in the loaded arch ; and if G be the number
of ale gallons contained in each bucket, the weight
of the water in each bucket will be 10.2 xG pounds
avoirdupois. The weight of the water, therefore, in
4 N
the loaded arch, will be -— X 10.2 G, and confe-
9
quently the momentum of the loaded arch will be —.
4 N _ R X Sin. 8o° 4 N n ,
4 X 10.2 G X -UT7~r7Z7T~— -qy-x10*2 G * °*633^
R v 1.206
— iki x 6.465 G pounds avoirdupois. Hence, we
have the following rule : Multiply the conflant number
6.465 by ^ of the number of buckets in the wheel, and
this produft by the number of ale gallons in each buc¬
ket ; and the refult will be the effeftive weight, or mo¬
mentum of the w'ater in the loaded arch. For a de¬
fcription of the beft form that can be given to the
buckets, fee the article WATER-Wurhs. Dr Robifon has
there recommended a mode of conftrufting the buckets
invented by Mr Burns, who divided each bucket into
two by means of a partition 5 but the writer of this
article is afftired, on the authority of an ingenious mill¬
wright, who wrought with Mr Burns at the time
when wheels of this kind were conftrufted, that tho
inner bucket is never filled with water, and that much
of the power is thus loft. The partition prevents the
introduftion
766
H Y D R O D Y N
On the dia¬
meter of
orerfhot-
wheels re¬
latively to
the height
of the fall.
^Vheeh0' IIllro^l|c^on of the fluid, and the water is driven back-
. wards by the efcape of the included air.
25Q. In the cdnftrudh'on of overfliot-wheels, it Is of
great importance to detennine what i>mld be the dia¬
meter of the wheel relatively to the height of the fall.
It is evident that its diameter cannot exceed the height
of the fall. Some mechanical writers have demonftra-
ted that, in theory, an overftiot-wheel wilf produce a
maximum eflFe6l wdren its diameter is two-thirds of that
teight, the water being fuppofed to fall into the buck¬
ets with the velocity of the wheel. But this rule is
palpably erroneous, and diredtly repugnant to the refubs
experiment. For if the height of the fall be 48 feet,
tie diameter of the wheel will, according to this rule,
be 32 feet j and the water having to fall through 16
.eet before it reaches the buckets, will have a velocity
or 32 feet per fecond, which, according to the hypo-
thefis, mull alfo be the velocity of the wheel’s circum¬
ference. But Smeaton has proved, that a maximum ef-
ect is produced by an overlhot-wheel of any diameter,
when its velocity is only three feet per fecond. The
c levalier de Borda has fliewm, that overfliot-wheels
"'ill produce a maximum effeft when their diameter is
equal to the height of the fall ; and this is completely
confirmed by Mr Smeaton’s experiments. From a
great number of trials, Mr Smeaton has concluded,
that the higher the wheel is in proportion to the
whole delcent, the greater will be the effe&.” Nor is
it difficuk to aflign the reafon of this. The water
which is conveyed into the buckets can produce very
little effedt by its impulfe, even if its velocity be great;
noth °n account of the obliquity with w'hich it ilrikes
the buckets, and in confequence of the lofs of water
occafioned by a confiderable quantity of the fluid being
darned over their fules. Inftead, therefore, of expeft-
mg an mcreafe of effeft from the impulfe of the water
occafioned by its fall through one-third of the whole
height, we fhould allow it to adf through this height
by its gravity, and therefore make the diameter of the
wheel as great as poflible. But a difadvantage attends
even this rule j for if the water is conveyed into the
buckets without any velocity, which mull be the cafe
wdien the diameter of the wheel equals the height of
the fall, the velocity of the wheel will be retarded by
the impulfe of the buckets againll the water, and
much power would be loft by the water dalhing over
tlcm* order, therefore, to avoid all inconvenien¬
ces, the diftance of the fpout from the receiving buck¬
et Ihould, in general, be about two or three inches,
that the water may be delivered with a velocity a little
greater than that of the wheel j or, in other words, the
diameter of an.overlhot-wdieel fliould be two or three
inches lefs than the greateft height of the fall ; and yet
it is no uncommon thing to fee the diameters of thefe
wheels fcarcely one-half of that height. In fuch a con-
itruction the lofs of power is prodigious.
On the pro- 2 | Prope^ velocity of overfliot wheels is a fubjefl
per velocity which mechanical writers have entertained different
of overlhot- fentiments. While fome have maintained that there is
Expert- a certani velocity which produces a maximum effe&,
meats of -PeParcieux _ has endeavoured to prove by a fet of ingc-
Deparcieiw|nious experiments that moft work is performed by an
on the ve. overlhot wheel when it moves flowly, and that the more
ovXot. T m°Jtl0n118 retarded b? increafing work to be per-
wheels. formed, the greater will be the performance of the
2
A M I C S. part np
wheel. In thefe experiments he employed a fmall On Water,
whee^, 20 inches in diameter, having its circumference Wheels.
furmfhed with 48 buckets. On the centre or axle of this' 'r~mJ
ttheel were placed 4 cylinders of different diameters,
the firft being 1 inch in diameter, the fecond 2 inches,
the third 3 inches, and the fourth 4 inches. When
the experiments are made, a cord is attached to one of
the cylinders, and after palling over a pulley a weight
is fufpended at its other extremity. By moving the
wheel upon its axis, the cord winds round the cylinder
and raifes the weight. In order to diminifli the fric-
tion, the gudgeons of the wheel are fupported by two
friction rollers, and before the wheel, a little higher
than its axis, is placed a fmall table which fupports a
veffel filled with water, having an orifice in the fide
next the wheel. Above this veffel is placed a large v
bottle full of water and inverted, having its mouth im-
merfed a few lines in the water, fo that it empties it-
lelf in proportion as the water in the veffel is difehar-
ged from the orifice. The quantity of water thus dif-
charged is always the fame, and is conveyed from the
orifice by means of a canal to the buckets of the wheel,
vv ith this apparatus he obtained the following refults.
Diameters of
the Cylinders.
Altitude through
which 1 j ounce*
were elevated.
Inch's.
1
2
3
4
Inc hes. Lines.
69 9
80 6
85 6
87 9
Altitude thiotigh
which 24 ounces
were elevated.
Inches. Lints.
40 O
43 6
44 6
45 3
261. When the large cylinders were ufed, the veloci¬
ty of the wheel was fmaller, becaufe the refiftances are
proportional to their diameter, the weight being the
fame._ Hence, it appears, by comparing the four re-Refults of
fults in column 2d with one another, and alfo the four the pieced,
refults m column 3d, that when the wheel turns morein§ exl)C'‘
flowly, the effeft, which is in this cafe meafured by theriraents*
eleyation of the weight, always increafes. When the
weight of 24 ounces was ufed, the refiftance was twice
as great, and the velocity twice as flow, as when the x 2
ounce weight was employed. But by comparing the
refults in column 2d with the correfponding refults in
column 3d, it appears, that when the 24 ounce weight
was employed, and the velocity was only one-halfof
what it was when the 12 ounce weight was ufed, the
effeft was rnore th*n one-half, the numbers in the 3d
column being more than one-half the numbers in the
2d. Hence we may conclude, that the flower an An over,
overfhot wheel moves, the greater will be its perform-fhot-wheel
ance. ^ • does more
262. Thefe experiments of Deparcieux prefented fuch wolk thc
unexpeaed refults, as to induce other philofophers to ex- flower *
amine them with care. The chevalier d’Arcy, in par-nircheva-
ticular, confidered them attentively. He maintained !ier d’^rcy
that there was a determinate velocity when the effea maintain%
of the wheel reached its maximum ; and he has fliewn •hat tkcr?
by comparing the experiments of Deparcieux with his Ty which‘‘
own formulae, that the overfhot wheel which Depar- gives a
cieux employed never moved with fuch a fmall veloci-
ty as correfponded with the maximum effeft, and thateffe<ft*
if
Chap. I.
Ob Water- if he had increaied the diameter of his cylinders, or the
Wheels, magnitude of the weights, his own experiments would
l ~'r" have exhibited the degree of velocity, when the effeft
was the greateft poflible.
His opinion 2^3* reafoning of the chevalier d’Arcy is com-
confirmed pletely confirmed by the experiments of Smeaton. This
by the ex- celebrated engineer concludes with Deparcieux that, ex¬
periments terjs paribus, the lefs the velocity of the wheel, the
o '■Mneatc, • greater be efTe61. But he obferves, on the con¬
trary, that when the wheel of his model made about
30 turns in a minute, the effedf was nearly the greateft j
when it made 30 turns, the effedl was diminiftied about
one-twentieth part 5 and that when it made 40 it was
diminiftied about one-fourth; when it made lefs than
18^ turns, its motion was irregular, and when it was
loaded fo that it could not make 18 turns, the wheel
was overpowered by its load. Mr Smeaton likewife
obferves, that when the circumferences bf overftiot
wheels, whether high or low, move with the velocity
of three feet per fecond, and when the other parts
of the work are properly adapted to it, they will pro¬
duce the greateft pofiible effedf. He allows, however,
that high wheels may deviate farther from this rule be-
ibre loling their power than low ones can be permitted
767
to do $ and allures us that he has feen a wheel 24 feet ^ Water-
high moving at the rate of fix feet per fecond, without, Wheels. ^
lofing any confiderable part of its powTer, and likewife
a wheel 33 feet high moving very fteadily and well
with a velocity but little exceeding twro feet.
264. The experiments of the abbe Bbffut may alfo^n^^
be brought forward in fupport of the fame reafoning. pJriJ,ent3"
He employed a wheel 3 feet in diameter, furniftied with 0f go^t,
48 buckets, having each three inches of depth, and four
inches of width. The canal which conveyed the wa¬
ter into the buckets was perfedfly horizontal, and was
five inches wide. It furnilhed unitormly 1194 cu¬
bic inches of water in a minute. The rcfiftance to be
overcome was a variety of weights fixed to the extre¬
mity of a cord, which, after pafling over a pulley as in
Deparcieux’s experiments, winded round the cylindrical
axle of the wheel. The diameter of this cylinder w^as
two inches and feven lines, and that of the gudgeons
or pivots of the wheel two lines and a half. The num¬
ber of turns which the wheel made in a minute was
not reckoned till its motion became uniform, which al¬
ways happened when it had performed five or fix revo¬
lutions. When the wheel wa£ unloaded it made 40^
turns in a minute.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Number
of pounds
railed.
Number of
feconds in
which the
load was
taifed.
Number of
revolutions
performed by
the wheel.
Effeift of the
wheel, or the pro¬
duct of the num¬
ber of turns mul¬
tiplied by the
load.
11
12
J3
J4
16
l8
20
r I 4 <5
1
II
IO-
1 1
Tff
40
60"
6q
60
60
60
60
60
60
The wheel turned but ex¬
ceedingly flow.
The wheel flopped tho’
firft put in motion by
the hand to make it
catch the water.
95i
9i°f
R5 1
8 f
h ’ 1
1
13^
136^
I37li
138A
>38tI
i39t?
138
265. It appears evidently from the laft column, which
we have computed on purpofe, that the effe£t increafcs as
the velocity diminifhesj but that the effeft is a maximum
when the number of turns is in a minute, being then
1394V. When the velocity was farther diminiftied by
adding an additional pound to the refiftance, the effeft
-"was diminiftied to 138, and when the velocity was ftill
lefs, the wheel ceafed to move.
Now fince the wheel was three feet in diameter,
and 9.42 feet in circumference, the velocity of its cir¬
cumference will be about one foot four inches per fe¬
cond, when it performs 8^- turns in a minute, or when
the maximum effect is produced. With Mr Smeaton’s
model, the maximum effe6t was produced when the ve¬
locity of the wheel’s circumference was two feet per fe¬
cond. So that the experiments both of Smeaton and
Roffut concur to prove, that the power of overftiot
wheels increafes as the velocity dimlnifties; but that
there is a certain velocity, between one and two feet
per fecond, when the wheel produces a maximum effeft.
Since when the wheel was unloaded it turned 40^-
times in a minute, and performed only revolutions
when its power was a maximum, the velocity of the
wheel when unloaded will be to its velocity when the
effecl is the greateft, as five to one, nearly.
266. The chevalier de Borda maintains that an over-On the ef~
ftiot wheel will raife through the height of the fall a
quantity of water equal to that by which it is driven, “
and Albert Euler has (hewn that the effe£t of thefe
wheels is very much inferior to the momentum
or force which impels them. It appears, however,
from Mr Smeaton’s experiments, that when the work
performed was a maximum, the ratio of the power to
the effeft was as four to three, when the height of the
fall
7&S
On Water
Wheels,
Inveftiga-
tions ot Al¬
bert Euler.
Defcription
of breaft-
■wheels.
Plate
CCLXIX.
Tig. 6.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
• fall and the .quantities of water expended were the
lead; but that it was as four to two when the heights
ol the fall and the quantities difeharged were the
greateft. By taking a mean between thefe ratios, we
may conclude, in general, that in overfhot wheels the
power is to the effedt as three to one. In this cafe the
power is fuppofed to be computed from the whole
height of the fell ^ becaufe the water muft be raifed to
that height in order to be i» a condition of producing
the feme efTedt a fecond time. When the power of the
water is eitimated only from the height of the wheel,
the ratio of the power to the effedt was more conflant,
being nearly as five to four.
267. The theory of overlhot wheels has been ably
difeuffed by Albert Euler, and Lambert. The former
of thefe phrlofophers has ihown that the altitude of the
Part IIL
wheel fhould be made as great as poflible ; that the On Water-
buckets (hould be made as capacious as other circum- ,
dances will permit; that their form Ihould be fuch as
to convey the water as near the lowed point of the
wheel as can be conveniently done •, and that the mo¬
tion of the wheel diould be dow, that the buckets may
be completely filled. He has likewife drown that the
effeef of the wdreel increafes as its velocity is diminifh-
ed; and that overdiot wdreels Ihould be ufed only when
there is a fufficient height of fall. The refults of Lam-^
bert’s invedigations are lefs confonant wfith the experi-^^j^i
ments of Smeaton. By examining the following table,
which contains thefe refults, it will appear at once that
he makes the diameter of the wheel much fmaller than
it ought to be.
Table for Overfjot Mills.
Height of
tiie fall,
reckoning
from the fur-
face of the
lire am.
Feet.
7
8
9
10
1 x
12
Radius of the
wheel
reckoning
from the
extremity of
the buckets.
Feet.
2.83
3.22
3- 63
4.04
4- 45
4.86
Width of
the
buckets.
Feet.
I.OO
1.14
I.27
°-43
°-57
0.71
Depth of
the
buckets.
Feet.
2.02
I.44
I.07
O.82
O.65
O.32
Velocity
of the
wheel per
fecond.
Feet.
5-27
5-63
5-94
6.30
6.60
6.89
Time
in which
the wheel
performs
one re¬
volution.
Seconds.
3-38
3.61
3- 83
4.04
4- 23
4.42
Turns of
the mill-
ftone for
one of the
wheel.
8- 45
9.02
9- 57
10.10
11.05
Force of
the water
upon the
buckets.
hs. Avoir.
636
595
565
531
511
486
8
The
length of
m, n, in
Fig. 6.
Plate
CCLXIX.
Feet.
°-33
0.38
0.42
0.48
o. 32
o-57
The
length of
n, 0, in
Fig. 6.
Plate.
CCLXIX.
Quantity
of water
lequired
per fecond
to turn the
wheel.
Feet.
I.32
1.48
I.65
I.8l
I.98
10
Cub. Feet.
iQ-SS
9-23
8.21
7-38
6.71
6.15
Sect. II. On Breqfi Wheels.
268. A bread wheel partakes of the nature both of
an overdiot and an underfhot wheel, and is driven part¬
ly by the impulfe, but chiedy by the weight of the
water. A water wheel of this kind is reprefented in
fig. 6. where MC is the dream of w-ater falling on the
doatboard 0, with a velocity correfponding to the alti¬
tude m«, and afterwards afting by its weight on the
floatboards between 0 and B. The mill courfe 0 B is
made concentric with the wheel, which is fitted to it in
fuch a manner that very little water is allowed to ef-
cape at the fides and extremities of the fioatboards.
According to Mr Smeaton, the effeft of a wheel driven
in this manner is equal “ to the effedt of an underdiot
wheel whofe head of water is equal to the difference of
level between the furface of water in the refervoir, and
the point where it ftrikes the wheel, added to that of
an overfhot whofe height is equal to the difference of
level between the point where it drikes the wheel and
the level of the tail water (m).” That is, the effedl of
the wheel A is equal to that of an underdiot wheel
driven by a fell of water equal to tn n, added to that of
an overdiot wheel whofe height is equal to « D.
269. Mr Lambert of the academy of fciences at Ber-^^^
lin (n) has fhewn that when the doatboards arrive at
the pofition 0/>, they ought to be horizontal: the point gations of
p fhould be lower than 0, in order that the whole fpace Lambert,
between any two adjacent doatboards may be filled
with water 3 and that C m diould be equal to the depth
of the doatboards. He obferves alfo that a bread;
wheel diould be ufed when the fell of water is above
four feet in height, and below ten. The following ta¬
ble is calculated from Lambert’s formulae, and exhibits
at one view the refults of his invedigations.
Table
(m) Smeaton on Mills, fchol. p. 36.
(n) Now. Mem. de l'Academic de Berlin, 1775, p. 71.
3
Chap. I.
On Water-
Wheels
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Table for Breajl Mills.
769
On Water-
Wheels.
Height of
the fall in
feet—CD,
fig. 6. Plate
CCLX1X.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
Breadth of
the float
boards.
Feet.
C.17
o-34
0.51
0.69
0.86
1.03
1.20
I,37
1.54
1.71
Depth of
the float-
boards.
Feet.
198.6
35,r
12.7
6.2
3-57
2.25
I*53
1.10
0.81
Radius of the
water wheel
reckoned from
the extremity
of the float-
boards.
Feet.
°-75
1.50
2.26
3.01
317.6
4*5I
5.26
6.02
6.77
7-52
Velocity
of the
wheel per
fecond.
Feet.
2.l8
3-°9
3- 78
4- 36
4.88
5- 35
5- 77
6.17
6- 55
6.90
Time in
which the
wheel per¬
forms one
revolution.
Turns of
the mill-
ftone for
one of the
wheel.
Seconds.
I.92
2.72
3 33
3-84
4.28
4’7°
5-°8
5-43
5-76
6.07
4.80
6.80
8.32
9.60
10.70
11.76
12.70
l3-S8
14.40
I5a8
Force of
the water
upon the
float-
boards.
lbs. Avoir,
i536
1084
886
768
686
626
5Sl
543
512
486
The
length of
m, n, in
Fig. 6.
Plate
CCLXIX.
Feet.
O.08
O.15
O.23
0.30
0.38
0.46
o-53
0.60
0.68
0.76
The
length of
n, oy in
Fig. 6.
Plate
CCLXIX.
Feet.
O.23
O.46
.0.68
0.91
1.14
1.60
1.83
2.0 c
2.28
8
Water
required
per fecond
to turn the
wheel.
ub. Feet
74'3°
37-15
24.77
i8-57
14.86
12.38
10.61
9.29
8.26
7-43
270. It appears from the preceding table, that when
the altitude of the fall of water is below three feet, there
is fuch an unfuitable proportion between the depth and
width of the doatboards, that a bread wheel cannot
well be employed. It is alfo evident, on the other hand,
that w'hen the height of the fall approaches to ten feet,
the depth of the lloatboards is too fmall in relation to
their width. Thefe two extremes, therefore, ought to
be avoided in pra&ice. The eleventh column of the
table contains the quantity of water neceffary to drive
the wheel 5 but the total quantity of water ihould al¬
ways exceed this, by the quantity, at lead, that efcapes
between the mill courfe and the fides and extremities
of the floatboards (o).
Dimenfions 271. The following are the dimenlions of an excellent
of a bread bread water wheel, differing very little from that which
w p[aJ,e is reprefented in fig. 6.. The water, however, indead of
CCLXIX. falling through the height c « which is 16 inches, is
delivered on the floatboard 0/>, through an adjutage
fix inches and a half high.—The height n D is four
feet two inches j and therefore the whole height CD
mud be five feet and a half. The radius of the wheel
AB is fix feet and a half, the breadth of each float-
board fix inches and a half, and their depth 28 inches.
The point P of the wheel moves writh the velocity of
7.588 feet in a fecond. The quantity of water dif-
charged in a fecond is 3.266 cubic feet, and the force of
impulfion upon the floatboards 356 pounds avoirdupois.
On fome occafions buckets have been ufed in bread
wheels inflead of floatboards j but this is evidently a
difadvantage, as the height through which the water
a£ts is dirniniftied by the number of inches through
which the water mud fall in order to acquire the velocity
of the wheel, and alfo by the verfed fine of the arch
above the lowed point of the wheel which may be con-
fidered as not loaded with water.
VoL. X. Part II.
Sect. III. On Utiderjhot Wheels.
272. An underlhot wheel is a wheel with a number of Defcription
floatboards difpofed on its circumference, which re- °f an un*
ceive the impulfe of the water conveyed to the lowred 4
point of the wheel by an inclined canal. It is repre- piate
fented in fig. 1. where WW is the water wheel, and CCLXX.
ABDFHKMV the canal or mill courfe, which conveys f ig-
the water to K, where it drikes the plane floatboards
n 0, &c. and makes the wheel revolve about its axis.
273. In order to conflnnd the mill courfe to thegreated Conftruc-
advantage, w7e mud give but a very fmall declivity to t‘(??. °* ^
the canal which conducts the water from the river. Itmi COur e*
will be fuflicient to make AB flope about one inch in
200 yards, making the declivity, however, about half
an inch for the fird 48 yards, in order that the water
may have fufficient velocity to prevent it from falling
back into the river. The inclination of the fall, re¬
prefented by the angle OCR, fliould be 250 50', or
CR the radius Ihould be to GR, the tangent of this an¬
gle, as 100 to 28, or as 25 to 12 ; and fince the fur-
face of the water S£ is bent from a b into ac before it
is precipitated down the fall, it will be neceffary to in-
curvate the upper part BCD of the courfe into BD,
that the water at the bottom may move parallel to the
water at the furface of the dream. For this purpofe
take the points B,D about 12 inches didant from C, and
raife the perpendiculars BE, DE. The point of inter-
feftion E will be the centre from which the arch BD
is to be deferibed j the radius being about io^ inches.
Now, in order that the water may aft more advanta-
geoufly upon the floatboards of the wheel WW, it muft
affume a horizontal direftion, with the fame velocity
which it would have acquired when it came to the point
G. But, if the water were allowed to fall from C to
G, it would dalh upon the horizontal part HG, and
5 E - thus
(o) See Appendix to Ferguson’s Leftures, vol. ii. p. 189. edit. 2d.
J J
o
11 Y D 11 e 13 Y
On Water- thus lofe a great part of its velocity. It will be necef-
Whet-ls. fary} therefore, to make it move along FH, an arch of
' a 'circle to which DF and KH are tangents in the
points F and H. For this purpofe make GF and
GH each equal to three feet; and raife the perpendi¬
culars HI, FI which will interfefl one another in the
point I, diftant about four feet nine inches from the
points F and H, and the centre of the arch FH will be
determined. The diilance HK, through which the wa¬
ter runs before it a6ts upon the wheel, (hould not be
lefs than two or three feet, in order that the different
filaments of the fluid may have attained a horizontal
direction. If HK were too large, the ffream would
fuffer a diminution of velocity by its fridfion on the bot¬
tom of the courie. That no water may efcape between
the bottom of the courfe KH and the extremities of the
floatboards, KL fhould be about three inches, and the
extremity o of the floatboard n o ought to. reach below
the line HKX, fufficient room being left between o and
M for the play of the wheel; or KLM may be formed
into the arch of a circle KM concentric with the
wheel. The line LMV, which has been called the
courfe of impulfion, fhould be prolonged fo as to fup-
port the water as long as it can adt upon the float-
boards, and fhould be about nine inches diffant from
OP, a horizontal line palling through O the loweit
point of the fall j for if OL were much lefs than nine
inches, the w'ater having fpent the greateft part of its
force in impelling the floatboard, would accumulate
below the wheel, and retard its motion. For the fame
reafon another courfe, which has been called the courfe
of difcharge, fhould be conneaed with LMV by the
curve VN' to preferve the remaining velocity of the
water, which would otherwife be dilcharged by falling
perpendicularly from V to N. I he courfe of dil-
charge, which is reprefented by the line VZ, doping
from the point O, fhould be about 16 yards long, ha¬
ving an inch of declivity for every two yards. The
canal which reconduas the water from the courfe of
difcharge to the river fhould Hope about four inches in
the firft 200 yards, three inches in the fecond 200
yards, decreafing gradually till it terminates in the river.
But if the river to which the water is conveyed fhould,
when dwelled by the rains, force the wTater back upon
the wheel, the canal muff have a greater declivity to
prevent this from taking place. Hence it is evident
that very accurate levelling is requilite to the proper
formation of the mill courfe.
Plate As it is of great importance that none of the Water
CCLXX. {hould efcape either below the floatboards, or at their
I’I2- 2" fides, without contributing to turn the wheel, the courfe
of impulfion KV fhould be wider than the ccurie at K,
as reprefented in fig. 2. where Cl) the courfe of impul¬
fion correfponds with LV in fig. I. AB correfponds
with HK and BC with KL. The breadth of the float-
boards therefore fhould be wider than m n, and their
extremities fhould reach a little below B, like n 0 \n
fig. 1. When thefe precautions are properly taken,
no water can efcape without exerting its force upon the
floatboards.
N A M I C S.
Fart III.
273. It has been difputcd among philofophers,On Waur-
whether the wheel fhould be furnifhed with a fmall or 'Wheels. ^
a great number of floatboards. M. Pitot has fhewn,an th^
that when the floatboards have difterent degrees of ob-in,mber 0f
liquity, the force of impulfion upon the different fur-fl atboauls
faces will be reciprocally as their breadths: Thus inInunckr-
fig. 3. the force of impulfion upon h e will be to the1^.01 k''iee^‘
force upon DO, as DO to he (p). Hence he con- ^
eludes that the diftance between the floatboards fhould
be equal to one-half of the immeried arclr, or that when
one floatboard is at the bottom of the wheel, and per¬
pendicular to the current, as DE, the preceding float-
board BC fhould be juft leaving the ftrean , and the
fucceeding one FG juft immerging into it. For vvhcn^-uF given
the three floatboards FG, DE, BC have the fame po-b? Pltot*
fition as in the figure, the whole force of the current
NM w;ill aft upon DE when it is in the moft advan¬
tageous pofition for receiving it, whereas, if another
floatboard de were inferted between fiG and DE, the
part rg would cover DO, and by thus fubftituting an
oblique for a perpendicular furface, the effeft w-ould
be diminifhed in the proportion of DO to ig. Hence
it is evident that, upon this principle, the depth of the
floatboard DE fhould be always equal to the verfed
fine of the arch EG (qJ.
274. Notwithftanding the plaufibility of this reafon-proved to
ing, it will not be difficult to (hew that it is deftitute of1^ waccu-
foundation. It is evident from fig. 3. that when one of™t'Y
the floatboards DE is perpendicular to the flream, it lg-
receives the whole impulle of the water in the moft
advantageous manner. But when it arrives at the po¬
fition d e, and the fucceeding one IG at the pofition
fg, fo that the angle e Ag may be bifefted by the
perpendicular AE j the fituation of thefe floatboards
will be the moft difadvantageous, for a great part of
the water will efcape between the extremities g and e
of the floatboards without ftriking them, and the part /g
of the floatboard, which is really impelled, is leis than
DE, and oblique to the current. The wheel, there¬
fore, muft move irregularly, iometimes quick and lome-
times flow, according to the pofition of the floatboards
with refpeft to the ftream j and- this inequality will in-
creafe with the arch plunged in the water. I he rea-
foning of M. Pitot, indeed, is founded on the fuppofi-
tion, that if another floatboard fg were placed between
FG and DF, it would annihilate the force of the water
that impels it, and prevent any of the fluid from ftrik¬
ing the correfponding part DO of the preceding float-
board. But this is not the cafe. For when the water has
afted upon fgj it ftill retains a part of its motion, and
after bending round the extremity g ftrikes DE with its
remaining force. We are entitled, therefore, to con¬
clude that advantage muft be gained by uiing more
floatboards than are recommended by Pitot.
275. It is evident from the preceding remarks, that in The mim-
order to remove any inequality of motion in tne wheel,
and prevent the water from efcaping below the e_x*re_ft10u](}
unities of the floatboards^ the wheel fhould be furnifhed as great as
with the greateft poffible number of floatboards, withoutpoffibie.
loading it too much, or enfeebling the rim on which they
('p') Mem. de l'Acad. Paris, 17 29, 8vo. p. 359. *' , r , , ,. •
rrH A table containing the number of fleatboards for wheels of different diameters, and founded on this princi¬
ple, has been computed by Mr Brewfter. See Appendix to Fergufon's Lcciures, vol. u. p. 149- 2a Edit.
Chap,
T.
H Y D R O D
On Water- are fixed. This rule was firil given by M. Dupet t
Wheels. Varidin (R) > ancl it: is eaflly Percelved’ that 11 ,
wrieht fhould err in ufing too many floatboards, this
error in excefs will be perfeftly trifling, and that a mucn
greater lofs of power would be occafioned by an error
in defeifl. ,
r-nrmofthe 276. The feaion of the floatboards ought not to be
floatboards. reftangular like a bnc in fig. 3. but Ihould be bevelled
Fig- 3-
Pofition of
the float-
boards.
like a bine. For if they were.rettansular, the extre¬
mity b n would interrupt a portion of the water which
would otherwife fall on the correfponding part of the
preceding floatboard. In order to find the angle a bin,
fubtraft from 180 degrees the number of degrees con¬
tained in the immerfed arch CEG, and the ha.t of the
remainder wflll be the angle required. ,
277. It has been maintained by M. Pitot and other
philoiophers, that the floatboards fhould be a continuation
of the radius, or perpendicular to the rim, as in hg- !•
This indeed is true in theory, but it appears from the
moft unqueftionable experiments, that they fhould be
inclined to the radius. This important fad was dif-
covered by Deparcieux in 1753, and proved by ieveral
experiments. When the floatboards are inclined, the
water heaps up on their furface, and a£ls not only by its
impulfe but alfo by its weight. The fame truth has
alfo been confirmed by the abbe BoiTut, the moft ac¬
curate of whofe experiments are contained in the tol •
lowing table. The wheel that was employed was im¬
merfed four inches vertically in the water, and it was
furnifhed with 1 2 floatboards.
Inclination of
the floatboard.
Vumber of
pounds raif-
ed.
O
15
3°
37
Time in winch
the load was
ra ifft din feconds
40
40
40
40
Number of
turns made by
the wheel.
40
40
40
40
13U
i4ii
278. It is obvious, from the preceding table, that
the wheel made the greateft number of turns, or moved
with the greateft velocity, when the number of float-
boards was between 15 and 30. When the water¬
wheels are placed on canals that have little declivity,
and in which the water can efcape freely after its im¬
pulfe upon the floatboards, it would be proper to make
the floatboards a continuation of the radius. But when
they move in an inclined mill-courfe, an augmentation
of velocity may be expefted from an inclination of the
floatboards. _
270. Having thus pointed out the moft fcientific me-
per velochy thod of conftrucling the wheel, and delivering the wa-
of under- ter upon its floatboards, we have now to. determine the
£hot wheels ve[ocity with which it fhould move. It is evident, tnat
when the velocity of the wheel muft be always lefs than that
efleift s a J
■maximum.
Y N A M I C 3. _ 77!
of the water which impels it, even when there « m>
tvork to be performed j for a part of the impelling —
power is neceffarily fpent in overcoming the inertia ot
the wheel and the refiftance of fruftion. It is hkewife
obvious, that when the wheel has little or no. velocity,
its performance will be very trifling. There is conie-
quently, a certain proportion between the velocity ot
the water and the wheel, when its effeft is a maximum.
By the reafoning which is employed in the feaion on
underfhot-wheels in the article IVATER-lVorks, I aren’t
and Pitot found, that a maximum effect was produced
when the velocity of the wheel was one-third of the velo¬
city of the water 3 and Defaguliers (s), Maclaurm (t),
Lambert (u), and Atwood (x), have adopted their
conclufions. In the calculus from which this remit
was deduced, it was taken for granted, that the mo¬
mentum or force of water upon the wheel is m tae
duplicate ratio of the relative velocity, or as the fquare
of the difference between the velocity of the water and
that of the wheel. This fuppofition indeed, is
fifty coma when the water impels a tingle iioatboard,
for as the number of particles which ftnke the fl°at> an under¬
board in a given time, and alfo tbe momentum of thele, ^0* whe*l
are each as the relative velocity of the floatboards, the is as ^
momentum muft be as the fquare of the relative veloci-we veu,-
ty, that is, M=R% M being the momentum, and R
the relative velocity. But we have feen, in fome ot
the preceding paragraphs, that the water afts on moie
than one fioatboard at a time. Now the number ot
floatboards afted upon in a given time will be as the
velocity of the wheel, or inverfely as the relative velo¬
city 3 for if you increafe the relative velocity, the velo¬
city of the water remaining the fame, you muft du™”
nifti the velocity of the wheel. Confequently, we lhall
have M or M=Rj that is, the momentum of the
water afting upon the wheel, is direftly as the relative
^zSo.^'Let V be now the velocity of the ftream, and
F the force wfith which it w'ould ftrike the Iioatboard
at reft, and v the velocity of the wheel. Then the re¬
lative velocity will be V—v 3 and fince the velocity, o
the water will be to its momentum, or the force with
which it would ftrike the floatboard at reft, as tbe re¬
lative velocity is to the real force which the water ex¬
erts againft the moving floatboards, we fhall have
F
V : Y—v=¥ : Fx-
. x V—v. But tbe ef-
V “V
fe& of the wheel is meafured by the produft of the mo¬
mentum of the wrater and the velocity of the wheel,
confequently the effect of the underfhot wheel will be
y*. Now this effect is to
F xr
V Xy^XV
■ v — yr X
V
be a maximum, and therefore its fluxion muft be equal
to o, that is, v being the variable quantity, V<y —
2W—0, or zv v—^Vv. Dividing by?’, we have 2 n .
5 E 2 V»
(r) Memoires des Sgavans Etrangers, tom. i. .. ‘
(s) Defaguliers’ Experimental Philofophy, vol. ii. p. 424- I2,
(t) Atwood on Reflilineal and Rotatory Motion, p. 275—-284.
(u) Maclaurin’s Fluxions, art. 907. p. 728.
(x) Noire. Memoires ds EAcad. Berlin, 1775? P* ^3°
772
On Water-
Wheels.
H Y D R O D
v
Confirmed
by Smea-
ton’s expe¬
riments,
and by the
experi¬
ments of
•Boffiit.
V, and v zz —, that is, the velocity of the wheel will
be one-half the velocity of the fluid when the effect is a
maximum.
281. This refult, which was firft obtained by the
chevalier de Borda, has been amply confirmed by the
experiments of Mr Smeaton. “ The velocity of the
ftream (fays he) varies at the maximum between one-
third and one-half that of the water 5 but in all the
cafes in which moft work is performed in proportion to
the water expended, and which approach the neareft
to the circumftances of great works, when properly
executed, the maximum lies much nearer one-half than
one-third, one half feeming to be the true maximum,
if nothing were loft by the refiftance of the air, the
Scattering of the water carried up by the wheel,
&c.”
282. A refult, nearly fimilar to this, was deduced
from the experiments of Boffut. He employed a wheel
whofe diameter was three feet. The number of float-
boards was at one time 48, and at another 24, their
width being five inches, and their depth fix. The ex¬
periments with the wheel, when it had 48 floatboards,
were made in an inclined canal, fupplied from a refer-
voir by an orifice two inches deep, the velocity being
3C0 feet in 27 feconds. The experiments with the
wheel, wftien it had 24 fioatboards, were made in a ca¬
nal, contained between two vertical walls, 12 or 13
feet diftant. The depth of the water wTas about feven
or eight inches, and its mean velocity about 2740
inches in 40 feconds. The floatboards of the wheel
were immerfed about four inches in the ftream.
Time in
which
the load
is railed.
No. of
pounds
raifed.
Seconds.
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
Number of
turns made
by the
wheel.
48 Floatboards.
3°i
31
3 lT
32
32i
33
33t
34
34i
35
3 Si
36
22^
2 2fT
2 1^1
21 a
2 * a
21TT
2®U
2°U
1944
*944
*844
Number of
turns made
No. of
Ed’ I 'VT
1 wheel.
24 Floatboards.
30
35
40
45
5°
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
I744
*544
*444
*344
I214
1244
*2 If
*24f
1 2'tV
**44
**44
**44
* *44
*°!4
*o44
1044
283. As the effetft of the machine is meafured by
the product of the load raifed, and the time employed,
it will appear, by multiplying the fecond and third
columns, that the effect was a maximum when the
load was 34! pounds, the wheel performing 20H re¬
volutions in 40 feconds. By comparing the velocity
of the centre of impreflion computed fiona the diame-
Y * A M I C S part m.
ter of the wheel, and the number of turns which it On Water-
makes in 40 feccmds, with the velocity of the current, Wheeis-
it will be found, that the velocity of the wheel, when v
its effedt is the greateft poflible, is nearly two-fifths that
of the ftream. From the two laft columns of the table,
wdiere the effe61: is a maximum when the load is 60
pounds, the fame conclufion may be deduced.
284. The proper velocity of the wheel being thus Method of
eftablilhed, wTe fhall proceed to point out the method ofconftru<n:-
conftru&ing a mill-wright’s table for underlhot-wheels,ing. a ™il,“
taking it for granted, that the velocity of the wheel iJ£sht,S ta~
Ihould be one-half the velocity of the ftream, and that
water moves with the fame velocity as falling bo¬
dies.
1. Find the perpendicular height of the fall of water Fig. 6.
above the bottom of the mill courfe, and having dimi-
nifhed this number by one-half the depth of the w’ater
at K, call that the height of the fall.
2. Since bodies acquire a velocity of 32.174 feet, by
falling through the height of 16.087 feet 5 and as the
velocities of falling bodies are as the fquare roots of the
heights through which they fall, the fquare root of
16.087 wtM be to the fquare root of the height of the
fall as 32.174 to a fourth number, which will be the
velocity of the water. Therefore the velocity of the
wrater may be always found by multiplying 32.174 by
the fquare root of the height of the fall, and dividing
that product by the fquare root of 16.087. Or it may
be found more eafily by multiplying the height of the
fall by the conftant quantity 64.348=2x32.174, and
extrafting the fquare root of the produft. This root,
abftrafting from the effefts of fricftion, will be the ve¬
locity of the wrater required.
3. Take one-half the velocity of the water, and it
will be the velocity which muft be given to the float-
boards, or the number of feet they muft move through
m a fecond, in order to produce a maximum effedl.
4. Divide the circumference of the wheel by the ve¬
locity of its floatboards per fecond, and the quotient
will be the number of feconds in which the wheel re¬
volves.
5. Divide 60 by the number laft found, and the
quotient will be the number of turns made by the
wheel in a minute.—Or the number of revolutions per¬
formed by the wheel in a minute may be found, by
multiplying the velocity of the floatboards by 60, and
dividing the produft by the circumference of the
wheel.
6. Divide 90, the number of revolutions which a
millftone, five feet diameter, ftiould make in a minute,
by the number of revolutions made by the wheel in a
minute ; and the quotient will be the number of turns
which the millftone ought to make for one revolution
of the wheel.
7. Then as the number of revolutions of the wheel
in a minute, is to the number of revolutions of the mill¬
ftone in a minute, fo muft the number of ftaves in the
trundle be to the number of teeth in the wheel, in the
neareft whole numbers that can be found.
8. Multiply the number of revolutions performed by
the wheel in a minute, by the number of revolutions
made by the millftone for one of the wdieel, and the
produfl will be the number of revolutions made by the
millftone in a minute.
385. By thefe rules, the following table has been
computed
Chap. I. ' H Y t> R O D Y
On Water- computed for a water wheel 15 feet in diameter,
^Wheels. js a good medium lize, the millilone being feven
^ " v ~ feet in diameter, and revolving 90 times in a mi¬
nute.
Table I. A New Mill-Wright'1 s Table, in which the
Velocity of the Wheel is one-half the Velocity of the
Stream, the effeEls of Friction not being confuiered.
J3 *-
! ^
£ o
op—
<U "rt
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
'IO
IX
I 2
13
M
16
17
18
!9
20
Velocity
of the
water per
fecoml,
fruffion
not
beinj'
confidei-
ed.
8.0 2
”•34
13.89
16.04
17.94
19.65
21.22
22.69
24.06
25-37
26.60
27.79
28.92
30.01
3I-°7
32.09
33- Q7
34- 03
34- 97
35- 97
Velocity
of the
wheelper
fecond,
being
one-ha;!
that of
the
water.
4.OI
5.67
6-95
8.02
8.97
9.82
10.61
ir.34
12.03
12.69
t3-3°
13.90
H-4^
J 5-01
15-53
16.04
16.54
17.02
17.48
17-99
Revolu¬
tions of
thewheel
per
minute,
its dia¬
meter
being 15
feet.
ad ^
5.10
7.22
8.85
10.20
”■43
12.50
»3-5i
I4-45
16.17
16.95
17.70
18.41
19.11
19.80
20.40
21.05
21.66
22.26
22.86
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill-
ftone for
one of
the
wheel.
a. i;
O ctj
a; -
Teeth in
the
wheel
and
ftaves
in the
trundle.
'7-65
12.47
10.17
8.82
7.87
7.20
6.66
6.23
5.88
5-57
5-3i
5.08
4.89
4.71
4-55
4-45
4.28
4.16
4.04
3-94
106
87
81
79
71
65
60
56
53
56 10
53 IO
51 10
49 10
47 *o
48 11
44 10
47 ”
50 12
44 ”
48 12
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill-
ftone per
minute
by thefe
ftaves
and
teeth.
90.01
90.03
90.00
89.96
89-95
90.00
89.98
90.02
90.02
90.06
90.00
89.9I
90.0 2
90.00
90.09
89.96
90.09
90.10
89-93
90.07
286. The preceding table, computed by Mr Brewfter,
(Appendix to Fergufon’s LeClures, v. ii. p. 174.) fup-
pofes, according to theory, that the velocity of the
wheel, at the maximum effedl, is one-half tlfat of the
flream, which is nearly the cafe in pra£lice when the
quantities of water difcharged by the dream are confi-
derable. “ When we confider, however, (obferves the
“ editor of the work now quoted) that after every
“ precaution has been obferved, a fmall quantity of
“ water will efcape between the mill courfe and the ex-
“ tremities of the lloatboards, and that the effe& is di-
w minilhed by the refiftance of the air and the difper-
“ fion of water carried up by the wheel, the propriety
“ of making the wheel move with three-fevenths the
“ velocity of the water will appear. The chevalier de
N A M I C S. 773
“ Borda fuppofes it never to exceed three-eighths; and On Wate1--
“ Mr Smeaton and the abbe BolTut found two-fifths, ^ i‘eeiS- <
“ to be the proper medium (y). With three-fevenths,
“ therefore, as the bed medium, which differs only
“ -j^th from t^ie numbers in the follow'ing table
“ have been computed. In Table I. the w-ater was
“ fuppofed to move with the fame velocity as falling bo-
“ dies, but owing to its friction on the mill courfe, &c.
“ this is not exaftly the cafe. We have therefore de-
“ duced the velocity of the water in column fecond,
“ from the following formula, Uf: x R £ ^ *
3 2
“ in which Y is the velocity of the water, R b the ab-
“ folute height of the fall, and H h the depth of the
“ water at the bottom of the courfe. This formula is
“ founded on the experiments of Boffut, from which it
“ appears, that if a canal be inclined one-tenth part of
“ its length, this additional declivity will redore that
“ velocity to the w ater which wras dedroyed by fric-
“ tion.”
Table II. A New Mill-Wright'>s Table, in which the
Velocity of the Wheel is three-fevenths of the Velocity
of the Water, and the effects of Fritiion on the Velo~
city of the fream reduced to computation.
o &
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
•4
15
16
J7
18
19
20
Velocity
of the
water per
fecond,
friidion
being
confider-
ed.
o-u;
G od
O
7.62
10.77
13.20
I5-24
17.04
18.67
20.15
21.56
22.86
24.10
25.27
26.40
27.47
28.51
29.52
30.48
3x.42
32- 33
33- 22
34- I7
Velocity
of the
wheel
per fe¬
cond, be-
ing3-7ths
that of
the
water.
pH w
O c;
O u-
3-27
4.62
5.66
5-53
7-30
8.00
8.64
9.24
9.80
IO-33
10.83
11.31
11.77
12.22
12.65
13.06
i3-46
13.86
14.24
14.64
Revolu¬
tions of
thewheel
per
minute,
its dia-
metei
being 15
feet
4.16
5.88
7.20
8.32
.9.28
IO.I9
10.99
11.76
”•47
l3^5
I3-79
H-4°
14.99
15-56
16.13
16.63
17.14
16.65
18*13
18.64
Revolu¬
tions of
mill-
ftone for
one of
the
wheel.
a. K
O C3
2 o
21.63
I5-3I
22. CO
10.81
9.70
8.83
8.19
7-65
7.22
6.84
6-53
6.25
6.00
5.78
5-58
5.41
5-25
5.10
4.96
4-83
Teeth in
the
wheel
and
ftaves
in the
trundle.
£ )
130
92
100
97
97 10
97 ”
90 11
84 11
72 10
82 12
85 13
72 12
72 1 2
75 13
67 12
65 12
63 12
61 12
64 13
58 12
Revolu¬
tions of
the mill-
(tone per
minute,
by thefe
ftaves
and
teeth.
89.98
90.0 2
90.00
89.94
90.0 2
89.98
90.01
89.96
90.03
89-95
90.05
90.00
8994
90.04
9O.OI
89.97
89.99
90.OI
89.92
89.84
287.
(y) The great hydraulic machine at Marly tyas found to produce a maximum effe&, when its velocity wras two-
-fifths that of the dream.
'77'4
On Water- 2B7. In order tliat tlie wlieel may move with a velo-
Wlieel'-. c;ty (tu]y adjulled to that of the current, we would not
*1. thDti Ot' ac^v^e mechanic to truft to the fecond column of
ufinrr the Table II. for the true velocity of the llream, or to any
table. theoretical refults, even when deduced from formulae
founded on experiments. Boffut, with great juftice,
remarks, that “ it would not be exadl in practice to
compute the velocity of a current from its declivity.
This velocity ought to be determined by immediate ex¬
periment in every particular cafe.” Let the velocity
of the water, therefore, where it ftrikes the wheel, be
determined by the method in the following paragraph.
With this velocity, as an argument, enter column fe¬
cond of either of thefe tables, according as the velocity
of the wheel is to be one-half or three-fevenths that of
the dream, and take out the other numbers from the
table.
Different 2 88. Various methods have been propofed by differ-
mcthodsof en(- pbilofophers for meafuring the velocity of running
the vdo'cf water ? t^ie method, by floating bodies, which Mari-
ty^f the"' otte (z) employed, the bent tube of Pitot (a), the re-
itream. gulator of Guglielmini (b), the quadrant (c), the little
wheel (d), and the method propofed by the abbe
Mann (e), have each their advantages and difadvanta-
ges.' The little 'wheel was employed in the experi¬
ments of BofTut. It is the mod convenient mode of
determining the fuperficial velocity of the water *, and,
when condrudied in the following manner, will be
more accurate, it is hoped, than any indrument that
Simple in- Jjas hitherto been ufed. The fmall wheel WW diould
forthis111 r ^orme^ t^le lighted materials. It drould be about
pofe S ^UI" IO or 1 2 inches in diameter, and furnidied with 14 or
Plate 16 floatboards. This wheel moves upon a delicate
CCLXX. fcrew a B, pafling through its axle B j and when
4- impelled by the dream it will gradually approach to¬
wards D, each revolution of the wheel correfponding
with a thread of the fcrew. The number of revolutions
performed in a given time are determined upon the
fcale m a, by means of the index O h fixed at O, and
moveable with the wheel, each divifion of the fcale be-
ing equal to the breadth of a thread of the fcrew, and
the extremity h of the index O h coinciding with the
beginning of the fcale, when the fhoulder b of the
wheel is fcrewed clofe to a. Phe parts of a revolution
are indicated by the bent index m n pointing to the
periphery of the wheel, which is divided into 100
parts. When this indrument is to be ufed, take it by
the handles C, D, or when great accuracy is required,
make it red on the handles C, D; and fcrew the fhoul¬
der b of the wheel clofe to a, fo that the indices may
both point to 0 the commencement of the fcales.
Then, by means of a dop-watch or pendulum, find
how many revolutions of the wheel are performed in a
given time. Multiply the mean circumference of the
wheel (or the circumference deduced from the mean
Part IIL
radius, which is equal to the didance of the centre of On Water-
impulfion or impreflion from the axis b B) by the num- v^heeis^ ^
her of revolutions, and the product wall be the number
of feet through which the water moves in the given
time. On account of the friftion of the fcrew, the re-
fidance of the air, and the weight of the wheel, its cen¬
tre of impreffion will revolve with a little lefs velocity
than that of the dream j but the diminution of velocity,
ariling from thefe caufes, may be edimated with fuffi-
cient precifion for all the purpofbs of the practical
mechanic. {Appendix to Fergufon's Leciures, vol. ii.
P- J??*)
289. It appears, from a comparifon of the numerous ^-eddts of
and accurate experiments of Mr Smeaton, that, in un-^
derfhot-wheels, the power employed to turn the wheel ments<"
is to the effedl produced as 3 to 1 ; and that the load
which the wheel will carry at its maximum, is to the
load which will totally dop it, as 3 to 4. The fame
experiments inform us, that the imnulfe of the water
on the wheel, in the cafe of a maximum, is more than
double of what is afligned by theory, that is, indead of
four-fevenths of the column, it is nearly equal to the
whole column. In order to account for this, Mr Smea¬
ton obferves, that the wheel was not, in this cafe, pla¬
ced in an open river, where the natural current, after
it had communicated its impulfe to the float, has room
on all Tides to efcape, as the theory fuppofes j but in a
conduit or race, to which the float being adapted, the
water could not otherwife efcape than by moving along
with the wheel. He likewife remarks, that when a
wheel works in this manner, the water, as foon as it
meets the float, receives a fudden check, and rifes up
againd it like a wave againd a dxed objeft j infomuch,
that when the dieet of water is not a quarter of an inch
thick before it meets the float, yet this fheet will aft
upon the whole furface of a float, whofe height is three
inches. Were the float, therefore, no higher than the
thicknefs of the fheet of water, as the theory fuppofes,
a great part of the force would be lod by the water
dafhing over it. In order to try what would be the
effeft of diminifhing the number of floatboards, Mr
Smeaton reduced the floatboards, which were original¬
ly 24 to 12. This change produced a diminution of
the effeft, as a greater quantity of water efcaped be¬
tween the floats and the floor. But when a circular
fweep was adapted to the floor, and made of fuch a
length that one float entered the curve before the pre¬
ceding one quitted it, the effeft came fo near to the for¬
mer, as to afford no hopes of increafxng it by augment¬
ing the number of floats beyond 24 in this particular
wheel. Mr Smeaton likewife deduced, from his ex¬
periments, the following maxims.
1. That the virtual or effeftive head being the
fame, the effeft will be nearly as the quantity of water
expended.
2. That
HYDRODYNAMICS.
(z) Traits du Mouvement des Eaux.
(a) Mem. de TAcad. Paris, 1732.
(b) Aquariim Fluentium Menfura, lib. iv.
(c) Boffut Trade d'Hydrodynamique, art. 654.
(d) Id. id. art. 655.
(e) Phiiofophical Tranfaftions, vol. Ixix.
1
inclined to
the plane
of the
wheel,
Plate
CCLXX
rig. s*
Chap. I. HYDRO D Y
On Water- 2. That the expence of water being the fame, the
wheels. e{fea wiH be nearly as the height of the virtual or el-
v feftive head. . . , . ^
2. That the quantity of water expended being tire
fame, the effeft is nearly as the fquare of the velo-
4. The aperture being the fame, the effedl will be
nearly as the cube of the velocity of the water.
Underlhot 2QO. We have hitherto fuppofed the floatboards,
wheels with though inclined to the radius, to be perpendicular to
fly at boards ^ lane Gf t\ie wheel. Underfhot-wheels, however,
;"r,mf‘,lt° have fometimes been conftruaed with floatboards in¬
clined to the plane of the wheel. A wheel of this kind
is reprefented in fig. 5. where AB is the wheel, and
CDEFGH the oblique floatboards. 1 he horizon¬
tal current MN is delivered on the floatboards, lDas-
to ftrike them perpendicularly. On account of the uze
of the floatboards, every filament of the water contri¬
butes to turn the wheel •, and therefore its effect will
be greater than in underfbot-wheels of the common
form. Albert Euler imagines that the effedl will be
as great, and obferves, that in order to produce fuch
an effeft, the velocity of the centre of nnpreflion ihou.d
be to the velocity of the water, as radius is to triple the
fine of the angle by which the floatboards are inclined
to the plane of the wheel. If this inclination, therefore,
be 6o°, the velocity of the wheel at the centie of im-
predion ought to be to the velocity of the impelling fluid
as ! to SVii, that is, as 5 to 13 nearly, becaufe Sin..
2
60°—When the inclination is 30°, the ratio of
2
the velocities will be found to be as 2 to 3.
and alfo to 291. In wheels of this kind, the floats may alfo be
the radius, advantageoufly inclined to the radius. In this cale,
the ft ream, which ftill ftrikes them perpendicularly, is
inclined to the horizon. If the. angle formed by the
common fe£tion of the wheel and floatboards with the
radius of the wheel, be = w ; and if the angle by
which the fioatboards are inclined to the plane of the
wheel be = n, then the angle which the floatboards
ftiould form with the diieaion in which the wheel
moves, will be = Cof. m X bin. ». In order, there¬
fore, that the ftream may ftrike the floatboards with a
perpendicular impulfe, its inclination to the horizon
xnuft be — m, and its inclination to the plane of the
wheel — 900—The lefs that the velocity of the
water is, the greater ftiould be the angle m •, for the^ie
is, in this cafe, no danger that the celerity o+ toe
wheel be too great. The area of the floatboards ought
to be much greater than the fedtion of the currem ,
and the interval between two adjacent floatboards Aiould
be fo great, that before the one completely withdraws
itfelf from the adlion of the water, the other ftiould be¬
gin to receive its impulfe.
On horizon- 292. Horizontal water-wheels have been much ufed
tal water- on the continent, and are ftrongly recommended to our
notice by the limplicity of their conftruaion. In
fig. 6. AB is the large water wheel which moves ho¬
rizontally upon its arbor CD. This arbor pafles through
the immoveable millftone EF at D, and being fixed to
the upper one GH, carries it once round for every re¬
volution of the great wheel. The mill-courfe is con¬
ftruaed in the fan?e manner for horizontal as for verti-
N A M I C S.
77a
whet Is.
Fig. 5,
cal w’heels, with this difference only, that
WB«C, fig. 2. of which KL in fig. 1. is a fettion,, 
inftead of being reftilineal like m 11, muft be cncular
like m P, and concentric with the rim of the wheel,
fufficient room being left between it and the tips of the
floatboards for the play of the wheel. In this conftruc-
tion, where the water moves in a horizontal diieilion
before it ftrikes the wheel, the floatboards ihould be
inclined about 250 to the plane of the wheel, and the
fame number of degrees to the radius, fo that the low-
eft and outermoft fides of the floatboards may be far-
thett up the ftream.
293. Inftead of making the canal horizontal before
it delivers the water on the floatboards, they are fre¬
quently inclined in fuch a manner as to receive the
impulfe perpendicularly, and in the diredlion of the de¬
clivity of the mill-courfe. When this conftruaion is
adopted, the maximum efka will be produced when the
5.67 v'H
velocity of the floatboards is- not lefs than 2 ’
where H reprefents the height of the fall, and A the
the angle which the direaion of the fall makes with a
<.67 \/BI
vertical line. But as the quantity ^ ^ ^
evidently.
increafes as the fine of A decreafes, it follows, that
without leffening the effea of thefe wheels, we may di-
minifti the angle A, and thus augment confiderably the
velocity of the fioatboards, according to the nature of
the machinery employed } w-hereas, in veitical wheels,
there is only one determinate velocity which produces a
maximum effeft. . w. ,
294. In the fouthern provinces of France, where horl-"/incal
zontal wheels are generally employed, the floatboards floatkQar(}$,
are made of a curvilineal form, fo as to be concave to¬
wards the ftream. The Chevalier de Borda obferves,
that in theory a double eftedt is produced when the
floatboards are concave ^ but that the eftedl is diminifhed
in pradlice, from the difficulty of making the fluid enter
and leave the curve in a proper dirediion. Notwith-
ftanding this difficulty, however, and other defedfs
which might be pointed out, horizontal wheels with
concave floatboards are always fuperior to thofe. in
which the fioatboards are plain, and even to veitical
wheels, when there is a fufficient fall of water. When
the ffoatboards are plane, the wheel is driven merely
by the impulfe of the ftream ; but when they are con¬
cave, a part of the water adls by its weight and in¬
creafes the velocity of the wheel. If the fall of water
be 5 or 6 feet, a horizontal wheel with concave float-
boards may be eredled, whofe maximum effedt will be
to that of the ordinary vertical wheels as 3 to 2.
295. An advantage attending horizontal wheels is,
that the water may be divided into feveral canals, and
delivered upon feveral floatboards at the fame time.
Each ftream will heap up on its correfponding float-
board, and produce a greater effea than if the force of
the water had been concentrated on a fihgle ftoatboard.
Horizontal wheels may be employed with greateft ad¬
vantage when a fmall quantity of water falls through a
confiderable height. . n <7 .
296. It has been difputed among mechanical philofo-^rinct^
phers, whether overffiot or underfhot wheels produce the^
greateft effedt. M. Belidor maintained that the former
were inferior to the latter, while a contrary opinion ones.
Z**’ /*"
/ /
6 H Y D R O D
Machines vvas ei.tertalned by Defaguliers. It appears, however,
theVRea!> ^om Smeaton,s experiments, that in overfhot wheels
tion of Power is to the effedl nearly as 3 to 2 or as 5 to 4
Water, in general, whereas in underdiot wheels it is only as 3
■—to 1. The effedt of overlhot wheels therefore is nearly
double that of underfhot wheels, other circumftances
being the fame. In comparng the relative effedts of
water-wheels, the Chevalier de Borda remarks that
overlhot tvheels will raife through the height of the
fall, a quantity of w7ater equal to that by which they are
driven 5 that underlhot vertical wheels will .produce
only three-eighths of this effedt; that horizontal wheels
will produce a little lefs than one-half of it when the
floatboards are plain, and a little more than one half
of it when the floatboards have a curvilineal form.
Befant's TJnderJhot Wheel.
enBefant’*0 water*wileel invented by Mr Befant of
water- * ®rompton is conitrudled in the form of a hollow drum,
wheel. f° as to refill the admillion of the water. The floatboards
Plate. are fixed obliquely in pairs on the periphery of the
CCLXXI. wheel, fo that each pair may form an acute angle open
r‘ at its vertex, wdiile one of the floatboards extends be¬
yond the vertex of the angle. A fedtion of the wa¬
ter wheel is reprefented in fig. 1. where AB fis the
wheel, CD its axis, and /« «, op the pofition of the
floatboards. The motion of common underlhot wheels
is greatly retarded by the reflftance wdiich the tail-wa¬
ter and the atmofphere oppofe to the afcending float-
boards •, but in Befant’s wheel this refinance is greatly
diminilhed, as the floats emerge from the ftream in an
oblique diredlion. Although this wheel is much
heavier than thofe of the common conllrudlion, yet it
tevolves more eafily upon its axis, as the ftream has a
tendency to make it float.
Conical Horizontal Wheel with Spiral Floatboards.
Defcription 298. In Guyenne and Languedoc, in the fouth of
horizontal*1 ^'rance> a kind of conical horizontal wheel is fometimes
wheel with employed for turning machinery. It is conftrudted in the
fpiral float- form of an inverted cone AB, with fpiral floatboards
boards. winding round its furface. The wheel moves on a ver-
Fig- *• tical axis AB, in the building DD, and is driven chief¬
ly by the impulfe of the water conveyed by the canal C
to the oblique floatboards, the diredlion of the current
being perpendicular to the floatboards at the place of
impadl. When the impulfive force of the water is an¬
nihilated, it defcends along the fpirals, and continues to
aft by its weight till it reaches the bottom, when it is
carried off by the canal M.
Chap. II. On Machines driven by the Readlicn of
Water.
Water pro- 299. We have hitherto confidered the mechanical ef-
er effedls by water as impelling power of machinery, when
its readtion ^ a&s either by its impulfe or by its gravity. The re-
than by its aftion of water may be employed to communicate mo-
impulfe or tion to machinery 5 and though this principle has not
weight. yet been a30pted in praftice, it appears from theory,
and from fomc detached experiments on a fmall fcale,
Y N A M I C S. Part Ilf.
that a given quantity of water, falling through a given Machines
height, will produce greater effefts by its reaftion than d”'ven by
by its impulfe or its weight. l^e Reac-
J r b tion of
Water.
Sect. I. On Dr Barker's Mill. ' '
^OO.This machine, which is fometimes called Parent’s Defcription
mill, is reprefented in figure 3. where A is the canal of Dr Bar.
that conveys the water into the upright tube B, wdiich kei',s mil)*
communicates with the horizontal arm C. The water OXXXI
will therefore defcend through the upright tube into Fig. 3.
this arm, and will exert upon the infide of it a pref-
fure proportioned to the height of the fall. But if two
orifices d and e be perforated at the extremities of the
arm, and on contrary fades, the preffure upon thefe ori¬
fices will be removed by the efflux of the water, and the
unbalanced preffure upon the oppofite fides of the arm
will make the tube and the horizontal arm revolve
upon the fpindle D as an axis. This will be more eafi¬
ly underftood, if we fuppofe the orifices to be fflut up,
and confider the preffure upon a circular inch of the
arm oppofite to the orifice, the orifice being of the fame
fize. The preffure upon this circular inch will be equal
to a cylinder of water whofe bafe is one inch in diame¬
ter, and whofe altitude is the height of the fall; and
the fame force is exerted upon the ftiut-up orifice.
Thefe two preffures, therefore, being equal and oppo¬
fite, the arm C will remain at reft. But as foon as you
open the orifice, the water will iffue with a velocity due
to the height of the fall: the preffure upon the orifice
will of confequence be removed •, and as the preffure
upon the circular inch oppofite te the orifice ftill con¬
tinues, the equilibrium will be deftroyed, and the arm
C wfill move in a retrograde direftion.
301. The upright fpindle D, on which the arm revolves,
is fixed in the bottom of the arm, and fcrewed to it be¬
low by the nut g. It is fixed to the upright tube by
two crofs bars at f, fo as to move along with it. If
a corn, mill is to be driven, the top of the fpindle is
fixed into the upper millftone H. The lower qui-
efcent millftone I refts upon the floor K, in which is
the hole L, to let the meal pafs into a trough about
M. The bridgetree GF, which fupports the millftone,
tube, &c. is moveable on a pin at h, and its other end
is fupported by an iron rod fixed into it, the top of the
rod going through the fixed bracket o, furnilhcd with a
nut 0. By fcrewing this nut, the millftone may be
raifed or lowered at pleafure. If any other kind of
machinery is to be driven, the fpindle D muft be pro¬
longed to X, and a fmall wheel W fixed to its extre¬
mity, which will communicate its motion to any fpecies
of mechanifm. An improvement on this machine by
M. Mathon de la Cour, and fome excellent obfervations
on the fubjeft by Profeffor Robifon, will be found in
the article WjirEti-Works.
302. Mr Waring of the American Philofophical So¬
ciety, has given a theory of Barker’s mill with the im¬
provement of M. Mathon de la Cour, which he has
ftrangely afcribed to a Mr Rumfey about 20 years after it
was publifhed in Rozier's Journal de Phy fique, Jan. and
Auguft 1775. Contrary to every other philofopher, he
makes the effeft of the machine equal only to that of
a good underfhot wheel, moved wfith the fame quantity
of water, falling through the fame height. The fol-
Water.
’’radtical
rule;.
Chap. II. H Y D R O D
Machines lowing rules, however, deduced from his calculus may
theReac7 ':)e U^e t0 t^°^e w^° may to rnahe experiments
tion of on t^ie effe<^; °f this interefting machine.
1. Make the arm of the rotatory tube or arm C,
from the centre of motion to the centre of the aperture,
of any convenient length, not lefs than one-third (one-
ninth according to Mr Gregory (f), who has corrected
fome of Waring’s numbers) of the perpendicular height
of the water’s furface above their centres.
2. Multiply the length of the arm in feet by .614,
and take the fquare root of the product for the proper
time of a revolution in feconds, and adapt the other
parts of the machinery to this velocity $ or, if the
time of a revolution be given, multiply the fquare of
this time by 1.63 for the proportional length of the
arm.
3. Multiply together the breadth, depth, and veloci¬
ty per fecond, of the race, and divide the laft produft
by 18.47 times (14.27 according to Mr Gregory) the
fquare root of the height, for the area of either aper¬
ture.
4. Multiply the area of either aperture by the height
of the fall of water, and the product by 41 y pounds
(55.775 according to Mr Gregory), for the moving
force eftimated at the centres of the apertures in pounds
avoirdupois. k
5. The power and velocity at the aperture may be
eafily reduced to any part of the machinery by the
fimpleft mechanical rules.
form given 303. Long after the preceding machine had been de-
0 Barker’s feribed in feveral of our Englifh treatifes on machines,
Profeflbr Segner publilhed in his hydraulics, as an inven¬
tion of his own, the account of a machine, differing from
this only in form. MN wras the axis of the machine, cor-
refponding with DX in Barker’s mill, and a number
of tubes AB were alfo fo arranged round this axis that
their higher extremities A formed a circular fuperficies
into which the water flowed from a refervoir. When
the machine has this form, it has been fhown by Albert
Euler that the maximum efleft is produced when the
velocity is infinite, and that the effeft is equal to the
power. As a confiderable portion of the power, how¬
ever, muft be confumed in communicating to the fluid
the circular motion of the tubes j and as the portion
Vol. X. Part II.
iill by
'rofeflbr
iynes.
iig. 4.
Y N A M I C S. 777
thus loft muft increafe with the velocity of the tube, Machines
the efte<ft will in reality fuftain a
increafe of velocity.
diminution from an c!1‘v^n
the Reac-
. tion of
Water.
SECT. II. Defcription of Albert Euler's Machine^ v "
driven by the ReaBion of the Water.
304. ThIs machine confifts of two veffels, the loweft Plate
of which EEFF is moveable round the vertical axis OO, ccLXXf.
while the higher veffel remains immoveable. The form
of the loweft veflel, wdiich is reprefented by itfelf in
fig. 6. is fimilar to that of a truncated bell, which is Fig. 6.
faftened by the crofs beams m, n to the axis O fo as
to move along with it. The annular cavity h h h h,
terminates at e e in feveral tubes e f ef ef diverging
from the axis. Through the lower extremities of thefe
tubes, which are bent into a right angle, the water flow¬
ing from the cavity hhhh iflues with a velocity due to
the altitude of its furface in h, h, and produces by its re¬
action a rotatory and retrograde motion round the axis OO.
The cavity of the ring /i, h, receives the water from the
fuperior veffel GGHH, fimilar to the inferior veffel in
fig. 6. but not connected with the axis OO. This vef¬
fel has alfo an annular cavity PP, into which the water
is conveyed from a refervoir by the canal R. Around
the lower part HH of the cavity, this veffel is divided
into feveral apertures I z, placed obliquely that the wa¬
ter may defeend with proper obliquity into the inferior
veffel. The width of the higher vefl’el at HH ought
to be equal to the width of the lower veffcl at EE,
that the water which iffues from the former may exa&ly
fill the annular cavity h, h, k, h.
When the machine is conftru&ed in this way, its
maximum effeCl will be equal to the power, provid¬
ed all its parts be proportioned and adjufted accord¬
ing to the refults in the following table, computed
from the formulae of Albert Euler. In the table,
Q=the quantity of water, or number of cubic feet of
water furnifhed in a fecond.
Tzrrthe time, or number of feconds in which the lower
veffel revolves.
B=the breadth of the annular orifice in inches.
5 F
Table
(f) Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. in.
778
Machines
driven by
the Reac¬
tion of
Water.
Table for
mills driven
by the re¬
action of
water.
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Table for Mills driven by the ReaBion of Water.
Part in.
Explana- T^e determinations in the preceding table are exhi-
tion of the bited in a general manner, that the machine may be
table. accommodated to local circumftances. The time of
a revolution T, for inftance, is left undetermined, be-
caufe upon this time depends the magnitude of the ma¬
chine ; and T may be affumed of fuch a value that the
dimenlions of the machine may be fuitable to the given
place, or to the nature of the work to be performed.
Etample. 305. In order to fhew the application of the preced¬
ing table, let it be required to conftruft the machine
when the height of the fall is five feet, and when the
refervoir furnilhes one cubic foot of water in a fecond.
In this cafe Q=i, and therefore, by column 3d, the
fum of the areas of the orifices will be 11.52 Iquare
inches. Confequently, if there are twelve orifices, the
area of each orifice will be ——^-=0.96 of a fquare
inch. Suppofe the time of a revolution to be = 1 fe¬
cond or T=i, then the 4th column will give the mean
radius of the annular orifice —1.9894 feet, or. nearly
two feet. Let the breadth of the annular orifice or
B=-r an inch, then the difference between the altitude
Chap. III.
of each veffei will
H Y D R o t)
On Ma¬
chines for
raifisg
Water.
be O.3539
779
On Ma-
0.3539X
I XI
:o.3539Xt=0-3539*4:
Reference
to the re¬
el.41 56 inches.
^ JL x I X 1 1 g.
Now as the fum of the heights of the veffels muft be
always equal to the height of the fall, half that fum
will in the preient cale be two feet lix inches ; and
fince half the difterence of their altitudes is 7-tenths of
an inch, the altitude of the fuperior velfel will be two
feet hx inches and feven-tenths, and that of the infe¬
rior velfel two feet live inches and three-tenths. It ap¬
pears from the lati column of the table, that the tangent
of the inclination of the tubes is 0.153b? which correi-
ponds with an angle of 8° 44'.
306. The theory of this machine has alfo been dil-
cuffed by Leonhard Euler in the Mein, de l'Acad. Ber-
fearches of voL vi. p. 3 x I ? and its application to all kinds of
Leonhard has pointed out in a fubfequent paper, en-
Euler’ titled, Application de la Machine Hydraulique de M.
Segner a toutes forts d'ouvrage, et defes avantages fui
les autres Machines Hy dr antiques dontonfefertordi-
nairement, Mem. Acad. Berlin, tom. vii. 1752? P* 271.
The refults of Euler’s analyfis are not fufficiently prac¬
tical for the ufe of the general reader. But it appears
from his invelfigations, as well as from thole ot John
Bernouilli and other philofophers, that the reaftion of
water is the moll powerful way in which the force of
that fluid can be employed.
New kind 307. It has often occurred to the wrriter of this ar-
of water- ticie, that a very powerful hydraulic machine might be
Wheel fug- coni|rufteci by combining the impulfe with the rea&mn
Ct’ of w ater. If the fpout a, for example, inftead of deli-
Plate vering the wTater into the higher veffei, were to throw
CCLXXI. upon a number of curvilincal floatboards fixed on its
circumference, and fo formed as to convey the wTater
ealily into the fpiral canals, we Ihould have a machine
fomething like the conical horizontal wneel in fig. 2.
with fpiral channels inftead of fpiral floatboards 5 and
which would in fome meafure be moved both by the
Impulle, weight, and readlion of the water.
Chap. III. On Machines for raifing Water.
SECT. I. On Pumps.
308. The fubjeft of pumps has been fully and ably
dilcuffed by Dr Robifon under the article 1 limp, to
which we muft refer the reader for a complete view ot
the theory of the machine. In that article, however,
a reference is made to the prefent for a defeription of
the ancient pump of Ctefibius, and of thole in com¬
mon ufe to which it has given rife. To thefe fubje&s,
therefore, we muft now confine our attention.
309. The pump was invented by Ctelibius, a ma¬
thematician of Alexandria, who flourilhed under Ptole¬
my Pfychon, about 120 years before Chrift. In its
original ftate it is reprefented in fig. 1. w'here ABCD
is a brafs cylinder with a valve L in its bottom. It
is furnilhed with a pifton MK made of green wood,
fo as not to fwell in water, and adjufted to the bore of
the cylinder by the interpofition of a ring of leather.
The tube Cl connefts the cylinder ABCD with ano¬
ther tube NH, the bottom of which is furnilhed with a
valve I opening upwards. Now when the extremity
DC of the cylinder is immerfed in water, and the pif-
Fig.
Reference
to the arti¬
cle Pump.
Defeription
of the ori¬
ginal pump
of Ctefi-
biu?.
Plate
CCLXXII.
Fig. 1.
y N A M I c s,
ton MK elevated, the preffure of the water Upon the . ^ ^
valve L from below will be proportioned to the depth c
below the furface (41). The valve will therefore open Water.
and admit the water into the cylinder. But when the —y——*
pifton is depreffed, it will force the w^ater into the tube
CH, and through the valve I into the tube NH. As
foon as the portion of water that was admitted into the
cylinder ABCD, is thus impelled into the tube NH,
the valve I will dole. A fecond elevation of the pif¬
ton will admit another quantity of fluid into the cylin¬
der, and a fecond depreflion will force it into the tube
NH ; fo that, by continuing the motion of the pifton,
the water may be elevated to any altitude in the tube.
From this pump of Ctefibius are derived the three
kinds of pumps now commonly ufed, the fucking, the
forcing, and the lifting pump.
310. The common fucking pump is reprefented in Defcnption
im-
fig' 2. where ICBL is the Tody of the pump ....
merfed in the water at A. The moveable pifton DG
is compofed of the pifton rod D d, the pifton or bucket blS- *•
G, and the valve a : The bucket H which is fixed to
the body of the pump, is likewife furnilhed with a valve
b, which, like the valve a, Ihould by its own weight lie
dole upon the hole in the bucket till the working of
the engine commences. The valves are made of brafs,
and have their lower furface covered with leather, in
order to fit the holes in the bucket more exadly. The
moveable bucket G is covered with leather, io as to fuit
exa&ly the bore of the cylinder, and prevent any air
from efcaping between it and the pump. The pifton
DG may be elevated or depreffed by the lever
Db), whofe fulcrum is r, the extremity of the bent
arm R r.
311. Let us now fuppofe the pifton G to be depref-Mode of
fed fo that its inferior furface may reft upon the valve b. operation,
Then if the pifton G be raifed to C, there would have
been a vacuum between H and G if the valve b were
immoveable. But as the valve b is moveable, and as
the preffure of the air is removed from its fuperior fur¬
face, the air in the tube HL will, by its elafticity, force
open the valve b, and expand itfelf through the whole ca¬
vity LC. This air, however, will be much rarer than
that of the atmofphere; and fince the equilibrium between
the external air and that in the tube LH is deftroyed by
the rarefaction of the latter, the preffure of the atmo-
fphere on the furface of the water in the veflel K will
predominate, and raife the water to about e in the
fuftion pipe HL, fo that the air formerly included
in the fpace LC will be condenfed to the fame ftate as
that of the atmofphere. The elafticity of the air both
above and below the valve b being now equal, that
valve will fall by its own weight.—Let the pifton DG
be now depreffed to b. The air w^ould evidently refift
its defeent, did not the valve a open and give a free
exit to the air in the fpace CH, for it cannot efcape
through the inferior valve b. When the pifton reach¬
es b, the valve a will fall by its weight j and when the
pifton is again elevated, the incumbent air will prefs
the valve a firmly upon its orifice. During the fecond
afeent of the pifton to C the valve b will rife, the air
between e H will rulh into HC 5 and in confequence of
its rarefaClion, and inability to counteract the preffure
of the atmofphere, the water will rife to f. In tlm
fame way it may be Ihewn, that at the next ftroke of
the pifton the water will rife through the box H to B,
c F 2 and
»
/8o HYDRO!)
On Mi* and then the valve b which was raifed by it will fall
railing5" ,wlle,n buckct G is at C. Upon deprefling the
Water. bucket G again, the water cannot be driven through
v ^ ie va^ve which is prefled to its orjlice by the water
above it. At the next afcent of the pifton a new quan¬
tity of water will rife through H, and follow the pifton
to C. W hen the pifton again defcends the valve a
will open j and as the wrater between C and H cannot
be pulhed through the valve b, it wdll rile through
and have its furface at C when the pifton G is at ^ j
but when the pifton riles, the valve,a being ftiut by the
water above it, this water will be raifed up towards I,
aim ilfue at the pipe F. A new quantity of water will
nnh through H and Hll the {pace FIC j confequently,
the furface of the fluid will always remain at C, and
every fucceeding elevation of the pifton from Z> to C will
make the column of wrater CFf run out at the pipe F.
fhe fuck- ^12. As the wrater riles m the pipe CL folely by the
w?lffoTP l,mTure °.f the_atmofphere ^ and as a column of water,
raife water 33 ^et high, is equal in weight to a column of air of
higher thanha me bale, reaching from the earth’s furface to the
33 feet. top of the atmofphere, the water in the veflel K will
not follow the pifton G to a greater altitude than 33
feet} for when it reaches this height, the column of wa¬
ter completely balances, or is in equilibrium with, the
atmofphere, and therefore cannot be raifed higher by
the preliure of the external air.
Defcription 3I3* forcing pump is reprefen ted in fig. 3.
of the for- where D is the pifton attached to a folid plunger g,
cing pump, ac.jufted to the bore of the pipe BC by the interpofition
Plate a r*nS leather. The redtangular pipe MMN
CCLXXII. communicates with the tube BC by the cavity-round
^ ig- 3- G i ant^ its upper extremity P is furnilhed with a valve
a opening upwards. An air-veffel KK is faftened to
P, and the tube FGI is introduced into it fo as to reach
Mode ofit* as near as poffible to the valve a.—Let us now fuppofe
operation, the plunger to be deprefled to b. As foon as it is ele¬
vated to C the air below it will be rarefied, and the wrater
will afcend through the valve b in the fame wray as in
the fucking pump, till the pipe is filled to C. The
valve b wall now be flmt by the Weight of the incum¬
bent water j and therefore when the plunger D^- is de-
preffed, it will force the water between C and b through
the red angular pipe MMN, into the air veffel KK.
Before the water enters the air veffel, it opens the valve a,
which fliuts as foon as the plunger is again raifed, be-
caufe the preffure of the water upon its under fide is re¬
moved. In this way the water is driven into the air
yeffel by repeated ftrokes of the plunger, till its furface
is above the lower extremity of the pipe IG. Now, as
the air in the veffel KK has no communication with the
external air when the water is above I, it muft be con-
denfed more and more, as new quantities of w'ater are
injefted. It will therefore endeavour to expand itfelf,
and by prefling upon the furface H of the water in the
air veffel, it will drive the water through the tube IG,
and make it iffue at F in a continued ftream, even when
the plunger is rifing to C. If the pipe GHI were join¬
ed to the pipe MMN at P, wdthout the intervention of
an air veffel, the ftream of water would ifiue at F only
when the plunger was depreffed.
Y N A M I C S.
PartHI
3* 4* Tim lifting pump, which is only a particular On Ma-
modification of the forcing pump, is reprefented in fig. chlnes for
4. 1 he barrel AB is fixed in the immoveable frame
KILM the lower part of which is immerfed in the . ‘Uer'
water to be raifed. The frame GEQHO confifts of Defcription
two ftrong iron rods EQ^GH which move through °f the flit-
holes in IK and LM, the upper and lower ends of ,nS PumP*
the pump. Io the bottom GH of this frame is fixedGg.4.
an inverted pifton with its bucket and valve uppermoft
at D. An inclined branch KH, either fixed to the top
of the barrel, or moveable by a ball and focket, as re-
preiented at F, muft be fitted to the barrel fo exadtly as
to refift the admiflion both of air and water. The
branch KH is furnilhed with a valve C opening up¬
wards. Let the pump be now plunged in the water to the Mode of ite
depth of D. Then if the pifton frame be thruft down 0Peratiori»
into the fluid, the pifton will defcend, and the water
by its upward preffure will open the valve at D and
gain admiflion above the pifton. When the pifton
frame is elevated, it wall raife the water above D along
with it, and forcing it through the valve, it will be
carried off by the fpout.
315. An mgenious pump, invented by De la Hire, is Dela Hire’s
reprelented in fig. 3. It raifes water equally quick by pump,
the defcent as by the afcent of the pifton. The pipes
B, C, E, F, all communicate with the barrel MD, and^*^'^'
have each a valve at their top, viz. at b, S, e,f. The
pifton rod LM and plunger K never rile higher
than K, nor defcend lower than D, KD being the
length of the ftroke. When the plunger K is raifed
from D to K the preflure of the atmofphere forces the
water through the valve b, and fills the barrel up to
the plunger, in the very fame way as in the forcing
pump. When the plunger K is depreffed to D, it
forces the water between K and b up the pipe F and
through the valve e into the box G, where it iffues at
the orifice O. During the defcent of the plunger K
the valve f falls, and covers the top of the pipe F;
and as the pifton-rod LM moves in a collar of leather
at M, and is air-tight, the air above the plunger, be¬
tween (,) and M, wdll be rarefied, and likewife the
air in the pipe CS, which communicates with the rare¬
fied air by the valve S. The preffure of the air
therefore will raife the water in CS, force it through
the valve S, and fill the fpace above the plunger, expell¬
ing the rarefied air through the valve f. When the
pifton is raifed from D to K, it wdll force the water
through the bent pipe F into the box G, fo that the
fame quantity of water wdll be difcharged at O through
the pipe F, during the afcent of the pifton, as wTas dif¬
charged through the pipe E during the pifton’s defcent.
Above the pipe O is a clofe air-veffel D, fo that when
the water is driven above the fpout O, it compreffes the
air in the veffel P, and this air afting by its elafticity
on the furface of the water, forces it out at O in a con-
ftant and nearly equal ftream. As the effed of the
machine depends on a proper proportion between the
height O of the fpout above the furface of the well,
and the diameter of the barrel, the following table will
be of ufe to the pradical mechanic.
Height
Chap. HI.
HYDRODYNA MI
On Ma¬
chines for
raifing
Water.
Height of the
fpout O above
the will.
Feet.
TO
15
20
25
3°
35
40
45
50
Diameter of
the barrel D.
Inches.
6.9
5.6 •
4.9
4.4
4.0
3-7
3-5
3-3
3.1
Height of the
fpout O above
the well.
Feet.
60
65
70
75
§0
85
go
95
100
Diameter of
the barrel D.
Inches.
2.8
2.7
2.6
2.5
2-5
2.4
2*3
2.2
2.1
Noble’s
pump.
Fig. 6.
Buchanan’s,
pump.
Fig- 7-
When the proportions in the preceding table are
obferved, a man of common ftrength will raife water
much higher than he could do with a pump of the
common conftruftion.
316. A very limple pump which furnilhes a continued
ftream is reprefented in fig. 6. It was invented by a Mr
Noble, and confifts 01 a working barrel AB with two pif-
tons C and B, which are moved up and down alternately
by the rods fixed to the lever EMN. The rod ofthe pifton
B paffes through the pifton C, and the pifton C moves
upon the rod AB. When the pifton rod B is depreffed
and elevated, it will make the water rife in the barrel
A, in the fame way as in the fucking pump, whether the
valve C be moveable or not. Let us now fuppofe that
the water is raifed to A. Then if the pifton B is elevated
by depreding the extremity N of the lever, the water
at A will be raifed higher in the barrel, and iffue at
the fpout P, and when the fame pifton B is depreffed
by elevating the end N of the lever, the pifton C is evi¬
dently raifed, and the water above it will be expelled
at P. This pump, therefore, will give a continued
ftream, for as the piftons afcend and defcend alternate¬
ly, one of them muft always be forcing the water out
at P. The piftons are elevated and depreffed by means
of toothed arches, c and c/, working in the teeth of a
rack, at the extremities a, b of the pifton rod.
317. The pump invented by Mr Buchanan is ftiewn
in fig. 7. In the vertical fedtion DGA, A is the fuc-
tion barrel, D the working barrel, E the pifton, G the
fpout, B the inner valve, and C the outer valve. Thefe
valves are of the kind called clack valves, and have
their hinges generally of metal. It is eafily feen that
when the pifton E is raifed, the w-ater will rife through
the fudlion barrel A, into the working barrel D, in
the fame w7ay as in the fucking pump j and that when
the pifton E is depreffed, it will force the w'ater be¬
tween it and the valve B, through the valve C, and
make it iffue at G. The points of difference between
this pump and thofe of the common form, are,—
that it difcharges the water below the pifton, and has
its valves lying near each other. Hence the fand or
mud which may be in the water, is difcharged without
injuring the barrel or the pifton leathers j and as the
valves B, C may be of any fize, they wall tranfmit,
without being choked, any rubbifli wThich may rife in
the fudlion barrels. If any obftrudtion fliould happen
On Ma¬
chines for
railing
Water.
C S. 781
pump to pieces. This fimple machine may be quickly
converted into a fire engine, by adding the air-veffel
H, which is fcrewed like a hofepipe, and by fixing in
the fpout G a perforated ftopple fitted to receive Inch 1
pipes as are employed in fire engines. When theie addi¬
tions are made, the water, as in the cafe of the forcing
pump, will be driven into the air veffel H, and repelled
through the perforated ftopple G, by the elafticity of
the included air.
318. A fimple method of working two pumps at once BaLnce-
by means of a balance, is exhibited in fig. 8. wdiere AB imtnP‘
is the balance, having a large iron ball at each end, Figs. 8,
placed in equilibrium on the twm fpindles C, fee fig. 9.
The perfon who works the pump Hands on two boards
I, I, nailed to two crofs pieces faftened to the axis of
the machine, and fupports himfelf by a crois bar D d
joined to the two parts D, E. At the diftance of ten
inches on each fide of the axis are lufpended the iron rods
M, N, to which the piftons are attached. The work¬
man, by bearing alternately on the right and left foot,
puts the balance in motion. The piftons M, N are
alternately elevated and depreffed, and the water raifed
in the barrel of each, is driven into the pipe HH, in
which it is elevated to a height proportional to the
diameter of the valves, and the power of the balance.
In order to make the ofcillations of the balance equal,
and prevent it from acquiring too great a velocity, iron
fprings F, G are fixed to the upright polls, which limit
the length of its ofcillations.
319. The chain pump is reprefented in fig.x. It con'qhain-
fifts of a chain MTHG, about 30 feet long, carrying pUmp.
a number of flat piftons M, N, O, P, £), which are p[ate
made to revolve in the barrels ABCD and GH, by fcCLXXIIL
driving the wheel F. When the flat piftons are at the Fig. 1.
lower part of the barrel T, they are immerfed in the
water RR, and as they rife in the barrel GH, they
bring up the water along with them into the refervoir
MG, from wdiich it is conveyed by the fpout S. The
teeth of the wheel F are fo contrived as to receive one-
half of the flat piftons, and let them fold in 5 and fome-
times another wheel like F is fixed at the bottom D.
The diftance of the piftons from the fide of the barrel -
is about half an inch j but as the machine is ge¬
nerally wmrked with great velocity, the afcending pif¬
tons bring along with them into the refervoir as much
wTater as fills the cavity GH. Sometimes chain pumps
are conftrudted without the barrels ABCD and GH.
In this cafe, the flat piftons are converted into buckets
connefted with a chain, which dip in the wTater with
their mouths downwards, and convey it to the refervoir.
The buckets are moved by hexagonal axles, and the
diftance between each is nearly equal to the depth of
the buckets. Chain pumps are frequently in an inclin¬
ed pofition, and in this pofition they raife the greateft
quantity of water when the diftance of the flat piftons
is equal to their breadth, and when the inclination of
the barrels is about 240 2l'.
320. The hair-rope machine, invented by the Sieur {^air.r0pe
Vera, operates on the fame principle as the chain pump, machine of*
Inftead of a chain of piftons moving round the wheel F, t’-c Sieur
a hair rope is fubftitUted. The part of the rope at T Vera*
that is lowed always dips in the water, which adhering *ag. 1.
to the rope is raifed along with it. When the rope
reaches the top at G and M, it paffes through two
to the valves, they are within the reach of the work¬
man’s hand, and may be cleared without taking the . fmall tubes, which being fixed in the bottom of the re- -
fervoir .
H YDRODYNAMI C S.
Machine
with cu-
fhions in-
ftead of flat
pillons.
Common
{quitting
engine.
Fig. 2.
Improved
fire-engine.
Fig- 3-
Newfham’s
fire-engine.
Fig. 4.
fervoir prevent the water from returning into the well.
Sometimes a common rope is employed, having a num¬
ber of Huffed cufhions fixed to it inftead of the Hat pif-
tons in the chain pump. Thefe cufhions carry the
water along with them through the barrel HG, and
deliver it into the refervoir.—For the defcription of
other pumps, fee the article Pump; and for pump mills,
fee the article Mill.
Sect. II. On Engines for Extitiguijhing Fire.
321. The common fire engine which difcharges water
in luccefiive jets is reprefented in fig. 2. and is only a
modification of the lifting pump. In the veffel AB
full of water, is immerfed the frame DC of a common
lifting pump. This frame, and confequently the pif-
ton N, is elevated and deprefled by means of tbe le¬
vers E, F, and tbe water which is raifcd is forced
through the pipe G, which may be moved in any di¬
rection by means of the elaftic leather pipe H, or by a
ball and focket fcrewed on the top of the pump. While
the pifton N is defcending, the ftream at G is evident¬
ly difcontinued, and iffues only at each elevation of the
pifton. The veffel AB is fupplied with water by
buckets, and the pump is prevented from being choak-
ed by the ftrainer LK which feparates from the water
any mud that it may happen to contain.
322. As this fire engine does not afford a continued
ftream, it is not fo ufeful in cafe of accidents as when
the ftream is uninterrupted. An improved engine of
this fort is reprefented in fig. 3. where D, E, are
two forcing pumps connected with the large veffel OG,
and wrought by the levers F, G, moving upon H as a
fulcrum. This apparatus is plunged and faftened in
the veffel AB partly filled with water, and by means
of the forcing pump DE, the operation of which has
already been defcribed, the water is driven through the
valves I, L into the large veffel OG, where the in¬
cluded air is condenfed. Into this veifel is inferted the
tube PO communicating with the leathern pipe ORQS.
The elafticity of the condenfed air in the veffel OG
prefling upon the furface of the water in that veffel,
forces it up through the tube PO into the leathern
pipe, from whofe extremity S, it iffues with great force
and velocity ; and as the condenfed air is continually
preffmg upon the water in the veffel OG, the ftream at
S will be conftant and uniform.
323. A fe&ion of the fire engine, as improved by Mr
Newfham, is reprefented in fig. 4. where TU and
WX are the forcing pumps correfponding with D and
C in fig. 3. YZ the large veffel correfponding with
GO, and the tube correfponding with PO. The
veffels TU, WX, YZ, the horizontal canals ON, QP,
ML, and the vertical canal EE, all communicate with
each other by means of four valves O, I, K, P opening
upwards, and tbe vertical pipe is immerfed in the water
to be raifed. When the pifton R is raifed by means of
the double lever «/3, a vacuum would be made in the
barrel TU, if the water at R were prevented from rifing;
but as this barrel communicates with the veffel of wa¬
ter below EE, on the furface of which the preffure of
the atmofphere is exerted, the water will rife through
EF, force open the valve H, and follow the pifton R.
By deprefling the pifton R, however, the water is
driven down the barrel, clofes the valve H, and rufhes
Part III.
through the valve I into the air veffel YZ. The very Or, Ma-
fame operation is going on with the pump WX, which cllines for
forces the water into the air veffel through the valve Water
K. By thefe means the air veffel is conftantly filling , v .
with water, and the included air undergoing continual .
oondeniation. The air thus compreffed, reads upon
the lurface YZ of the water, and forces it through tbe
tube ef to tbe ftop-cock eg, whence, after turning the
cock, the water paffes into the tube /i, fixed to -a ball
and focket, by which it may be difcharged in any di-
redion.
324. The fire engine has undergone various alterations R.efereree
and improvements from Bramah, Dickenfon, Simpkin,t0 the im-
Raventree, Philips and Furft,an account of whofe engines Provem£ots'
may be feen in the Repertory of Arts, &lc. A very
fimple and cheap fire engine has been invented by Mr
B. Dearborn, and is defcribed in the American Tranf-
adions for 1794, and in Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii.
p. 177.
Sect. III. On WhitehurJPs Machine, and Montgolfier's
Hydraulic Ram.
* Phil.
335. Mr Whitehurft * was the firft who fuggefted Tranf.vjig
the ingenious idea of railing water by means of its mo- ^ea of
mentum. A machine upon the fame principle as Mr railing Wa-
Whitehurft’s, but in an improved form, has lately ter b\ its
made its appearance in France, and excited confider-own t”0-
able attention both on the continent and in this coun-
try. Whatever credit, therefore, has been given to ed by Mr
the inventor of the hydraulic ram, juftly belongs to Whitehurft.
our countryman Mr Whitehurft, and Montgolfier is
entitled to nothing more than the merit of an im¬
prover.
326. Mr Whitehurft’s machine, which was adually Defcrip-
ereded at Oulton in Chefhire, is reprefented in fig. 1. tion nf 'Mr
where AM is the original refervoir having its furface
in the fame horizontal line with the bottom of the re- chinc ma"
fervoir BN. The diameter of the main pipe AE is
one inch and a half, and its length about 200 yards ; Plate
and the branch pipe EF is of fuch a fize that the height
of the furface M of the refervoir is nearly 16 feet above I*
the cock F. In the valve box D is placed the valve
a, and into the air veffel C are inferted the extremities
m, n of the main pipe, bent downwards to prevent the
air from being driven out, when the water is forced
into it. Now as the cock F is 16 feet below the refer¬
voir AM, the water will iffue from F with a velocity
of nearly 30 feet per fecond. As foon as the cock F
therefore is opened, a column of water 200 yards long
is put in motion, and though the aperture of the cock
F be fmall, this column muft have a very confiderable
momentum. Let the cock F be now fuddenly flopped,
and the water will rufh through the valve a into the
air veffel C, and condenfe the included air. This con-
denfation muft take place every time the cock is flmt,
and the imprifoned air being in a ftate of high compref-
lion, will rea£t upon the water in the air veffel, and
raife it into the refervoir BN.
327. A feftion of the hydraulic ram of Montgolfier Defcriptioa
is exhibited dn fig. 2. where R is the refervoir, RS the0fMont-
height of the fall, and ST the horizontal canal which ?°lfier f.
conveys the water to the engine ABHTC. E and D rJm*aU *
are two valves, and EG a pipe reaching within a very^. ^
little of the bottom CB. Let us now fuppofe that w7a-
2 ter
Chap.
>. Hi. H Y D R O D
0.1 Ma- ter is permitted to defcend from the refervoir. It wijl
chines for evidently rufli out at the aperture m n till its velocity is
ravimg as to force Up the valve E. The water being thus
. , fuddenly checked, and unable to find a paffage at m n,
will rufli forwards to H and raife the valve D. A por¬
tion of water being thus admitted into the veflel ABC,
the impulfe of the column of fluid is fpent, the valves
D and E fall, and the water iffues at wz « as before j
when its motion is again checked, and the fame opera¬
tion repeated, which has now been defcribed. When¬
ever, therefore, the valve E clofes, a portion of water
will force its way into the velfel ABC, and condenfe
the air which it contains, for the included air has no
communication with the atmofphere after the bottom of
the pipe EG is beneath the furface of the injefted wa¬
ter. This condenfed .air will confequently reaft upon
the furface of the water, and raife it in the pipe EG to
an altitude proportioned to the elafticity of the included
air. The external appearance of this engine, drawn
from one in the pofleflion of Profeffor Lefiie, is repre-
fented in fig. 3. where ABC is the air veffel, F the
valve box, G the extremity of the valve, and M, N
fcrews for fixing the horizontal canal to the machine.
When the engine is employed to form a jet of water, a
piece of brafs, A, with a fmall aperture, is fcrewed upon
the top of the tube EG, which, in that cafe, rifes no
higher than the top of the air veffel. From this defcrip-
tion it will be feen, that the only difference between
the engines of Montgolfier and Wkitehurft is, that the
one requires a perfon to turn the cock, w'hile the other
has the advantage of adling fpontaneoufly. Montgol¬
fier (g) alfures us, that the honour of this invention
does not belong to England, but that he is the foie in¬
ventor, and did not receive a hint from any perfon
whatever. We leave the reader to determine the de¬
gree of credit to which thefe afiertions are entitled.—It
would appear from fome experiments made by Mont¬
golfier, that the effedl of the water ram is equal to be¬
tween a half and three fourths of the power expended,
which renders it fuperior to moft hydraulic machines.
appendix to Fergufon's LeRurcs, p. 19.
Sect. IV. On Archimedes's Screw Engine.
Y N A M I C S.
cylinder, and is driven by a pinion fixed at I. In this
783
On Ma¬
Fig- 3-
Defcription
of Archime¬
des’s ferew-
engine.
Fig- 4.
Operation
of the
fcrew-en-
gine.
328. The fcrew engine invented by Archimedes is
reprefented in fig. 4. where AB is a cylinder with a
flexible pipe, CEHOGF, wrapped round its circumfe¬
rence like a fcrew. The cylinder is inclined to the ho¬
rizon, and fupported at one extremity by the bent _ pil¬
lar IR, while its other extremity, furnifhed with a pivot,
is immerfed in the water. When, by means of the
handle K, the cylinder is made to revolve upon its
axis, the water which enters the lower orifice of the
flexible pipe is raifed to the top, and difcharged at
D. On fome occafions, when the w-ater to be raifed
moves with a coniiderable velocity, the engine is put
in motion by a number of fioatboards fixed at L, and
impelled by the current} and if the w7ater is to be
raifed to a great height, another cylinder is immerfed in
the veffel D, which receives the water from the firft
way, by having a fucceffion of fcrew engines, and a fuc- c °r
ceffion of refervoirs, wrater may be raifed to any alti- \vate£
tude. An engine of this kind is defcribed in Eergufon’s 1 ^
Lectures, vol. ii. p. 113.
329. In order to explain the reafon why the water Fig. 5.
rifes in the fpiral tube, let AB be a fedfion of the en¬
gine, EC z/DE the fpiral tube, BE a horizontal line
or the furface of the flagnant water which is to be
raifed, and ABF the angle wdnch the axis of the cy¬
linder makes with the horizon. Then, the water which
enters the extremity B of the fpiral tube will defcend
to C, and remain there as long as the cylinder is at
reft. But if a motion of rotation be communicated to
the cylinder, fo that the loweft part C of the fpiral.
BCD move towards B, and the points d, D, E towards
C, and become fucceffively the loweft parts of the fpi¬
ral, the water muft occupy fucceflively the points
D, E, and therefore rife in the tube j or, which is the
fame thing, when the point C moves to c, the point d
will be at C ; and as the water at C cannot rife along'
with the point C to c, on account of the inclination
of C c to the horizon, it mull occupy the point d of the
fpiral, when C has moved to c ; that is, the water has
a tendency to occupy the lower parts of the fpiral, and
the rotatory motion withdraws this part of the fpiral
from the water, and caufes it to afcend to the top of
the tube. By wrapping a cord round a cylinder, and
inclining it to the horizon, fo that the angle ABC may
be greater than the angle ABF, and then making it
revolve upon its axis, the preceding remarks will be
clearly illuftrated.—If the direction of the fpiral BC
fhould be horizontal, that is, if it Ihould coincide with
the line BE, the water will have no tendency to move
towards C, and therefore cannot be raifed in the tube.
For a fimilar reafon, it will not rife xvhen the point C
is above the horizontal line BE. Confequently, in the
conftrudtion of this engine, the angle ABC, which the
fpiral forms with the fide of the cylinder, muft always
be greater than the angle ABF, at which the cylinder
is inclined to the horizon. In practice, the angle of
inclination ABF fhould generally be about 50°, and
the angle ABC about 65°.
330. The theory of this engine is treated at great
length by Hennert, in his Dijfertation fur la vis d'yJr-
chimede, Berlin 1767 ; by Pitot, in the Memoirs of the
French Academy, and by Euler in the Nov. Comment.
Petrop. tom. v. An account of Pitot’s inveftigations «
may be feen in Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 348..
SECT. V. On the Perfian Wheel.
33 ^ T HE Perfian ■wheel is an engine which raifes Defcription
water to a height equal to its diameter. It is (hewn in of the Per-
fig. 6. where CDE is the wheel driven by the ftreamfan wheel.
AB a&ing upon floatboards fixed on one fide of its rim. Fig- 6-
A number of buckets, <7, tf, <7, <7, are difpofed on the
oppofite fide of the rim, and fufpended by ftrong pins,
£, b, b, b, &cc. When the wheel is in motion, the de-
fcending buckets immerge into the ftream, and afcend
full
(g) Cette invention n'ejl point originaire d' Angle tame ^ elle appartient toute entiere a la France. Je declare que
pen fuis le feul inventeur, et que I'idee ne m'en a ete fournie par perfonne. JOURNAL DES Mines, vol. xiii. n° 73,
..7H H Y DROBYNAMICS, , Part 111
On IVT-i- t’lill cf water till tlu:y reach the top K, where they
C agauilt the extremity « of the fixed refervoir M,
Water. ariC^ being overiet, difeharge their contents into that
i refervoir. As foon as the bucket quits the refervoir,
it refumes its perpendicular pofition by its own weight,
and defeends as before. On each bucket is fixed a
fpring r, which moves over the top of the bar m, faf-
tened to the refervoir. By this means the bottom of the
» bucket is railed above the level of its mouth, and its
contents co*npletely difeharged.
332. On fome occafions, the Perfian wheel is made
to raife -water only to the height of its axle. In this
cafe, inftead of buckets, its fpokes c, d, e,fg, h, are
made of a fpiral form, and hollow within, fo that their
inner extremities all terminate in the box N on the
axle, and their outer extremities in the circumference
of the wheel. When the rim CDEF, therefore, is im-
merfed in the ftream, the water runs into the tubes
C, D, E, F, &c. rifes in the fpiral fpokes c, </, &c. and
sis difeharged from the orifices at O into the refervoir
Q, from which it may be conveyed in pipes.
SfXT. VI. 0/7 the Zurich Machine.
333. This machine is a kind of pump invented and
erefted by H. Andreas Wirtz, an ingenious tin-plate
worker in Zurich, and operates on a principle different
from all other hydraulic engines. The following de-
feription of it, written by Dr Robifon, is transfer-red to
this part of the work for the fake of uniformity,
Laft plate 334* Fig. 16. is a iketch of the feflion of the ma-
of the ar- chine, as it was firft eredled by Wirtz at a dye-houfe
tide Wa- Jn Limmat, in the fuburbs or vicinity of Zurich. It
fiKRr^rer^’con^^s a hollow cylinder, like a very large grind-
ftone, turning on a horizontal axis, and partly plunged
in a cillern of water. The axis is hollow at one end,
and communicates with a perpendicular pipe CBZ, part
of which is hid by the cylinder. This cylinder or
drum is formed into a fpiral canal by a plate coiled up
within it like the majn fpring of a watch in its box j
only the fpires are at a diftance from each other, fo as
to form a conduit for the water of uniform width. This
fpiral partition is well joined to the two ends of the cy¬
linder, and no water efcapes between them. The
outermoft turn of the fpiral begins to widen about
three-fourths of a circumference from the end, and
this gradual enlargement continues from (,) to S near¬
ly a femicircle : this part may be call’d the Horn.
It then widens fuddenly, forming a Scoop or Ihovel
SSk The cylinder is fupported fo as to dip feve-
ral inches into the water, whofe furface is reprefented
by VV\
335. When this cylinder is turned round its axis in
the direftion ABEO, as expreffed by the two darts, the
fcoop SS' dips at V', and takes up a certain quantity of
/ water before it immerges again at V. This quantity is
fufficient to fill the taper part S£), which we have call¬
ed the Horn 5 and this is nearly equal in capacity to
the outermofl uniform fpiral round.
336. After the fcoop has emerged, the water pafies
along the fpiral by the motion of it round the axis, and
drives the air before it into the rifing-pipe, where it
efcapes.—In the mean time, air comes in at the mouth
of the fcoop 5 and when the fcoop again dips into the
water, it again takes in fome. Thus there is now a
3
part filled with water and a part filled with air. Con- On Ma-
tinuing this motion, we {hall receive a fecond round of chines for*
water and another of air. The water in any turn of EVlinS
the fpiral will have its two ends on a level; and the air ate1, f
between the fuccefhve columns of water will be in its
natural Hate ; for fince the paffage into the riling pipe
or Main is open, there is nothing to force the water
and air into any other pofition. But fince the {pires
gradually diminilh in their length, it is plain that the
column of water will gradually occupy more and more
of the circumference of each. At Jail it will occupy
a complete turn of fome fpiral that is near the centre ;
and when fent farther in, by the continuance of the mo¬
tion, fome of it will run back over the top of the fuc-
ceeding fpiral. Thus it will run over at K 4 into the
right-hand fide of the third fpiral. Therefore it will
pufh the water of this fpire backwards, and raife its o-
ther end, fo that it alfo will run over backwards before
the next turn be completed. And this change of dif-
pofition will at laft reach the firft or outermoft fpiial,
and fome water will run over into the horn and fcoop,
and finally into the ciftern.
337. But as foon as water gets into the rifing pipe,
and rifes a little in it, it flops the efcape of the air when
the next fcoop of water is taken in. Here are now’
two columns of water a£ling againft each other by hy-
droftatic preffure and the intervening column of air.
They muft comprefs the air between them, and the wa¬
ter and air-columns wall now be unequal. This will
have a general tendency to keep the whole w’ater back,
and caui'e it to be higher on the left or rifing fide of
each fpire than on the right defeending fide. The ex-
cefs of height will be juft fuch as produces the com- .
preflion of the air between that and the preceding co¬
lumn of water. This will go on increafing as the wa¬
ter mounts in the rifing-pipe 5 for the air next to the
rifing pipe is compreffed at its inner end wfith the weight
of the whole column in the main. It muft be as much
compreffed at its outer end. This muft be done by the
■water column without it j and this column exerts this
preffure partly by reafon that its outer end is higher
than its inner end, and partly by the tranfmiflion of
the preffure on its outer end by air, which is fimilarly
compreffed from without. And thus it will happen
that each column of water, being higher at its outer
than at its inner end, compreffes the air on the water
column beyond or within it, which tranfmits this pref- .
fure to the air beyond it, adding to it the preffure a-
rifing from its own want of level at the ends. There¬
fore the greateft compreffion, viz. that of the air next
the main, is produced by the fum of all the tranfmitted
preffures ; and thefe are the fum of all the differences
between the elevations of the inner ends of the water
columns above their outer ends: and the height to which
the water will rife in the main will be juft equal to this
fum.
338. Draw the horizontal lines K/K I, K/K 2, K'K 3,
&c. and tnn, mn, mn, &c. Suppofe the left-hand fpaces
to be filled with water, and the right-hand fpaces to be
filled with air. There is a certain gradation of com¬
preffion which will keep things in this pofition. The
fpaces evidently decreafe in arithmetical progreflion 5
fo do the hydroftatic heights and preffures of the wa¬
ter columns. If therefore the air be denfe in the fame
progreflion, all will be in bydroftatical equilibrium.
Now
Chap. III. H Y D R O D
On Ma- Now this is evidently producible by the mere motion
rhines tot Df . for fmce the denilty and compreffion
Water *n eac^ a‘n column is fuppofed inverfely as the bulk of
— the column, the abfolute quantity of air is the fame in
Plate all 5 therefore the column firft taken in will pafs gra-
flCLXXIV. cluai]y inwards, and the increafing compreffion will
L ‘S’ 7“ caufe it to occupy precifely the whole right-hand fide
of every fpire. The gradual diminution of the water
columns will be produced during the motion by the
water running over backwards at the top, from fpire to
fpire, and at lafl coming out by the fcoop.
339. It is evident that this difpofition of the air and
water will raife the water to the greatell height, be-
caufe the hydroftatic height of each water column is
the greateft poffible, viz. the diameter of the fpire.
This difpofition may be obtained in the following man¬
ner : Take CL to CB as the denfity of the external
air to its denfity in the laft column next the rifing-pipe
or main •, that is, make CL to CB as 33 feet (the
height of the column of water which balances the at-
molphere), to the fum of 33 feet and the height of the
rifing-pipe. Then divide BL into fuch a number of
turns, that the fum of their diameters (hall be equal to
the height of the main •, then bring a pipe ftraight
from L to the centre C. The reafon of all this is very
evident.
340. But when the main is very high, this conftruc-.
tion will require a very great diameter of the drum, or
many turns of a very narrow pipe. In fuch cafes it
will be much better to make the fpiral in the form of a
cork-fcrew, as in fig. 1. inftead of this fiat form like
Plate a watch fpring. The pipe which forms the fpiral may
CCLXX'V. foe lapped round the fruftum of a cone, whofe greateil
1‘ diameter is to the lead; (which is next to the rifing
pipe) in the fame proportion that tve affigned to CB
and CL. By this confiruclion the water will ftand
in every round fo as to have its upper and lower fur-
faces tangents to the top and bottom of the fpiral, and
the water columns will occupy the whole afcending
fide of the machine, while the air occupies the defend¬
ing fide.
341. This form is vaftly preferable to the fiat: it
will allow us to employ many turns of a large pipe, and
therefore produce a great elevation of a large quantity
of water.
The fame thing will be ftill better done by lap¬
ping the pipe on a cylinder, and making it taper to
the end, in fuch a proportion that the contents of each
round may be the fame as when it is lapped round the
cone. It will raife the water to a greater height (but
with an increafe of the impelling power) by the fame
number of turns, becaufe the vertical or preffing height
of each column is greater.
Nay, the fame thing may be done in a more
fimple manner, by lapping a pipe of uniform bore
round a cylinder! But this will require more turns,
becaufe the water columns wall have lefs differences
between the heights of their two ends. It requires
a very minute invefiigation to ffiow’ the progrefs of
the columns of air and water in this conftruclion, and
the various changes of their arrangement, before one is
attained which will continue during the working of the
machine.
342. We have chofen for the defcription of the ma-
• chine that conflru&ion which made its principle and
Vot. X. Pan II.
Y N A M I C S: 785
manner of working moft evident, namely, which con- On M a-
tained the fame material quantity of air in each turn
of the fpiral, more and more compreffed as it ap-
proaches to the rifing pipe. We ffiould othervvife have -y—>1.1/
been obliged to inveffigate in great detail the gradual
progrefs of the water, and the frequent changes 0! its
arrangement, before we could fee that one arrange¬
ment would be produced which would remain confiant
during the working of the machine. But this is not
the bell conilruflion. We fee that, in order to raife
water to the height of a column of 34 feet, which ba¬
lances the atmofphere, the air in the laft fpire is com-
preffed into half its bulk ; and the quantity of water
delivered into the main at each turn is but half of what
was received into the firft fpire, the reft flowing
back from fpire to fpire, and being difeharged at the
fpout.
343. But it may be conArufted fo as that the quan¬
tity of water in each fpire may be the fame that was
received into the firft ) by which means a greater quan¬
tity (double in the inftance now given) will be deliver¬
ed into the main, .and raifed to the fame height by very
nearly the fame force.—This may be done by another
proportion of the capacity of the fpires, whether by a
change of their caliber or of their diameters. Suppofe
the bore to be the fame, the diameter muft be made
fuch that the conftant column of water, and the column
of air, compreffed to the proper degree, may occupy
the whole circumference. Let A be the column of wa¬
ter which balances the atmofphere, and /1 the height to
which the water is to be raifed. Let A be to A.-\-h
as I to m.
344. It is plain that m will reprefent the denfity of
the air in the laft fpire, if its natural denfity be 1, be¬
caufe it is preffed by the column A-f-^, while the com¬
mon air is preffed by A. Let 1 reprefent the conftant
water column, and therefore nearly equal to the air
column in the firft fpire. The whole circumference of
the laft fpire muft be 1 4-—, in order to hold the wa-
s ' m
ter 1, and the air compreffed into the fpace ~ or
A
A+//
345. The circumference of the firft fpire is 1 -f-1 or
2. Let D and d be the diameters of the firft and laft
fpires 1 we have 2 : 1 -J- — rrD : d. or 2 m \
r 7 1 tn
D : d. Therefore if a pipe of uniform bore be lapped
round a cone, of which D and d are the end diameters,
the fpirals will be very nearly fuch as will anfvver the
purpofe. It will not be quite exaft, for the interme¬
diate fpirals will be fomewhat too large. The conoidal
fruftum ffiould be formed by the revolution of a curve
of the logarithmic kind. But the error is very
trifling.
With fuch a fpiral, the full quantity of water
which was confined in the firft fpiral will find room in
the laft, and will be lent into the main at every turn.
This is a very great advantage, efpecially when the wa¬
ter is to be much raifed. The laving of power by this
change of conftruftion is always in proportion to the
greateft compreffion of the air.
The great difficulty in the conftruftion of any
5 G of
786
On Ma- of tliefe forms is in determining the form and pofition
thines iot- cf ty,e ^orn ancj t’he fCGOp • and on this greatly depends
Water t',e performance of the machine. The following i nil rue-
tions will make it pretty eafy.
plate 3^6. Let ABEO (fig. 2.) reprefent the firft or out-
CC.LXXV. errnoft round of the fpiral, of which the axis is C. Sup-
7 lg' 1‘ pofe it immerged up to the axis in the water VV, we
have feen that the machine is moll eftedlive when the
furfaces KB and O « of the water columns are diftant
the whole diameter BO of the fpiral. I herefore let
the pipe be firft fuppofed of equal caliber to the very
mouth E e, -which we fuppofe to be juft about to dip
into the water. The furface O n is kept there, in op-
polition to the preffure of the water column B AO, by
the comprefled air contained in the quadrant OE, and
in the quadrant which lies behind EB. And this
compreflion is fupported by the columns behind, be-
t'vveen this fpire and the rifing pipe. But the air in the
outermoft quadrant EB is in its natural ftate, commu-
nicating as yet with the external air. When, however,
the mouth E e has come round to A, it will not have
the water Handing in it in the fame manner, leaving
the half fpace BEO filled with comprefled air j for it
took in and confined only what filled the quadrant BE.
It is plain, therefore, that the quadrant BE muft be
lb fhaped as to take in and confine a much greater
quantity of air *, fo that when it has come to A, the
fpace BEO may contain air fufficiently denfe to fupport
the column AO. But this is not enough : For when
the wide mouth, now at A rifes up to the top, the
furface of the water in it rifes alfo, becaufe the part
AO 0 a is more capacious than the cylindric part OEeo
which fucceeds it, and which cannot contain all the
water that it does. Since, then, the water in the fpire
rifes above A, it will prefs tbe water back from O n to
fome other pofition m\ n', and tbe prefling height of the
water-column will be diminilhed by this rifing on the
other fide of O. In ftiort, the horn muft begin to wi¬
den, not from B, but from A, and muft occupy the
whole fernicircle ABE •, and its capacity muft be to
the capacity of tbe oppofite cylindrical fide as the fum
of BO, and tbe height of a column of water which ba¬
lances the atmofphere to the height of that column.
For then the air which filled it, when of the common
denfity, will fill the uniform fide BEO, when com¬
prefled fo as to balance tbe vertical column BO. But
even this is not enough j for it has not taken in enough
of water. When it dipped into the ciftern at E, it
carried air down with it, and the preffure of the water
in the ciftern caufed the water to rife into it a little
way 5 and fome water muft have come over at B from
the other fide, which was drawing narrower. There¬
fore when the horn is in the pofition EOA., it is not
full of water. Therefore when it comes into the fitua-
tion OAB, it cannot be full nor balance the air on the
oppofite fide. Some will therefore come out at O, and
and rife up through the water. The horn muft there¬
fore, 1 ft, Extend at leaft from O to B, or occupy half
the circumference j and, 2dly, It muft contain at lealt
twice as much water as would fill the fide BEO. It will
do little harm though it be much larger; becaufe the
furplus of air which it takes in at E will be difeharged,
as the end E ^ of the horn rifes from O to B, -and it
will leave the precife quantity that is wanted. The
overplus water will be difebarged as the horn comes
Part III.
round to dip again into the ciflern. It is poftible, but On Ma-
requires a diicuffion too intricate for this place, to make
it of fuch a fize and fliape, that wnile the mouth moves ^Vater.
from E to B, paffmg through O and A, the furface of -—
the w7ater in it ftiall advance from E s to On, and be
exactly at O when the beginning or narrow end of the
horn arrives there.
347. We muft alfo fecure the proper quantity of water.
When the machine is lo much immerfed as to be up to
the axis in water, the capacity which thus fecures the
proper quantity of air will alfo take in the proper quan¬
tity of water. But it may be erefted fo as that the Ipi-
rals {hall not even reach the water. In this cafe it will
anfwer our purpofe if we join to the end of the horn a pjat(.
fcoop or ihovel C^RSB (fig. 3-)j which is fo formed,^£l‘xXV.
as to take in at leaft as much water as will fill the horn. pjg_ 3.
This is all that is wanted in the beginning of the mo¬
tion along the fpiral, and more than is neceffary when
the water has advanced to the fucceeding fpire ; but the
overplus is difeharged in the way we have mentioned.
At the fame time, it is needlefs to load the machine
with more water th&n is necefiary, merely to throw it
out again. We think that if the horn occupies fully
more than one-half of the circumference, and contains
as much as will fill the whole round, and ii the fcoop
lifts as much as will certainly fill the horn, it will do
very well.
N. B. The fcoop muft be very open on tbe fide
next the axis, that it may not confine the air as foon as
it enters the water. This would hinder it from recei¬
ving water enough.
348. The following dimenfions of a machine eredled
at Florence, and vvhofe performance correfponded ex¬
tremely well with the theory, may ferve as an ex¬
ample.
The fpiral is formed on a cylinder of 10 feet dia¬
meter, and the diameter of the pipe is fix inches. The
fmaller end of the horn is of the fame diameter j it
occupies three-fourths of the circumference, and is
yW-ths inches wide at the outer end. Here it joins the
fcoop, which lifts as much water as fills the horn, which
contains 4340 Swediflr cubic inches, each rr 1.577
Englifh. The machine makes fix turns in a minute,
and raifes 1354 pounds of water, or 22 cubic feet, 10
feet high in a minute.
349. The above account will, we hope, fufficiently
explain the manner in which this fingular hydraulic
machine produces its effedl. When every thing is exe¬
cuted by the maxims which we have deduced from its
principles, we are confident that its performance will
correfpond to the theory } and we have the Florentine
machine as a proof of this. It raifes more than ten-
elevenths of what the theory promifes, and it is not per-
fe&. The fpiral is of equal caliber, and is formed on
a cylinder. The friiftion is fo inconfiderable in this
machine, that it need not be minded : but the great
excellency is, that whatever imperfeftion there may be
in the arrangement of the air and water columns, this
only affedls the elegance of the execution, caufing the
water to make a few more turns in the fpiral before it
can mount to the height required 5 but waftes no power,
becaufe tbe power employed is always in proportion to
the fum of the vertical columns of water in tne rifing
fide of the machine , and the height to which the water
is raifed by it is in the very fame proportion. It laould
II Y D R O D Y N A M I C S.
raifing
Water.
Chap. IV. HYDRO D
On Ma- be made to move very flow, that the water be not al-
chinesfor ways dragged up by the pipes, which would caute
more to run over from each column, and diminilh the
, preflure of the remainder.
350. If the riling pipe be made wide, and thus room
be made for the air to efcape freely up through the wa¬
ter, it will rife to the height afligned •, but if it be nar¬
row, fo that the air cannot get up, it rifes almoft as
flow as the water, and by this circumftance tlm water
is raifed to a much greater height mixed with air, and
this with hardly any more power. It is in this way that
we can account for the great performance of the hlo-
rentine machine, which is almoft triple of what a man
can do with the fineft pump that ever was made : in¬
deed the performance is fo great, that one is apt to fuf-
pe<ft fome inaccuracy in the accounts. 1 ne entry into
the rifing-pipe (liould be no wider than the la ft pai^ of
the fpiral; and it would be advilable to divide it into
four channels by a thin partition, and then to make the
rifing-pipe very wide, and to put into it a number of
flender rods, which would divide it into {lender chan¬
nels that would completely entangle the air among the
water. This will greatly increafe the height of the he¬
terogeneous column. It is furprifing that a machine
that'is fo very promifing fhould have attracted fo little
notice. We "do not know of any being ere&ed out of
Switzerland, except at Florence in I77^‘ accouiit
of its performance was in confequence of a very puolic
trial in 1779) and honourable declaration of its merit,
by Sig. Lorenzo Ginori, who Srefled another, which
fully equalled it. It is (hortly mentioned by Profeflor
Sulzer of Berlin, in the Sammlungen Vermifchlen Schrif-
ten for 1754. A defcription of it is publilhed by the
Philofophical Society at Zurich in 1766* an^
defcriptions publiflied by the Society in London tor the
encouragement of Arts in 177 A Ihe celebrated Da¬
niel Bernouilli has publifhed a very accurate theory of
it in the Peterlburgh Commentaries for 1772, and the
machines at Florence were ere&ed according to his in-
ftruflions. Baron Alftromer in Sweden cauled a glals
model of it to be made, to exhibit the internal motions
for the inftruflion of art'.fts, and alfo ordered an opeia-
tive engine to be erefted •, but we have not feen any
account of its performance. It is a very intricate ma¬
chine in its principles ; and an ignorant engineer, nay
the moft intelligent, may ereft one which fhall hardly
do any thing ; and yet, by a very trifling change, may
become very powerful. We prefume that failures ot
this kind have turned the attention of engineers from it}
but we are perfuaded that it may be made very effec¬
tive, and we are certain that it muft be very duraole.
Fig. 4. is a feflion of the manner in which the author
has formed the communication between the fpiral and
the rifing-pipe. P is the end of the hobow axis which is
united with the folid iron axis. Adjoining to P, on the
•under fide, is the entry from the lait turn of the fpiral.
At is the collar which refts on the fupports, and
turns round in a hole of bell-metal, ff is a broad
flanch caft in one piece with the hollow part. Beyond
this the pipe is turned fomewhat fmaller, very round
and fmooth, fo as to fit into the mouth of the rifing-
pipe, like the key of a cock. This mouth has a plate
<• e attached to it. There is another plate d d, which
is broader than e c, and is not fixed to the cylindrical
part, but moves eafily round it. In this plate are four
Y N A M I G S.
fcrews, fuch as g, g, which go into holes in the plate
//, and thus draw the two platesand d d together,
with the plate e e between them. Pieces of tmn lea¬
ther are put on each fide of e e j and thus all Cicape o.
water is effeaually prevented, with a very moderate
compreflion and friction.
787
Water
BfowAvT
Machine.
Plate
CCLXXV.
Fig. 4.
Chap. IV. On Machines in which Water is the
chief Agent.
Sect. I. On the Water Blowing Machine.
5 r x. 'f HE water blowing machine confifts of a refer- Defcriptioti
voir of water AB, into the bottom of which the bent oDhe wa-^
leaden pipe BCH is mferted *, of a condenfing veffel machine> 0
DE, into whofe top the lower extremity H of the pipe
is fixed, and of a pedeital P refting on the bottom of ..
this veffel. When the water from the refervoir AB 1$ Figi 5.
defeending through the part CH of the pipe, it is in
contaft with the external air by means of the orifices or
tubes m, n, 0, p and by the principle of the lateral
communication of motion in fluids (art. 160.), tne air is
dragged along with the water. This combination of
air and water ifiuing from the aperture H, and impin¬
ging upon the furface of the ftone pedeftal P, is difper-
fed in various diredions. The air being thus feparated
from the water, afeends into the upper part of the veffel,
and ruflies through the opening F, whence it is con¬
veyed by the pipe FG to the fire at G, while the water
falls to the lower part of the veflel, and is discharged
by the openings M, N.— I hat the greateft quantity of
air may be driven into the veffel DE, the water (hould
begin to fall at C with the leaft poflible velocity 5 and
the height of the loweft tubes above the extiemity 11
of the pipe ihould be three-elevenths of the length of
the vertical tube CH, in order that the air may move
in the pipe FG with fufricient velocity.
352. Fabri and Dietrich imagined that the wind is Way in
produced by the decompofition of the water, or its
transformation into gas, in coniequence o: tue agitation nerate(j(1
and perculfion of its parts. But M. Venturi, to whom
we owe the firit philofophical account of this machine,
has {hewn that this opinion is erroneous, and that the
wind is fupplied from the atmofphere, for no wind was
generated when the lateral openings wz, /z, 0, /> were
ftrut. The principal objedf, therefore, in the conftruc-
tion of water blowing machines, is to combine as much
air as poilible with the defeending current. For this
purpofe the water is often made to pafs through a kind
of cullender placed in the open air, and perforated with
a number of fmall triangular orifices. i hrough thefe
apertures the water delcends in many finall itreams j
and by expofing a greater furface to the atmofphere, it
carries along with it an immenfe quantity of air. The
water is then conveyed to the pedeftal P by a pipe CH
opened and enlarged at C, fo as to be confiderably
wider than the end of the tube which holds the cullen¬
der.
333. It has been generally fuppofed that the water¬
fall ihould be very high ; but Dr Lew7is has fhewn, by
a variety of experiments, that, a fall of four or five feet
is fuftkient, and that when the height is greater than
this, two or more blowing machines may be erefted, by
conducing the water from which the air is extricated,
into another refervoir, from wdiich it again defeends, and
c G 2 generates
78B
HYDRODYNAMICS.
Fart III,
Bramah's
' Fiefs.
Gaufes of
the rain
wind.
generates a:r as formerly. In order that the air which
is neceffarily loaded with moiilure, may arrive at the
furnace in as dry a date as poflible, the condenfing vei-
fel DE fhould be made as high as circumftances will
permit 5 and in order to determine the ilrength of the
blall, it (hoitld be furnilhed with a gage a b filled with
water.
354. The rain wind is produced in the fame way as
the blalt of air in water blowing machines. When the
drops of rain impinge upon the furface of the fea, the
air which they drag along with them often produces a
heavy fquall, which is fufficiently ihrong to carry away
the mall of a Ihip. The fame phenomenon happens at
land, when the clouds empty themfelves in alternate
fhovvers. In this cafe, the wind proceeds from that
quarter of the horizon where the Ihower is falling.
The common method of accounting for the origin of
the winds by local rarefa<5!ion of the air appears preg¬
nant with infuperable difficulties •, and there is reafon
to think that thefe agitations in our atmofphere ought
rather to be referred to the principle which we have
now been confidering. For farther information on this
fubjefl, the reader is referred to Lervis’s Commerce of
Arts, Wolfii Opera Mathematical tom. i. p. ’journal,
(fesMines, N° xci. or Nicholfon’s Journal, vol. xii. p. 48.
Sect. II. Bramahi's HijdroJlatie Beefs.
Defcription 355. The machine invented by Mr Bramah of Pic-
of ^,ra* cadilly, depends upon the principle, that any preffure
cht ic ma" exerte^ uPon a fluid mafs is propagated equally in eve¬
ry direftion (art. m.) It is reprefented in fig. 6.
CCLXXV w^ere A is a droug metallic cylinder, furniffied with a
Fig. f>. ' pidon B perfectly water-tight. Into the bottom of this
cylinder is inferted the end of the bent tube C, the in¬
terior orifice of which is clofed by the valve D. The
other extremity of the tube communicates with the for¬
cing pump E, by which water or other fluids may be
driven into the cylinder A. Then, if any preflure is
exerted on the furface of the water in the cylinder E
by means of the lever H, this preflure will be propa¬
gated to the cylinder A, and exert a certain force upon
the pifton B, varying with the refpeftive areas of the
feffions of each cylinder. If the diameter of the cylin¬
der E is equal to the diameter of the cylinder A, and
if a force of 10 pounds is exerted at the handle
II, then the pifton B will be elevated with a force of
10 pounds ; if the diameter of E be one-half that-of xV,
the pifton B rvill be raifed with a force of 40 pounds,
becaufe the area of the one pifton is four times the area
of the other. Or, in general, if D be the diameter of
the cylinder A, d that of the cylinder E, and F the
force exerted at the lever H, we fhall have d* : D4=rF :
F x D1
-——, which is the force exerted upon the pifton B.
Thus, \i d — z inches, D =: 24 inches, and F = 10
F x 10x24X24
pounds, then — — I44° pounds,
the force with which the pifton B is elevated. Now,
as this force increafes as d* dimlnilhes, or as F and D*
jncreafe, there is no limit to the power of the engine j
for the diameter of the cylinder A may be made of any
fize, and that of the cylinder E exceedingly fmall,
while the power may be ftill farther augmented by
lengthening the lever H. The fame effecls may be Clepfydrse.
produced by injecting air into the pipe C by means of v  
a large globe fixed at its extremity. Upon the fame
principles the power and motion of one machine may
be communicated to another ; for we have only to con¬
ned! the two machines by means of a pipe filled with
water, infevted at each extremity into a cylinder fur-
nifhed with a pifton. By this means the power which
deprefles one of the pillons will be transferred along the
connecting pipe, and will elevate the other pifton. In
the fame way water may be raifed out of wells of any-
depth, and at any diftance from the place where the
power is applied \ but we muft refer the reader, for a
detailed account of thefe applications, to the fpecifica-
tion of the patent obtained by Mr Bramah, or to
Gregory’s Mechanics, vol. ii. p. 120.
Sect. III. On Clepfijdrcc or Water-Clocks.
356. A clepfydra or water-clock, derived fromHiftoryof
K^iTTru, “ to fteal,” and v}o>g, “ water,” is a machine c^eP0r^rsc>
which meafurcs time by the motion of water (art. 1 59 )
The invention of this machine has been aferibed to Sci-
pio Nafica, the coufin of Scipio Africanus, who flou-
riflied about 200 years before the Chriftian era. It was
well known, however, at an earlier period, among the
Egyptians, who employed it to meafure the courfe of
the fun. It is highly probable that Scipio Nafica had
only the merit of introducing it into his native country.
Thefe machines were in ufe for a very long period, and
continued to be employed as meafurers of time till the
invention of the pendulum clock enriched the arts and
fciences.
357. The clepfydra, invented by Ctefibius of Alex-The clepfy.
andria, was an interefting machine. The wTater which dra of Ctefi.
indicated the progrefs of time by the gradual defeent oft>lus*
its furface, flowed in the form of tears from the eyes of
a human figure. Its head was bent down with age :
Its look was dejefted, while it feemed to pay the laft
tribute of regret to the fleeting moments as they paffed.
—The water which was thus difeharged was collefted
in a vertical refervoir, where it raifed another figure
holding in its hand a rod, which, by its gradual afeent,
pointed out the hours upon a vertical column. The
fame fluid was afterwards employed in the interior of
the pedeftal, as the impelling power of a piece of ma¬
chinery which made this column revolve round its axis
in a year, fo that the months and the days were always
fliewn by this index, whofe extremity deferibed a ver--
tical line divided according to the relative lengths of
the hours of day and night. Among the ancients the
length of the hours varied every day, and even the
hours of the day differed in length from. thofe of the
night, for the length of the day, or the interval be¬
tween funrife and funfet, was always divided into twelve
equal parts, while the length of the night, or the in¬
terval between funfet and funrife, was divided into the
fame number of parts, for hours. A farther defcription
of this beautiful machine, and others of the fame na¬
ture, may be feen in Perrault’s Vitruvius.
358. The method of conftrufting clepfydrae, when
the veffel from which the fluid iffues is cylindrical or
of any other form, has been (hewn in Prop. VII,
Part II. Inftead of dividing the fides of the veffel, for
s fcalc to afeertain the defeent of the fluid fuiface, the
2 following
Chap. IV. H Y D R O D Y
Clepfydr*, following metliod may be adopted. In tbe bottom of the
*—V  cylindrical vefiel A BCD, which is about i 2 inches high,
Fig. 3. and four inches in diameter, is inferted a fmall glafs
adjutage E, which difcharges the water in the veflel by
fucceflive drops. A hole F, about half an inch in dia¬
meter, is perforated in the cover AB, fo as to allow
the glafs tube GI, about 16 inches long, and half an
inch in diameter, to move up and down without expe¬
riencing any refiftance. To the extremity of this tube
is attached the ball I, which floats on the furface of
the water in the veffel, and is kept fteady, either by in¬
troducing a quantity of mercury into its cavity, if it be
hollow, or by fufpending a weight if it is a folid which
does not flak in water. When the veffel is filled with
water, the ball I will be at the top AB j then, in order
to graduate the tube C, let the water flow out at E,
and by means of a watch mark the points on the tube
which defcend to F after the lapfe of every hour, every
half hour, and every quarter, and the inftrument will be
finilhed. In order to ufe this hydrofcope or water-clock,
pour water into the veffel ABCD till the hour of the day
is about to defcend below F ; and when this is done, it
will pointout any fucceeding hour till the veffel is emptied.
359. The clepfydra, invented by the honourable Mr
Hamilton’s Charles Hamilton, is reprefented in fig. 7. An open ca-
clepfydra. nal ee^ fupplied with a conftant and equal ftream by the
Fig. 7. fyphon ✓/, has at each endff, open pipes/i ,fl of exa£t-
ly equal bores, which deliver the water that runs along
the canal e, alternately into the veffels £ 1, jj- 2, in fuch
a quantity as to raife the water from the mouth of the
tantalus /, exadtly in an hour. The canal e f is equal¬
ly poifed by the two pipes f 1, f 2, upon a centre r j the
ends of the canal e are railed alternately, as the cups
.ss z are depreffed, to wdiich they are connedled by lines
running over the pullies //. Ihe cups zz are fixed
at each end of the balance m m, which moves up and
down upon its centre v. n \ , n 2, are the edges of two
wheels or pullies, moving different ways alternately,
and fitted to the cylinder 0 by oblique teeth both in the
cavity of the wdreel and upon the cylinder, wdiich,
when the wheel n moves one way, that is, in the direc¬
tion of the minute-hand, meet the teeth of the cylinder
and carry the cylinder along wnth it, and flip over thofe of
the cylinder when n moves the contrary way, the teeth
not meeting, but receding from each other. One or
other of thefe wheels n n continually moves 0 in the
N A M I C S. > 7S9
fame diredlion, with an equable and uninterrupted mo- C’epfydrae.
tion. A fine chain goes twice round each wheel, having r—
at one end a rveight X, always out of the water, which
equiponderates w ith y at the other end, when kept float¬
ing on the furfaee of- the fluid in the veffel g, which y
muff always be ; the twm cups z, z, one at each end of
the balance, keep it in equilibrio, till one of them is
forced down by the weight and impulfe of the water,
which it receives from the tantalus 111. Each of the!e
cups z, «, has likewife a tantalus of its own //,/;, which
empties it after the w^ater has run from g, and leaves
the twm cups again in equilibrio : y is a drain to car¬
ry off the neater. The dial-plate, &c. needs no de-
fcription. The motion of the clepfydra is effe&ed thus:
As the end of the canal e e, fixed to the pipe /l, is
the loweft in the figure, all the water fupplied by the
fyphon runs through the pipe f I, into the vefl’el^ 1,
till it runs over the top of the tantalus t; when it im¬
mediately runs out at i into the cup Z, at the end of
the balance w, and forces it down } the balance mov¬
ing on its centre v. When one fide of m is brought
down, the firing which connefts it to fi, running
over the pulley /, raifes the end y 1, of the canal e,
which turns upon its centre r, higher than f 2 y Confe-
quently, all the water which runs through the fyphon
paffes through f 2 into g 2, till the fame operation i*
performed in that veffel, and fo on alternately. As the
height to which the water rifes in g in an hour, viz. from
S to r, is equal to the circumference of n, the float y
riling through that height along with the water, allows
the weight X to aft upon the pulley n, which carries with
it the cylinder 0 ; and this, making a revolution, caufes
the index h to defcribe an hour on the dial-plate. This
revolution is performed by the pulley n \ \ the next is
performed by n 2, whilft « 1 goes back, as the water
in g 1 runs out through the tantalus 5 for y muff follow
the water, as its weight increafes, out of it. The axis
0 always keeps moving the fame wray ; the index /> de-
fcribes the minutes j each tantalus muff be wider than
the fyphon, that the veffels gg may be emptied as low
as s, before the water returns to them.
360. For farther information refpefting fubjefts con-
nefted with hydrodynamics, fee the articles Floating
Bodies, Mechanics, Mile, Pump, Resistance of
Fluids, River, Sfkciiic Gravity, SaiP-Building, and
Watmr Works,
Erratum.—Page 784. col. 1. Dele the fide note, and fubflitute in its place, Plate CCLXXIV. fig. 7.
INDEX.
AwARlrt experiments on capil¬
lary' attraftion, N° 130
Adulteration in metals, how to deleft
it, 87
Archimedes’s method, 88
Archimedes refolves the problem of
Hiero, ib.
fcrew engine, 3 28
Areometer, 99
Deparcieux’s J08
Atmofphere, preffure of, difcovered by
Pafcal, N* 8
Attraction, capillary, 112
attempt to explain it, 113
phenomena of, 114, &c.
B
Balance pump.
Barker's mill,
Barometer, conftruftion ofn
Bellows, hydroftatic,
318
300
72
5*
Bernouilli, Daniel, his theory of the
motion of fluids, N* 15
John, on the motion of
fluids, 16
Blowing machine, 351
Boffut makes numerous experiments on
the motion of fluids, 19
Bramah's hydroftatic prefs, 355
Breaft wheels, 268
table for,
dimenfions of,
269
271
Baa.-
79° HYDRODYNAMIC
Buat, Chevalier, makes accurate ex¬
periments on the motion of
water, N° 2 2
clafles the experiments formerly
made, 21
Buc/ianan's pump, g i y
Cafftf/r, velocity of water in, 214
Canton on the compreflibility of fluids, 29
Capillary attraction, 112
Turin’s explana¬
tion of, 114
Dr Hamilton’s, 117
Dr Young’s, ib.
Laplace’s 127
Achard’s experi¬
ments on, 130
Morveau’s expe¬
riments on, 131
Count Rumford’s J33
Cajlelli {explains feveral hydraulic
phenomena, 7
Centre of preffure, 47
of percuflion, 48
pump, 319
Clepfydrce, hiftory of, 336
Ctefibius’s, 337
Hamilton’s, ^39
, theory and conftruClion of 139
■Communicating veflels, the furface of
water in them hori¬
zontal, 37
Conduit pipes, preifure which they
fuftain, 168
experiments on the motion of
water in, 203
table of the quantities which
they difcharge, 204
Cones, refiflance which they fuftain
239
in fluids.
Coulot?ib',s experiments on the refift-
ance of fluids, 221
Couplet's experiments on the motion
of water in conduit pipes, 211
Ctejibius invents the forcing pump, 4
his pump, 309
his clepyfdra, 337
Cylinders, refiftance which they fuftain
in fluids, 236—239
D
D'Alembert applies his principle of
dynamics to the motion
of fluids, 17
Deparcieux's areometer, 108
experiments on over-
fliot wheels, 260
ZhhtfAr hydrometer, 103
Dykes, on the conftruClion of, 36
to find the dimenfions of, 37 & 66
Egyptian wheel,
E
Engines for extinguiflring fire, N* 321
Euler, Albert, on overlhot wheels, 267
his machine driven
by the readion of
water, 304
on the motion of fluids, 17
Exhaujhon of veflels, theory of, 133—137
experiments on, 194
Ey tel we in's experiments on the motion
of fluids, 178
Fahrenheit's hydrometer, 100
Fire-engine, common fquirting, 321
improved, 322
Newiham’s, 323
Flaugcrgues on the ofcillation of
waves, 20
Floating bodies, equilibrium of, 73—82
apparent attra&ion and
repulfion of, 132
Fluids, perfeCl: and imperfeCt, 27
preflure and equilibrium of, 32
experiments for illuftrating it, 49
compreflibility of, 2 8
cohefion of, 112
theory of the motion of, 137
experiments on the motion of, 171
ofcillation of, in a vertical fy-
phon, 230
prefs equally in every dire&ion, 3 2
furface of, always horizontal, 34
preflure of, on the bottom and
fides of the veflels, 43—46
immifceable, equilibrium of, 71
quantity of, difeharged from
orifices, 131
lateral communication of mo¬
tion in, 130
Forcing pump, 313
Frontinus's work on the Roman a-
queduCls, and on the mo¬
tion of fluids, 3
G
Galileo lays the foundation of hydrau¬
lics by difeovering the uni¬
form acceleration of gravity, 6
Globes, refiftance which they fuftain in
fluids, 239, 241
Gravimeter, 99
Gravities, fpecific, 70, 1 x 1
H
Hair-rope machine, 3 20
Hamilton's clepfydra, 339
Hemifpheres, refiftance which they fu¬
ftain in fluids, 239> 247
Hero invents the fountain of compref-
fion,
Hiero's problem, 88
Hire's, De la, yxweep, 313
Horizontal w7heels, 292
with curvilineal float-
boards, 294
conical, 297
S. Index.
Hydraulic machinery, N° 231
Hydraulic ram, Montgolfier’s, 327
Hydraulics, I & 136
Hydrodynamics, x
Hydrometer invented by Hypathia, 99
Fahrenheit’s 100
Jones’s, 103
Dicas’s, 103
Quin’s, ic6
Nicholfon’s, 107
Deparcieux’s, 108
Wilfon’s, 109
theorem for it with
weights, 101
with an engra¬
ved fcale, 102
Hydrojlatics, I & 23
principles of, difeovered
by Archimedes, 3
applied to experiments
by Ghetaldus, 3
Hydrojlatic paradox, 44
machine for illuftrat-
ing it, 49
bellows, 31
prefs, Bramah’s, 333
Hypathia invents the hydrometer, 99
I
Jets, theory of vertical, 161, 163
oblique, ib.
experiments on, 196, 202
Jones's hydrometer, 103
bnperfecl fluids, what, 27
Lagrange on the ofcillation of waves, 21
Lambert on overlhot wheels, ,267
on breaft wheels, 269
Laplace on capillary attraction, 127
Levelling, foundation of, 33
Lifting pump, 314
M
Machine, hair-rope, 320
Whitehurft’s, 326
driven by the reaction of
water, 299
Zurich, 333, &c.
Machinery, hydraulic, 233
Maclaurin difeufles the motion of fluids, 16
Mariotte's experiments on the motion
of fluids, p
Mercury defeends in capillary tubes, 123
caufe of this, 124
Michelotti makes experiments on the
motion of water, 18
Mill, Barker’s, 300
Waring’s rules for con-
ftruCting it, 302
Millwrights tables, 285, 286
method of conftrufting
them, 284
hydraulic ram, 327
Morveau's
1
Index. ^
Morveau^s experiments on capillary
attraction, N* 131
fire-engine, # 3 23
Newton, Sir Ifaac,_ his difcoveries in
hydraulics, 12
on the ofcillation of waves, 13 & 254
Nicholjbn's hydrometer, 107
Noble's pump, 31 °
Noria, 4
O
Ofcillation of waves confidered by
Newton, x3 ^ 2'34
by Flaugergues, 20 & 254
by Lagrange, 21 &• 254
of fluids, 259
Gverfhot wheels 25 7
how to compute the momen¬
tum of the loaded arch, 258
on the diameter of, 259
on the proper velocity of, 260
according to Deparcieux, 261
Smeaton, 263
Bnfiut, 264
A. Euler’s refearches on, 267
Lambert’s refearches on, if
table for,
Paradox, hydroftatic, # 44
Parent's mill. See Barker's mill.
Pafcal difcovers the preffure of the at-
mofphere, _ 8
writes on the equilibrium of
fluids, / tb'
his experiment to flietv the
gravitation of fluids, 55
Percujjion, centre of, 4^
B erf eft fluids, what, 27
Perf an wheel, 331
Pipes, conduit, preffure exerted on them
by the included water, 168
experiments on this fubjeft, 2x3
Poleni, marquis of, his experiments on
the motion of fluids, 14
Preffure, centre of, 47
Pump, Ctefibius’s, 3°9
fucking, 310
forcing, 313
lifting, * 3X4
De la Hiire’s, 3 15
Noble’s, 3l6
Buchanan’s 3X7
balance, 31 ^
chain, 319
YDRODYNAMIC
Reffance fuflained by hemifpheves, N° 239
plane furfaces, 243 & 250
of fluids, 220
Coulomb’s experiments on, 221
Hutton’s,
Vince’s, -
Rivers, motion of, firft attended to in
Italy,
Guglielmini’s theory of, 11
Rumford, Count, on the adhefion of
fluids, 133
Ruin's hydrometer,
Q.
106
R
Rain wind, caufe of it,. . 354
Reffance fuftained by cylinders, 236, 239
by cones, 239
by globes, 239, 241
Screw-engine, Archimedes’s, 32^
Segner's form of Barker’s mill, 3°3
on overfhot wheels, 259, 263
Smeaton's experiments on underlhot
wheels, 286
Specif c gravity defined, 7°
gravities of bodies, how to de¬
termine, 94
gravity of folids, how to find, 95
of powders, 97
of fluids, 98
gravities, extenfive table of, 111
Sucking pump, 310
Syphon, invented by Hiero, 4
defcription of, 54
T
Table of the altitudes of different fluids
in capillary tubes by Martin, 119
of the quantities of water dif-
charged by different orifices, 172
of the quantities of water dif-
charged according to theory
and experiment, 174
of the refults of Eytelwein’s ex¬
periments,. 17
of the quantities of water dif-
charged by cylindrical tubes, 182,
183
of the quantities difcharged by
cylindrical tubes, according
to theory and experiment, 185
of'the quantities difcharged by
conical tubes, 187
of the quantities difcharged by
orifices of various forms, 188
Ihewing the times in which veffels
are partly exhaufted, 194, 195
fliewing the altitudes, &c. of jets, 196
of the quantities of water dif¬
charged by conduitpipes, 204—211
(hewing the preffure exerted upon
pipes, _ 213
of the velocity of water in canals,
214, 215
(hewing the refiftance of hemi-
fpheres, cones, globes, and
cylinders, 239
(hewing the refiftance of globes, 241
(hewing the refiftance of plane
furfaces, 243, 245
S, . 79*
Table on the maximum effecl of over-
fliot wheels, N° 260, 264
for overfhot wheels, 267
for breaft wheels, 269
for underfhot wheels, 285, 286
for machines driven by the re¬
action of water, 3°4
Toricelli difcovers an important propo-
fition in hydraulics, 7
Torfon, the principle of, employed by
Coulomb to determine the re¬
fiftance of fluids, 221
Tub'es, cylindrical, difeharge more
water than Ample orifices, 180.
conical, Poleni’s experiments
with,. 187
of various forms, Venturi’s ex¬
periments wflth, 188
capillary, how to meafure their
diameters, 120-
u
Underfoot wheels, 27 2'
number of their float-
boards, 273—275
form of theirfloatboards, 276
pofition of their float-
boards, 277
velocity of, 279
maximum effeft of, ac¬
cording to theory, 280
maximum effeCl of, ac¬
cording to Smeaton, 281
maximum effect of, ac¬
cording to Boffut, 282
tables for 285, 286
how to conftruCt
them, 284
[Smeaton’s experiments
on, 289
Undulation of waves, 253
Velocity of fluids iffuing from orifices.
Vena contrafta, difeovered by Newton, 138
quantity of its contrac¬
tion according to dif¬
ferent authors, 17 r
Venturi discovers the lateral communi¬
cation of motion in fluids, 23
Veffels, time in which they are ex¬
haufted, _ 155—157
Vera's hair-rope machine, 3 20
W
Waring's rules for Barker’s mill, 302
Water blowing machine, 351
clocks, theory and conftruftion
of, _ 159
• clocks move fafter in fummer
than winter, 218
fluidity of, increafed by eledtri-
city and by heat, 121
running, method of meafuring
its velocity, 288
inftrument for, ib..
793
Water wheels,
Waves, undulation of,
ofcillation of,
Wheels, overlhot,
breaft,
underfliot,
Befant's^
HYDRODYNAMICS.
N° 256 Wheels drivenby the rea£Hon of water,N°299
253 horizontal, 292
13, 20, 2t conical, 298
257 driven by the impulfe, weight,
268 and rea&ion of water, 307
272 Perfian, 331
297 Whitehurfi',s machine, 326
Index.
N*io9
354
Wil/on's hydrometer,
Wind, Rain, caufe of it,
Z
Tjimmerman on the compreflibJity of
fluids, 30
Zurich machine, 333
END OF THE TENTH VOLUME,
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES, &c. of Vol. X.
Part I.
Grammatical Table, to face page 8
Plate CCXLVIII, CCXLIX. 188
CCL. 300
CCLI—CCLIII. 364
Part II.
CCLIV—CCLX.
Historical Chart.
Plate CCLXL
CCLXII.
CCLXIII—CCLXXV,
426
546
57S
662
793
FI Y Dll O L) Y N A M I C S
Plate (’ T li XIVr. '
M
JO.
P !’
1J Y I )H ODYXAXri C’ S .
Plate C Cl,XVI .
-
.
.
\
\
\
' ■
\
I
J
*
h rim od vxa \i ic s.
Plate C C I. XX .
H Y 1) IV (» l) Y X A M l C S.
Plate C C Ti X XII .