& M,. JE Ok rc "- I * . \ r Encyclopedia Britannic a. GOT t&tWred, OTHOFRED, or Godfrey, Denis or Diony- Gotten- Ijysius, an eminent civil lawyer, born of an illuftrious burg- houfe at Paris in 1549. Finding his country invol- ve(j jn the confufion of the leaguers, he accepted of a profeflbr’s chair at Geneva, until he was patronized and employed by Henry IV. j but being afterwards {tripped of his employments as a Huguenot, he at length retired to Heidelburg, from whence no offers were able to detach him. He was, however, difap- pointed of his intention to end his days there j for the difturbances that broke out in the Palatinate obliged him, in 1621, to take refuge in Strafburgh, where he died the following year. He wrote a great number of books j but his principal work is the Corpus Juris Ci- vilis cum nods. GothoFRED, Theodore, fon of the former, wTas born at Geneva in 1580. As foon as he had finifhed his ftudies, he went to Paris; where he conformed to the Romilh religion, and applied with indefatigable in- duftry to the ftudy of hiftory, that of France particu¬ larly, wherein he became very eminent, as appears by his works. In 1632, the king made him one of his hiftoriographers, with a ftipend of 3000 livres j and, in 1636, he was fent to Cologne,' to affid at the treaty of peace negociating there, on the part of France, by the cardinal of Lyons. This treaty being removed to Munfter, Gothofred was fent thither, where he drew up Memoirs on the fubjeft ; and continued in that city, in the king’s fervice, to his death in 1649- Princ^" pal work is his “ Account of the Ceremonial of the kings of France.” GOTTENBURG, a rich and ftrong town of Weft Gothland, in Sweden, with a good harbour, at the mouth of the river Gothelba •, which is the beft fityated for foreign trade of any in Sweden, as it lies without the Sound. It occupies the ftte of an ancient town, named Lodefe, which was built by Guftavus Vafa ; and being endowed with confiderable privileges, foon be¬ came the great emporium for the trade of the weftern provinces. Charles IX when duke of Gothland, having in 1604 laid the foundations of a new town in the illand of Hiiingen at no great diftance from Lodefe, called it Gothehorg (fince corrupted into Gottenburg^) in honour of his duchy. Upon his acceffion to the throne, he ereffed in his new town a trading company \ drew thither many foreigners, particularly the Dutch, to whom he allowed an exemption from all duties of export and import during 20 years ; a corps of Englifh and Scotch troops, un- VoL. X. Part I. GOT der the command of William Stewart; and granted to Gotten* the Calvinifts eftablilhed therein the free exercife of Go^rnSgeff, their religion, the firft place in Sweden where this tole- 1—j ration was permitted. The town being in 1611 re¬ duced to a(hes by the Danes, was rebuilt hr the reign of Guftavus Adolphus in its prefent fituation, and ob¬ tained a confirmation of its ancient rights, with the grant of feveral additional privileges.—It is built in a very fingular fituation. At a fmall diftance from the fea is a marfhy plain, fcarcely more than half a mile in breadth, watered by the rivers Gotha and Moldal, and almoft entirely enclofed with high ridges of rocks fo bare and rugged, that they fcarcely produce a fingle blade of grafs, and exhibit as barren an appearance as the fummits of the loftieft Alps. Gottenburg ftands partly upon the ridges, and partly in the plain j and is divided from thefe different fituations into the Up¬ per and Lower Town. The latter is entirely level, in^ terfefted by feveral canals in the manner of the Dutch towns 5 and its houfes are all conftrufted upon piles ; the upper part hangs on the declivities j and row's of buildings rife one above the other like the feats of an am¬ phitheatre. The whole is regularly fortified 5 and its cir¬ cumference is near three miles, exclufive of the fuburbs, called Haga, which lie toward the harbour. The ftreets are all uniformly ftraight: a few of the houfes are of brick ; but the generality are conftrufted with wmod painted red. The harbour is formed by two chains of rocks, and is about a quarter of a mile in breadth. Its entrance is defended by the fort of New Elfsborg, which ftands upon a fmall rocky ifland, and contains a garrifon of 250 men. There has been lately eftablilhed at Gottenburg a Royal Society of Sciences and Literature, upon the plan of that of Upfala.—Mr Coxe was informed by a merchant who had refided 22 years at Gottenburg, that, during that period, its po¬ pulation had increafed confiderably, and that it now contained about 30,000 inhabitant . This flourilhing ftate is attributed to the extenr on of its commerce, particularly its Eaft India Coro ny, and the fuccefs of the herring-filhery. An Englilh conful and feve¬ ral merchants of our nation refide at Gottenburg : and a chapel, with a regular chaplain, is appropriated to their ufe. E. Long. 11. 50. N. Lat. 57. 44. GOTTINGEN, a confiderable town of Lower Saxony in Germany, and in the duchy of Brunfwick j formerly free and imperial, but afterwards fubjefl to the eleftor of Hanover. Here his late majefty George II. A founded 1 G O U [2 founded an univerfity. It is feated on the river Leine, in E. Long. 10. 5. N. Lat. 51. 32. GOTTORP, a town of the duchy of Hefwic, in Denmark, and capital of the duchy of Holftein Got- torp, where the duke has a very fine palace. GOUANIA, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬ ing to the polygamia clafs. See Botany Index. GOUDA, or Turgow, a confiderable town of South Holland, in the United Provinces, remarkable for its ftately church. It is feated on the river Iffel, in E. Long. 4. 37. N. Lat. 52. 2. GOUDT, Henry, ufually called Count Goudt, was born of a noble family at Utrecht, in 1570 •, and wras a knight of the Palatinate. Being paflionately fond of the arts, particularly painting and engraving, and de- lirous of engaging in them, he applied himfelf diligent¬ ly to drawing, and made a great proficiency therein. He went to Rome to examine the works of the great mailers in that city. Here he contra61ed an intimacy with that excellent artiil Adam Elfheimer; ftudied his manner of penciling, defigning, and colouring j and made his works models for his own imitation. He pre-engaged all the piflures that his friend and favourite could finilh, and even paid liberally for them before-hand ; by which means he found himfelf in pofleffion of a moll; defirable treafure. Thofe pic¬ tures wdiich Goudt himfelf painted were neatly and de¬ licately touched, in colour and pencil refembling El- fheimer, though they were in no degree equal to the paintings of that admirable mailer. On his return to his native country, a young woman who was in love with him, and defirous of fixing his affedlions upon her, gave him in his drink a love philtre : which, how¬ ever, terminated in a very melancholy manner, by de¬ priving him totally of his fenfes j and in the dreadful Rate of idiotifm he dragged on a miferable life to the age of 69, his death happening in 1636. It is re¬ markable, that though loft to every other fubjeft, when painting w^as fpoken of he would difcourfe upon it in a very rational manner. Goudt praftifed engraving as well as painting, and made feven beautiful prints after the pi6tures of Ellhei- mer, which are well known to the curious, and are to be met with in moft choice colle£lions. He worked with the graver only, in a very neat ftyle; and produ¬ ced a moft powerful effedl, not by ftrengthening the ftrokes, according to the ufual method, but by crofting them with additional ftrokes, equally neat, and that five or fix times, one over another, in the deep Ihadow^s. Confidering the precifion with which he executed his engravings, the freedom of handling the graver which may be difcovered in them is very aftonilhing. The weeds and other parts of the fore-ground in that ad¬ mirable print of the Ceres, are very finely exprefied. The heads of the figures are corredlly drawn, and the other extremities are managed in a judicious manner. The feven prints done by him, from Ellheimer, men¬ tioned above, are, 1. Ceres drinking from a pitcher. An old w7oman appears holding a candle at the door of the cottage, and a boy naked ftanding by her is laugh¬ ing and pointing at the goddefs} for which contempt he was metamorphofed by her into a frog. The power¬ ful and ftriking effeft of this engraving cannot be pro¬ perly defcribed. This print is diftinguilhed alfo by the name of ti\$forcery, a. The flight into Egypt; A ] GOV night-fcene, in which the moon and ftars are introdu- Goverrf- ced with great fuccefs. 3. The angel with Tobit, who ment is drawing a filh by his fide. The back-ground is a landfcape 5 the w'eeds in the fore-ground, and the . '^ A branches of the trees in front, as well as the foliage and weeds hanging from them, are beautifully expref- fed. 4. The angel with Tobit, crofting a liream of water : The back-ground, a landfcape. 5. Baucis and Philemon entertaining Jupiter and Mercury. 6. A landfcape, called the Aurora, reprefenting the dawn of day. The effedt is very beautiful. 7. The beheading of St John in prifon, a very fmall upright oval print, which is by far the fcarceft. GOVERNMENT, in general, is the polity of a ftate, or an orderly power conftituted for the public good. Civil government wras inftituted for the prefervation and advancement of mens civil interefts, and for the better fecurity of their lives, liberties, and properties. The ufe and neceflity of government is fuch, that there never wras an age or country without fome fort of civil authority : but as men are feldom unanimous in the means of attaining their ends, fo their differences in opinion in relation to government have produced a va¬ riety of forms of it. To enumerate them would be to recapitulate the hiftory of the whole earth. But, ac¬ cording to Montefquieu, and moft other writers, they may, in general, be reduced to one of thefe three kinds. I. The republican. 2. The monarchical. 3. The def- potic.—The firft is that, where the people in a body, or only a part of the people, have the fovereign power j the fecond, where one. alone governs, but by fixed and eftabliftred laws $ but in the defpotic government, one perfon alone, without law and without rule, diredls every thing by his owm will and caprice. See the arti¬ cle Law, N° 1. 3—10.—On the fubjedf of govern¬ ment at large, fee Montefquieu’s DE/prit des Loixy 1. 2. c. 1. $ Locke, ii. 129, &c. quarto edition, 1768 j Sidney on Government *, Sir Thomas Smith de Repub. Angl. and Acherly’s Britannic Conftitution.—As to Gothic government, its original and faults, &c. fee Montefquieu’s iPEfprit des Loix, 1. 11. c. 8.—With re- fpedl to the feudal policy, how it limited government, fee Feodal System. Government is alfo a poll or office, which gives a perfon the power or right to rule over a place, a city, or a province, either fupremely or by deputation. Government is likewife ufed for the city, coun¬ try, or place to which the power of governing is ex¬ tended. GOUGE, an inftrument ufed by divers artificers, being a fort of round hollow chifel j ferving to cut holes, channels, grooves, &c. in wTood, ftone, &c. GOULART, Simon, a famous minifter of Geneva, was born at Senlis in 1543 j and was one of the moft indefatigable writers of his time. He made confider¬ able additions to the Catalogue of wdtneffes of the truth, compofed by Ulyricus *, and acquired a great reputation by his works ; the principal of which are, 1. A tranf- lation of Seneca. 2. A colledtion of memorable hifto- ries. 3. A tranllation of St Cyprian De lapjts. 4. Se¬ veral devotional and moral treatifes. He died at Ge¬ neva in 1628. GOURD. See Cucurbita, Botany Index. GOURGUES, Dominique de, an illuftrious French patriot. G O W [3 Gournay patriot, a private gentleman of Gafcony. The Spa¬ ll niards having inhumanly maffacred a colony of French- Govvn* men who had fettled in Florida, Gourgues took a fe- ' 'r—J vere revenge on them, an account of which is given under the article Florida. On his return he was re¬ ceived with acclamations by his countrymen, but was forbidden to appear at court. Queen Elizabeth invited him to command an Englifh fleet againfl: the Spaniards in 1593 } but he died at lours in his way to Eng¬ land. GOURNAY, a town of Frartce, in the duchy of Normandy and territory of Bray, celebrated for its butter-market. It is fituated on the river Ept, in E. Long. o. 33. N. Lat. 49. 25. Gournay, Mary de Jars de, a lady celebrated for her learning, was the daughter of William de Jars, lord of Neufvi and Gournay. After the death of her father, fhe wTas protected by Montaigne and Cardinal Riche¬ lieu. To the daughter of the former the dedicated her Nofegay of Pindus and compofed feveral other works, the moft confiderable of which is Les Avis. She died at Paris in 1685, aged 80. The critics are divided concerning the reputation of this lady 1 by fome Ihe is flyled the Syren of Trance ; others fay her works fliould have been buried with her. GOUT. See Medicine Index. GOWER, John, one of our moil; ancient Englifli poets, was contemporary with Chaucer, and his inti¬ mate friend. Of what family, or in wdiat country he was born, is uncertain. He ftudied the law, and was fome time a member of the fociety of Lincoln’s-inn, where his acquaintance with Chaucer began. Some have afferted that he was a judge 5 but this is by no means certain. In the firil year of Henry IV. he be¬ came blind *, a misfortune which he laments in one of his Latin poems. He died in the year 1402 j and was buried in St Mary Overie, which church he had re¬ built chiefly at his own expence, fo that he mull have lived in affluent circumftances. His tomb wras magni¬ ficent, and curioufly ornamented. It ftill remains, but hath been repaired in later times. From the collar of SS round the neck of his effigies, which lies upon the tomb, it is conje&ured that he had been knighted. As to his character as a man, it is impoflible, at this diftance of time, to fay any thing with certainty. With regard to his poetical talents, he was undoubt¬ edly admired at the time when he wrote, though a modern reader may find it difficult to difcover much harmony or genius in any of his compofitions. He wrote, 1. Speculum meditantisy in French, in ten books. There are two copies of this in the Bodleian library. 2. Vox clamant is, in Latin verfe, in feven books. Pre- ferved alfo in the Bodleian library, and in that of All- Souls. It is a chronicle of the infurreftion of the commons in the reign of Richard II. 3. ConfeJJio amantis ; printed at Weftminfter by Caxton in 1493. Loud. 1532, 1554. It is a fort of poetical fyftem of morality, interfperfed with a variety of moral tales. 4. De rege Henrico IV. Printed in Chaucer’s works. There are likewife feveral hiftorical trafts, in manu- fcript, written by our author, which are to be found in different libraries j alfo fome fliort poems printed in Chaucer’s works. GOWN, robe, a long upper garment, worn by Gown, Gowrai:. ] G O W lawyers, divines, and other graduates } w'ho are hence called men of the gown, or gownmen. y The gown is an ample fort of garment, worn over the ordinary clothes, hanging down to the feet. It is fafhioned differently for eccleiiaftics and for laymen. At Rome they gave the name “ virile gown,” toga virilis, to a plain kind of gown which their youth, af¬ firmed when arrived at puberty. This they particu¬ larly denominatedSee Hoga, PRjETEXTA, &c. “ The remarkable drefs of our Britifh anceflors , (Mr Whitaker obferves), which continued very nearly 'G the fame to the commencement of the laft century among the natives of Ireland, and has aftually defcend- ed to the prefent among the mountaineers of Scotland, and is therefore rendered very familiar to our ideas, carried in it an aftonifhing appearance to the Romans. And it feems to have been equally the drefs of the men and women among the nobles of Britain. But in a few years after the ere£Iion of the Roman Britifh towns in the north, and in the progrefs of refinement among them, this ancient habit began to be difefleemed by the chiefs of the cities, and looked upon as the badge of ancient barbarifm. And the growing prejudices were foon fo greatly improved, that within 20 years only after the conftruftion of the towns, the Britifh fagum was actually religned, and the Roman toga or gown affumed by many of them. “ The gown, however, never became univerfal in Britain: and it feems to have been adopted only by the barons of the cities and the officers of the crown ; and has therefore been tranfmitted to us as the robe of reverence, the enfign of literature, and the mantle of magiftracy. The woollen and plaided garments of the chiefs having naturally fuperfeded the leathern vetlures of their clients, the former were ftill wore by the ge¬ nerality of the Britons j and they were retained by the gentlemen of the country, and by the commonalty both in country and city. 1 hat this was the cafe, appears evident from the correfpondent condudl of the Gauls and Britons •, who kept their Virgata Sagula to the laft, and communicated them to the Franks and Saxons. The plaided drapery of the Britons ftill ap¬ peared general in the ftreets of Manchefter 5 and muft have formed a ftriking contraft to the gown of the chief, the dark mantle of Italy : and it and the orna¬ mented buttons on the ftioulder are preferved among us even to the prefent moment, in the parti-coloured clothing and the taffeled ftioulder knots of our foot¬ men. 7 In fome univerfities phyficians wear a fcarlet gown. In the Sorbonne, the do&ors were always in gowns and caps. Beadles, &c. wear gowns of two or more co- lours. Among the French officers, &c. they diftinguifli tbofe of the Jhort gown or robe ; which are fuch as have not been regularly examined. They have alfo barbers of the Jhort gown, who are fuch as are obliged to practife in an inferior way to thofe of the long robe. Gown is alfo taken in the general for civil magiftra- ture, or the profeflion oppofite to that of arms. In this fenfe it was that Cicero faid cedant arma togce. GOWRAN, a borough town, in the county of Kilkenny and province of Leinfter, Ireland. N. Lat. A 2 52. G R A [4 feoyen, 52. 34. W. Long. 7. O. It is governed by a portrieve, Graaf. recorder, and town clerk. Here are tbe ruins of an o),] church, alfo tire handfome feat of the late Lord Clifden 5 and three miles beyond Gewran the ruins of Ballinabola callle. GOYEN, John Van, painter of landfcapes, cattle, and fea pieces, was born at Leyden in 1596 •, and was for fome time inftrudted by Ifaac Nicholai, who was reputed a good painter ; but afterwards he became the difciple of Efaias Vandervelde, the moft celebrated landicape painter of his time. Van Goyen very foon rofe into general efteem ; and his works are more uni- verfally fpread through all Europe than the works of any other mafter, for he poffefi’ed an uncommon readi- nefs of hand and freedom of pencil. It was his con- llant pleafure and praftice to Iketch the views of vil¬ lages and towns fituated on the banks of rivers or canals j of the fea-ports in the Low Countries; and fometimes of inland villages, where the fcenes around them appeared to him pleafing or pidlurefque. Thofe he afterwards ufed as fubjedts for his future landfcapes $ enriching them with cattle, boats, and figures in cha- xadler, juft as the livelinefs of his imagination diredled. He underftood perfpedlive extremely well, and alfo the principles of the chiaro-lcuro ; which branches of knowledge enabled him to give his pidlures a ftrong and agreeable effedt. He died in 1656, aged 60.— His ufual fubjedls were fea-pieces, or landfcapes with views of rivers, enlivened with figures of peafants either ferrying over cattle, drawing their nets in ftill water, or going to or returning from market. Sometimes he re- prefented huts of boors on the banks of rivers, with overhanging trees, and a beautiful refledlion of their branches from the tranfparent furface of tbe waters. Thefe were the fubjedls of his bell time, which he generally marked with his name and the year; and the high finilhed pidlures of Van Goyen will be for ever eftimable. But as he painted abundance of pidlures, fome are flight, fome too yellow, and fome negligently fmilhed ; though all of them have merit, being marked with a free, expeditious, and eafy pencil, and a light touch. His pidlures frequently have a grayilh call $ which did not arife from any mifmanagement of the tints, or any want of Ikill in laying on the colours $ but wras occafioned by his ufing a colour called Haerlem Hue, much approved of at that time, though now en¬ tirely difufed, becaufe the artifts found it apt to fade into that grayilh tint 5 and it hath alfo rendered the pidlures of this mafter exceedingly difficult to be clean¬ ed without injuring the finer touches of the finiftiing. His beft works are valued fo highly in moft parts of Europe, and efpecially in the Low Countries, that they deferyedly afford large prices, being ranked in Hol¬ land with the pidlures of Teniers j and at this time are not eafily procured, particularly if they are undamaged, though his {lighter performances are fufficiently com¬ mon. GRAAF, Regnier be, a celebrated phyfician, born at Schoonhaven, in Holland, in 1641. He ftudied phyftc at Pruffia. He was educated in Leyden, where he acquired great honour by publilhing a treatife De Succo Pancreatico. He alfo publiffied three pieces up¬ on the organs of generation, both male and female j upon which fubjedl he had a controverfy with Swam- oietdam, . He died young, in 1673 5 and his works, ] G R A with his life prefixed, were publiffied at Leyden in Gr^be 1677, in 8vo. ’ II GRABE, John Ernest, a very learned writer in, Giace‘ the beginning of the 18th century, a native of Konigf- berg, in Pruffia. He was educated in the Lutheran religion 5 but the reading of the fathers led him into doubts. He prefented to the electoral confiftory at Sambia in Pruffia a memorial containing his doubts. The elector gave orders to three eminent divines to an- fwer them. Their anfwers {hook him a little in his re- folution of embracing the Roman Catholic religion 5 and one of them, Spener, advifed him to go to Eng¬ land. He went 5 and King William gave him a pen- fion, wffiich was continued by ()ueen Anne. He was ordained a prieft of the chuich of England, and ho¬ noured with the degree of doclor of divinity by the uni- verfity of Oxford 5 upon which occafion Dr George Smalridge pronounced twm Latin orations, which w ere afterwards printed. He wrote, 1. Spicelegium S. S. Pa~ trum, ut et Hereticorum fceculipojl Chri/ium natum, 8vo„ 2. An edition of the Septuagint, from the Alexandrian manufcript in St James’s library. 3. Notes on Juftin, &c. 5 and other works, which are efteemed by the learned. GRACCHUS, Tiberius, eledled tribune of the Roman people, demanded in the fenate, in their name, the execution of the Agrarian law ; by which all per- fons poffeffing above 200 acres of land wrere to be de¬ prived of the furplus, for the benefit of the poor citi¬ zens, amongft whom an equal diftribution of them was to be made. Having carried his plan into execution by violent meafures, he fell a viflim to his zeal, being affaffinated by his own party, 133 B. C. Caius his brother, purfuing the fame fteps, was killed by the conful Opimius, 121 B. C. See (hiftory of) Rome. GRACE, among divines, is taken, l. For the free love and favour of God, wdiich is the fpring and fource of all the benefits we receive from him. 2. For the wxork of the Spirit renewing the foul after the image of God 5 and continually guiding and ftrength- ening the believer to obey his will, to refift and morti¬ fy fin, and overcome it. Grace is alfo ufed, in a peculiar fenfe, for a fliort prayer faid before and after meat. The proofs of the moral obligation of this ceremony, drawn from different paffages of the New Teftament, are fo well known, that it is needlefs to infill on them here. Some others, drawn from the praftice of dift'er- ent nations, and of very remote antiquity, may not be difagreeable to our readers. 1. Athenaeus tells us, in his Deipnofoph. lib. ii. that in the famous regulation made by Amphiblyon king of Athens with refpedl to the ufe of wine, both in fa- crifices and at home, he required that the name of Jupiter the Sujiainer ffiould be decently and reverently pronounced. The fame writer, in lib. iv. p. 149, quotes Hermeias, an author extant in his time, who informs us of a people in Egypt, inhabitants of the city of Naucratis, whofe cuftom it wras on certain oc- cafions, after they had placed themfelves in the ufual pofture of eating at the table, to rife again and kneel 5 when the prieft or precentor of the folemnity began to chant a grace, according to a ftated form amongft them; and when that was over, they joined in the meal in a folemn facrificial manner. Heliodorus has a paffage- G R A L . paffa^e in his TEtkiopics to the fame purpofe, that it was the cuitom of the Egyptian philofophers to pour out libations and put up ejaculations before they iat down to meals. Porphyry, in his treatife De ab/hn. lib. iv. p. 408. gives a great char after of the Samnean pymnofophifts in Egypt for the ftriftnefs of their life : as one article in their favour, he obferves, that at the founding of a bell before their meals, which conhited only of rice, bread, fruits, and herbs, they went to prayers } which being ended, and not before, the be founded again, and they fat down to eating. In ge¬ neral this was a religious ufage or rite among the an¬ cient Greeks 5 and^ derived from yet older ages, it Clement of Alexandria rightly informs us. He men¬ tions, that thefe people when they met together to refrefti themfelves with the juice of the grape, fung a piece of mufic, in imitation of the Hebrew pfalms, which they called a fchohon. Livy, lib. xxxix. fpeaks of it as a fettled cuftom among the old Romans, that they offered facrifice and prayer to the gods at their meals and compotations. But one of. the. fulleft teili- monies to our purpofe is given by Quintilian, Declam. 301. sbdyli menfam, fays he, ad quam cum venire crepi- muSy Deos invocamus ; “ We approached the table (at flipper together), and then invoked the gods.” The Jefuit Trigautius, in his very elegant and in- ftruftive narrative of the Chriftian expedition of . their milfionaries into China, book i. p. 69. gives this ac¬ count of the people there in the particular now under confideration. “ Before they place themfelves for partaking of an entertainment, the perfon who makes it fets a veffel, either of gold, or filver, or marble,, or fome fuch valuable material, in a charger full of wine, which he holds with both his hands, and then makes a low bow to the perfon of chief quality or charafter at the table. Then from the hall or dining-room, he goes into the porch or entry, where he again makes a very low bow, and turning his face to the fouth, pours out this wine upon the ground as a thankful oblation to the Lord of heaven. After this., repeat¬ ing his reverential obeifance, he returns into the hall,” &c. The Turks pray for a bleffing on their meat ; and many more inftances might be produced of infidels who have conftantly obferved the like cuftom in fome wTay or other. 2. The faft, therefore, with refpeft: to the heathen world, being thus evident, we proceed to the. fenti- ments and behaviour of the Jews in this particular. Their celebrated hiftorian Jofephus, giving a detail of the rites and cuftoms of the Effenes, who were con- fefiedly the ftrifteft and moft pious profeffors of the Jewifti religion, has this remarkable paffage to the pre- fent purpofe : “ The prieft,” fays he, “ begs a blefting before they prefume to take any nouriftiment ; and it is looked upon as a great fin to take or tafte before.” Then follows the thankfgiving before meat : and “ when the meal,” proceeds he, “ is over, the prieft prays again ; and the company with him blefs and praife God as their preferver, and the donor of their life and nourifh- ment.” Philo, in his book De vita contemplativa, gives an account of a body of men and women ftrifter than even the Effenes themfelves. He diftinguifties them by ] G It A no particular name, though his relation is very accu¬ rate and circumftantial} namely, that on certain fpe- cial occafions, before “ they took their meals, they placed themfelves in a proper decent order ; when, lift¬ ing up their hands and eyes to heaven, they prayed to God that he would be pleafed to be propitious to them in the ufe of thofe his good creatures.” From the Hebrew ritual it appears, that the Jews, had their hymns and pfalms of thankfgiving, not only after eating their paflbver, but ou a variety of other occaftons, at and after meals, and even between their feveral courfes and dilhesj as when thebeft of their wine was brought upon the table, or their aromatic confec¬ tions, or the fruit of the garden, &c. On the day of the paflbver w'as fung Plalm cxiv. “ When Ifrael came out of Egypt,” &.c. Ariftieus has a paffage full on the prefent fubjeft. “ Mofes,” fays he, “ commands that when the Jews are going to eat or drink, the company fhould immedi¬ ately join in facrifice or prayer.” Where Rabbi Elea- zar (upon that author) met with this fentence, has been controverted. But fuppofing it not to be found in feriptis, it is fufficient for us to know that the Jews- did conftantly praftife this cuftom, upon the foundation of an ancient and general tradition and ufage. jlhat the prophet Daniel gave thanks before meat, is evident from the Apocryphal book concerning Bel and the Dragon, where, ver. 38, 39, we find, that “ Daniel faid, Thou haft remembered me, O God ! neither haft thou forfaken them who feek thee and love thee. So Daniel arofe, and did eat.” Of this text Prudentia takes notice in Cathemirin, hymn iv. His fumptis Danielis excitavit In ctzlum faciem, ciboque fort is, Amen reddidit, allelujah dixit. The much-belov’d took the repaft, And up to heav’n his eyes he caft j By which refrefti’d, he fung aloud. Amen, and allelujah to his God. Where, by the way, it may be obferved, that the poet is a little miftaken in making the prophet give thanks after meat j whereas, according to the text, he did it before. Grace, or Gracefulnefs, in the human charafter ; an aggreeable attribute, infeparable from motion as oppofed to reft, and as comprehending fpeech, looks, gefture, and loco-motion. As fome motions are homely, the oppofite to grace¬ ful •, it is to be inquired, With what motions is this attribute connefted i1 No man appears graceful in a malk •, and therefore, laying afide the expreflions of the countenance, the other motions may be genteel, may be elegant, but of themfelves never are graceful. A' motion adjufted in the moft perfeft manner to anfwer its end, is elegant; but ftill fomewhat more is required to complete our idea of grace or gracefulnefs.. What this unknown more may be, is the nice point. One thing is clear from what is faid, that this more mull arife from the expreflions of the countenance : and from what expreflions lb naturally as from thofe which indicate mental qualities, fuch as fweetnefs, benevolence, elevation, dignity ? This promifes to be a fair analyfts: becaufe of all objefts mental qualities affeft us the moft j Co G R A [6 and tlie impteffion made by graceful appearance upon laces- , every fpeftator of tafte, is too deep for any caufe purely ^ corporeal. The next ftep is, to examine what are the mental qualities, that, in conjunction with elegance of motion, produce a graceful appearance. Sweetnefs, cheerful- nefs, affability, are not feparately fufficient, nor even in conjunction. Dignity alone, with elegant motion, produce a graceful appearance j but Hill more graceful with the aid of other qualities, thofe efpecially that are the molt exalted. See Dignity. But this is not all. The molt exalted virtues may be the lot of a perfon whofe countenance has little ex- preffion : fuch a perfon cannot be graceful. Therefore •to produce this appearance, we muft add another cir- cumftance, viz. an expreflive countenance, difplaying to every fpeftator of tafte, with life and energy, every thing that paffes in the mind. Collecting thefe circumftances together, grace may be defined, “ that agreeable appearance which arifes from elegance of motion and from a countenance ex¬ preflive of dignity.” Expreflions of other mental qualities are not effential to that appearance, but they heighten it greatly. Of all external objeCts, a graceful perfon is the moft agreeable. Dancing affords great opportunity for difplaying grace, and haranguing ftill more. See Dancing, De¬ clamation, and Oratory. But in vain will a perfon attempt to be graceful who is deficient in amiable qualities. A man, it is true, may form an idea of qualities he is deftitute of j and, by means of that idea, may endeavour to exprefs thefe qualities by looks and geftures : but fuch itudied ex- preflion will be too faint and obfcure to be graceful. AB of Grjce, the appellation given to the ad; of parliament 1696, c. 32. which allows prifoners for civil debts to be fet at liberty, upon making oath that they have not wherewithal to fupport themfelves in prifon, unlefs they are alimented by the creditors on whofe diligences they were imprifoned, within ten days after intimation made for that purpofe. Days of Grace, three days immediately following the term of payment of a bill, within which the cre¬ ditor muft proteft it if payment is not obtained, in or¬ der to intitle him to recourfe againft the drawer. Grace is alfo a title of dignity given to dukes, archbifhops, and in Germany to barons and other infe¬ rior princes. GRACES, Gratis, Charites, in the heathen theo- logy, were fabulous deities, three in number, who at¬ tended on Venus. Their names are, Aglia, Thalia, and Euphrofyne ; i. e. fhining, flourifhing, and gay j or, ac¬ cording to fome authors, Pafithea, Euphrofyne, and At- giale. They were fuppofed by fome to be the daugh¬ ters of Jupiter and Eurynome the daughter of Ocea- nus } and by others, to be the daughters of Bacchus and Venus. Some will have the Graces to have been four •, and make them the fame with the Horce “ hours”, or rather with the four feafons of the year. A marble in the king of Pruflia’s cabinet reprefents the three Graces in the ufual manner, with a fourth feated and covered with a large veil, with the words underneath, Ad So- i'ores IIII. But this groupe we may underhand to be 3 ] G R A the three Graces, and Venus, who was their fiher, as Gracilis being daughter of Jupiter and Dione. II. The graces are always fuppofed to have hold nf, GiatUng-, each other’s hands, and never parted. They were painted naked, to fhow that the Graces borrow nothing from art, and that they have no other beauties than what are natural. Yet in the nrft ages they ivere not reprefented na¬ ked, as appears from Paufanias, lib. vi. and lib. ix. who defcribes their temple and ftatues. They w^ere of wood, all but their head, feet, and hands, which w^ere- wrhite marble. Their robe or gown was gilt : one of them held in her hand a rofe, another a dye, and the third a fprig of myrtle. GRACILIS, a mufcle of the leg, thus called from its flender fliape. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles. GRACULA, the Grakle, a genus of birds be- longing to the order of picse. See Ornithology Index. GRACUI.US. See Corvus, Ornithology Index. GRAD Ad ION, in general, the afeending ftep by ftep, or in a regular and uniform manner. Gradation, in Logic, a form of reafoning, other- wife called Sorites. Gradation, in Painting, a gradual and infenfiblc change of colour, by the diminution of the tints and Ihades. Gradation, in Rhetoric, the fame with Climax. GR A DISK A, a ftrong towm of Hungary in Scla- vonia, on the frontiers of Croatia, taken by the Turks in 1691. It is feated on the river Save, in E. Long. 17. 55. N. Lat. 4j. 38. Gradiska, a ftrong towm of Italy, in a fmall ifland of the fame name on the frontiers of Friuli, in E. Long. 13. 37. N. Lat. 46. 6. It is fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria. GRADO, a ftrong town of Italy, in a fmall ifland of the fame name, on the coaft of Friuli, and in the teritory of Venice. E. Long. 13. 35. N. Lat. 43- 52. GRADUATE, a perfon who has taken a degree in the univerfity. See Degree. GR At, VI US, John George, one of the moft learn¬ ed waiters in the 17th century. In the 24th year of his age, the eleftor of Brandenburg made him pro- fefibr at Doifbourg. In 1658, he was invited to De¬ venter to fucceed his former mafter Gronovius. In 1661, he w7as appointed profeffor of eloquence at Utrecht ; and 12 years after he had the profefibrfliip of politics and hiftory conferred on him. He fixed his thoughts here, and refufed feveral advantageous offers. He had, however, the fatisfaftion to be fought after by divers princes, and to fee feveral of them come from Germany to lludy under him. He died in 1703, aged 71. His Thefaurus antiquitatum et hiftoriarum Italics, &c. and other works are well known. GRAFTING, or Engrafting, in Gardening, is the taking a fhoot from one tree, and inferting it into another, in fuch a manner that both may unite clofely and become one tree. By the ancient writers on hufbandry and gardening, this operation is called in- cifon, to diftinguilh it from inoculation or budding, which they call inferere oculos. Grafting has been praftifed from the moft remote antiquity's G It A [7 Graham, antiquity; but its origin and invention is differently related by naturalifts. Tlieophraffus tells us, tbat a bird having fwallowed a fruit whole, caff it forth into a cleft or cavity of a rotten tree •, where mixing with fome ot the putrified parts of the wood, and being walhed with the rains, it budded, and produced within this tree another tree of a difterent kind. I his led the hufbandman to certain refleaions, from which foon afterwards arofe the art of engrafting.. For the dif¬ ferent methods of performing this operation, fee Gar¬ dening Index. GRAHAM, James, Marquis of Montrofe, was comparable to the greateft heroes of antiquity. He undertook, againft almoft every obftacle that could ter¬ rify a lefs enterprifing genius, to reduce the kingdom of Scotland to the obedience of the king •, and his fuccefs was anfwerable to the greatnefs of the under¬ taking. By valour, he in a few months, almoft effec¬ tuated his defign 5 but, for want of fupphes, was for¬ ced to abandon his conquefts. After the death of Charles I. he, with a few men, made a fecond attempt, but was immediately defeated by a numerous army. As he was leaving the kingdom in difguife, he was betrayed into the hands of his enemy, by the Lord Afton, his intimate friend. He was carried to his ex¬ ecution with every circumftance of indignity that wan¬ ton cruelty could invent j and hanged upon a gibbet 30 feet high, with the book of his exploits appended to his neck. He bore this reverfe of fortune with his ufual greatnefs of mind, and exprefled a juft fcorn at the rage and the infult of his enemies. We meet with many inftances of valour in this aftive reign 5 but Montrofe is the only inftance of heroifm. He was ex¬ ecuted May 21. 1650. See Britain, N° 137, 138, 143, 165. Graham, Sir Richard, lord vifcount Prefton, eldeft fon of Sir George Graham of Netherby, in Cum¬ berland, Bart, was born in 1648. He was fent ambaf- fador by Charles II. to Louis XIV. and was mafter of the wardrobe and fecretary of ftate under James II. But when the revolution took place, he was tried and condemned, on an accufation of attempting the refto- ration of that prince 5 though he obtained a pardon by the queen’s interceflion. He fpent the remainder of his days in retirement, and publiihed an elegant tranf- lation of “ Boethius on the confolation of philofophy.” He died in 1695. Graham, George, clock and watch-maker, the moft ingenious and accurate artift in his time, was born in 1675. After his apprenticeftiip, Mr Tom- pion received him into his family, purely on account of his merit *, and treated him with a kind of parental affeftion as long as he lived. Befides his univerfaily ac¬ knowledged Ikill in his profeffion, he was a complete mechanic and aftronomer; the great mural arch in the obfervatory at Greenwich was made for Dr Halley, under his immediate infpeclion, and divided by his own hand : and from this incomparable original, the beft foreign inftruments of the kind are copies made by Engliih artifts. The fe£tor by which Dr Bradley firft difcovered two new motions in the fixed ftars, was of his invention and fabric : and when the French acade¬ micians were fent to the north to afcertain the figure of the earth, Mr Graham was thought the fitteft per- fon in Europe to fupply them with inftruments j thofe ] G R A who went to the fouth were not fo well furnifhed. _ He Graham was for many years a member of the Royal Society, Gratn;na# to which he communicated feveral ingenious anc, im-y n „ portant difcoveries j and regarded the advancement of fcience more than the accumulation of wealth. He died in 1751. Graham's Dyie. See Antoninus's Wall. GRAIN, corn of all forts, as barley, oats, rye, &c. See Corn, Wheat, &c. Grain is alfo the name of a fmall weight, the twentieth part of a fcruple in apothecaries weight, and- the twenty-fourth of a pennyweight troy. A grain-weight of gold-bullion is worth twTo-pence, and that of filver but half a farthing. Grain alfo denotes the component particles of ftones and metals, the veins of wood, &c. Hence crofs- grained, or againft the grain, means contrary to the fibres of wood, &c. GRALLiE, in Ornithology, is an order of birds analogous to the hruta in the clafs of mammalia in the Linnaean fyftem. See ORNITHOLOGY. GR AMINA, GRASSES-, one of the feven tribes or natural families, into which all vegetables are diftn- buted by Linnaeus in his PJulofophia Botamca, I hey are defined to be plants which have very fimple leaves, a jointed Item, a bulky calyx termed gluma, and a fingle feed. This defcription includes the feveral lorts of corn as well as grafles. In Fournefort they con- ftitute a part of the fifteenth clafs, termed apetah / and in Linnaeus’s fexual method, they are moftly contained in the fecond order of the third clafs, called triandt ta digynia. This numerous and natural family of the graffes has engaged the attention and refearches of feveral emi¬ nent botanifts. The principal of thefe are, Ray* Monti, Micheli, and Linnaeus. M. Monti, in his Catalogue Jlirpium agri Bononienjts gramina ac hujus modi affinia compleclens, printed at Bo- nonia in 1719, divides the graffes from the difpofition of their flowers, as Theophraftus and Ray have divided them before him, into three fe&ions or orders.—Thefe Graffes having flowers collefted in a fpike. are, 0 - 2. Grafles having their flowers collefted in a panicle or loofe fpike. 3. Plants that in their habit and exter¬ nal appearance are allied to the grafles. This clafs would have been natural if the author had not improperly introduced fweet-rufh, juncus, and ar¬ row-headed grafs, into the third feftion. Monti enu¬ merates about 306 fpecies of the grafles, which he re¬ duces under Tournefort’s genera j to thefe he has added three new genera. Scheuchzer, in his Arijlagraphia, publilhed likewife in 1719, divides the graffes, as Monti, from the dif¬ pofition of their flowers, into the five following fec- tions : 1. Graffes with flowers in a fpike, as phalaris, anthoxanthum, and frumentum. 2. Irregular grafles, as fchoenanthus, and cornucopiae- 3. Graffes with flowers growing in a fimple panicle or loofe fpike, as reed and millet. 4. Graffes with flowers growing in a compound panicle, or diffufed fpike, as oats and poa. 5. Plants by their habit nearly allied to the grafl'es, as cyprefs-grafs, feirpus, linagroftis, rufli, and fcheuchzeria. Scheuchzer has enumerated about four hundred fpe¬ cies, which he. deferibes with amazing exa&nefs. Micheli G U A [8 Gramma. MIclieli lias divided tlie graffes into fix fe&ions, ivliich contain in all 44 genera, and are arranged from the fituation and number of the flowers. Gramina, the name of the fourth order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, confifting of the nu¬ merous and natural family of the graffes, viz. agroftis, aira, alopecurus or fox-tail grafs, anthoxanthum or ver¬ nal grafs, ariftida, arundo or reed, avena or oats, bo- bartia, briza, bromus, cinna, cornucopiae or horn of plenty grafs, cynofurus, da&ylis, elymus, feftuca or fbfcue-grafs, hordeum or barley, lagurus or hare’s-tail ] G R A grafs, lolium or darnel, lygeum or hooded matweed, Gramma, melica, milium or millet, nardus, oryza or rice, panicum •—v—- or panic-grafs, pafpalum, phalaris or canary-grafs, phle- um, poa, faccharum or fugar-cane, fecale or rye, flipa or winged fpike-grafs, triticum or wheat, uniola or fea- fide oats of Carolina, coix or Job’s tears, olyra, pharus, tripfacum, zea, Indian Turkey wheat or.Indian corn, zizania, ae.gilops or wild fefcue-grafs, andropognn, ap- luda, cenchrus, holcus or Indian millet, ifchsemum. See Botany. GRAMMAR. Definition 1. /'N RAMMAR is the art of [peaking or of writing any language with propriety ; and the purpofe of language is to communicate our thoughts. 2. Grammar, conlidered as an art, neceflarily fup- pofes the previous exiflence of language •, and as its defign is to teach any language to thofe who are igno¬ rant of it, it mufl: be adapted to the genius of that par¬ ticular language of which it treats. A juft method of grammar, therefore, without attempting any altera¬ tions in a language already introduced, furnilhes cer¬ tain obfervations called rules, to which the methods of fpeaking ufed in that language may be reduced j and 2 this collection of rules is celled the grammar of that Grammar particular language. For the greater diftinftnefs wdth particular, regar(j t0 thefe rules, grammarians have ufually divided this fubjeft into four diftinCl heads, viz. Orthogra¬ phy, or the art of combining letters into fyltables, and fyllables into words ; Etymology, or the art of dedu- UNIVERSAL 4. THE origin of language is a fubjeCl which has 4 employed much learned inveftigation, and about which The de- there is ftill a diverfity of opinion. The defign of fig’1 fpeech is to communicate to others the thoughts and ^eeC ' perceptions of the mind of the fpeaker : but it is ob¬ vious, that between an internal idea and any external found there is no natural relation j that the word fire, for inftance, might have denominated the fubftance which w’e call ice, and that the word ice might have fignified fire. Some of the moft acute feelings of man, as well as of every other animal, are indeed expreffed by Ample inarticulate founds, wdiich as they tend to the prefervation of the individual or the continuance of the fpecies, and invariably indicate either pain or plealure, are univerfally underftood ; but thefe inarti¬ culate and fignificant founds are very few in number 5 and if they can with any propriety be faid to conftitute a natural and univerfai language, it is a language of which man as a mere fenfitive being partakes in com- 5 mon with the other animals. Language Man is endowed not only with fenfation, but alfo confifts of wItrh' the faculty of reafoning; ami Ample inarticulate Sant of founds are infufficient for exprefling all the various ideas. modifications of thought, for communicating to_ others * chain of argumentation, or even for diftinguitiling be* 3 cing one word from another, and the various modijica • lions by which the fenfe of any one word can be diverji- fied confifiently with its original meaning or its relation to the theme whence it is derived; Syntax, or what re¬ lates to the confiruRion or due difpofition of the words of a language into fcntences or phrfifes ; and Prosody, or that which treats of the quantities and accents of fyl¬ lables, and the art of making verfes. . _ 3 3. But grammar, confidered as a fctence, views lan- Or univer- guage only as it is fignificant of thought. Negle&ing fal. particular and arbitrary modifications introduced for the fake of beauty or elegance, it examines the analogy and relation between words and ideas; diftinguiflies be¬ tween thofe particulars which are ejfential to language and thofe which are only accidental; and thus furniflies a certain ftandard, by which different languages may¬ be compared, and their feveral excellencies or defe&s pointed out. This is wThat is called Philosophic or G R AMMAR. tw-een the different fenfations either of pain or of plea1 fure : a man fcorched with fire or unexpectedly plunged among ice, might utter the cry naturally indicative of fudden and violent pain ; the cry would be the fame, or nearly the fame, but the fenfations of cold and heat are wddely different. Articulation, by which thofe Am¬ ple founds are modified, and a particular meaning fixed to each modification, is therefore abfolutely neceffary to fuch a being as man, and forms the language which diftinguiflies him from all other animals, and enables him to communicate with facility all that diverfity of ideas with which his mind is ftored, to make known his particular wants, and to diftinguilh with accuracy all his various fenfations. Ihofe lounds thus modified are called WORDS j and as words have confeffedly no natural relation to the ideas and perceptions of which they are fignificant, the ufe of them muft either have been the refult of human fagacity, or have been fug- gefted to the firll man by the Author of nature. 6. Whether language be of divine or human origin, is a quellion upon which, though it might perhaps be foon xefolved, it is not neceffary here to enter. Upon either fuppoiition, the firff language, compaied with thofe which fucceeded it, or even wTith itfelf as after¬ wards enlarged, rauft have been extremely rude and narrow. % V r i language. / All Language is compofed of WORDS j each of which may be defined, A SOUND SIGNiriCANT OF SOME IDEA OR RELA¬ TION. Thefe words may be arranged into four ge¬ neral divilions, called A GRAMMATICAL TABLE, EXHIBITING A SYSTEMATIC VIEW OF WORDS AS THEY ARE COMMONLY ARRANGED INTO DISTINCT CLASSES, WITH THEIR SUBDIVISIONS. i UUM ^ . - J f SUBSTANTIVES; which are all thole words that are expreffive of THINGS WHICH EXIST OR ARE CONCEIVED TO EXIST OF THEMSELVES, AND NOT AS THE ENER¬ GIES OR QUALITIES OF ANY THING ELSE. Thefe may be divided into two orders, viz<. NOUNS, properly fo called, be¬ ing the NAMES OF ALL THOSE THINGS WHICH EXIST, or are CONCEIVED TO exist. Thefe may be divided into three kinds, each of which admits of the fubdivifions after meh- tioned, viz: And PRONOUNS, which arfe a fpe- cies of word invented to sup¬ ply THE PLACE OF NOUNS IN CERTAIN CIRCUMSTANCES. They are of two kinds, viz. k NATURAL, or thofe which are ufed as the NAMES OF NATURAL SUBSTANCES; fuch are }] ANIMAL, ARTIFICIAL, or the feveral names of! 5 FniPirF H ARTIFICIAL OBJECTS ; fuch as, ABSTRACT, br thofe which are the names ^ ^ of qualities confidered as abstracted > j MOTION, FROM THEIR substances ; fuch as, j | THAN, lALfcXANDfeR, CYRUS, St PAUL’S, &c. »—1 f FLIGHT, §THk FALCON’STllGHT, &c. {COURSE. ^ The GRE-HOUND’s COURSE, 6’< Nouns of all kinds admit of the fol¬ lowing Ac- CIDENTS, viz. 'GENDER, which is a certain affe£Uon of nouns denoting the fex of thofe fubftanceS of which they are the names. For as in nature every objeft is either male or female, or neither the one nor the other, grammarians, following this idea, have divided the names of beings into three clajfes. Thofe that denote males, are faid to be of the mascvunr gender} thofe that denote females, of the femininr gender; and thofe which denote neither the one nor the other, of the neuter gender. The Englilh is the only language of which the nouns are, with refpeft to fex, an exaft copy of nature. NUMBER. As there is no objeft in nature Angle and alone, and as by far the greater part of nouns are the names of whole ctaffes of objefts, it is evident that every fuch noun ought to have tome variation, to denote whether it is one individual of the clafs which is meant, or rfiore than one. Accordingly we find, that in every language nouns have fome method of exprelfing this. If one be mentioned, the noun is ufed in that form which is called the singular number; if more than one, it is ufed in a different form, which is called the plural number. CASES.. All nouns except proper names are general terms} but it is often neceffary to ufe Otuft general terms for the purpofe of exprelfing particular ideas. This can be done o»ly by connecting the general term with fome word fignificant of a quality or circilmjlance peculiar to the individual in¬ tended. When that quality or circumftance is not expreffed by an adjeBive, it is in Englilh and molt modem languages commonly connefled with the noun by the intervention of a prepoftion ; but in the Greek and Latin languages the noun has cases to a'nfwcr the fame end, and even in Englilh the noun has, belides the nominative, one cafe to denote poffelfion. PREPOSITIVE; fo called becaufe they are capable of leading a Sentence. Thefe are divided into three orders, call¬ ed the pronouns of the And “FIRST PERSON; in Englilh, 1. This pronoun denotes the speaker as characterized by tHe PRESENT act of speaking, in contradiftinClion to every other chara&er which he may bear. It is faid to be of the FIRST person, be¬ caufe there mull neceffarily be a fpeaher beiore there can be a hearer; and the fpeaher and hearer are the only perfons employed in difeourfe. SECOND PERSON,—thou. This pronoun denotes, the person addressed as characterized by the present circumstance of being addressed, in contradillinCHon, Of INTENSIONS and REMISSIONS PECULIAR TO MOTION; as, speedily, hastily, slowly, J fary for the communication of thought; but it may be doubted whether they be entitled to this diftinftion. {_ nouns, adjeBives, and verbs. See Chap. V. feft. 3. iyc.—We have given ADVERBS a place among the parts of fpeech necef- Englilh adverbs at leaft feem to be nothing more than corruptions of )EFINITIVES; which' are all thofe words that ferve to DEFINE AND AS¬ CERTAIN ANY PARTICU¬ LAR OBJECT OR OBJECTS AS SEPARATED FROM OTHERS OF THE SAME class. Thefe are com¬ monly called And CONNECTIVES, or thofe words which are employed to connect OTHER WORDS, AND OF SEVERAL DISTINCT PARTS TO MAKE ONE COMPLETE WHOLE. Thefe may be divided into two kinds, viz. ARTICLES; which are divided into two kinds, viz. f* A or AB, which'is prefixed to a noun ox general term, to denote that but ONE individual is meant of that genus or fpecies of which the npun is the common name. This article, however, leaves the individual itfelf quite indeterminate. Thus man is the general name TXrTVRVTMTTTT • J th^ whole human race ; a man is one individual, but that individual is unknown. ? ’ "l ANY ; vhich is prefixed to a noun either in the Angular or plural number, when it is indifferent as to the truth of the propofition what individual or individuals be fuppofed : Thus, “ ANY man will be virtuous when temptation is away.’’ (^SOME 5 which is prefixed to nouns in the plural number, to denote that only part of the fpecies ox genus is meant, leaving that part undetermined : Thus, “ some men are great cowards.” And DEFINITE CTHE ; Vhich is prefixed to a noun, to denote one individual of the fpecies of which fomething is predicated that diftinguifties it from every other individual: Thus, “ THE man that hath not mufic in himfelf is fit for treafon.” It is ufed before nouns in both 1 numbers and for the fame purpofe ; for we may fay, “ THE MEN who have not mufic in themfelves are fit for treafons.” j THIS; I’vhich prefixed to a noun in the ftn&ular number, denotes an individual as present and near at hand : as, “ this man befide me.” 1 r*n. r .•it / / . . . . ^ , _ I 'rxj a it i - 1 r j .. • ft / , , • j- -j i „ , t „ , . ’ „ J- Thele two articles have plurals: THESE is the plural 01 this, and those the plural 01 that. (_!HAl;'; which prefaxed to a noun in theJmgular number, denotes, an individual as present but at a little distance; as, “ THAT man m the comer.” j r r . > r The e are many other articles both definite isnd indefinite; for which fee Chap. II. CONJUNCTIONS; by which name are diftinguiihed all thofe CONNECTIVES WHICH ARE COM¬ MONLY EMPLOYED TO CONJOIN SENTENCES. Theft have been divided into two kinds, called And CONJUNCTIVES, or thofe wip'ds which conjoin fentences and their meanings alfo ; and DISJUNCTIVES, or thofe worts which, at the fame time that they conjoin fentences, disjoin their meanings. Each of thefe general divifions has been again fubfttnded. The former into copulatives and continuatives, the latter into simple disjunctives and adversative disjunctives. But the general divifton is abfurd, and the fubdivifions are ufelefs. Conjunctions never disjoin the meanings of fentences, nor have any other effeft than to combine two or more fimple fentences into one compound fentence. If ■ thofe fimple fentences be of oppjite meanings before their combination, they w’ill continue fo after it, whatever conjunction be em¬ ployed to unite them. In npure, different truths are connefted, if they be connefted at all, by different relations ; and therefore when the SENTENCES expreflivc of thofe truths are connefted in language, it muft be by words fignificant of thofe NATURAL RELATIONS. Thu^ 'Accidental addition is expreffed by the conjunction and ; as when we fay, “ Lyfippus was aftatuary and Prifcian was a grammarian.” ‘ The unexpected junction of contrary truths is expreffed by but ; as, “ Brutus was a patriot but Caefar was not.;” The relation of an effect to its cause is expreffed by because ; as, “ Rome was enflaved because Caefar was ambitious.” The relation of an effect to a cause of which the existence is doubtful, by if ; as, “ you will live happily if you live honeftly.” The relation of a cause to its effect, by therefore ; as, “ Caefar was ambitious therefore Rome was enflaved.” The idea of simple diversity is expreffed by either and or ; as, “ either it is day or it is night.” Contrariety between two affirmations, which though each may be true by itself, cannot both be true at once, is expreffed by UNLESS j as, “ Troy will be taken unless the Palladium be preferved.” Coincidence of two affirmations apparently contrary to each other is expreffed by although ; as, “ Troy w’ill be taken although Heftor defend it.” PREPOSITIONS, or thofe connectives of which the commonIffice is to conjoin words which refuse to coalesce ; and this they can do only by signifying those relations by which the things expre^ed by the united words are connected in nature. The firfi wordsf if men, like their firft ideas, had an immediate reference to fenfible objefts ; aid therefore j there can be no doubt but the original ufe of prepositions wasjt» denote the various relations of body. Afterwards when men began to difeen with their intelleB, they took thofe words which they found already made, piepositions as well as others, and transferred them by metaphor to Intelle£lual conceptions. Prepositions therefore are either PROPER, or thofe which lite¬ rally denote the relations fub- The Accidental junction of two things between which there is no necessary connection; as, “ a houfe with a party-wall.” The separation of two things which we should expect to find united ; as, “ a houfe without a roof, a man without hands.” The relation subsisting between any thing and that which supports it ; as, the ftatue Hands upon a pedeftal.” The relations of higher and lower ; as, “ The fun is rifen above the hills To fupport uneafy fteps OVER the burning marie:—The fun is fet BELOW the hori¬ zon :—The fhepherd reclines under the fhade of a beech-tree.” lifting among the objefts of j The relation between any thing in motion and that in which it moves ; as, “ the rays of light pafs through the air.” fenfe. Such as Or Conjunction? and preposi¬ tions are indeed employed only to cofmeft fentences ana words; but it may be doubted whether they be parts of fpeech dHlinft from nouns, verbs, and adjeBives.' See Chap. VI. The relation between any thing continued, whether motion or rest, and the point of its beginning ; as, “ The rays of light proceed FROM the fun:—Thefe figs came FROM Turkey:—That lamp hangs FROM the ceiling.” The relation between any thing continued and the point to which it tends ; as, “ He is going to ItalyHe flept till morning.”' The relation between an effect and its cause ; as, “ I am lick of my hufband and for my gallant.” METAPHORICAL. For as thofe who are above others in place have generally the advantage over them, the prepositions which denote the one kind of fuperiority of inferiority, are likewife employed to denote the othef. Thus we fay of a king, “ he ruled OVER his people;” and of a foldier, “ he ferved under fuch a general.” INTERJECTIONS are a fpecies of words which are found perhaps in all the languages on earth, but which cannot be included in any of the claffes above mentioned ; for they are not fubjeft to the rules or principles of grammar, as they contribute nothing to the communication of thought* They may be called a part of that natural language with which man is endowed in common with other animals, to exprefs or allay feme very Jlrong fevfation; fuch as, ah ! when he feels pain. In this view the inteijeftion does not owe its ckaraBerifiical expreffion to the arbitrary form of articulation, but to the tone of voice, and the modifications of countenance and of gejiurdiffidn. which it is uttered ; it is therefore univerfally underftood by all mankind. In difeourfe interjections are employed only when the fuddennefs or vehemence of fome affeftion returns men to their natural fate, and makes thc|U for' a moment forget the ufe of fpeech. In books they are thrown into fentences without altering their form either in fyntax or in fignification; and in Englifh this is generally done with a very bad effeft^ though the writer no doubt employs them with a view to pathos or embe^ifbment. i J1 jfc tryAy* wMt it-I’n .'yrx- J&;iCND9^3MxvHl*t hi ip v* Ultna*'f* jim**#* w 'tmvxM 3»'I ^sw^V «u' b»^‘. ;fl*i- v$ wtmM 0 wm «L-fef '"to >v»W4-ft % ->vi«t.rr>s..||kuOV Wk ■10 r.Af n if :-C> 3SO B3JB '&vfT -Heja ri h .r tvrA. '■ if.: o.im Mwb&d X""i J'toi/tr USSmSm^i^ U | tlpM' if,iMp::. mMWi HlTif { ■ ■*< -f--'^- -• ..• .i.:«J3,.-.g||||j| *• »8 B Jk4 :^k & iium *43 f% .^te'X; if '- •■•■.■ , '•-.> B ( v; -!-^ : ' •- •:■•". ^ r.^v, . V'-.4?;;,-^- ;' ■ ! ..:■ ■■■ ■ -^'- rli ,'.)NkU',v-*f'l ite&i&yf dw'nl ^4yv;|^ Int' ■■■ -■ - f ^■p.' - ‘W.-v’* '' ■ ■■ }■ -l I - .'>v .'< '.'S- v^- •• r-'-: m1 r': • v K | • | uv X wifvu ".*i »>«wi |.« 1,:^|||p#4^iitS * ®lw«! i ka, t ,;i. lii i pi^| ' Il ■■'•-v;>, | . V' .■ •.•'■* 11 »k >.i.vi‘.- ^^Syipid' MS ■it. US Ifet-r^-'.;$§$$ I -V‘ - - :' ^ ' \ ■■''t itfufij mj.L»;|»JfjXMr.iJfi I - ,„ ■,. ■ w.tnmjrx'si it /I T03 IGA j -'?* aj#y i-a t.»* . j ^ ft ^ ‘4 'o^^t (-*8 ^u<| t^il l>sT*iMjr 'S.H.-::, ^ ■'hrwn i't A I im • ■. ' A"''';‘’-^’'X'-X SI Sm| ; ' \i .■ • - ( p i v ■ v %l "■ . II ■ -. •- ■ i < , ■ii •• ■fe JS1 f $0 - .iv ;; U . v < :>:m ■ jj A. • - . ,:is r fc: r -•'W-ol .7, • ■' !<>*/{ . ;i, ’ '.-i; • ... ’ 't ' f ! v * t • c. , ; n ■ > /IH j/ > = * ; •; • f ' V- ?• ^ ■ w lor n. .. 1 I"! * f' ; • M : ; M : ? : , ' "■ 1 , . ;'w , - . •• > A ' • A ; .. ' ; ■ i * j , ' . ■ ' idea.. modifications of thought, for communicating to otltBS thole which luccceded it, or-eveh w-TtinHclt as atteF * chain of argumentation, or even for diflingu,flung be- wards eulargeu, mull have been estiemc y ^ G R A IVivifion narrow. If it was of human contrivance, t! is will be .of Words, readily granted", for what art was ever invented and 1 brought to a date of perfection by illiterate favages ? If it was taught by God, which is at leal! the rnoie probable fuppofition, we cannot imagine that it would be more comprelienlive than the ideas of tho*e foi whofe immediate ufe it was intended", that the hill men (hould have been taught to exprefs pains or plea- fures which they never felt, or to utter founds that fiiould be afterwards fignificant of ideas which at the time of utterance had not occurred to tne mind of the fpeaker : man, taught the elements of language, would be able himfelf to improve and enlarge it as his future occafions ihould require. *7. As all language is compofed of fignificant words varioufly Combined, a knowledge of them is neceffary previous to our acquiring an adequate idea of language as contlrucled into fentences and phrafes. Kut as. it 6 is by words that we exprefs the various ideas w-hich Origin of occur to the mind, it is neceffary to examine hovv ideas themfelves are fuggetled, before we can alcertam the various claffes into which words may be diftributed. It is the province of logic to trace our ideas from their origin, as well as to teach the art of reafoning . but it is neceffary at prefent to obierve, that our earheil ideas are all ideas of fenfation, excited by the impreflions that are made upon our organs of fenfe by the various obje<51s with which we are lurrounded. Let us there- iore fuppofe a reafonable being, devoid of every pollible prepofleflion, placed upon this globe ", and it is ob¬ vious, that his attention wTould in the^firlt place be directed to the various obje£ls which he faw exiifing around him. Xhefe he would naturally endeavour to diftinguifh from one another ", and if he were either learning or inventing a language, his firft effort would be to give them namest by means of which the ideas of 7 them might be recalled when the objefls themfelves Of nouns. {]louic} be abfent. This is one copious fource of words ; and forms a natural clafs which mull: be common to every language, and which is diftinguilhed by the name of nouns •, and as thefe nouns are the names of the fe- veral fubltances which exill, they have likewife been called SUBSTANTIVES. 8. It would likewife be early difcovered, that every 8 one of thefe fubftances was endowed with certain qua- Of attri- j;tjes or attributes ", to exprefs which another clafs of butives. words would be requifite, fince it is only by their qua¬ lities that fubftances themfelves can attrad our atten¬ tion. Thus, to be weighty, is a quality of matter ", to think, is an attribute of man. Therefore in every lan¬ guage words have been invented to exprefs the known qualities or attributes of the feveral objeds which exift. Vol. X. Part I. M M A R. • . 9 Thefe may all be comprehended under tne general de- nomination of attributives. * v > o. Nouns and attributives mull: comprehend all that is ejjential to language (a) : for every thing which exifts, or of which we can form an idea, muft be either a fubjtance or the attribute of fome fubftance ; and therefore thofe two claffes which denominate fubftances and attributes, muft comprehend all the words, that are necejfary to communicate to the hearer the ideas which are prefent to the mind of the fpeaker. . If any other words occur, they can only have been invented for the fake of difpatch, or introduced for the pur- pofes of eafe and ornament, to avoid tedious circum¬ locutions or difagreeable tautologies. There are in¬ deed grammarians of great name, who have conftdered. as effential to language an order of words, of which the ufe is to conneft the nouns and attributives, and which are faid to have no Jignification of themfelves, but to become /ignifcant by relation. Hence all words which can poflibly be invented are by thefe men divided into two general claffes: thofe which are SIGN)Iicani Ot themselves and thofe wdiich are NOT. Words fig¬ nificant of themfelves are either exprellive of the names of fubftances, and therefore called substant: * v.s •, or of attributes, and therefore called attribuiives. ^ q Words which are not fignificant of themfelves, muft ^ dcfiui- acquire a meaning either1 as defining or connefting others 5 and are therefore arranged under the two lives, claffes of definitives and connectives. 10. That in any language there can be words wh.ch of themfelves have no fgnifcation, is a fupp.olition which a man free from prejudice will not readily ad¬ mit ; for to what purpofe Ihould they have been in¬ vented ? as they are lignificant of no ideas, they can¬ not facilitate the communication of thought, and muft therefore be only an incumbrance to the language in which they are found. Hut in anfwer to this it has been faid, that thefe words, though devoid of fignifica- tion themfelves, acquire a fort of meaning when joined with others, and that they are as neceffary to the llruc- ture of a fentence as cement is to the ftrufture of an edifice : for as fones cannot be arranged into a regular building without a cement to bind and connedl them, fo the original words fignificant of fubflances and attri¬ butes, cannot be made to exprefs all the variety of our ideas without being defined and conne&ed by thole words wftiich of themfelves fignify nothing.—It is wonderful, that he who firft fuggefted this fimile did not perceive that it tends to overthrow the dodftrine which it is meant to illuftrate : for furely the cement is as much the matter of the building as the fones themfelves; it is equally folid and equally extended. By being united B with (a) This is the doftrine of many writers on the theory of language, for whofe judgment we have the higheft Tefpeft : yet it is not eafy to conceive mankind fo far advanced in the art of abftraftion as to view attributes by themfelves independent of particular fubstances, and to give one general name to each tf/ZnZwte wherefoeyer it may be found, without having at the fame time words exprelfive of affirmation. . We never talk of any attribute, a colour for inftance, without affirming fomething concerning it", as, either that it is bright or faint, or that it is the colour of fome fiubstance. It will be feen afterwrards, that to denote affirmation is the proper office of what is called the fubftantive verb j as, “Milk zj1 white.” lhat verb therefore appears to be as neceflary to the communication of thought as any fpecies of words whatever ", and if we muft range words under a. few general claffe.^ wre Ihould be inclined to fay, that nouns, attributives, and affirmatives, comprehend all that is effential to language. IO Divifion of Words. IO The com¬ mon divi¬ fion of the parts of fpeech the molt pro¬ per. GRAM witTi the ftones, it neither acquires nor lofes any one of the qualities ejjential to matter; it neither communicates its own foftnefs, nor acquires their hardnefs. By this mode or reafoning therefore it would appear, that the words called dejinitives and conneflivcs, fo far from ha¬ ving of themfelves no fignification, are equally effen- tial to language and equally lignificant with thofe which are denominated fubftantives and attributives; and upon invelligation it will be found that this is the truth. For whatever is meant by the definition or conne8ion of the words which all men confefs to be fignificant, that meaning mult be the fenfe of the wrords of which the purpofe is to define and connedt; and as there can be no meaning where there are no ideas, every one of thefe definitives and conneBives muft be fignificant of fame idea, although it may not be always eafy or even pofiible to exprefs that idea by another word. 11. Thefe different modes of dividing the parts of . ■fpeech we have juft mentioned, becaufe they have been largely treated of by grammarians of high fame. But it does not appear to us, that any man can feel him- ielf much the wifer for having learned that all wrords are either substantives or attributives, defini¬ tives » r connectives. The divifion of words into thofe which are SIGNIFICANT OF THEMSELVES, and thofe which are significant by relation, is abfb- lute nonfenfe, and has been productive of much error and much myftery in fome of the moft celebrated trfea- aafes on grammar. It is indeed probable, that any at¬ tempt to eftablifh a different claflification of the parts of fpeech from that which is commonly received, will be found of little utility either in praBice or in /pecula¬ tion. As far as the former is concerned, the vulgar divifion feems fufficiently commodious 5 for every man who knows any thing, knows when he ufes a noun and when a verb. With refpeft to the latter, not to mention that all the grammarians from Aristotle to Horne Tooke, have differed on the fubjeft, it fhould feem to be of more importance, after having afcertain- ed with precifion the nature of each fpecies of words, to determine in what Tircumftances they differ than in what they agree. 12. In moft languages, probably in all cultivated languages, grammarians diftinguifh the following parts of fpeech: Noun, pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, pre- pofition, conjunBion. The Latin and Englijb gramma¬ rians admit the interjeBion among the parts of fpeech, although it is confeffedly not neceffary to the conftruc- tion of the fentence, being only thrown in to exprefs the affeClion of the fpeaker : and in the Greek and Englijh tongues there is the article prefixed to nouns, when they fignify the common names of things, to point them out, and to fhow how far their fignification extends. In the method of arrangement commonly followed in grammars, adjeBives are claffed with fub¬ ftantives, and both are denominated nouns; but it is cer¬ tain that, when examined philofophically, an effential difference is difcovered between the fubftantive and the adjeBive; and therefore fome writers of eminence, when treating of this fubjeft, have lately given the following claflification of words, which we (hall adopt : The article, noun, pronoun, verb, participle, adjec¬ tive, adverb, preposition, conjunction, inter¬ jection. All thefe words are to be found in the En¬ glijh language; -and therefore we fhall examine each MAR. Chap. I. clafs, endeavour to afcerta’m its precife Import, and fhow Noun, in what refpecfts it differs from every other clafs. It is ■—v— impoflible to inveftigate the principles of grammar without confining the invefligation in a great meafure to fome particular language from which the illuftrations muft be produced ; and that we fhould prefer the F.ng- li/h language for this purpofe can excite no wonder, as it is a preference which to every tongue is due from thofe by whom it is fpokert. We truft, however, that the principles which we fliall eftablifh will be found to apply univerfalhj; and that our inquiry, though princi- palhj illuftrated from the Englijh language, will be an inquiry into philofophical or univerfal grammar. Chap. I. Of the Noun or Subfiantive. 13. Nouns are all thofe words by which objeEis or The noun fubftances are denominated, and which dijlinguijh them defined. from one another, without marking either quantity, qua¬ lity, aBion, or relation. The fubstantive or noun is the name of the thing fpoken of, and in Greek and Latin is called name; for it is woyM in the one, and nomen in the other •, and if in Englilh we had called it the name rather than the noun, the appellation would per¬ haps have been more proper, as this laft word, being ufed only in grammar, is more liable to be mifunder- ftood than the other, which is in constant and familiar ufe. That nouns or the names of things muft make a part of every language, and that they muft have been the words firft fuggefted to the human mind, will not be difputed. . Men could not fpeak of themfelves or of any thing elfe, without having names for themfelves and the various objefts with which they are furrounded. Now, as all the objefts which exift muft be either in the fame ftate in which they were produced by nature, or changed from their original ftate by art, or abstraB- 12 ed from fubftances by the powers of imagination, and Different conceived by the mind as having at leaft the capacity kinds of of being charaderized by qualities j this naturally fug-nouns- gefls a divifion of nouns into natural, as man, vege¬ table, tree, &c. ARTIFICIAL, as houfe,fhip, watch, &c. and abstract, as whitenefs, motion, temperance, &c. 14. But the diverfity of objeds is fo great, that had each individual a distinti and proper name, it would be impoflible for the moft tenacious memory, during the courfe of the longeft life, to retain even the nouns of J3 the narroweft language. It has therefore been found Ncmns ge- expedient, when a number of things referable each neral termsj other in fome important particulars, to arrange them all under one fpecies; to which is given a name that belongs equally to the whole fpecies, and to each in¬ dividual comprehended under it. Thus the word man denotes ts fpecies of animals, and is equally applicable to every human being: The word horfe denotes another fpecies of animals, and is equally applicable to every in¬ dividual of that fpecies of quadrupeds; but it cannot be applied to the fpecies of men, or to any individual comprehended under that fpecies. We find, however, that there arc fome qualities in which feveral fpe¬ cies referable each other *, and therefore we refer them to a higher order called a genus, to which we give a name that is equally applicable to every fpecies and every individual comprehended under it. Thus, men and horfes and all living things on earth referable each other in this refpeft, that they have life. We refer theta Chap. Noun. j GRAM therefore to the genus called animal; and this " world belongs to c\csy fpecies of animals, and to eac i individual animal. The fame clarification is made both of artificial and abstract fubttances j of each of which there are genera, fpecies and individuals tural fubftances, animal, vegetable, and /#/, deno gfnera, horfe, tree, metal, a SPECIES j and Alex- ^Bucephalus, oak, gold, are individuals In arti- ficial fubftances, edifice is a GENUS; houfie, church Lower are species j and the Vatican, ^ PWV, and the Tower of London, are individuals. In abstraii fubftances, lion and virtue are GENERA •, flight and temperance are SPECIES ; the flight of Mahomet and temperance in wi are individual! By arranging fubftances in this man- ner and giving a name to each genus and Jpecies, the nouns neceffary to any language are c°mP^tlvel>b^ and eaiily acquired : and when we meet with an object unknOTvn^to u\ we have only to exa^ne « wth aUen; tion • and comparing it with other objefts, to reier to the genus or fpecies which it moft nearly refembles. By this contrivance we fupply the want of a proper name for the indnidua!; and fo far ^‘he'efembknce MAR. I I Noun. fuch admits of a plural; as the Caflars the Howards, the Pelhems, the Montagues, &c.: but Socrates can ne¬ ver become plural; fo long as we know of w than one man of that name. The reafon ot all this will oe obvious, if we confider, that every genus mzy be tounci whole and entire in each of its Jpccics; for man, horje, and dog, are each of them an entire and complete ani¬ mal: and every fpecies may be found whole and entire in each of its individuals: for Socrates, 1 lato, and Xe¬ nophon, are each of them completely and entirely a man. Hence it is, that every genus, though ONE, is multiplied into MANY j and every fpecies, though one, is alfo multiplied into MANY } by reference to thofe be¬ ings which are their fubordinates : But as no individual has any fuch fubordinates, it can never in ftriftnels be confidered as MANY } and fo, as well m nature as m name, is truly an individual which cannot admit ot ”W™7?Befides number, another charaaeriftic, yifible in Of gender, fubftances, is that of SEX. Every fubflance is either male or female; or both male and female; or neither one nor the other. So that with refpea to flexes and then name for the individual; and fo far as the rdetnblance are comprehended un ■f “»rl«e “ «‘"d Ore ° d/r tKs’fifaS confiderxtion, which language wodr is complete oetween ii. cw.v. — jr--- . ferred, and of which we have given it the name, we may converfe and reafon about it without danger of error : Whereas had each individual m nature a distina and proper name, words would be innumerable and m- comprehenfible ; and to employ our labours in lan¬ guage, would be as idle as that ftudy of numberlefs written fymbols which has been attributed to the Chinefe. negation, anjuudianted r der this fourfold confideration, which language would be very imperfeft if it could_ not exprefs. Now the exiftence of hermaphrodites being rare, ft not doubt u , and language being framed to anfwer the ordinary oc- cafions of life, no provifion is made, m any of the tongues with which we are acquainted, for exprelung, otherwife than by a name made on purpofe, or by a peri- phrafis, duplicity offlex. With regard to this great natural 1 - ~ • r\n 1 \r n threernlci ^ „igi„ ffkhhough W axe thus adapted* expteft not cWaetiaic, of the fin- the individual* but the genet a or^fWft into w 1C t0 be 0f mafeuline gender; thole which denote I!—S^^^aUmenm^W nouns ^ ^ ™ ^ ^ muft admit of fome variation in their form to denote unity and plurality; and this variation is called number Thus in the Englilh language, when we fpeak ot a fingle place of habitation, we call it a houfe / but it o more, le call them houfes. In the firft of thefe cafe the noun is faid to be in the fngular, in the laft cafe . * 1 1 . havp arm a is in the plural, number. Greek nouns have alfo a dual number to exprefs two individuals, as have like- wlfe fome Hebrew nouns: but this variation is evident¬ ly not effential to language ; and it is perhaps doubt¬ ful whether it ought to be confidered as an elegance or a deformity. 1 • j . r 16. But although number be a natural accident ot nouns, it can only be confidered as effenhal to thofe which denote genera or fpecies. Thus we may have occafion to fpeak of one animal or ot many animals, ot one man, or of many men ; and therefore the nouns ani¬ mal and man muft be capable of exprefling plurality as well as unity. But this is not the cafe with refpeeft to the proper names of individuals : for we can only lay Xenophon, Aristotle, Plato, &c. in thtfingular; as, were any one of thefe names to affume a plural rorrn, it would ceafe to be the proper name of an individual and become the common name of a fpecies. Or this, indeed, we have fome examples in every language. Yv hen a proper name is confidered as a general appellative un¬ der which many others are arranged, it is then no longer the name of an individual but of a fpecies, and as the names of all animals ftiould have gender. But the fex of all is not equally obvious, nor equally worthy ot attention. In thofe fpecies that are moft common, or of which the male and fat female are, by fwwfrzeflorni, colour, or other outward circumftances, eminently distin- puifhed, the male is fometimes called by one name, which gm bca, tne mate is lumeumca -.7 - ’ is mafeuline; and fat female by a different name, which is feminine. Thus in Englifti we fay, hujband, wife; king, queen; father, mother ; fon, daughter, &-C.. In others of fimilar difthnftion, the name of the male is applied to the female only by prefixing a fyllable or by altering the termination j as man, woman; lion, honefs; emperor, emprefs, anciently emperefs; master, mist refs, .anciently masterefs, &c. When fat fex of any animal is not ob¬ vious, or not material to be known, the lame name, in fome languages, is applied, without variation, to all the fpecies, and that name is faid to be of the common gender. Thus in Latin bos albus is a white ox, and bos alba a white cow. Diminutive infe£ts, though they are doubtlefs male and female, feem to be confidered in the Englifti language as if they were really creep¬ ing things. No man, fpeaking of a worm, would fay he creeps, but it creeps, upon the ground. But although the origin of genders is thus clear and obvi¬ ous j yet the Englifti is the only language, with which we are acquainted, that deviates not, except m a very few inftances, from the order of nature. Greek and Latin, and many of the modern tongues, have nouns, R 9. fome Tome mafculine, fome ftances where fex gramma r. 16 Origin of cafes. feminine, which denote fub- never had exiftence. Nay, fome languages are fo particularly defedive in this refped, as to clafs every objed, inanimate as well as animate, undei either the tnafcuhne or the feminine gender, as they have no neuter gender for thofe which are of neither fex. 1 his is the cafe with the Hebrew, French, Italian, and Spanijh. Eat the Englijh, ftrickly following the order ot nature, puts every noun which denotes a We ani¬ mal, and no other, in the mnfcuhne gender j every name Oj. a female animal, in the feminine; and every animal whofe lex is not obvious, or known, as well as e^very inanimate objed whatever, in the neuter gender. And this gives our language an advantage above moft others m the poetical and rhetorical ftyle : for when nouns naturally neuter are converted into mafculine and feminine, the perfonifcation is more dilfindly and more forcibly marked. (See Personification.) Some v ~ry learned and ingenious men have endeavoured, by Moat they call a more fubtle kind of reafoning, to dif- cern even in things without fex a diftant analogy to that natural distinction, and to account for the names of inanimate fubflances being, in Greek and Latin, Tdafculine wvl feminine. But fuch fpeculations are wholly fanciful 5 and the principles upon which they proceed are overturned by an appeal to fads. Many of the jubilances tuat, in one language, have mafculine names, have in others names that are feminine ; which could not be the cafe were this matter regulated by reafon or nature. . Indeed for this, as well as many other ano¬ malies in language, no other reafon can be affigned than that custom—— Ouem penes arbitrium ell, et jus, et norma, loquendi. 18. It has been already obferved that moll nouns are the names, not of individuals, but of whole clalfes of objeds termed genera and fpecies (b). In clalfmg a num¬ ber of individuals under one fpecies, we contemplate only thofe qualities which appear to be important, and in which the feveral individuals are found to agree, ab- llrading the mind from the conlideration of all thofe which appear to be lefs efiential, and wdiich in one in¬ dividual may be fucli as have nothing exadly limilar in any other individual upon earth. Thus, in clafling the individuals which are comprehended under the fpe¬ cies denominated horfe, we pay no regard to their co¬ lour ox \\\zf%e; becaufe experience teaches us, that no particular colour or fize is effential to that individual living creature, and that there are not perhaps upon earth two horfes whofe colour and lize are exatthj alike. But the qualities which in this procefs we take into view, are foe. general fhape, the fymmetry, and proportion ot the parts; and in Ihort every thing which appears evidently ejfential to the life of the individual and the propagation of the race. All thefe qualities are llrikingly umilar m all the individuals which we call horfes, and as llrikingly diflimilar from the correfponding qualities of every other individual animal. The colour of a horfe is of- . Chap. I. ten the fame with that of an ox; but the (hape of the one Noun. an1l1raa}?nthe fymmetry and proportion of his parts, are to- ' tally different from thofe of the other ; nor could any man be led to clafs the two individuals under the fame fpecies. It is by a fimilar procefs that we afcend from one fpecies to another, and through all the fpecies to the higheil £-e«/zr. In each fpecies or genus in the afcending ienes fewer particular qualities are attended to than were conhdered as ejfential to the genus or fpecies immediately below it; and our conceptions become more and more general as the particular qualities, which are the objefts of them, become/earr in number. The ufe of a general term, therefore, can recal to the mind only the common qualities of the clafs, the genus or Ipecies which it re- piefents. But we have frequent occalion to fpeak of individual objeefs. In doing this, we annex to the ge¬ neral term certain words fignificant ofparticular qualities, which diferiminate the objed of which we fpeak, from every other individual of the clafs to which it belongs, and of which the general term is the common name. For mftance, in advertifing a thief, we are obliged to men¬ tion his height, complexion, gait, and whatever may ferve to dillinguilh him from all other men. X he procefs of tne mind in rendering her concep¬ tions particular, is indeed exactly the reverfe of that by which {he generalises them. For as in the pro¬ cefs of generalisation, ihe abstracts from her ideas of any number of fpecies certain qualities in which they differ from each other, and of the remaining qualities in which they agree, conftitutes the firft genus in the afcending leries 3 fo when file wiihes to make her con¬ ceptions more, particular, {lie annexes to her idea of any genus thofe qualities or circumftances which were be¬ fore abftracled from it 3 and the genus, wuth this annexa¬ tion, conflitutes the firil fpecies in the defending feries. In like manner, when ihe willies to defeend from any fpecies to an individual, fhe has only to annex to the idea of the fpecies thofe particular qualities which dif¬ eriminate the individual intended from the other indivi¬ duals of the fame kind. This particularising operation of the mind points out the manner of applying the general terms of language for the purpoie of exprefhng particular ideas. For as the mind, to limit a general idea, connects that idea with the idea of fome particular circumfance ; fo language, as we have already obferved, in order to limit a general term, connects that term with the word denoting the particular circumflance. Thus, in order to particula¬ rize the idea of horfe, the mind connects that general idea with the circumfance, fuppofe, of whitenefs; and in order to particularize the word horfe, language connects that word with the term white : and fo in other inltan- ces.—Annexation, therefore, or the connecting of ge¬ neral words or terms in language, fits it for exprefling particular conceptions ; and this mull hold alike good in all languages. But the methods of denoting this an¬ nexations are various in various tongues. In Englifh and moll modern languages we commonly ufe for this pur- pofe (B) It is almoft needlefs to obferve that the words genus fpecies, and the phrafes higher genus and lower geaes are taken here m the /open/ fenfe ; and not as the words genus, fpecies, order, clnfs, are often employed fcy naturanits. Xor a farther account of the mental procefs of generalization, fee Logic and Metaphysics. Chap. I. Noun. nofe little words, which we have chofen to flyle par¬ ticles ; and in the Greek and Latin languages, the cajes of nouns anfwer the fame end. ., p iq. Cafes, therefore, though they are accidents o nouns not abfo lately necejfanj, have been often con tide red as fuch 5 and they are certainly worthy of our exami¬ nation, fince there is perhaps no language m w me r fame cafes are not to be found, as indeed without or their various powers no language could readily an¬ fwer the purpofes of life. ^ , AH the oblique cafes of nouns (if we except the vo- native) are merely marks of annexation ; but as the annexation. conne^ons or relations fubfiftmg among objelhpxe very various, fame cafes denote one kind of _ relation, and fame another. We {hall endeavour to mvelhgate the connexion which each cafe denotes beginning with the genitive.—This is the mojl general cn ^ ^ cafes, and gives notice fox fame conneaion indeed fubfifls be¬ tween two objefts, but does not point out ^particular kind of conneaion. That we mud infer not from our nature or termination of the genitive itfe/fhvX from our 18 previous knowledge of the objects conneBed. _ 1 nat the The imk a endive denotes merely relation in general, might be pro- ’ the . . . • ^vcimnlpQ- in WHICH tilC r? Cafes, the marks of port of genitive cafe. Penuive ucnuica ■ — o ' . ^ -I ved by adducing innumerable examples, in which the relations expreffed by this cafe are different; but we {hall content ourfelves with one obfervation, from which the truth of our opinion will appear beyond dilpute. If an expreilion be ufed in which are, connected by the genitive cafe, two words iigmficant of objeft^ be¬ tween which a twofold relation may fubfift, it will be found impoflible, from the expreffon, to determine which of thefe two relations is the true one, which mult be gathered wholly from the context. J bus, for examp e, from the phrafe injuria regis, no man can know whe¬ ther the injury mentioned be an injury fuffered or an in¬ jury infiaed by the king : but if the genitive cale no¬ tified my particular relation, no fuch ambiguity could exift. This cafe therefore gives notice, that two ob¬ jects are, fomehow or other (c), connefted, but it maiks not the particular fort of connexion. Hence it may be tianilated by our particle of, which will be leen afterwards to be of a fignification equally general. Of the da- dative and accusative cafes appear to have nearly tivc acd ac-tlie meanlng . each of them denoting apportion, or 6 the junaion of one objeB with another. Thus when any one fays, Compare Virgilium Homero, Homer and Virgil are conceived to be placed befule one another, m order to their being compared •, and this fort of connection is denoted by the dative cafe. In like manner, when it is faid latus humeros, breadth is conceived as joined to or conneaed in apportion with {boulders •, and the ex- preffion may be tranflated “ broad at the {boulders.” This appojition of two objeas may happen either without previous motion, or in confequence of it. In the foregoing inftances no motion is prefuppofed; but if one fay, Miff aliquos fubfidio corum, the apportion is there in confequence motion. In like manner, when GRAMMAR- . < it is faid, ProfeBus ejl Rornam, Ins appofimn with Rome is conceived as the effeB of his motion thither. _ . From this idea of the accufative, the reafon is obvious why the obiea after the aaive verb is often put m that cafe ; it is becaufe the aaion is (uppofed to procee from the agent to the patient. But the fame thing happens with refpea to the dative cafe, and for fame reafon. Thus, Antonins luff Cicerunem and An o- nius nocuit Ciceroni, are expreflions of the fame import, and in each the aaion of hurting is conceived as pro¬ ceeding from Antony to Cicero*, whic i r> me y i ftrated by the paflive form of fuch expretlions, where the procedure above mentioned is exprefsly marked by the prepolition ab: Cicero nocetur, Cicero Iceditur ab An¬ tonio. It is therefore not true, that “ the accufativi is that cafe, at leaft the o«/y cafe, which to an efficient nominative and a verb of aaion fubjoms either the et- fea or the paflive fubjea *, nor is Cswdative the only cafe which is formed to exprefs relations tending to itfelf.” The only thing ejjential to thefe two cales is to denote the appoffion ox junB ion of one objeB with ano¬ ther; and this they do nearly, if not altogether, in the fame manner, although from the cufiom of language they may not be indifferently fubjoined to the fame vero. A..- it 1 1* Li. ^ /-“'ilia • nil I3 Noun. IQ cafes. iy nut uc luumtiv-imj . of the ab« The Greek language has no ablative caie: but in latlve cafeo the Latin, where it is ufed, it denotes concomitancy, or that one thing accompanies another. From this concomi- tancy we fometimes draw an inference, and (ometimes not. For example, when it is faid, Templum clamore petebant, clamour is reprefented as concomitant^ with their going to the temple *, and here no inference is drawn : but from the phrafe palleo metu, although nothing 1S expreffed than that palenefs is a concomitant ot the tear, yet we inffantly infer that it is al(o the effeB ot it. n moft inftances where the ablative is ufed, an inference is drawn, of which the foundation is fome natural con¬ nection obferved to fubfift between the objeBs thus con- nefted in language. When this inference is not meant to be drawn, the prepoffion is commonly added *, as, interfeBus eft cum gladio, “ he was {lain with a {word about him *,” interfeBus ejl gladio, “ he was flam wit i a fword as the inftrument of his death.” . , oftheno- The remaining cafes, which have not been noticed, are the nominative and the vocative. Ihele are m m°ffarKi Voca- inftances alike in termination, which makes it probable tive cafes, that they were originally one and the fame cafe, i he foundation of this conjefture will appear from conu- dering the ufe to which each of thefe cafes is applied. The nominative is employed to call up the idea of any objeB in the mind of the hearer.. But when m man hears his own name mentioned, his attention is inftant- ly roufed, and he is naturally led to Hjlen to what is to be faid. Flence, when a man meant particularly to folicit one’s attention, he would naturally pronounce that perfen’s name; and thus the nominative cafe would pafs into a vocative, of which the ufe is always x.o folicit attention (d). fed The Greek grammarians feem to have been aware of the nature of this cafe when they called it or the general cafe ; of which name the Latin grammarians evidently miftook the meaning when they tia fated it cafus genitivus, or xht generative cafe ; a name totally foreign from its nature. . (D) The chief objeftion to this conjeaure, that the nominative and were^ origmally the taken from the Latin tongue, in which the nouns of the fecond declenfion endmg m terminate their voca Import of the Greek an.I Latin cafes. 23 One cafe in Englifli to denote pofleflion. GRAM 20. The Greek and Latin among the ancient, and the German, among the modern languages, exprefs different connections or relations of one thing with another by cafes. In Englijh this is done for the moft part by prepofitions; but the Englith, being derived from the lame origin as the German, that is, from the Teutonic, has at leaft one variation of the fubftantive to anfwer the^ fame purpofe. For inftance, the relation of pof- JjL/ion, or belonging, is often expreffed by a different end¬ ing of the fubftantive, which may be well called a cafe. 1 his cafe anfwers nearly to the genitive cafe in Latin \ but as that is not a denomination lignificant of the. na¬ ture of the cafe in any language, it may perhaps in Englifli be more properly called thepqflefwe cafe. Thus, God's grace, anciently Godis grace, is the grace belong¬ ing to or in the pojfejjion of God : and may be likewife expreffed by means of the prepofition ; thus,—the grace of God. _ Although the word Godis is as evidently an inflexion of the noun God as the word Dei is an inflexion of Dens, there are grammarians who have denied that in Englijh there is any true inflexion of the original noun, -and who have laid that the noun with the addition of that fy liable, which we confider as the fign of a cafe, ceafes to be a noun, and becomes a definitive ; a word which with them is devoid of lignification. Thus, in the expreflion Alexander's houfe, the word Alexander's Hands not as a noun, but as an article or definitive, fer- ving to afeertain and point out the individuality of the houfe. But this is a palpable miftake: the word Alexander's ferves not to point out the individuality of the houfe, but to Ihow to whom the houfe belongs ; and is therefore beyond difpute, not an article, but a noun in the pofiefijive cafe. Again, when we fay St Peter's at Rome and St Paul's at London, the words St Peter's and St Paul's are neither articles, nor, as has been ab- lurdly imagined, the proper names of edifices, like the Rotunda or the Circus; but they are in the pojfefjive cafe, the names of the twTo apoftles to whom the churches were dedicated, and to whom they are fuppofed to belong. But that this, which we have called the pofieffive cafe, is really not fo, muft be evident, it is faid, becaufe there are certain circumftances in which it cannot be fubfti- tuted for the noun with the prepofition prefixed. Thus, though a man may fay, I fpeak of Alexander, I write qf Ccefar, I think of Pompey; he cannot fay, I fpeak Alexander's, I write Ccefar's, or I think Pompeij's. This is indeed true, but it is nothing to the purpofe : for though I may fay, Loquor df. Alexandra, Scribo dr Cafare, Cogito ds Pompcio; I cannot fay, Loswor A- lexandm, Scribo Cafans, or Cogito Pompeii: and there¬ fore all that can be inferred from this argument is, that as the Latin genitive is not always of the fame im¬ port with the prepofition de, fo the Englilh poffejfive is not always of the fame import with the prepofition of. Upon the whole, then, we may conclude, that Englilh nouns admit of one inflexion ; and that though cafes M Chap. II. are not fo effential to nouns as gender and number, no Article, language can be wholly without them or their various1 ‘\ powers. Chap. II. Oj Articles or Definitives. 2i. I he intention of language is to communicate thought, or to exprefs thole ideas which are fuggefted to us by our fenfes external and internal. The ideas firfi fuggefted to us are thofe of pain and pleafure, and oi the objefts with wfliich we are lurrounded; and therefore the words firfi learned muft be nouns, or thd names of objedls natural, artificial, and abftracft. Every objeft about which the human mind can be converfant is ftridlly and properly fpeaking particular; for all . things in nature differ from one another in numberlefis refpefts, which, not to mention the idea of feparate exiftence, fo circumftance and individuate them, that no one thing can be faid to be another. Now the ufe of language being to exprefs our ideas or conceptions of thefe objefts, it might naturally be expefled that every objeeft ftiould be diftinguiftied by a proper name. I his would indeed be agreeable to the truth of things, but we have already feen that it is altogether imprac¬ ticable. Objedls have therefore been claffed into genera and fpecies ; and names given, not to each individual, but to each genus and fpecies. By this contrivance of language, we are enabled to afeertain in fome meafure any indivi¬ dual that may occur, and of which we know not the proper name, only by referring it to the genus or fpecies to which it belongs, and calling it by the general or fpecific name ; but as there is frequent occafion to di- ftinguilh individuals of the fame fpecies from one ano¬ ther, it became neceffary to fall upon fome expedient to mark this diftindtion. In many languages general and fpecific terms are modified and reftridled by three orders of words ; the article, the adjective, and the oblique cases of nouns. The cafes of nouns we The necet- have already confidered : the adjedlive will employ our fity and ufe attention afterwards: at prefent our obfervations are °f ar. confined to the article ; a word fo very neceffary,ticle* that without it or fome equivalent invention men could not employ nouns to any of the purpofes of life, or in¬ deed communicate their thoughts at all. As the bu- finefs of articles is to enable us, upon occafion, to em¬ ploy general terms to denote particular objects, they muft be confidered, in combination with the general terms, as merely fubftitutes for proper names. They have, how¬ ever, been commonly called definitives ; becaufe they ferve to define and afeertain any particular objeB,fo as to dijlingui/h it from the other objects of the general c/afs to which it belongs, and, of courfe to denote its individuality. Of wmrds framed for this purpofe, whether they have by grammarians been termed articles or not, we know of no language that is wholly deftitute. The nature of them may be explained as follow’s. 22. An objecl occurs with which, as an individual, we are totally unacquainted ; it has a head and limbs, and *4 live in e. But this is eafily accounted for. The s in fuch words was often dropt, as appears from the fcan- ning of old Latin poetry •, and when this w?as done, the u being fhort, would naturally in pronunciation pafs into e, a like Ihort vowTel j and thus, in the vocative cafe, e would in time be written inftead of u. I Chap. Article. 25 Two ar¬ ticles. n G K A M and appears to poiTefs the powers of felf-mot.on and ^ lenfation : we therefore refer it to proper^m^a d call it a dov, a horfe, a lion, or the nke. ' . h ta none of the fpecies with which we are «'l“a“te • it cannot be called by any of the.r names , we then fer it to the penus, and call it an amnia . Cthis is not enough. The obrnfl a. winch we are looking, and which we want to d.fttn u fh, , a fl'ccim or a genus, but an individual. f £oZ, or JLZf Seen ^forthefrjl - befm-e and now remembered ? This is one of the m- ftances in which we (hall difcover the tTe of thetwo articles A and THE : for, in the cafe f“rPofed> tide A refpeds our primary perception, and denot. individual as uninown; whereas the refpeas o^xfmn- tjary perception, and denotes ind.v.duals as io explain this by an example : I fee an obj V which I never faw till now: What do I fay . ihere goes a beggar with a long beard. The man departs, and ‘returns a week after : What do I then fay ? There goes IT beggar with the long beard. Here the article only [s chanfed, the reft remains unaltered. Yet mark th force of this apparently minute change. The md- vidual once vague Is now recogmfed fame thing known, andthatxnerefy by the efficacy of this latter article which tacitly inlinuates a kind ofacquaintance by referring a prelent perception to a like perceptio ^"Thfs islhe explanation of the articles A and THE as given by the learned Mr Harris, and thus, far what he fays on the fubjed is certainly juft j but it is not true that the article THE always mfmuates a. ac¬ quaintance, or refers a prefent perception to a like perception already paft.-I am m a room crowded w h company, of which the greater part is to me totalhy unknown. I feel it difficult to breathe from the grofl- nefsof the inclofed atmofphere •, and looking ton aids the window, I fee in it a perfon whom I never law be¬ fore. I inftantly fend my compliments to the gentle¬ man in the window, and requeft, that, if it be not incon¬ venient, be will have the goodnefs to let into the room a little freffi air. Of this gentleman I have no previous acquaintance; my prefent.perception ot um i» my pi i mani perception, and yet it would have been extreme y improper to fend my compliments, &c. to A gentleman in the window.—Again, there would be no impropriety in faying—“ A man whom 1 faw yefterday exhibiting a (how to the rabble, was this morning committed to iail charged with the crime of houfebreaking. ^ot; withftanding the authority, therefore, of Mr Hams and his mailer Apollonius, we may venture to affirm, that it is not ejfential to the article A to refpeft a pri¬ mary perception, or to the article the to indicate a pre- e/lablijhed acquaintance. Such may indeed be the manner in which thefe words are moft frequently ufed ; but we fee that there are inftances in which they may be uied differently. What then, it .may be alked, is the im¬ port of each article, and in what refpetls do tney differ ? 23. We anfwer, that the articles A and THE are both of them definitives, as by being prefixed to the names of genera zn&fipecies they fo circumfcnbe the la¬ titude of thofe names as to make them for the. molt part denote individuals. A noun os fubfiantive, without M A Pi, 1 ^ any article to limit it, is taken.in its wideft fenfe. Thus, the word man means all mankind j Xhe proper ftudy of mankind is man . where mankind and man may change places without making any alteration in the fenfe. But let ett/ier the articles of which we are treating be prefixed to the word man, and that word is immediately reduced from the name of a whole genus to denote only p Jingle indi¬ vidual; and inftead of the noble truth which this line afferts, the poet will be made to fay, that the proper ftudy of mankind is not the common nature which is diffufed through the whole human race, but the man¬ ners and caprice oi one individual. Thus far therefo the two articles agree : but they differ in this, that though they both limit the fpecific name Xo fiome indi¬ vidual, the article A leaves the individual itfielfi unaficci- tained; whereas the article THE aficertains the individual *6 //■ an(i can be prefixed to the fpecific name only The inde- when an individual is.intend.ed, of which fomething may the definite* be predicated that diftinguiffies it from the other indi¬ viduals of the fpecies. Thus, if I fay-^ man is fit for treafons, my affertion may appear ftrange and vague , but the fentence is complete, and wants nothing to make it intelligible : but if I fay—™* man is fit for treafons, I fpeak nonfenfe ; for as the article THE ffioWs that 1 mean fiome particular man, it will be impoffib to difcover my meaning till I complete the fentence,. and predicate' fomething of the.individual intended to diftinguilh him from other individuals. <« The man that hath not mufic in Inmfielf , &c. “ Is fit for treafons.”- * A man, therefore, means fome one or other of the hu¬ man race indefinitely; the man definitely, that particular man who is fpoken of: the. former is called the indefinite, the latter the definite, article. . 27 The two articles differ likewife in this .refpea that The d.f- as the article A ferves only to feparate one individual ob- jed from the general clafs to which it belongs, it cannot be applied to plurals. It has indeed the fame ligmfi- cation nearly with the numerical word one; and in French and Italian, the fame word that denotes omty is alfo the article of which we now treat. But the el- fence of the article THE being to define objetts, by pointing them out as thofe of which fomethi.ng is af¬ firmed or denied which is not affirmed or denied of the other obi efts of the fame clafs, it is equally applicable to both numbers ; for things may be predicated ot one of men, as well as of ^fingle man, which cannot be predicated of other men. The ufe and import of each article will appear from the following example .. Man was made for Society, and ought to extend his good¬ will to all men ; but a man will naturally entertain a more particular regard for the men with whom he has the moft frequent intercourfe, and enter into a Itill dofer union with the man whofe temper and difpolition fuit belt with his own.” _ We have faid, that the article. A cannot be applied to plurals, becaufe it denotes unity : but to. this rule there is apparently a remarkable exception m the uie of the adjectivesyHu and many (the latter chiefly with the vior species OF BEINGS : and it may be queftioned whe¬ ther, in ftriftnefs of fpeech, they are ever affociated with any other words. 31. We have faid that proper names admit not of the article, being, in their own nature, definite. This is true, whilft each name is confined to one individual; but as different perfons often go by the fame name, it is neceflary to diftinguifti thefe from one another, to prevent the ambiguity which this identity of name would otherwife occafion. For this purpofe we are obliged Chap. II. Articles, obliged to have recourfe to a^eBiws or epithets, b or y ' example, there were two Grecian chiefs who bore the name of Ajax; and it was not without reafon that Mneflheus ufed epithets when his intention was to di- ftinguifh the one from the other: “ If bo\\\ Ajaxes cannot be feared (faid he), at lead let mighty le/amo- nian Ajax come.” But as epithets are diffufed through various fubje&s, in as much as the fame adje&ive may be referred to many fubftantives, it has been laid to be neceffary, in order to render _ both parts of fpeech equally definite, that the adjeaive itfelf alTume an ar¬ ticle before it, which may indicate a reference to fame fingle perfon only. It is thus we fay—/ ryphoruR Grammarian ; Apollodorus ‘the Cyreman, &c i his is the doclrine of Mr Harris; from which though we have the higheft refpeft for the learning of the author, we feel ourfelves obliged to dilfent. In the examples given, the article THE is certainly not affociated with the words Grammarian and Cyrenian, in the fame man¬ ner in which it is aflbeiated with the word man in the fentence—“ The man that hath not mufic m himielt, &c. When we fay Apollodorus the Cyrenian, we may, without folly or impertinence, be alked—-the Gy reman rHjir (g) ? And the moment this queftion is anlwer- - ' ed it will be feen that the article defines, not an adjec¬ tive, but a fubflantive. If the anfwer be, the Cyrenian philofopher, the article THE is affociated with the word phifofopher, and the phrafe Apollodorus the Cyrenian, is an abbreviation oi Apollodorus the philosopher of Cyrene. In like manner, Trypho the grammarian, is Trypho the grammarian writer, or Trypho the writer of grammar. Such abbreviations are very common. We familiarly fav THE SPEAKER, and are underilood to mean a high officer in the Britifh parliament; yet, as fpeaher is a name common to many men, we may, vnthout impro¬ priety, be alked, what fpeaker we mean ? and if fo, we muff reply, the fpeaher of the houfe of commons. But that which is eminent is fuppofed to be generally known; and therefore, in common language, THE SPEAKER is deemed a fufficient defignation of him who prefides over the lower houfe of parliament. Hence, by an eafy tran- fition, the definite article, from denoting reference, comes to denote eminence alfo : that is to fay, from Implying an ordinary pre-acquaintance, to prefume a kind of ge¬ neral and univerfal notoriety. Thus A KING is any king j but the king is that perfon whom we acknowledge for our fovereign, the hing of Great Britain. In Greek too, as in Engliih, the article is often a mark of emi¬ nence ; for the poet meant Homer, and THE STAGY- RITE meant Arifiotle; not but that there were many poets befides Homer, and many Stagyrites betides Ari/Iot/e, but none equally illuffrious. 32. Before we difmifs the article, we fhall pro- 1,1111 duce one example to {how the utility of this fpecies of thf wPrdseS words i which, although they may feem to be of fmall o won s. importance^ yetj w]ien properly applied, ferve to make a few general terms fufficient for expreffing, with ac¬ curacy, all the various obje&s about which mankind can have occafion to converie. Let man be the general term, which I have occafion to employ for the purpofe of denoting fome particular. Let it be required to c R A M M A R. exprefs this particular as unknown; I fay A man Known; I fay the man:—Definite; a certain man: Indefinite; ant man :—Prefent, and near; this man:— Prefent, and at fome difiance; that man -.—Like to fome other; svch a man :—Different from fome other; AN0' ther man:—An indefinite multitude; mani men. definite multitude; a thousand men: rlhe ones of a multitude, taken throughout; evert man:—The fame ones taken with dfiinBion ; each man: Vaken in or¬ der; first man, second man, &.c.:^—'lhe_ whole multi¬ tude of particulars taken colleBivciy; Ait men . -Tie negation of that multitude ; no man:—A number oj pat- ticulars prefent and near; these men: At fome di-^ fiance, or oppofed to others; those men: A number oj individuals feparatedfrom another number; other men. —A fmall indefinite number; few men:—A proportional¬ ly greater number; more men :—A f nailer number > feiver men:—And fo on we might go almojt to infini¬ tude. But not to dwell longer upon this iubjeft, we ffiall only remark, “that minute changes in PRINCIPLES lead to mighty changes in effefts j fo that principles are well entitled to regard, however trivial they may appear.” 31 The great utility of Chap. III. Of Pronouns, or Subfiantives of the fe- cond order. 33. To men who are neither intoxicated with their owm abilities, nor ambitious of the honour of building new fyftems, little plealure can accrue from differing upon points of fcience from writers of great and de- ferved reputation. In fuch circumftances a man of modefty, although he will not upon the authority of a celebrated name adopt an opinion cf which he per¬ ceives not the truth, muff always advance his own no¬ tions with fome degree of diffidence, as being confci- ous that the truth which he cannot perceive, may be vifible to a keener and more perfpicacious eye. In thefe circumftances we feel ourfelves with regard to fome of the moft celebrated writers on grammar, from whom, concerning one or two points, comparatively indeed of but little ^importance, we have already been compelled relu&antly to differ. In treating of pronouns we are likely to deviate ftill farther from the beaten track j but that we may not be ac-cufed of acting the part ot dog- matifts in literature, and of claiming from others that implicit confidence which we refufe to give, we ftiall ftate with fairnefs the commonly received opinions, point out in what refpe&s we think them erroneous, aflign our reafons for calling them in queftion, and leave our readers to judge for themfelves. The moft celebrated writer m Englilh who has treated of pronouns, and whom, fince the publication of his Hermes, moft other writers have implicitly followed, is Mr Harris, whp, after a (hort introduction, proceeds thus : 32 34. “ All converfation paffes between individuals The com- who will often happen to be till that inftant unacquaintedm0.n 1Y .luP- with each other. What then is to be done ? How {hall the fpeaker addrefs the other, wheri he knowTS not his perfonal ': ' or how explain himfelf by his own name, of pronouns. name which the other is wholly ignorant ? C 2 Nouns, as they have (g) Man or child, philofopher, orator, poet, or foldier, &c.? 20 GRAM , Pionouns.^ have been defcribed, cannot anfwer this purpofe. The firft expedient upon this occalion feems to have been pointing, or indicating by the finger or hand; fome traces of which are ftill to be obferved, as a part of that a£Hon which naturally attends our fpeaking. But the au¬ thors of language were not content with this : they invented a race of words to fupply this pointing^ which w°rds, as they always food for ft bfof! lives or nouns, were characterized by the name of pronouns. Thefe alfo they dillinguilhed into three feveral forts, calling them pronouns of the frf , the fccond, and the thirdpcr- fon, with a view to certain diltinclions, which may be explained as follows. “ Suppofe the parties converfing to be wholly unac¬ quainted, neither name nor countenance on either fide known, and the fubjeCf of the converfation to be the fpeaher himfelf. Here to fupply the place of pointing, by a word of equal power, the inventors of language furnilhed the fpeaker with the pronoun I j I write, \fay, I defre, &c.: and as the fpeaker is always principal with refpeCl to his own difcourfe, this they called, for that reafon, the pronoun of the frf perfon. “ Again, fuppofe the fubjed of the converfation to be the party addrejfed. Here, for fimilar reafons, they invented the pronoun thou ; thou writefgtHOM walkef, &c.: and as the party addreffed is next in dignity to the fpeaker, or at leaft comes next with reference to the difcourfe, this pronoun they therefore called the pronoun of the fecondperfon. “ Laitly, fuppofe the fubjeCl of converfation neither the fpeaker nor the party addreffed, but fome third ob- jeB different from both. Here they provided another pronoun, HE, SHE, or it j which, in diftinClion to the two former, was called the pronoun of the third perfon : And thus it w^as that pronouns came to be diftinguilhed by their refpeCtive persons.” 36. The defcription of the different persons here given is taken, wTe are told, from Priscian, who took it from Apollonius. But whatever be the deference due to thefe ancient mafters, their learned pupil, though guided by them, feems not to have hit upon the true and difinguijbing chara&eriftic of the perfonal pronouns. He fuppofes, that when the names of two perfons converfing together are known to each other, they may, by the ufe of thefe names, exprefs all that the perfonal pronouns exprefs : but this is certainly not true. To us, at leaft, there appears to be a very ma¬ terial difference between faying, “ George did this.” and “ I did this j” nor do we think that the power of the pronoun would be completely fupplied by the name, even with the additional aid of indication by the hand. So when one man fays to another, with whom he is converfing, “ James did fo and fo it is furely not equivalent to his faying, “ you did fo and fo.” If fuch were the cafe, one might pertinently alk, when both perfons are known to each other. Why do they ufe the perfonal pronouns? Mr Harris tells us, that 4‘ when the fubjecl of converfation is the fpeaker him- he ufes I j and when it is the party addreffed, he ufes thou.” But in faft the nature of the perjona lpro¬ nouns has no fort of connexion with the fubjett of ccn- verfation, whether that converfation relate to the fpeaker, the party addreffed, or a Greek book. In this fentence, **■ I fay that the three angles of every triangle are equal to two right angles,” the fpeaker is furely not the fib- . M ,A R- Chap, HI. jeB of the difcourfe j nor is the party addreffed, but the Pronouns. truth of his affertion, thzfubjeft of difcourfe in the follow¬ ing fentence ; “ Tou fay, that Horne Tooke's Diverfons of Pur ley is the moft maiterly treatife on grammar, fo far as it goes, that you have ever feen.” Mr Harris ufes the phrafe, becoming the fubjeB of converfation, in no other fenle than that when the fpeaker has occafion to mention himself, he ufes I; when the party addreffed, THOU; and when fome other perfon or thing, he, SHE, or IT . but we knowT that he may ufe other words, by no means equivalent to the two frf of thefe pronouns, which will fufficiently mark himfelf and the party addreffed; and that he may ufe indifferently, and without the fmalleft injury to the fenfe, either the third pronoun, or the word for which it is merely z fubfitute. A man who bears various characters, may defign himsele' by any one of them. Thus Mr Pitt may fpeak of him- fclf -ns frf lord of the treafury, chancellor of the exche¬ quer, or member for the umverfty of Cambridge; and in each cafe he would be what Mr Harris calls the fubjeB of converfation: yet every one feels that none of thefe defignations is equivalent to/. What then is the force of the perfonal pronouns ? 37. It appears to be fimply this ; The frft denotes the The real fpeaker, AS CHARACTERIZED By THE PRESI^NT act Opiroportof speaking, in contradifindion to every other charaBer^^ which he may bear. The fecond denotes the party ad- dreffed, as CHARACTERIZED BY THE PRESENT CIRCUM¬ STANCE of BEING ADDRESSED, in contradf itiBion to every other charaBer,&c.: And what is called the pronoun third perfon is merely a negation of the other TWO, as the neuter gender is a negation of the mafeuline feminine. If this account of the perfonal pronouns be true, and we flatter ourfelves that its truth will be obvi¬ ous to every body, there is but one w'ay of exprefling by other w'ords the force of the pronouns of the frf and fe¬ cond perfon. Thus, “ The perfon who now fpeaks to you did fo and fo,” is equivalent to “ I did fo and fo }” and “ I he perfon to whom I now addrefs myfelf did fo and fo,” is equivalent to “ Tou did fo and fo.” Hence we fee why it is improper to fay the I or the THOU ; for each of thefe pronouns has of itfelf the force of a noun with the definite article prefixed, and denotes a perfon of whomfomething is predicated, which diflinguifhes him from aJl other perfons. I is the perfon who now fpeaks, thou is the perfon who is now addreffed by the fpeaker. Hence too we fee the reafon why the pronoun / is faid to be of the firfi, and the pronoun thou of the fecond perfon. Thefe pronouns can have place only in converfation, or when a man, in the character of a public fpeaker, addreffes himfelf to an audience j but it is obvious, that there mufi be a fpeaker before there can be a hearer; and therefore, that the pronouns may fol¬ low the order of nature, I, which denotes the perfon of Pciz fpeaker, muft take place of thou, which denotes the perfon of the hearer. Now the fpeaker and the hearer being the only perfons engaged in converfation or declamation, / is with great propriety called the pronoun of the firft, and thou the pronoun of the fe¬ cond perfon. We have faid, that, with refpeCI to pro¬ nouns, the third perfon, as it is called, is merely a nega¬ tion of the other two. This is evident from the flighteft attention to the import of thofe words which are call¬ ed pronouns of the third perfon. He, she, or it, denotes not the perfon either of the fpeaker br of the hearer; and Cliap. III. Pronouns, and, as we have juft obferved, no other perfon can have i n—v i..'-- a ^are in converfation or declamation. An ablent per¬ fon or an abfent thing may be the fubjeB of converfation, but cannot be ^t fpeaher or the perfon addreffed. He, she, and it, however, as they [land by themfelves,, and affume the power of nouns,‘Ate. very properly denominated pronouns; but they are notperfonalpronouns in any other fenfe than as the negation of fex is the neuter gender. a8. We have already feen that nouns admit of num¬ ber j pronouns, which are their fubftitutes, likewife ad¬ mit of number. There may be MANY fpeakers at once of the fame fentiment, as well as one, who, including himfelf, fpeaks the fentiment of MANY j fpeech may likewife be addreffed to MANY at a time, as well as to one •, and the fubjecl of the difcourfe may likewife be MANY. The pronoun, therefore, of every one of the perfons muft admit of number to exprefs this Jingula- rity or plurality. Hence the pronoun of the fin! per¬ fon I, has the plural WE *, that of the fecond perfon THOU, has the plural YE or YOU} and that of the third perfon HE, SHE, or it, has the plural THEY, which is equally applied to all the three genders. The Greeks and Romans, when addrefling one per¬ fon, ufed the pronoun in the Angular number thou } whereas, in the polite and even in the familiar flyle, we, and many other modem nations, ufe the plural The fecond you. Although in this cafe we apply you to ^. jingle perfonal perfon, yet the verb muft agree with it in the plural pronoun ^ mmber; it muft neceffarily be, you have, not you hajl. ufed in the _r , /irnno/yw nlaced GRAMMAR. 21 all other properties and attributes whatever, except Pronouns.^ thofe mentioned above as defcriptive of the nature of thefe pronouns, are foreign from the intention ot the fpeaker, who, when he ufes the pronoun /, means the person WHO now SPEAKS—no matter whether man or woman : and when the pronoun THOU—THE per¬ son—no matter whether man or woman—TO WHOM 3g HE NOW ADDRESSES HIMSELF—and nothing more.In this re- But the pronoun of the third perfon denoting neither fpeftthe^ the fpeaker nor the hearer, but the fubjeB ot the dii-^ third courfe, and being merely the fubftitute of a noun which pPrfon may be either mafculine, feminine, or neuter, muft of ne-differs from ceflity agree with the noun which it reprelents, and Hie ^ an admit of a triple diftinflion fignificant of gender. In Englifti, which allows its adjectives no genders, this pronoun is he in the mafculine, SHE in xhe feminine, and IT in the neuter ; the utility of which ditlinction may be better found in fuppofing it away. Suppofe, for example, that we ftiould in hiftory read thefe words : He caufed him to defray Aim—and were informed that the pronoun, which is here thrice repeated, flood each time for fomething different} that is to fay, for a man, for a woman, and for a city, whofe names were Alexander, Thais, and Perfepolis. Taking the pro¬ noun in this manner—diverted of its gender how would it appear which was deftroyed, which the de- ftroyer, and which the caufe that moved to the deftruc- tion ? But there is no ambiguity when we hear the genders diftinguUhed: when we are told, with the ♦t.nt cuv rmiPed HIM to Prr°" . number; it muft neceflanly be, you nave, nor you naji. r, , n IT ufed in the v the Cecondberfon d/«/Wof the pronoun placed proper diftmaions, that SHE caujed HIM to aejtroy n, pl,,ral»um.yo“WA^ P V F know with certainty, that At prompter was he wo- ber when enly one pei fon is addielfed. in agreement wdth the frf or third perfon fngular of the verb, is an enormous, though common, folecifm, which ought to be carefully avoided. In very folemn ftyle, as when we addrefs the Supreme Being, we ufe thou—perhaps to indicate that he is God alone, and that there is none like unto him; and wre fometimes ufe the fame form of the pronoun in contemptuous or very familiar language, to intimate that the perfon to whom we fpeak is the meanef of human beings, or the dear- ef and mof familiar of our friends. A king, exerting his authority on a folemn occafion, adopts the plural of the firft perfon, “ WE ftriftly command and charge }” meaning, that he afts by the advice of coun- fellors, or rather as the reprefentative of a whole people. But in all cafes in which the ufe of the pronoun deviates from the nature of things, the verb in concord deviates with it; for, as will be feen afterwards, thefe two words univerfally agree in number and perfon. Aucyiu- 39. But though all thefe pronouns have number, nouns of the neither in Greek, Latin, or any modern language, do firft and thofe of the frf and fecond perfon carry the diftincftions fonshaviT" of rex- The reafon is obvious (H)> namely, that/e* and 35 The pro- we know with certainty, that the prompter was the wo¬ man ; that her infrument was the hero ; and that the fubjeB of their cruelty was the unfortunate <%.—From this example we would be furprifed how the Italians, French, and Spaniards, could exprefs themfelves with precifion or elegance with no more than two variations of this pronoun. 37r 40. Although in every language with which we are 1 he cafes acquainted, there is but but one pronoun for each of the^Fo- firft and fecond perfons } and although it is obvious from the nature and import of thofe words, that no more can be neceffary } yet the mere Englijh reader may perhaps be puzzled with finding three diltinrt words applied to each } I, MINE, and ME, for the frf perfon } THOU, THINE, and THEE, for tiut fecond. The> learned reader will fee at once that the words MINE and ME, thine and THEE, are equivalent to the genitive and accufative cafes of the Latin pronouns of the firft- and fecond perfons. That MINE is a pronoun in the poffeflive cafe, is obvious} for if I were alked « whofe book is that before me ?” I fhould reply— “ It is MINE (1) }” meaning that it belongs to me. That no varia¬ tions to de¬ note fex, and why. 00 The reafon afligned by Mr Harris and his followers is, that “ the fpeaker and hearer being generally prefent to each other, it would have been fuperfluous to have marked a diftmftion by art, which from na¬ ture and even drefs was commonly apparent on both fides.” This is perhaps the beft reafon which their de- fcription of the perfonal pronouns admits, but jt is not fatisfa&ory } for the fpeaker and hearer may meet in the dark, when different dreffes cannot be diftinguilhed. ej • CO If we miftake not, Dr Johnfon has fomewhere affe&ed to ridicule Biftiop Lowth for confidering the word mine as the poffeffive cafe of the pronoun of the firft perfon. According to the doftor, mine is the fame- word with the pronominal adjeftive MY } and was anciently ufed before a vowel, as my was before a confonant. This is-not faid with the great Lexicographer’s ufual precifion. That mine was anciently ufed before a vowel is certain} but it does not therefore follow, that it is the fame word with MY. If it were, we migit 33 The firft and fecond perfonal pronouns coalefce with the thud. GRAM 1 liat the v.'urd ATE is the fame pronoun in the cafe which the Latin grammarians call the accufative, is evident from the import of that word in the len¬ ience HE ADMIRES ate, where the adtniration is lup- pofed to proceed from (k) the perfon fpoken of to the perfon who fpcaks. It appears therefore, that though Englilh nouns have only two cafes, the nominative and pojfejjive, the pronouns of that language have three, as /, MINE, ME } THOU, THINE, THEE; HE, HIS, HIM, &C. I hat thefe are cafes, can be quellioned by no man w’ho admits that mei, mihi, me, are cafes of the Latin pronoun EGO. Both pronouns, the Latin and the Englifh, are ir¬ regularly indexed: and perhaps thofe words which are called the oblique cafes of each may have originally been derived from nominatives different frorfi ego and I ; but thefe nominatives are now loft, and tnei and mine have, beyond all difpute, the effedl of the geni¬ tives of the Latin and Englifh pronouns of the firft per- ion. Thefe variations, however, cannot be looked upon as an effential part of language, but only as a par¬ ticular^ refinement invented to prevent the difagreeable repetition of the pronoun, which muft frequently have happened without fuch a contrivance. This feems to have been the only reafon why pronouns have been endowed with a greater variety of cafes than nouns. Nouns are in themfelves greatly diverfified.- Every genus and every fpecies of obje&s has a di ft in ft name, and therefore the famenefs of found does not fo often occur among them as it wrould among the pronouns, without cafes, where the fame I, thou, he, she, or it, anfwers for every objeft which occurs in nature : but by this diverfity in the form of the words, the caco- phonia, which would be otherwife difgufting, is in a great meafure avoided. It is, probably, for the fame reafon, that the plural of each of thefe pronouns is fo very dif¬ ferent from the fngular. Thus from I, mine, me, in the lingular, is formed, in the plural, WE, ours, us ; from THOU, THINE, and THEE, YE or YOU, YOURS, you; and from HE, she, it, his, hers, its, him, her, it, in the fingular, they, theirs, them, in the plural. In all of which there is not the leaft refemblance be¬ tween the lingular and plural of any one word : and except in he, his, him ; it, its ; they, theirs, them ; there is not any fimilarity between the difterent cafes of the fame wmrd in the fame number. 41. From the account here given of the perfonal pronouns, it appears that the firft or fecond will, either of them, coalefce with the third, but not with each other. For example, it is good fenfe, as wTell as good grammar, to fay in any language, I am he—thou art he—we were they—YOU WERE they ; butwe cannot fay—I am thou—nor thou art I—nor we are you, &c. The reafon is, there is no abfurdity for the fpeaher to be the fuhjeSl alfo of the difcourfe, as when it is faid—/ am he; or for the perfon addreffcd, as when we fay, thou art he. But for the fame perfon, in the fame circumftances, to be at once the fpeaker and the party addreffed, is impoffible ; for which reafon the M A R- Chap. III. coalefcence of the pronouns of the firft and fecond Pronouns, perfons is likewife impoffible. 39 42.1, thou, he, she, and it, are all that are ufuallyp, called perfonal pronouns. I here is another clats ofnal adjec- vvords, which are called fometimes pronominal adjectives; fives, fometimes adjective pronouns, fometimes poffefjive pro- nouns ; and by one writer of grammar they have been moft abfurdly termed pronominal articles. It is not worth vyhile to difpute about a name ; but the words in queftion are MY, THY, HER, our, YOUR, their. Thefe w°rds are evidently in the form of adjectives : for, like other Englilli adjectives, they have no variation to in¬ dicate either gender, number, or cafe; and yet they are put in concord with nouns of every gender and both num¬ bers, as MY WIFE, AIY SON, AIY BOOK HER HUSBAND, HER SONS, HER DAUGHTERS, &c. But, though in the form of adjedhves, they have the power of the perfonalpronouns in the pojfejjive cafe: MY BOOK is the book o/me, or the book of him who now speaks; our house is the houfe of us, or the houfe oecupied by the PERSONS WHO NOW speak; HER husband, is the hufoand of a woman who can be known only fromfometlnng precedmginthe difcourfe; and THEIR PROPERTY is the property of them—of any perfons, whether men or women, or both, who have been previouily mentioned. Words which have the form of adjeCtives, with the power of pronouns, may, without im¬ propriety, be called pronominal adjeCiives ; and fuch is the name by which we lhall henceforth diftinguilh them. To thefe pronominal adjeftives as w^ell as to the perfonal pronouns, are fubjoined the words own and felf-—in the plural felves: in which cafe they are emphatical, and imply a filent contrariety or oppoli- tion. Thus, I live in my own houfe ; that is, not in a hired houfe. This I did with my own hand; that is, not by proxy. This was done by myself; that is, not by an¬ other . I he wrord felf fubjoined to a perfonal pronoun The'reci- forms alfo the reciprocal pronoun ; as we hurt ourfelves^'wscA pro- by vain rage; he blamed himfelf for his misfortune.™™' Himfelf, iff elf, themfelves, are fuppofed by Wallis to be put, by corruption, for his felf, its felf, their felves; fg that felf is always a fubfantive or noun, and not a pro¬ noun. This feems to be a juft obfervation; for we fay, the man came himfelf; they went themfelves; where the words himfelf and themfelves cannot be accufatives but nominatives, and were anciently written his felf, their felves. There are other words which are ufually ranked under the clafs of pronouns; as who, which, what. Thefe, when employed in afking queftions, are called interrogative pronouns; though a name morecharafteriftic might furely be found for them. Their import, however, will be more eafily afcertained after we have confidered another fpecies of pronouns, which have been denominated relatives, and with which they are intimately connefted. 43. The pronouns already mentioned may be called The iela- prepofitive, as may indeed all fubftantives, becaufetlv,i Pr°- they are capable of introducing or leading a fentence :noun* but occafion fubftitute either of thefe for the other, without offending againft grammar, however we might injure the found \ but we apprehend that this is not the cafe. “ That book is MINE,” is good Engliih ; but “ that book is my'1'1 would be a grofs folecifm : the reafon is, that mine is a genuine pronoun, and ftands by if elf with the power of a noun ; but my, being an adjeftive, cannot ftand by itfelf. (k) See Chap. I. 18, 19. on the Cafes of Nouns. 1 f Chap. HI. G R A or prepo i’.tive pro •noun; Fronoun^. but tliere is another pronoun which has a charaacr —v peculiar to itfelf j and which, as it is never employed but to conned fentences, and muft therebre have al- vvays a reference to fomething preceding, is called the fubjunBive or relative pronoun. This pronoun is m Greek, W, i,« in Latin, QU1, QUA2, QUOD j and in Eng- lifh, WHO, WHICH, WHAT. ^ 44. In order to determine with precifion toe nature and imoort of the relative pronoun, it will be neceffary to afeertain the powers which it contains, or the parts 41 offpeech into which it is capable of being refolved. Repretents N ^ [s obvious, that there is not a. Angle noun, or any noun, pronoun, which the relative is not capable ol representing : for we fey, I, WO /aw hm yejl'rdmj cannot be mifialen ; YOU, WHO ddmtjee hm, may have been mifinfortne/l; they, who neither Jaw nor heard, can know nothing of the matter; THE THINGS, WHICH he ex¬ hibited, were wonderful. From thefe examples it is ap¬ parent, in tbe firft place, that the relative contains m itfelf the force of any other pronoun ; but it contains fbmething more. . ,. , . 45. If from any fentence in which there is a^re¬ lative, that relative be taken away, and the prepofitive pronoun, which it reprefents, be fubftituted in its {lead, the fentence will lofe its bond of union, and Hand quite Icofe and unconnecled. Thus, it inftead oi lay¬ ing the man is wife who fpeaks little, we Ihould lay the man is wife HE fpeaks little, the fentence would be refolved into two-, and what is affirmed of the_man s wifdom, would have no conr.ecfion with the circum- ftance of his [peaking Utile. Hence it is evident, m the fecond place', that the relative contains the force ol a conncElive as well as of the prepofitive pronoun. \\ hat kind of connection it denote*, is next to be aicer- tained. . . • , 46. It may be laid down as a general principle, « that, bv means of the relative pronoun, a claufe of a fentence, in which there is a verb, is converted into the nature of an adjeBive, and made to denote feme attribute of a fuhjlance, or fome property or circunfa nee be longing to the antecedent noun.'1'1 Thus, when it is faid, homo qui prudenlia preeditus ejl, the relative claufe—yw pru- dentia preeditus efl, expreffes nothing more than the qua¬ lity of prudence in concrete with fubjecl homo, which might have been equally well expreffed by the adjeftive prudens. In like manner, when we fay, virfapit qui pauca loquitur, the relative claufe exprefles the property offpeaking little as belonging to the man, and as being that quality which conftitutes, or from which we m- 43 And con¬ tains be- fides the force of a conuedlive. M M A R. 2r fer his wifdom ; but if there were fuch a word pau- , ciloquens, that quality might very properly be ex- v~ preifed by it, and the phrafe vir Japit pauciloquens would exprefs the fame affertion with virfapit qui pauca ^Now’if a relative claufe expreffes that which might be expreffed by an adjeaive, the prefumption is, that it may be refolved into the fame conftituent parts. But every adieCtive contains the powers of an abflraEi fub- fantive, together with an expreffion of connection; and may be refolved into the genitive cafe of that fub- 44 ftantive" or into the nominative with the particle of pre-Of the fixed, which, in Englilh, correfponds to the termina- tion of,the genitive in the ancient languages. theEnglhh the member of a fentence, in which there is a relative, prepofition may, in every inftance, be analyfed in the lame man- of. ner, will be apparent from the following examples. Vir qui fa pit, vir fapiens, and vir fa pi entice ; “ a man who is wife, a wife man, and a man of wifdom are certainly phrafes of the fame import. Again, homo, cui ingratus efl animus, mains ft amicus, may be tranflated into Greek, en^co7r»i ax.&^i as when it is faid, “ the man of little fpeaking is wife.” In both cafes it denotes the relation between tne two 24 GRAM ^ Pronouns, relative pronoun; and for that purpofe they are well adapted. 1 hat pronoun teems to be of ufe only when there is a deficiency of adjectives orfubstantives to denote fome complex attribute by which w-e want to limit a gene¬ ral term, or exprejfion. Where fuch adjeftives or fubftan- tives exift in language, w e may indeed ufe the relative or not at pleafure. .1 hus we may lay, homo qui gran- dia loquitur, or homo grandiloquus ; becaufe the adjeciive and the relative claufe areprecifely of the fame meaning. Eut if the Latins were called upon to tranllate avlod/detxlef, we believe they muft have made ufe of the relative pronoun^ as we know not any correfpondent ad- jeftive in their language. 48. The learned and ingenious Mr Harris has, in his T-reatife on Univerfal Grammar, given an analyfisof the relative pronoun very different from that which has Mr Har- been given by us* The refult of his inquiry is, that tis’s mif- the relative is equivalent to another pronoun, together fubietf thl To ftate this reafoning in a light fomewhat difterent. As every relative claufe, which expreffes an attribute that is not applicable to a whole genus or ipecies, muL neceffarily modify fome general term, that is, reft net its fignification and as that general term muft belong ei¬ ther to the fubjeS or to the predicate of a propofition 5 it is evident, that every fuch relative claufe is a necefiary part of that fubjeci or predicate in which its antecedent Hands, If therefore a relative claufe, which modifies, be taken away either from xhefubjett or the predicate of a propofition or if that connection, in confequence oj which it modifies, be difiblved (which is always done when the relative is refolved by and) ; the propofition itfelt will not hold true. The reafon is, that the fubjeci or the predicate becomes then too general : for, in the one cafe, fomething is predicated of a whole genus ox fpecies, which can be predicated only of fome individuals of that genus or fpecies 5 and in doe. other, a general predication is made where only a particular one can be app .cu. Thus if it be faid, “ All men who tranfgrefs the laws are deferving of punifhinenf” SsofubjeB of the propofi¬ tion is expreffed by the words, “ all men who tranfgrefs the laws.” Take the claufe of the relative “who tranf- grefs the laws”—away, and fay, “all men are deferving of punifhmentand you have a propofition which is not true, becaufe that is affirmed of the whole fpecies which can be affirmed only of fome individuals. Retaining now the claufe of the relative, but refolving it by and, you have the fame propofttion as before \ and together with it, in this inftance, another which is equally falfe . • “ All men, and they tranfgrefs the laws, are deferving of puniffiment •” that is, “ all men are deferving of pu- nilhment, and -all men tranfgrefs the laws. X> But Pronouns. 48 Gonclufion refpeeflinjr 26 GRAM ) But when the attribute exprerTed by the claufe of the relative is chara&eriitic of the genus or fpecies of the antecedent, and confequently applicable to even/ indivi¬ dual which that genus or fpecies comprehends, the re¬ lative claufe may be entirely omitted without affedfing the truth of the propofition, which is already as gene¬ ral as it can be. As in this cafe the import of the re¬ lative claufe is not reJlriBive of the fignification of the antecedent, it is of little confequence whether the at¬ tribute be reprefented by the conneftive part of the re¬ lative, as of the antecedent, or be affirmed to belong to the antecedent in a feparate affertion. Thus it matters not much, whether we fay, “ Man, who is fubject to death, ought not to be too much elated j” that is, ac¬ cording to our analyfis,—“ Man of he is fubjetl to death, ought not to be too much elated or, forming the relative claufe into a feparate aflertion, and connedting the two by the particle and, we fay, “ Man, and he is fubject to death, ought not to be too much elated.” In the one fentence, indeed, the reafon is implied why man fhould not be too much elated, viz. his being fubjeli to death: in-the other, no reafon is afligned for this •, we only affirm that man is fubjeft to death, and likewife that he Ihould not be too much elated : but as both af¬ firmations are equally true and evident, it is of little con- f'equence, in fuch a cafe as this, whether the reafon upon which either is founded be implied or not. 51. From the whole of this tedious inveftigation, we 1 0 flatter ourfelves that the following conclufions are dedu- the relative ced and fufficiently eftabliffied : iff, That the relative pronoun, pronoun contains in itfelf the united powders of a connec¬ tive and another pronoun. 2dly That of is the connec¬ tive of which, together with another pronoun, it contains the powers, as in every poffible inffance it may be re- folved into thefe conftituent parts, and the import of the fentence in which it has place remain unaltered. 3dly, That the relative claufe of a fentence has the import of an abflraB fibjlantive, in the ancient languages, in the genitive cafe ; in Englifli, with the particle of prefixed. 4thly, That the relative pronoun is of neceffary ufe only where there is a deficiency of adjeBives or fubjlantives to denote fome complex attribute, by which we want to limit a general term or exprefjion; but that where fuch adjeftives or fubftantives exift in language, we may ufe the rela¬ tive or not at pleafure. And, 5thly, That though, in cafes wffiere the relative claufe does not limit a general term, the relative pronoun may, without violating truth, be analyfed by and; yet fuch analyfis is never proper, as it gives two predicates to the fame fubjeB, which, in the original propofition, had but one predicate. 52. If the claufe of the relative be equivalent to an adjeflive, as in every in fiance it feems to be, it will naturally occur, that in the ancient languages, the relative fhould agree with its antecedent in gender, num¬ ber, and cafe. They do agree for the moff part in gender and number; in cafe they cannot often, becaufe the very intention of introducing a relative into lan¬ guage is to reprefent the antecedent in a different cafe. Whenever we have occafion to ufe a fubflantive or noun in a claufe of a fentence, and afterwards to exprefs by M A R. Chap. III. another claufe, in which there is a verb, an attribute of Pronouns, the objeB denoted by that fibjlantive, we then employ ' 1111 y~—™*' the relative pronoun. r'Jow it feldom happens that the two claufes admit of the fame regimen ; and hence the cafe ol the relative is often ncceffarily different from that of the antecedent, as the cafe of each mult be accom¬ modated to the claufe in which it is found. Thus we cannot fay, “Deus yaf colimus bonus eft 5” but, “ Deus que?7i' colimus bonus eft 5” becaufe the regimen of the verb golo is always the accufative. ^ I his (hows the neceffity of introducing a relative in-Wh\ the to thofe languages which give inflexions to their nouns. reiarive.is Were all the nouns of a language indeclinable, there ™0tr^eucgi)crir8xi vofttin TOTS xv trlptri S»A«y Oflxi, Herod. Clio. InteiTo a 55- We have faid that the interrogative pronouns, as tive pm-3 they are called, who, which, what, are intimately con- nouns nefted with relatives ; we now affirm, that the two firjl of tbefe words are nothing but relatives, and that the lajl contains in itfelf the united powers of a relative and definitive. With refpect to cafes, number, and gender, the words who and which, when employed as interroga- tives, differ not from the fame words when employed as relatives ; and we hold it as a maxim, without which fcience could not be applied to the fubjeft of language, that the fame word has always the fame radical import in whatever different fituations it may be placed. To underftand this, it is neceffary to obferve, that all men have a natural propenfity to communicate their thoughts in'the feweft words poffible: hence it follows, that words sire often omitted which are neceffary to complete the M M A Pi, conftruftion of the fentehce ‘, and this nowhere hap- Pronouns, pens more frequently than in the ufe of who and which.' In fentences where thefe words are confeffedly relatives, we often find them without an antecedent; as, “ Who fteals my purfe ftcals trafh.” Shakespeare. “ Which who would learn, as foon may tell the fands.” Dryden. “ Qui Bavium non odd, amettua carmina, Mcevi. Virg. “ That is, “ He who fteals my purfe, &c.“ Which he who would learn, as foon, &c.and “ Ille qui Bavi¬ um non odit. See. Such abbreviations occafion no obfeu- rity, becaufe from previous circumftances the hearer knows the mind of the fpeaker and the perfons to wThom he refers. But it is not with refpeft to the relative and antecedent only that fuch abbreviations have place : in fentences of a different form, whole claufes are fome- times omitted, while the meaning of the fpeaker is made fufficiently plain. Thus when King Richard III. hav¬ ing loft his horfe in battle, exclaims, A horfe! a horfe ! my kingdom for a horfe ! there is no complete thought exprefed; but the circum- ftances in which the king then was, enabled thofe about him to underftand that he wanted a horfe. Accordingly Catefby anfwers him, “ Withdraw, my lord, I’ll help you to a horfe.” In like manner, when a perfon afks a queftion, his expreffion is frequently incomplete $ but the tone of his voice, or fome other circumftance, enables us to afeer- tain his meaning, and to fupply, if we pleafe, the words that are omitted. Thus when it is faid, An fecifii? nothing more is exprejfed than, If you did it (the La¬ tin an being nothing elfe but the Greek «y, fi)i but fome circumftance enables the perfon who hears it to know that the meaning is, “ Say if you did it.” Let us apply thefe obfervations to the words who and which. If thefe words be relatives, and if our analyfis of the relative be juft, it is obvious, that no complete meaning can be contained in the claufe, “ Who is your principal friend ?” for that claufe contains nothing more than the circumftance of being your principal friend predicated of fome unknown perfon j “ of he is your principal friend.” That this is indeed the cafe, every ^ man may be convinced, by alking himfelf what he are merely means by the interrogative who in fuch a fentence j relative; for he will find it impoffible to affix to it any meaning aild without fupplying an antecedent claufe, by which that which is called an interrogative will be immediately converted into the relative promun. The cuftom, how¬ ever, of language, and the tone of voice with which the relative claufe is uttered, intimates, without the help of the antecedent, the wifh of the fpeaker to be in¬ formed by the perfon addrefled of the name and de- fignation of his principal friend j and we know that the fentence when completed is, “ Tell me the name and defignation of the perfon who is your principal friend.” Again, when the prophet fays, “ who is this that cometh from Edom, with dyed garments from Boz- rah ?” he utters but part of a fentence, which when completed will run thus : “ Defcribe the perfon who cometh from Edom (this is that perfon), with dyed garments from Bozrah.” He fees a perfon coming from Edom, of whofe name and defignation he i$ ig- 1) 2 norant $ G R A M norant j he calls upon Tome one for information con¬ cerning thefe particulars ; and that there may be no millake, he deferibes the unknown perfon as having dyed garments from Bozra/i ; but left even that deferip- tion ihould not be fufficiently accurate, he throws in the definitive claufe, t/us is that perfon, pointing at him, we may fuppofe, with his finger.—Which, ufed as an inter- indicates a wilh of knowing a particular per- ion or thing out of more than one mentioned ; as Which of the two did. it?” that is, “ Tell me the one of the two which did it?” for in old Engliih which as a relative is often ufed, where in modern Englifli we fhould fay who; and that mode of fpeech is ftill retained when the antecedent is omitted, and t-.e relative claufe employed to indicate fuch a wifti as that before us. What includes in itfelf the fignifica- tion of a definitive and a relative pronoun ; as, “ from what has gone before, what follows may eafily be guelfed 5” w’here the word what is equivalent to that which. When therefore w7e fay, “ W7hat rude fellow is that ?” our meaning is, “ Defcribe that perfon who is that rude fellow.” Upon the whole, then, it is evident, t‘lat: t^ie words called interrogatives are merely relative tences xz\?,.Pronouns > and that interrogative fentences are relative tive clau- claufes uttered in fuch circumftances as to enable the M A R. 54 Interroga tive fen hearer to fupply the antecedents neceffary to complete the meaning. 56. To conclude : We havefeen that substantives are either primary or fecondary ; or, in other words, NOUNS or PRONOUNS. Nouns denote fubfiances, and thofe either natural, artificial, or abfiract. They more¬ over denote things either general, or fpecial, or particu¬ lar ; and a general or fpecific name is made to denote an individually means of words called articles or definitives. Pronouns are the fubftitutes of nouns, and are either prepofitive orfubjunclive. The Prepositive is diftin- guiftied into three orders, called the firfi, the fecond, and the third perfon.. The subjunctive, otherwife’ called tne.relative, includes the powers of all thofe three, having fuperadded as of its owm the peculiar force of a conne&ive. Chap. IV. Of Verbs, 57. THE words which we have hitherto confidered are commonly caWed fubfianfives primary or fecondary, and definitives ; becaufe nouns are lignificant offulfian- ces ; pronouns are the fubftitutes of nouns ; and the ar¬ ticle ferves to afeertain the extent of the noun, and to determine wTether on any occalion it be figmficant ofa whole clafs of fubftances, or only of one individual. But 55 fubftances are of importance to mankind only on ac- Subftances count of their various qualities or attributes; for their ance only jnterna^ texture is a thing of which we are profoundly for their ignorant, and with which W'e have no manner of con- qualities or cern. Thus, experience teaches us, that certain vege- attributes. tables are pleafant to the tafte, and wholefome food • whilft others are unpleafant and poifonous. The for¬ mer kinds are valuable only for their qualities or attri¬ butes ; and they are the qualities or attributes of the lat¬ ter that make them worthlefs or hurtful. A horfe is ftrong, and fwift, and docile } and may be trained to carry.a man on a journey, or to drag a plough. It is for his Jlrength, fwiftnefs, and docility, that’he is the moft valuable oi all quadrupeds. One man is brave, t Chap. IV. another learned, and another eloquent j and by poffef- Verbs. img thefe different qualities, or attributes, each is fitted ' ' for a.different ftation in fociety. It is plain, therefore,T, that in contemplating lubftances, our attention muft beckfio/51 principally bellowed upon their qualities, and that the word sc all. words which ferve to denote thefe qualities muft be aned attri- eiiential part of language. Such words are in general brflves: called attributives ; and are of three forts Verbs Par r '! e are ticiples, and AdjeSHves. s> 1 ar-verbs,far- 53-. Of all the conftituent parts of fpeech none^W^ Has given the grammarians greater trouble than the verb. i he vaft variety of circumftances which it biends together in one word, throws very confiderable dilhculties in the way of him who attempts to analyfe it and. afcertain. its nature ; at the fame time, that byThediffi- its eminent ule in language, it is intitled to all the at-culty of at¬ tention which can be bellowed upon it. To the dif cert3inirig cuftion of the verb, Mr Harris, whofe notions of thisStr^t as of the other parts of Ipeech have been generally ^ ^ adopted by the lubfequent writers on grammar, has dedicated a large proportion of his book, in which he has thrown out many excellent obfervations, mixed, as it appears to us, with feveral errors. We have already obieryed, that no man is ignorant when he ufes what is called a verb and when a noun. Every fchoolboy knows, that the words is, loveth, walketh, stand- eth, m Engli/h; and EST, AMAT, AMATUR, ambulat, STAT m Latin, are verbs: he knows likewife that they are of different kinds; that fome of them are faid to be arhve, fome pafiive, and fome neuter. But it fhould tern that the firlt objedl of our inveftigation ought to be the chara&erifiic of the verb, or that which all thefe words have in common, and which conftitutes them verbs, diftmguilhing them from every other fpecies oPru Sl Tfi N0W,lt ‘f 01bvi0“ ‘t* flighteft attention,raifteriftic that every verb, whether achve, pafiive, or neuter, may of the verb, be refolved into the fubftantive verb is, and another attributive : for loveth is of the fame import with is loving; WALKETH, with is walking; and AMAT, with amans est. But loving, walking, and amans, are not verbs : whence it follows, that the charaBerifiic of the verb, that which confiitutes it what it is, and cannot be expreffed by other words, muft be that which is fiv- mfied by the woid is j and to us that appears to be neither more nor lefs than afiertion. Assertion therefore, or predication, is certainly the very essence of the verb, as being that part of its office, and that part only, which cannot be difeharged by other kinds of words. Every other circumftance which the verb includes, fuch as attribute, mode, time, &c. it may be poftible to exprefs by adjeblives, participles, and adverbs ; but without a verb it is impolfible to predicate to affirm or deny, any one thing of any other thing! I he office of the verb, then, when ftript of all acciden¬ tal circumftances, feems to be merely this, “ To join together the fubje£l and predicate of a propofition :” its powers are analogous to thofe of the fign -f- in udlgebra, which does not affeft the feparate value of the quantities between which it is placed, but only in¬ dicates their union or coaleficence. To explain by an ex¬ ample : When we fay, Cicero eloquens, Cicero wife; thefe are imperfeff fentences, though they denote a fubftance and an attribute. The reafon is, that they want an afiertion, to ftiow that fuch an attribute appertains to fuch a fubftance. But when we infert the word was. * IV. G R A. we loin tie fubftancc and attribute together; we pve notice that the wiflcm and eloquence f° Cicero, and we do nothing more : we neither more the ivifdom nor dimiuith it, we neither make rea^ nor imaginary; for it was fuppofed m all its ex tent when the words' Cicero and wtje Hood inde¬ pendent of each other. We may indeed life the « in a form which implies not an <#rtlo» ^ ’ wife an a::r,b,„e; as when we fay George i George 10011011, ■. But K whtenejs or f X ot^r P?", ctilar colour is not of the offence of a hwfe, an animal which is found of all colours fo in the phrafes quoted the aurihu,,, though implied, ,s not of the of the verb ■ for it may be equally well expretled by wotdJ - Georoe Is oonCng, and George is u-alhng, ™ phraihs of the^ very fame import with George vonieih -"'^TreMvbg every verb, whether a?ive, palT.ve, or neuter, into the fubftantive-verb is and another at¬ tributive, we have the honour to agree with all the grammarians-, but to the word is itfelf the karned au¬ thor of Hermes has given a meaning which, as a ie , it does not admit. He oblerves, that hetore an> tin g can be the fubjea of a proportion, it mu.t 1 all exigence is either abfolute or qualified, mutable or i- muiable:' that the verb IS can by itfelf exprefs abfiolute 6-xifience, but never the qualified, without fubjoinmg v. particular form and that it figmfies both and immutable exiftence, having in there cafes different mean- ings: although the fentences which he gives aS exam¬ ples are evidently conftmaed in the fame manner and confift of the fame parts of fpeech. His examples are of exiftence, B IS j of qualified, B l? an*nim° ’ of mutable. This orange is ripe; ot immutable, The dia¬ gonal of the fiquare is incommenfiurable veith itsJides. If predication be the effence of verb, all this is nothing to the purpofe, and part of it is not true It is not true that the verb is ever varies its iignification , lor it hath as verb no conn eft ion with exiftence ol any kind. All fuch circumftances are fuperadded to its verbal nature-, or, to fpeak more accurately, we m er fuch circumftances from our previous knowledge ol the obiefts concerning which the predication is made. When we fav, “ this orange is ripe,” we do indeed mean, as Mr Harris obferves, that it rr /o now at this prefent in oppofition to pajl and time : but it is not the verb is, but the definitive this which fixes the time of maturity, as well as the place oi the orange *, for had we faid, oranges ARE ripe, we might have been properly alked, When and where are they ripe ? although the fame verb is ufed in both fentences. Even in the fentence “ B is,” abfiolute exiftence (the moft iimple oi all) is inferred, and not exprejjed, by the verb; and the inference is made from this obvious principle, “ 1 hat when one utters a mark of predication, we naturally conclude that he means to predicate fiomething oi the fubjea.” If he adds no fipecific predication, as B is M M A R. round, we apply to B the moll g^nhatwe can, 29 Verbs. 59 and what other fpecies is fo general as e fence? That the idea of exiftence, confidered f immutable is not contained in the verb IS nieli, but derived from our knowledge of the ohjeas concetmng which the predication is made, appears mamfeftly irom this • That if a perfon be fuppoled ignorant ot the mea - ing of the words God and MAN, whilft he knows that of isf the uttering of the two propofitions God is hapf , and this man is happy, will give him no n01ce ° y ’ ence confidered as mutable or immutable, temporary o\ eternal (o). His conclufion with refped to of exiftence, if any fuch conclufion be drawn at a^ mu be derived entirely from his previous knowledge or the nature of God and the nature of man. Some of our readers may poflibly think this notion of verb too abHraft and metaphyfical; yet what other circumftance than mere predication is effential to that fpecies of words? We fay ejfential; for we are here in- quiring, not what is expreffed by t*c\i individua lerb, Z wL it is which is equally expreffed by all verbs and which diftinguifhes them from the other ffif fpeech. And if i? be true, that every thing which the verb implies, predication alone excepted, may be expid by other pam of fpeech, and that «« other parts of fpeech An predicate; then we think ourfelves warranted to ai- firm, that fihnple predication is the ejfential charatterijhc of VERB, that every word which predicates is a \ R , and that nothing is fo which does d j An 0bjec- It muft not, however, be concealed that a rion J ou„ very different from this has been lately maintained oy theoryr a writer of diftinguilhed abilities. “ We have energy expreffed” fays Dr Gregory (r), “ of com e a verb coniiituted without affirmation, when we wilh or command without command, when we affirm or wi , without wifi), when we command or affirm . vet m all thefe cafes we have equally and mdifputably a verb _ That in all thefe cafes we have a verb is indeed m- difputable but we hold it to be equally indiipuUble, that in all thefe cafes we have affirmation. lae inge¬ nious author has given no direft example of a wijh or command uttered without affirmation; and a feeling or fentiment which is not uttered has nothing to do with language : but he has given a fentence in winch there are three verbs, that in his opinion denote no affirma¬ tion, but a very plain fiuppojitwn. \l n fuppojition can be expreffed without affirmation, we ftvall very readi y allow that a wifih or command may be fo exprefled h e- wife. The Doftor’s fuppofition is thus exprefled : « Had any puniffiment ever overtaken you tor your broken vows-, -mm- but one of your teeth growing black, or even ^ but one of your nails growing lefs beautiful, I ffiould believe you.” It is almoft iuper- fluous to obferve, that to every verb not m the infi¬ nitive mode there muft be a nominative, and to every naive verb an objeB, whatever be the arrangement ot the fentence in which fuch verbs are found, ihete are (0) The truth of this obfervation may be proved by wWcf he^doeTTrunder! IT U a man unacquainted with the Latin tongue, °fe,c ^ wr er Edinburgh. Verbs 60 .anfwered G R A M are truths known to every fdioolboy 5 the reafons of them aiall be given afterwards. It is likewife unde¬ niable, .that in the fentence before us, the nominative to //ad is ant/ punijhment; to the firft were, one of your teeth; and to the fecond, one of your nails. But the fentence arranged in grammatical order, with the fe- veral nominatives before their refpedtive verbs, is evi¬ dently elliptical; and the conjunction if mult be fup- phed as well to complete the conftruaion as to make fenfe of the paflage. If any punithment had ever overtaken you 5 if but one of your teeth were gnnv- ing black, or even z/'but one of your nails were grow¬ ing lefs beautiful, I fhould believe you.” Now it has lately been proved, by fuch evidence as leaves no room for doubt, that if though called a conjunlhon, is in fadt a yet b in the imperative mode, of the fame import with give, fo that we may fubftitute the one for the other without in the/mallefl degree altering the fenfe. The fentence will then run thus : “ Give any puniihment had ever overtaken you j give but one of your teeth were growing black, &c. I fhould believe you.” It is^therefore fo far from being true, that had and were, tyhen the fentence is completed, exprefs no affirma¬ tion ; that it is only upon granting the truth of the affirmation which they denote, that the fpeaker fays, “ I ffiould believe.you.” “ Any puniffiment had ever over¬ taken you,” is plainly an affirmation j if give that affirmation, admit its truth, “ I ffiould believe you.” Tut it cannot be fuppofed that had and were change their fignifications by a mere change of place, or that by being removed from the middle to the beginning of a claufe, they lofe their original import, and come to denote fomething entirely different. Were this the cafe, evety attempt to afcertain and fix the general princi¬ ples of grammar would be as ridiculous as an attempt to arreft the courfe of time. For what purpofe then, it may be afked, if the verb always denotes affirmation, is it removed from the middle to the beginning of the clauie, vAww fuppojition is implied as in the prefent in- flance ? W'e anfwer, that fuppofition is neither more nor lefs than conditional affirmation; that when fuch affirmation is completely exprelfed, the verb is not remo¬ ved to the beginning of the claufe 5 and that fuch remo- ^ al takes place only when the claufe is elliptical, being merely an artificial contrivance in language, to ffiow the reader or hearer that fome fuch word, as if de¬ manding the truth of the affirmation, is omitted for the hike of difpatch. This is evident 5 for when the word requiring the affirmation to be granted is fupplied, the verb muft be reftored to its place in the middle of the claufe. Such abbreviations, and fuch contrivances to mark them, are frequent in all languages, as will be feen more clearly when we come to treat of modes. nM , A, P'' . Chap. IV. L pon the whole, notwithftanding the deference which we Vei bs. willingly pay to this very mafterly writer, we are compell-1 ed Yeludtantly to differ from him, and ftill to think that Ji/nple predication is the cffence of the vrrb . Should we be required to exemplify our theory by The theory Ltnguage, and to produce inftances of this fimplifieditfelf exem- vevb m praftice, we might anfwer, that the not beingp!lfled* able to produce fuch inltances would be no good argu- ment againft the truth of our principles. It is the nature of language to expreis many circumftances by the.lame word, all of which however are not effiential to diffinguiffi tiiefpecies to which that word belongs from the other fpecies of words j and it is the nature of man to infer from difcourfe many things which are not adually exprefed. Perhaps, however, fomething nearly approaching, to an exemplification of cur idea of zjim- />/zr-combined la and the predicate of a monofirion • tbn« ha lta,ath J.„" ith an af- la and the predicate of a propofition : thus, he liveth he" it.h ai writeth, he walketh, are phrafes equivalent in all refpe6tsfemon* to—-he is living, he is writing, he is walking. Now, of attributesyottze have their eifence in motion, as walking ; fome in the privation of motion, as rejling; and others have nothing to do with either motion or its privation as white and black. But all motion and nlW. privation of motion imply time as their concomitant; and a fubjlance may have an attribute to-day which it had not ijeftcrday, and will not have to-morrow. This is felf evident; for a man may be at reft to-day who yejlerday was walking, and to-morrow will be on horfeback; and a ffieet of pa¬ per may have been white yefterday, which to-day is black, ®e^ic^es yvhich are.names of ideas in the mind, there are a great many others that are made ufe of V° ^ econneion t at the mind gives to ideas or propofitions one with another. The mind in communicating its thoughts to others, does not only noedffins of the ideas it has then before it, but others alfo to ffiow or intimate ome partocu ar at ion o its own at that time relating to thofe ideas. This it does feveral ways; as is and is NOT are ffie general war&r ot the. mind affirming or denying.” Locke on Human Undemanding. et um e pars orationis variabilis, aliquid de re aliqua dici feu affirmari fignificans. Vulgaris verbi definitio e , quo , it pars orationis, quae agere, pati, aut efle fignificet. Sed noftra accuratior, magifque ex ipfa verbi cu- jufvis natura petita videtur. Caeterum rc affirmari laxiore hie fenfu accipimus, pro eo quod prmdicari Dialeclici A>PP/,/-ent’ n°n affirmationes ftriftius fic didlae, fed negationes etiam interrogatlonefque includuntur.” ttuddimanm Grammatics Ifflitutiones. See alfo Dr Beattie's Theory of Language. / ,xr GRAMMAR- Cll3-P* 1 i r i-rr * r-r, tnts kind than to raife, as might eafily be done, new Verbs, black, and at feme future time will be of a ‘ d hyp0’thetical theories ‘on the fubjeft. 1 lour. As, therefore, all motions ^ pnvatwn imp. d 1 y? d obferved tbat allthe tenfes muft 1°-: “ » .T>Tay be "W, at ~ ^ relLe „W. In one fenfe, this is ex- as thofe which - - ' denote an action only, come to denote time alfo : <’5C Hence the origin and u!e of tenfes, which are fo ma y J11 different forms affigned to each verb, to (how, without Sknce altering its principal lignification, the various times m ihs tvijji. l1;cl, the afferutm expreffed by it may be t™?' , vtwnlea " er thefc ^'rious forms of the verb be effenttn! to lan- „lm„ it is vain to difpute. They have place in every fanguage with which we are acquainted ; and as the ufe of the verb is to afem one thing of another it is abfolutely neceffary that the time, when fuch or luch an affirmation is true, be marked by tenfes, or fome^r contrivance. Concerning tenles, therefore, we (hall throw together fome obfervations equally applicable to every language, after premifing a general remark or two which feem neceffary in order to proceed with precifion. 61. Time, although its effence confills in fuccelTion continued and unbroken, may yet be conf.dered by the mind as divided into an infinite number of parts. I here is, however, one grand divifion which neceffarn? oc- , curs and to which the different tenfes of verbs are in all .nuL languages adapted.-Computing from feme portion paft. pre- conceived to be frefinl, nil time is eit et A''/"r 65 of veibs are three¬ fold. naft, pre- conceived to oe prejeni, ms ‘ . 1S _ fent, orfu Hence the tenfes of verbs are threeiold *, forne denoti g Lu:e 5 brCe time prefent, fome time paf, and others tune Juture the tenfes from the yery nature of turte, it muft be ob¬ vious, that all its parts are relative ; i.e. that no por¬ tion of it can be afeertained by any thing itfclf but only by referring it to fome other poition, With refpeft to which it is paji, prefent, or to come. In this refpeft time is perfedly analogous to fpace: for as the [pace in which any objeft exifts, cannot be ddcri- bed but by ftating its relation to fome other fpace; io neither can the time of any attribute or adion be deter¬ mined, but by ftating its relation to fome other time. When, therefore, we would mark the time of any ac¬ tion or event, we muft previoufty fix \xyor\ fame point to which we may refer it. If this point be known, the time referred to it will be known alfo ; but if the former be not known, neither will the latter. Laftly, in contemplating an aElion, we may have oc- cafion to confider it as going on, or zsfimjhed. i Ins di- ftinaion is likewife denoted by the different tenfes of verbs. In treating, therefore, of the tenfes, there are two things to which attention ought principally to be turned •,—the relation which the feveral tenfes have to one another in refpeft oi time; and the notice which they give of an aaion’s being completed or not completed. 62. Having premifed theie remarks, we proceed now to the tenfes themfelves *, of which Mr Harris has umereni enumerated no fewer than twelve. Ot this enumera- giamma- t}on we can by no means approve ; for, without enter- nans have in into a minute examination of it, nothing can be Sew move obvious, titan that his inceptive present-/ ZlLsoittm going to wrhs-K a FUTURE TENSE ; and hts covu tenfes. pletive PRESENT—/ have written—a YtsSTtenJe. iiui., as was before obferved of the claffification oj words, we cannot help being of opinion, that, to take the tenjes as they are commonly received, and endeavour to a - certain their nature and their differences, is a much more useful exercife, as well as more proper for a work of tremely obvious. ’She prefent tenfe is ufed m contra- diftinaion to both the pajl wA future, and marks an attribute or aaion as exiiting in neither. The ^ and the future are in like manner ufed in contradiftmaion to the prefent *, and mark an attribute or adion which exifts not now, but which m the one cafe has exijled formerly, in the other will exift at fome time commg. But befides this relation of contradif inchon fubfiftmg among the tenfes, there is another of co-exiflence, as we may call it, to which it is of great confequence to attend —Specially in examining the nature of the prejent. ^ ^ 6t. The PRESENT tense refers not only to iomethmg ^ which is pajl or future, but alfo to fomethmg with which the attribute or adtion of the verb contempo¬ rary This reference is neceffarily implied in its very name ; for we cannot fay of any thing that it prefent, without implying at the fame time that there is fome- thing elfe with which it is prefent. Hence it appears with how little reafon Mr Harris and others have given us an aorift of the prefent, as marking prefent time definitely in contradiftinftion to OTHER prefents, vihwh have been called inceptive, extended, and completive pre¬ fent s. For from what has been laid it follows,^ that the Different prelent tenfe is necejfarihj and from its very nature per- fedly indefinite, and can of itfelf give notice of 00 pre- cife or determinate portion or point of time whatever. A thing may have been prefent fifty years ago, may be pre- fent /mu, or at any future period. This tenfe implies the relation oi co-exifence between two or more things* but, without fome auxiliary circumftance, it cannot in anv language mark the particular portion of timem which thofe things exi/l. The indefinite nature of this tenfe is indeed molt clearly feen in that ufe of it in which Mr Harris has ftvled it the aorifi of the prefent * that is, m cafes where it is employed to denote the repetition oj an aEiion which the agent is accufomedfrequently to perjorm, or to expreis propofitions of which the truth is evinced by, general experience; as in the following examples : (t pjypocrify- tlie only evil tliRt 'Wdlks “ Invifible, except to God alone.” “ Adpcenitendum properat qui cito judicat f &c. In thefe initances it is plain there is no particular time- pointed out : the propofitions are true, or apprehended as true, at all times. Although the aftions, therefore, of walking and hafening are expreffed as prefent, it is impoffible from the expreffwns to determine any preciie point of time when they are prefent. But if the prefent tenfe be thus indefinite, howr, it may be afked, are we to afeertain the particular time which is intended ? We anfwer, it is to be afeertamed, either by fating the aEiion of the verb as exifting in fome time already known, or by inference. If, for example, we fayi “ Millions of fpiritual creatures walk the earth unfeen,”—the propofition is general, and the time of walking undetermined. But it we add-—“ both when we wake and when we fieepf—the time is by this ad 1- tion afeertained and fpecified * for if the time when men wake and deep be known, the time when thefe [pints walk the earth is known alfo.—When no Specifying claufe is given by which to determine the tim& ot the prefent tenfe, it is very commonly determinedly///- 1 tercnce.- GRAM 35. 'fetencv. Thus, i£ one ufe fuch an expreffion as—“ He Jeeps while I am /peaking to him”—the time of his feeping is afeertained by the fubfequent claufe of the fentence 5 but if it be faid limply—“ he lleeps”—with¬ out afligning any data from which it may be concluded ’when his fleeping is prefent, we very naturally infer that it is at the mjiant we receive the information of his lleeping. Such inferences as this are common in lan¬ guage. The mind is defxrous to obtain complete in¬ formation on every fubjeft j and therefore frequently /applies to itfelf what is not exprejfed in the fpeech of others. Both thefe ways of afeertaining the precife time of the prefent tenfe, are excellently illullrated by the ufe of the word prefent as applied to /pace. Take a familiar example :—“ His brother and he were prefent when I read the letter.” It is at firft fight evident that this expreflion is perfeftly inde/nite. But if it be faid— “ His brother and he were prefent at your houfe when I read the letter,”—the place of a&ion is then detennined by being referred to a portion of /pace which is known* If no fuch reference be made, the perfon who hears the fpeech uttered muff either remain ignorant of the place intended, or he muft afeertain it to himfelf by in¬ ference ; and he will probably infer it to be that in which the fpeaker is at the time of his uttering the indefinite fentence. This leads us to obferve, that fuch infe¬ rences are not often made without fufficient foundation. Various circumftances may affift the reader or hearer in making them, and prevent all danger of miftake. He may have the evidence of fenfe, or of fomething preceding in the difeourfe, and a number of other par¬ ticulars, to juftify and warrant his conclufion.' Thus, if when fitting by a large fire, one pronounce the words —“ I am too warm thofe to whom he addreffes his fpeech are authorifed to conclude, that he is too warm ■at the time of /peaking, unlefs he exprefsly prevent the drawing of that conclufion by adding fome fuch claufe as—“ When I wear a great coat.” It is ftridlly demonftrablej and hath by Mr Harris been in fa£t demonilrated, that there is no fuch thing as prefent time. Yet do we not only conceive time as prefent and exijling, but frequently as extended to a very great degree. We fpeak not only of the prefent infant, or the prefent day, but alfo of the prefent year, and even of the prefent century. This manner of conceiving time is indeed loofe and unphilofophical; but it is fufficient for the ordinary purpofes of language. To exprefs time as it really is, we ought to fay, the paffing day, the pqfjing year, and the paffing century ; but in com¬ mon difeourfe we denominate any portion of time pre¬ fent, in which the prefent now or infant is included, al¬ though it is obvious that part of that portion is paf, and the remainder of it future. From the very nature of time thus conceived to be prefent, the tenfe now un¬ der confideration muft reprefent the aftion of the verb t as commenced, and not finifhed: for as time is in conti¬ nued fucceffion, and accompanies every aftion 5 when any a&ion is not commenced, it exifts not in any time, though it may exift hereafter in time which is now fu¬ ture ; and when it is finifhed, it exifts no longer in time prefent, but in time paf. Hence the abfurdity of intro¬ ducing into a theory of the tenfes an inceptive prefent arid a completive prefent ; for thefe terms imply each p dire ft contradiftion. 3 ivl A R. Chap. IV. 64. After having faid fb much of the prefent tenfe, Verbs, we ihall have but little to fay of the pr^eter imper- -—y—— PECT. It ftates an aftion in refpeft of time as paf; and in refpeft of progrefs, as unfinifhed. Legebam-—I was reading at fame paf time^ but my reading was then The pix- incomplete ; I had not finilhed the book or the letter. We t’r-|mper- muft here obferve, however, as we did with refpeft to^e<^” the prefent tenfe, that although the prmter-imperfell re- p relents the aftion as paf, it does not inform us in what precife portion of pqfl time the unfinilhed aftion was go¬ ing on : this circumllance muft either be given in fepa- rate words, or be inferred by the hearer. If one fav fimply—Legebami the perfon to whom he addreffes his fpeech will conclude, that the time of his reading is paf with refpeft to the prefent time of his /peaking. But if he fay,—Legebam antequam venfii, he exprefsly ftates the aftion of reading as paf with refpeft to the time in which his hearer came to the place where they both are at the time of /peaking. The time of the prwter-imperfeSi is always paf with refpeft to the prefent infant when the imperfelt is ufed, and of this the tenfe gives notice j but it may alfo be paft with refpeft to lome other time, and of this it conveys no information. If we join twoprceter- imperfebls together, theexpref- fion will ftate the co-exiftence of two progreffive ac¬ tions, both of -which were going on at a time paf in refpeft of fome determinate time given orfuppofed. 11 Cum tu feribebas ego legebam 5” “ when you were writing I was reading.” Hence the praeter-imperfeft has by fome grammarians been called the relative prefent; a name which, however, is by no means exclufively appli¬ cable to this tenfe. When thepreeter-imperfecl is by the conjunftion and joined in the fame fentence with a plufquam-perfeEl, the two tenfes exprefs two aftions, both prior to the time of /peaking ; but the one as having continued alter the other wasfimjhed. Thus, (peak¬ ing of the deftruftion of Troy, fays, that after having efcaped with his father and followers, he returned to the city in quell of his wife, and went direftly to his own houfe 5 but there, continues he, “ irruerant Da- nai, et teftum omne tenebant—“ the Greeks/fod'/'a/fr- ed inf that aftion was over and completed before his arrival; but the aft of “ poffeffing the whole houfe,” tenebant, was not over, but fill continuing. 65. But it is neceffary that the verb denote aftions The orift wffiich were complete or perfeft in paf time, as well as and pr$- thofe which w-ere incomplete or imperfeci. For this pur-ter-ljertecF» pofe, Greek and Engli/h verbs have an aorifi, a preeter- perfeB, and a plufquam-perfeB. Of thefe the Latin has only the two laft. The prceter-perfeB in that language fuftains a twofold charadter : it performs the office of the Greek and Eng/ifh aorif, as rvell as of the prccter- perfeB properly fo called j that is, it denotes a finifhed aftion at fome indefinite paf time, as well as at fome time which is both paf and definite. In attempting to analyfe the fignification of complex terms, by which we here mean words that include in their fignification a variety of particulars, it is of great advantage to have thefe particulars feparately expreffed by different words in another language. Now the En- glifh has refolved the tenfes, which in the Greek and Latin languages are denominated the aorif and the prceter-perfeB, by means of what are commonly called auxiliary verbs, expreffing the former by the verb did, and the latter by the verb have. In examining there- Chap. IV. ° 11 rA. M Verbs, fore the aorift and prater perfeB, it will be of uxe to m- u—y--—j qUjre into the import of thefe verbs. Did ig evidently the aoriji of the verb to do;' a verb of the moft general fignification, as it denotes aBwn of every kind. It expreffes ihcfinijhcdperformance oifome aBion, the completion of which mull of courie have ta¬ ken place in fome portion oipaji time. “ I did 'write, or I wrote (thefe expreflions being equivalent) yelter- day, a month, a year ago,” &c. But the import ot did being io very general, it can convey no determinate meaning without being limited by the addition or lome particular aBion ; a.-d this addition, however exprelled, is to be confidered in the fame light as an accufative cafe, governed by the aftive verb did; for it produces exactly the fame effeB. ^y^fit, feripf, I did WRITE •, that is, “ at fome paft time I performed the action of writing, and finijhed itB The verb have, which is included m the prater-per- feB, is plainly a verb of the prefent tenfe denoting poff /ion. But a man may poffefs one thing as well as another; and therefore have requires limitation, for the very fame reafon that did requires it, namely, becaule its fignification is perfeBly general. , Now this limita¬ tion, whatever it is, mult be conceived as_ the thing pojfeffed; and in inftances where have is limited by a noun, this is obvious, and univerially acknowledged : “ I have a gold watch,” is, “ Ipofefs a gold watch.” But to annex the fame meaning to the word have, when ufed as an auxiliary verb, is an idea we believe not common, and which may perhaps be thought whimfical j yet what other meaning can be affixe-d to it ? To fuppofe that words have not each a radical and determinate figniiication, is to fuppofe. language a fub- iect incapable of philoiophical invefligation and to fuppofe, with Mr Harris, that there are words.entirely devoid of fignification, is at once to render all inquiries after the principles of grammar nugatory and ridicu¬ lous. We conceive, then, that each of the phrafes, iwoxwjcripjiepijlolam, Ihavp. written a letter, is equivalent to the phrafe, “ I poffefs at preient the finijhed aBion of writing a letter.” Such an expreflion may found harp) to the ear, becaufe it is not in ufe. but wTe often employ expreffions, to the precife and pro¬ per meaning of w’hich we do not attend \ and if the above be attentively confidered, however .awkward it may at firft appear, nothing will be found in it either improper or abfurd. The aorift, then, we conceive to Hate an action, as performed and fnifioedva {ovnepafl portion of time ; whiln the prater-perfeB reprefents the pajl performance and completion of that action as now poffefled. And. here we may hazard a conjecture why have, when ufed as an auxiliary verb, is always joined with a paf participle ; whereas did is joined to a word expreffing the fimple aBion of the verb, or, as it is called, prefent infini¬ tive. Of the expreflion, “ I have written a letter,” as one part, viz. the verb have, &e\\o\.es prefent time ; the the other part, viz. written., mult denote paf time, to give notice that the aCtion is performed md. finijhed. Did, on the other hand, implying paf time, has no oc- cafion for the paf part of another verb to give.notice of this circumftance •, for ll\did write a letter,’ is equiva¬ lent to, “ at fome pad time I performed and finilhed the fimple aBion of writing a letter.” Vol. X. Part I. M A R. The principal diftin&ion in praCticc between the aorif and prater-perfeB (for. the difference feems little ^ in their real import) confifts in the time by which the rlie prjn. performance of the aftion admits of being particularly CxyAd- fpecified. The prater-perfeB is always joined with a portion of time which includes the prefent now or w-thefeten. fant; for othenvife it could not flgnify, as it alwaysfes. does, the prefent poffcffion of fnijhing^ of an action. But the aorif, which fignifies nofuch pojfcfion, is as con- ftantly joined with a portion of time which excludes the prefent now or inf ant. Thus we fay, “ I have w> it- ten a letter this day, this week,” &c; but, “ I wrote a letter yeferday, lad week,” &c.-, and to interchange thefe expreflions of time in Greek and Enghfh, where the aorif and prater perfeB have different forms, would be improper. In Latin, indeed, where they have but one form, the impropriety does not appear. 7^ 66. Befides the tenfes already examined, which are expreflive oipaf time, in mod languages, the verb has^. another tenfe CdX\t6.\h.tpliifqucini~pcrJre6}^ in which, how- ever, no difficulty occurs to detain our attention. ^ What the preter-imperfeB is to the prefent tenfe, that ti.e plufi quam-perfeB is to the prater-perfeB. ^ J he .vero had, by which it is refolved in Enghlh, being evidently the pad time of have, fufficiently explains its. meaning and relation to the other tenfes: “ I had written a letter,’ is equivalent to the phrafe, “ I poffeffed at iomzpajl time, the finifhed a&ion of writing a letter.” It is juftly obferved by Dr Beattie, that the imper- feft and plufquam-perfeft are very ufeful, and may be the fources of much elegant expreflion •, and that if one were not taught to diflinguifh, in refpeCf of meaning as well as of form, thefe tenfes from each other, and tLe praeterite from both, one could not pretend to under- dand, far lefs to tranflate, any good claflic author. . 71 67. Having confidered the tenfes which imply Pfi-^l fent and paf time, it now remains that wx examine the import of thofe which are expreflive of time, future. In Latin and Englifh there are two tenfes for this, pur- pofe 5 of which the frf reprefents an aaion in point of time as not yet exifing, but as about to exifi at fome pe¬ riod to come; but it does not bring the completion 01 the a&ion into view. The other aflerts the futuitty of an a£tion together wdth its completion. Scribam, “ I (hall be writing,” denotes future time and complete aBion; for it doet not fay whether I am to write for a long or for a fliort time, or whether I thall finif) what I pro- mifed to begin. This part of the verb, therefore, to which the Greek correfponds, is an imperfeB futui e, and likewife an aorif. The futurity of any adlion, it diould feem, may alw’ays be computed from the time of fpeak- ing j for every adlion mud be future with refpeft to the time at which its futurity is declared; but the time of its futurity may be more precifely fpecifie.d by fixing on fome other future time to which to refer it: “I lhall be writing after he (hall have departed.” Shall or will refers to future time indefinitely; and write or writing ■ refers to an adlion which is indeed to begin and fo far to proceed, but of which nothing is laid concerning the completion. On the other \am&,fcripfero, “I fhall have written,” is a perfeB future denoting complete aftion 5 for Jhall de- notes future time ; written,finijhed aBion; and have, pre¬ fent pojfejjion. So that the meaning of the whole affertion E is. 34 GRAM Verbs. ra Of the renfes of the fub- janiflive mode. 73 The pee- Eeiit, is, that “ at feme future period of time I fliall poflefs the finidied aflion of writing. The completion of the ac¬ tion, together with the poJJ'eJJion of it, is always future with refpedl to the time of affcrtion; but, with refpedt to fome other time expreffed or underitood, the completion of the action is to be pajl: Promitt is te feripturum f ro- gavero, “you promife to write if I fhall have afked you.” In this fentence the aftion oiafking is future with relation to the time ofpromiftng, but it is pajl with relation to that of writing. This tenfe the Latin grammarians call the future of the fubjuriSlive mode; but very improperly. The notice which it communicates, refpefts not the power or liberty of afling, w’hich, as will be feen by and bye, is the charafferiilic of that mode; but the aBion it- ielf. It ought therefore to be ranked among the tenfes of the indicative mode; for feripfero is, in every fenfe, as really indicative as feribam or feripturus ero. 68. Thefe are all the tenfes, eifentially different from each other, which have place in the indicative mode of any language with which we are acquainted (r) \ but as there are tenfes in the mode called Subjunflive, which bear the fame names with thofe already examined, and which have yet a different import, it will be neceffary to confider them before we difmifs the fubjefl of tenfes. Of modes in general fomething muft be faid here¬ after j at prefent we fhall only obferve, that the mode with which we are now concerned, is not very properly diflinguifhed by the name afligned to it by the Latin grammarians. They call it the fubjunBive, becaufe it is often fubjoined to another verb, and forms the fe- condary claufe of a fentence : but the mode called in¬ dicative frequently appears in the fame circumftances. The difference between thefe twm modes appears to us to conlift in this, that the indicative afferts fomething di- reSlly concerning the aBion; the fibjunElive, fomething concerning the power or liberty of the agent to perform it : for that the latter afferts as well as the former, ad¬ mits not of difpute. 69. The prefent tenfe of the fubjunBive mode, in the learned languages, anfwers to the Englifh auxiliaries may and can. Let us confider thefe a little.—May is evidently a verb of the prefent tenfe denoting liberty. When I affert that I may write, I give notice that “ I am under no compulfion to abfain from writing*,” that there is no impediment from without by which I am Yef rained from writing. Can is alfo a verb of the prefent M A R. Chap. IV. tenfe, expreffive of internal power orfill. “ I can write” Verbs, is equvalent to —“ There is nothing in myfelf which > incapacitates me for performing the operation of wri¬ ting.” This verb feems oiiginally to have denoted knowledge or fkill, and to have been afterwards extended to fignify power or ability of any kind. There is little doubt of its being the fame with the old Englifh verb to con, which fignifies to know.—The difference between the import of thefe two verbs may and can will be beft perceived in a familiar example. Suppofe we fay to one of our tranferibers, “ You may write a treatife on gram¬ mar, to wrhich he returns for anfwer “ I cannot d'1 our affertion evidently fuppofes him at liberty to write the treatife } his anfvver implies, that he is unable ox unjkilled to do it. We may conclude, then, that the prefent tenfe of this mode contains a declaration of prefent liberty, ability, or fkill; and its other tenfes will be found to have reference to the fame capacities. The obfervation i$ here to be repeated which was en¬ larged upon under the prefent of the indicative. The liberty or ability fignified by this tenfe is always repre- fented as prefent; l et the time of this prefence is inde- fniie. If no particular time be fpecifed, w e generally refer it to the time offpeaking; but another point may be given from which we are to compute. “ When he fliall have finilhed, you may then proceed as you pro- pofe.” Here the liberty of proceeding is Hated as pre¬ fent, not at the time oifpeaking, but at the time of his fnifhing, which is future to the time of fpeaking. But though the liberty, ability, or Jkill, denoted by this tenfe, be reprefented prefent, the aBion ilfelfis Hated as con¬ tingent; for it is not neceffary that a man Ihouldperform an action becaufe he has the capacity to perform it. From this idea of the prefent of the fubjunBive fome of its mofl peculiar ufes feem capable of being explained. —And, in the firH place, it appears to have a near af¬ finity with the future of the indicative ; infomuch that in many inflances they may be ufed promilcuoufly. Without materially altering the effeft of the expreflion, we may fay, “ Dico me fa ft u rum effe quae imperetf or “ quae imperabiiThe reafon of this, perhaps, may be, that with refpeft to us, futurity and contingency are in mofl cafes nearly the fame, both being involved in equal obfeurity 5 and therefore it is often of little confequence which mode of expreflion we employ. Secondly, The prefent of the fubjunSive is ufed to de¬ note (r) On this point we fubferibe to the opinion of the elegant and ingenious Dr Beattie.—“ It will perhaps occur (fays he), that there are two Greek tenfes, of which I have given no account; namely, tiwfecondaorif, and the fecondfuture. The truth is, that I confider them as unneceflary. Their place, for any thing 1 know to the contrary, might at all times be fupplied by the frfl aorifl and Che fifi future. Some grammarians are of opinion, that the frf aorifl fignifies time pajl in general, and Che fecond, indefinite time pafi ; and that Che fir ft future denotes a nearer, and the fecond a more remote, futurity. But this, I apprehend, is mere conjefture, unfupported by proof: and therefore I incline rather to the fentiments of thofe w7ho teach, that the fecond future and the fecond aorifl have no meaning different from the fifl future and the frfl aorifi 5 and that they are xhe prefer t awA. imperfeB of fome obfolete theme of the verb; and, w'hen the other theme came into ufe, happened to be retained for the fake of variety perhaps, or by accident, with a preterite and future fignificaticn. Be this as it w7ill, as thefe tenfes are peculiar to the Greek, and have nothing correfponding to them in other tongues, we need not fcruple to overlook them as fuperfluous.”—The Theory of Language, Part II. Chap. ii. To thefe judicious obfervations we have nothing to add, but that they acquire no fmall degree of confirma¬ tion from this circumflance, that there are many Greek verbs which have no fecond future, and which are yet employed to denote every poflible modification of future time. Of the paulo-pofifuturutn of the Greeks we have r R A M M A R< , Cv T 1Vt; the rlSU of which a P«fo„ is poffeM. “ / ^ ^ ™ I L, fell this book.” This application, w nch t;l of fpeatog,'is feppofed u, be nr Triejlley confiders as the primary figmfication of the 'dieted. What then is the import of the phrafe . tenfe, is eafily deduced, or rather follows immediate y, ^ perfuaded that it is elliptical, and that the from the fcareeoing account of its import. 01 , „ — ^o nrwWftnod : “ 1 may ( ay be wider no rejlraint, either external or ^erna ,^0 pre- vent him from performing an aftion, he has fure y ' ^Thirdlyfxhe prefent of the fubjunBive is often ufed to fignify command or rey^ as when oneway , may ?ive my compliments to fuch a perfon. Ihis ule ofthe tenfe under confideration feems to have anfen from a defire to /often xht harfhnefs of a comma y avoiding the appearance of claiming fuperiority. W hen avoiding rue tr he certainly utters a man We are nerfuaded that it is eiupuc^, a— --- word fay or affirm is underftood : “ 1 may (%/^at I\ have ^done fuch or fuch a thing m my time , for liberty or contingency can relate to aftions only as t icy ^ are conceived to be prefeiu 01 jii ui • ^^ ^ /,/„/: The phif- *7 2 Of all the tenfes, the mo., co* P • quatn-per- Jam/rfea of this mode. It comb.nes a pajl and a/»- ^ C iime with a fnijhed aftion. It may be confidered “ the pall lime both of the perfeB future and of the prat- ter perfeB of the ftbjunBhe: for it reprefents an action, ter-perjecton j j as fimfhed before avoiding the appearance of cluing fupetiotity When paj, time, Med before a man utters the above fentence, he certainly nttem /eci/f^; which period therefore though „o command, but only affert, that the perfen to whom was future with refped he fpeaks has hberU) or pimer to do him a favour. ! ^ PJ ^ ^ th(. futurity or contingency of the nflertion however, may contain no new information, •« ; “ Promififti te feripturum fuiffe fi rogaf- and therefore the perfon addrejfed, refleamg upon t m a Y^u promifed that you would write, it intention of \\ie fpeaker in making it, infers that it mdi- J ’ „ Here the futurity or the ac- cates a wi/h o, defire that “ his compliments ftiould be is reprefented as complete^ made to fuch a perfonP’ . • 1 ed ;s ftated^s co-exifing with the paf promfe; but t ic T. 7o. Of the fubjunBive as well as of the indicative, t ft b p^ior to that promife: it is how- prceter-imperfeB is e^dently ^ et ^0^ to £ paf with refpea to the aftion of a c thd latter afferts liberty, or ability, to pe.torm lome . . 1 • b • alf0 poflenor to the promife. 77 aftion, as exifting at prefent, the former afferts the fame wn g^J^ ^ the fubjea of tenfes, it may ornumber liberty or ability to have exifed in time paf, but 73 - r ,:uft t0 mention number and perfon ; for - precife portion of time pall, in which thefe caserne tenfe 0f the verb in the exifted, mull be fpecified by other words, or it will ^ P and in manv tenfes even of xXiz Engh/h remain unknown. Thus in the following fentence, ^ STKey cannot, however, be deemed efentialto the - Dixi me faftmum effe qum imperaret, the time of verb^ ^ J ion js the faiae, whether it be made imperaret is referred to that of thxi: the perfon having ve , i Jfi a t/nrd per{0n, or whether it be the right to command, is fuppofed to have had it at by you, by ^, 0 _y The moft that feci or by a thoufand. The moll that can be faid is, that verbs in the more elegant languages are provided with a variety of terminations which re- fpe£l the number and perfon of estry fubfantive, that we may know with more Precifion,_ m a complex fen¬ tence, each particular fubllance with its attendant verbal attributes. The fame may be faid oi fex with refpea to adieBives. They have terminations which vary as they "refpea beings male or female, though it is pall difpute that fubfances alone are fufceptible otfex. We therefore pafs over thefe matters, and all of like kind, as being rather among the elegancies of particular Ian- the right to commanu, • - the time when the other>V/ that he would obey. 1 his tenfe, as well as the prefent, Hates the aaion as ^ on and incomplete; and alfo as future with refpea to the liberty or ability to perform it. It is r^dered into Englifh by the verbs could or might; oi which the fij is the pail time of can, the fecond of may. From the near affinity which the prefent of the Ju - junBive has to tho future of xht indicative,^0 tenle now under confideration appears, in many inltances, as the pall time of the latter as well as xht former. I bus Dixi me faBurum qua; imperaret, may be rendered faid that 1 would do whatever he mig it, or w atev guages, and tnererore lu uc ik.axc.cv. - ‘ . . „ he fhould, command.1’ . . . _ . , r nf each tongue, than among the ejfentials ol Thepne- 71. Of the preeter-perfeB, it is fufficient to 00 erve, | which efjentials alone are the fubjea of in- ter-perfea. that as the prefent Hates the agent as at 1 ^ ° ® f ^ a’treatife on univerfal grammar. oerformitig an unfinifhed aaion •, fo this tenfe Hates him H11 X „ „ , r ;n everv tongu as at liberty to perform the aaion confidered as fimfhed. « I may be writing a letter when you come, 1. e. I am at liberty to be writing a letter when you come. 1 may have written a letter when you come 1. e. I am at liberty to be in poffefion of the fimfhed aBion of writing a letter when you come.” - „ T „ It is a common mode of expreffion to fay, I may have done fuch or fuch a thing in my time, when he who fpeaks can have little doubt whether he das done the thing or not. In that cafe, the words may 78 irv in a treatile on umve/jup of * , 74. Befides tenfes, number, and perfon, m every tongue with which we are acquainted, verbs axo fubjea to ano¬ ther variation, which grammarians have agreed to call Modes. Of modes, as of tenfes, it has been warmly de¬ puted whether or not they be effential to language The truth feems to be, that the only part of the verb obfolutely necejfary for the purpofe of communicating thought is the indicative mode; for all the others, as has been well obferved by Dr Gregory, are refolvab e, bv means of additional verbs and a word denoting the J . „ « • . ..u * 4.~ Ynrpllions done the thing or not. In that cafe, tlie words map „ Lon'of tiieVimary verb,-into circuitous expreffions hmc done, cannot be confidered as the prceter-perfeB of aftion ot the pr.ma y ^ ^ whkh taken no notice, hecaufe it is found only in the pfVe voice ; to ^ ^ it would be neceffary in all voices, as a man may be about to aB as well as Xojutje turn 7 36 G R A M Verbs, which fully convey their meaning (s). But fuch ex- ^ “J prefhons continually repeated would make language very prolix and wholly inanimated ; for which reafon, the import of each of the commonly received modes is a fubjedt worthy of the philologift’s inveftigaticn. A- 79 bout the number of modes, whether neceffary or only Different expedient, as well as about the import of each, the wri- bo^t'th5 tCrS °n Sramiriar have differed in opinion. Mr Harris, number of one of the mold celebrated of thofe writers, has enu- modes. merated four inodes of the verb, befides the infinitive; viz. The indicative or declarative, to affert what we thinh certain; the POTENTIAL or SUBJUNCTIVE, for the purpofcs of whatever we think contingent; the INTER¬ ROGATIVE, when we are doubtful, to procure us informa¬ tion ; and the REQUisiTiVE, to affifl us in the gratification of our volitions. The requilitive too, according to him, appears under two dillindf fpecies 5 either as it is im¬ perative to inferiors, or precative to fuperiors. For edablifhing fuch a variety of modes as this, no fort of foundation whatever appears. The fame rea- foning which induced the author to give us an interro¬ gative and requifitive mode, might-have made him give us a hortative, a dijfuafive, a volitive, and innumerable other modes, with which no language is acquainted. But belides perplexing his reader with ufelefs diftinc- tions, we cannot help thinking that Mr Harris has fallen into fome miflakes with regard to the import oi thofe modes which are univerfally acknowledged. Ac¬ cording to him, affertion is the charaderiftic of the indi¬ cative, and that which diflingukhes it from the fubjunc- tive or potential: but this is certainly not true, for with¬ out an affertion, the verb cannot he ufed in any mode. Of this the learned author, indeed, feems to have been awTare, when he obferved of the fubjunBive mode, that it is employed “when we do not JlriBIy alfert,” and that “it implies but a dubious and conjeBural affertion.” The MAR. Chap. IV. truth is, that the affertion implied in this mode, though Verbs, it is not concerning the fiame thing, is equally pofitive ”—\ > and abfolute with that conveyed by the indicative. An example quoted by himfelf fliould have fet him right as to^this matter : Sed tacitus pafci fit poffet corvus, haberet Plus dapis, is'c. Who does not feel that the affertion contained in ha¬ beret, is as abfolute and pofitive as any affertion what¬ ever ? 75. Perhaps we may be afked to define what wfe ' mean by a mode. We know not that wre can define it to univerfal fatisfa&ion. Thus much, however, feems to be obvious, that thofe variations which are called modes do not imply different modifications of the action of the verb. Amo, Aihem, Aiua, do not fignify modes of loving \ for modes of loving are, loving much, loving little, loving long, &c.—Shall wTe then get over the difficulty by faying, with Mr Harris, that “ modes exhibit fome way or other the foul and its affeBionsP’1 This is certainly true : but it is nothing to the purpofe 5 for it does not diftinguilh the meaning of mode from the objecl of language in ge¬ neral, all languages being intended to exhibit the foul and its affeBions. So Grammatical modes of verbs have been defined by Mode de- Dr Gregory to be “ concife modes of exprefling fome fined- of thofe combinations of thoughts which occur molt frequently, and are moll important and linking.” This is a juft obfervation ; but perhaps he would have given a more complete definition had he faid, that gramma¬ tical modes of verbs are concife modes of expreffing fome of thofe combinations of thoughts which occur mofi frequently, and of which assertion is an effientialpart (t). This indeed feems to be the real account of the matter, efpecially if our notion of the nature of verb be well founded, (s) The imperative, for inftance, may be refolved into a verb of commanding in the firft perfon of the prefent of the indicative, and a wrord denoting the aBwn of the primary verb, commonly called the infinitive mode of that verb. Ihus, / nunc et verfus tecum meditare canoros, and “ fubeo te nunc ire et tecum meditari,” &c. are fentences of the very fame import. The fubjunBive may be refolved in the fame manner by means of a verb de¬ noting power or capacity ; for credam, and poffium credere, may be often ufed indifferently. The indicative mode, however, is not thus convertible with another verb of affirming in the firfi perfon of the prefent of the indicative, and a word denoting the aftion of the primary verb; for Titiusficribit, “ Titius writes,” is not of the fame import with dice Titium ficribere, quod Titius feribat, “ I fay that Titius writes.” The firft of thefe fentences, as has been already fliovvn, contains but one affertion; the fecond obvioufly contains two. Titius writes, is equi¬ valent to Titius is writing; I fay that Titius writes, is equivalent to / am faying that Titius is writing. The reafon why the imperative and fubjunBive are refolvable into expreflions into which the indicative cannot be re¬ folved, will be feen when the import of each of thofe modes is afeertained. * (t) livery verb, except the fimple verb am, art, is, &c. expreffes without modes a combination of thoughts, v:z. affirmation and an attribute. The affirmation, however, alone is effential to the verb, for the attribute may be expreffed by other words. It is indeed extremely probable, that, in the earlieft ages of the world, the affir¬ mation and attribute w’ere always expreffed by different wmrds; and that afterwards, for the fake of concife- nefs, one word, compounded perhaps of thefe two, was made to exprefs both the affirmation and the attribute : hence arofe the various clafies of verbs, aBive, pafifive, and neuter. Of a procefs of this kind there are evident figns in the Greek and fome other tongues. But the improvers of language flopped not here. The fame love of concifenefs induced them to modify the compound verb itfelf, that it might exprefs various combinations of thought flill more complex : but in all thefe combinations affertion was of neceflity included ; for if the wrord had ceafed to affert, it would have ceafed to be a verb of any kind. Soon after this flrort note was written, and the wdiole article finifhed for the prefs, w7e accidentally met with Pichbourn's Differtation on the Englifh Verb. Of that work it belongs not to us to give a character. Such of our readers as thall perule it, w7ill fee that on many points we differ widely in opinion from the author ; but we have no painful apprehenfion of any comparifon which may be made. It gives us pleafure, however, to find, that grammar. 8l AH modes equally in dicative. Chap. IV, . . Verbs, founded,—that its ejjence confifts in affirmation. And m this opinion we are the more confirmed, from a convic¬ tion that no man ever employs language on any occafion but for the purpofe of affirming fotnetlung. The fpeak- er may affirm fomethir.g directly of the. aclion ijeij ; fomething of the agent’s poxver or capacity to perform it 5 or fomething of his own defire that it ffiould be per¬ formed, See.—but ftill he muft affirm. . If this be fo, then are all the modes equally indica¬ tive. Some may be indicative of perceptions, and others of volitions ; but ftill they all contain indications On this idea the three foregoing modes of amo will be thus diltinguiffied. When a man indicates his prefent feeling of the paffion of love, he ufes the firft j when he indi¬ cates his prefent capacity of feeling it, he ufes the Je- cond; and when he indicates his prefent defire that the perfon to whom he is fpeaking would entertain that paffion, he ufes the third, . . -,6. As to what Mr Harris calls the interrogative mode* he himfelf obferves that it has a near affinity to the indicative. It has in faft not only a near affinity to it, but, as far as language is concerned, there is not between the one and the other the flighted: diflerench;. For, in written language, take aw'ay the mark of in¬ terrogation, and, in fpoken language, the peculiar tone oj voice and the interrogative and indicative modes appear precifely the fame. That fuch ffiould be the cafe is ex¬ tremely natural. . , - To illuftrate this, let us for once fpeak in the iingu- 37 lar number, and conceive one of our readers to be pre- ^ fent. I affiert a thing, taking the Jr uth of it for grant¬ ed i but if you know me to be wrong, I prefume that you will fet me right: in this cafe, affertion produces the fame effect as 'interrogation. Inftances perpetually occur in common converfation. An acquaintance ays tome “You took a ride this morning:” I anfwer yes or no according to the cafe . and the lame effect is produced as if he had laid—“ Did you take a ride this morning ?” In this way, at firft, would iimple affm- (ions be employed to procure information wanted. Fe- ci/li—you did fuch a thing ; fecifti ne—you did it not; —either would produce the proper reply, and the infor¬ mation wanted would be gained (u). I his being ob- ferved as language improved, men would accompany fuch a fentence with a peculiar tone of voice, or other marks, to fignify more unequivocally that they wanted information, or that fuch information was the only object of their fpeech. Farther progrefs in refinement would lead them to alter the pofition of the words of a fentence when they meant to ajk a quejhon, as wre do in Eng- Verbs. lifh, fayin des (when we affert), You have read Euripi- •” (wSen we interrogate), “ Have you read Euri- pidcs In Greek and Latin queftions are afked commonly enough by the particles &< and an. Ihefe particies we know to be exaftly equivalent to the Engliffi particle if at leaft to the fenfe in which that particle is com¬ monly taken. Hn JeciJh is “ If you did it j and the fen- that his notions relpefting the origin of fuch verbs as exprefs at once affertion and an attribute, are the fame with The'Jopult Tappets(hyTm Pickbourn) to have been coeval with language itfelf. But we have not the fame evidence to convince us, that that muft neceffarily have been the cafe of any other finite verb ; ^r the c°- rula is containing only an affirmation, is much more Ample than a verb which unites in one word both an attri¬ bute and an affirmation! Since therefore people, in their firft attempts to exprefs their ideas by words, would fcarcely think of any thing more than what was abfolutely neceffary, it is probable they would be fome time be- forethey invented any other word containing in itfelf an affertion or affirmation; for they would not very early think of contriving words fo complex in their nature as to include in them both the name of an aEtion and an affer- I coniedffure, that the firft mode of expreffing aBions ox paffons would be by participles ox verbal nouns i. e. words fignifying the names of the aBions or paffions they wanted to defenbe *, and thefe words conneftec w rerfobieaT/the copula ri, might in thofe rude beginnings of language tolerably well fupply the place of verbs • e g from obferving the operations of nature, fuch words as rain or raining, thunder or thundenng, \ou d foon be invented ; and by Idding'the copula it, they would fay, or » or » ««. by the rapidity of pronunciation-, might in time form the verbs raiiw, thunders,. &c. Iheoblena tion of their own aRions, or the aRion, of the animals around them, would Toon mcreafe their Hock of ideas, and put them upon contriving fuitable expreffions for them. Hence might anfe fuch words as thefe , jlecp orpeping, TnlTjIanJing, run or running, bite or biting, hurt or hurting ; and by joining thefe to fubftanuves by means of the copula is they might form fuch fentences as -Lion ispeping, or ItonJUep ts, Jtand,, &c. which ruldfoon^e comrafted into lion Pep,, ./lands, runs, bites, hurts, &c. Thus our little miniated family might become poffeffed of verbs including an attribute and an affirmation in one. word. . . This account of the origin of aBive, paffive, and neuter verbs, is certainly ingenious ; and m our opinion, it is not moreTngenious than juft when applied to the Greek and other ancient languages though it is not applica¬ ble to the EiJlllh : but it Lms to be quite irrecondleable with the definition of per* which the author has adopted l-orrCBilhop Lowth ; and indeed with every other definition except that which makes the effence of " 0 (u'f of a queftion put in the form of an aflertion we have a remarkable inftance in the Gofpel of St Matthew. When Chrift flood before Pilate, the governor aiked him, faying, Zv » o fanXm r^ Ufxim. I hat this ientence was pronounced with a view to obtain fome anfwer, is evident from the context ; yet it is as plainly an affirmation, though uttered probably in a fcoffing tone, as the ferious confeffion of Nathaniel, Z, f* 0 Hctcttevs rev WpX Had not the queftion been put in this form, which ajerts Chrift to be the kmg of the Jews the reply coiftd not W been Sv Myut ; for without an a(fertion the governor would have/av/nothing. See Di Campb.il s i ■ J the Goff els, where the form ufed in the original is with great propriety retained m the ver.ion. Verbs. 82 ■Of the op- -tative mode. CRAM tence may either be an abbreviation for die an fecijli, “ tell me if you did it $” or an may perhaps be, as if certainly is, the imperative mode of fome obfolete verb equivalent to give ; and in that cafe, an fecijli will be a complete interrogative fentence, fignifying, “ you did it, give that?'—But of the interrogative mode of Mr Harris we have faid enough •, perhaps our readers will think, too much, fince it is a ufelefs diftin£lion not found in any language. It will, however, be proper to fay fome- thing of his precative mode, as far as it is the fame with the optative mode of the Greek grammarians. And, 77. Nothing, we think, can be clearer, than that the Greek optative conftitutes no difhnB mode of the verb, whatever meaning be annexed to the word mode. The different tenfes of the optative are evidently nothing but the paji tenfes of the correfponding tenfes of the fub- juiiftive. Prsef. fub. tutHu, I map ftrike. Pref. opt. Tvirlttfu, I might ftrike, &c. This is proved to be in¬ dubitably the cafe by the uniform praftice of the Greek writers. Examples might be found without number \Vere one to read in fearch of them. The fol- Idwing fentence will illuftrate our meaning : ’E^ovrxi *A(v]vctiot itot /3oy)6cZf-«flary,jhe native : and that thefe are all that can be confidered asj-^ff^^ necefary ; the firjl to indicate the ipeaker’s feeling orana ‘ make it more complex by the introduaion ot new modes, efpecially when thofe degrees «/ ^1'* could be marked by them are with equal and perh p greater precifion marked, m the Iwmgfpeeeh, by the different tones of voice adapted to them by nature, and in written language, by the readei s geneia ledge of the fubjeh, and “f ^ Perfens ',ho m.y ^be occalionally introduced, it there De any 1 , Th^idicadvt^Lakc, and imperative, are there- M A R. fore all the modes of the Verb which to us appear *o, be in any degree necejjary or expedient j and they are m faft all the modes that are really found m any language '^ForlhflTFimTTvTr^hts been already obferved.xhe feems on every account to be ^^^0^ mode. To that name it has no title which we can^^ nerceive except that its termination fotnetimes (lor even bu, an zbr this is not true univerfally) differs m the learned Ian-ftra contbuiance or non-continuance of my exidence, is the quedion,” is therefore equivalent m all refpect , f . r . abltraid noun in the nominative cafe, matter to be examined and the infinitive is he^ with the fubjeB of Should it be faid, that the Do-dor may have aken Sentence by ^ unco ^ ^ of ^ circum. "Hamlet's JoUnquy; we beg leaVC ^rds “Tribe ox not to bed have no perfed meaning. Were it not dances with which they are connede , j r .-.Upc wVnt is wanting to complete the fenfe, it might fdr the fubied of the foliloquy, from which every rea ei upp ‘ or a dead man! Quedions all equally be afked, “ To be or not to be—What? A coward, a murderer, a king, or a dead man . reafonable, and which in that cafe could not be anfwered. Dodor proceeds to remark upon the l the radical import of the verb with tenfe, like the proper moods^, but the Ju^ ^ ^ obferVati0n peculiar meaning as moods, and hgm J u° ^ t^b^the truth. The infinitives, as thus ufed, acquire, at leaTin ^^h^ « like the pmver of :t;trth^hdnr^t feS Turns to ex jl, to be well, to ^ along ; a mode of jbmh, t gh g Warburton at the the bed writers in the days of Shakefpeare, and is frequently ^V j} tbink, that prefent day. Dico, credo, puto, quod Titius exiftat, ^icXe mode rom tlm former fet of phrafes, Tutus may exfl, may lie along, &c. Remove the verbs in the whh them, which they have not -d it wiH be found that the infinitives^ acquired ameamng, ^ „ have ^ complete meaning, when left by themfelves •, fox Titium e\i.ere,jace , indicative Verbs are removed, together with the won- becaufe dey affirm nothing. C n tie o mr an , w - fubjunBives remains in all refpeds as it was Snrn thc‘accu'l]Cve cafe^ denoting, in co^junaion with one contplex Titius: Dico, credo, puto;. I fay, believe, think*” and the of my fpeech, belief, thought, is I mum i/lere, “ the exidence of Titius.” jn G II A M without a pa (Jive being; neither can we make a predica¬ tion of any kind, though it denote neither aBion nor paf- All verbs J'LOrii without'predicating of fomething. Ail verbs, there- have a ne- fore, whether aBive, pajjive, or neuter, have a necei- eeflary re- fary reference to fome noun expreflive of the fub- ference to ^J}ance^ 0f ^vhich the attribute, denoted by the verb, nominative Pred'lcateii- This noun, which in all languages mull cafe. io nominative cafe, is faid to be the nominative to the verb; and in thofe languages in which the verb has perfon and number, it muft in thefe refpeBs agree with its nominative. Of aBion, and confequently of verbs denoting aftion, there are obviouily two kinds. There is a» aBion which paiTes from the agent to fome fubjeB, upon which he is employed ; and there is an aBion which refpedts no ob- jeB beyond the agent himfe/f Thus lego and ambulo are verbs which equally denote aBion; but the aftion of lego refers to fome external objeB as well as to the agent; for when a man is reading, he mult be reading fome-- thing, a book, a newfpaper, or a letter, &c. whereas, the action ofambulo is confined wholly to the agent; for when a man is walking, he is employed upon nothing beyond him/elf,—his aBion produces no effeB upon any thing external. Thefe twro fpecies of verbs have been denominated tranjitive and intranjitive; a defignation ex¬ tremely proper, as the diftin&ion which gave rife to it S8 A&ive verbs tran- fitive or in- tranfitive. MAR. Chap. V. is philofophically juft. Verbs of both fpecies are aBive; Participles, but the aftion of thofe only which are called tran/itive , ^c‘ refpe&s an external objecl; and therefore in thofe lan- guages of wrhich the nouns have cafes, it is only after The for- verbs which are tran/itive as well as aBive, that the mer only noun denoting the fubjeB of the action is put in the ac- govern cufative or objeBive cafe. Verbs which are iniranfitive, though they be really aBive, are in the ftrudture of t:ve cafe.W fentences confidered as neuter, and govern no cafe. And fo much for that moft important ef all words the verb. We proceed now to the confideration of participles, adjeBives, and adverbs; which as they have a near relation to one another, wTe lhall treat of in the fame chapter. Chap. V. Of Participles, AdjeBives, and Adverbs. Sect. I. Of Participles. 90 81. The nature of VERBS being underftood, that of Participles participles is not of difficult comprehenfion. Every ('en?te an verb, except that wdiich is called theytt/yfow/zW verb, is ex- ^rTinerl preflive of an attribute, of time, and of an ajfertion. Now w;th time> if wre take away the ajfertion, and thus deftroy the verb, there will remain the attribute and the time; and thefe combined make the efience of that fpecies of words call¬ ed In confirmation of the fame idea, that the infinitive is truly a verb, the author quotes from Horace a paffage, which, had we thought quotations neceffary, we fhould have urged in fupport of our own opinion : — Ncc quicquam tibi prodefi Acrias tentassb domos, ammoque rotundum Percurrissk polum, monturo. To our apprehenfion, nothing can be clearer than that tentasse and percurrisse are here ufed as nouns; for ir they be not, where (hall wre find a nominative to the verb prodejl ? It was certainly what wTas fignified by tentasse aerias doihos, animoque rotundum percurrisse polum, that is faid to have' been no advantage to Archytas at his death. This indeed, if there could be any doubt about it, would be made evident by the two prole yerfions, which the profefibr fubjoins to thefe beautiful lines. The firft of which is as follow's : Nec quicquam tibi prodfil quod aerias domos tent a peris, et ammo percurreris polum; which muft be thus conftructed : Tenta peris aerias domos, et percurreris ammo polum {ejl id} quod nec quicquam tibi prodefi. I his veifion, however, is not perfeBly accurate 5 for it contains two propojitions, while Horace’s lines contain but one. Ehe fecond, which, though it may be a crabbed inelegant fentence, expreffes the poet’s fenfe wdth more precilion, is in the.fe rvords : bsec quicquam tibi prodejl morituro tua tent at 10 domuum aenarum, et cursus tuus circa polum. Having obferved, with truth, that this fentence has the very fame meaning with the lines of Horace, Dr Gregory alks, “ Why are not tentatio &n&.curfus reckoned verbs as wrell as tentajfe and percurrijfe P' Let thofe anfwer this queftion who believe that any of thefe words are truly verbs \ for they are furely, as he adds, all very near akin •, indeed, fo near, that the mind, when contemplating the import of each, cannot perceive the difference. Meanwdiile, we beg leave in our turn to alk, Why are not tentajfe and percurrijfe reckoned abJlraB nouns as well as tentatio •and curfus ? To this queftion it is not eafy to conceive what anfwer can be returned upon the I)o£f or’s principles. In his theory there is nothing fatisfaflory } and what has not been done by himfelf, we expefl not from his followers. On the other hand, our principles furnilh a very obvious reafon for excluding tentatio and curfus from the clafs of verbs; it is, becaufe thefe words exprefs no predication. Tentaffe and percurrijfe indeed denote predication no more than tentatio and curfus \ and therefore upon the lame principle^ ■we exclude them likewife from a clafs to which, if words are to be arranged accordiag to their import, they certainly do not belong. - • c- Should the reader be inclined to think that we have dwelt too long on this point, we beg him to refletfl, that if our ideas of the alienee of the verb and of the nature of the infinitive be erroneous, every thing which we have faid of modes and tenfes is erroneous likewife. We w7ere therefore walling to try the folidity of thofe principles w'hich hold the efience of the verb to confift in energy : and we felefted Dr Gregory’s theory for the iubjedt of examination, not from any difrefpeifl to the author, whom the waiter of this article never faw} but becaufe w7e be¬ lieve his abilities to be fuch, that — Si Pergama dextrd Defendipojfent, etiarn hac defenfa fuijfent. Chap. V. OKA M Participles, ed PARTICIPLES. Thus, ta*e away ajfertwn from the —v ' verb yo* rev Xrwv he» ‘ We WERE WALKING in the temple of Sa- the participle of the prefent walking, is by means of the verb WERE, applied to time pajl; and therefore of itfelf cannot be underftood to figmfy any fort ot time ” Again, after obferving, that m Englilh we have but two fimple participles, fuch as writing and written, of which t\se former is generally confidered as the prefent and the latter as the paf, the Doctor adds, ' But “the participle writing, joined to a vero ot dil- ferent tenfes, may denote either pajl or future action for we may fay not only, / am writing, but alio / WAS writing yefterday, and / shall BE writing to¬ morrow •” whence he infers that no time whatever. ^de¬ noted by the prefent participle. But furely this is a hafty inference, drawn from the doanne of abfolute tune and a definite prefent, which we have already ffiown to be groundlefs and contradiaory. When we fpeak limply of an aaion as prefent, we mufi mean that it is prefent with refpea to fomething befides itfelj, or we ipeak a jai- gon which is unintelligible, but we do not afeertam the time of its prefence. From the very nature of tune, -an aaion may be prefent now, it may have been prefent formerly, or it may be prefent at fame future periodp but the prccife time of its prefence cannot be afeertamed even by the prefent of the indicative of the verb itfelf yet who ever fuppofed that the prefent of the indicative ' denotes no time? The participle of the prefent reprefents the aBion of the verb as going on ; but an aaion can¬ not be going on without being prefent in time with fomething. When, therefore, Cebes fays, “ We were walking in the temple of Saturn,” he reprefents the aaion of the verb walk as prefent with fomething ; but by ufinp the verb expreffive of his affertion in a pafi tenfe, he gives us to underhand that the aBion was not prefent with any thing at the period of Vis fpeaking, but at fome portion of time prior to that period: what that portion of time was, muft be colleaed from the fubfequent part? of his difeourfe. The fame is to be faid of the phrafes 1 was Writing yefierday, and 1fball be writing to-morrow. They indicate, that the aBion of the verb ifkite was prefent with me yefierday, and will again be prefent with me to¬ morrow. The aBion, and the time of aaion, are denoted by the participle', that action is affirmed to belong to me MAR. . 4-5 by means of the verb ; and the lime at which it belong- *'lieaives; dy means oi uie vciu ? ~ 0 ^ ed to me is pointed out by the tenfes of that verb, am, was, and Jhall be. All this is io plain, that it come not have efcaped Dr Beattie’s penetration, had he not haftily adopted the abfurd And contradiaory notion of a definite prejent. . Of the truth of his affertion refpeaing pafi^ participles, he gives a Greek and a Latin example. The former is taken from St Mark : 0 nic-ivirau; rafariUti 5 mid the latter is that which is commonly called the perfeB future of the paffive verb amor, atnatus fuero. In the fiift m- ftance, he fays that the participle, though belonging to the aorift of the pajl tune, muft be rendered eitner y the indefinite prefent, “ he who believethor by the future, “he who will believe •” and thereafon which he gives for this rendering of the word is, that “ tnc believing here fpoken of is confidered as^ pofienor m time to the enunciation of the promife." I tiis is indeed true, but it is not to the purpofe ; for with the enun¬ ciation of the promife, the time of the pdrticiple has no manner of concern. The time of rnfavrcK depends en¬ tirely upon the time of with relpea to which it muft undeniably be pafi. Our Lord is not here afferting, that he who Jhall believe at the day of final retribution, be faved; but that he who ffiall on that day be found to have believed V time pafi, ffiall be faved: and if the participle had not been expreffive of nfiiiifhed aBion and a pafi time, the whole fentence would have conveyed a meaning not friendly to the intereils 01 the gofpel. In like manner, the time of amatus is referred, wo/ to tin. time of/peaking, but to the time of fuero, with refpect to which, who fees not that it is pafi? I he two words, taken together, contain a declaration, that he whu utters them Jhall, at fome time pofienor to that ot fpeaking, have BEEN loved; (hall have been loved denotes two times, hotb futurt with refped to the time of fpeak¬ ing ; but when the time, denoted by Jhall have, comes to be prefent, that of the participle loved muft be pafi, for it is declared that the aBion of it fliall then be com¬ plete and finifihed. . We conclude, then, that it is effential to a participle to exprels both an attribute and time; and that luch words as denote no time, though they may be in the form of participles, as doBus “ learned,” eloquent^ ^ elo¬ quent,” &c. belong to another part offpeech, which we now proceed to confider. Sect. II. Of AdjeBives. 91 83. The nature of verbs and participles being un-Adjectives derttood, that of ADJECTIVES becomes eafy. A denote at- implies (as we have faid) an attribute, time, and an as tion ; a participle implies only an attribute and time; andto lubSftan] an adjective implies only an attribute as belonging toces> fome fubfiance. In other words, an adjective has no affertion, and it denotes only fuch an attribute as has not its effence either in motion or its privation. Thus, in general, the attributes of quantity, quality, and relation, fuch as many, few, great, little, black, white, good, bad, double, treble, &c. are all denoted by adjectives. ^ 84. To underftand the import and the ufe of tbisTheyhave fpecies of words, it muft be obferved that every adjeftive^™?™^ is refolvable into a fubfiantive and an exprefiion of co«« “ Homer was « very fublime poetbut not, “ Homer was the wry fublime poet. (D) When Pope fayl of a certain perfon, that he is “ a tradefman meek, and ^ liar; the lad p* . the fame with much given to lying, the word liar having the effett of an attributive. 43 grammar Adverbs, &c. ic 8 Adverbs divided in¬ to claffes. top'1 The mean¬ ing of ad¬ verbs to be afcertained by etymo- logy. no Many of them mere abbrevia¬ tions. Of the adverbs' or fecondary attributives already mentioned, thofe denoting intenjion and remiffion may be called ADVERBS of quantity continuous, as greatly, vaftly, tolerably, &c. once, twice, thrice, &c. (e) are ADVERBS of QUANTITY DISCRETE j more and mod, lefs and lead, to which may be added equally, proportionally, &c. are adverbs of relation. There are others of Duality : as when we fay, fioNP.STtr indujlrious, pru- jjkNTir brave ; they fought Pg. At elt, he painted finely . And here it may be worth while to obierve, how the fame thing, participating the lame eflence, affumes dif¬ ferent grammatical forms from its difterent relations.' For example, fuppofe it fhould be afked, How differ honejl, honcjlly, and honejhy ? The anfwer is, They are m ejfence the lame : but they differ in as much as hone[) is the attributive of a noun ; honejlly, of verb or adjeciive ; and honedy bfcing diverted of thefe its attributive rela¬ tions, a flumes the power of a noun or fubjlantive, fo as to ftand by itfelf. 96. The adverbs hitherto mentioned are common to verbs of everyJpecies ; but there are fome which are con¬ fined to verbs properly fo called, that is, to fuch verbs as denote motions or energies with their privations. -All motion and ref imply time and place as a kind of necef- fary coincidence. Hence, when we would exprefs the place or time of either, rve have recourfe to adverbs form¬ ed for this purpofe •, of PLACE, as when we fay, he food sthere, he went hence, he came hither i of time, as when we fay, he food then, he went aft erw ards , he travelled formerly . 1 o thefe may be added the adverbs which denote the intenfons and rcmi/Jions peculiar to mo¬ tion, fuch as fpeedily, hafi/y, fwiftly, fowly, &c.^ as alfo adverbs of place made out of prepofttons, fucn as upward and downward from up and down. It may, however, be doubted whether fome of thefe words, as well as many others, which do not fo properly modify attributes, as mark fome remote circum/fance attending an attribute or our way of conceiving it, are truly ad¬ verbs, though fo called by the grammarians. The fimple affirmative and negative YES and NO are called adverbs, though they furely do not fignify that which we hold to be the very effence of the adverb, a modification of attributes. “ Is he learned ? No. “ Is he brave ? _ Yes.” Here the two adverbs, as they are called, fignify not any modification of the attributes and learned, but a total negation of the attribute in the one caie, and in the other a declaration that the attribute belongs to the perfon fpoken of. Adverbs are indeed applied to many purpofes *, and their general nature may be better underftood by read¬ ing a lift of them, and attending to their etymology, than by any general defcription or definition. Many of them feem to have been introduced into language in or¬ der to exprefs by one word the meaning of two or three; and are mere abbreviations of nouns, verbs, and adjec¬ tives. Thus, the import of the phrafe, in what place, is expreffed by the fingle w'ord WHERE •, to what place, by WHITHER } from this place, by hence in a direction afcending, by UPWARDS j at the prefent time, by now ; at what time, by when ; at that time, by THEN; marry times, by often ; not many times, by seldom, &c. Chap. V. 97. Mr Horne Toohe has, with great induftry and Adverbs, accuracy, traced many of the Englifh adveros from their origin in the ancient Saxon and other northern tongues, and fhown them to be either corruptions of other words or abbreviations of phrafes and fentences. He obferves, “ that all adverbs ending in LY, the mod prolific branch of the family, are fufficiently under¬ ftood : the termination being only the word like cor¬ rupted ; and the corruption fo much the more eafily and certainly difcovered, as the termination remains more pure and diftinguithable in the other fitter languages, in which it is written lick, lyk, lig, ligert.” He might have addfjl, that in Scotland the word like is, at this day, frequently ufed inftead of the Englifh termination ly ; as for a goodly figure, the common people fay a good-like figure. Upon this principle the greater part of adverbs are refolved into thofe parts of fpeech which we have already confidered, as honefly into honef-hke, vafiiy in¬ to vafdike, &c, fo that when we fay of a man he is honefly indufirwus, we affirm that he is honef-hke :n- dufiriotis, or that his indufry has the appearance of be¬ ing honefi. Adverbs of a different termination the fame acute writer refolves thus 5 Aghast into the part parti¬ ciple AGAZED ; “ The French exclaimed,—the devil was in arms. “ All the whole army flood agazedon him.” Shakesp. Ago, into the part: participle agone or gone. Asun¬ der he derives from asundred, the part participle of the Anglo-Saxon verb afundnan : a word which, in all its varieties, is to be found, he fays, in all the northern tongues 5 and is originally from fond, i. e. [and. To wit, from wittan to know ; as videlicet and fcilicet, in Latin, are abbreviations of videre-licet and fcire-licet. Needs, he refolves into need is, ufed pa¬ renthetically } as, “ I muft needs do iuch a thing.” “ I muff (need is) do fuch a thing 5” i. e. “ I mufi do it, there is need ot it.” Anon, wffiich our old authors ufe for immediately, infantly, means, he fays, in one / i. e. in one infant, moment, minute. As, “ And right anon withouten more abode.” “ Anon in all the hafte I can.1. Alone and only are refolved into all one, and oNE- LlKE. In the Dutch, EEN is one ; and ALL EEN alone ; and ALL-EEN-L1KE, only, anciently alonely. Alive is on live, or in life. Thus, “ Chrift eterne on live.” Chaucer. Aught or ought •, a whit or o whit ; o being for¬ merly written for the article a, or for the numeral ONE > and whit or hwit, in Saxon, fignifying a fmall thing, a a point ox jot. Awhile, which is ufually claffed with adverbs, is evidently a noun with the indefinite article prefixed; a while, i. e. a time. Whilst, anciently and more properly whiles, is plainly the Saxon HWILE- es, time that. Aloft was formerly written on-loft : As, “ And ye, my mother, my foveregne pleafance Over al thing, out take Chrift ON LOFTE. Chaucer. Now, fays Mr Horne Tooke, lyft, in the Anglo Saxon, Thefe words were anciently written one's, twie's, thrie's ; and are merely the genitives, of one,Jwo, t. ree, the fubftantive time or turn being omitted. Thus, How often did you write ? Anfwer, Once, 1. e. one s time. Horne Tooke's Diverfons of Turley. 3 Chap. VI. G R A Verbs, is the air or the clouds, as IN LYFTE cummende, coming ' v 1 in the clouds (St Luke). In the Danitti, EUFT is air; and “ at fpronge i luften^ to blow up into the air, or aloft. So in the Dutch, de loef hebben, to fail be¬ fore the wind j loeven, to ply to windward } loef, the weather gage, &c. From the lame root are our other words •, Loft, lofty, to luff, lee, leeward, lift, &c. It would be needlels, as the ingenious author obferves, to notice fuch adverbs as, afoot, adays, afhore, of ray, afope, aright, abed, aback, abreaf, afloat, aloud, afide, afield, aground, aland, &c. Theie are at firft view feen for what they are. Nor lhall we follow him through the analylis which he has given of many other adverbs, of which the origin is not fo obvious, as of thefe. Of the truth of his principles we are.fatisfied ; and have not a doubt, but that upon thefe principles a man converfant with our earlieft writers, and thorough¬ ly (killed in the prefent languages, may trace every Englifh (s) adverb to its fource, and.(how that it is no part of fpeech feparate from thole which we have alrea¬ dy confidered. The adverbs, however, of affirmation and negation, are of too much importance to be thus palled over } and as we have never feen an account of them at all fatisfadfory, except that wdrich has been gi¬ ven by Horne Tooke, we (hall tranferibe the fubflance of what he fays concerning AYE, YEA, YES, and NO. To us thefe words have always appeared improperly claffed with adverbs upon every definition which has been given of that part of fpeech. Accordingly, our author fays, that aye or yea is the imperative of a verb of northern extradlion ; and means, have, poffefs, enjoy. And YES is a contraftion of AY-ES, have, pof¬ fefs, enjoy, that. Thus, when it is alked whether a man be learned, if the anfwer be’by the wmrd yes, it is equivalent to have that, enjoy that, belief or that prepo- frtion. (See what wras faid of the nature of interroga¬ tion, Chap. IV. N° 76.) The northern verb of which yea is the imperative, is in Danifh ejer, to pojfefs, have, enjoy. JL]K, aye or yea ; eje, pofleffion ; ejer, pojfeffor. In Swedilh it is EGA, to poffefs; of which the imperative is JA, aye, yea : Eg are, pojfeffor. In German, JA fignifies aye, or yea ; y.igksy.k, pojfeflbr, owner; EIGEN, own. In Dutch, Eigenen is/o; JA, yea. Greenwood derives not and its abbreviate NO from the Latin; Minfhow, from the Hebrew; and Junius, from the Greek. Oar author very properly obferves, that the inhabitants of the north could not wait for a word expreflive of dilfent till the eflablifiiment of thofe nations and languages : and adds, that we need not be inquifitive nor doubtful concerning the origin and figni- Vol. X. Part I. M M A R. fication of NOT and NO; fince we find that, in tue Da- nilh, nodig, in the Swedilh nodig, and in the Dutch, NOODE, NODE, and NO, mean averfe, unwilling. So that when it is alked whether a man be brave, if the anfwer be NO, it is a declaration that he who makes it is averfe from or unwilling to admit that proposition. 98. Moll writers on grammar have mentioned a fpecies of adverbs, which they call adverbs of interroga ¬ tion, fuch as where, whence, whither, how, &c. But the truth is, that there is no part of Ipeech, which, of itfelf, denotes interrogation. A queftion is never alk¬ ed other wife than by abbreviation, by a flngle word, whether that wrord be a noun, a pronoun, a verb, or an adverb. The word WHERE is equivalent to—in what place ; WHENCE to—from what place ; and how to—in what manner, &.c. In thefe phrafes, IN what place, from what place, and IN what manner, the only word that can be fuppofed to have the force of an interroga¬ tive, is what, which is refolvable into that which. But we have already explained, in the chapter ot Pronouns, the principles upon which the relative is made to denote interrogation, and the fame reafoning will account for the adverbs where, whence, whither, how, &c. being employed as interrogatives. When we fay, where were you yeflerday ? whence have you come ? whither ai e you. going ? how do you perform your journey ? We merely ufe fo many abbreviations for the following fentences } tell us, or deferibe to us, THE PLACE where (or in which) you were yeflerday; the place whence (or from which ) you have come; THE place to which you are going ; THE manner in which you perform your journey ? And fo much for adverbs. We now proceed to thofe paits of fpeech which are ufually called prepofltions and con- junclions, and of which the ufe is to connect the other words a fentence, and to combine two or vwoxeflmple fentences into one compound fentence. Chap. VI. Of Prepofltions, ConjunElions, and In- terjedlicns. m 99. It has been obferved, that a man while awake Obje0- jitive ideas themfelves, the words which denote thofe re¬ lations cannot be injignificant. The effential difterence between the conjunction and prepofition, according to the fame author, eonfifts in this, that the former con- neds fentences, and the latter words: but the fad is often otherwife. An obvious example occurs where the eonjundion AND conneds not fentences but words. “ A man of wisdom and riRTVR is a perfed charader.1 Here it is not meant to be afferted, “ that the man of wisdom is a perfed charader, and that the man of virtue is a perfed charader both thefe aflertions would be falfe. This fentence therefore (and many fuch will occur) is not refolvable into two ; whence it follows, that the conjundion AND does not always con¬ ned fentences ; and the fame is frequently the cafe with other conjunctions. Horne Tooke's idea of prepofitions and conjunctions is, that they do not form diflinCl claffes of words, but are merely abbreviations of nouns and verbs : and with re- fped to the Englifh language, he has been remarkably fuccefsful in proving his pofition. But though fuch be undeniably the cafe in Engliffi, it would be rafli to conclude a priori that it is fo in all other tongues, d o eftabliffi this general conclufion would require a long and tedious dedudion in each particular language : and how much learning, leifure, induftry, and acute- nefs, fuch an undertaking would require, even in one tongue, it is not eafy to determine. In the languages with which we are beft acquainted, many conjunctions, and moft prepojitions, have the appearance at leaft of ori¬ ginal words ; and though this moft acute grammarian, frotn his knowledge of the northern tongues, has been able to trace the moft important of thofe in Englifti to very Chap. VI. G R A very plaufible fource!, tire fame thing would be diffi- tions. cutt in other languages of which the fources are ob- V—V 1 {'cure, and abfolutely impoflible in tbofe 01 which they are wholly unknown. It is, however, a ftrong pre- fumption in favour of his opinion, that grammarians have never been able to afllgn any general charaderjtic of thofe fpecies of words ; which, did they conilitute ditlinB parts olfpeech, one would think could not nave fo long remained undifeovered. It is a farther pre- M M A R. , . ., denoted by the conjunaion BECAUSE (h), which would be improperly ufed to connett two fentences between which the relation ef an effect to its caufe exifts not. Bu if it be faid, manners mnjl be reformed, or liberty will be loff; here the conjunaion OR, though it join Jen- fences, yet as to their meaning is a pet-fed disjundive. Between the reformation of manners and the lofs off libei - tn there is certainly a natural relation ; but it is not t e relation of contiguity ox fimihtude, or of caufe and tfe , JO Jong . r , - , h\\t oicontrarietu. The relation of contrariety therefore fumption in bis favour, that many words in Greek a . , (• nification Gf the word OR (l). And thus it Latin, as well as in Enghlh, which have been ca e- S that t}loucb all conjunaions may combine conjunBions, are obvioufly refolvable upon bis princip e., P* > ^ - f refpea to the fenfe, fome are CON- and indeed difeover their meaning and origin upon ^ others a e msTUKCTn4. mere infpeaion. We fliall therefore content ourfelves J^cnvE and others ^ ^ ^ fente„Ces^c with reding .be ^ parts of fpeech fo fai a ^ Horne NUAT1VES. The principal copulative in Englijh is0r continu- which we have already confidered. The conti-ative. ”7 IT.5 ]-)efinition of conjunc tions. the bottom of the page the analyfis given by Horne Tooke of the mofl important EngUJh conjunBions and prepofitions; and requefting our readers, who would un¬ derhand the fubjea, to attend more to the relations between their various ideas, than to the frivolous di- hindions which, in compliance with cuftom, 've are compelled to lay before them. We (hall treat firll of the conjun£lion. Sect. I. Of ConjunBions. i oi. A coniunBion is a part of fpeech of which, as its name indicated, the ufe is to conneB either two or more words in a fentence, or to make of two fimple fentences one compound fentence. It is ufually faid, that conjundions never conned words, but fenfcences only, and that this is the circumftance which diftinguifhes them from pre- pofitions. We have already given one example which proves this diftinaion to be ill founded ; we thall now give from Horne Tooke one or two more, which will place its abfurdity in a hill clearer light : Two aud two are four; John and Jane are a handfome couple; AB and BC and C A form a triangle. Are two four i is John a couple and Jane a couple ? Does one freight line form a triangle ? From the fubjoined note it appears, that and (g) may conned any two things which can be conneded, as it fignifies addition. . ConjunBions conneding fentencesfometimes conneB Which are their meaning, mb fometimes not. For example, let us either con- take thefe two fentences, Rome ivas enjlaved, La-Jar jun&ive or UVJJ. amlitious, and conned them together by the con- disjun&ive ■ n(ajon because } Rome was enfaved because La:- A . .;/ . ns well as th( AND, -- ^ nuatives are much more numerous IF, AN,^because, therefore, wherefore, hence, &C. T ne dilier- ence between them is this: The copulative does no more than barely couple words or fentences, and is therefore applicable to all fubjeds of which the natures are not incompatible (k). The relation which it denotes is that of juxtapoftion, or of one thing added to another. Continuatives, on the contrary, by a more intimate con- nedion, confolidate fentences into one continuous whole ; and are therefore applicable only to fubjeds which have an effential relation to each other, fuch as that of an ejfeB 'to its caufe or of a caufe to its effeB. 1'or ex¬ ample, it is no way improper to fay, Lyfippus was a flatuary, and Prifcian a grammarian ; the Jun Jhineth, and the Iky is clear; becaufe thefe are things that may coexift, and yet imply no abfurdity. But it would be abfurd to fay, Lyfippus was affatuary because PnJ- cian was a grammarian ; though not to lay, the jun fhineth because the /by is clear. With refped to the fir ft, the reafon is, that the word because denotes the relation which an ejfeB bears to its caufe: but the ikiL of Prifcian in grammar could not poflibly be the cauje of Lyfippus'1 s {kill in Jlatuary ; the coincidence between the fkill of the one and that of the other, in arts fo very- different, was merely accidental. With refped to the fhining of the fun and the clearnefs of thefky, the cafe is widely different *, for the clearnefs of thefky is the CAUSE of the fun's fhining, at leaft fo as to be feen by us. nS As to the continuatives, they are either suppositive, Contmua- fuch as if, an; or positive, fuch zsbecaufe, therefore, ' E Ca- fuch as ij, an; or positive, men as oecaujc, cju, c, -, f ofitlve A , • -Here the me a n in es as well as the &c. Take examples of each: Tou will live happily if you ^ UneJHy.youhehaptUy^y^t » lion which fubfifts between an ejfeB and Ms caufe; for the enflaving of Rome was the efeB of Cmfar’s ambi¬ tion. That particular relation therefore is that which is honefly ; you live happily because you live honsftlip you live honefly, therefore you live happily. ^ I he dif- ference between thefe continuatives is this : 'RXwftppo- fftives denote conneBion, but do not affert aBual ex- J G 2 iftence : /r\ Avd is a Saxon word, being (according to Mr H. Tooke-) an abbreviation of ANAD the imperative of the verb ananad, to add to or heap up. So that when we fay /ms and two are four, we only declare that ms ^T^BECAUsTis^ompoundedofthe Saxon BE_%, and caufe; and by fome of our moft ancient authors it was written by cause. * Rome was enfaved because Cafar was ambitious, is therefore equivalent to, Rome was enfaved by the caufe Ctesar was ambitious j taking the phrafe, Cafar was ambitious as an abftrad noun m . tt)"ohR“orbne0“anmlf'co„..aa;o„ of the Savon ODER, which f.gnifles i. e. fontething AJeren, and ohex!contrary. So that the conjundion or muft always denote diverfly, and very often contrariety. (K) As 4 and I**’ and ‘°U ■' f<>r "e “nnot fay of the fame porUon of Ume, it u day AM «ta n,gh ; or of the fame body, it is both hot anb cold. 52 GRAM M A R. Chap. VI. Corjunc¬ tions. 118 Pofitives, either cau- fal or col- ledlive. as, therefore, wherefore, See. The difference between Conjunc. thefe is this ; The caufals fubjoin caufes to effects ; as, tions. the fun is in eclipfe, nF.CAusu the moon intervenes; The v collectives fubjoin effects to caifes; as, the moon intervenes, 7HEREF0RS (l) The reafon of all this will be apparent from the analyhs given by Horne Tooke of thofe words w'hich we have called fuppoflive conjunclions. If and AN may be ufed mutually and indifferently to fupply each other s place ; for they are both verbs, and of the fame import. If is merely the imperative of the Gothic and /Jnpjo* Saxon verb gifan, to give; and in thole languages, as well as in the Englilh formerly, this fuppofed conjunction was pronounced and written as the common imperative GIF. Thus, “ My largeffe “ Hath lotted her to be your brother’s miftreffe, “ Gif fhee Can be reclaimed j GIF not, his prey.” Sad Shepherd, Aftii. feene I. Gawin^Douglafs almoft always ufes GIF for IF, as the common people in fome counties -of Scotland do even at this day } and it is obvious, that our IF has always the fgnif cation of the Englifh imperative give, and no other. So that the refolution of the conftrudlion in the fentence, If you live honejlly you will live happily, is fimply this, Give you live honefiy (taking you live honefly as an abftraft noun) you will live happily. \ our living happily is declared to depend upon your living honef ly as the condition ; but give that, and your happinefs is po- litively afferted. In like manner may fuch fentences be refolved as, “ I wonder he can move ! that he’s not fixed ! “ If that his feelings be the fame with mine.” Thus, 11 His feelings be the fame with mine, give that, I wonder he can move, &c. And here we cannot forbear giving our affent to the truth of Mr Tooke’s obfervation, that when the datum upon which any conclufion depends is a fentence, the article THAT, if not expreffed, may always be inferted. We do not, however, think the infertion at all times abfolutely neceffary to complete the fyntax for adlive verbs govern whole fentences and claufes of fentences as well as fubffantive nouns. Inftances of this occur fo frequently in the Latin claffics, that they can have efcaped no man’s notice who lias ever read Horace or Virgil with attention. We agree likei\iie with our moll ingenious author, that where the datum is not a fentence, but fome wow/z governed by the yeib li or GitL, the ar¬ ticle that can never be inferted. For example, if we be allied, how the weather wall difpole of us to morrow ? we cannot fay : If that fair, it wall fend us abroad \ IF THAT foul, it will keep us at home but ‘ n lair, it will fend us abroad,” &c. The reafon is obvious : the verb in this cafe directly governs the noun j and the re¬ folved conftrudtion is, “ give fair wmather, it will fend us abroad ; give foul weather, it will keep us at home.” An, the other fuppofitive conjundlion mentioned, is nothing elfe than the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb ANAN, which likewife means to or to GRANT. As, “ An you bad an eye behind you, you might lee moie o.e- tradtion at your heels than fortunes before you that is, “ Grant you had an eye behind you, you might ee, &c. This account of the two conditional conjunctions in Engiilh is fo rational and fatisfadiory, that we are ilrongly in¬ clined to believe that all thofe words which are fo called, are in all languages to be accounted for in the fame man¬ ner. Not indeed that they muff all mean precifely to give or grant, but fome 'word equivalent } luch as, be it, Jup- pofe, allow, permit, &c.j which meaning is to be fought for in the particular etymology of each reipedti ve language. (m) Of the caufal conjunctions mentioned in the text, because has been already ccnfidered 5 and fome account muff be now given of the two words since and as. The former of thefe, according to Mr H. Tooke, is a very corrupt abbreviation, confounding together different words and different combinations of wmrds. lo us it appears to be compounded of seand, feeing ; and ES, that or it ; or of siN./tw/, and es. Seand and sin are the prefent and paf participles of the Anglo-Saxon verb SEON, to fee. In modern Englilh SINCE is uled lour w^ays: two as a preposition affedfing words, and two as a conjunction affecting fentcnccs. When tiled as a prepofition, it has always the fignification of the pall participle seen joined to thence (u z. feen and thencefor¬ ward) or elfe the figuification of the paft participle seen only. WTien ufed as a conjunBion, it has lometimes the fignification of the prefent participle seeing, or seeing that ; and fometimes the fignification of the paft participle SEEN, or seen that. We lhall give examples of all thele figmfications. ift, Ks z prepojition^m- fying seen and thenceforward: “ A more amiable fovereign than George III. has not fwayed the Englifti Iceptre Since the conqueJlH That is, “ The conquejl feen (or at the completion of the fight of the conquefi), and thence¬ forward, a more amiable fovereign than George III. has not fwayed the Englilh feeptre. Since, taken 1a this fenfe, feems rather to be a corruption of SITHTHAN or SITHENCE, than a compound ol SEAND and ES. 2diy, As a prepofition fignifying seen fimply: Did George III. reign before or SINCE that example . jdly, As a conjunction, SINCE means feeing that: as, “ If I Ihould labour for any other fatisfacbon but that of my own mind, it would be an effeCt of phrenzy in me, not of hope *, since (or feeing that) it is not truth but opinion that can travel through the world without a pafiport.” qthly, It means SEEN that or that seen j as, Since death in the end takes from all whatfoever fortune or force takes from any one, it were a tooliih madneis in the fhipwreck of worldly things, when all finks but the forrow, to fave that 1. e;—“ Death in the end takes from all whatfoever fortune or force takes from any one \ that seen, it were a toohih madneis, 6tc. jls, the other caufal conjunction mentioned in the text, is an article meaning always it, or THAT, or WHICH. T^Jce the following example : “ She glides away under the foamy feas A^sfwift as darts or feather’d arrows fly.” Iftence *, the pofitives imply both the one and the 0- ther (l). The pofitives above mentioned are either causae ; fuch as, becaufe,fnce, as (m), &c.: Or coelective 3 fuch That TI9 Caufal con¬ junction' denote four wj1jc]1 kinds of canfes. Chap. VI. ^ ,v^ Covjunc- therfforu (n) the fun is in eclipfe. \ve therefore ufe tions. caufclsxn thofe inftances where, the cffeB being conipi- 1 < ' cuous, we feek for its caufe; and colleSiives, in demon- ftration and fcience, properly fo called, where the caufe being firil known, by its help we difcern effects. As to caufal conjunctions, we may further obferve, that there is no one of the four fpecies of caufes which they are. not capable of denoting. For ex¬ ample, the material caufe; The trumpet founds because it is made of metal. The formal; i he trumpet founds be- cause it is long and hollow. I he efficient; The trum¬ pet founds because an artijl blows it. I he final; Fhe trumpet founds that it may raife our courage. It is worth obferving, that the three firft caufes are ex- p re .Ted by the ftronged affirmation ; becaufe if the effeB actually be, thefe mud be alfo. But this is not the cafe with refpeiff to the laid, which is only af¬ firmed as a thing that may happen. The reafon is obvious ; for whatever may be the end which fet the artift firft to work, that end it may (till be beyond his power to obtain; as, like all other contingents, it may either happen or not. Hence alfo it is connected by a particular conjundion, THAT (o), abfolutely con¬ fined to this caufe. 103. We come now to the disjunctive conjunc- 120 Disjunctive conjunc- {tioas. MAR. ticks ", a fpecies of words which bear this contradic¬ tory name,'becaufe while they conjoin the fentences, they disjoin the fenfe •, or, to fpeak a language more intelligible, they denote relations of diversity or op¬ position. , , , ... That there fliould be fuch words, ^ whether cadcd conjunBions or not, is extremely natural. For as tneie is a principle of union diftufed through all things, by which this whole is kept together and preferved frona diffipation ; fo is there in like manner a principle of diversity diffufed through all, the fource ot di/tmc- tion, of number, and of order. Now it is to exprefs in fome degree the modifications of this diverfity, that thole words called disjunctive conjunctions are employed. I2r Of thefe disjunBives fome are SIMPLE and fome AD-Either fim- versative : Simple ; as when we fay, either p is day *,e< or it is night : Adverfative; as when we fay, it is not day but it is night. The difference between thefe is, that the fimple exprefs nothing more than a relation of diversity 5 the adverfative exprefs a relation not barely of diverfity, but alfo of opposition. Add to this, that the adverfatives are DEFINITE, the fimple INDEFINITE. Thus wffen we fay, the number three is not an even num¬ ber but (p) an odd, we not only disjoin two oppoiite attributes, but we definitely affirm the one to belong to the That is “ She glides away (with) THAT fwiftnefs (with) WHICH darts or feathered arrows fly. In ^r^1’ Ihere as ftfll reldus original ligilfication and ufe, it is written ES. So is another conjunBion of the fame imoort with AS beincr evidently the Gothic article SA or SO, which figmfies it or that. . , , , VnI As Mr Harm has called therefore, WHEREFORE, &c. colleBive conjunBions, we have retained the h more proper mlghr be found. It is indeed of anv clafs of words be called, provided the import of the words themfelves be undeiftood. VVHEREFORE ana THEREFORE evidently denote the relation of a caufe to its effeBs. They are compounds of the Saxon words mv*R a° d wi* FOR. or VOOR : and figuify, fir which, fir A/e or ,ha, It ts worthy of remark, that in fome parts of Scotland the common people even at this day ufe THIR for theje. . iformlv a Co) YVe have already coniidered the word THAT, and feen that it is never a conjuniftion but uniformly a definite article “ The7 trumpet founds (for) THAT it may raife our courage-, taking the claufe it may raft (nfcw/ragevs zn abftraft noun in concord with ,1c, and governed by/or. Or the lentence maybe refol.ed thus : “ The trumpet mav raife our courage (for) that (purpofe) it lounds. , . . r i (p) Mr Horne Tooke has favoured us with fome ingenious remarks on the two different enva ions word but when ufed in the two acceptations that are ufually annexed to it, viz. that which it bears of a fentence, and that which it has in the middle. He has given it as his opinion that this word wS employed in the’ former way, is corruptly put for BOT, the imperative of the Saxon verb BOTAN, to boot to fuperadd,Jto fupply, &c. and that when ufed in the latter it is a contraffion of be-utan, the imperative of BE o NUT VN ^ to Lout. Our ancient writers made the proper diftinftion between the orthography of the one word and that of the other. Gawin Douglafs, in particular, although he frequently confounds the two words and ufes them improperly, does yet abound with many inftances of their proper ufeand fo contrafted, as to awaken, fap ou/authorfthe moft inattentive reader. Of the many examples quoted by him, we ffiall content ourfelves with the twro following: . . . “ Bot thy worke ftiall endure m laude and glone, “ But fpot or fault condigne eterne memorie.’ Pieface. “ Bot gif the fates, but pleid, “ At my pleafure fufter it me life to leid.” _ Boo 4* If this derivation of the word BUT from BOTAN, to fiperadd, be juft, the fentence in the teat, the num et three is not an even number BUT an odd,” will be equivalent to, “ the number tnree not an,eV,:" "V”*"’ ' fuperadd (it is) an odd number;” and if fo, the oppofmon is not marked (at lead direftlyy by the ' * but by the adjeflives EVEN and ODD, which denote attributes in their own nature oppofite. It is only when BUT has this fenfe that it anfwersto/eif in Latin, or to mm, in French. In the fecund line of the quotaDon from Gawin Douglafs’s Preface, the word BUT is evidently a contraaion of BE-UTAN, and has a ienfe very d ffe- cut from that of BOT in the preceding line. The meaning of the couplet is, “ SuPEKADD (to fomethmg faid or fuppofed to be faid before) tby work (hall endure In laude and glone, BE OUT (.. e. wuhoul) fpot or fau t, &c. In the following palfage from Donne, the word BUT, although written m the fame manner, is ufed in both its meanings : “ You mull anfwer, that Die was brought very near the fire, and as good as thrown in ; or elfe, that (lie was provoked to it by a divine infpiration. But that another divine inflation moved the beholders to believe that Hie did therein a noble act, this act of her’s might have been calumniated. a 54 An impro GRAM the JuhjiB, and deny the other. But when we fay, the number of the fars is either (<3 ) even ob. odd; though we affert one attribute to be, and the other not to be, yet the alternative is notwithftanding left mdef,trite. As to adverfativedisjunBives, it has been already faid, perdiftinc- after Mr Harris, that they imply OPFOSITION: but the tion. truth feems to be, that they only unite in the fame fen- tence words or phrofes of oppofite meanings. Now it is obvious, that oppofte attributes cannot belong to the fame , fubjeB; as when we fay, Nereus was beautiful, we can¬ not SUPERADD to this fentence, that he was ugly; we cannot fay, he was beautiful, but ugly. When there is oppolition, it muft be either of the fame attribute in different fubjects; as when we fay, “ Brutus was a pa¬ triot, but Cafar tvas notOr of different attributes in the fame fuhjecf 5 as when we fay Gorgius was a fo- phift, BUT not a philofopher." Or of different attributes in different fubjeBs; as when we fay, “ Plato was a philofo- pher, but Hippias was a fophif.’1'1 The conjunctions ufed for all thefe purpofes have been called abfolute ad- verfatives, we think improperly, as the oppoftion is not marked by the conjunBions, but by the words orfentences which they ferve to conneB. Mr Lode, Ipeaking of the word but, fays, that “ it fometimes intimates a Jiop of the mind, in the courfe it was going, before it came to the end of itto which Mr Toole replies with truth, that but itfelf is the fartheft of any word in the language from intimating a fop. On the contrary, it always intimates fomething to follow ; infomuch, that when any man in difcourfe finilhes his words with but, inftead of fuppofing him to have fopped, we always afk, but what? Befides the adverfatives already mentioned, there are two other fpecies, of which the mod important are UN- Conjunc- ttons. MAR. Chap. VI. less and although. For example, “ Troy will be taken, unless the palladium be prcferved ; 7roy will ^ be taken, although HeClor defend it.” The na¬ ture of thefe adverfatives may be thus explained. As every event is naturally allied to its caufe, fo by parity of reafon it is oppofed to its preventive; and as every caufe is either adequate or inadequate (inadequate when it endeavours without being eftedual), fo in like man¬ ner is every preventive. Nowr adequate preventives are exprefled by fuch adverfatives as UNLESS : “ Troy wall be taken, unless the palladium be preferved ff that is, this alone is fufficient to prevent it. ihe inadequate ar e exprefied by fuch adverfatives as although : “ Troy will be taken although HeBor defend it $” that is, HeBor's defence will prove ineffeBual. Ihefe may be called adverfatives adequate and inadequate. Such is the doClrine of Mr Harris; which although we can difcover in it no determinate meaning, we have ventured w'ith others to retail, in refpeft to our readers, who may be more perfpicacious than ourfelves. Ihe au¬ thor was a man of great learning •, and the fubjeft, as he has treated it, appears to be intricate. But what¬ ever fenfe or nonfenfe there may be in what he fays of caufes and preventives adequate and inadequate, we have no hefitation to affirm that he has totally miftaken the import of the w ords unless and although. From thefe being called both preventives foo one adequate the other inadequate, an unwary reader might be led to infer, that they denote the fame idea or the fame relation; and that the whole difference between them is, that the exprei- fion of the one is more forcible than that of the other. Nothing, however, can be farther than this from the truth. The meaning of unless is dire&ly oppofite to that of ALTHOUGH. Unless (r) and though are is, “ You muft anfwer, that {lie was brought very near the fire, &c.” “ Superadd (to that anfwer) be out (or uni.ess or without ; for, as will be feen by and bye, all thole vyords are of the lame import) that another divine infpiration moved,” &c. To thefe remarks and examples it maybe worth while to add, that even now but is often ufed by the illiterate Scotch for WITHOUT 5 as nothing is more common than to hear a clown fay, “ He came from home BUT his breakfaft.” _ - Having mentioned without as a word of the fame import with but when diftmguilhed from BOl, it may not be improper to confider that word here 5 for though in modern Englilh it is entirely confined to the office of a prepolition, it was formerly ufed indifferently either as a prepqfitwn or a. conjunBion. v\ IiHout then is nothing but the imperative wyrtiian-utan, from the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic verb WEORTHAN, withan ; which in the Anglo-Saxon language is incorporated wdth the verb beon, effe. According to this derivation, which is Horne Toole's, the word without, whether called conjun&ion or prepofition, is the fame as BE out j and fuch will be its import, fhould it after all be nothing more than a compound of WITH, which figmfies to join, and fometimes to be, and ute, out. , . (qJ Either is nothing more than a diftributive pronoun, wffiich every body underitands *, and OR wfe hate already explained. , v r (r) So 1owt down as in the reign of Queen Elizabeth (fays Horne Toole) this conjunction w-as fometimes written oneles or on el effe ; but more anciently it was written ONLES and fometimes ONLESSE. Thus, m the trial of Sir John Oldcaftle in 1413, “ It was not poffible for them to make whole Chnftes cote without ieme, ON- LESSE certeyn great men were brought out of the way.” So, in “ ihe image of governance, y Sir . Hot, 1 541, “ Men do fere to approache unto their fovereigne Lord, oneles they be called. So again, in “ A neceffary doftrine and erudition for any Chriftian man, fet furthe by the king’s majeftie o mg and, j C43, “ Onees ye believe, ye {hall not underftande.” “ No man (hall be crow-ned, ONLES he lawiully fight. “ The foul waxeth feeble, onlesse the fame be cheriflied.” “ It cannot begynne, ONELESSE by the grace of God.” Now, ONLES is the imperative of the Anglo-Saxon verb onlesan,. to difmifs ox remove. Les, the imperative of lesan (which has the fame meaning as onlesan), is likewiie uled fometimes by old writers inftead of unless. Inftances might be given in abundance Iron G. Douglafs and Bew johnfon ; but perhaps it may be of more importance to remark, that it is this fame imperative les, which, placed at the end of nouns and coalefcing with them, has given to our language fuch adjectives as hopelefs, refilefs, deathlefs, motionlefs, &c. i. e. difmifs hope, reft, death, motion, &c. _ Mr Tooke obferves, that all the languages which have a conjunction correfpcnding to LESS or unless, as 2 well G R A Chap. VI. Cofljunc- are both verbs in the imperative mode : the former fig- uons. nifyinjT tahe away or difmifs: the latter allow, permit, 'Want, yield, ajfent. This being the cafe, “ Troy will be taken UNLESS the palladium be preferred,” is a len¬ ience equivalent to “ Remove the palladium bepreferved (taking the palladium be preferred as an abhraft noun, the prefervation of the palladium) 1 roy will be taken. A?ain, “ Troy will be taken, although HeBor de¬ fend it,” is the fame as ‘‘ Troy will be taken allow HeBor (to) defend it.” The idea, therefore, expreffed by unless is that of the REMOVAL of one thing to make wan for another ; the idea exprefled by although (s) is that of ALLOWING one thing to coexist with another, with which it is apparently incompatible. % 104. Before we take leave of this fubjeft, we might treat as others have treated, of adverbial conjundjons, and conjunftiens (t) of various other denominations. But of multiplying fubdivifions there is no end *, and fyftems, in which they abound, convey for the moll part no information. The nature of conjundions can be thoroughly underftood only by tracing each to its original in fome parent or cognate tongue j and when that (hall be done in other languages with as much luc- M M A R. cefs as it has lately been done by Mr Horne Toole in Englilb, then, and not till then, may we hope to lee a rational, comprehenfive, and confident theory^ of this 55 Conjunc¬ tions. 1 z.3 part of fpeech. Then too Ihall wt: get rid of all that . _ , farrago of ufelefs diftinclions into conjunctive, adjunC- Winch live, disjunBive, fuhjunBive, copulative, cortinuative,™^™? fubcontinuativc, poftivejuppofitive, caufal, colleBive,pre- norance. ventive adequate and inadequate, adverfuive, conditional, illative, &c. &c.j which explain nothing, and which ferve only to veil ignorance and perplex fagacity. That Mr Toole's principles will apply exadffy to the conjundions of every language both dead and living, is what our limited knowledge of thefe languages does not authorife us pofitively to affirm. It is, however, a ftrong prefumption in favour of his opinion, that illi¬ terate favages, the firft cultivators of language, are little likely to have fent out their faculties in qued of words to denote the abfraB relations fubfiding among their ideas, when we have fuch evidence as his book affords that the names of the mod comtnonfubfances and qualities could an fiver that and every other purpofe, which in the ordinary intercourfe of life can be anfwered by the faculty of fpeech. It is a farther prefumption in his favour. well as the manner in which the place of thefe words is fupplied in the languages which have not a conjundion cor- r j nt to them droiwly iudify his derivation which we have adopted. 1 he Greek *(,**, the Latin «//?, th refpondent to 1 LJ j Frtnc|, J „on all be i, not. And in the fame manner do we fometm.es W Zee in IClbXt, .Moot be i, not, bn, if, &c. it may be proper juft to add, that accord.ng to the Le author, the conjunaion lest is a contraftion of lesed the paft pamcple of lesen ; and that lest, wtth the article that either expreffed or underdood, means no more than hoc dimijfo or quo dimijfo. rsf Although is compounded of al or all, and tho’, though, that, or, as the vulgar move purely pronounce it THAF THAUF, and THOF. Now, THAF or THAUF, IS evidently the imperative thaf or thafig of the verb tha- vIan or THAFIGAN to allow, permit, grant, yield, affent •, and THAFIG becomes thah, though thoug, (and thoch w G Douglafs and other Scotch authors write it) by a tranfition of the lame fort, and at lead as eafy as that by which hIfuc becomes hawk. It is no fmall confirmation of this etymology, that antiently they often ufed all be albeit all had, all were, all give, indead of although •, and that as the Latin si (if) means be it, and MSI and cw Cnnlplf and without) mean be not, fo etsi (although) means and belt. In a work of this kind, which profeffes to treat of univerfal grammar, it would be impertinent to wade our ^ onr reaflers time on a minute analyfis of each conjundHon which may occur in any one particular language. We" Zu therefor pu Z "he fubieft no fanher ; but (hall fubjoin Mr Horee TooUe’s table of the Engblh co„- ^aions, referring Lfe who are def.rous of fuller fatisfaffion to his ingenious work entitled TheDwerfiont ofPnrleS. If An Unless Eke Yet Still Else Though or Tho’ But But Without And 1 Gif An Onles Eac Get Stell Ales 'l ~ 1 Thafig or Thaf Bot Be-utan Wyrth-utan XilxJJ j ^Anad . . Lest is the participle lesed of lesan, to difmifs. " Siththan' 'Gifan Anan OnlesaN Eakan Getan Stellan U . Alesan ^ 1 Thafigan or Thafian Bot an Beon-utan 5 To give. To grant. To difmifs. To add. To get. To put. To dimini (h. To allow. To boot, to fuperadd. To be out Wyrthan-utan To be out. ( Anan ad Dare congeriem. Since \ Syne Seand-es SlTHTHE > is the participle of Seon, to fee. 1 or ( SlN-ES That is the article or pronoun THAT. As is ES, a German article, meaning it, that, or which. And So is sa or so, a Gothic article of the fame import with as. 5 6 GRAM PrepoG- favours, that in the rudeft languages there are few if any conjunctions j and that even in others which are v ' the moft highly poliilted, fuch as Greek and Latin, as well as Engli/h, many of thofe words which have been called conjunctions are obvioufly refolvable into other parts of fpeech. Thus aXXcx. tranflated but, is evidently the neuter gender of either the nominative or accufative plural of another; and when ufed as a conjun&ion, it intimates that you are going to add fometlnng to what you have already faid. Cceterum has the lame meaning, and is nothing but kou Mais {but in French) is the Latin nwjus; ut, uti, on, quod, is the rela¬ tive pronoun. Of quocirca, quia, prceterea, antequam, puenquam, quemvis, quantumvis, quamlibet, &c. the refo- lution is too obvious to require being mentioned. Where fuch refolutions as thefe can be made, or when the con- junclions of any particular tongue can be traced to their origin in amj other, there needs be no difpute about their true import j but when the cafe is otherwife, and the conjunction either appears to be an original word, or is derived from a fource to which it cannot be traced, we 124 would advife luch of our readers as wilh to fpeak or The import write correCtly, to difmifs from their minds all confidera- ofconjunc- tjon 0f copulatives, conlinuatives, caufals, and disjunc¬ tions 111 any ■ refl; of that jargon which we have already be learned mentioned j and to inquire diligently in what manner from the and for wdiat purpofe the conjunction in quejhon is ufed by bell authors the Pgji 'writers, both ancient and modern, of the particu- modern ^ *ar language which they are fludying. This will indeed be found a w'ork of labour j but it appears to us to be the only means left of difcovering the precife relations which fuch conjunctions were intended to exprefs •, and, by confequence, of knowing what words or fentences they are fitted to conned, fo as to produce a flyle at once accurate and perfpicuous. Sect. II. Of Prepoftions. Prepofi- 105. By Mr Harris and his followers, a PREFOSI- tions unite -pjoN is defined to be a part of fpeech devoid itfelf offg- two words n-jicatiQn^ hut Jn formed as to unite two words that are tocVak'fce fgnificant, and that refufe tocoalefce op unite of themfelves. of them- We have already exprefled our opinion of that theory felves, which holds certain words to be devoid of Jignif cation ; but its abfurdity, in the prefent inilance, is more than ever glaring. Concerning the number of prepoftions, it is well known that hitherto authors have never agreed. The ancient Greek grammarians admitted only 185 the ancient Latin grammarians above 50 ; though the moderns, SanCtius, Sciopius, Penzomus, Vof- fus, and Ruddiman, have endeavoured to leffen the number without fixing it. Bilhop Wilkins thinks that 36 are fufficient j and Girard fays that the French language has done the bufinefs effeClually with 3 2. But if prepoftions be w7ords devoid of fgnifcation, why Ihould there be difputes refpeCling their numbers ? or why in any language fhould there be more than one prepofition, fince a fugle unmeaning mark of conneClion would certainly anfwer the purpofe as vrell as a thoufand ? The cypher, which has no value of itfelf, and only ferves (if we may ufe the language of grammarians) to connote and cotifgnify, and to change the value ofyf- qures, is not feveral and various, but uniformly one and the fame. That “ the prepoftion is fo formed, as to unite two words which refufe to coalefce or unite of themfelves,” is indeed true; and this union it eflfeas, MAR. Chap. VI, not by having nofgnfcation of its own, but hy fgnif ying Prepofi- the relation by which the things expreiTed by the united, i words are coryieCled in nature. Prepoftions are to be 12or. (y) If, for inftance, we were to fubilitute with or OF inftead of through, we fhould in the one caie alter the meaning^ 58 Prepofi- tions. Prepofi- tions ori¬ ginally de¬ moted the various re¬ lations of body,. 129 and were at firft ei¬ ther verbs or nouns. GRAM prepofitions were originally formed to denote the rela¬ tions of place. For this opinion we fee not fufficient evidence. If indeed we could fuppofe the inventors ox liell improvers of language to have at all concerned them- felves with relations as ahjlraBedfrom the objetis related, we muft believe that thofe which firll attracted their at¬ tention were the relations fubfifting among themfelves, and the various bodies with which they were furround- ed. We muft likewife agree with our author, that/r/sef is the grand relation which bodies or naturalfibjlances maintain at all times to one another ; but we do not therefore think that it would attract the earlujl notice of untaught barbarians. On the contrary, we are of opinion that mankind muft have made very confiderable progrefs in fcience before they attempted to abftrad place from body; an attempt which, according to fome of the moft profound philofophers (z), is not only dii- ficult, but abfolutely impradlicable. But whatever be in this, the relations of caufe and ejfedl, of duration and motion, are in themfelves as obvious, and as likely to ar- rejl the attention and obtain names, as thofe of place.— Among men totally illiterate they are evidently more fo *, for pain and pleafure would fuggeft fome idea of caufe and efte£l as matters of importance. I here is, however, no probability that the inventors of any language had the leaft idea of abjiracl relations. They doubtlefs exprefled complex conceptions by nouns and verbs, fignificant at once of the particular ideas and of the various relations by which they viewed thofe ideas as combined together in a complex conception. Afterwards, when mens minds be¬ came enlarged, and when, from the ilucluation infepara- ble from a living language, objefts or ideas received new names, the old words, whether nouns or verbs, which were originally employed to exprefs a particular complex M A H. Chap. VI. conception, of which certain particular RELATIONS made Prepofi- a part, might be retained for the purpofe of denot-1 tl0ll!l- < ing thofe and all fwular relations ; and thus verbs ' and nouns wmuld degenerate into particles bearing the names of prepofitions and conjunRions. For in- ftance, one Anglo-Saxon being defirous to communi¬ cate to another his own conception of a houfe with a party-wall, and having (we (hall fuppofe) no fuch word in his tongue as a prepo/ition, would naturally utter the wTord houfe, defiring his friend, at the fame time, to . add to that well known found another found (uttering it) fignificant of the particular circumftance wanting to complete his complex conception;—A houfe WITH (i. e. Join) a party wall. The wmrd with, as the im¬ perative of a verb, denotes of courfe three ideas com¬ bined together, viz. a command or vojh, an affirmation, and the idea of junffion. But when the verb withan was difmifled from the Englifti language, the impera¬ tive with was ftill retained •, but lofing its verbal and modal nature, it was thenceforth employed to denote only one of the three ideas for which it originally flood, viz. the idea of junRion. And thus it is, that verbs, and alfo nouns and adjeRives, in palling from one lan¬ guage to another, may become prepofitions (a) and con¬ junRions. Thus too it is, that fome of thofe prepef- tions come to denote the contiguous, and fome the de¬ tached, relation of body. The contiguous, as when we fay, Cains walked with a faff; i. e. Cains join a faff walked; the fatue food upon (b) a pedefal, i. e. the fatue food (the place of its Handing) the HIGHER PART of a pedefal; the river ran OVER a fund, i. e. the river ran (the place of its running) the higher fart of a fand. The detached relation, as when we fay, He is going TO (c) Italy, he. He is going, THE END meaning, and in the other fpeak nonfenfe. “ The fun warmeth WITH the air the fertile earth, is an affirmation that the fun warmeth BOTH THE AIR AND THE EARTH ; whereas the original fentence affirmed nothing more than that he warmeth the earth. “ The fun warmeth OF the air the fertile earth,” is nonfenfe as it makes the earth a part, or a confequence, of the air. So neceffary is it that prepofitions have a meaning, and that the meaning oi each be attended to. . . ~ rALJ (z) The Bifhops BERKELEY and Law, with the very learned and ingenious Principal Campbell ot Aberdeen. See The Principles of Human Knowledge, Law’s Notes on King’s Origin of Evil, and The Philofophy of Rhetoric. (a) As the Italian fubftantive casa, houfe, race, family, nation, &c. m palling to the Fiench, becomes the prepofition CHEZ, to which there is not, fo far as we know, a prepofition of precifely the fame import m any language. Senza or SENZE, in Italian, becomes sans in French, and means alfence. Nor is it neceflary that verbs and nouns ihould always pafs from one language to another, in order to be converted into prepojitwns. 1 he Greek prepofition viw? is evidently the corrupted imperative of to fever, to disjoin, to feparate. The Latin sine is SIT NE, be not. The German SONDER is the imperative of SONDERN, which has the fame meaning fB)Vp, UPON, OVER, BOVE, above, have all, fays Horne Tooke, one common origin and fignification. In the Anglo-Saxon, UFA, UFERA, ufemtf.st, are the adjeRives altus, ALTIOR, ALTISSIMUS. Lpa or ufan, up; comparative ufera, ofere or OFER, over or upper ; fuperlative UFEMiEST, upmof ox uppermef. Beufan, bu- FAN, on-bufan, bove, above. If this be a juft account of the origin of thefe words, the fentences 111 the text, where upon, over, and above, occur, will run thus : “ The ftatue flood ON HIGH a pedeftal; the river ran higher a fand “ the fun is rifen on high the hills.” And here we may obferve, that the mote relation betweenpTW- ing, running, &c. and place, is rather inferred from the verb itfclj, than exprtffed by feparate wore , an tie reafon is obvious. For if a ftatue fand, every one knows that it muft Hand on fome thing as well as at fome time. There is therefore no neceffity, whatever elegance there may be in it, for employing any word to denote XhxxX. rela¬ tion, which is commonly believed to be fignified by on ; but it is neceffary to infert, between the verb an pedefa , a word fignificant of place, that pedefal may not be miftaken, by an ignorant perlon, for a portion of time, or any thing elfe connected with the /landing of the fatue. . u i (c) That TO is fignificant of detached relation, is the language of Mr Hams, which, though it may be al¬ lowed in a loofe and vulgar fenfe, is certainly not philofophically juft. The prepoiition TO (m Hutch written toe and tot) is the Gothic fubftantive ; taui or tauhts fignifying aR, effeR, rejult, or conjummatwn; which Gothic fubftantive is itfelf no other than the paft participle tauid or tauids 0. the verb taujan agcrc. An Chap. VI. G R A M Prenofi- end (of his journey) Italy i the fun is rifen above the PSs! hills i. e. the fun is rifen (the place) THE top of the ' hills : thefe Jigs came FROM Turkey, i. e. thefefigs came rfginning (their iourney at) Turkey. . . Befides the detached relation of body, Mr Harris is of ooinion that the prepofition FROM denotes two other relations not lefs different than thofe of motion and. refi. Thus if we lay, “ That lamp hangs from the ceiling, the prepolition FROM aflumes a character o qmefcence. MAR. But if we fay, That lamp is falling YKOU the ceding, the prepofition in fuch cafe affumes a character f ”l0tl0T1‘ But this is evidently a miftake : the detached relation in the former inltance of the/jv, as well as the motion and reft in the prefent inftances, are expreffed not by the prepofition, but by the verbs came, falls, hangs. I he word from has as clear, as precife, and at all times as uniform and unequivocal a meaning, as any word in the language. From means merely beginning, and no- — — " ' " \ , r -n. j T« Tpnrnnic this verb is written TUAN or it is obvious, that what is dont, terminated, en ,v , /.nijle. Anvlo-Saxon, the verb is TEOGAN, TUON whence the modern German THUN, and rts ™/"ik^is7e^edg from the fame root, and is in- nnd the prepofrtion TO. Do the aux.hary verb as 'E fmall, that an etymologift knows by ^and^LLS b^the ^ of ag4e, which pad participie is hkew.fe employed as a Uun fubjlantive. He exh.b.ts the denvaum^of AD thus, r J r AGDUM AGD* ajj Agitum—agtum < or or or The moft fuperficial reader of Latin verfe (he ^ves) knows how eafily AGD or act would writers of Rome, the prepofition was written ad w y, ; h h Sr on] though that hkewife had word called the conjunaion AT •, which for the ^me reafon fition TQ and ^ conjunclion too in Eng- anciently been written, as the prepofition, either AG or the' repofltionPAD and the conjunaion at in Latin. From lilh, are both \nfynUx and in tneamngM exaffly “ ‘h^00“‘™ “ “ it apF Js that, as late as the reign of the fpecimens prefixed to Johnfon s diTionary, y ^ d jt has been fhown in the firft vo- Klizabeth, the^c^rW and eonjunS.", were both wr‘ue" wrth ono O An ^ i d bis country.” “ He was a literally, “ He frequented the court of the tyrant-, joined EVEN from verbs courtier and a patriot too.” But if ad and AT in Latin, am , denote addition. The anfwer is obvious. which fignifj- to DO or act, it may be afked how they come thenjfdvcs to denote addition. 1. jf 6o G R A M M A R. Chap. VI Prcpofl- tiling elfe. It is limply the Anglo-Saxon and Gothic tions. noun YKUW,he ginning, origin,fource, fountain, aulhorfo'). Now if this meaning be applied to Mr Harris’s in- Itances, from will fpeak clearly for itfelf, without the afliifance of the interpreting verbs,' which are fuppofed by him to vary its character. “ Thefe figs came from Turkey.” “ That lamp /fl//j from the ceiling.” “ That lamp hangs from the ceiling.” Came is a complex term for one fpecies of motion j falls is a complex term for another fpecies of motion y and hangs is a complex (e) term for a fpecies of attach¬ ment. Have we occalion to communicate or mention the commencement or beginning of thefe motions, and of this attachment, and alio the place where they commence or begin ? To have complex terms for each occafion of this fort is abfolutely impoflible y and there¬ fore nothing can be more natural or more fimple than to add the fignsof thofe ideas, viz. the word beginning (which will remain always the fame) and the name of the place (which will perpetually vary). Thus, “ Thefe figs came—beginning ’Turkey.,'1 “ That lamp falls—beginning ceiling.''"' “ That lamp hangs—beginning ceiling."''1 That is, “ Turkey the place of BEGINNING to come.” “ Ceiling the place of beginning to fall.” “ Ceiling the place of BEGINNING to hang.” It has been faid by no lefs a man than Bilhop Wilkins, that FROM refers primarily to place, and fecondanly to time. But the truth is, that from relates to every thing to which beginning relates, and to nothing elfe. “ From morn till night the eternal larum rang.” That is, “ The larum rang BEGINNING morning (or morning being the time of its BEGINNING) till night.” As from always denotes beginning, fo to and TILL always denote the end. There is, however, this dif- ^rene'e between them, that to denotes the end of any thing; TILL the end only of time. We may fay indif¬ ferently—“ From morn TO night,” or “ from morn TILL night, the eternal larum rang 5” but we cannot fay—“ Thefe figs came from Turkey till England.” That till can, with propriety, be oppofed to FROM Prepofi. only when we are talking of time, is evident y for it is , r ons- , a wTord compounded of to and while, i. e. time. And as the coalefcence of thefe two words to-whilf, took place in the language long before the prefent fuper- fluous ufe of the article the, the phrafe—“ From morn TILL night”—is neither more nor lefs than—From mom ro time night. When we fay, “ from morn to night,'1'' the word-TlME is omitted as unneceffary. Befides FROM, Mr Harris mentions OVER as fignificant fometimes of motion and fometimes of rejl; and quotes as inftances the two following paflages from Milton ; To fupport unea/y ftps Over the burning marl. Here, fays he, over denotes motion. Again, He with looks of cordial love Hung OVER her enamoured. Here OVER denotes ref. But the truth is, that OVER denotes neither molion nor ref in either of the paffages. In the firft quotation, indeed, motion is implied ; but it is implied in the word STEPS y and not in OVER, which denotes only that the place of the fteps w?as the top of the burning marl. In the fecond quotation ref is im¬ plied, and that too a particular fpecies of reft y but it is implied or rather expreffed by the verb HUNG, and OVER denotes the place of that fpecies of reft. 108. But though the original ufe of prepofitions was to denote the relations of body, they could not be confined to this office only. They by degrees extend- 'p'neVwere ed themfelves to iuhf&LS incorporeal; and came to de-by decrees note relations, ?isvsz\\intelle£lual as local. Thus, becaufe in extended to place he who is above has commonly the advantage over hlhieCh jn- him who \sbelow; hence we transfer oVERanduNDER(F)C01l’0‘tu''J to dominion and obedience. Of a king, we fay, he ruled over his people ; of a foldier, he ferved under his general. So too we fay, vith thought •, without attention y think¬ ing over a fubjecl y under anxiety y from fear y through jealoufy, &c. All which inftances, with many others of like kind, fttow, that the firft words of men, like their firf ideas, had an immediate reference to fenfible objeBs ; and that in after days, when they began to difeern with their intellect, they took thofe words which they If a man fliould utter a fentence, and to the end of it fubjoin the very general word DO, the perfon to whom he fpoke, would naturally afk, do what ? and this queftion would, of courfe, produce an additional fentence or claufe of a fentence. Befides, it is to be obferved, that AGERE, from which the Latin prepofttion is derived, as well as the Gothic verb, which is the fource of the Engliffi particles, means not only to do, but alfo to ad¬ duce or bring ; fo that when we fay, “ he is going to Italy,” we do nothing more than affirm that “ he is go¬ ing,and defire the perfon to whom we fpeak, “ to add Italy to the journey.” 'From this derivation of the prepofition TO, it will be feen at once upon what principle it is employed to mark the infinitive mode. In the learned languages that mode is generally known by its termination ; but in Engliffi it would be impoffible, without the aid of TO or of fome other wmrd fignificant of atfion, to diftinguiffi the VERB love from the noun or fubfantive. (d) This derivation is Mr Horne Tooke’s j and he fupports it by the following fentence : Ne r.edd ge se THE ON FRUMMAN WORTHE, HE WORHTE WGERMAN AND WIFMEN j which is the Anglo-Saxon of St Matt. xix. 4. “ Annon legiftis, quod qui eos in pnneipio creavit, creavit eos marem et feminarn ?” (e) Thefe are complex terms becaufe they are verbs. Each denotes an affirmation and time y and combined with thefe, came and falls denote motion, and hangs denotes ref. (f) Under and BENEATH, though by the found they feem to have little connection, are yet in faCt almoft" the fame w’ord, and may very well fupply each other’s place. Under is nothing but on-^neder, and beneath is compounded of the imperative BE and the noun neath. Neath uncompounded having flipped away from our language, would perhaps be unintelligible, had not the nouns nether and nethermost ftill continued in common ufe. Neath y Anglo-Saxon, neothan, neothe ; Dutch, neden y Danilh, NED ; German, NIEDRE y and Swedifli, nedre and ' neder •, is undoubtedly as much a fubftantive, and has the fame meaning, as the ■word nadir. In common language it den’otes the bottom^ Ch'-p. VI. ■■ fiep jfi- they found uWy mode, and transferred tnem by me- tions. tanlior to inte/lefiual conceptions. . . , ' 'PAmono- the relations which may be confidered ra¬ ther asintelleaual than corporeal, arethofe of caufe and grammar. ther by the latter prepofition, the obied exprehed by the firft word or fentence is declared to be the COK£E- OUENCE of, or to PROCEED from, the objecl expfeljed by the fecond. It is therefore a matter of perfeft indif¬ ference to the fenfe, whether we fay ftcknefs o? hunger 6i Prepofi- *.ions. confequence ; and for the denoting ot theie we ave rhiefs t,QR hunter; The man, of he /peaks little, is wife, Which di— U By means of the to one another, and at ot without injury to the fenfe prepofition OF, we declare ficknefs to be the CON se¬ quence proceeding from hunger, and nvifdom to be the CONSEQUENCE we infer from the man's /peaking htue, ,, IVvcherlev's Uountry w ije. by means of FOR, we declare hunger to be the cause c f gallant. n/nlaced in oppofition: at fickn/s, and the circumilance oi/peaking little to oe e Here of and for feem almop i P d;f_ CAUSE from which we ;nfer the man's wfdom.. In the lead their efte&s in the fentence appeal to i _ > r „„ 4.^ ua a noun in afifio/i- ferent ; for, by the help of thefe two prepormon*a one Well! his e’en fo ! I have got the London dif- eafe they call love. I am fick of my hufband, and FOR my gallant.” Wycherley's Country 1^ and without le aflifta^nce of any other words die ex- prelfes the two contrary affedions of loathing and The truth, however, is, that the author if it had pleafed him, might have ufed OF where he has emp ey¬ ed for, and FOR where he has put OF. I his is evident from the following quotation . “ Marian. Come, Anne, you llgo with us. “ Amie. I am not well. n , a l l “ Lionel. She's fick of the young foepherd that bc- M her." . Sad Shepherd. In the fame manner we may, with equal propriety, fay—“ We are fick OF hunger or--“ We are fim. FOR hunger.” And in both cafes we {hall have expief- fed precifely the fame thing, with only this difference, that in the former fentence, we declarefcknefs to be a consequence ; in the latter, we declare hunger to be a cause. But to return to the country that poor Hi one lentence, OF is to be confidered*as a noun \s\ appojt tion to ficknefs ; in the other, as a noun in appofiuon to the man is wife taken abflraElly as a noun. In the one fentence for (i. e. cause) is to be confidered as a noun in appofition to hunger ; in the other, as xkefame noun in apportion to he /peaks little taken abJlraBly^ as a noun. 100. In the foregoing ufe of prepofitions, we have Prepofi- feen how they are applied by way of juxta-pofition; that is to fay, where they are prefixed to a word with-with out becoming a part of it. But they are ufed alio 6yother way of compofition ; that is, they are prefixed to other words words fo as to become real parts of them. Greek \\c have iTrieleca-txi ; in Latin mtelligere , an m Englifh uNDRRjland. So alfo, to 10 re tel, to or Enact, to uNDERvalue, to outgo, &c. *, and in Gra>£ and Latin other inftances innumerable. In this cafe the prepo 1- tions commonly transfufe fomething of their own mean- incr into the word with which they are compounded, 132 fick for love. She wTas Sick of d'fgufl for her hujband ; Sick of love for her gallant. Sick for difgujl of her hujhand. Sick for love of her gallant. . In the firft fentence, as thus Hated, ficknefs is declared to be the consequence of difguf, of which her hujband is declared to be THE cause. In the fccow\,fickneJs is declared to be the consequence of love, of which her gallant is declared to be the cause. In the third len¬ tence, disgust is declared to be the cause of her Jic - nefs, and the consequence or offspring of her huj¬ hand. In the fourth, love is declared to be the cause of her ficknefs, and the CONSEQUENCE or offspring of her gallant. r n c Thus, then, it appears, that though the two/rf ot thefe fentences, taken entire, ponvey the very fame mean- ing with the two lajl, yet the import of the prepofition FOR is as different from that of OF, as CAUSE is from When two words ox fentences are Enormis is fomething not fimply big, but oig in excels j ing into fomething got out of the rule, and beyond the meafure. thofe^ Dico, “ to fpeak *,” ndieo, “to fpeak out j whence Ediflum “ an edi£l,” fomething lo effeftually fpoken as all are fuppofed to hear and all to obey.—On the contrary, IN and SUB diminifti and leffen. InjuJIus, iNiquus, “ UNjuft, iNequitable fomething that lies within iuftice and equity, that reaches not io far, that falls jhortof them. Sunniger, “ blackiftr •,” susrubicundus “ reddiih tending to black, and tending to red} but yet under the ftandard, and below perfeftion. '33 ' no. Before we difmifs this part of our fubjeft, weThmre^ fiiall make the fame general remark on prepojitions that to De difc0. we formerly made on conjunctions ; vi%. that the precue vere^# import of each can with certainty be known only by tracing it to its fource in fome word of known and de¬ terminate meaning, either in the language where the prepofition itfelf has place, or in fome parent or cog- nate tongue. And it may be laid down as an mfal.ib.e rule, that where different languages ufe the fame or a fimiiar particle, that language ought to be confidered CONSEQUENCE (g). - linked together by the former of thefe prepohtiom ^ mreZIn which°the true meaning of °l’jf by*f y™*«£*g**££ he :ohg“ePfoU and where its ufe is as cora- linked 4* ^ ^ verbs andjub- (g) derives FOR from the Greek wg. ; Stimer, ^frore the Gothic that it is no other than the Gothic fubftantive fairing, cau.e. f T and \FORA pojhritas, and Anglo-Saxon af) is a fragment of the Gothic and Anglo-Saxon '"’'i (Vomer always meaning caufe, proles, &c. In a word, he conliders Fort and OF as nouns or fubftant.ye ; the fomer ^ the latter always meaning conjeoucr.ee, of spring, fuccfor, follower, • confidered as nouns in appojitiox and we have no doubt of it, the prepofitions for and of arc m fyntax to be coiwe.ed as PI J with other nouns} ys with fentences taken ab/ractiy iu nouns. 6z GRAM Interjec- flantlves. When -prepofitions can be traced to fuch tl0ns^ , fources as thefe, no room can be left for difputes v* concerning their meaning. In carrying on this ety¬ mological purfuit, we find advantages in the nature of prepofitions which conjunBiuns do not afford us. With and without, from and to, with many other words belonging to this clafs, have meanings direftly oppo- fite and contradi£lory to each other. If, then, by the total or partial extindHon of an original language, the root of any one prepofition be loff, whilft that of its oppofite remains, the philofopher ought to be fatisfied with reafoning from contrariety; as nothing is more evident, than that the meaning of a word is known when wTe know with precifion the meaning of its op¬ pofite. When we meet, however, wdth a lucklefs prepofition of which no root is left to be dug up, and which has itfelf no diredl oppofite in the language, no¬ thing remains but that w7e inquire for wThat purpofe it is ufed by the bell writers both ancient and modern j and if we can fix upon one meaning which wall apply, however awkwardly, to all the places where it occurs, or to the greater part of them, the probability is, that wc have difcovered the true and original (h) meaning of the prepofition ; and by keeping that meaning con- ftantly in view, we fhall ourfelves be enabled to ufe the word with perfpicuity and precifion. *34 The inter Sect. III. Of InterjeBions. ill. Befides the above parts of fpeech, there is an- jedtion not other acknowledged in all the languages of Europe, called the interjection *, a word which cannot be comprehended under any of the foregoing claffes. properly any part of fpeech. The genuine interjecliom are very few in number, and of very little importance, as they are thrown into a fen- tence without altering its form either in fyntax or in jignif cation. In the wmrds of Horne Tooie, the brutilh inarticulate interjection has nothing to do with fpeech, and is only the miferable refuge of the fpeechlefs. The dominion of fpeech, according to the fame author, is eredted on the downfal of interjeBions. Without the artful contrivances of languages, mankind would have nothing but mterjeElions with which to communicate orally any of their feelings. “ The neighing of a horfe, the lowing of a cowr, the barking of a dog, the purring of a cat, fneezing, coughing, groaning, Ihriek- -ing, and every other involuntary convullion with oral found, have almoft as good a title to be called parts of fpeech as inttrjeEhons. In the intercourfe of language, interjeBions are employed only when the fuddennefs or vehemence of fome affedfion or paffion returns men to their natural ftate, and makes them for a moment forget the ufe of fpeech ; or when, from fome circum- flance, the (hortnefs of time will not permit them to exercife it.” The genuine interjedlion, which is al¬ ways expreffive of fome very ffrong fenfation, fuch, as AH ! w’hen we feel pain, does not owe its charadterifti- MAR. Chap. VI. cal expreffion to the arbitrary form of articulation, Inarjec- but derives its whole force from the tone of voice and tior.s. modification of countenance and geffure. Of confe- -v—'—^ quence, thefe tones and geftures exprefs the fame meaning, without any relation to the articulation which they may affume \ and are therefore univerfally under- ftood by all mankind. Voluntary interjedlions are ufed in books only for embellifliment, and to mark forcibly a ftrong emotion. But where fpeech can be employed, they are totally ufelefs ■, and are ahvays in- fufficient for the purpofe of communicating thought, Dr Beattie ranks f range, prodigious, amazing, wonderful, 0 dear, dear me, &c. w hen ufed alone, and without apparent grammatical fyntax, among the interjeBions: but he might with as much propriety have confidered hardly, truly, really, and even many Latin verbs, as interjeBions; for thefe twro are often ufed alone, to fupply the place of whole fentences. The truth is, that all men, when fuddenly and violently agitated, have a ftrong ten¬ dency to ftiorten their difcourfe by employing a fingle word to exprefs a fentimenl. In fuch cafes, the wTord employed, wdiether noun, adjeBive or verb, would be the principal word of the fentence, if that fentence were completed j and the agitation of the fpeaker is fuch, and the caufe of it fo obvious, that the hearer is in no danger of miftaking the fenfe, and can himfelf fupply the w-ords that are wanting. Thus if a perfon, after liftening to a romantic narrative, were to exclaim, Jlrange! would any man of common fenfe fuppofe, that the word Jlrange, becaufe uttered alone, had loft the power of an adjeBive and become an interjeBion ? No, furely : Every one fees, that the exclamation is equivalent to, That is strange, or That is a strange Jlory. Real interjections are never employed to con¬ vey truth of any kind. They are not to be found amongft laws, in books of civilinjlitutions, in hi/lory, or in any treatife of uleful arts or fciences ; but in rhetoric and poetry, in novels, plays and romancer, v/\iexe in Eng- lifti, fo far from fiw'mg pathos to the ftyle, they have ge¬ nerally an effect that is difgufting or ridiculous. Having now analyfed every part of fpeech which can be neceffary for the communication of thought, or which is acknowledged in any language with which we are acquainted 5 we (hall difmifs the article of Gram¬ mar, after annexing a Table, which may prefent at one viewT the feveral clnffes wads fuhdivifions of words. Of the different modes of dividing the parts of fpeech, as wTell as of the little importance oi fyjlematic clajfifications, wre have already declared our decided opinion : but for the fake of thofe who may think differently from us, we (hall in the annexed Table adopt Mr Harris's clafiifi- cation as far as it is intelligible; after informing our readers that Mr Horne Toohe admits only three parts of fpeech, the article, the noun, and the verb, and ccnfiders all other wmrds as corruptions or abbrevia¬ tions of the two laft of thefe. A (h) For inftance, let us fuppofe that Horne Tooke's derivation of FOR, from the Gothic fubftantive fairin'A, is fanciful and ill-founded *, yet there can be little doubt but cause is its true and original meaning, when it is found, that of fixteen examples brought by Greenwood, and forty-fix by Johnfon, of different fignifications of the word FOR, there is not one vrhere the notm cause may not be fubftituted inftead of the prepoftion FOR ; fometimes indeed awkwardly enough, but always without injury to the f nje. Even where for feems to be loco altenus, which Lowth afferts to be its primary fenfe, it will be found to be cause, and nothing eife : r\\scs% He made confide! able progrefs in the fludy of the law before he quitted that profefjion rex this of poetry ; i. c. before he quitted that profejjiott, this of poetry being the cause of his quitting it, I G II A [ 63 ] G R A Gramma¬ rian u Granada. GRAMMARIAN, one that is {killed in or teaches grammar. . . . f , Anciently the name grammarian was a title ol ho¬ nour, literature, and erudition, being given to perfons accounted learned in any art or faculty whatever. But it is otherwife now, being frequently ufed as a term of reproach, to fignify a dry plodding penon, employed about words and phrafes, but inattentive to the true beauties of expreflion and delicacy of fenti- ment. The ancient grammarians, called alfo philolo- grrs, mult not be confounded with the grammatilts, whofe foie bufinefs was to teach children the Hrft ele¬ ments of language. Varro, Cicero, Melfala, and even Julius Caefar, thought it no dilhonour to be ranked grammarians, who had many priveliges granted to them by the Roman emperors. GRAMMONT, a town of France, in Upper Vi¬ enne, remarkable for its abbey, which is the chief of the order. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 46. x. GRAMPIAN hills ; a chain of high mountains in Scotland, which run from eaft to weft almoft the whole breadth of the kingdom. See (Scottijl}') Alps and Scotland.—They take their name from only a {ingle hill, the Mans Grampius of Tacitus, where Gal- gacus waited the approach of Agricola, and where the battle was fought fo fatal to the brave Caledonians. GRAMPOUND, a town of Cornwall in England, feated on the river Valle, over which there is nere a bridge. W. Long. 5. 2,5. N. Eat. 50. 20. The in¬ habitants have a confiderable manufafiure of gloves ; and the town fends two members to parliament. Some think that this town is the V oluba of the ancients, becaufe it ftands on the fame river 5 and that on the building of the bridge, the name was. changed into. Grandpont. It was made a borough in the reign , of Edward III. by whofe charter it was endowed with large privileges, particularly freedom fiom toll through all Cornwall, a market on Saturday, and three fairs 111 the year ; which the burgeffes hold of the duchy of Cornwall in fee-farm, at the rent of about 12 guineas. Its privileges were confirmed by King Henry VIII. but it did° not fend members to parliament till the reign of Edward VI. It is a corporation with a mayor, eight magiftrates, a recorder, and town-clerk. The mayor is chofen annually the Tuefday before Mi¬ chaelmas, and the members by the majority of the magiftrates and freemen, who are fuch of the inhabi¬ tants as pay fcot and lot. There is a chapel of eafe in the town to the parifti church, which is at Creed about a quarter of a mile off. GRAMPUS, a fpecies of delphinus. See Delphi- Nus, Cetology Index. GRANADA, a province of Spain, which for a long time was a kingdom diftindl from the reft of that country. See the article Spain.—It made a part of the ancient Baetica} and was inhabited by the Ba- ftuli, the Sexitani, &c. At prefent it is fometimes called Upper Andalufta. It is bounded to the fouth and eaft by the Mediterranean, to the weft and north by Lower Andalufia, and to the north-eaft by Murcia. Its extent from weft to eaft is two hundred and ten miles *, but its greateft breadth exceeds not eighty. The air here is temperate and healthy j and though there are many mountains in the province, and iome of them very high, yet they are almoft everywhere covered with vines and fruit-trees, together with lau- Granada. rel, myrtle, fweet-bafil, thyme, lavender, marjoram, ' and other aromatic herbs, which give an exquifite tafte to the flefti of their Iheep and cattle. A great deal of filk and fugar, flax and hemp, honey and wax, is alfo produced here •, befides dates and acorns, lupe- rior to the fineft nuts; good ftone for building ; feve- ral forts of gems} fumach, ufed in drefling goat-{kins j and galls, of which a dye is made for leather. I he valleys, with which the mountains are interfperfed, are extremely beautiful and fertile. The inhabitants of fome of the higheft mountains are faid to be defeen- dants of the Moors*, and, though they are become Ro¬ man Catholics, retain, in a great mealure, their ancient cuftoms, manners, and language. The principal rivers in the province are the Genii or Xenil, and Guada- lantin, belides which there are many leffer ftreams. Abundance of fait is made in this province.*, wftiich, though neither fo populous nor fo well cultivated as when fubjeff to the Moors, yet is as much fo as any in Spain. It was the laft of the kingdoms poffeffed by the Moors, and was not reduced and annexed to the-' crown of Caltile until 1492. Granada, the capital of the above province, is fitu- ated at the foot of the Sierra Nevada, or the Snowy Mountain, in a wholefome air and fruitful country, an hundred and eighty miles fouth of Madrid, in W. Long. 2. 30. N. Lat. 36. 56. It ftands upon two hills feparated by the Darro. The Genii runs un¬ der the walls, and thefe two rivers are formed, from the melting of the fnow with which the mountain is. con- ftantly covered. The Darro is faid to carry with it fmall particles of gold ; and its name, derived from dat auruin, may be alleged as a proof of this: the Ge¬ nii, in like manner, rolls with its ftream little.pieces of filver. When Charles V. came to Granada in 1526, with the emprefs Ifabella, the city prefented him with a crown made of gold gathered from the Darro. The city is large and magnificent, containing a great num¬ ber of very hand fome public and private buildings. Its walls, which are adorned with many towers at equal diftances, are faid to be ten miles in compafs. Here are two caftles *, the one built by the Moors, and the other by Charles V. and Philip II. They, both com¬ mand a very fine profpeft; and the firft is fo. large, that it looks like a city by itfelf, and, it is faid, has room enough to accommodate forty thoufaud people, exclufive of the royal palace, and the convent of St Francis. Here is alfo a court of inquifition; a royal tribunal j and an umverfity, founded in 1531 ? with the fee of an archbilhop, who has a revenue of forty thoufand ducats per annum. A great many noble¬ men, clergymen, and wealthy citizens, refide in tins ci¬ ty, of which the fiik trade and manufacture is very great, and the arfenal is faid to be the beft furniflred of any in Spain. The inhabitants, tvho are partly de¬ fended of the Moors, are well fupplied with wa¬ ter. There are feveral fine fquares, particularly that called the Bivaramba, or P/apa Mayor, where the bull-fights are held j and without the city is a large plain, full of towns and villages, called La Vega de Granada. The Moors are faid to regret nothing, but Granada, amongft all the Ioffes they have fuftained in Spain 5 they mention it in all their evening prayers, and fupplicate heaven G R A [ 64 ] G R A licaven to rcftore it to their poflefTion. The laft Moor- ilh ambaflador who came into Spain obtained permu- fion of the king to fee Granada ; he ihed tears on en¬ tering the Alhambra, and could not refrain from ex¬ claiming, that the folly of his anceftors had deprived them and their poflerity of that delightful country. Granada had formerly twenty gates: the tirft, that of Elvira, which ftill remains •, the fecond, that of Bib* almazar, or of conference, becaufe, with the' Moors, it was a kind of place of refort where they converfed on af¬ fairs •, the third, Vivarambla, fo called from its leading to a grand fquare which ftill bears the lame name} the fourth, Bib Racha, or of provifions ; the fifth, Bita- taubin, or the gate of the hermits, which led to diffe¬ rent foiitudes, the abodes of dervifes •, the fixth, Bib- mitre, or Bibiacha, the firft gate the teventh, the mill gate •, the eighth, that of the fun, becaufe it open¬ ed to the eatt 5 the ninth, the gate of the Alhambra, called by the Moors Bib Luxar-, the tenth, Bib Adam, dr the gate of the bones of Adam j the twelfth, Bib Ciedra, the gate of the nobles ; the Moors hept this gate fhut for a long time, becaufe it had been predic¬ ted that the enemies which fhould one day take the city, would enter by that gate j the thirteenth, is that of Faxalauza, or of the hill of almond trees-, the four¬ teenth, the lion gate, in Arabic, Bib Elecei •, the fif¬ teenth, the coaft gate, called by the Moors Alacabar ; the fixteenth, Bib Albonut, or the gate of the Banners, at prefent the magdalen gate'-, the feventeenth, that of the Darro ; the eighteenth, that of the Mofayca 5 the nineteenth, that called the gate of Ecce Homo ; the twentieth, that by the fide of the Alhambra. The Moors have left more monuments in Granada than in any other city in Spain. From the great num¬ ber of infcriptions" in and about the city, and the fine edifices of the Alhambra and the Generalif, it might be fuppofed thefe people intended to make Granada the greateft depofitory of their religion, manners, cu- ftoms, and magnificence. There is not a wall which does not bear fome marks of their power j but, not- withftanding this abundance of monuments, the reign of the Moors in Spain is ftill buried in confufion and obfcurity. The ignorance of the Spaniards, their fu- perftition, and the hatred they bore the Moors, have much contributed to this darknefs ; they have either deftroyed, or fuffered to be effaced by time, every thing which bore the mark of Mahometanifm, inftead of preferving the monuments of antiquity, which at the fame time were thofe of their own glory ; and it may be faid, that chance alone, and the folidity of their conftrubtion, much more than curiofity or a love of the arts, has preferved thofe which ftill exift, though daily going to ruin. An account of the Alhambra has been already gi¬ ven under its name in the order of the alphabet From the hall of Comares there mentioned, there is a modern little ftaircafe*, the old one, which correfponded to the beauty of the edifice, having been deftroyed. At the top of the ftaircaie is a gallery, a part of which is in- clofed with an iron railing : this kind of cage is called the prifon of the queen. It was here the wife of the laft king of Granada was imprifoned. The Gomels and Legris, two families of diitimftion, bore falfe wit- nefs againft her virtue, and occalioned the deftrudlion qf the greateft part of the Abencerrages, another 3 powerful and numerous fa-nily of Granada of whom Granada- they were jealous. The hiftory of this event is given as follows : In the year 1491, Abdali unnamed the Little, ftill reigned in Granada-, but thi cny was upon tut Oimk of ruin, for the principal famines were divided againft each other. The Moors had carried their arms aganit Jaen, and had been bravely repuiled. Autiaii was i un- foling himfelf in one of his pleafure houtes tor the ill fuccefs of his enterprife, when che Zegris, who 1 ng had be?n the fecret enemies ot tne A -terraces, took the opportunity of this ceieat to rep.. them to the king as rebellious luujetts, wlio emnuiyed taeir immenfe riches to gain the favour ot the people and dethrone their fovereign. I hey accuied Aloin La- met, the moft rich and powerful among them, oi ha¬ ving an adulterous commerce with the queen, and pro¬ duced witneffes who ailerted they had cn a certain ie- ftival feen, at Generalif, under a bower of idle trees, Albin Hamet in the arms oi that princels. 1 he tuiy of Abdali may eafily be imagined 5 he ivvore the ae- ftrubtion of the Abencerrages. But the Zegris, too prudent to let his anger break forth, adviied him^ to difiimulate, and not to fuffer it to be known to that numerous and powerful family that he was inloinaed of their perfidy. It will be better, laid they, to entice them into the fnare, and, before they can unite and put themlelves into a ftate of defence, revenge. upon their heads the infult offered to the crown. I ms ad¬ vice was followed } Abdali went to the Alhambra, having ordered thirty of his guards to arm themlelves, and the executioner to attend. Ihe Abenceuages were fent for one by one, and beheacied as loon as they entered the hall of the lions, where there is ftill a large vafe of alabafter, which was quickly filled with blood and the heads of expiring bodies. _L nirty-five heads had already been ftruck off, and all the Abencerrages would have died in the lame manner, had not a page, who had followed his mailer, and remained unpercei¬ ved in the hurry of the execution, taken an opportu¬ nity of withdrawing and giving information to the reit of the unhappy family of what had palled, ihele im¬ mediately aflembled their friends in arms, crying out through" the city of Granada, “ Treafon! treafon 1 Let the king die ! he unjuftly puts to death the Aben¬ cerrages 'Ihe people, w'ith whom they were favou¬ rites, did not hefitate in affifting them : fourteen thou- fand men w-ere foon found in arms, and immediately proceeded towards the Alhambra, fhouting ail the way, Let the king die ! Abdali, furprifed his fecret fhould have been fo loon difeovered, and feverely re¬ penting of having followed the pernicious counfels he had reqeiyed, ordered the caftle gates to be iLut ; but they were prefently let on fire. Muley Hacen, who had been forced to abdicate the throne in favour 01 his Ion, hearing the tumult of the people, had one gate open¬ ed, and prefented himfelf to appeafe the rage of the citizens', but he no fooner appeared, than he.was lut¬ ed up by the multitude neareft the gate, who cried out, “ Behold our king, we will have no other, long live Muley Hacen -,” and leaving him furrounded by a ftronc- guard, the Abencerrages, and other nobles, en¬ tered0 the caftle, accompanied by upwards of an hun¬ dred foldiers. But they found the queen only, with her women, and in the utmoft confternation at the fudde* G R A [ fudden revolution, of which (he knew not the came. They a five d for the king 5 and being informed he was in the hall of the lions, entered it furiouily, and found him defended by the Zegris and the Gomels, and in lefs than two hours killed upwards of two hundred of them. Abdali had the good fortune to efcape. I ne bodies of the beheaded Abencerrages were laid upon black cloth, and carried to the city. _ Muza, brother to Afcdali, and who by his great a&ions had gained the favour of the people, feeing the Abencerrages were revenged, found means to appeafe them •, and having learned that the king had taken refuge m a mofque near the mountain now called Saint Helena, went an brought him back to the caftle of the Alhambra, for feveral days nothing but fighs and groans were heard throughout the city. Abdali fhut himfelf up in the caftle, and refufed to fee the queen. Thofe who had acculed her of adultery, however, perfifted in their falfe accuia- tion, and faid, they would maintain, with arms m their hands, againft all who (tumid contradict them, that the queen was guilty. The unhappy princeis was imprifoned, and the day arriving on which (he was to perilli by the hands of the executioner, when none a- mong the Moors offering to defend her, (he was ad- vifed to commit her caule to fome Chriltian knights, who prefented themfelves at the time appointed, and conquered her falfe accufers, fo that (he was immedt- ately fet at liberty. The taking of Granada foon fol¬ lowed this combat *, Muza and the Abencerrages ha¬ ving, it is faid, facilitated the conqueft of it by Ferdi¬ nand and Ifabella. , From the Alhambra you enter the Generalit by a low cmte, which favoured the efcape of Abdali when Ferdinand took Granada. Generalif is faid to figni- fy, in Arabic, the houfe of love, of dance, and pleafure. It*was built by a prince of the name of Omar, who was fo fond of muftc, that he retired to this palace, en¬ tirely to give himfelf up to that amufement. The Ge¬ neralif is the mod pleafmg fituation in the^ environs of Granada. It is built upon a very high mountain, whence waters rufh from every ftde, which efcape in torrents, and fall in beautiful cafcades in the courts, gardens, and halls of that ancient palace. The gar¬ dens form an amphitheatre, and are full 01 tiees, vene¬ rable from their antiquity, Two cypreffes in particu¬ lar are noted, called the Cypreffes of the queen, be- caufe it was near them the perfidious Gomel impeach¬ ed the virtue of that princefs and the honour of tne Abencerrages. Of this place, travelleis obferve, that the writers of romances have never imagined a fcene equal to it. 1 c j j Granada was formerly calied Illibcria^ and founded, if we will believe fome writers, by Liberia, a great- grand-daughter of Hercules, daughter of Hifpan, and wife to Hefperus, a Grecian prince, and brother to Atalanta. Others, who fupport their affertions by proofs to the full as fatisfadory, maintain that it w’as founded by Iberus, grandion of lubal, and that it took the name of Granada, or Garnata,. from Nata tlm daughter of Liberia ; this word being compofed of Gar (which in the language of the time fignified grot¬ to) and Nata; that is, “ the grotto of Nata,” becaufe that princefs ftudied aftrology and natural hiftory, and delighted in the country. It is certain that fuch ai perfon as Nata, or Natayda, exifted in the firft ages of Vol. X. Part I. 65 ] G R A . the foundation of Granada *, and that in the place where the Alhambra now (lands, there was a temple dedicated to Nativala. The date of. the foundation of Granada is faid to be 2808 years before Chnft. We know that in the time of the Romans it was a munici¬ pal colony.-—A defeription in Latin of Granada, fuch as it was in 1560, written by a merchant^ at Antwerp, named George Hofnahel, who travelled into Spain, is to be found in the work intitled Civitatis orbis terra- rum, printed at Cologne in 1576. This book alb contains a good plan ot the city o( Granada. Granada, or Grenada, one of the Cariooee iflands. See Grenada. Granada, a town of America, in the^ province of Nicaragua, and in the audience of Guatimala, feated on the lake Nicaragua, 70 miles from the South fea. It w-as taken twice by the French buc¬ caneers, and pillaged. The inhabitants carry on _a great trade by means of the lake, which communi¬ cates with the North fea. W. Long. 85. 10. N. Lat. 11. 8. " # ' Granada, Neva, a province of South Ameri¬ ca, in Terra Firma, about 75 miles in length, and as much m breadth. It is bounded on the north by Carthagena and St Martha, on the eaft by \enezuela, on the iouth by Popayan, and on the wTeft by Darien. It contains mines of gold, copper, and iron } horfes, mules, good paftures, com, and fruits. It belongs to the Spaniards, and Santa-Fe de-Bagota is the capi¬ tal town. - GRANADILLOES, the name of fome iflands of the Caribbees, in America, having St Vincent to the north and Granada to the fouth. They are fo in- confiderable that they are quite neglefled $ but were ceded to England by the treaty of peace in 1763. GRANADIER, a foldier armed with a fvvord, a firelock, a bayonet, and a pouch full of hand grana- does. They wear high caps, are generally the tailed and briikeft fellows, and are always the firft upon all attacks. Every battalion of foot has generally a company of granadiers belonging to it 5 or elfe four or five granadiers belong to each company or the battalion, which, on occafion, are drawn out, and (onn a com¬ pany of themfelves. Fhefe always take the right of the battalion. GRAN ADO or Grenade, in the art of war, a hollow ball or (hell of iron or other metal, of about 2 r inches diameter, which being filled with fine powder, is fi»t on fire by means of a fmall fu(e driven into the fufe-hole, made of well-feafoned beech-wood, and thrown by the grenadiers into thofe places where the men (land thick, particularly into the trenches and o- ther lodgements made by the enemy. As foon as the compofition within the fufe gets to the powder in the granado, it burfts into many pieces, greatly to the da¬ mage of all who happen to be in its way. Granadoes were invented about the year 1594“ author of the Military Diftionary has the following remark on the ufe of granadoes. “ Grenades have unaccountably funk into difufe } but I am perfuaded there is no¬ thing more proper than to have grenades to throw among the enemy who have jumped into the ditch. During the fiege of Caffel under the count de la Lippe, in the campaign of 1762, a young engineer I undertook Granada II Granado. G R A [ 66 ] G R A •'Vanard, undertook to carry one of the outworks with a much Granary fmaller detachment than one which had been repul- v ' fed, and fucceedej with eafe from the ufe of grenades •, which is a proof that they ihould not be negledlcd, either in the attack or defence of pods.’'—I he word Granado takes its rife from hence, that the ihell is till¬ ed with grains of powder, as a pomegranate is with kernels. GRANARD, a borough, market, fair, and poll town in the county of Longford, province of Lein- fier; it gives title of earl to the family of lorbes j li- tuated 52 miles from Dublin, and about 16 north-eall of Longford. N. Lat. 53. 44. W. Long, 7. 30. ^ Here^ is a remarkable hill or mount, called the Moat of Granard, thought to be artificial, and the fite of a Danilh caftle or fort 5 wduch commands from its fum- mit a moft extenfive profpedl: into fix or feven adjoin¬ ing counties. In this towm have lately been given an¬ nual prizes to the belt performers on the Irilh harp. Granard has a barrack for a company of foot j and re¬ turns two members to parliament j patronage in the families of Macartney and Greville. Fairs held 3d May and 1 ft October. This place takes its name from Grian- ard, or “ the height of the fun,” and was formerly the reiidence of the chiefs of North Teffia. It is fometimes written Grenard. GRANARY, a building to lay or ftore corn in, efpecially that defigned to be kept a confiderable time. Sir Henry Wotton advifes to make it look towards the north, becaufe that quarter is the Cooleft and moft temperate. Mr Worlidge obferves, that the beft gra¬ naries are built of brick, with quarters of timber wrought in the infide, to which the boards may be nailed, with which the infide of the granary muft be lined fo clofe to the bricks, that there may not be any room left for vermin to ftielter themfelves. There may be many ftories one above another, which Ihould be near the one to the other ; becaufe the ftiallower the corn lies, it is the better, and more ealily turned. The two great cautions to be obferved in the eredl- ing of granaries are, to make them fufficiently ftrong, and to expofe them to the moft drying winds. The ordering of the corn in many parts of England, parti¬ cularly in Kent, is thus : To feparate it from dull and other impurities after it is thralhed, they tofs it with fliovels from one end to the other of a long and large room } the lighter fubftances fall down in the middle of the room, and the corn only is carried from fide to fide, or end to end of it. After this they fcreen. the corn, and then bringing it into the granaries, it is fpread about half a foot thick, and turned from time to time about twice in a week 5 once a-week they alio repeat the fcrecning it. This fort of management they continue about twm months, and after that they lay it a foot thick for twro months more j and in this time they turn it once a-week, or twice if the feafon be damp, and now7 and then fcreen it again. After about five or fix months they raife it to tw7o feet thicknefs in the heaps, and then they turn it one or twice in a month, and fcreen it now and then. After a year, they lay it two and a half or three feet deep, and turn it once in three weeks or a month, and fcreen it proportion- ably. When it has lain two years or more, they turn it once in two months, and fcreen it once a-quarter •, and how long foever it is kept, the oftener the.turn¬ ing and fcrecning are repeated, the better the grain will Granary, be found to be.—It is proper to leave an area of a ' 1 r_^ ““ yard wdde on every fide of the heap of corn, and other empty fpaces, into w'hich they turn and tofs the corn as often as they find occafion. In Kent they make tw7o fquare holes at each end of the tiuor, and one round in the middle, by means of which they throw the corn out of the upper into the lower rooms, and fo up again, to turn and air it the better. Their fereens are made with two partitions, to feparate the dull from the corn, which falls into a bag, and when fufficiently full this is thrown away, the pure and good corn remaining behind. Corn has by thefe means been kept in our granaries 30 years ; and it is obier- ved, that the longer it is kept the more flour it yields in proportion to the corn, and the purer and whiter the bread is, the fuperfluous humidity only evapora¬ ting in the keeping. At Zurich in Swifferland, they keep corn 80 years, or longer, by the fame fort of me¬ thods. The public granaries at Dantzick are feven, eight or nine ftories high, having a funnel in the midft of each floor to let down the corn from one to another. They are built fo fecurely, that though every way furrounded with water, the corn contradb no damp, and the veffels have the convenience of coming up to the walls for their lading. The Ruffians preferve their corn in fubterranean granaries of the figure of a fugar- loaf, wide below and narrow’ at top } the fides are well plaftered, and the top covered with ftones. They are very careful to have the corn wTell dried before it is laid into thele ftorehoufes, and often dry it by means of ovens •, the fummer dry weather being too fliort to effeved from one bin to another. If the granary or corn fliip be very long, the main air-pipe may pafs lengfhwne along the middle of it, and convey air, on both {ides, under the corn. In large granaries, large double ven¬ tilators laid on each other, may be fixed at the middle and near the top of the granary, that they may be worked by a wind-mill fixed on the icof of the build- Ing, or by a water-mill. The air is to be conveyed from the ventilators through a large trunk or trunks, reaching down through the feveral floors to the bot¬ tom of the granary, with branching trunks to eacn floor, by means of which the air may be made to pafs into a large trunk along the adjoining crols walls : from thefe trunks feveral leffer trunks, about four inches wide, are to branch off, at the diftance of three or 67 1 G R A four feet from each other, which are to reach through the whole length of the granary, and their farther ends are to be clofed : Teams ot Tp- or TV of an incu .are to be left open at the four joinings of the boards, where they are nailed together, that the air . may pafs through them into the corn. In fome of thefe ieiHt trunks there may be Hiding {butters, in order to flop the paffage of the air through thofe trunks which are not covered with corn ^ or to ventilate one pait of the granary more briikly than others, as there may be oc- cafion. There muft alfo be wooden {butters, hung on hinges at their upper part, fo as to flint clofe of them- {elves 5 thefe muft be fixed to the openings in the walls of the granary on tneir outfide : by theie means thev will readily open to give a free paffage for the ventila¬ ting air, which alcends through tne com, to pafs off, but will inftantly {hut when the ventilation ceafes, and thereby prevent any dampnefs of the external air from entering : to prevent this, the ventilation fflould be made only in the middle of dry days, unlefs the corn, when firft put in, is cold and damp. In leffer granaries, where the ventilators muft be worked by hand, if thefe granaries ftand on ftaddles, fo as to have their loweft floor at fome diftance from the ground, the ventilators may be fixed under the loweft floor, between the ftaddles, fo as to be worked by men {landing on the ground, without or within the granarv. A. very commodious and cheap venti¬ lator may be made for fmall granaries, by making a ventilator of the door 01 the granary} which may be. eafily done by making a circular fereen, of the fize of a quarter of a circle, behind the door.: but in order to this, the door muft be open, not inwards but out¬ wards of the granary, fo that as it falls back, it may be worked to and fro in the fereen ; which muft be exactly adapted to it in all parts of the circulai fide of the fereen, as well as at the top and bottom. there muft be a ftop at about eight or ten inches dif¬ tance from the wall, to prevent the door’s falling, back farther ; that there may be room for a valve in the fereen to fupply it with air ^ which air will be duven in by the door, through a hole made in the wall near the floor, into the main air-trunk, in which there muft be another valve over the hole in the wall, to prevent the return of the air. Todejiroy weevils and other infeEls with which Grana¬ ries are apt to be infejlcd.—The prefervation of grain from the ravages of infe6ls may be beft efteiEled by timely and frequent fereening, and ventilation $ as little or no inconvenience will follow com or malt lod¬ ged dry, but what evidently refults from a negleft of thefe precautions. For, whether the obvious damage arife from the weevil, the moth, or the beetle, that da¬ mage has ceafed at the time the vermin make, their ap¬ pearance under either of thefe fpecies, they being, when in this laft ftate of exiftence, only propagators of their refpedtive kinds of vermiculi j which, while they conti¬ nue in that form, do the mifehief. In this laft, or infeft ftate, they eat little, their prin¬ cipal bufinefs being to depofit their ova (eggs), which unerring inftiuft prompts them to do. where large col¬ lections of grain furnifh food for their fucceffors while, in a vermicular ftate. It is therefore the bulinefs of induftry to prevent future generations of thefe ravagers, by deftroying the eggs previous to their hatching } and I z 1 this Granai} ■ G R A [ 68 ] G II A Granary tills is bell accomplithed by frequent fcreening, and ex- II pofure to draughts of wind or frefli air. By frequent- Grand. q;rrjng grain, the cohefion of their ova is bro¬ ken, and the nidus of thofe minute worms is dellroyed^ which on hatching colledt together, and fpin or weave numerous nefts of a cobweb-like fubftance for their fe- curity. To thefe nells they attach, by an infinity of fmall threads, many grains of corn together, firit for their proteftion, and then for their food. When their habitations are broken and feparated by the fcreen, they fall through its fmall interifices, and may be eafily removed from the granary with the duff. J hofe tnat efcape an early fcreening will be deftroyed by fuufe- quent ones, while the grain is but little injured } and the corn will acquire thereby a fuperior purity. But by inattention to this, and fometimes by receiving grain already infected into the granary, thefe vermin, parti¬ cularly the weevil, willmalhort time fpread themlelves in that ftate everywhere upon its furface, and darken even the walls by their number. Under fuch circum- ftances a hen or hens, with new hatched chickens, if turned on the heap, will traverfe, without feeding (or very fparingly fo) on the corn, wherever they fpread •, and are feemingly infatiable in the purfuit of thefe in- fedts. When the numbers are reduced within reach, a hen will fly up againft the walls, and brufh them down with her wings, while her chickens feize them with the greateft avidity. This being repeated as often as they ■want food, the whole ipecies wall in a day or two be deftroyed. Of the phalaena (moth), and the fmall beetle, they feem equally voracious : on which account they may be deemed the molt ufeful inftruments in nature for eradicating thefe noxious and deftrudlive vermin. GRAN ATE, or Garnet, a fpecies of mineral be¬ longing to the iiliceous genus. See MINERALOGY Index. GRANATE-PaJle. See Garnet. GRAND, a term rather French than Enghih, though ufed on many occaftons in our language. It has the fame import with great, being formed of the Latin grandis. In this fenfe we fay, the grand-mafter of an order, the grand-mafter of Malta, of the free- mafons, &c. So alfo the grand-ftgnior, the grand-viftr, &c. grand-father, grand-mother, &c. Among the French there were formerly feveral of¬ ficers thus denominated, wdiich we frequently retain in Englifti *, as grand almoner, grand ecuyer, grand cham- bellan, grand voyer, &c. Grand See Assise. Grand Dijlrefs {diJlriBio magnd), in Englifi Law, a writ of diftrefs, fo called on account of its extent, which reaches to all the goods and chattels of the party within the county. This writ lies in two cafes : either wdien the tenant or defendant is attached and appears not, but makes default } or where the tenant or defendant hath once appeared, and after makes default. .On fiich occafions, this writ lies by common law, in lieu of a petit cape. Grand Gujic, among painters, a term ufed to ex- prefs that there is fomething in the pifture very great and extraordinary, calculated to furprife, pleafe,.and inftru£t. Where this is found, they fay, the painter was a man of grand gufto j and they ufe the words fub- lime and marvellous, when they fpeak of a piflure, in Grand much the fame fenfe. G’-a-ldeur Grand Jury, larceny, ferjeanty, &c. See Jury, ancj &C. Sublimity. GRxlNDEE, is underftood of a lord of the firft rank —^—v J or prime quality. In Spain, the term grandees is ufed abfolutely to de¬ note the prime lords of the court, to whom the king has once given leave to be covered in his prefence : there are fome grandees for life only ; made by the king’s faying Amply, Be covered. Others are grandees by defeent ; made by the king’s faying, Be covered for thyfelf and heirs. Thefe laft are reputed far above the former. There are fome who have three or four grandee (hips in their family. r GRANDEUR and Sublimity. Thefe . terms Doub|e flg have a double fignification : they commonly fignify thenification. quality or circumftance in objects by which the emo¬ tions of grandeur and fublimity are produced ; fome¬ times the emotions themfelves. In handling the prefent fubjedf, it is neceffary that the impreflion made on the mind by the magnitude of an objeft, abftrafting from its other qualities, ihould be afeertained. And bccaule abftxaftion is a mental ope¬ ration of fome difficulty, the fafeft method for judging is, to choofe a plain objeft that is neither beautiful nor deformed, if fuch a one can be found. The plaineft that occurs, is a huge mafs of rubbiih, the ruins per¬ haps of fome extenfive building j or a large heap of (tones, fuch as are collected together for keeping in memory a battle or other remarkable event. Such an objedt, which in miniature w’ould be perfedtly indiffe¬ rent, makes an impreffion by its magnitude, and ap¬ pears agreeable. And fuppofing it fo large as to fill the eye, and to prevent the attention from wandering upon other objedts, the impreffion it makes vvill be fo much the deeper. See Attention. But though a plain objedt of that kind be agreeable, it is not termed grand: it is not entitled to that cha- radter, unlefs, together with its fize, it be poffeffed ot other qualities that contribute to beauty, fuch as. regu¬ larity, proportion, order, or colour : and according to the number of fuch qualities combined with magnitude, it is more or lefs grand. Thus St Peter s church at Rome, the great pyramid of Egypt, the Alps towering above the clouds, a great arm of the fea, and above all a clear and ferene (ky, are grand } becauie, befide their fize, they are beautiful in an eminent, degree. On the other hand, an overgrown whale, having a difagreeable appearance, is not grand. A large building agreeable by its regularity and proportions, is grand } and yet a much larger building deftitute of regularity,. has not the lead tindlure of grandeur. A fingle regiment in battle-array, makes a grand appearance •, which the furrounding crowd does not, though pernaps ten for one in number. And a regiment where the men are all in one livery, and the horfes of one colour, makes a grander appearance, and confequently ftriK.es more te5~ ror, than where there is confufion of colour and drefs. 2 Thus greatnefs or magnitude is the circumftance that Grandeur diftinguifties grandeur from beauty: agreeablenefsis thediftinguffh- genus, of which beauty and grandeur are fpecies. The emotion of grandeur, duly examined, will be found G R A [ 69 ] G R A Grandeur and Sublimity. 3 Demands not ftr £t regularity 4 Qualities contribu¬ ting to grandeur- found an additional proof of the foregoing doarme. That this emotion is pleafant in a high degree, requires no other evidence but once to have feen a grand objeft : and if an emotion ©f grandeur be pleafant, its caufe or objeft, as obferved above, mull infallibly be agreeable in proportion. The qualities of grandeur and beauty are not more diftindl, than the emotions are which thefe qualities produce in a fpeftator. It is obferved in the artime Beauty, that all the various emotions of beauty have one common charafter, that of fweetnefs and gaiety. The emotion of grandeur has a different cha- rafter : a large objeft that is agreeable, occupies the whole attention, and fwells the heart into a vivid emo¬ tion, which, though extremely pleafant, is rather le- rious than gay. And this affords a good reafon for diffinguilhing in language thefe different emotions. The emotions raifed by colour, by regularity, by pro¬ portion, and by order, have fuch a refemblance to each other, as readily to come under one general term, viz. t/ie emotion of beauty; but the emotion of grandeur is fo different from thefe mentioned, as to merit a pecu¬ liar name. # Though regularity, proportion, order, and colour, contribute to grandeur as well as to beauty, yet theie qualities are not by far fo effential to the former as to the latter. To make out that propofitiou, fome preli¬ minaries are requiffte. In the firft place, the mind, not being totally occupied with a fmall objeft, can give its attention at the fame time to every minute part} but in a great or extenffve objeft, the mind, being totally occupied with the capital and ftriking parts, has no at¬ tention left for thofe that are little or indifferent. In the next place, two fimilar objefts appear not fimilar when viewed at different diftances : the fimilar parts of a very large objeft, cannot be feen but at different di¬ ftances : and for that reafon, its regularity, and the proportion of its parts, are in fome meafure loft to the eye 5 neither are the irregularities of a very large ob¬ jeft fo confpicuous as of one that is fmall. . Hence it “is that a large objeft is not fo agreeable by its regula¬ rity, as a fmall objeft \ nor fo difagreeable by its irregu¬ larities. . - Thefe confiderations make it evident, that grandeur is fatisfied with a lefs degree of regularity, and of the other qualities mentioned, than is requifite. for beau¬ ty •, which may be illuftrated by the following experi¬ ment. Approaching to a fmall conical hill, we take an accurate furvey of every part, and are fenffble of the flighteft deviation from regularity and proportion. Sup- poffnp' the hill to be conffderably enlarged, fo as to make” us lefs fenfible of its regularity, it will upon that account appear lefs beautiful. It will not, how¬ ever, appear lefs agreeable, becaufe fome flight emo¬ tion ©f grandeur comes in place of what is loft in beauty. And at laft, when the hill is enlarged to a. great mountain, the fmall degree of beauty that is left is funk in its grandeur. Hence it is, that a toweling hill is delightful, if it have but the flighteft refemblance of a cone; and a chain of mountains not lefs fo, though deficient in the accuracy of order and • proportion. We require a fmall furface to be fmooth j but in an extenfive plain, confiderable inequalities are overlooked. In a word, regularity, proportion, order. well as to beau- Grandeur and colour, contribute to grandeur — „ and ty •, but with a remarkable difference, that in palftng Subjimity_ from fmall to great, they are not required in the lame * > degree of perfeftion. This remark ferves to explain the extreme delight we have in viewing the face ot na¬ ture, when fufficiently enriched and diverfified with ob¬ jefts. The bulk of the objefts in a natural landicape are beautiful, and fome of them grand : a flowing ri¬ ver, a fpreading oak, a round hill, an extended plain, are delightful ; and even a rugged rock, or barren heath, though in themfelves difagreeable, _ contribute by contrail to the beauty of the whole: joining to theie the verdure of the fields, the mixture of light and lhade, and the fublime canopy fpread over - all, it will not ap¬ pear wonderful, that fo extenfive a group of iplendid objefts ftiould fwell the heart to its utmoft bounds, and raife the ftrongeft emotion of grandeur. The ipeftator is confcious of an enthufiafm which cannot bear con¬ finement, nor the ftriftnefs of regularity and order : he loves to range at large $ and is fo enchanted^ wit 1 magnificent objefts, as to overlook flight beauties or deformities. # re mnLn-r The fame obfervation is applicable in fome meafure Sublimity, to works of art. In a fmall building, tlm flighted ir¬ regularity is difagreeable: but in a magnificent palace, or a large Gothic church, irregularities are lefs regard¬ ed. In an epic poem, we pardon many negligences that would not be permitted in a fonnet or epigram. Notwithftanding fuch exceptions, it may be juftly laiu down for a rule, That in works of art, order and re¬ gularity ought to be governing principles •, and hence the obfervation of Longinus, “ In works ol art we have regard to exaft proportion j in thofe of nature, to gian- deur and magnificence.” The fame refleftions are in a good meafure applicable to fublimity : particularly that, like grandeur, it is a fpecies of agreeablenefs ; that a beautiful objeft placed high, appearing more agreeable than formerly, produces in the fpeftator a new emotion, termed t/ie emotion, of fublimity; and that the perfeftion of order, regularity, and proportion, is lefs required in objefts placed high, or at a diftance, than at hand. The pleafant emotion raifed by large objefts, has not efcaped the poets : -He doth beftride the narrow world Like a coloffus ; and we petty men Walk under his huge legs. Julius Co-far, aft 1. fc. 3, Cleopatra. I dreamt there was an emperor Antony : Oh fuch another fleep, that I might fee But fuch another man ! His face was as the heav’ns : and therein ftuck A fun and moon, which kept their courfe, and lighted The little O o’ th1 earth. His legs beftrid the ocean, his rear’d arm Crefted the world. Antony and Cleopatra, aft v. fc. 3. -Majefty Dies not alone j but, like a gulf, doth draw What’s near it with it. It’s a maffy wheel Fix’d on the fummit of the higheft mount •, To whofe huge fpokes ten thoufand leffer things Are G U A [ 70 ] G R A Grandeur Are mortis’d and adjoin’d ; which, when it falls, Each finall annexment, petty confequence, . u.) Attends the boift’rous ruin. Hamlet, aft iii. fc. 8. The poets have alfo made good ufe of the emotion produced by the elevated fituation of an objeft : Quod li me lyricis vatibus inferes, Sublimi feriam lidera vertice. Horat. Carm. 1. ii. ode j. O thou ! the earthly author of my blood, Whofe youthful fpirit, in me regenerate, Doth with a twofold vigour lift me up, To reach at viftory above my head. Richard 11, aft i. fc. 4. Northumberland, thou ladder wherewithal The mounting Bolinbroke afeends my throne. Richard II. aft v. fc. 2. Antony. Why wras I rais’d the meteor of the world, Hung in the Ikies : and blazing as I travell’d, Till all my fires were fpent *, and then call downward, To be trod out by Caefar ^ J)ryden, Allfor Lovs, aft i. The defeription of Paradife in the fourth book of Paradife Loft, is a fine illuftration of the impreflion made by elevated objefts. So on he fares, and to the border comes Of Eden, where delicious Paradife, Now nearer, crowns with her inclofure green. As with a rural mound, the champain head Of a fteep wildemefs *, whofe hairy fides With thicket overgrown, grotefque and wild, Accefs deny’d •, and over head up grew Infuperable height of loftieft fhade, Cedar, and pine, and fir, and branching palm, A filvan feene j and as the ranks afeend, Shade above fhade, a wToody theatre Of ftatelieft view7. Yet higher than their tops The verd’rous wall of Paradife up fprung •, Which to our general fire gave profpeft large Into his nether empire, neighb’ring round. And higher than that w7all a circling row Of goodlieft trees, loaden with faireft fruit, Blofibms and fruits at once of golden hue, Appear’d, with gay enamell’d colours mix’d. 1. 131. Though a grand objeft is agreeable, wre muft not in¬ fer that a little objeft is difagreeable *, which wmuld be unhappy for man, confidering that he is furrounded with fo many objefts of that kind. The fame holds with refpeft to place : a body placed high is agree¬ able •, but the fame body placed low, is not by that cir- cumftance rendered difagreeable. Littlenefs and lowr- nefs of place are precifely fimilar in the following par¬ ticular, that they neither give pleafure nor pain. And in this may vifibly be difeovered peculiar attention in fitting the internal conftitution of man to his external circumftances. Were littlenefs and lownefs of place agreeable, greatnefs and elevation could not be fo *, were littlenefs and lowmefs of place dilagreeable, they would ccrafion uninterrupted uneafinefs. The difference between great and little with refpeft to agreeablenefs, is remarkably felt in a feries when we Grandeur pafs gradually from the one extreme to the other. A mental progrefs from the capital to the kingdom, from ' ^ni J1 that to Europe—to the who e earth—to the planetary fyllem—to the univerfe, is extremely pleafant : the heart fwells, and the mind is dilated at every ftep. The returning in an oppofite direftion is not poiitively painful, though our pieafure leffens at every ftep, till it vanilh into indifference : fuch a progrefs ma) fume- times produce pleaiure of a different fort, which arifes from taking a narrower and narrower infpettion. The fame obfervation holds in a progrefs upward and dowm- ward. Afcent is pleafure becaufe it elevates us 5 but de- feent is never painful: it is for the moft part pleafant from a different caufe, that it is according to the order of nature. The fall of a ftone from any height, is ex¬ tremely agreeable by its accelerated motion. We feel it pleafant to defeend from a mountain, becaufe the defeent is natural and eafy. Neither is looking downward painful j on the contrary, to look down up¬ on objefts, makes part of the pleafure of elevation : looking down becomes then only painful when the ob¬ jeft is fo far below as to create dizzinefs; and even when that is the cafe, we feel a fort of pleafure mixed with the pain : witnefs Shakefpeare’s deicription of Do' ver cliffs: ________ How fearful And dizzy ’tis, to call: one’s eye fo low! The crowrs and choughs, that wing the midway air, Show fcarce fo grofs as beetles. Half-way down Hangs one that gathers famphire •, dreadful trade ! Methinks he feems no bigger than his head. The fiftiermen that walk upon the beach Appear like mice •, and yon tall anchoring bark Diminilh’d to her cock 5 her cock, a buoy Almoft too fmall for fight. The murm’ring furge. That on th’ unnumbered idle pebbles chafes, Cannot be heard fo high. I’ll look no more, Left my brain turn, and the deficient fight Topple down headlong. King Lear, aft iv. fc. 6. A remark is made above, that the emotions of gran¬ deur and fublimity are nearly allied. And hence it is, that the one term is frequently put for the other : an increafing feries of numbers, for example, producing an emotion fimilar to that of mounting upward, is com¬ monly termed an afeending feries : a feries of numbers gradually decreafing, producing an emotion fimilar to that of going downward, is commonly termed a defeend- ine;feries: we talk familiarly of going up to the capital, and of going down to the country : from a leffer king¬ dom we talk of going up to a greater j whence the ana- bafts in the Greek language, when one travels from Greece to Perfia. We difeover the fame way of fpeak- ing in the language even of Japan j and its univerlality proves it the offspring of a natural feeling. g The foregoing obfervation leads us to confider Grandeur grandeur and fublimity in a figurative fenfe, ^and as and fubli- applicable to the fine arts. Hitherto thefe terms’™^™ have been taken in their proper fenfe as applicable to fe*ie> obiefts of fight only : and it was of importance to be- ftew fome pains upon that article : becaufe, generally fpeaking, the figurative fenfe of a word is derived from its proper fenfe, which holds remarkably" at prefent. Beauty I 0 Grarukar and Sublimity. The fub- iime in poetry. 8 'Real and figurative grandeur intimately comre&ed. G R A t _ 71 1 Beauty, in its original fignification, is confined to ob- ie£ls of fight ; but as many other objects,, intellectual as well as moral, raife emotions refembling that oi beauty, the refemblance of the effeCts prompts us to ex¬ tend the term beonUj to thefe objeCls. 1 his equally accounts for the terms grandeur tlwA fublimitij taken m a figurative fenfe. Every emotion, from whatever caufe proceeding, that refembles an emotion of deur or elevation, is called by the fame name . t us generofity is faid to be an elevated emotion, , as well as great courage } and that firmnefs of foul which is fupe- rior to misfortunes obtains the peculiar name of mag- nanimity. On the other hand, every emotion that con¬ tracts the mind, and fixeth it upon things trivial or oi no importance, is termed low, by its refemblance to an emotion produced by a little or low object o fignt . thus an appetite for triding amufements is called a low tajle. The fame terms are applied to charaters and ations : we talk familiarly of an elevated genius, of a great man, and equally fo of littlenefs of mind : mme ations are great and elevated, and others are htue and grovelling. Sentiments, and even exprefiions, are charaterifed in the fame manner : an expreftion or fentiment that raifes the mind is denominated great or elevated; and hence the SUBLIME, in poetry. In fuch figurative terms, we lofe the diftintion between great and elevated in their proper fenfe } for the refem- blance is not fo entire as to prelerve thefe terms oitlint in their figurative application. We carry this, figuie till farther. Elevation, in its proper, fenfe, imports fuperiority of place , and lownefs, inferiority of place . and hence a man of fuperior talents, of fuperior rank $ of inferior parts, of inferior tafte, and fuch like. J he veneration we have for our anceftors, and for the ancients in general, being fimilar to the emotion produced by an elevated obje& of fight, jutifies the figurative expreflion of the ancients being raifed above us, or poifeiTing a fuperior place. The notes of the gamut, proceeding regularly from the blunter or grofier founds to the moie acute and piercing, produce in the hearer a . feeling fomewhat fimilar to what is produced by mounting up¬ ward ; and this gives occafion to the figurative expref- fions, a high note, a low note. Such is the.refemblance in feeling between real and figurative grandeur, that among the nations on the eaft coaft of Africa, wdic are directed purely by nature, the officers of Hate are, with reipeft to rank, diftinguifiied bv the length of the batoon each carries in his hand } and in Japan, princes and great lords Ihovv their rank by the length and fize of their fedan-poles. Again, it is a rule in painting, that figures of a imall fize are proper for grotefque pieces : but that an hitforical fub- ject, grand and important, requires figures as great as the life. The refemblance of thefe feelings is in rea¬ lity fo ftrong, that elevation in a figurative fenfe is ob- ferved to have the fame effeCi, even externally, with real elevation : G R A Grandeur and Sublimity. K. Henry. This day is call’d the feaft of Crhpian. He that outlives this day, and comes fafe home, t Will (land a tiptoe when this day is nam’d, And roufe him at the name of Crifpian. Henry V. a 61 iv. fc. 8. The refemblance in feeling between real and figura¬ tive orandeur is humoroufiy illuftrated by Addhon in criticifing upon Engliih tragedy * “ The ordinary method of making an hero is to. clap a huge pmme oi 4 feathers upon his head, which rifes fo.high, that there is often a greater length from his chin to tne top of his head than to the foie of his foot. One would be¬ lieve, that we thought a great man and a tall man the fame thing. As thefe fuperfluous ornaments upon the head make a great man, a p.rincefs generally receives her grandeur from thofe additional incumbrances tnat bill into her tail : I mean the broad fweeping train that follows her in all her motions, and finds conftant employment for a boy who Hands behind her to open-- and fnread it to advantage.” The Scythians, impreffed with the fame of Alexander, w7ere aftonifhed when they found him a little man. A gradual progrefs from fmall to great is not Ids remarkable in figurative than in real grandeur or.eleva¬ tion. Every one mull have obferved the delightful effe6! of a number of thoughts or fentiments, artfully difpofed like an afeending feries, and making impreffions deeper and deeper : fuch difpofition of members in a period is termed a climax. Within certain limits grandeur and fublimity pro¬ duce their flrongeft effe£ls., which leffen by excefs a? well as by defed. This is remarkable in grandeur and fublimity taken in their proper fenfe : tne grand* elt emotion that can be raifed by a vifible object is where the obje6t can be taken in at one view j if fo immenfe as not to be comprehended but in parts, it tends rather to diftrad than fatisfy the mind (a) : in like manner, the ffrongeft emotion produced by ele¬ vation Is where the objed is feen dillindly 5 a greater elevation lefiens in appearance the objed, till p it vaniffi out of fight with its pleafant emotions. The Figurative fame is equally remarkable in figurative grandeur and gnandeur. elevation ; which (hall be handled together, becaule, as obferved above, they are fcarcely diftinguiffiable. Sen¬ timents may be fo {trained as to become oblcure, or to exceed the capacity of the human mind : againft fuch licence of imagination, every good writer will be upon his guard. And therefore it is of greater importance to obferve, that even the true fublime may be carried beyond that pitch which produces the higheft enter¬ tainment. We are undoubtedly fufceptible of a greater elevation than can be infpired by human adions the molt heroic and magnanimous ; witnefs what we feel from Milton’s defeription of. fuperior beings : yet every man muft be fenfible of a more conftant and fweet elevation when the hiftory of his own fpecies is the (A) It is juftly obferved by Addifon, that perhaps a man would have been more aftomfhed with the ma- jeftic air that appeared in one of Lyfippus’s ftatues of Alexander, though no bigger than the life, than he. might have been with Mount Athos, had it. been cut into the figure of the hero, according to the propolal ot - Phidias, with a river in one hand and a city in the oteer. Spe- lator, N 415? „ G li A f Grandeur the fubjetft : he enjoys an elevation equal to that of anc? t]ie greateft hero, of an Alexander or a Cadar, of a Sublimity, or an Epaminondas: he accompanies thefe he¬ roes in their fublimeft fentiiiients and mod hazardous exploits, with a magnanimity equal to theirs •, and finds it no ftretch to preferve the fame tone of mind for hours together without finking. Ihe cafe is not the fame in defcribing the aftions or qualities of fupe- nor beings: the reader’s imagination cannot keep pace with that of the poet •, the mind, unable to iupport it- felf in a drained elevation, falls as from a height} and the fall is immoderate like the elevation : where that efted is not felt, it mud be prevented by fome obfcu- rity in the conception, which frequently attends the defcriptions of unknown objeds. Hence tne St Fran- cifes, St Dominies, and other tutelary faints among the Roman Catholics. A mind unable to raife itlelf to the Supreme Being felf-exident and eternal, or to iup¬ port itfelf in a drained elevation, finds itfelf more at eafe in ufing the intercedion of fome faint whofe piety and penances while on earth are fuppofed to hat e mide him a favourite in heaven. A drained elevation is attended with another in¬ convenience, that the author is apt to fall fuddenly as wTell as the reader} becaule it is not a little difficult to defeend, fweetly and ealily, from fuch elevation to the ordinary tone of the fubjed. The following paf- fage is a good illudration of that obfervation : Ssepe etiam immenfum coelo venit agmen aquarum, Et foedam glomerant tempedatem imbribus atris Colledge ex alto nubes. Ruit arditus aether, Et pluvia ihgenti fata loeta, boumque labores Diluit. Implentur fofl'ae, et cava flumina crefcunt Cum fonitu, fervetque fretis fpirantibus aequor. Ipfe Pater, media nimborum in node, coruica Fulmina molitur dextra. Quo maxima motu Terra tremit : fugere ferae, fet mortalia corda ^ Per gentes humilis dravit pavot. Ille flagranti Aut Atho, aut Rhodopen, aut alta Ceraunia telo Dejicit : ingeminant Auftri, et denjijjimm wiber. Virg. Georg, i. 322. In the defeription of a dorm, to figure Jupiter throwing down huge mountains wdth his thunder¬ bolts, is hyperbolically fublime, if w7e may ufe the expreffion :"the tone of mind produced by that image is fo didant from the tone produced by a thick {bower of rain, that the hidden tranfition mud be un- pleafant. Objeds of fight that are not remarkably great nor high, fcarce raife any emotion of grandeur or of fub- limity : and the fame holds in other objeds ; for we often find the mind roufed and animated, without being carried to that height. This difference may be difeerned in many forts of mufic, as well as in fome mufical indruments : a kettle-drum roufes, and a haut¬ boy is animating ; but neither of them infpires an emotion of fublimity : revenge animates the mind in a confiderable degree •, but it never produceth an emotion that can be termed grand or fublime ; and perhaps no difagreeable paflion ever has that effed. No defirp is more univerfal than to be exalted and honoured j and upon that account, chiefly, are we ambitious of power, riches, titles, fame, which would fuddenly lofe their relifh did they not raife us above 72 ] G R A others, and comma'tid fubmiffion and deference : and Grandeur it may be thought, that our attachment to things t grand and lofty, proceeds from their connedion with , our favourite palfion. This connedion has undoubted¬ ly an effed •, but that the preference given to things grand and lofty mull have a deeper root in human nature, will appear from confidering, that many be¬ llow their time upon low and trifling amufements, without having the leaft tindure of this favourite paflion : yet thefe very perfons talk the fame language with the reft of mankind} and prefer the more elevated pleafures : they acknowledge a more refined tafte, and are alhamed of their own as low and grovel¬ ling. This fentiment, conftant and univerfal, mull be the work of nature j and it plairdy indicates an original attachment in human nature to every objed that elevates the mind : fome men may have a greater relilh for an objed not of the higheft rank •, but they are confcious of the preference given by mankind in general to things grand and fublime, and they are fenfible that their peculiar tafte ought to yield to the general tafte. What is faid above fuggefts a capital rule for reaching the fublime in fuch works of art as are ful- ceptible of it j and that is, to prefent thofe parts or Grandeur circumftances only which make the greateft figure, of manner, keeping out of view every thing low or trivial \ for the mind, elevated by an important objed, cannot, w'ithout reludance, be forced down to beftowr any lhare of its attention upon trifles. Such judicious feledion of capital circumftances, is by an eminent critic ftyled grandeur of mannerIn none of the fine t arts is there (o great fcope for that rule as in poetry jx 4 - which, by that means, enjoys a remarkable power of bellowing upon ©bjeds and events an air of gran¬ deur: when we are fpedators, every minute objed prefents itfelf in its order 5 but in defcribing at fecond hand, thefe are laid alide, and the capital objeds are brought clofe together. A judicious tafte in tnus fe- leding the moll interefting incidents, to give them an united force, accounts for a fad that may appear firr- prifing •, which is, that we are more moved by fpirited narrative at fecond hand, than by being fpedators of the event itfelf, in all its circumftances. Longinus % exemplifies the foregoing rule by a com- \ Chap, fc, parifon of two paffages. Ye pow’rs, what madnefs! how on fhips fo frail (Tremendous thought!) can thoughtlefs mortals fail? For ftormy feas they quit the pleafing plain, Plant woods in waves, and dwell amidft the main. Far o’er the deep (a tracklefs path) they go, And wander oceans in purfuit of wo. No eafe their hearts, no reft their eyes can find, On heaven their looks, and on the waves their mind j Sunk are their fpirits, while their arms they rear, And gods are wearied with their fruitlefs prayer. ArISTjEUS. Burft as a wave that from the cloud impends, And fwell’d with tempefts on the Ihip defeends. White are the decks with foam: the winds aloud Howl o’er the malls, and fing through every Ihroud. Pale, trembling, tir’d, the failors freeze with fears, And inftant death on every wave appears. Homer. Irt G R A [73 Grandeur In tire latter palTage, the moft ftnkmg circumftances and are feleiled to fill the mind with terror and altomih- Sublimity. ment# The former is a colleftion of minute and low 1 v ' circumftances, which fcatter the thought, and make no impreffion : it is at the fame time full of verbal an- tithefes and low conceit, extremely improper in a Icene of diftrefs. . The following defcription of a battle is remarkably fublime, by collefting together, in the fevvell words, thofe circumftances which make the greateil figure. “ Like autumn’s dark ftorms pouring from two echo¬ ing hills, toward each other approached the heroes •, as two dark ftreams from high rocks meet and roar on the plain, loud, rough, and dark in battle, meet Loch- lin and Inisfail. Chief mixes his ftrokes with chiel, and man with man : fteel founds on fteel, and helmets are cleft on Wgh : blood burfts and fmokes around . firings murmur on the polifti’d yew; darts rufh along the Iky : fpears fall like fparks of flame that gild the ftormy face of night. “ As the noife of the troubled ocean when roll the waves on high, as the laft peal of thundering heaven, fuch is the noife of battle. Though Cormac s hundied bards were there, feeble were the voice of a hundred bards to fend the deaths to future times \ loi many were the deaths of the heroes, and wide poured the blood of the valiant.” Fingal. The following paffage in the 4th book of the Iliad is a defcription of a battle wonderfully ardent. “ When now gathered on either fide, the holt plun¬ ged together in fight j Afield is hardily laid to ftiield ; fpears crafti on the brazen corflets: body buckler with buckler meets-, loud tumult rages over all 5 groans are mixed with boafts of men the {lain and flayer join in noife •, the earth is floating round with blood. As when two rufhing ftreams from two mountains come roaring down, and throw together their rapid waters below, they roar along the gulphy vale ; the ftartled ftiepherd hears the found as he ftalks o’er the diftant hills: fo, as they mixed in fight, from both armies clamour with loud terror arofe.” But fuch general defcriptions are not frequent in Homer. Even his {ingle combats are rare. T he fifth book is the longeft account of a battle that is in the Iliad ; and yet. con¬ tains nothing But a long catalogue of chiefs killing chiefs, not in fingle combat neither, but at a di.lance with an arrow or a javelin and thefe chiefs named for the firft time and the laft. The fame fcene is conti¬ nued through a great part of the fixth book. Ihere is at the fame time a minute defcription of every wound, w-hich for accuracy may do honour to an ana- tomift, but in an epic poem is tirefome and fatiguing. There is no relief from horrid languor, but the beau-- tiful Greek language and melody of Homer’s verfi- fication. In the twcnty-firft book of the Odyfley, there is .a paffage which deviates widely from the rule above laid down ; it concerns that part of the hiftory of Penelope and her fuitors, in w-hich fhe is made to declare in fa¬ vour of him who ftiould prove the moft; dexterous in fhooting wfith the bow- of Ulyfles : Now gently winding up the fair afcent, By many an eafy ftep the matron went: Vol. X. Part I. ] G R A Then o’e * the pavements glides wfith grace divine G'an^eUr (With p liih’d oak the level pavements ihine). Sublimity.' The folding gates a dazzling light difplay’d, 1 —“•* With pomp of various architrave overlaid. The bolt, obedient to the lilken firing, Forfakes the ftaple as flic pulls the ring; The wards refpondent to the key turn round *, The bars fall back; the flying valves reiound. Loud as a bull makes hill and valley ring,^ So roar’d the lock when it releas’d the ipringi She moves majeftic through the wealthy room, Where treafur’d garments caft a rich perfume : There, from the column wdiere aloft it hung, Reach’d, in its fplendid cafe, the bow unftrung. Virgil fometimes errs againft this rule : in the fob lowing paffages minute circumftances are brought into full view ; and what is ftill worfe, they are defcribed with all the pomp of poetical diaion, yEW, lib. 1. 1. 214, to 219. lib. vi. 1. 176, to 182. lib. vi. 1. 212, to 231: and the laft, which defcribes a funeral, is the lefs excufable, as the man whofe funeral it is makes no figure in the poem. The fpeech of Clytemneftra, defcending from Ver .. chariot, in the Iphigenia of Euripides *, is fluffed with ^ 1U* a number of common and trivial circumflances. But of all writers, Lucan in this article is the moft injudicious: the fea-fight between the Romans and Maflilians f is defcribed fo much in detail, without | Lib. til. exhibiting any grand or total view, that the reader is 567- fatigued wfith endlefs circumftances, without ever feel¬ ing any degree of elevation ; and yet there aie lome fine incidents, thofe, for example, of the two brothers, and of the old man and his fon, wdiich, taken feparate- ly, would affedft us greatly. But Lucan, once engaged^ in a defcription, knows no end. See other paffages ol the fame kind, lib. iv. 1. 292, to 337. lib. iv. 1. 750, to 765. The epifode of the forcerefs Erictho, end ot book fixth, is intolerably minute and prolix. This rule is alfo applicable to other fine arts. In painting it is eftablilhed, that the principal figure^ muft be put in the ftrongeft light ; that the beauty of attitude confifts in placing the nobler parts moft in viewg and in fuppreffing the fmaller parts as much as poflible ; that the folds of the drapery mull be few and large ; that foreftiortenings are bad, becaufe they make the parts appear little ; and that the mulcles ought to be kept as entire as poflible, without being divided into fmall fecfiions. Every one at prefent fubfcribes to that rule as applied to gardening, in oppofition to parterres fplit into a thoufand fmall paits in the ftiff- eit regularity of figure. The moft eminent architedls have governed themfelves by the lame rule in all then works. 11 Another rule chiefly regards the fublime, though it General is applicable to every fort of literary performance in-^rms ought tended for amufement: and that is, to avoid as much e i wjiere as poflible abftraft and general terms. Such terms, fublimity is fimilar to mathematical figns, are contrived to exprefs intended, our thoughts in a concife manner ; but images, which are the life of poetry, cannot be railed in any perfec¬ tion but by introducing particular objedls. General terms, that comprehend a number of individuals, muft be excepted from that rule: our kindred, our clan, our country, and words of the like import, though they K. fcarce t'r?. ruler, r and Sublimity, G R A fcarce raife any image, have, however, Htrodet. lit- 7. C 74 a wonderful powTer over the paffions : the greatnefs of the complex obje6l overbalances the obfcurity of tlie image. Grandeur, being an extremely vivid emotion, is not readily produced in perfeblion but by reiterated im- preflions. The erTeft of a fingle impreffion can be but momentary } and if one feel fuddenly fomewdiat like a (welling or exaltation of mind, the emotion va- nifheth as foon as felt. Single thoughts or fentiments are often cited as examples of the iublime ; but their effebl is far inferior to that of a grand fubjeft difplayed in its capital parts. We (hall give a few examples, that the reader may judge for himfelf. In the famous ac¬ tion of Thermopylae, where Leonidas the Spartan king, with his chofen band, fighting for their country, were cut off to the laft man, a faying is reported of Dieneces, one of the band, which, expreffiug cheer¬ ful and undiilurbed bravery, is wrell entitled to the firft place in examples of that kind : talking of the number of their enemies, it w7as obferved, that the arrows (hot by fuch a multitude would intercept the light of tne fun 5 “ So much the better (fays he), for wTe (hall then fight in the (hade.” Somerfet. Ah! Warwick, Warwick, wert thou as wTe ] G R A The cloud-capt tow’rs, the gorgeous palaces, The folemn temples, the great globe itfelf, Yea, all which it inherit, (hall diffolve, And like the bafelefs fabric of a vifion Leave not a wreck behind Tcmpejl, acl iv. fc. 4. Grandeur and Sublimity. 12 Grandeur and fubli- mity em¬ ployed in- idireftly to link the mmd. are, We might recover all our lofs again. The Queen from France hath brought a puiffant powder. Ev’n now we heard the news. Ah! could’ft thou fly ! Warwick. Why, then I would not fly. Third part, Henry VI. aft v. fc. 3. Such a fentiment from a man expiring of his wounds, is truly heroic *, and mud elevate the mind to the great- eft height that can be done by a fingle expreftion 5 it will not fuffer in a comparifon with the famous fenti¬ ment ^u'il mourut of Corneille : the latter is a fenti¬ ment of indignation merely, the former of firm and cheerful courage. To cite in oppofition many a fublime paflage, en¬ riched with the fined images, and dreffed in the mod nervous expreflions, wrould fcarce be fair. We (hall produce but one inftance, from Shakefpeare, which fets a few objefts before the eye, without much pomp of language : it operates its effeft by reprefenting thefe objefts in a climax, raifing the mind higher and higher till it feel the emotion of grandeur in perfeftion ; The cloud-eapt tow’rs, the gorgeous palaces, The folemn temples, the great globe itfelf, Yea, all which it inherit, (hall diffblve, &c. The cloud-capt tow'rs produce an elevating emotion, heightened by the gorgeous palaces ; and the mind is carried dill higher and higher by the images that fol¬ low. Succeflive images, making thus ftronger and ftronger impredions, muft elevate more than any fingle image can do. As, on the one hand, no means direftly applied have more influence to raife the mind than grandeur and fublimity ; fo, on the other, no means indireftly applied have more influence to fink and deprefs it: for in a date of elevation, the artful introduftion of an humbling objeft, makes the fall great in proportion to the elevation. Of this obfervation Shakefpeare gives a beautiful example in the paffage laft quoted ; The elevation of the mind in the former part of this beautiful paflage, makes the fall great in proportion, when the mod humbling of all images is introduced, that of an utter diffolution of the earth and its inhabi¬ tants. The mind, when warmed, is more fufceptible of impreflfions than in a cool date } and a deprefling or melancholy objeft liftened to, makes the ftrongeft impredion when, it reaches the mind in its higheft (late of elevation or clyeerfulnefs. But a humbling image is not always neceflary to produce that effeft: a remark is made above, that in defcribing fuperior beings, the reader’s imagination, unable to fupport itfelf in a drained elevation, falls often as from a height, and finks even below its .ordi¬ nary tone. The following inftance comes luckily in view ; for a better cannot be given : “ God faid, Let there be light, and there was light.”. Longinus quotes this paffage from Mofes as a (hining example of the fublime ; and it is fcarce poflible, in fewer words, to convey fo clear an image of the infinite power of the Deity : but then it belongs to the. pre- fent fubjeft to remark, that the emotion of fublimity raifed by this image is but momentary } and that the mind, unable to fupport itfelf in an elevation fo much above nature, immediately finks down into humility and veneration for a Being fo far exalted above grovelling mortals. Every one is acquainted with a difpute about that paffage between two French critics *, the one po- * Boifoau fitively affirming it to be fublime, the other as pofi-'ai‘l I -c-- lively denying. What has been remarked, (hows, that both of them have reached the truth, but neither of them the whole truth : the primary effeft of the paf¬ fage is undoubtedly an emotion of grandeur j which fo far juftifies Boileau : but then every one mud be fenfible, that the emotion is merely a flafh, which, va- nifliing indantaneoufly, gives way to humility and ve¬ neration. That indireft effeft of fublimity juftifies Huet, on the other hand, who being a man of true piety, and probably not much carried by imagina¬ tion, felt the humbling paffions more fe.nfibly than his antagonift did. And laying afide difference of charafter, Huet’s opinion may perhaps be defended as the more folid } becaufe, in fuch images, the deprefiing emotions are the more fenfibly felt, and have the longei endurance. r3 The draining an elevated fubjeft beyond due bounds, Jalfe tub, and beyond the reach of an ordinary concepaon, is not a vice fo frequent as to require the correftion of criticifm. But falfe fublime is a rock that writers of more fire than judgment commonly fplit on > an(^ therefore a colleftion of examples may be of ufe as a beacon to future adventurers. One fpecies of falfe u- blime, knowm by the name of botnbajl, is common among writers of a mean genius : it is a ferious endeavour, by drained defcription, to raife a low or familiar fubjeft above its rank j which, inftead of . being fubhme, fails not to be ridiculous. The mind, indeed, is extremely prone, in fome animating paffions, to magnify its ob- G R A [ 75 ] G It A GraUcur ieas beyond natural bounds: but fucb hyperbolical =.e defcription has its limits; and when earned beyond Sublimity. ^ impulfe of the propenfxty, it degenerates into bur- W^v ' lefque. Take the following examples : Gratae as. Sejanus, -Great and high O U ft-Uo • - j The world knows only two, that’s Rome and i. My roof receives me not: ’tis air I And at each ftep I feel my advanc’d head Knock out a liar inheav’n. Ben Johnson, Sejanus, act v. A writer who has no natural elevation of mind devi¬ ates readily into bombaft: he drains above ^ ral powers-, and the violent effort carries him beyond the bounds of propriety. Guildford. Give way, and let the guftnng torrent Behold the tears we bring to fwell the deluge, Till the flood rife upon the guilty world, And make the ruin common. Lady Jane Grey, aa iv. near the end. Another fpecies of falfe fublime is ftill more faulty than bombaft : and that is, to force elevation by in¬ troducing imaginary beings without preferving any propriety in their adieus ; as if it were lawful to a- feribe every extravagance and inconfiftence to beings ol the poet’s creation. " No writers are more licentious m that article than Johnfon and Dryden. Methinks I fee Death and the Furies waiting What we will do, and all the heaven at leifure For the great fpedacle. Draw then your fwords: And if our deftiny envy our virtue y The honour of the day, yet let us care To fell ourfelves at fuch a price, as may Undo the world to buy us, and make Fate, While ftie tempts ours, to fear her own eftate. Latiline^ set -The Furies flood on hills Circling the place, and trembled to fee men Do more than they : whilft Piety left the field, Griev’d for that fide, that in fo bad a caufe They knew not what a crime their valour was. The fun flood ftill, and was, behind the cloud The battle made, feen fweating to drive up His frighted horfe, whom ftill the noife drove back¬ wards. lhld' a£l v‘ Ofmyn. While we indulge our common happinefs, He is Torgot oy whom we all poffefs, The brave Almanzor, to whofe arms we owe Ai! that we did, and all that we ftiall do; Who like a tempeft that outrides the wind, Made a iuft battle ere the bodies join’d. # . A dalla. His victories we fcarce could keep m view, Or polifti ’em fo faft as he rough drew. . Abdemelech. Fate after him below with pain did move, And Viftory could fcarce keep pace above. Death d’d at length fo many (lain forget, And loft the tale, and took ’em by the great. Conquejl of Granada, aft ii. at beginning. An aftor on the ftage may be guilty of bombaft as Grandgat well as an author in his clofet: a certain manner ot aid¬ ing, which is grand when fupported by dignity in the fentiment and force in the expredion, is ridiculous where the fentiment is mean and the expreflion flat. GR ANDGOR is ufed in Scotland for the pox. In the Philoiophical Tranfaftions, n® 469. feft. 5. we have a proclamation of King James IV. ot Scot¬ land, ordering all who had this difeafe, or who had attended others under it, forthwith to repair to an ifland in the frith of Forth. If _ the grandgor was the pox, and this diftemper came into Europe at the fiegeof Naples in 1495, it muft have made a very quick progrefs to caule fuch an alarm at Edinburg in 1497. . GRANGE, an ancient term for a barn or place wherein to lay up and threfli corn. The word is form¬ ed of the Latin granea ; or o’ granum, “ grain, corn,’ &c. Hence alfo granger or grangier, “ a grange-keeper or farmer.” r r r Grange is alfo ufed, in a more extenfive lente, tor a whole farm, with all the appendages of ftables tor horfes, flails for cattle, &c. and for an inn. GRANI in our ancient writers, multachoes or whilkers of a beard. The word feems formed from the ancient Britifti or Irifti greann, “ a beard. It is given for a reafon why the cup is refuted to the laity, ^uia barbati, &prolixos habent granos, dum pocu- lum inter epulas fumunt, prius liquore pilos mficiunt, quam ori infundunt. . GRANICUS, a fmall river near the Hellelpont in Leffer Afia, remarkable for the firft viftory gained by Alexander the Great over the armies of Darius.-—- Authors difagree very much about the number of the Perfians, though all agree that they were vaftly more numerous than the Greeks. Juftin and Orofius tell us that the Perfian army confifted of 600,000 foot and 20,000 horfe j Arian makes the foot amount to 200,000; but Diodorus tells us, that they were not more than 100,000 foot and 10,000 horfe. The Macedonian army did not exceed 30,000 foot and yoo® horfe. The Perfian cavalry lined the banks of the Granicus, in order to oppofe Alexander wherever he ftiould attempt a paffage; and the foot were polled be¬ hind the cavalry on an eafy afeent. Parmenm would have had Alexander to allow his troops fome time to refrelh themfelves; but he replied, tnat after having croffed the Hellefpont, it would be a difgrace to him and his troops to be flopped by a rivulet. Accor¬ dingly a proper place for crofting the river was no fooner found, than he commanded a ftrong detach- ment of horfe to enter *, he himfelf followed with the ri^ht wing, which he commanded in perfon 5 the trum- pets in the mean time founding, and loud fhouts ol joy being heard through the whole army. The Periians let fly fuch Ihowers of arrows againft the detachment of Ma¬ cedonian horfe as caufed iome confufion; feveral of their horfes being killed or wounded. As they drew near the bank a moft bloody engagement enfued; the Macedonians attempting to land, and the Perfians pulhing them back into the river. Alexander, who obferved the confufion they were in, took the com¬ mand of t’em himfelf; gnd landing in fpite of all op- pofition, obliged the Perfian cavalry, after an obftmate r D £ 2 refiftance, 9 G R A [ 7G 3 G R A ground. However, Spithrotates, that meafere; and upon the fame principle,/he foon af- Grant. Granicus reiiftance, to give . governor of Ionia, and fon-in-law to Darius, Hill main¬ tained his ground, and did all that lay in his power to bring them back to the charge. Alexander ad¬ vanced full gallop to engage him} neither did he de¬ cline the combat, and both were /lightly wounded at the fir/t encounter. Spithrobates having thrown his javelin without effeft, advanced fword in hand to meet his antagonift, who ran him through with his pike as he railfed his arm to difcharge a blow with his fci- mitar. But Rofaces, brother to Spithrobates, at the fame time gave Alexander fuch a furious blow on the head with his battle-ax, that he beat off his plume, and /lightly wounded him through the helmet. As he was ready to repeat the blow, Clitus with one ilroke of his fcimitar cut off Rofaces’s head, and thus in all probability faved the life of his fovereign. The Macedonians then, animated by the example of their king, attacked the Perfians with new vigour, who foon after betook themfelves to flight. Alexander did not purfue them j but immediately charged the enemy’s foot with all his forces, who had now paifed the river. The Perfians, di/heartened at the defeat of their cavalry, made no great reflftance. ihe Greek merce¬ naries retired in good order to a neighbouring hill, wdience they fent deputies to Alexander, deliring leave to march off unmolefted. But he, inftead of coming to a parley with them, ru/hed furioufly into the middle of this fmall body, where his horfe was killed under him, and he himfelf in great danger of being cut. in pieces. The Greeks defended themfelves with incredible valour for a long time, but wrere at laft almoft entirely cut oft. In this battle the Perfians are faid to have loft 20,000 foot and 2500 horfe, and the Macedonians only 55 foot GRANITE, a compound rock wdiich is confidered as one of. the oldeft of which the earth is compofed. See Geology and Mineralogy Index. Granite, a kind of rock, belonging to the compound ftones. It is compofed of feld-fpar, quartz, and mica, in variable proportions. See Mineralogy and Geology Index. GRANITILLO, or Granitel, a name given by fome mineralogifts to a particular fpecies or variety of granite. . . . GRANIVOROUS, an appellation given to animals which feed on corn or feeds. Thefe are principally of the bird kind. . . . r r u GRANT, in Law, a conveyance in writing of iuch things as cannot pafs or be conveyed by word only 5 fuch are rents, reverftons, fervices, &c. Grant, Francis, Lord Cullen, an eminent law¬ yer and judge in Scotland, wns defcended from a younger branch of the family of the Grants of Grant in that kingdom, and wTas born about the year 1660. When he commenced advocate, he made a diftingui/h- ed figure at the revolution, by oppofing the opinion of the old lawyers, who warmly argued on the inabi¬ lity of the convention of eftates to make any difpo- fition of the crown. The abilities which he difcovered in favour of the revolution introduced him to extenfive praftice j in which he acquired fo much reputation, that when the union between the two kingdoms was In agitation. Queen Anne, without felicitation, created him a baronet, with a viewT of fecuring his interert in Grant. ter created him a judge, or one 0/ the lords of feluon. From this time, according to the cuftom of Scotland, he wras ftyled, from the name of his eftate, Lord Cul¬ len : and the fame good qualities that recommended him to this honourable office, were very confpicuous in the difcharge of it; which he continued for 20 years with the higheft reputation, when a period w'as put to his life by an illnefs which lafted but three days. He died March 16th, 1726. His charadter is drawm to great advantage in the Biographia Bri- tannica; where it is obferved, among other re¬ marks to his honour, “ That as an advocate he was indefatigable in the management of bufinefs; but at the fame time that he /pared no pains, he would ufe no craft. He had fo high an idea of the dignity of his profeffion, that he held it equally criminal to negledt any honeft means of coming at juftice, or to make ufe of any arts to elude it. In refpedl to for¬ tune, though he was modeft and frugal, and had a large pradtice, yet he was far from being avaricious. His private charities wTere very confiderable, and grew in the fame proportion with his profits. He was, bo¬ lides, very fcrupulous in many points; he w'ould not fuffer a juft caufe to be loft through a client’s w?ant of money. He was fuch an enemy to oppreflion, that he never denied his. affiftance to fuch as laboured un¬ der it ; and with refpedl to the clergy of all profeflions (in Scotland), his confcience obliged him to ierve them without a fee. When this merit had raifed him to tne bench, he thought himfelf accountable to God and man for his conduct in that high office : and that deep fenfe of his duty, at the fame time that it kept him ftridlly to it, encouraged and fupported him in the performance. Wffienever he fat as lord ordinary, the paper of caufes was remarkably full; for his reputation being equally eftabliflied for knowledge , and integrity, there were none, who had a good opinion . of their own pretenfions, but were defirous of bringing them before him, and not many who did not fit down fa- tisfied with his decifion. This prevailed more efpe- cially after it was found that few of his fentences were - reverfed ; and when they were, it was commonly owing ' to himfelf: for if, upon mature reflechon, or upon new reafons offered at the re-hearing, he faw any juft ground for altering his judgment, he made no fcruple of de¬ claring it; being perfuaded that it wTas more ma.nly, as well as more juft, to follow truth, than to fupport opi¬ nion : and his conduft in this refpedl had a right effedl; for inftead of leffening, it raifed his reputation. He would not, however, with all this great /lock, of know¬ ledge, experience, and probity, truft himfelf in matters of blood, or venture to decide in criminal cafes on the lives of his fellow-creatures; which was the reafon that, though often folicited, he could never be prevail¬ ed upon to accept of a feat in the jufticiary court. • In his private charadler he was as amiable as he was refpedlable in his public. He was charitable without oftentation, difinterefted in his fuenolhips, and beneu- cent to all who had any thing to do with him. He was not only ftricily juft ; but fo free from any fpecies of avarice, that his lady, who was. a woman of great prudence and diferetion, finding him more intent on the bufinefs committed to him by others than on his own, took upon herfelf the care of placing out his mo¬ ney ; G R A [77 Grantham, ncy ; and to prevent his poftponing, as he ms apt to Granville, do ilich kind of affairs, when fecunties offered, Ihe cau- fed the circmftances of them to be dated m the form of cafes, and fo procured his opinion upon his own concerns as if they had been thofe of a client. He was fo true a lover of learning, and was fo much ad¬ dicted to his ftudies, that, notwithftandmg the multi¬ plicity of his bufmefs while at the bar, and his great attention to his charge when a judge, he neverthele s found time to write various treatifes on very ditterent and important fubjefts: Some political, which were remarkably well timed, and highly ferviceable to the government: others of a mod eitenfive nature, fuch as his effays on law, religion, and education which were dedicated to George II. when Prince °f Waies j by whofe command, his then fecretary, Mr Samuel Mo- lyneaux, wrote him a letter of thanks, m which were many gracious expreflions, as well m relation to t ie piece as to its author. He compofed, beddes thele, many difcourfes on literary fubjefts, for the exercife of his own thoughts, and for the better difcovery of truth : which went no farther than his own clolet, and from a principle of modedy were not communicated even to his mod intimate friends.” GRANTHAM, a town of Lincolnfture, 1 lo miles from London, fituated on the river Witham. It is lup- pofed to have been a Roman town by the remains of a cadle which have been formerly^ dug up here. It is governed by an alderman and 1 2 judices of the Peac^> a recorder, a coroner, &c. Here is a fine large church with a done fpire, one of the loftied in England, be¬ ing 288 feet high, and, by the deception of the fight, feems to dand awry, which, by the church being fitu¬ ated fo low, appears to a very great difadvantage. Here is a good free-fchool, where Sir Ifaac Newton received his fird education, befides two charity- fchools. GRANVILLE, George, Lord Lanfdowne, was defcended from a very ancient family, derived from Rollo the fird duke of Normandy. At eleven years of age he was fent to Trinity College in Cambridge, where he remained five years : but at the age of 1 3 v\ as admitted to the degree of mader of arts •, having, be¬ fore he was 12, fpoken a copy of verfes of his own com- pofition to the duchefs of York at his college, when die paid a vifit to the Univerfky of Cambridge. In 1696, his comedy called the hne-gallants was acted at the theatre-royal in Lincoln’s-inn-fields, as his tiagedy called Heroic Love was in the year 1698. In 1702 he tranflated into Englidi the fecond Ohjnthian of Demo- Jlhenes. He was member for the county of Cornwall in the parliament which met in 1710 *, was afterwards fe¬ cretary of war, comptroller of the houfehold, then trea- furer, and fworn one of the privy council. The year following, he was created Baron Lanfdowne. On tne accefiion of King George I. in 1714, he was removed from his treafurer’s place ; and the next year entered his proted againd the bills for attainting Lord Boling- broke and the duke of Ormond. He entered aetpiy into the fcheme for raifing an infurreclion in the wed of England } and being feized as a fulper walks is fuch as abounds with imooth round pebbles, w nich, being mixed with a little loam, are bound fo firmly together, that they are never afterwards injured either bv wet or dry weather. Fhefe are not fo liaole to be turned up by the feet in walking, as the more inegu- larly flraped pebbles, and remain much more firmly in their places after rolling. GRAVELINES, a ffrong fea-port town of the Netherlands, in French Flanders, with a cafile and har¬ bour, feated in a marflry country on the river Aa, near the fea, in E. Long. 2. 13* . GRAVELLY LAND, or soil, that abounding with gravel or fand, which eafily admits of heat and moi- Hure j and the more flony fuch lands are, the more barren they prove. GRAVEN AC, a town of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, and capital of a county of the fame name. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 48. 22. GRAVER., in the art of engraving, a toolby which all the lines, fcratches, and {hades, are cut in copper, gtc. See Engraving. GRAVES AND E, William James, was born of an ancient and honourable family at Delft in Holland. 4n 1688. He ffudied the civil law at Leyden, but 3 G R A mathematical learning was his favourite amufement. Gravefcni. When he had taken his dodor’s degree in i’/oj, he r w— fettled at the Hague, and praclifed at the bar, in which fituation he cultivated an acquaintance with learned men •, with a fociety of whom, he publiflred a periodical review entitled L.e 'Journal hteraire, which was continued without interruption from the year 1713 to the year 1722, when he died. The moil confider- able of his'works are, “ A treatife on perfpedive ; An introdudion to the Newtonian pb'uofophy, cr a trea¬ tife on the elements of phylrcs confirmed by experi¬ ments ; A treatife on the elements of algebra, for the ufe of young Hudents and “ A courie of logic and metaphyfics.” He had intended to have prefented the public with a fyffem of morality, but his death pre¬ vented the execution. The miniflers of the republic confulted him on all occafions wherein his talents vere requifite 5 and his ikill in calculation was often of fer- vice to them •, as was his addrefs in deciphering, for deteding the fecret correfpondence of their enemies. As profeffor of mathematics and affronomy^at Leyden, none ever applied the powers of nature with more fuc- cefs, or to more ufeful purpofes. GRAVESEND, a town of Kent in England, Si¬ tuated on the banks of the Thames. It is 25 miles from London ; and has a blockhoufe well mounted with cannon, to command the {hips and river, diredly oppofite to Tilbury fort in Efiex. d he town w'as plundered and burnt by the French and Spaniards in the reign of Richard II. to compenfate which, the king, at the requeff of the abbot of St Mary-le-Grace ot Tower-hill, to whom he had granted a manor there called Parrocks, vefled it and Milton with the foie privilege of carrying paffengers by water from hence to London at 4s. the wdiole fare, or 2d. a-head ; which was confirmed by Henry VIII. j but now the fare is od. a-head in the tilt-boat, and is. in the wherry. The former muff not take in above 40 paffengers, the latter no more than 8. Coaches ply here at the land¬ ing of people from London, &c. to carry them to Ro- chefter, at is. 6d. each. This town and Milton were incorporated by Queen Elizabeth by the name of the portreeve (now the mayor), jurats, andL inhabitants ox Gravefend and Milton : And as Graveiend is the pxace where moff paffengers through Kent from foreign parts take boat for London, that queen, in order to ihow the grandeur of the metropolis of her kingdom, order¬ ed the lord mayor, aldermen, and city companies, to receive all ambaffadors and eminent Hiangeis eie in their formalities, and to attend them to London in barges if by water 5 or if they chofe to come by land, they were to meet them on horfeback on Black- heath in their livery gowns. The towns for feverai miles round are fupplied from hence with garden Huffs, of which great quantities are alfo fent to London, where the afparagus of Gravefend is prfcierred to that of Batterfea. All outward-bound Hups are obliged to anchor in this road till they have been vifited by the cuffomhoufe officers > and for this purpofe a centmel at the blockhoufe fires a mulket : but the ^mewa1^ bound all pafs by without notice unlefs it be to put waiters on board, if they are not fupphed Wore. As the outward-bound generally take in provifions here, the place is full of feamen, who are all in a hurry. The whole town being burnt down in 1727, 50001. / G R A t 81 * fefavina Was granted by the parliament in 1731 for rebuilding 11 its church, as one of the 50 new ones. In 1624, one , Gray. gave 21 dwelling-houfes here, beiides one > for a matter weaver, to employ the poor •, and here is a charity-l'chool for 24 boys, who are both taught and clothed. The town-houfe was credited in 1764? ai\d in 1772 an a£t of parliament empowered the inhabi¬ tants to pave and light their ftreetSi GRAVINA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and Terra di Bari, with a bifliop’s fee, and the title of a duchy.. E. Long. 17. N. Lat. 41. GRAVITATION, in Natural Philafophy, is fome- times diftinguhhed from gravity, Thus M. Mauper- tuis takes gravity for that force whereby a body would fall to the earth-, but gravitation for the fame dimi- nifhed by the centrifugal force. See Neivtouian P/n- lofophy. GRAVITY, or Gravitation (for the words are moft commonly ufed fynonymoufly), fignifies either the force by which bodies are prelTed towards the fur- face of the earth, or the manifeft effedtt of that force ; in which laft fenfe the word has the fame ttgnification with weight or heavirtefs. Concerning gravity in the firft fenfe of the word, or that adttive power by wdiich all bodies are impelled tow-ards the earth, there have been great difputes. Many eminent philofophers, and among the reft Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf, have confidered it as the firft of all fecond caufes; an incorporeal or fpiritual fubftance, which never can be perceived any other way than by its effects ; an univerfal property of matter, &Ci Others have attempted to explain the phenomena of gravita¬ tion by the adtion of a very lubtle ethereal fluid; and to this explanation Sir Ifaac, in the latter part of his life, feems not to have been averfe. He hath even given a conjedlure concerning the manner in which this fluid might occaflon thefe phenomena. But for a full account of the difcoveries of this great philofopher concerning the laws of gravitation, the conjedlures made by him and others concerning its caufe, the va¬ rious objedlions that have been made to his dodfrine, and the ftate of the difpute at prefent, fee the articles Nfivtonian Philofophy and Astronomy. Specific Gravity denotes the weight belonging to an equal bulk of every different fubftance. Thus the exadt weight of a cubic inch of gold, compared with a cubic inch of w-ater, tin, lead, &c. is called its fpecifc gravity. See Hydrostatics. GRAY, or Grey, a mixed colour partaking of the two extremes, black and white. See Dyeing Index. In the manege they make feveral forts of grays as the branded or blackened gray, which has fpots quite black difperfed here and there. The dappled gray, which has fpots of a darker colour than the reft of the body. The light or filver gray, wherein there is but a fmall mixture of black hairs. The fad or iron gray, which has but a fmall mixture of white. And the browriifh or fandy-coloured gray, where there are bay-coloured hairs mixed wdth the black. Gray, a tow-n of France, in the department of Up¬ per Saone, and capital of the bailiwick of Amont. It -is a trading place, and feated on the river Saone, in • E. Long. 5. 41. N. Lat. 47. 30. Gray, Lady “Jane. See Grey. Gray, Thomas, an admired Englilh poet, was the Vol. X. Part L ] G R A youngeft and only fttrviving fon of a reputable citi- . zen of London, and was born in Cornhill in 1716. v He was educated at Eton, where he contradled a friend- flrip with Pdr Horace Walpole, and with Mr Richard Weft fon of the lord chancellor of Ireland. Mr Weft and Mr Gray were both intended for the bar : but the for¬ mer died early in life, and the latter was diverted from that purfuit by an invitation to accompany Mr Wal¬ pole in his travels 5 which he accepted without any determined plan for his future life. During Mr Gray’s travels, he wrote a variety of letters to Mr Weft and to his parents, which are printed with his poems 5 and when he returned,- ftnding himlelf in narrow circiim- ftances, yet with a mind indifpofcd for adlive employ¬ ment, he retired to Cambridge, and devoted himfelf to ftudy. Soon after his return, his friend Weft died j / and the melancholy impreffed on him by this event may be traced in his admired “ Elegy written in a country churchyard 5” which is thought to have been begun, if not ftnilhed, at this time i, though the conclufion, as it ftands at prefent, is certainly different from what it -was in the firft manufcript copy. The firft impulffe of his forrow for the death of his friend gave birth to a very tender fonnet in Englilh, on the Petrarchian model} and alfo to a fublime apoftrophe in hexame¬ ters, written in the genuine ftrain of claflical majefty, with w-hich he intended to begin one of his books De Principiis cogitandi. From the winter of the year 1742, to the day of his death, his principal refidence was at Cambridge : froni which he was feldom abfent any confiderable time, ex¬ cept between the years 1759 and 1762 ; when on the opening of the Britilh Mufeum, he took lodgings in Southampton-row, in order to have recourfe to the Harleian and other manufcripts there depofited, from which he made feveral curious extrafts, amounting in all to a tolerable fized folio, at prefent in the hands of Mr Walpole. About the year 1747, Mr Mafon, the editor of Mr Gray’s poems, was introduced to him. The former had written, a year or trvo before, fome imitations of • Milton’s juvenile poems, viz. A Monody on the death of Mr Pope, and two pieces entitled ll Bel/icofo and II Pacifico on the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle \ and the latter revifed them at’ the requeft of a friend. This laid the foundation of an intimacy which continued without interruption to the death of Mr Gray. About the year 1750, Mr Gray had put his laft. hand to his celebrated Elegy written in a country church-yard, and had communicated it to his friend Mr Walpole, whofe good tafte was too much charmed with it to fuffer him to withhold the fight of it from his acquaintance. Accordingly it wTas ftrowm about fot fome time in manufcript, and received with all the ap- plaufe it fo juttly merited. At laft; the publiftier of one of the magazines having obtained a furreptitious copy of it, Mr Gray wrote to Mr Walpole, defiring that he would put his own manufcript into the hands of Mr Dodfley, and order him to print it immediately. This was the moft popular of all our author’s publica¬ tions. It ran through eleven editions in a very fhort fpace of time j was finely tranflated into Latin by Meffrs Anfty and Roberts j and in the fame year by Mr Lloyd. From July 1759 to the year 1762, he generally re- t L fided G R A [ 82 ] G R A Gray, fided in London, with a view, as we have already ob- ferved, of having recourfe to the Britiih Mufeum. In July 1768, his grace the duke of Grafton wrote him a polite letter, informing him, that his majelty had been pleafed to offer to him the profefforlhip of Mo¬ dern Hillory in the univerlity of Cambridge, then va¬ cant by the death of Mr Laurence Brocket. TLhis place was valuable in itfelf, the falary being 400I. a- year •, but what rendered it particularly acceptable to Mr Gray was its being given him without any felici¬ tation. He was indeed remarkably difintereiled in all his purfuits. Though his income, before this addi¬ tion, was very fmall, he never read or wrote with a view of making his labours ufeful to himfelf. He may be faid to have been of thofe few perfonages in the annals of literature, efpecially in the poetical clafs, who are devoid of felf-interelf, and at the fame time attentive to economy j and alfo was. among mankind in general one of thofe very few economifts, who pof- fefs that talent, untindtuyed with the {lighted: {lain of avarice. When his circumftances were at the lowed:, he gave away fuch fums in private charity, as would have done credit to an ampler purle. But what chief¬ ly deterred him from feeking any advantage by his literary purfuits, was a certain degree of pride, which led him to defpife the idea of being thought an author by profeflion. " However, it is probable, that early in life he had an intention of pubhlhing an edition of Strabo } for his papers contain a great number of notes and geo¬ graphical difquifitions on that author, particularly with refpe£t to that part of Ada which comprehends Perfia and India. The indefatigable pains which he took with the waitings of Plato, and the quantity of critical as well as explanatory obfervations which he has left upon almoll every part of his works, plainly indicate, that no man in Europe was better prepared to republilh and illuftrate that philofopher than Mr Gray. Another work, on which he beftowed uncom¬ mon labour, was the Anthologia. In an interleaved copy of that colleftion of Greek epigrams, he has tran- feribed feveral additional ones, which he feledled in his extenlive reading j has inferted a great number of cri¬ tical notes and emendations, and fubjoined a copious index. But whether he intended this performance for the prefs or not, is uncertain. The only work which he meditated upon with this direft view from the be¬ ginning w’as a hillory of Englilh poetry, upon a plan Jketched out by Mr Pope. He has mentioned this himfelf in an advertifement to thofe three fine imita¬ tions of Norfe and Welch poetry, which he gave the world in the laft edition of his poems. But alter he had made fome confiderable preparations for the exe¬ cution of this defign, and Mr Mafon had offered him his aflillance, he was informed, that Mr Warton, of Trinity College, Oxford, wTas engaged in a work of the fame kind. The undertaking was therefore relin- quilhed, by mutual confent •, and foon after, on that gentleman’s defiring a fight of the plan, our author readily fent him a copy of it. Among other fciences, Mr Gray had acquired a great knowledge of Gothic architefture. He had feen and accurately ftudied in his youth, while abroad, the Roman proportions on the fpot, both in ancient times, and in the works of Palladio. In his later years he applied himfelf to confider thofe flupendous firuflures Grt.y. of more modern date that adorn our own country j which, if they have not the fame grace, have undoubt¬ edly equal dignity. He endeavoured to trace this mode of building from the time it commenced through its various changes, till it arrived at its pcrfe&ion in the reign of Henry VIII. and ended in that of Eliza¬ beth. For this purpofe, he did not fo much depend upon written accounts, as that internal evidence which the buildings themfelves give of their refpedtive anti¬ quity ; fince they conllantly furnilh to the well-inform¬ ed eye, arms, ornaments, and other marks, by which their feveral ages may be afeertained. On this account he applied himfelf to the lludy of heraldry as a prepa¬ ratory fcience ; and has left behind him a number o{ genealogical papers, more than fufficient to prove him a complete mailer of it. By thefe means he arrived at fo very extraordinary a pitch of fagacity, as to be en¬ abled to pronounce, at firft fight, on the precife time when every particular part of any of our cathedrals was erefted. But the favourite fiudy of Mr Gray for the lall ten years of his life was natural hillory, which he then rather refumed than began •, as by the infiruc- tions of his uncle Antrobus, he was a confiderable bo- tanili at 15. The marginal notes which he has left on Linnaeus and other writers on the vegetable, animal, and foflil kingdoms, are very numerous : but the moft confiderable are on Hudfon’s Flora Anglica, and the tenth edition of the Syjlema Nature ; which latter he interleaved and filled almoft entirely. While employ¬ ed on zoology, he read Ariftotle’s treatife on that fub- je£l with great care, and explained many difficult paf- fages of that obfeure ancient by the lights he had re¬ ceived from modern naturalifts. In a word, excepting pure mathematics, and the {Indies dependent on that fcience, there was hardly any part of human learning in which he had not acquired a competent {kill,_ and in moil of them a confummate maftery. To this ac¬ count of his literary charadler w'e may add,, that he had a fine italic in painting, prints, gardening, and mufic ; and was moreover a man of good breedings virtue, and humanity. He died in 1771 : and an edition of his poems, with memoirs of his life and writings., were publilhed in 410, in 1775, by Mr Mafon. This gentleman, however, inilead of employing his owm pen in drawing Mr Grays chara&er, has adopted one drawn by the reverend Mr Temple, re£lor of Mamhead in Devonffiire, in a letter to Mr Bofwell; to whom the public are indebted for com¬ municating it. “ Perhaps (fays Mr Temple) he was the moft learned man in Europe. He wras equally acquainted with the elegant and profound parts of fcience, and that not fuperficially but thoroughly. He knew every branch of hiftory, both natural and civil j had read all the original hiftorians of England,. France, and Italy : and was a great antiquarian. Criticiim, metaphyfics, morals, politics, made a principal part of his plan o>. ftudy j voyages and travels of all forts were his favour- rite amufement } and he had a fine tafte in painting, prints, architetfure, and gardening. With fuch a fund of knowledge, his converfation muft have been equally inftru6ling and entertaining ; but. he was alfo a good man, a wHl-bred man, a man of virtue and hu¬ manity. There is no chara&er without fome fpeck, fome imperieclion y and I.think the greateft deleft in. G R E r Grayling his was an affefhtion in delicacy, or rather effeminacy 11 and a vifible faftidioufnels, or contempt, and dddain ot Greaves. ^ inferiors in fcience. He alfo had, in fome degree, ' that weaknefs which difgufted Voltaire lo much Congreve : though he feemed to value others chiefly- according to the progrefs they had made in knowledge, yet he could not bear to be confidered himfelf merely as a man of letters 5 and though without birth, or for¬ tune, or ftation, his defire was to be looked upon as a private independent gentleman, who read for his amuie- Lnt. Perhaps it may be laid, What figmfies fo much knowledge, when it produces o 1 e . s, worth taking fo much pains to leave no memorial but a few poems ? But let it be confidered, that Mr Gray was, to others, at leafl innocently employed ; to him¬ felf, certainly beneficially. His time paffed agreeably , he was every day making fome. new acquifition m fcience ; his mind was enlarged, his heart foltened, an his virtue ftrengthened j the world and mankind were fhown to him without a mafk •, and he was taught to confider every thing as trifling, and unworthy the at¬ tention of a wife man, except the purfuit of know¬ ledge, and the praftice of virtue in that (late wherein God hath placed us.” , GRAYLING. See Salmo, Ichthyology Index. In angling for this fiih the hook mull be armed upon the fhankswith a very narrow plate of lead, which fhould be flendereft at the bent of the hook, that the bait (which is to be a large grafhopper, the uppermolt wing of which muft be pulled off) may come over to it the more eafily. At the point let there be a cod- bait in a continual motion. The jag-tail, which is. a worm of a pale flefh-colour, with a yellow tag on its tail, is an excellent bait for the grayling m March and GREASE, a fwelling and gourdinefs of the legs of a horfe. See Farriery, N . ,. GREAT, a term of comparifon, denoting a thing , /* 4-Vi of *n \xrl to have more exteniion than fome other to which it is referred. Thus we fay, a great fpace, a great diftance, a great figure, a great body, &c. . Great is likewife ufed figuratively m matters of morality, &c. to fignify ample, noble, elevated, extra¬ ordinary, important, &c. Thus we fay, Shakefpeaie was a great genius, Da Vinci a great, painter, Galileo a great philofopher, Boflu z great critic, &c. Great is alfo a title or quality appropriated to cer- tain princes and other illuftrious perlonages. Thus we fay, the great Turk, the great Mogul, the great cham of Tartary, the great duke of Florence, ike. Great is alfo a furname bellowed on feverai kings and emperors. Thus we fay, Alexander the great ; Cyrus the great ; Charles the great, or Charlemagne •, Henry the great of France, &c. Great is alfo applied to feverai officers who have pre-eminence over others. Thus we fay, the lord great chamberlain ; the great marfhal of Poland, See. GREATER tone, in Muftc. See Tone. GREAVES, John, an eminent phyfician and an- tiquary, was the eldeft fon of John Greaves rector of Colemore, near Alresford in Hampfhire, and born in 1602. He wras educated at Baliol College in Oxroid, from which he removed to Merton. He was after¬ wards, on the foot of his great merit, chofen geo- ■?nctry profeffor of Grefham college. His ardent thirfl 83 ] G K E of knowledge foon carried him into feverai parts of Europe, where he eagerly feized every. opportunity oi^__ improving it. His next voyage was into the ealtern countries; where nothing remarkable m the heavens earth, or even fubterraneous places,, feems to. have efcaped his nice obfervation. He, with indefatigabie induftry, and even at the peril of his life, collefted a confiderable number of Arabic, P^c’ ai2d, Gree*| manuferipts, for Archbifhop Laud. Of thefe he well knew the value, as he was a matter of the languages in which they were written. He alfo. collected lor that prelate many oriental gems and coins. He took a more accurate furvey of the pyramids than any tra¬ veller who went before him. On his return from.tie Eaft, he vifited feverai parts of Italy a fecond time. During his flay at Rome, he made a particular inquiry into the true Hate of the ancient weights and mealures. Soon after he had finilhed his fecond voyage, he was chofen Savilian profeffor of attronomy at Oxford. He was eminently qualified for this profeffor Hup, as the works of ancient and modem aftronomers were iami- liar to him. His books relating to oriental learning, his Pyramidographia, or a defcnption of the pyramid.', in EeVPt, his Epochce Celebriores, and other curious and ufeful pieces, of which Mr Ward has given us a catalogue, {how him to have been a great man. ihole which he intended to publifh would have fhown him to be a greater j but he was flopped in his great career by death in 1652. T , GREBE. See Colymbus, Ornithology Index, GREECE, the prefent Romelia, and in many re- fpefts one of the moft defervedly celebrated countries in the world, was anciently bounded on the north by Macedonia and the river Strymon j on the weft by the Ionian fea ; on the north by the Mediterranean •, on the eaft by the Egean fea and Archipelago. It ex¬ tended from the Strymon, by which it was parted from Thrace, to the promontory of Tenaurus, the fouthmoi . > .1 i r„o ttif. Mnrea. about 6° Grebe, Greece. inrace, 10 me piuiuuuwi,; point of the Peloponnefus, now the Morea, about 6 20' of latitude, or nearly 440 Englifh miles, and m breadth from eaft to weft about 359 miles.. The general names by which the inhabitants ot this country were known to the ancients were thofe ot Graioi, or Graicoi, from whence the name of Greece is plainly derived. Thefe names are thought to come irorn Grsecus, the father, or (according to fome) the fon, ot Theffalus, who gave name to Theffaly ; but fome mo¬ dern critics choofe to derive it from Ragau, the fame with Reu, the fon of Peleg, by the tranfpofttion ot a letter to foften the found.—Thefe names were after¬ wards changed for Achan and Hellenes ; the firft, as is fuppofed from Acha-us, the fon of Xuthus, the fon of Hellen, and father of Ion j or, according to the table, the fon of Jupiter : the.other from Hellen, above-men¬ tioned, the fon of Deucalion, and father of Dorus, from whom came the Dores, afterwards a famous na¬ tion among the Greeks. Another name by which the Greeks were known in fome parts of the country, was that of Pela/gl, which the Arcadians, the molt ancient people in Greece, deduced tram their pretended foun- der Pelafgus, who is faid to have got fuch footing m Peloponnefus, that the whole peninfula from him was called Pelafgia. But the moil ancient name of all is univerlally allowed to have been that of lone.., v\ ic the Greeks theinfelves derived from Ion the ion ot L 2 Xuthus j G R E [ 84 ] G R E Greece. Xathus j or, as the fable bath it, of Apollo, by Cre- ‘ ufa the daughter of Erichtheus the grandfon of Deu¬ calion. Joiephus, however, affirms, that their origi¬ nal is of much older date •, and that Javan, the fon of Japhet, and grandfon of Noah, tvas the firft who peopled thefe countries •, which Bochart hath alio ren¬ dered very probable. It is true, indeed, that among the Greeks themfelves, only the Athenians, and fuch colonies as fprung from them, were called lones: but it is alfo plain beyond exception, that other nations gave this name to all the inhabitants of Greece. The inhabitants of Greece in the firft ages, even by the confeffion of their own hiftorians, appear to have been favages fcarce a degree removed from brutes. They lived indifferently on every fruit, herb, or root that came in their way : and lay either in the open fields, or at beft fheltered themfelves in dens, caves, and hollow trees : the country itlelf in the mean time remaining one continued uncultivated defert. The firft improvement they made in their wTay of living, was the exchanging of their old food for the more whole- fome acorns, building huts for themfelves to ileep in, and covering their bodies with the fkins of beafts. For all this, it leems, they were beholden to Pelafgus a- bove-mentioned (fuppofed by fome to be Peleg fpoken of in Scripture), and who was highly reverenced by them on that account.—This reformation in their way of life, however, it feems wrought none in their man¬ ners. On the contrary, they who had nothing to fight for but a hole to fleep in, began now to envy and rob one another of thefe {lender acquifitions. This, in procefs of time, put them under a neceffity of joining themfelves into companies under fome head, that they might either more fafely plunder their neighbours, or preferve what they had got. Laws they had none, except that of the fword : fo that thofe only lived in fafety who inhabited the moft barren and craggy pla¬ ces j and hence Greece for a long time had no fettled inhabitants, the weakeft being always turned out b; the ftrongeft. Their gigantic lize and ftrength, if we may believe Plutarch, added fo much to their infolence and cruelty, that they feemed to glory in committing the greateft -affs of violence and barbarity on thofe that unhappily fell into their hands. The next advance towards civilization, was their forming themfelves into regular focieties, to cultivate the lands, and build themfelves towms and cities for their fafety. Their original barbarity and mutual vio¬ lences againft each other naturally prevented them from uniting as one nation, or even into any confiderable community : and hence the great number of ftates in¬ to which Greece wras originally divided. The moft remarkable of thefe fmall principalities mentioned in hiftory are the following : In Peloponnefus wTere thofe of Sicyon, Argos, and Meflenia, Achaia Propria, Arcadia, and Laconia. In Graecia Propria (that part of Greece which lay without Peloponnefus), were thofe of Attica, Megara, Bceotia, Lucris, Epichne- midia, Doris, Phocis, Locris, Ozolaea, and ALtolia. In Epirus were the Moloffi, Amphilochi, Caffiopaei, Drteopes, Chaoces, Thefprotii, Altneni, and Acar- nani. In Theffaly w’ere thofe of Theffaliotis, Eiii- otis, Pelafgiotis, Magnefia and Phthia.—All thefe have at one time or other been feverally governed by kings of .their own, though we only find the names of many of them mentioned in the hiftories of the more Greece. confiderable kingdoms of Sparta, Attica, Thebes,' v—- &c.— Ihe ereftion of thefe kingdoms, however, for fome time, did not much alter the cafe ; the inhabi¬ tants of the new kingdoms plundered and deftroyed one another without mercy. Attica was the only place in any degree free from thefe incurfions, becaufe it tvas naturally deftitute of every thing that could in¬ vite a plundering enemy but thofe cities fared much wrorfe which were fituated on the fea-coafts 5 becaufe they were in continual danger of being plundered ei¬ ther by fea or land : for pirates at that time did not lels infeft all thofe feas than robbers did the land. And this was one main caufe wThy moft of the ancient cities of Greece w-ere fituated at fome confiderable diftance *rom the fhore 5 but even in thefe, as all their fafety confifted in the refiftance they could make againft an invader, their inhabitants were under the neceffity of going eonftantly armed, and being ever on their guard. Another mifchief arifing from thefe continual pira¬ cies and robberies was, that they occafioned the far greater part of the lands to lie uncultivated, fo that the people only planted and fowled as much as w^as barely necefiary for their prefent fupport ; and where there was fuch an univerfal negledt of agriculture, there could be as little room for any difcoveries in o- ther ufeful arts and trades. Hence, when other na¬ tions, as the Jews, Egyptians, Midianites, Phoenici¬ ans, &c. had improved themfelves to a very high de¬ gree, the Greeks feem to have been utter itrangers to every ufeful art. During this period of favage barbarity, the moft renowned Grecian heroes, as Hercules, Thefeus, performed their exploits •, which, however exaggera¬ ted by poetic fidlion, no doubt had a foundation in truth. Some indeed are of opinion that the Grecian heroes are entirely fidlitious, and their exploits de¬ rived from thofe of the Hebrew worthies, fuch as Sam- fon, Gideon, &cc. Yet, confidering the extreme de¬ gree of barbarity which at that time prevailed through¬ out Greece, it feems not at all improbable that fome - perfons of extraordinary ftrength and courage might undertake the caufe of the oppreffed, and travel about like the more modern knights-errant in queft of ad¬ ventures. The firft expedition in which w?e find the Greeks united, wras that againft Troy, the particulars of which are recited under the article Troy. Their fuccefs here (which happened about 1184 B. C.) coft them very dear j’vaft numbers of their braveft warriors be¬ ing {lain ; great numbers of the furvivors being call away in their return j and many of thofe who had the good luck to get back again, being foon after mur¬ dered, or driven out of their country. It is probable, however, that their having ftaid for fuch a long time in Afia, might contribute to civilize the Greeks fome- what fooner than what they otherwife would have been $ and accordingly from this time, we find their hiftory lomewhat lefs obfcure, and as it were begin¬ ning to emerge out of darknefs. The continual w-ars, in¬ deed, in which they were engaged among themfelves, no doubt, for a long time, prevented them from ma¬ king any confiderable advances in thofe arts in wffiich they afterv/ards made fo great progrefs. Thefe wars, which G R E [ • 85 vZ-isch indeed never ceafed as long as the Greeks pre- ferved their liberty, rendered them brave, and ikulea in the military art above all other nations •, but at the fame time they effe&ually prevented them from making permanent conquefts, and con-fined them within the bounds of their own country j while the different dates were one way or other fo equally balanced, that fcarce one of them was able perfeftly to fubdue another. I e Spartans, however, having with great difticulty, re¬ duced the kingdome of Meffene, and addea its terri¬ tories to their own, became the leading people in Greece. Their fuperiority was long difputed by_ A- thens ; but the Peloponnefian war at laft determine that point in favou/ of the Spartans, when the city of Athens was taken, and its walls demolilhed by Ly- fander the Spartan general. See Attica, N 164. By the battle of Leuftra, the Spartans loft that Superiority which they had maintained for yea‘s» and which now devolved on the Thebans After the death of Epaminondas, the celebrated Theban gene¬ ral however, as no perfon was found poilefted ot his abilities, the Thebans were again obliged to yield the fuperiority to the Spartans. But by^ this time the Greeks had become acquainted with the luxuries and elegancies of life •, and ail the ri gour of-their ori¬ ginal laws could not prevent them, from valuing thete as hinhly as other people. This did not indeed abate their valour, but it heightened their mutual ammofi- ties: at the fame time that, for the fake of a ea' fy and comfortable life, they became more dftpoled to fubmit to a matter. The Perfians, whofe power they had long dreaded, and who were unable to refill them bv force of arms, at laft found out (by the advice of Alcibiades) the proper method of reducing the Gre¬ cian power*, namely, *by aftifting them by turns, an {'applying one ftate with money to fight againft another till they ftiould be all fo much reduced, that tney might become an eafy prey. Thus the Greeks were weakened, though the Perfians did not reap any bene¬ fit from their weaknefs. Philip of Macedon. entered into the fame political views *, and partly by intrigue, partly by force, got himfelf declared generahfti- nio of Greece. Plis fucceffor Alexander the Great completed their fnbjetlion *, and by deftroying the ci¬ ty of Thebes, and exterminating its inhabitants, itruck fuch a terror throughout Greece, that he was as fullv obeyed by all the ftates as by any ot the reft ot his iubjefts. During his abfence in Perfia, however, they attempted to (hake off the Macedonian yoke, but were quelled by his general Antipater. The news of Alexander’s death was to them a matter of the utmolt ■joy * but their mutual animofities prevented them from joining in any folid plan for the recovery of their liberties, and hence they continued to be oppreffed by Alexander’s fucceffors, or other tyrants, till Aiatus, an Achaean, about 268 B. C. formed a defign of fet- ting his country free from thefe oppreftors. He per- fuaded a number of the fmall republics to enter into a league for their own defence, which was called the ylchcean league; and notwithftanding that the repub¬ lics, taken fingly, had very little ftrength, they not only maintained their independency, but. foon became formidable when united. This affociation continued to become daily more and more powerful *, but received a fevere check from Cleomenes, king of Sparta, which Gr> ] CUE obliged them to call in Antigonus to their affiftance. This prince overcame Cleomenes at the battle of bel- lafia, and afterwards made himfelf mailer of ^Parta* Thus he became a more formidable enemy than the one he had conquered, and the recovery of the Gre¬ cian liberties was incomplete. . , Soon after this, the Greeks began to feel the weight of a power more formidable than any which they had yet experienced *, namely, that of the Romans lhat infidious and haughty republic firft intermeddled witn the Grecian affiiirs, under pretence of. fettmg them at liberty from the oppreflion of Philip o. Macedon. This, by a proper union among themfelves, they mig have accompliftied: but in this they afted as though they had been infatuated 5 receiving with the utmoft joy the decree of the Roman conful, who declared them free ; without confidering, that he who had thus given them liberty, might take it away at his plea ure. This leffon, however, they were foon taught, by the total reduaion of their country to a Roman province * yet this can fcarce be called a misfortune when we look back to their hiftory, and confider their outra¬ ges upon one another : nor can we fympathize with them for the lofs of that liberty which they only made ufe of to fill their country with {laughter and blood- ftied. After their conqueft by the Romans, they made no united effort to recover their liberty. They continued in quiet fubjedion till the beginning of the 1 tth century. About that time, tney began to fuffer under the tyranny of the Turks, and their fufferings were completed by the taking of Conftanti- nople in 1453. Since that time they have groaned under the yoke of a moll defpotic government j lo that all traces of their former valour, ingenuity, and learn¬ ing, are now in a manner totally extind. . .... Modern Greece comprehends Macedonia *, Albania, now called Arnaut; Epirus *, Theffaly, now j A- chaia, now Livadia ; the Peloponnefus, now Morea ; too-ether with the illands on its coaft, and m the Archi¬ pelago. The continent of Greece is feated betwixt the 36th and 43d degrees of north latitude.; and be¬ tween the 10th and 27th degrees of longitude, call of London. To the north, it is bounded by Bulga¬ ria and Scrvia, from which it is divided by a ridge of mountains; to the fouth by the Mediterranean fea ; to the eaft by Romania and the Archipelago .; and to the weft by the Adriatic or gulf of Venice. Its length is faid to be about 400 miles, and its utmoft breadth about 3 <;o miles. The air is extremely tem¬ perate and healthy : and the foil fruitful, though barfty cultivated ; yielding corn, wine, delicious fruits, and abounding with cattle, fowls, and venifon. As to re¬ ligion, Chriftianity was planted m Greece loon alter the death of our Saviour, and flouriftied there for many ages in great purity ; but fince the Greeks became fubjeft to’the Turkifti yoke, they have funk into the moil deplorable ignorance, in confequence of the fl.avery and thraldom under which they groan, and their re¬ ligion is now greatly corrupted. It is . indeed little better than a heap of ridiculous ceremonies and abfur- dities. The head of the Greek church is the patriarch of Conftantinople ; who is chofen by the neighbouring archbiftiops and metropolitans, and confirmed by the emperor or grand vifir. He is a perfon of great dig¬ nity, being the head and direftor of the eaftem churc „ G R E [ 36 ] G R E Greece. The other patriarchs are thofe of Jerufalem, Antioch, and Alexandria. Mr Tournefort tells us, that the pa¬ triarchates are now generally fet to fale, and bellowed upon thofe who are the higheft bidders. The patriarchs, metropolitans, archbilhops, and bilhops, are always cho- fen from among the Caloyers or Greek monks. Before the patriarchs receive their patents and the caftan, which is a veil of linfey-woolfey, or fome other Huff, prefented by the grand lignior to ambafifadors, and other perfons newly in veiled with fome confiderable dignity, they are obliged to make large prefents to the vizir, &c. T he Income of the patriarch of Conllantinople is faid to amount to no lefs than one hundred and twenty thou- fand guilders, of which he pays the one-half by way of annual tribute to the Ottoman Porte, adding fix thoufand guilders belides as a prefent at the fealt of Bairam. The next perfon to a bilhop among the clergy is an archimandrite, who is the direftor of one or more convents, which are called mandrcn; then come the abbot, the arch-prielt, the priell, the dea¬ con, the under-deacon, the chanter, and the le£lu- rer. The fecular clergy are fubjedled to no rules, and never rife higher than high-priell. They are allowed to marry once •, but it mud be with a virgin, and be¬ fore they are ordained. They have neither glebe nor tythes, but depend upon the perquilites that arife from their office ; and they feldom preach but in Lent. The Greeks have few nunneries; but a great many con¬ vents of monks, who are all prielfs, and, lludents excepted, obliged to follow fome handicraft employ¬ ment, and lead a very aullere life. The Greeks deny the fupremacy of the pope, and abhor the worlhip of images } but have a multitude of pictures of faints in their churches, whom they pray to as mediators. Their fads are very fevere. They believe alfo in the doflrine of tranfubllantiation, and that the Holy Gholl: does not proceed from the Son. I hey admit not of purgatory, fays Mr Thevenot : but yet they allow a third place, where they fay the bleffed re¬ main, in expectation of the day of judgment. At mafs they confecrate with leavened bread } and com¬ municate under both kinds, as well laics as priefts, and as well wmmen and children as men. When they carry the facrament to the lick, they do not pro- flrate themfelves before it, nor expofe it to be adored : neither do they carry it in proceffion, or have any particular feaft in honour of it. Baptiim is perform¬ ed among them by plunging the. whole body of the child thrice into water. Immediately after baptifm, they give it confirmation and the communion \ and feven days after that, it undergoes the ceremony of ablution. Wffien a prieft is married, among other ce¬ remonies, the bridegroom and bride drink each two glafles of wTine; then the glafs is given to the priefl, who merrily drinks off the reft of the wane, and break¬ ing the glafs, fays, So may the bridegroom break the virginity of the bride. As to the charafter of the modern Greeks, they are faid to be very covetous, hy¬ pocritical, treacherous, great pederafts, and at the fame time revengeful to the higheft degree but very fuperftitious. They are fo much defpifed by the Turks, that thefe do not value even a Greek who turns Ma¬ hometan. The Turks are remarkable for their taci¬ turnity they never ufe any unneceffary rvords ; but •he Greeks, on the contrary, arc very talkative and l lively. The Turks generally praClife what their re- Greek- ligion enjoins, but the Greeks do not ; and their mi- fery puts them upon a thoufand mean fhifts and fcan- dalous practices, authoriled by bad example, and perpetuated from father to fon. The Greek women have fine features and beautiful complexions : their countenances ftill very much refemble thofe of the an¬ cient Greek ftatues. GREEK, or Grecian, any thing belonging to ancient Greece. The Greek language, as preferved' in the writings of the celebrated authors of antiquity, as Homer, He- fiod, Demofthenes, Ariftotle, Plato, Xenophon, &c. has a great variety of terms and expreffions, fuitable to the genius and occafions of a polite and learned people, who had a tafte for arts and faiences. In it, proper names are fignificative j which is the reafon that the modern languages borrow fo many terms from it. When any new invention, inftrument, machine, or the like, is difeovered, recourfe is generally had to the Greek for a name to it •, the facility wherewith words are there compounded, affording fuch as will be ex- preffive of its ufe : futh are, barometer, hygrometer, microfcope, telefcope, thermometer, &c. But of all fciences, medicine moft abounds with fuch terms j as diaphoretic, diagnofis, diarrhoea, haemorrhagy, hy¬ drophobia, phthifis, atrophy, &c. Befides the co- pioufnefs and fignificancy of the Greek, wherein it excels moft, if not all, other languages, it has alfo three numbers, viz. a fingular, dual, and plural: alfo abun¬ dance of tenfes in its verbs, which makes a variety in difeourfe, prevents a certain drynefs that always ac¬ companies too great an uniformity, and renders that language peculiarly proper for all kinds of verfe. The ufe of the participles, of the aorift and preterite, toge¬ ther with the compound words already mentioned, give it a peculiar force and brevity, without taking any¬ thing from its perfpicuity. It is no eafy matter to affign the precife difference betw'een the modern and ancient Greek ; which con- lifts in the terminations of the nouns, pronouns, verbs, &c. not unlike what obtains between fome of the di¬ alers of the Italian or Spanilh. There are alfo in the modern Greek, many new words, not to be met with in the ancient. We may therefore diftinguilh three ages of the Greek tongue : the firft of which'ends at the time when Conftantinople became the capital of the ’Roman empire 3 the fecond lafted from that period to the taking of Conrtantinople by the Turks 3 and the third from that time to this. ^ Greek Bible. See Bible. Greek Church, is that part of the Chriftian church which is eftablilhed in Greece 3 extending likevvife to fome other parts of Turkey. See Greece.—It is thus called in Europe, Afia, and Africa, in contradiftinftion from the Latin or Romilh church 3 as alfo the Eaftern church, in diftinftion from the Weftern. The Romanifts call the Greek church the Greek fchifm ; becaufe the Greeks do not allow the authority of the pope, but depend wholly, as to matters of reli¬ gion, on their own patriarchs. They have treated them as fchifmatics ever fince the revolt, as they call it, of the patriarch Photius Greek Monks and Nuns, of whatever order, confider St Bafil as their founder and common father, and efteem G R E [ efteem it the higheft crime to deviate in the lead from his conftitutions. There are feveral beautiful convents with churches, in which the monks perform divine jervice day and night. Some of the monks are coeno¬ bites, or live together, wear the fame habit, eat at the fame table, and perform the fame exercifes and employ¬ ments. Greek Orders^ in ArcluleBure, are the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian 5 in contradiftinfiion to the two Latin orders, the Tufcan and Compofite. See Order. GREEN, one of the original prifmatic colours, exhibited by the refradlion of the rays of light. See Chromatics and Colour. Green, among painters and dyers. See lolovr- Maling, N° 27. and Dyeing, N° 367.. GREEN-Cloth, a board or court of jullice held in the compting-houfe of the king’s houfehold, compoled of the lord fteward and officers under him, who lit daily. To this court is committed the charge and over¬ fight of the king’s houfehold in matters of juftice and government, with a power to correcl all offenders, and to maintain the peace of the verge, or juriididlion of the court-royal j which is every way about 200 yards from the lait gate of the palace where his majefty refides. It takes its name, board of green cloth', from a green cloth fpread over the board where they lit. Without a warrant firll obtained from this court, none of the king’s fervants can be arrefted for debt. Clerks of the Green Cloth were two officers of the board of green cloth, who appointed the diet of the king and his houfehold } and kept all records, legers, and papers relating thereto; made up bills, parcels, and debentures for falaries, and provifions and neceffaries for the officers of the buttery, pantry, cellar, &c.. They alfo waited upon foreign princes when entertained by bis majeily. But this has been lately aboliffied. Green-Fiuc/i, the Engliffi name of the greenilh frin- gilla, w'ith the wings and tail variegated with yellow. See Fringilla, Ornithology Index. GREEN-Houfe, or Confervatory, a houfe in a garden, contrived for fheltering and prefervmg the molt curious and tender exotic plants, which in our climate will not bear to be expofed to the open air, efpecially during the winter feafon. Thefe are generally large and beau¬ tiful llru£lures, equally ornamental and ufeful. The length of green-houfes muff be proportioned to the number of plants intended to be preferved in them, and cannot therefore be reduced to rule \ but their depth fhould never be greater than their height in the clear; which, in fmall or middling houfes, may be 16 or 18 feet, but in large ones from 20 to 24 feet ; and the length of the windows ffiould reach from about one foot and a half above the pavement, and within the fame diftance of the ceiling, which will admit of a corniche round the building over the heads of the win¬ dows. Their breadth cannot be in proportion to their length; for if in the largeft buildings they are more than feven or feven feet and a half broad, they will be extremely heavy and inconvenient. Ihe piers between the window’s muff be as narrow as may be to fupport the buildingfor which reafon they ffiould either be of ftone or ol hard burnt bricks. If the piers are made of done, they ffiould be 30 inches wide in front, and 87 ] G R E doped off behind to about 18 inches, by which means there will be no corners to take off the rays of the fun. ^ If they are of brick, they will require to be at leaft three feet in front, but they ffiould be in the fame manner Hoped off behind. Over the green-houfe may be rooms for drying and preferving feeds, roots, &c. and behind it a place for tools and other purpofes; and both theffi behind, and the rooms above, will be of great ufe in keeping off the frofts, fo that the wall between thefe need not be of more than two bricks and a half in thicknefs. The floor of the green-houfe, which Ihould be laid either with Bremen fquares, Purbeck ftone, or flat tiles, muft be raifed two feet above the furface of the adjoining ground, or if the fituation be damp, at leaft three feet; and if the whole is arched with low brick arches under the floor, they will be of great fervice in preventing damps: and under the floor, about tw’O feet from the front, it will be very advifeable to make a flue of ten inches wide and two feet deep : this Ihould be carried the whole length of the houfe, and then returned back along the hinder part, and there be carried up into funnels adjoining to the tool-houfe, by which the fmoke may be carried off. The fire-place may be contrived at one end of the heufe, and the door at which the fuel is put in, as alfo the affi-grate, may be contrived to open into the tool-houfe, and the fuel being laid in the fame place, the whole will be out of fight. Bradley advifes, that the front of green- houfes, in the colder parts of England, be built in a fweep or femicircle, fo that one part ®r other of it may receive the fun’s rays all day. I he ufe of fires muft, however, be very fparing in this place ; and it is not one winter in three or four that will require them in any part, only when the weather is very fevere, and the froft cannot, well be kept out any other way, this is an expedient that is good to have in readinefs, as it may fave a whole houfe of plants. Withinfide of the win¬ dows, in front of the green-houfe, there ffiould be good ftrong ffiutters, made with hinges, to fold back clofe to the piers, that they may not obftruft the rays of the fun. The back part of the houfe ffiould be either laid over with ftucco or plaftered with mortar, and whitew’affied, in order to prevent the frofty air from penetrating through the walls. When the green-houfe is wainfeotted, the walls ftiould be plaftered with lime and hair behind the wainfeot, to keep out the cold; and the wainfeot, as well as the ceiling, and every part within the houfe, ffiould be painted white, for the refle&ion of the fun’s rays. There muft be a num¬ ber of treffels with forms of wood upon them, to fup¬ port the pots of plants; the tailed: to be placed hind- moll, the loweft within four feet of the windows : and the rows of plants ihould rife gradually, fo that the heads of the fecond row ffiould be entirely above the firft ; and behind them there ffiould be a fpace of at leaft five feet, for the conveniency of watering the plants, and for a free circulation of air. It has been obferved, that the placing of the euphorbium, ce- reufes, and other fucculent plants among orange-trees, and other common green-houfe plants, is always deftruc- tive of them, by making them receive an improper fort of effluvia, which plants of that kind imbibe very freely. They ffiould therefore be placed in two wings built Oreta- houfe. v G R E [ 8 Green- built at each end of the green-houfe *, which, if well Sicknefs, contriVed, will be a great beauty as well as ule to the Oieenland. i !ij* rT',T— V-»» t-»noA^ r*Qr>QV^1 & F 3, building'. Thefe wings may be made capable of great warmth alfo by more flues, and may be -tnade to contain a hot-bed of tanner’s bark for the railing many of the tender plants, natives of warm climates. Whilft the front of the green-houfe is exactly fouth, one of the wings may be made to face the fouth-eaft and the other the fouth-weft. By this difpolition the heat of the fun is reflected from one part of the build¬ ing to the ether all day, and the front of the main green-houfe is guarded from the cold winds. Ihefe two wings may be fo contrived as to maintain plants of different degrees of hardinefs, which may be eafily effefted by the fltuation and extent of the fire-place, and the manner of conducing the flues : the wing fa¬ cing the fouth-eaft is evidently the molt proper for the farmed ftovej this may be divided in the middle by a partition of glafs, with glafs-doors opening from one divifion to the other. In each of thefe there fliould be a fire-place, with flues carried up againft the back-wall, through which the fmoke fhould be made to pafs as many times the length of the houfe as the height will admit of the number of flues ^ for the longer the fmoke is in pafling, the more heat will be gihen to the houfe with a lefs quantity of fuel. The other wing, facing the fouth-weft, fhould be divided and furnifhed with flues in the fame manner-, and thus different degrees of heat may be obtained, according to the feafons and the particular forts of plants that are to be prelerved. . If there are no fheds behind thefe wings, the walls fhould not be lefs than three bricks thick j and the back part, having Hoping roofs, which are covered with tiles or flates, fliould be lined with reeds, &c. under the cover¬ ing. The Hoping glaffes of thefe houfes fhould be made to Aide and take off, fo that they may be drawn down more or lefs in warm weather to admit air to the plants j and the upright glaffes in front may be fo contri¬ ved as that every other may open as doors upon hinges, ‘ -and the alternate glaffes may be divided into two : the upper part of each fliould be fo contrived as to be drawn down like fafhes, fo that either of them may be ufed to admit air in a greater or lefs quantity as theie may be occafion. _ v r As to the management of the plants in the green-houfe, Mortimer recommends the opening of the mould about them from time to time, and fprinkling a little frefh mould in them, and a little warm dung on that -, as al¬ fo to water them when the leaves begin to wither and curl, and not oftener, which would make them fade and ’be fickly j and to take off fuch leaves as wither and grow dry. GR£KN-Sichnefs. See Chlorosis, Medicine Index. GnEEN-Si/ver, the name of an ancient cuftom within the manor of Writtel in the county of Effex in Eng¬ land which is, that every tenant whofe fore-door opens to Greenbury, fhall pay an halfpenny yearly to the lord, by the name of green-Jilver. Green-Wox, is ufed where eftates are delivered to the fheriffs out of the exchequer, under the feal of - that court, made in green wax, to be levied in the fe- veral counties. This word is mentioned the 43d flat. Ed. HI. c. 9. and 7 Hen. IV. c. 4. GREENLAND, a general name by which are de¬ noted the moft eafterly parts of America, firetching to- ; j G R E wards the north pole, and likewife fome iflands to tne Greemtmii^ northward of the continent of Europe, lying in very high latitudes. _ * This country is divided into Weft and Eaft ^reen* Q,eeen]an(j land.—Weft Greenland is now determined by our lateft maps to be a part of the continent of America, though upon what authority is not very clean That part of it which the Europeans have any knowledge of is bounded on the weft by Baffin’s bay, on the fouth by Davis’s ftraits, and on*the eaft by the northern part of the Atlantic ocean. It is a very mountainous country, and fome parts of it fo high that they may be difeerned 30 leagues off at fea. The inland mountains, hills, and rocks, are covered with perpetual fnow , but the low lands on the fea-fide are clothed with verdure in the fummer feafon. The coaft abounds with inlets, bays, and large rivers j and is furrouncied with a vail number of iflands of different dimenfions, In a great many places, however, on the eaftern coaft efpecially, the fhore is inacceflible by reafon of the floating mountains of ice. The principal river, called Baa/, falls into the fea in the 64th degree of latitude, where the firft Danifh lodge was built in 17215 and has been navigated above 40 miles up the country. . a Weft Greenland was firft peopled by Europeans in Peopled by the eighth century. At that time a company of Ice- a colony landers, headed by one Ericke Rande, were by acmdent ^lce- driven on that coaft. On his return he reprefented the country in fuch a favourable light, that iome famines again followed him thither, where they loon became a thriving colony, and beftowed on their new habitation the name of Gvoenland or Greenland, on account of its verdant appearance. This colony was converted to Chriftianity by a miffionary from Norway, fent thither by the celebrated Olaf, the firft Norwegian monarch who embraced the true religion. I he Greenland Set¬ tlement continued to increafe and thrive under his pio- tedlion 5 and in a little time the country was provided with many towns, churches, convents, bifhops, &c. un¬ der the j urifdidtion of the archbilhop of Drontheim. A confiderable commerce was carried^ on between Green¬ land and Norway 5 and a regular intercourfe maintain- 3 ed between the two countries till the year 1406 when ^ the laft bifhop was fent over. From that time all cor- ^ ^ ^ refpondence wras cut off, and all knowledge 01 Green-cut land has been buried in oblivion. . off. This ftrange and abrupt ceffation of all trade and intercourfe has been attributed to various caufes 5 but the moft probable is the following : The colony, from its firft fettlement, had been haraffed by the natives, a barbarous and favage people, agreeing in cuftoms, gar , language, and appearance, with the Efqumiaux founu about Hudfon’s bay . This nation, called Schrelhngs, at length prevailed againft the Iceland fettlers who in¬ habited the weftern diftridl, and exterminated them in the 14th century: infomuch, that when their brethren Co;ony of the eaftern diftrid came to their afliftance, they p0fe(l to be found nothing alive but fome cattle and flocks of flieep ^ternuna. running wild about the country. Perhaps they them-^ felves afterwards experienced the fame late, and were totally deftroyed by thefe Schrellings, whofe defeend- ants ftill inhabit the weftern parts of Greenland, and from tradition confirm this conjedure.^ They affirm that the houfes and villages, whofe ruins ftill appear, were inhabited by a nation of ftrangers, whom their anceftors G R E [ 89 j VJ IV Gveenlanj anceftors deftrAyed. There tire reafons, however, for v^,—yr——' believing that there may be ftill fome delcesdants of the ancient Iceland colony remaining in the eaftern diftrid, though they cannot be vifited by land, on ac¬ count of the ftupendous mountains, perpetually cover¬ ed with fnow, which divide the two parts of Green¬ land •, while they have been rendered inacceffible by fea, by the vaft quantity of ice driven from Spitzber- gen, or Eall Greenland. One would imagine that there muft have been fome con fide ruble alteration in the northern parts ot the world nnce the century, lo that the coaft of Greenland is now become almoit to¬ tally inacceffible, though forrjierly vifited with very little difficulty. It is alfo natural to alk, By what means the people of the ealfern colony iuimounted the above-mentioned obitacles when they went to the affiftance of their we hern friends 5 how they returned to their own country and in what manner hiftonans learned the fuccefs of their expedition ? Concerning • v all this we have very little fatisfadory information. Account of All that can be learned from the moft authentic re- the colony, cords'is, that Greenland was divided into tuo diliric s, called Weji Bygd and Eff/? Bygdi that the weftern di- vifion contained four pariffies and 100 villages: that the ealtern diftria was ftill more flouriftiing, as being nearer to Iceland, fooner fettled, and more frequented -by {flipping from Norway. There aie ado many ac¬ counts, though moft of them romantic and {lightly attefted, which render it probable that part of the eaft- crn colony ftill fubfifts, who, at fome time 01 other, may have given the imperfea relation above-mention¬ ed." This colony, in ancient times, certainly compre¬ hended twelve extenfive parifties, one hundred and hinety villages, a bifhop’s fee, and two monafteries. The prefent inhabitants of the wefterh diftnff are en¬ tirely ignorant of this part, from which they are di¬ vided by rocks, mountains, and deferts, and liill more effe&ually by their apprehenfions: for they believe the eaftern Greenlanders to be a cruel, barbarous nation, thctt deftroy and eat all ftrangers who fall into their hands. About a century after all intercourfe between Norway and Greenland had ceafed, feveral ftiips were fent fucceffively by the kings of Denmark in order to difcover the eaftern diftria 5 but all of them mifcar- ried. Among thefe adventurers, Mogens Heinfon, after having furmountsd many difficulties and dangers, got fight of the land •, which, however, he could not approach. At his return, he pretended that the ffiip was arrefted in the middle of her courfe by certain rocks of loadftone at the bottom of the fea. Th<* lame year, 1576, in which this attempt was made* has been rendered remarkable by the voyage of Cap¬ tain Martin Frobiftier, fent upon the fame errand by Queen Elizabeth. He likewife defcried the land 5 but could not reach it, and therefore returned to England j Vol. X. Part I. 6 Attempts i»o redifco- Ver the «Qimtry. yet not before he l;ad failed fixty leagues m the Arait Gre&aE.A which ftill retains his name, and landed on feveral iflands, where he had fome communication with the na¬ tives. He had likewife taken poffeffion of the country in the name of Queen Elizabeth j and brought^ away fome pieces of heavy black ftone, from which tne re¬ finers Of London extraded a certain proportion of gold. In the enfuing fpring he undertook a lecond ••voyage, at the head of a fmall fquadron, equipped at tht ex¬ pence of the public j entered the ftraits a fecond time j difcovered upon an ifldnd a gold and ftlver mine 5 bi flowed names upon different baysj iflands, and head lands 5 and broi>g'ht away a lading 01 ore, together with two natives, a male and a female, whom the Englifh kidnappedi Such was the fuccefs of this voyage, that another armament was fitted out under the auipices of Admiral Frobiflier, confifting of 15 fail, including a confiderable number of foldiers, miners, fmelters, carpenteis, and bakers, to remain all the winter near the mines in .1 woodfen fort, the different pieces of which they carried out in the tranfports. They met wjth boifterous w*ea- ther, impenetrable fogs, and violent currents upon uiS coaft of Greenland," which retarded their operations until the feafon was far advanced. Part of their wooden fort was loft at fen} and they had neither provinon nor fuel fufficient for the winter. The admiral therefore determined to return with as much ore as he could procure : of this they obtained large quantities out of a new mine, to which they gave the name of the Coun- tefs of Suffex. They likewife built a houfe of ftone and lime, provided with ovens*, and here, with a view to conciliate the affe&ion of the natives, they left a quantity of fmall movricc-betls, knives, beads, look¬ ing glaffes, leaden pictures, and other toys, together with feveral loaves of bread. I hey buried the timber of the fort where it could be eafily found next yeai } and fowed corn, peafe, and other grain, by way of ex¬ periment, to know what the country would produce. Having taken thefe precautions, they failed from thenffe in the beginning of September } and after a month s ftormy paffage, arrived in England : but this noble de- fign was never profecuted. . , Chriftiem IV. king of Denmark, being defirous of difeovering the old Greenland fettlemeut, ient three {hips thither, under the command of Captain Godffie Lindenow} who is laid to have reached the eaft coafl of Greenland, where he traded with the favage inha¬ bitants, fuch as they are ftill found in the weftern di¬ ftria, but faw no figns of a civilized people. Had he aaually landed in the eaftern divifion, he muft have perceived fome remains of the ancient colony, even m the ruins of their convents and villages. Lindenow kidnapped two of the natives, who were conveyed to Copenhagen } and the fame cruel fraud (a) was prac- M tifed (a) Nothing can be more inhuman and repugnant to the diaates of common juftice than this praaice o. tearing away poor creatures from their country, their families, and conneaions} unlefs we fuppofe them alto¬ gether deftitute of natural affeaion : and that this was not the cafe with thofe poor Greenlanders, fome ot whom were brought alive to Copenhagen, appears from the whole tenor of their condu the middle of September, the weather is warm and com¬ fortable, while the wind blows eafterly ; though even at this time ftorms frequently happen, which rage with incredible violence ; and the fea-coafts are infefted with fogs that are equally difagreeable and unhealthy.— Near the lhore, and in the bays and inlets, the low land is clothed with the moft charming verdure ; but the inland mountains are perpetually covered with ice and fnow. To the northward of the 68th degree of latitude the cold is prodigioufly intenfe ; and towards the end of Auguft all the coaft is covered with ice, which never thaws till April or May, and fometimes not till the latter end of June. Nothing can exhibit a more dreadful, and at the fame time a more dazzling, appearance, than thofe prodigious maffes of ice that furround the whole coaft in various forms, reflecting a multitude of colours from the fun-beams, and calling to mind the enchanted feenes of romance. Such pro- fpeCls they yield in calm weather ; but when the wind begins to blow, and the weaves to rife in vaft billows, the violent (hocks of thofe pieces of ice daftnng againft one another, fill the mind with horror.—Greenland is feldom. vifited with thunder and lightning, but the Au¬ rora Borealis is very frequent and. bright. At the time of new and full, moon, the tide rifes and falls upon this coaft the countenance of his Danifh majefty, and the careffes of the court and people, could not alleviate t eir gne.. One of them was perceived to (hed tears always w7hen he faw an infant in the mother’s arms , a circum tance from w’hence it was naturally concluded, that he had left his wife with a young child in Green and. J^o o them went to fea in their little canoes in hope of reaching Greenland •, but one of them was retaken. Gtner two made the fame attempt: but were driven by a (form on the coaft of Schonen, where they were appre e by the peafants, and reconveyed to Copenhagen. One of them afterwards died of a fever, caught in filhing pearl, during the winter, for the governor of Kolding. The reft lived fome years in Denmark ; at ^ engt , feeing no profpeCl of being able to revifit their native country, they funk into a kind of melancholy dnoroer, and expif^d, V 0 & E [ 9* 3 G 11 E 'Srt'euiuBJ.coaft about tTiree fatnoms ; and it is Remarkable, that W-y ' t|ie fprings and fountains on ftiore rife and fall with the flux and reflux of the ocean. The foil of Greenland varies like that of all other ihountainous countries. The hills are very barren, being indeed frozen throughout the whole year j but the valleys and low grounds, efpecially near the fea, are rich and fruitful. The ancient Norwegian chro¬ nicles inform us, that Greenland formerly produced a great number of cattle; and that conflderable quanti¬ ties of butter and cheefe were exported to Norway j and, on account of their peculiar excellency, fet apart for the king’s ufe. The lame hiftories inform us, that fome parts of the country yielded excellent wheat j and that large oaks were found here, which carried acorns as big as apples. Some of thefe oaks Hill remain in the fouthern parts, and in many places the marks of ploughed land are ealily perceived. At prefent, howrever, the country is deftitute of corn and cattle, though in many places it produces excellent pafture $ and, if properly cultivated, would probably yield grain alfo. Mr Egede fow&d fome barley in a bay adjoin¬ ing to the Danilh colony. It fprang up fo faftj that by the latter end of July it was in the full ear } but being nipped by a night-froft, it never arrived at ma¬ turity. This feed was brought from Bergen, where the fummer is of greater heat and duration than in Greenland •, but in all probability the corn which grows in the northern parts of Norway would alfo thrive here. Turnips and coiew7orts of an excellent tafte and flavour are alfo produced here. J he fldes of the mountains near the bays are clothed wdth wild thyme, which diffufes its fragrance to a great diflance. The herb torment'd is very common in this country, and likewife many others not defcribed by the bota- niits. Among the fruits of Greenland w7e number juniper-berries, blue-berries, bil-berries, and bramble- berries. * Greenland is thought to contain many mines of me¬ tal, though none of them are wrought. To the fouth- ward of the Danifh colony are fome appearances of a mine of copper. Mr Egede once received a lump of •ore from one of the natives j and here he found cala¬ mine of a yellow colour. He once fent a coniiderable quantity of fand of a yellow colour, intermixed with ftreaks of vermilion, to the Bergen company. They probably found their account in this prefent ; for they defired him by a letter to procure as much of that > fend as poffible : but he was never able to find the place where he few7 the firft fpecimem It was one of the fmalleft among a great number of iflands •, and the mark he had fet up w7as blowm down by a violent ilorm. Poffibly this might be the feme mineral of which Captain Frobiftier brought fo much to England. This country produces rock-cryftals both red and white, and whole mountains of the albeftos or incom- buftible flax. Around the colony, which is known by the name of Good Hope, they find a kind of baftard marble of various colours, which the natives form into bowls, lamps, pots, &c. All that has been faid of the fertility of Greenland, however, muft be under¬ flood only of that part w’hich lies betw'een the both and 65th degrees of latitude. The moil northern parts ftre totally deflitute of herbs and plants. The wretched inhabitants cannot find grals in fufficient quantities to fluff into their (hoes to keep their feet warm, but are obliged to buy it from thofe who inhabit the more fouthern parts. The animals which abound moft in Greenland afe, rein-deer, foxes, hares, dogs, and white bears. ihe hares are of a white colour, and very fat j tne ipxes are of different colours, wdute, grayilh, and bluiih j .and fmaller than thofe of Denmark and Norway. The natives keep a great number of dogSj which are large, white, or fpeckled, and rough, with ears {landing up¬ right, as is the cafe with all the dogs peculiar to cold climates. They are timorous and flupid •, and neither bay nor bark, but fometimes howl difmally. In the northern parts the natives yoke them in fledges which, though heavy laden, they will draw on the ice at the rate of 70 miles in a fliort winter’s day. 'I hefe poor animals are very ill rewarded for their fervice j being left to provide for themfelves, except when their matters happen to catch a great number of feals. On thefe occafions the dogS are regaled with the blood and eptrails j at other times they fubfift, like w7ild beafts, upon mufcles and berries. Here alfo are found great numbers of ravens, eagles of a prodigious fize, falcons, and other birds of prey j and likewife a kind of linnet, which warbles very melodioufly. Whales, fword-filh, porpoifes* &c. abound on the coafts j alfo holybut, turbot, cod, haddock, &C; S The people who now inhabit the weftern coaft of Account dt Greenland, and who, without doubt, are the defcen-^^nhdbl'' dants of the ancient Schrtd’ings, who exterminated the an ^ firfl Iceland colony, bear a near refemblance to the Samoiedes and Laplanders in their perfons, complexions, and way of life. They are ihort, brawny, and inclined to corpulency j with broad faces, flat nofes, thick lips, black hair and eyes, and a yellowifh tawny com¬ plexion. They are for the molt part vigorous and healthy, but remarkably fliort-lived; few of them reaching the grand climadteric j and many dying in their infancy, and in the prime of youth. They are fubjedt to a weakfiefs in the eyes, occafioned by the piercing wdnds and the glare of the fnow in the winter time. The leprofy is known among them, but is not contagious. Thofe that dw7ell in the northern parts are miferably tormented with dyfenteries, rheums, and pulmonary diforders, boils, and epilepfy. The fmall- pox being imported among them from Copenhagen in the year 1734, made terrible havock among thefe poor people, who are utterly deftitute of any knowdedge of the medicinal art, and depend entirely for afliftance upon their artgehuts or conjurers. In their difpofitions the Greenlanders are cold, phlegmatic, indolent, and flow of apprehenfion: but very quiet, orderly, and good-natured. They live peaceably together; and have every thing in common, without ftrife, envying, or animofity. They are civil a,pd hofpitable, but flo- venly to a degree almoft beyond the Hottentots them¬ felves. They never walh themfelves wdth water j but lick their paws like the cat, and then rub their faces wdth them. They eat after their dogs without walh- ing their difhes •, devour the lice wdiich devour them $ and even lick the fwent, which they {crape oft' from their faces uith their knives. The women wafh them¬ felves wuth their own urine, which they imagine makes their hair grow ; and in the winter-time go out immedi¬ ately after, to let the liquor freeze upon their {kin. M 2 They G R E [ 92 ] G R E Oreenland. will often eat their victuals off the dirty ground, ^ mthout any veffel to hold them in j and devour rot¬ ten flelh with the greateft avidity. In times of fcarci- ty they will fubfift on pieces of old Ikin, reeds, fea- rveed, and a root called tug/oronet, dreffed with train- oil and fat. The dung of rein deer taken from the inteftines, the entrails of prrtridges, and all forts ol of¬ fals, are counted dainties among thefe favages j and of the fcrapings of feal fkins they make delicate pan-cakes. At firll they could not talte the Daniil) provilibns without abhorrence; but now they are become ex¬ tremely fond of bread and t utter, though they ftill retain an averfion to tobacco and ipirituous liquors; in which particular they differ from almoft all favages on the face of the earth. The Greenlanders commonly content themfelves with one wife j who is condemned, as among other la¬ vage nations, to do all the drudgery, and may be cor- recled, or even divorced, by the hufband at pleafure. Heroes, however, and extraordinary perfonages, are in¬ dulged with a plurality of wives. Their young women are generally chafte and balhful *, but at fome of their feafts, in the midft of their jollity, a man retires with Ids neighbour’s wife behind a curfain made of Ikins ; and all the guefls, thus coupled, retire in their turns. The women think themfelves happy if an angekut or prophet will thus honour them with his careffes. Thefe people never marry within the prohibited degrees of confanguinity, nor is it counted decent in a couple to marry who have been educatud in the fame family.— They have a number of ridiculous and fuperftitious euftoms •, among which the two following are the moft remarkable. While a woman is in labour the goffips hold a chamber-pot over her head, as a charm to harten the delivery. When the child is a year old, the mo¬ ther licks and flabbers it all over, to render it, as ihe 0 imagines, mere ftrong and hardy. All the Greenlanders hitherto known fpeak the fame language, though different dialefts prevail in different parts of the country. It abounds with double con- fonants } and is fo guttural, that the pronunciation of many words is not to be learned except by thofe who have been accuftomed to it from their infancy. The letters C, D, F, £), and X, are not known in their alphabet. Like the North Americans, and in¬ habitants of Kamtichatka, they have a great number of long polyfyllables. Their words, nouns as well as verbs, are indexed at the end by varying the termi¬ nation, without the help of articles: but their lan¬ guage being found defe an(l armed with a paddle broad at both ends, he will venture out to fea in the mod dormy weather to catch feals and fea-fowl •, and if he is overfet, he can eafdy raife himfelf by means of his paddle. A Green¬ lander in one of thefe canoes, which was brought with him to Copenhagen, outdripped a pinnace of 16 oars, manned with choice mariners.—i he kone- boat is made of the fame materials, but more durable 5 and fo large, that it will contain 50 perfons with all their tackle, baggage, jand provifions. She is fitted with a mall, which carries a triangular fail made of the membranes and entrails of feals, and is mana¬ ged without the help of braces and bowdings. 1 hefe kones are flat bottomed, and fometimes 60 feet in length. The men think it beneath them to take charge of them j and therefore they -are left to the conduct of the women, who indeed are obliged to do all the drudgery, including even the building and re¬ pairing their houfes, while the men employ them- felves wholly in preparing their hunting implements and fifhing tackle. This country is but thinly inhabited. In the win¬ ter time the people dwTell in huts built of done or turf: on the one fide are the windows, covered with the fldns of feals or rein-deer. Several families live in one of thefe houfes, poffeding each a feparate apart¬ ment, before which is a hearth wdth a great lamp placed on a trevit, over which hangs their kettle : above is a rack or Ihelf on which their w'et clothes are dried. They burn train oil in their lamps j and inflead of wick, they ufe a kind of mofs, which fully anfwers the purpofe. Thefe fires are not only fufficient to boil their victuals ■, but likewife to produce fuch a heat, that the whole houfe is like a bagnio. The door is very low, that as little cold air as poflible may be ad¬ mitted. The houfe within is lined wdth old fldns, and furrounded with benches for the conveniency of drangers. In the fummer-time they dwrell in tents made of long poles fixed in a conical form, covered in the infide with deer fldns, and on the outfide with feal fldns, dreffed fo that the rain cannot pierce them. Ead Greenland was for a long time confidered as a part of the continent of Wed Greenland, but is now difcovered to be an ademblage of iilands lying between 76° 46' and 809 30' of north latitude, and between 90 and 20° of ead longitude, It wfas difcovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby in the year 1553, who called it Groenland; fuppofing it to be a part of the wedern continent. In 1595, it was again vifited by William Barentz and John Cornelius, two Dutchmen, who pre¬ tended to be the original difcoverers, and called the country Spitsbergen, or Sharp Mountains, from the _ many drarp pointed and rocky mountains with which ’ it abounds. They alleged that the coad difcovered by Sir Hugh Willoughby was fome o,.her country; which accordingly the Hollanders delineated on their maps and charts by the name of Willoughby Land; whereas in fa£t no fuch land ever exided ; and iorig before the voyage of thefe Dutchmen, Stephen Bar- rows, an Englilh Ihipmader, had coaded along a defo¬ late country from N. Lat. 78® to 8o° id, which was undoubtedly Spitzbergen. The fea in the- neighbour¬ hood of the iilands of Spitzbergen abounds very much Baft Green land. [ 93 ] G R E Thus fecured, with whales, and is the common refort of tht Whale- Greenland. filhing drips from different countries, and the country it- v ’ ' felf is frequently vifited by tbefe drips •, but till the voyage of the Hon. Capt. Phipps (afterwards Lord Mulgrave), by order of his majedy, the fituation of it w^s erroneoufly laid down. It was imagined that the land dretched to the northward as far as 82° of north latitude ; but Capt. Phipps found the mod northerly point of land, called Seven IJlands, not to exceed 8o° 30' of latitude. To¬ wards the ead he faw other lands lying at a didance, fo that Spitzbergen plainly appeared to be furrounded by water on that fide, and not joined to the continent of Alia, as former navigators had fuppofed. The north and wed coads alfo he explored, but was pre¬ vented by the ice from failing fo far to the northward as he wiftred. The coad appeared neither habitable nor accedible. It is formed of high, barren, black rocks, without the lead marks of vegetation ; in many places bare and pointed ; in others covered wdth fnow, appearing even above the clouds. The valleys be¬ tween the high cliffs were filled with fnow and ice. “ This profpeft,” fays Capt. Phipps, “ would have fuggeded the idea of perpetual winter, had not the mildnefs of the weather, the fmooth water, bright fun- fhine, and condant day-light, given a cheerfulnefs and novelty to the wEole of this romantic feene.” JThe current ran along this coad half a knot an hour north. The height of one mountain feen here was found by geometrical menfuration to be at one time ^eeL at another 1503x0 feet. By a barometer condructed after De Luc’s method, the height was found to be Ij88x feet. On this occafion Capt. Phipps has the following remarks. “ I can account for the great diderence between the geometrical meafure and the barometrical according to M. de Luc’s calculation, which amounts to 84.7 feet. I have no reafon to doubt the accuracy of Dr Irving’s obfervations, which were made with great care. As to the geometrical meafure, the agreement of fo many triangles, each of which mud have difcovered even the (mailed error, is the mod fatisfadtory proof of its corredtnefs. Since my return I have tried both the theodolite and baro¬ meter, to difeover whether there was any fault in ei¬ ther 5 and find them, upon trial, as I had always done before, very accurate.” There is good anchorage in Schmeerenburgh har¬ bour, lying in N. Lat. 740 44', E. Long. 9* 50' 45", in 13 fathoms, fandy bottom, not far from the fhore, and well (heltered from all winds. Clofe to this har¬ bour is an ifland called Amjlerdam IJland, where the Dutch ufed formerly to boil their whale-oil ; and tin* remains of fome conveniency eredled by them for that purpofe are dill vifible. The Dutch (hips, excepting in time of war, dill refoft to this place for the later feafon of the whale-filhery.—The rocks about this place are chiefly a kind of marble or limedone. No appearances of metals were obferved, nor any flgns of an¬ cient or modern volcanoes. No infedts, or any fpecies of reptiles, were feen, not even the common earth-worm. There were no fprings or rivers j but fgreat plenty of water was produced from the fnow which melted on the mountains. The mod remarkable views which thefe dreary re¬ gions prefent are thofe called Icebergs. They are large bodies of Ice filling the valleys between the high mountains. G RE [ 94 ] ORE Greenland,tnduntains. Their face towards the fea is nearly per- < nee nock. pendlciilar, and of a very lively light-green colour. One was about 300 feet high, with a cafcade of wa¬ ter ifluing from it. The black mountains on each fide, the white fnow, and greenilh coloured ice, com- pofed a very beautiful and romantic picture. Large pieces frequently broke off from the icebergs, and fell with great noife into the water. One piece was ob- ferved to have floated out into the bay, and grounded in 24 fathortis j it was 30 feet high above the farface of the nrater, and of the fame beautiful colour with the ieeberg from which it had leparated. Thefe iilands are totally uninhabited, though it doth not appear but that human creatures could fublift on them, notwithftanding their vicinity to the pole.— Light Englifh failofs, who rvere accidentally left here by a whale-fifhing flip, furvived the winter, and were brought home next feafoti. The Dutch then attempted to fettle a colony on Amfterdam illand above mention¬ ed ; but all the people periflied, not through the feve- rity of the climate, but of the fcurvy, owing to the want of thofe remedies which are now happily difco- vered, and which are found to be fo eflfedlual in pre¬ venting and curing that dreadful difeafe.—The late ac¬ count alfo of fix 'Ruffian failors who flaid four years in this inhofpitable country, affords a decifive proof, that a colony might be fettled on Eafl Greenland, provided the doing fo could anfwer any good pur- p'ofe. Greenland CoiJipamj. A joint flock of 40,000!. was by flatute to be raifed by fubfcribers, who were incorporated for 14 years from the fir ft of Odlober 1693, and the company to ufe the trade of catching whales, Sec. into and from Greenland, and the Greenland feas 5 they may make bye-laws for the government of the perfons employed in their fhips, &c. Stat. 4 and 5 W. III. cap. 17. This company was farther encouraged by parliament in 1696; but partly by unlkilful management, and partly by real Ioffes, it was under the neceffity of entirely breaking up, before the expiration of the term affigned to it, ending in 1707. Rut any perfon who wall adventure to Green¬ land for whale-fifhing, fhall have all privileges granted to the Greenland company, by I Anne, cap. 16. and thus the trade was again laid open. Any fubjedls may im¬ port whale-fins, oil, &c. of fifh caught in the Green¬ land feas, without paying any duftoms, Sic. flat. 10 Geo. I. cap. 16. And (hips employed in the Green- land-fifliery are to be of fuch burden, provided wuth boats, fo many men, fifhingdines, harping irons, &c. and be licenfed to proceed j and on their return fhall be paid 20s. per ton bounty, for whale-fins, &c. im¬ ported •, 6 Geo. II. cap. 33-|j}The bounty was after¬ wards increafed j but has been lately diminilhed, and fince this diminution, the trade has increafed. See Whale-FisHERr. GREENOCK, a fea-port towm of Scotland, and one of the ports of the city of Glafgow. It is diftant 22 miles from that city. The frith of Clyde here ex¬ pands into a fine bafon four miles wide, and is landlock¬ ed on all fides. Greenock is divided into what are called the old and new parifhes. Certain lands were disjoined from Inner- kip and Houfton, in the year 1636, by virtue of a pe¬ tition from the proprietors to the lords of commiffion for 3 plantation of kirks, See. which received the name of Greenorfe. Greenock when ere£!ed into a parifh. There are dif- 1 ferent opinions entertained refpefting the origin of the name, but the moft probable opinion is, that it is de¬ rived from the Gaelic Gricineg, which fignifies the bay of the fun. It lies in the north-weft part of the county of Renfrew, in the prefbytery of Paifley, and fynod of Glafgow and Ayr, with the frith of Clyde on the north. The parilh of Greenock is hilly, with the exception of a finall ftrip of level ground of various breadths, ftretching along the fliore. It abounds with peat for fuel to the inhabitants, vaft quantities of which they can afford to difpofe of to the neighbouring towns and villages. The foil upon the ftiore is full of gravel, light and fandy, which needs much rain to produce even a tole¬ rable crop. It produces, however, large quantities of excellent potatoes, and by the afliftance of fea wTarej much good barley and oats. As far as is yet known, the parilh of Greenock pro¬ duces no minerals which are in the leaft remarkable,; Freeftone is the moft common to be met with, while limeftone, which has been but lately difeovered, has been found in very fmall quantities. No traces of coal have yet been met with, and the hills contain no metallic fubftances, except iron-ftone of a poor qua¬ lity, and a little copper which is rarely found in free¬ ftone. In defeending from the hills* there are fome rivulets which form beautiful cafcades, and appear like wreathes of fnow, when feen from the ftiore. The chief of them bears the name of Wallace, the celebrated champion of the liberties of Scotland. On the weft fide of the bay of Greenock and Craw-> filrdfdike, formerly denominated the bay of St Law7- rence* from a chapel in the vicinity confecrated to that faint, lies the new town of Greenock. In the begin¬ ning of the 18th century it confifted only of one row of houfes covered with thatch, and had no veftige of a harbour for vtffels 5 but at prefent it extends along the Clyde rather more than an Englilh mile, but not more than a furlong in breadth. Before the year i745j a new pariih was erefled in Greenock, by the permifiion of Sir John Shaw, who gave up to the heritors and el¬ ders the right of patronage. Both the parifhes did not contain more than 4000 perfons about the year 1745, and in 10 years after, they had fuffered a diminution of 142 perfons, as ap¬ pears from the return tranfmitted to Dr Webfter. The increafe of population has been rapid fince that time, being now eftimated at upwards of 15,000 fouls. People of opulence in Greenock, and even thofe whofe circumftances are much more circumfcribed, have the valuable character of being uncommonly generous and liberal, which difpofitions it is faid, have been more tried than thofe of almoft any other clafs of people in Scotland. The annual amount of charitable donations for the relief of the poor is not lefs than x 200k fter- ling. The Merchants Houfe Society was eredted in I<787, for admiifion into which every member pays 5I. 5s. j and 5s. a year afterwards. The funds are not to be touched till they amount to 1000I. at which time the intereft may be diftributed among decayed members. There are in Greenock a chapel of eafe, a Gaelic chapel, G R E t 95 1 G R E .chapel, a Burgher and Antiburgher meetlr.g-lioufe, be- in the hofpital on the fecond of January 1779, and Grccinvnti lides the two pariih churches. totally confumed the dome at the S. E. quarter or The town of Greenock is governed by a council of the building, with the chapel whicn was the mod; ele- nine fewers, of whom two are bailies. It is a burgh of gant in the world, the great dining hall, and eight barony, ere&ed by Sir John Shaw in the year 1757, wards, containing the lodgings of near 600 penfioners. who was at that time fuperior. The inhabitants of 1 he dome was rebuilt about the year 17^5 > Greenock petitioned the Scotch parliament in 1700, reparation of the whole damage is not yet completed, for a fund to build a haiboar, which was abfohitely On the fides of the gate which opens to thefe bmld- and unaccountably refilled. This made them enter in- ings from the park, are placed a large, terredrial anil to a contract with Sir John Shaw, paying a voluntary celedial globe, in which the dars are gut ; and in tne affeffment of fixteen pence on each lack of malt brewed centre of the area is a datue of George II. . About into ale within the limits of the town. In the year 1740 2000 old difabled feamen are maintained in this holpi- the whole debt was extinguilhed, and a furplus remain- tab Belides private benefa&ions, to the amount of ed of 2" 000 merks. near 60,000!. (which appear in tables hung up at In Greenock there are feveral duck manufactories, the entrance of the hall,) the parliament, in the year three foap and candle works, one faddle and Ihoe manu- 173 2, fettled upon it the earl of Derwentwater’s edate, factory, and two fugar-houfes, all carried on for expor- to the value of 6000I. per annum. . All drangers who tation^to a great extent. fee h, pay twopence each •, and this income is applied In the year 1784, after peace with America, 436 vef- tea the fupport of the mathematical fchool for the fons Pels Britidr and foreign, including outward and home- of failors. For the better fupport of which, every ward bound, carrying 14,9.11 tons, were entered at the feaman in the royal navy, and in the merchant fervice, port of Greenock 5 and in 1791, there were 1962 vef- pays fixpence a month, dopped out of their, pay, and fels, the tonnage of which amounted to 31,704. From delivered in at the fix-penny receiver’s office in Tower- January 1790 to 1791, there were imported of grain, hill. On this account, a feaman, who can produce an 87>395 quarters, 81,074cwt..of fugar, 1,757,504185. of authentic certificate, of his being difabled, and render- cotton, 221,649 gallons of rum, and 744 tons of dif- ed unfit for fervice, by defending any flfip. belonging to ferent wines. his majedy’s Britidi fubjefts, or in taking any ihip GREENWICH, a town of the county of Kent, from the enemy, may be admitted into this hofpital, in England, pleafantly fituated on the bank of the and receive the fame benefit from it as if he had been Thames, about five miles ead from London. Here in his majedy’s immediate fervice. Befides the feamen was formerly a royal palace, built by Humphry duke and widows above-mentioned, about 100 boys, the of Glouceder, enlarged by Henry VII. and completed fons of feamen, are bred up for the fervice of the royal by Henry VIII. The latter often chofe this town navy, but there are no out-penfioners as at Chelfea. for his place of refidence ; as did alfo the queens Mary Each of the mariners has a weekly allowance of feven. and Elizabeth, who were born in it. The fame Duke loaves, weighing 16 ounces each 5 three pounds of Humphry began a tower on the top of the deep hill in beef, two of mutton, a pint of peafe, a pound and a quar- the park, which was finilhed by Henry VII. but af- ter of cheefe, two ounces of butter, fourteen quarts of temards demolifhed, and a royal obfervatory erefted beer, and one drilling a-week tobacco-money ; the tobac- in its place by Charles II. furnidred wnth mathemati- co-money of the boatfwain is two drillings and fixpence cal indruments for adronomical obfervations, and a a-week each, that of their mates one drilling and fix- deep dry well for obferving the dars in the day-time, pence, and that of the other officers in proportion to The palace being afterwards much negle&ed, King their rank : befides which, each common penfioner re- Charles II. (who had enlarged the park, walled it a- ceives once in two years, a fuit of blue clothes, a hat, bout and planted it), pulled it down, and began ano- three pairs of dockings, twm pairs of ffioes, five neck- ther, of which he lived to fee the fird wing magnifi- cloths, three ffiirts, and two night-caps. Out of all cently finidred. But King William III. in 1694, that is given fordrowing the hall, only three-pence in granted it, wfith nine acres of ground thereto belong- the drilling is allowed to the perfpn that drows them y ing, to be converted into a royal hofpital for old a*nd the red makes an excellent fund for the yearly main- difabled feamen, the widows and children of thofe who tenance of not lefs than 20 poor boys, who are the fons lod their lives in the fervice, and for the encourage- of mariners that have been either dain or difabled in ment of navigation. This wing, which cod King the fervice of their country. The park is well docked Charles 36,000!. is now the fird wing of the hofpital with deer, and affords as much variety, in proportion towards London. The front to the Thames confids to its fize, as any in the kingdom y but the views from of two ranges of done buildings, wfith the ranger’s the Obfervatory7 and the One-tree hill are beautiful houfe in the centre of the area, but detached from any beyond imagination, particularly the former. The part of the hofpital. Thefe buildings perfectly cor- projetHon of thefe hills is fo bold, that you do not look refpond with each other, and have their tops crowned down upon a gradually falling dope or flat inclofures, with a done balludrade. The buildings which are fa- but at once upon the tops of branching trees, which cing the area, correfpond wfith them, though in a finer grow in knots and clumps out of deep hollows and em- and more elegant flyle y and have domes at their ends, browned dells. The cattle which feed on the lawns, which are 1 20 feet high, fupported on coupled co- which appear in breaks among them, feem moving in. . Ij^mns. Under one of thefe is the hall, which is finely a region of fairy land. A thoufand natural openings painted by Sir James Thornhill, and contains many among the branches of the trees break upon little pic- royal portraits y and under the other the chapel, which turefque views of the fwelling turf, which, when illu- by rxcidest was dedroyed by fire. This fire broke out mined by the fun, have an effedl pleafing beyond the power . G R E [ 95 rii-ferAviai power of fancy to paint. This is the fore-ground of i! the landfcape : a little farther, the eye falls on that , ^noble ilruclure the hofpital, in the mid*il of an amphi¬ theatre of wood } then the two reaches of the river make that beautiful ferpentine which forms the Me of Dogs, and prefent the floating millions of the Thames. To the left appears a fine trad of country, leading to the capita], which there finifhes the profpeci. The pa- rifh-church of Greenwich, rebuilt by the commillxoners for eredling the •, 50 new churches, is a very handfome ftru&ure, dedicated to St Alphage, archbifitop of Can¬ terbury, who is laid to have been (lain by the Danes in the year 1012, on the fpot where the church now Hands. There is a college at the end of the town, fronting the Thames, for the maintenance of 20 de¬ cayed old houfe-keepers, 12 out of Greenwich, and eight who are to be alternately chofen from Snottifham and Caflle-Rifing in Norfolk. This is called the duke of Norfolk's College, though it was founded and endow¬ ed in 1613 by Henry earl of Northampton, the duke of Norfolk's brother, and by him committed to the care of the Mercers company. To this college be¬ longs a chapel, in which the earl’s body is laid ; which, as well as his monument, was removed hither a few vtars ago from the chapel of Dover caftle. dhe pen- fioners," befides meat, drink, and lodging, are allowed one fhilling and iixpence a-week, with a gown every year, linen once in two years, and hats once in four wears. In 1560, Mr Lambard, author of the Peram¬ bulation of Kent, alfo built an hofpital, called Queen Elizabeth’s college, faid to be the firft erefted by_ an Englifh Proteftant. There are likewife two charity- fchools in this parifin The river Thames is here very broad, and the channel deep *, and at fome very high tides the water is fait. This is the chief harbour for the king’s yachts. The town contains about 1 500 houfes *, and a market on Wednefday and Saturday was creeled here in 1737, the direftion of which is in the gover¬ nors of the royal hofpital, to which the profits arifing from it were to be appropriated. GREGARIOUS, among zoologifts, a term ap¬ plied to fuch animals as do 'not live folitary, but alfo- riate in herds or flocks. GREGORIAN calendar, that which (hows the new and full moon, with the time of Eaffer, and the moveable feafts depending thereon, by means ot epafts, difpofed through the feveral months of the Gregorian year. See CHRONOLOGY, N° 26. Gregorian Telefcope. See Optics Index, Gregorian Year. See Chronology, N° 26. GREGORY the Great, was bom at Rome of a patrician family. He difeovered fuch abilities in the exercife of the fenatorial employments, that the emperor juftin the younger appointed him prefeft of Rome. Pope Pelafgius il. fent him nuncio to Conllantinople, to demand fuccours againft the Lombards. When he thought of enjoying a folitary life, he was eledled pope by the clergy, the fenate, and the people of Rome. Befides his learning and diligence in inftru&ing the church, both by writing and preaching, he had a very happy talent in winning over princes in favour of the temporal as well as fpiritual interefl of religion. He undertook the converfion of the Englifh, and lent over fome monks of his order, under the dueebon of Au- guftin their abbot. His morality with refped to the 1 G It £ chaftity of churchmen was very rigid, afierting that Gregofr^ a man who had ever known a woman ought not to be ~“"~v admitted to the priefthcod *, and'he always caufed the candidates for it to be examined upon that point. He likewife vigorouny exerted himfelf againil luch as were found guilty of calumny. However, he flatter¬ ed the emperor Phocas, while his hands were yet reeking with the blood of Mauritius, and of his three children, who had been butchered in his fight. He likewife flattered Brunehaut, a very wicked queen of France. He is accufed of deflroying the noble mo¬ numents of ancient Roman magnificence, that thofe who vifited the city might not attend more to the tri» umphal arches than to holy things ; and burnt a mul¬ titude of heathen books, Livy in particular. He died in 604. Gregory of Nazianzen, furnamed the Divine, vrsSs one of the moil illuftrious ornaments of the Greek church in the fourth age. He was made bifhop of Conftantinople in 379 ; but finding his eleftion con- tefled by Timotheas archbifhop of Alexandria, he voluntarily religned his dignity about 382, in the ge¬ neral council of Conftantinople. His works are ex¬ tant, in two volumes, printed at Paris in 1609. His ftyle is faid to be equal to that of the moil celebrated orators of ancient Greece. Gregory, Theodoras, furnamed Thaumaturgus on account of his miracles, was the fcholar of Origen ; and was defied biftiop of Neocsefarea, the place of his birth, about the year 240, during his abfence. He affifted at the council of Antioch, in 255, againft Paulus Samofetanus •, and died in 270. He had the fatisfaffion of leaving only feventeen idolaters in his dioceie, where there were but feventeen Chriftians •when he was ordained. There is Hill extant of his, A gratulatory oration to Origen, A canonical epiftle, and fome other works. Gregory, biftiop of Nyfla, one of the fathers of the church, and author of the Nicene creed, was bom in Cappadocia, about the year 331* He was chofen biftiop of Nyfla in 372, and banilhed by the empe¬ ror Valens for adhering to the council ol Nice. He' was neverthelefs afterwards employed by the biftiops in feveral important affairs, and died in 396. He wrote Commentaries on the Scriptures 5 Sermons on the myfteries j Moral difeourfes 5 Dogmatical treatifes", Panegyrics on the faints ; fome letters on church -dtfi- cipline •, and other works. His flyle is very allegorical and affefled. GREGORY of Tours, or Georgius Florentius Grego* rius, one of the moft illuftrious biftiops and celebra¬ ted writers of the fixth century, was defeended from a noble family in Auvergne. He was educated by his uncle Gallus, biftiop of Clermont} and diftinguiftied himfelf fo much by bis learning and virtue, that ih 373 he was chofen biftiop of lours. He afterwards went to Rome to vifit the tomb of ihe apoftle.i, wherte he contra died a friendftiip with Gregory the Great, and died in 595. This author was extremely credu¬ lous with regard to miracles. He wrote, 1. The hi- ftory of France. 2. The lives of the faints ; and other works. The beft edition is. That publilhed by Father Rumart, 1699. Gregory, David, the fon of the reverend John Gregorv, minifter of Dnimoak, in the county of Aber- 6 J (itefl. G R E [ 97 ] ORE Gregory, deen. He was born about the year 1628, educated by “■"Y ' his father for bufinefs, and bound apprentice to a mer¬ cantile houfe in Holland. But as his Ibve of letters exceeded his delire for money, he relinquiihed commerce in the year 1655, and on the death of an elder brother he fucceeded to the eftate of Kinnairdie, about 40 miles from Aberdeen, where he refided many years, and had no fewer than 3 2 children born to him by two wives. Three of his fons became eminent for their extenfive li¬ terature, and were at one time profelfors of mathema¬ tics in the univerfities of Oxford, Edinburgh, and St Andrews. The neighbouring gentlemen made a jell; of Mr ■Gregory for his ignorance of what was doing on his own farm, but efteemed him highly as a man of letters. Having ftudied phylic merely for amufement, he prac- tifed gratis among the poor ; and his knowledge of it being lo extenlive, he was employed by the nobility and gentry in the neighbourhood, but he would take no fees. Having much bulinefs during the day, he went very early to bed, rofe to his lludies about two or three in the morning, and then flept an hour or two before break faft. In the country where he dw7elt he wras the firlt per- fon who had a barometer, to the changes in which, ac¬ cording to the changes in the weather, he paid great attention, and was once in great danger of being tried by the prelbvtery for witchcraft or conjuration. He was waited upon by a deputation of minillers, who in¬ quired into the truth of certain reports which had come to their ears, whom he fo far fatisfied as to induce them to wave a profecution againll a man w’ho, by the extenlive knowledge of medicine which he poffeffed, was a public bleffing to the country. About the beginning of laft century he removed to Aberdeen, and during Queen Anne’s war he turned his attention to the improvement of artillery, to make great guns more deftruffive, and executed a model of his intended engine. We are informed by Dr Reid, that he knew a clock-maker who had been employed in making this model; but as he made fo many differ¬ ent pieces without knowing their defign, or the method of uniting them, he could give no confiftent account of the whole. Mr Gregory being fatisfied with his in¬ vention by various experiments, he delired his fon to fhow it to Sir Ifaac Newton, concealing the name of the inventor ; but Sir Iliac was much difpleafed with it, and declared that the inventor was more entitled to puniihment than reward, as it wTas folely calculated for dedrudlion, and might come to be knowm to the enemy. That great man urged the neceffity of deftroying it, and it is probable that Mr Gregory’s fon, the Savilian profelfor, followed his advice, for the model was never found. When the rebellion broke out in 1715, the old gentleman went a fecond time to Holland, and return¬ ed when it was over to Aberdeen, where he died about 1720, in the 93d year of his age, leaving behind him a hiifory of his own times, which was never pub- lifhed. Gregory, "James, one of the mofl eminent mathe¬ maticians of the 17th century, w7as a fon of the Rev. Mr John Gregory minifter of Drumoak in the county of Aberdeen, and w7a$ born at Aberdeen in 1638. His mother w7as a daughter of Mr David Anderfon of Vol. X. Part I. Finzaugh, a gentleman who poffeffed a lingular turn Gregory. ^ for mathematical and mechanical knowledge. This mathematical genius was hereditary in the family of }he Gieg0. the Anderfons, and from them feems to have been (je-, prefix- tranfmitted to their defeendants of the name of Gre-edto the gory. Alexander Anderfon, coufin-german of the l^or^^ above-mentioned David, was profeffor of mathematics at Paris in the beginning of the 17th century, and ^ publiflied there in 161 2, Suppletnentuvi, /tpollonii redi- vivi, is'e. The mother of James Gregory inherited the genius of her family ; and obferving in her fon, while yet a child, a ftrong propenfity to mathematics, fhe in-* ftruCted him herfelf in the elements of that fcience. He received his education in the languages at the grammar-fehool of Aberdeen, and went through the ufual courfe of academical ftudies in the Maritchal col¬ lege. At the age of 24 he pubiifhed his treatife, entitled Optica Promote, feu abdita radiorum reflexorum et re- fraclor'um mljstcria, geornetrice enucleate ; cut fuhnechtur appendix fubtilijjimorum afronomuz problematon refoluti* enem exhibens, London 1663 : a work of great genius, in which he gave the world an invention of his own, and one of the moft valuable of the modern difeoveries, the conltruflion of the retiedling teleicope. This difeo- very immediately attracted the attention of the mathe¬ maticians, both of our own and of foreign countries, who were foon convinced of its great importance to the fciences of optics and aftronomy. The manner of pla¬ cing the two fpecula upon the fame axis appearing to Sir Ifaac Newtbn to be attended with the difadvantage of lofing the central rays of the larger fpeculum, he propofed an improvement on the inflrument, by giving an oblique pofition to the fmaller fpeculum, and placing the eye-glafs in the fide of the tube. But it is worth remarking, that the Newtonian conftruffion of that in¬ flrument was long abandoned for the original or Gre¬ gorian, which is at this day univerfally employed where the inftrument is of a moderate fize ; though Mr Herf- chel has preferred the Newtonian form for the con- ftruftiort of thofe immenfe telefcopes, which of late years he has fo fuccefsfully employed in obferving the heavens. The univerfity of Padua being at that time in high Mid' reputation for mathematical ftudies, James Gregory went thither foon after the publication of his firft work ; and fixing his refidence there for fome years, he pubiifhed, in 1667, Vera Circuli et Hyperboles qua¬ drature ; in which he propounded another difeovery of his owm, the invention of an infinitely converging fe- ries for the areas of the circle and hyperbole. To this treatife, when republifhed in 1668, he added a new work, entitled, Geometricc pars univerfahs, inferviens quantitatum curvarum tranfmutatiom et menfurce; in which he is allowed to have fhowm, for the firft time, a method for the tranfmutation of curves. Thefe works engaged the notice, and procured Mr Gregory the cor- refpondence, of the greateft mathematicians of the age, Newton, Huygens, Halley, and Wallis ; and their au¬ thor being foon after chofen a fellow of the royal fo- ciety of London, contributed to enrich the Philofophi- cal Tranfaflions at that time by many excellent papers. Through this channel, in particular, he carried on a difpute with Mr Huygens, upon the occafion of his trea¬ tife on the quadrature of the circle and hyperbole, to N which G R E [ 98 ] G R E Gregory, which that able mathematician had darted fome objec- "* t "" ■ ' tions. Of this controverfy, it is unneceffary to enter into particulars. It is fufficient to fay, that, in the opinion of Leibnitz, who allows Mr Gregory the high- eft merit for his genius and difcoveries, Mr Huygens has pointed out, though not errors, lome conftderable deficiencies in the treatife above mentioned, and drown a much Ampler method of attaining the end in view. In 1668, Mr James Gregory publidred at London another work, entitled Exercilationes Geometric#, which contributed ftill to extend his reputation. About this time he was elected profeflbr of mathematics in the univerfity of St Andrew’s •, an office which he held for fix years. During his refidence there, he married, in 1669, Mary, the daughter of George Jamefon the ce¬ lebrated painter, whom Mr Walpole has termed the Vandyke of Scotland, and who was fellovv-difciple with that great artift in the fchool of Rubens at Ant- werp. In 1674, he W’as called to Edinburgh, to nil the chair of mathematics in that univerfity. This place he had held for little more than a year, when, in O&o- ber 1675, being employed in diowing the fatellites of Jupiter through a telefcope to fome of his pupils, he was fuddenly ftruck with total blindnefs, and died a few days after, at the early age of 37. He was a man of an acute and penetrating genius. His temper feems to have been warm, as appears from {he condudt of his difpute with Mr Huygens j and, confcious perhaps of his own merits as a difcoverer, he feems to have been jealous of lofing any portion of his reputation by the improvements of others upon his in¬ ventions. Gregory, Davie/, Savilian profeffor of aftronomy at Oxford, whom Dr Smith has termed fubtilijfimi in- genu mathematicus, was the eldeft fon of Mr Gregory Jlid. of Kinnairdy, brother of the above-mentioned Mr James Gregory. He was born at Aberdeen in 1661, and received the earlier parts of his education in that city. He completed his ftudies at Edinburgh j and, being poffeffed of the mathematical papers of his uncle, foon diftinguiffied himfelf likewife as the heir of his genius. In the 23 d year of his age, he was defied profefibr of mathematics in the univerfity of Edinburgh ; and pub- liffied, in the fame year, Excrcitatio Geometrica de di- menjione figurarum, Jive fpecimen methodi generalis di- metiendi quafvis Jiguras, Edinburgh, 1684, 4^0, fiw very early the excellence of the Newtonian philo- fophy ; and had the merit of being the firft who intro¬ duced it into the fchools by his public leflures at Edin- * Memoirs burgh. “ He had (fays Mr Whifton *) already caufed of bis aw feve&ral of his fcholars to keep ads, as we call them, ^ 32* upon fevera! branches of the Newtonian philofophyj while we at Cambridge, poor wretches, were ignomi- nioufiy ftudying the fictitious hypothefes of the Carte- Gregory, fian.” ' In 1691, on the report of Dr Bernard’s intention of refigning the Savilian profefforffiip of aflronomy at Ox¬ ford, David Gregory went to London *, and being pa- tronifed by Sir Ifaac Newton, and wTarmly befriended by Mr Flamftead the aftronomer royal, he obtained the vacant profefforffiip, for which Dr Halley was a com¬ petitor. This rivalffiip, however, inftead of animofity, laid the foundation of friendffiip between thefe eminent men 5 and Halley foon after became the colleague of Gregory, by obtaining the profefforffiip of geometry in the fame univerfity. Soon after his arrival in London, Mr Gregory had been defied a fellow of the royal fo- ciety ; and, previoufly to his eledlion into the Savilian profeffor fin p, had the degree of doctor of phyfic con¬ ferred on him by the univerfity of Oxford (a). In 1693, he publilhed in the Philofophical Tranfac- tions a rdolution of the Florentine problem de Tejlu- dine veliformi quadribih ; and he continued to commu¬ nicate to the public, from time to time, many ingeni¬ ous mathematical papers by the fame channel. In 1695, he printed at Oxford Catoptric# et Dioptric# Spheric# Elementa ; a work which, as he informs us in his preface, contains the fubftance of fome of his pub¬ lic leflures read, eleven years before, at Edinburgh. This valuable treatife was republiffied firft with addi¬ tions by Dr William Brown, with the recommenda¬ tion of Mr Jones and Dr Defaguliers $ and afterwards by the latter of thefe gentlemen, with an appendix containing an account of the Gregorian and Newto-* nian telefcopes, together with Mr Hadley’s tables for the conftruflion of both thofe inftruments. It is not unworthy of remark, that, in the end of this treatife, there is an obfervation which (hows, that what is gene¬ rally believed to be a difcovery of a much later date, the conftrudlion of achromatic telefcopes, which has been carried to great perfection by Mr Dollond and Mr Ramfden, had fuggefted itfelf to the mind of Da¬ vid Gregory, from the reflection on the admirable contrivance of nature in combining the different hu¬ mours of the eye. The paffage is as follows : “ Quod fi ob difficultates phyficas in Ipeculis idoneis torno ela- borandis et poliendis, etiamnum lentibus uti oporteat, fortaffis media diverfie denfitatis ad lentem objectivam componendam adhibere utile foret, ut a natura factum obfervamus in oculi fabrica, ubi criftallinus humor (fere ejufdem cum vitro virtutis ad radios lucis refringendos) aqueo et vitreo (aquae quoad refractionem baud abfi- milibus) conjungitur, ad imaginem quam diftincte fieri poterit, a natura nihil fruftra moliente, in oculi fundo depingendam.” Catopt. et Diopt. Sph#r. E/em. Oxon. 1695, p. 98. In 1702 our author publiffied at Oxford, AJ/ronomi# Physic# (a) On obtaining the above profefforffiip, he was fucceeded in the mathematical chair at Edinbuigh by his brother James, likewife an eminent mathematician j who held that office for 33 years, and retiring in 1725 was fucceeded by the celebrated Maclaurin. A daughter of this profeflbr James Gregory, a young lady of great beauty and accompliffiments, was the victim of an unfortunate attachment, which fumiffied the fubject of Mallet’s well-known ballad of William and Margaret. . ^ * Another brother, Charles, was created profeffor of mathematics at St Andrew's by Queen Anne in 1707. This office he held with reputation and ability for 32 years } and, refigning in 1739, was fucceeded by his fon, •who eminently inherited the. talents of his family, and died in 1763. G R E [ rfrrory, ]i?}iysic& Cj€Qffi£tr~iccc Jiilet?Titci f 3. worlv wlucTi is sc- counted his mafterpiece. It is founded on the Newto¬ nian doftrines, and was efteemed by Sir Ifaac Newton himfelf as a moft excellent explanation and defence of his philofophy. In the following year he gave to the world an edition in folio of the works of Euclid in Greek and Latin ; in profecution of a defign of his pre- deceffor Dr Bernard, of printing the works of all the ancient mathematicians. In this work, although it contains all the treatifes attributed to Euclid, Dr Gre¬ gory has been careful to point out fuch as he found rea- fon, from internal evidence, to believe to be the pro¬ ductions of fome inferior geometrician. In profecution of Dr Bernard’s plan, Dr Gregory engaged, foon af- liid. ter, with his colleague Halley, in the publication of the Conics of Apollonius; but he had proceeded but a little way in this undertaking when he died, in the 49th year of his age, at Maidenhead in Berklhire, A. D. 1710. To the genius and abilities of David Gregory, the moft celebrated mathematicians of the age, Sir ifaac Newton, Dr Halley, and Dr Keill, have given ample teftimonies. Indeed it appears that he enjoyed, in a high degree, the confidence and friendftvip of Sir Ifaac Newton. This philofopher entrufted him with a ma- nufeript copy of his Princi/>ia, for the purpofe of mak¬ ing obfervations on that work. Of thefe obfervations there is a complete copy preferved in the library of the Univerfity of Edinburgh. They contain many valuable commentaries on the Prindpia, many interefting anec¬ dotes, and various fublime mathematical difeuffions. Some of the paragraphs are in the hand-writing of 99 ] g it k of medicine in King’s college. He likewife owed much | Gregory, in his infant years, and during the whole couife of his v ftudies, to the care and attention of his coufin, the cele¬ brated Dr Reid, afterwards of the univerfity of Glafgow. The rudiments of our author’s claflical education he re¬ ceived at the grammar-fehool of Aberdeen j and under the eye of his grandfather, he completed, in King’s col¬ lege, his ftudies in the Latin and Greek languages, and in the fciences of ethics, mathematics, and natural phi¬ lofophy. Hrs mafter in philofophy and in mathematics was Mr Thomas Gordon, philofophy profeilor of King s college, who ably filled an academical chair for above half a century. In 1742, Mr Gregory went to Edinburgh, where the fchool of medicine was then rifing to that celebrity which has fince fo remarkably diftinguiftied it. Here he attended the anatomical leftures of the elder Dr Monro, of Dr Sinclair on the theory of medicine, and of Dr Rutherford on the pra&ice. He heard likewife the prelections of Dr Alfton on the materia medica and botany, and of Dr Plummer on chemiftry. The medi¬ cal fociety of Edinburgh, inftituted for the free difeuf- fion of all queftions relative to medicine and philolophy, had begun to meet in 1737. Of this fociety we find ■ Mi»Gregory a member in 1742, at the time when Dr Mark Akenfide, his fellow Itudent and intimate com¬ panion, was a member of the fame inftitution. In the year 1745 our author went to Leyden, and attended the leCtures of thofe celebrated profefibrs Gaubius, Albinus, and Van Royen. While at this place he had the honour of receiving from the King’s Huygens, and they relate to the theory of light of this college of Aberdeen, his alma mater, who regarded hint philofopher. The obfervations of Dr Gregory had as a favourite fon, an unfolicited degree of dodor of medicine j and foon after, on his return tbithe* from Holland, he was elefted profeflbr of philofophy in the come too late for the firft edition of Newton’s great work *, but he availed himfelf of them in the fecond. Befides thofe works publifhed in his lifetime, he left in manufeript, A Short Treatife of the Nature and Arith¬ metic of Logarithms, which is printed at the end of Dr Keill’s tranflation of Commandine’s Euclid 3 and a Treatife of Praftical Geometry, which was afterwards tranllated, and publilhed in 1745, by Mr Maclaurin. Dr David Gregory married in 1695, Elizabeth the daughter of Mr Oliphant of Langtown in Scotland. By this lady he had four fons, of whom, the eldeft, David, was appointed regius profeffor of modern hiftory at Oxford by King George 1. and died in 1767, in an advanced age', after enjoying for many years the digni¬ ty of dean of Chrift-church in that univerfity. Gregory, Dr John, profeffor of medicine in the univerfity of Edinburgh, was the fon of Dr James Gre- 4 gory profeffor of medicine in King’s college Aberdeen, and grandfon of James the inventor of the Gregorian telefcope. His father was firft married to Catharine Forbes, daughter of Sir John Forbes of Monymulk 3 by whom he had fix children, moft of whom died in infancy. He married afterwards Ann Chalmers, only daughter of the Rev. Mr George Chalmers principal of King’s college, by whom he had two fons and a daugh¬ ter. John, the youngeft of the three, was born at A- berdeen, June 3. 1724. Lofing his father when only in the 7th year of hk age, the care of his education de¬ volved on his grandfather Principal Chalmers, and on his elder brother Dr James Gregory, who, upon the refignation of their father a (liort time before his death, had been appointed to fucceed him in the profefforlhip fame univerfity. In this capacity he read ledtures du¬ ring the years 17475 r74^> anc^ I749> on mathematics, on experimental philofophy, and on moral philofophy. In the end erf 1749, however, he chofe to refign his profefforftiip of philofophy, his views being turned chiefly to the practice of phyfic, with which he appre¬ hended the duties of this profefforftnp, occupying a great portion of his timo, too much interfered. Previ- oufly, however, to his fettling as a phyfician at Aber¬ deen, he went for a few months to the continent 3 a tour of which the chief motive was probaoly amufement, though, to a mind like his, certainly not without its profit in the enlargement of ideas, and an increafed knowledge of mankind. Some time after his return to Scotland, Dr Gregory married in 1752, Elifabeth daughter of William Lord Forbes 3 a young lady who, to the exterior endowments of great beauty and engaging manners, joined a very fuperior underftanding, and an uncommon lhare of wit. With her he received a handfome addition of fortune 3 and during the whole period of their union, which was but for the fpace of nine years, enjoyed the higheft portion of domeftic happinefe. Of her charafter it is enough to fay, that her hufband, in that admired lit¬ tle work, A Father’s Legacy to his Daughters, the laft proof of his affection for them, declares, that “ while he endeavours to point out what they Ihould be, he draws but a very faint and imperfeift picture of what their mother was.” The field of medical pradftice at Aberdeen being at that time in a great meafure pre- N 2 occupied G R E [ i Gregory, occupied by his elder brother Dr James Gregory, and v others of fome note in their profefllon, our author de¬ termined to try his fortune in London. Thither ac¬ cordingly he went in 1754 5 and being already known by reputation as a man of genius, he found an eafy in¬ troduction to many perfons of diitindtion both in the li¬ terary and polite world. The late George Lord Lyt¬ telton was his friend and patron. An attachment, which was founded on a ftriking fimilarity of manners, of taltes, and of difpofitions, grew up into a firm and -permanent friendlhip ; and to that nobleman, to whom Dr Gregory was wont to communicate all his literary productions, the world is indebted for the publication of the Comparative View of the State and Faculties of Man, which made him fint known as an author. Dr Gregory likewife enjoyed the friendlhip of the late Ed¬ ward Montagu, Efq. and of his lady, the celebrated champion of the fame of Shakefpeare, again!! the ca¬ vils and calumnies of Voltaire. At her alfemblies, or converfaziones, the refort of tafte and genius, our author had an opportunity of cultivating an acquaintance with many of the molt diltinguhhed literary characters of the prefent times. In 1754 Dr Gregory was chofen fellow of the royal fociety of London j and daily advancing in the public elteem, it is not to be doubted, that, had he continued his refidence in that metropolis, his profeflkmal talents would have found their reward in a very extenfive prac¬ tice. But the death of his brother, Dr James Grego¬ ry, in November 1755? occalioning a vacancy in the profeiTorlhip of phylic in King’s college, Aberdeen, which he was folicited to fill, he returned to his native country in the beginning of the following year, and took upon him the duties of that office to which he had been eledled in his abfence. Here our author remained till the end of the year 1764, when urged by a very laudable ambition, and prefuming on the reputation he had acquired as afford¬ ing a realbnable profpeiff of fuccefs in a more extended field of practice, he changed his place of refidence for Edinburgh. His friends in that metropolis had repre- fented to him the fituation of the college of medicine as favourable to his views of filling a profefforial chair in that univerfity ; which accordingly he obtained in 1766, on the refignation of Dr Rutherford, profeffor ol the practice of phyhc. In the fame year he had the honour of being appointed firlt phyfician to his majelty for Scotland on the death of Dr Whytt. On his firlt eltablilhment in the univerlity of Edin¬ burgh, Dr Gregory gave leCtures on thev praCtice of phyfic during the years 1767, 1768, and 1769. Af¬ terwards, by agreement with Dr Cullen, profeffor of the theory of phyfic, thefe two eminent men gave al¬ ternate courfes of the theory and of the praCtice.—As a public fpeaker, Dr Gregory’s manner was limple, natural, and animated. Without the graces of ora¬ tory, which the fubjeCt he had to treat in a great de¬ gree precluded, he expreffed his ideas with uncommon perfpicuity, and in a llyle happily attempered between the formality of ftudied compofition and the eafe of converfation. It was his cultem to premeditate, for a fhort time before entering the college, the fubjeCt of his leClure, confulting thofe authors to whom he had occafion to refer, and marking in ffiort notes the ar¬ rangement of his intended difcourfe: then fully ma- 00 ] ,G R E Iter of his fubjeCt, and confident of his own powers, he Gregory, trutted to his natural facility of expreffion to convey 1 v " thofe opinions which he had maturely deliberated. The only leCtures which he committed fully to writing, were thofe introductory difcourfes which he read at the beginning of his annual courie, and which are publiih- ed in theie volumes under the title of LeCtures on the Duties and Qualifications of a Phyfician. Of thefer which were written with no view to publication, many copies were taken by his pupils, and fome from the original manufcript, which he freely lent for their peru- fal. On hearing that a copy had been offered for fale to a bookleller, ?t became neceffary to anticipate a fraudulent, and perhaps a mutilated publication, by au- thoriiing an impreffion from a corrected copy, of which he gave the profits to a favourite pupil. Thefe lec¬ tures were firit publilhed in 1770, and afterwards in an enlarged and more perfeCt form in 1772. In the fame year, 1772, Dr Gregory publifhed Elements of the Pradice of Phyfic, for the ufe of Students : a work intended folely for his own pupils, and to be uled by himfelf as a text-book to be comment¬ ed upon in his courfe of leCtures. In an advertilement prefixed to this work, he lignified his intention of com¬ prehending in it the whole feries of difeafes of which he treated in his leCtures on the PraCtice of Phyfic ; but this intention he did not live to accomplilh, having brought down the work no further than to the end of the clafs of Febrile Difeales.—In his academical lec¬ tures, Dr Gregory never attempted to millead the Un¬ dent by flattering views of the perfection of the fci- ence ; but was, on the contrary, anxious to point out its defeCts •, wifely judging that a thorough fenfe of the imperfeCtion of an art or fcience is the firlt Ite'p towards its improvement. In this view he was care¬ ful to expofe the fallacioufnefs of the feveral theories1 and hypothefes which have had the molt extenfive cur¬ rency, and perpetually inculcated thd danger of fyfte- matizing with limited experience, or an imperfeCt knowledge of faCts. Yet in the work lalt mentioned it will appear from the order in which he has treated of the feveral difeafes, that he did not entirely negleCt the fyltematic arrangements of other authors. Thefe, however, he warned his pupils, that he had not adopt¬ ed from any conviction of the reCtitude of thofe theo¬ ries to which they referred, but only as affording that degree of method, and regularity of plan, which is found to be the belt help to the Itudy of any fcience. Confidering a rational theory of phyfic to be as yet a defideratum, it was his objeCt to communicate to his pupils the greatelt portion of practical knowledge, as the only balls on which fuch a theory could ever be reared. His method, in treating of the feveral difeafes, was firlt to mention thofe fymptoms which are un- derltood among phylicians to characterize or define a difeafe j proceeding from the general to the more par¬ ticular feries of fymptoms and their occafional varie¬ ties j to point out accurately the diagnojlic fymptoms, or thofe by which one difeale is effentially diltinguilh- ed from others that relemble it, and to mark likewife the prognqjiics by which a phylician is enabled to con¬ jecture of the probable event of a difeafe, whether fa¬ vourable or otherwife. He then proceeded to fpecify the various caufes, predifpoling, occafional, and proxi¬ mate j accounting, as far as he thought could be done G R E [ ioi ] G R E‘ Gregory, on juft principles, for the appearance of the feveral this traft, the profeiTor fhines.with peculiar luftre as fymptoms ; and, finally, he pointed out the general a hutband and father, and it is admirably adapted to j10un(ji t plan of cure, the particular remedies to be employed, promote domeftic happinefs. _ u—-y——' and the cautions requifite in the adminillration of Thele letters to his daughters were evidently written them. Thus defirous of eftablifhing the fcience of under the impreftion of an early death, which Dr Gre- medicine upon the folid foundation of praflice and gory had reafon to.apprehend from a conflitution fub- experience ; and knowing that many things aflerted as ject to the gout, which had begun to Ihow itfelf at ir- facts by medical writers have been ailumed on a very regular intervals even from the 18th year of his age.- carelefs oblervation, while confirming a favourite theo- His mother, from whom he inherited tnat dueafs, died ry ; and that, on the other hand, many real and im- fuddenly in 1770, while fitting at table. Dr Gregory portant facls have, from the fame fpint of iyftem, had prognofticated for hxmielr a fiirular deatn j an been explained away and diferedited j he conftantly event of wdiich, among his friends, he orten tabbed, endeavoured, both by his precept and example, to in- but had no apprehenfion of the nearneis of its ap- culcate to his pupils the neceffity of extreme caution proach. In the beginning of the year 1773, in con- either in admitting or in denying medical fads, or verfation with his fon Dr James Gregory, the lat- what are commonly given as fuch. To the deiire of ter remarking, that having for the three preceding enforcing this neceffary caution is owing that multi- years had no return of a fit, he might make his ac- tude of queries refpeding matters of fad, as wxll as count with a pretty fevere attack at that feafon j he matters of opinion, which occurs in the Elements of the received the obfervation with fome degree of anger, ✓ Pradice of Phyfic. as he felt himfelf then in his ufual ftate of health. Dr Gregory, foon after the death of his wife, and, The predidion, howevet, was too true •, for Wing as he himfelf fays, “ for the amufement of his folitary gone to bed on the 9th of February 1773, with no hours,” employed himfelf in the compofition of that apparent diforder, he was found dead in the morning, admirable trad, entitled, A Father’s Legacy to his His death had been inftantaneous, and probably in his Daughters ; a work which, though certainly never in- lleep ; for there was not the fmalletl difeompofure of tended by its author for the public eye, it would have limb or of feature.—a perfed Euthanqfia. been an unwarrantable diminution of his fame, and a ca- Dr Gregory, in perfon, wms confiderably above the pricious refufal of a general benefit to mankind, to have middle fize. His frame of body was compaded with limited to the foie purpofe for which it was originally fymmetry, but not with elegance. His limbs were defigned. It was, therefore, with great propriety, not adive ; he Hooped fomewhat in his gait ; and his publifhed after the author’s death by his eldeit fon. countenance, from a fullnefs of feature and a heavinels This work is a moll amiable difplay of the piety of eye, gave no external indication of fuperior power and goodnefs of his heart, and his confummate know7- of mmd or abilities. It was otherwife when engaged ledge of human nature and of the vvorld. It manifefts in converfation. His features then became aniiflated, fuch folicitude for their welfare, as ftrongly recommends and his eye moll exprefiive. Fie had a warmth of the advice which he gives. He fpeaks of the female tone and of geiture which gave a pleafing intereft to fex in the moft honourable terms, and labours to in- every thing wEich he uttered : Eut, united with this creafe its eftimation, whilft he plainly, yet genteelly animation, there was in him a gentlenefs and fimplici- and tenderly, points out the errors into which young ty of manner, which, wdth little attention to the ex¬ ladies are prone to fall.—It is particularly obfervable, terior and regulated forms of politenels, was more en- in what high and honourable terms he fpeaks of the gaging than the moft finilhed addrefs. His converfation Holy Scriptures, of Chriftian worfhip, and faithful flowed with eafe •, and, when in company with literary minifters •, how warmly he recommends to his daugh- men, without affedling a dilplay of knowdedge, he w?as ters the ferious and devout worftup of God in public liberal of the ftores of his mind. He poffefled a large and private. He dw7ells largely on that temper and (hare of the focial and benevolent afteiftions, which, in behaviour, which were particularly fuited to their edu- the exercife of his profelfion, manifefted themfelves in cation, rank, and circumftances ; and recommends that many namelefs, but important, attentions to thofe un- gentlenefs, benevolence, and modefty, which adorn the der his care ; attentions which, proceeding in him charadler of the ladies, and do particular honour to from an extended principle of humanity, were not their fex. His advices, with regard to love, courtfhip, fquared to the circumftances or rank of the patient, and marriage, are peculiarly v^ife, and interefting to but ever beftawed moft liberally where they were' them. They Ihow what careful obfervation he had moft requifite. In the care of his pupils, he was not made on female domeftic condudl, and on the different fatisfied with a faithful difeharge of his public duties, effedts of poffeffing or wanting the virtues and qualities To many of thefe, ftrangers in the country, and far re- which he recommends. There is fomething peculiar- moved from all who had a natural intereft in their con- ly curious, animated, and ufeful, in his diredlions to cerns, it was matter of no fmall importance to enjoy them, how to judge of, and manifeft an honourable the acquaintance and countenance of one fo univerfal- paftion in, and towards the other fex, and in the very ly refpedled and efteemed. accurate and ufeful diftin&ion which he makes be- ORE-hound. See Canis, Mammalia Index.— tween true and falfe delicacy. Nothing can be more Among a litter of gre-hound puppies, the beft are ftriking and affedling, nothing more likely to give his always thofe which are lighteft. Thefe will make the paternal advices their defired eftedl, than the refpedl- nimbleft dogs as they grow up. The gre-hound is belt ful and affedlionate manner in which he mentions his for open countries where there is little covert. In thefe lady their mother, and the irreparable lofs . which he places there will fometimes be a courfe after a hare of and they fuftained by her early death. In fhort, in two or three miles or more, and both the dogs and the - game G R E [ i Gre- game In fight all the while. It is generally fuppofed Grenada t*lat l^e gre^10und bitch will beat the dog in running : - - ... i but this feems to be an error j for the dog is both longer made, and confiderably llronger, than the bitch of the fame kind. In the breeding thefe dogs the bitch is prin¬ cipally to be regarded j for it is found by experience, that the belt dog and a bad bitch will not get fo good puppies as an indifferent dog with a good bitch. The dog and bitch fliould be as nearly as may be of the fame age $ and for the breeding of fine and perfeft dogs, they fliould not be more than four years old. An old bitch may be ufed with a young dog, but the puppies of a young bitch and an old dog will never be good for any thing. The general food for a gre-hound Ought to be drippings or rafpings of breatf, with foft bones and griltles j and thofe clippings ought always to be foaked in beef or mutton broth. The proper exercife for a gre-hound is courfing him three times a-week, and rewarding him with blood j which will animate him in the higheft degree, and encourage him to profecute his game. But the hare alfo fliould ever have fair play. She fliould have the law, as it is called j that is, have leave to run about twelve fcore yards before the dog is flipped at her, that he may have fome difficulty in the courfe, and not pick up the game too eafily. If he kills the hare, he muft never be fuffered to tear her *, but flie muff be taken Trom him, his mouth cleaned of the wool, and the liver and lights given him by way of encourage¬ ment. Then he is to be led home, and his feet waflied with butter and beer, -and about an hour after he is to be fed. When the dog is to be taken out to courfe, he ffiould have nothing in the morning but a toaft and butter, and then he is to be kennelled till taken out to the field. The kennelling thefe dogs is of great ufe, always giving them fpirit and nimblenefs when they are fet loofe : and the belt wjay of managing a fine gre-hound is, never to let him ftir out of the kennel, except at the times of feeding, walking, or courfing. GRENADA, one of the Caribbee iflands, lying in W. Long. 61. 40. N. Lat. 12. o. It is the lait of the Windward Caribbees j and lies 30 leagues north of New Andalufia, on the continent. It is about 30 miles in length, and in fome places 15 in breadth. The chief port, formerly called Louis, now St George's, Hands on the weft fide of the ifland, in the middle of a large bay, with a fandy bottom. It is pretended that loco barks, from 300 to 400 tons, may ride fecure from ftorms ; and that 100 ftiips, of 1000 tons each, may be moored in the harbour. A large round bafon, which is parted from it by a bank of fand, would con¬ tain a confiderable number of ftiips, if the bank was cut through : but by reafon of it the large fliips are obliged to pafs wdthin 80 paces of one of the mountains lying at the mouth of the harbour $ the other mountain lying about half a mile diftant. The ifland abounds with wild game and fiffi j it produces alfo very fine timber, but the cocoa tree is obferved not to thrive here fo wTell as in the other iflands. A lake on a high mountain, about the middle of the ifland, fupplies it with frefli-wrater ftreams. Several bays and harbours lie round the illand, fome of which might be fortified 02 ] G R E to great advantage •, fo that it is very convenient for Grenada, (hipping, not being lubjedl to hurricanes. The foil is ' '"v capable of producing tobacco, fugar, indigo, peafe, and millet. In 1638, M. Poincy, a Frenchman, attempted to make a iettlement in Grenada ; but w’as driven off by the Caribbeans, who reforted to this ifland in greater numbers than to the neighbouring ones, probably on account of the game with wffiich it abounded. In 1650, Monf. Parquet, governor of Martinico, carried over from that ifland 200 men, furniihed with prefents to reconcile the favages to them ; but with arms to fub- due them, in cale they ffiould prove intractable. The favages are faid to have been frightened into fubmif- fion by the number of the Frenchmen : but, according to fome French writers, the chief not only welcomed the new’-comers j but, in confideration of lome knives, hatchets, fciffars, and other toys, yielded to Parquet the fovereignty of the ifland, referving to themfelves their own habitations. The Abbd Raynal informs us, that thefe firft French colonifts, imagining they had purchafed the ifland by thefe trifles, affumed the fove¬ reignty, and foon afted as tyrants. The Caribs, un¬ able to contend with them by force, took their ufual method of murdering all thofe whom they found in a defencelefs date. This produced a wTar 5 and the French fettlers having received a reinforcement of 300 men from Martinico, forced the favages to retire to a mountain j from v/hence, after exhaufting all their ar¬ rows, they rolled down great logs of wood on their enemies. Here they were joined by other favages from the neighbouring iflands, and again attacked the French, but wrere defeated anew 5 and were at laft dri¬ ven to fuch defperation, that 40 of them, who had efca- ped from the (laughter, jumped from a precipice into the fea, where they all periffied, rather than fall into the hands of their implacable enemies. From thence the rock wras called le inorne des/auteurs, or “ the hill of the leapers j” which name it (till retains. The French then deftroyed the habitations and all the pro- vifions of the favages} but freffi fupplies of Carib¬ beans arriving, the W'ar was renewed with great vigour, and great numbers of the French were killed. Upon this they refolved totally to exterminate the natives : and having accordingly attacked the favages unawares, they inhumanly put to death the women and children, as well as the men •, burning all their boats and ca¬ noes, to cut off all communication between the few furvivors and the neighbouring iflands. Notwithftand- ing all thefe barbarous precautions, however, the Ca¬ ribbees proved the irreconcileable enemies of the French j and their frequent infurredfions at laft obliged Par¬ quet to fell all his property in the ifland to the Count de Cerillac in 1657. The new proprietor, wffio pur¬ chafed Parquet’s property for 30,000 crowns, fent thither a perfon of brutal manners to govern the if¬ land. He behaved with fuch infupportable tyranny, that moft of the colonifts retired to Martinico j and the few wffio remained condemned him to death af¬ ter a formal trial. In the -whole court of juftice that tried this mifcreant, there was only one man (called Slrchange/i) who could write. A farrier was the per¬ fon who impeached : and he, inftead of the fignatures, fealed with a horfe-ftioe 5 and Archangeli, who per¬ formed I G R E [i Grenada, formed the office of clerk, wrote round it thefe words ——v in French, “ Mark of M. de la Brie, counfel for the court.” It was apprehended that the court of France would not ratify a fentence palled with fuch unulual formali¬ ties } and therefore moft of the judges of the gover¬ nor’s crimes, and witneffes of his execution, difappear- ed. Only thofe remained whofe obfcurity fcreened them from the purfuit of the laws. By an eftimate, taken in 1700, there were at Grenada no more than 251 white people, 53 free favages or mulattoes, and 525 Haves. The ufeful animals were reduced to 64 horfes and 569 head of horned cattle. The whole cul¬ ture conlifted of three plantations of fugar and 5 2 ^n“ digo,—The ifland had been fold in 1664 to the French Well India company for 100,000 livres. This unfavourable Hate of the affairs of Grenada was changed in 17^4* The change was owing to the flouriHiing condition of Martinico. I he richell of the Ihips from that illand were fent to the Spanilh coafts, and in their way touched at Grenada to take in refrelhments. The trading privateers, who under¬ took this navigation, taught the people of that ifland the value of their foil, which only required cultivation. Some traders furnilhed the inhabitants with Haves and utenfils to eredl fugar plantations. An open account was cftabliflied between the two colonies. Grenada was clearing its debts gradually by its rich produce ; and the balance was on the point of being clofed, when the war in 1744 interrupted the communication between the twm iflands, and at the fame time Hopped the progrefs of the fugar-plantations. This lofs was fupplied" by the culture of coffee, which was purfued during the hoHilities wuth all the activity and eager- nefs that induflry could infpire.—The peace of 1748 revived all the labours, and opened all the former four- ces of wealth. In 1753 the population of Grenada confifled of 1262 white people, 175 free negroes, and 11,991 flaves. The cattle amounted to 2298 horfes or mules, 2456 head of horned cattle, 3278 ftieep, 902 goats, and 331 hogs. The cultivation rofe to 83 fugar plantations, 2,725,600 coffee trees, 150,300 cocoa-trees, and 800 cotton plants. The provifions confifled of 5,740,450 trenches of caffada, 933,596 banana trees, and 143 fquares of potatoes and yams. The colony made a rapid progrefs, in propor¬ tion to the excellence of its foil •, but in the courfe of the lafl war but one the ifland wTas taken by the Britifh. At this time one of the mountains at the fide of St George’s harbour was flrongly fortified, and might have made a good defence, but furrendered without firing a gun 5 and by the treaty concluded in 1763 the ifland was ceded to Britain. On this ceflion, and the management of the colony after that event, the abbe Raynal has the following remarks.—“ This long train of evils [the ambition and mifmanagement of his coun¬ trymen] has thrown Grenada into the hands of the Englilh, who are in poffeflion of this conquefl by the treaty of 1763. But how long’will they keep this colony? Or. will it never again be reflored to France ? -—England has not made a fortunate beginniag. In the firfl enthufiafm railed by an acquifition, of which the highefi opinion had been previously formed, every one was eager to purchafe eflates there. They fold for much more than their real value. This caprice, >3 ] G R E by expelling old colonifls who were inured to the cli- | Grenada. mate, has fent about 1,553,000!. out of the mother- country. This imprudence has been followed by ano¬ ther. The new proprietors, mifled, no doubt, by na¬ tional pride, have fubflituted new methods to thofe of their predeceffors. T. hey have attempted to alter the mode of living among their Haves. 1 he negroes, who from their very ignorance are more attached to their cufloms than other men, have revolted. It hath been found neceflary to fend out troops, and to Hied blood. The whole colony was filled with fufpicions. 1 he maflers who had laid themfelves under a neceflity of ufing violent methods, were afraid of being burnt or maffacred in their own plantations. The labours have declined, or been totally interrupted. Tranquillity has at length been reflored. The number of flaves has been increafed as far as 40,000, and the produce has been raifed to the treble of what it was under the French government. The plantations will Hill be im¬ proved • by the neighbourhood of a dozen of iflands, called the Grenadines or Grenadilloes, that are depend¬ ent on the colony. They are from three to eight leagues in circumference. The air is wdiolefome. The ground, covered only with thin buflres, has not been, fcreened from the fun. It exhales none of thofe noxious vapours which are fatal to the hulbandman. Cariacou, the only one of the Grenadines which the French have occupied, was at firff frequented by turtle fifhermen 3 who, in the leifure afforded them by fo eafy an occu¬ pation, employed • themfelves in clearing the ground. In procefs of time, their fmall number was increafed by the acceflion of fome of the inhabitants of Guada- loupe 3 who, finding that their plantations were dellroy- ed by a particular fort of ants, removed to Cariacou. The ifland flourilhed from the liberty that was enjoyed there. The inhabitants collected about 1200 Haves, . by whofe labours they made themfelves a revenue of near 20,000!. a-year in cotton.—The other Grenadines do not afford a profpedl of the fame advantages, though the plantation of fugar is begun there. It has fuc- ceeded remarkably well at Becouya, the largeff and mofl fertile of thefe iflands, which is no more than two leagues diflant from St Vincent.” In the year 1779 t^e conquefl of this ifland was accompliihed by D’Eftaign the. French admiral, who had been prevented from attempting it before by his enterprife againft St Vincent. Immediately after his conqueft of St Lucia, however, being reinforced by a fquadron under M. de la Motte, he fet fail for Grenada with a fleet of 26 fail of the line and 12 frigates, ha¬ ving on board 10,000 land forces. Here he arrived on the fecond of July 3 and landed 3000 troops, chiefly Irifli, being part of the brigade compofed of natives of Ireland in the fervice of France. Thefe were con¬ duced by Count Dillon, who difpofed them in fuch a manner as to furround the hill that overlooks and commands George’s town, together with the fort and harbour. To oppofe thefe, Lord M‘Cartney, the governor, had only about 150 regulars, and 300 or 400 armed inhabitants 3 but though all refiftance was evidently vain, he determined neverthelefs to make an honourable and gallant defence. The preparations he made were fuch as induced D’Eftaign himfelfto be pre- fent at the attack 3 and, even with his vaft fuperiority of force, the firfl attack on the entrenchments proved unfuccefsful, G P. E [ i ^Grenada. ^ un’.uccefsful. The fecond continued two hours ; when v 'the garriibn were obliged to yield to the immenfe di¬ parity of numbers who aflaulted them, after having killed or wounded 300 of their antagonifls* Having thus made themfelves mailers of the intrenchments on the hill, the French turned the cannon of them to¬ wards the fort which lay under it; on which the go¬ vernor demanded a capitulatiom The terms, however, were fo extraordinary and unprecedented, that both the governor and inhabitants agreed in reje&ing them •, and determined rather to furrender without any con¬ ditions at all than upon thofe which appeared fo ex¬ travagant. On this occafion D’Ellaign is laid to have behaved in a very haughty and fevere manner •, indul¬ ging his foldiers alfo in the moft unwarrantable liber¬ ties, and in which they would have proceeded much farther had they not been reftrained by the Irith troops in the French fervice. In the mean time Admiral Byron * who had been convoying the homeward-bound Weft India fleet, ha- ftened to St Vincent, in hopes of recovering it j but being informed, by the way, that a defcent had been made at Grenada, he changed his courfe, hoping that Lord M‘Cartney wmuld be able to hold out till his ar¬ rival. On the fixth of July he came in light of the I'rench fleet-, and, without regarding D’Ellaign’s fu- periority of fix flfips of the line and as many frigates, determined if poflible to force him to a clofe engage¬ ment. The French commander, however, was not io confident of his owm prowefs as to run the rilk of an encounter of this kind 5 and having already at- chieved his conqueft, had no other view- than to pre- lerve it. His deligns were facilitated by the good condition of his fleet; w7hich being more lately come out of port than that of the Britilh, failed fafter, fo that he was thus enabled to keep at what diftance he plealed. The engagement began about eight in the morning, when Admiral Barrington with his own and two other Ihips got up to the van of the enemy, which they attacked wuth the greateft fpirih As the other fliips of his divifion, however, w-ere not able to get up to his affiftance, thefe three fhips w7ere neceftarily obliged to encounter a vaft fuperiority, and of confequence fuf- fered exceedingly. The battle w7as carried on from be¬ ginning to end in the fame unequal manner } nor were the Britilh commanders, though they ufed their utmoft efforts for this purpofe, able to bring the French to a clofe engagement. Thus Captains Collingwood, Ed¬ wards, and Cornw7allis, flood the fire of the whole French fleet for fome time. Captain Fanlhaw of the Monmouth, a 64 gun Ihip, threw- himfelf fingly in the way of the enemy’s van ; and Admiral Rowley and Captain Butchart fought at the fame difadvantage : fo that finding it impoffible to continue the engagement with any probability of fuccefs, a general ceffation of firing took place about noon. It recommenced in the fame manner about two in the afternoon *, and lafted, with different interruptions, till the evening. During this aftion fome of the Britilh Ihips had forced their way into St George’s harbour, not imagining that the enemy were already in poffeflion of the illand. They were foon undeceived, however, by perceiving the French colours flying alhore, and the guns and batteries firing at them. This difeovery put an end to the defign which had brought on the engagement j 2 04 ] G R £ and as it was how high time to think of providing for (frenari.t. the fafety of the Britilh tranfports, which were in dan- ' 7 ger from the number of the enemy’s frigates, the en¬ gagement was finally difeontinued. " During this aftion fome of Admiral Byron’s Ihips had fullered extremelv*. I he Lion of 64 guns, Captain Cornwallis, w7as found incapable of rejoining the fleet which were plyirnr to windward ; and was therefore obliged to bear away alone before the wind. Two other Ihips lay far aftern in a very diftreffed fituation ; but no attempt was made to capture them, nor did the French admiral Ihovv the lealt inclination to renew- the engagement. Grenada was reftored to Great Britain by the treatv of peace of 1783 —George’s town, or St George’s, i"s the refidence of the governor. When the levelling fpirit of the French revolution threatened to banilh all rational liberty and fubordina- tion from the face of the earth, the ill-fated ifland of Grenada did not efcape the contagion. The Haves in this ifland were early tindlured with the love and ad¬ miration of thofe principles which fubverted the mo¬ narchy of France. They w7ere of confequence readv to revolt at the inftigations of republican emiffaries, wdio in 1795 effeded a landing from the ifland of Gua- daloupe in conliderable numbers. Yet many of the Haves hefitated at firft to take an adive part in this un¬ natural rebellion againft the Britilh government 5 but their perfeverance w7as at length fliaken by the alluring temptations which were held out to them, of participat¬ ing of the property of their plundered mafters, and the flattering promifes of total emancipation. It is aftoniftiing, as it feems repugnant to every feel¬ ing of human nature w7ith which we are acquainted, that fuch of the flaves, both male and female, as had experienced the moft humane treatment, and enjoyed the greateft fliare of their mafters confidence, w7ere the moft adive and cruel in this horrible infurredion, 1 his feems to be a melancholy proof of an affertion often made by thofe w7ho are inimical to the abolition of the flave-trade, that the moft humane and benevolent treatment can make no impreflion on their native fero¬ city. As the French troops had been too fuccefsful in their attack upon Guadaloupe, the difaffeded negroes in Grenada who fpoke the French language, as %vell as numbers of white people who w7ere charmed w7ith the extravagant dodrine of liberty and equality, w7ere en¬ couraged to projed and execute a revolt from the Bri- tilh government, every ftep of which they marked with plunder and wdth blood. Having effeded a landing at Grenville or La Baye, and Charlotte towrn, on different fides of the ifland, the infurgents, to the number of 1 oo, furrounded the former place, and about one o’clock in the morning (March 6. 1795) plundered the dwelling and ftorehoufes, and dragging the innocent, the aftonifti- ed inhabitants into the ftreets, fet them up as marks to be ftiot at. When they fell before the difeharge of their rnufketry, the inhuman banditti mangled their bodies with cutlafl'es in the moft fhocking manner. At this time there were 14 Engliih inhabitants in the town, only three of whom efcaped the infatiable ven¬ geance of thofe pretended lovers of freedom ! Some efcaped by fwimming to the veffels which were then lying in the roads, while others captured by the infur¬ gents, were murdered on their way to the camp of the rebel Grenadines II Grefham. G R E t 105 1 , . rebel chief Fedon, becaufe they could not march fo ftored to him again, quickly as defired. The murders committed at this place, and the plun¬ der and devaftation which marked their fteps in other parts of the illand, are (hocking to humamty > and it is too notorious that the infurgents were inftigated to the whole by the rettlefs etniffaries of the French republic. The infurre&ion was not finally fupprelfed till June 1796. _ , GRENADINES, or Grenadillos. See the pre¬ ceding article.—In thefe ifiands, frelh water is found Only in one place. A fmall fpring has^ been difcovered in the principal illand Cariacou, by digging j but be¬ ing of great value, it is kept locked by the proprietor. The capital of that illand is called Hillborough, in which there is a fmall church. 4 GRENAILLE, a name given by the French wri¬ ters td a preparation of copper, which the ChineCe ufe as a red colour in fome of their fineft china, particu¬ larly for that colour which is called oil-red or red in oil. The china-ware coloured with this is very dear. The manner in which they procure the preparation^ is thus : they have in China no fuch thing as lilver-coin- ed money, but they ufe in commerce bars or mafles of G R E Queen Elizabeth conferred the Greftiat* honour of knighthood upon him, and. made him her Gre];ilIei agent in foreign parts. It was at this time he thought ■ —j proper to provide himfelf with a manfion-houfe in the city, fuitable to his ftation and dignity $ with which intention he built a large houfe on the weft fide of Bilhopfgate-ftreet, afterwards known by the name of Grefham-ctillege. His father had propofed building a houfe or exchange for the merchants to meet in, in- ftead of walking in the open ftreet.; but this defign remained for the fon to accompliih. Sir Thomas went beyond his father : he offered, if the citizens would provide a proper piece of ground, to build a houfe at his own expence *, which, being accepted, he fulfilled his promife after the plan of the exchange at Antwerp. When the new edifice was opened, the queen (Jan. 29. 1570) came and dined with the founder j and caufed a herald with a trumpet to pro¬ claim it by the name of the Royal Exchange. In pur^ fuance &lfo of a promife to endow a college for the profeflion of the feven liberal fciences, he made a tefta- mentary difpofition of his houfe in London for that purpofe y leaving ond moiety of the royal exchange to the corporation of London, and the other to the mer- fdver; thefe they pay and receive in large bargains 5 and among a nation fo full of fraud as the Chinefe, it is no wonder that thefe are too often adulterated with too great an alloy of copper. I hey pafs, how¬ ever, in this ftate, in the common payments. . T here are fome occafions, however, iuch as the paying the taxes and contributions, on which they muft have their filver pure and fine*, on this occafion they have recourle to certain people, whofe foie bufinefs it is to refine the filver, and feparate it from the copper and the lead it contains. This they do in furnaces made for the pur- pofe, and with very convenient veffels. While the copper is in fufion, they take a fmall bruih, and dip the end of it into water ; then ftriking the handle of the bruih, they fprinkle the water by degrees upon the melted copper j a fort of pellicle forms itfelr by this means on the furface of the matter, which they take off while hot with pincers of iron, and immediately throwing it into a large veffel of cold water, it forms that red’poivder which is called the grenaille ; they re¬ peat the operation every time they in this manner fe¬ parate the copper j and this furnilhes them with as much of the grenaille as they have occalion for in their china works. GRENOBLE, a large, populous, and ancient town of France, in the department of Here, with a bilhop’s fee. It contains a great number of handfome ftruftures, particularly the churches and convents. The leather and gloves that are made here are highly efteemed. It Is feated on the river Here, over which there are two bridges to pafs into that part called Perriere, a large ftreet on the other fide of the river. E. Long. 5. 49. N. Lat. 45. 12. GRESHAM, Sir Thomas, an opulent merchant cff London, defcended from an ancient and honourable family of Norfolk, was born in 1519. He was, as Lis father had been before him, appointed king’s agent at Antwerp, for taking up money of the merchants j and in 1551 he removed to that city with his family. This employment was fufpended on the accefiion of Queen Mary : but on proper reprefentations, was rt- * Vox,, X. Part I, cers company, for the falaries of feven leflurers 111 divinity, law, phyfic, aftronomy, geometry, mufic, and rhetoric, at 50I. each per annum. He left feveral other confiderable benefactions, and died in •1579* As to the college, it was afterwards pulled down in confequence of an application to parliament from the city, and the excife-office erefted in its place. The letlures are read, or rather hurried through, in a chamber over the Royal Exchange.— I hofe who have drawn Sir Thomas’s character ob erve, that he had the happinefs of a mind every way fuit- ed to his fortune $ generous and benign j ieady to perform any good actions, and encourage them in others. He was a great friend and patron of our ce¬ lebrated martyrologift John Fox. He wras well ac¬ quainted with the ancient and feveral modern lan¬ guages ; he had a very comprehenfive knowdedge of all affairs relating to commerce, whether foreign or domeftic 5 and his fuccefs was not lefs, being in his time efteemed the higheft commoner in England. He tranfaded Queen Elizabeth’s mercantile affairs fo con- ftantly, that he was called the royal merchant; and his houfe was fometimes appointed for the reception of foreign princes upon their firft arrival at London. GREUSSEN, a town of Upper Saxony, in the county of Schwaitzburg, 16 miles north of Erfurt, and 18 eaft of Mulhaufen. Long. io° 45' eaft, Lat. 51° 6' north. GREVILLE, Fulke, Lord Brook, of Beauchamp’s Court in Warwickfhire, a poet and mifcellaneous wri¬ ter, was born in the year 1554, and defcended from the noble families of Beauchamps of Powick and Wil¬ loughby de Brook. In company with his coufin Sir Philip Sidney, he began his education at a fchool in Shrewfbury ; thence he went to Oxford, where he remained for fome time a gentleman commoner, and then removed to Trinity-College in Cambridge. Ha¬ ving left the univerfity, he vifited foreign courts, and thus added to his knowledge of the ancient languages a perfeift knowledge of the modern. On his return to England he was introduced to Queen Elizabeth by O his G K E [ i Ills untie Robert Greville, at tliat time in her ma- jefty’s lei vice j and by means of Sir Henry Sidney, lord prefident of Wales, was nominated to fome lucra¬ tive employments in that principality. In the year 1581, when the French commiflioners '' ao. came to treat about the queen’s marriage with the duke of Anjou were fumptuoufly entertained with tdts and tournaments, Mr Greville, who was one of the challengers, fo fignalized himfelf, as to “ win the reputation of a moft valiant knight.” He continued a conftant attendant at court, and a favourite with the queen to the end of her reign ; during which he ob¬ tained the office of treafurer of marine caufes, alfo a grant of the manor of Wedgnock, and likevvife the honour of knighthood. In this reign he was feveral times eledled member for the county of Warwick • and from the journals of the houfe feems to have been a man of bufinefs, as his name frequently appears in committees. On the acceffion of King James I. he was inftalled knight ot the Bath j and foon after obtained a grant of the ruinous cattles of Warwick, which he repaired at a confiderable expence, and where he probably re- iided during the former part of this reign : but in the year 1614, the twelfth of James I. he ■was made un- der-treafurer, and chancellor of the exchequer, one of the privy council, and gentleman- of the bed-cham¬ ber j and in. 1620, was railed to the dignity of a baion by the title of Lord Brook, of Beauchamp’s Court. He was alfo privy-counfellor to King Charles I. in the beginning of whofe reign he founded a hiftory- lefture in Cambridge. Having thus attained the age of 74, through a life- of continued profperity, univerfally admired as a gentle¬ man and a fcholar, he fell by the hand of an affaffin, one of his own domeftics, who immediately 1131)1^ himfelf with the fame weapon with which he had mur¬ dered his mailer. This fellow’s name was Haywood ; and the caufe is faid to have been a levere reprimand for his prefumption in upbraiding his mailer for not providing for him after his death. It feems he had been wdtnefs to Lord Brook’s will, and knew the con¬ tents. Some fay he llabbed him with a knife in the back, others with a fword. This affair happened at Brook-houfe in Holborne.— Lord Brook wras buried with great pomp in St Mary’s church at Warwick, in his own vault, over which he had ereded a monu¬ ment of black and w-hite marble, ordering at his death tlie following infcripticn to be engraved upon the tomb : “ Fulke Greville, fervant to Queen Elizabeth, counfellor to King James, and friend to Sir Philip Sid- 11 e7- Trophceum Peccati?"1 He wrote feveral w-orks both in verfe and profe ; among which are, 1. Two tiagedies, Alaham and Muftapha. 2. A Treatife of J-iuman Learning, &c. in verfe, folio. 3. The Life ©f Sir Philip Sidney. 4. An inquifition upon Fame and Honour, in 86 ftanzas. 6. Ccecilia, a colleftion of 109 fcngs. 7. His Remains, confifting. of political and philofophical poems. GREVIUS. See Gr^vius. GREW, Nehemiah, a learned Englilh wuiter, in the 17th century, had a conliderable praflice as a phy- lician in London, and fucceeded Mr Oldenburg in the office of fecretary to the royal fociety. In this capacity, purfuant tp an order of council, he drew up °6 ] G R E a catalogue of the natural and artificial rarities be¬ longing to the fociety, under the title of Mufctum Re- galis Soaetatis, &c. 1681. He alfo wrote, befides le-' veral pieces in the Philofophical Tranfaftions, 1. The Comparative Anatomy of the Stomach and Guts, fo¬ lio. 2. The Anatomy of Plants, folio. 3. Traaatus de fahs Cat hart id natura .etufu. 3. Cbfmo/ogia Sacra, or a Difcourfe of the Univerfe as it is the Creature and Kingdom of God, folio. He died fuddenly in 1721. J GREWIA, a genus of plants belonging to the gy- nandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 37th order, Columniferce. See Botany Index. GREY, or Gray colour. See Gray. Grey, Lady Jane, a moft illuftrious and unfor¬ tunate lady, defcended of the blood-royal of England by both parents, was the eldeft daughter of Henry Grey marquis of Dorfet, and Frances the daughter of Charles Brandon Lord Suffolk, by Mary the dowager of Louis XII. king of France, who wras the voungeft daughter of Henry VII. king of England. She was born m the year 1537, at Broadgate, her father’s feat in Leicefierfhire. She difcovered an early propenfitv to all kinds of good literature ; and having a fine genius, improved under the tuition of Mr Elmer, ffie made a moft furprifing progrefs in the languages, arts, and fciences. She underftood perfedtly both kinds of philofophy, and could exprefs herfelf very properly at leaft in the Latin and Greek tongues j and we are in¬ formed by Sir Thomas Chaloner (in Strype’s Memo¬ rials, vol. iii. p. 93.), that flie was well verfed in Hebrew, Chaldee, Arabic, French, and Italian ; “ and (he adds) flie played well on inftrumental mufic, writ a curious hand, and was excellent at the needle.” Chaloner alfo tells us, that (he accompanied her mu- fical inftrument with a voice exquifitely fweet in itfelf, affifted by all the graces that art could beftow. In the year 1553, the dukes of Suffolk and Nor¬ thumberland, who were now, after the fall of Somer- fet, arrived at the height of power, began, on the decline of the king’s health, to think how to prevent that reverfe of fortune which, as things then flood, they forefaw muft happen upon Edward’s death. To obtain this end, no other remedy was judged fufficient but a change in the fucceffion of the crown, and transferring it into their own families, by rendering Lady Jane queen. Thofe moft excellent and amiable qualities which had rendered her dear to all who had the happinefs to know her, joined to her near affinity to the king, fubje£led her to become the chief tool of an ambition fo notorioufly not her own. Upon this very account (he was married to Lord Guilford Dud- ley, fourth fon of the duke of Northumberland, with¬ out difcovering to her the real defign of the match ; which was celebrated with great pomp in the latter end of May, fo much to the king’s fatisfa&ion, that he contributed bounteoully to the expence of it from the royal wardrobe. The young king Edward VI. died in July following; and our fair fcholar, with in-, finite reluftance, overpowered by the folicitations of her ambitious friends, allowed herfelf to be proclaim¬ ed queen of England, on the flrength of a deed of fettlement extorted from that prince by her father-in- law the duke of Northumberland, which fet afide the fucceffion of Queen Mary, Queen Elizabeth, and Mary: queen Grewia, Grey. G R I [ 107 ] G R I ferey queen of Scots. Her regal pageantry continued but 11 a few days. Queen Mary’s undoubted right prevail- Griet~* ed j and the unfortunate Lady Jane Grey and her v hufband were committed to the Tower, and on the l»3th of November arraigned and found guilty of high treafon. On the 12th of February following they were both beheaded on Tower-hill. Her magnanimi¬ ty in this dreadful cataftrophe was allonilhing. Im¬ mediately before her execution, Ihe addreffed herfelf to the weeping multitude with amazing compofure and coherency : Ihe acknowledged the juftice of the law, and died in charity -with that wretched wTorld which {he had fo much reafon to execrate. Thus did the pious Mary begin her reign with the murder of an innocent young creature of 18$ who for fim- plicity of manners, purity of heart, and extenfive learning, wras hardly ever equalled in any ape or coun¬ try. But, alas ! Jane was an obftinate heretic.—A few days before her execution, Fleckenham, the queen’s chaplain, with a pious intention to refcue her poor foul from eternal mifery, paid her frequent vifits in the Towrer, and ufed every argument in his power to Convert her to the Popiih religion } but he found her fo much his fuperior in argument, that he gave up the contefl: refigning her body to the block, and her foul to the devil. Her writings are, 1. Four Latin Epiilles; three to Bullenger, and one to her lifter Lady Catherine. The laft was written the night before her execution, in a blank leaf of a Greek Teftament. Printed in a book . entitled Kpifio/a’ Helvetica Reformatoribus, vcl ad eos fcripta, &c. Tiguri, 1742, 8vo. 2. Her Conference with Fleckenham. (Ballard). 4. A letter to Dr Harding, her father’s chaplain. Printed in the Phoe¬ nix, vol. ii. p. 28. 4. A prayer for her own ufe du¬ ring her confinement. In Fox’s acls and monuments. 5. Four Latin verfes ; written in prifon with a pin. They are as follows : Non aliena putes, homini quae obtingere poffunt: Sors hodierna mihi, tunc erit ilia tibi. ^ane Dudley. Deo juvante, nil nocet livor malus : Et non juvante, nil juvat labor gravis. Poll tenebras fpero lucem. 6. Her Speech on the Scaffold. (Ballard). It began thus : “ My Lords, and you good Chriftian people who come to fee me die ; I am under a law, and by that law, as a never-erring judge, I am condemned to die : not for any thing l have offended the queen’s majefty 5 for I will wafli my hands guiltlefs thereof, and deliver to my God a foul as pure from fuch trefpafs as inno¬ cence from injuftice ; but only for that I confented to the thing I was enforced unto, conftraint making the law believe I did that which I never underftood,” &c. ■—Hollinihed, Sir Richard Baker, Bale, and Fox, tell us that (he wrote feveral other things, but do not men¬ tion where they are to be found. Grey-Hound. See GRF.-Hound. .GRIAS, a genus of plants belonging to the polyan- dria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index. GRIEF, or Sorrow. The influence of this paf- fion on the body is very great. Its effe&s referable in Grieffen feveral inftances thofe of fear, with, however, fome va- ha ken nations, owing perhaps to its being in general of f JJ ^ longer duration. Grief diminiflres the bodily ftrength , 7r‘^ ;rij in general, and particularly the force of the heart and circulation 5 as appears by the frequent lighs and deep refpirations which attend it, which feem to be necef- fary exertions, in order to promote the paffage of the blood through the lungs. It diminilhes perfpiration, obftrufts the menftrual difcharge, produces palenefs of the {kin, and oedematous complaints, and fchirrus of the glandular parts. It aggravates the fcurvy, and the malignity of putrid and contagious diftempers, and ren¬ ders people more apt to receive the infe&ion of them. When it comes on fuddenly, and in a great degree, it caufes a palpitation of the heart, and renders the pulfe irregular. Blindnefs, gangrene, and fudden death, have follow-ed the excefs of this fenfation. Its effefts of changing the colour of the hair are well known. Opiates, if not given in large dofes, are good cordials in this cafe. GRIEFFENHAKEN, a town of Pruflian Pomera¬ nia, in the duchy of Stetin, feated on the Oder, oppo- fite to Gartz. E. Long. 14. 42. N. Lat. 53. >25. GRIELUM, a genus of plants belonging to the de- candria clafs. See Botany Index. GRIERSON, Constantia, born of poor parents in the county of Kilkenny in Ireland, was one of the moft learned women on record, though Are died at the age of 27, in 1733. She was an excellent Greek and Latin fcholar 5 and underftood hiftory, divinity, philofophy, and mathematics. She proved her {kill in Latin by her dedication of the Dublin edition of Tacitus to Lord Carteret, and by that of Terence to his fon ; to whom {he alfo addreffed a Greek epigram. She wrote many elegant Englifti poems, feveral of which were inlerted by Mrs Barber among her own. When Lord Carteret was lord lieutenant of Ireland, he obtained a patent for Mr Grierfon to be the king’s printer ; and to reward the uncommon merit of his wife, caufed her life to be included in it. GRIESSEWALDE, a town of Upper Saxony, 24 miles fouth fouth-eaft of Stralfund. E. Long. 11. 1 s! N. Lat. 34. 4. GRIFFON (Gryphus, y€t4), in the natural hi- ftory ot the ancients, the name of an imaginary bird of prey, of the eagle kind. They reprefented it . with four legs, wings, and a beak j the upper part repre- fenting an eagle, and the lower a lion : they fuppofed it to wratch over gold mines, hidden treafures, &c. The animal was confecrated to the fun 5 and the an¬ cient painters reprefented the chariot of the fun as drawn by griffons. M. Spanheim obferves the fame of thofe of Jupiter and Nemefis. The griffon in Scripture is that fpecies of the eagle called in Latin oflifraga, the “ ofprey and nns of the verb ms, paras, “ to break.” The griffon is frequently feen on ancient medals • and is ftill borne in coat-armour. Guillim blazons it rampant j alleging, that any very fierce animal may be fo blazoned as w-ell as the lion. Sylvefter, Mor¬ gan, and others, ufe the term fegreiant inllead of ram¬ pant. This is alfo an ornament of architeaure in conftant 2 O ufe GUI [ 108 ] G R I Crifles, ufe among flie Greeks, and was copied from them, with Grimaldi. t]le other elegancies of architectural enrichments, by the ^ Romans. See Sphynx. GRIFLEA, a genus of plants belonging to the oCtandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 17th order, Cahjeanthemce. See B OX AX Y Index. GRIMALDI, Francisco, an eminent painter, ge¬ nerally known by the appellation of Bolognefe, was born at Bologna in 1606, where he became a difciple of Annibal Caracci, and proved an honour to that illuf- trious mailer. From the fchool of Annibal he went to complete his ftudies at Rome, and improved himfelf daily, by copying the works of thofe artills in which he obferved the greateft excellence, until his fuperior ta¬ lents recommended him to the favour of Innocent X. who afforded him Immediate opportunities of exerting his genius in the gallery of his palace at Monte Ca- vallo, and alfo in the Vatican. The merit of his per¬ formances very foon engaged the attention and applaufe of the public, and increafed the number of his ad¬ mirers and friends j among whom were the prince Pamphilio, and many of the principal nobility of Rome. His reputation reached Cardinal Mazarine at Paris, who fent for him, fettled a large peniion on him, and em¬ ployed him for three years in embellilhing his palace and the Louvre, by the order of Louis XIII. The troubles of the Hate, and the clamours railed againft the cardinal, whole party he warmly efpoufed, put him L much in danger, that his friends advifed him to re¬ tire among the Jefuits. He did fo, and was of ufe to them ; for he painted diem a decoration for the expo- fition of the facrament during the holy days, according to the cuftom of Rome. This piece was mightily relilh- ed at Paris : the king honoured it with two vifits, and commanded him to paint fuch another for his chapel at the Louvre. Grimaldi after that returned to Italy 5 and at his arrival at Rome found his great patron Innocent X. dead: but his two fucceffors Alexan¬ der VII. and Clement IX. honouredrhim equally with their friendlhip, and found him variety of employment. Grimaldi was amiable in his manners, as well as fkilful in his profefiion : he was generous without profufion, refpedlful to the great without meannefs, and chari¬ table to the poor. The following inftance of his bene¬ volence may ferve to charaftfcrife the man. A Sicilian gentleman, who had retired from Meffina with his daughter during the troubles of that country, was re¬ duced to the mifery of wanting bread. As he lived over-againft him, Grimaldi was foon informed Ox it j and in the dulk of the evening, knocking at the Sici¬ lian’s door, without making himfelf known, toffed in money and retired. The thing happening more than once, railed the Sicilian’s curiofity to know his bene- faftor y who finding him out, by hiding himfelf behind the doer, fdll down on his knees to thank the hand that had relieved him. Grimaldi remained confufed, of¬ fered him his houfe, and continued his friend till his death. He died of a dropfy at Rome in 1680, and left a confiderable fortune among fix children. The genius of Grimaldi diredled him chiefly to lapdfeape, which he executed moll happily. His colouring is ftrong j his touch light and delicate j his fituations are uncom¬ monly pleafing 5 and the leafing of his trees is admi¬ rable. Sometimes, indeed, his colouring appears ra¬ ther too green : but thofe landfcapes, which he paint- Crimber- ed in the manner of Caracci, may ferve as models S6*1 for all thofe who admire the ftyle of that fchool j and Grintjino-. he defigned his figures in an elegant tafte. The pic- tures of this mailer are very rare, efpecially thofe of his bell time ; and whenever they are to be purchafed, they afford large prices. Of his children above-mention¬ ed, the youngell, named Alexander, proved a good painter, in the fame ftyle and talle with his father, though very far inferior to him : fome of the pictures of Alexander, however, are either artfully, or injudici- oully, aferibed to Francifco. GRIMBERGEN, a town of Aultrian Brabant, with an abbey and a caftle, fix miles north of Bruffels. E. Long. 4. 27. N. Lat. 50. 57. GRIMM, a town in the electorate of Saxony, with a citadel, feated on the Muldawq 1 o miles fouth-eaft of Leipfic. E. Long. 12. 35. N. Lat. 51. 15. GRIMMEN, a town of Swedilh Pomerania, five miles fouth of Stralfund. E. Long. 13. 29. N. Lat. 54* I2< GRIMSBY, a large fea-port town of Lincolnlhire' in England, 169 miles from London j and faid to be the fecond, if not the firlt, corporation in England. It had anciently three convents and a caltle. Here are feveral llreets of good houfes, and a church that looks like a cathedral. It was a place of great trade before its harbour was choaked up j yet the road before it is a good llation for Ihips that wait for a wind to get out to fea. Its chief trade is in coals and fait brought by the Humber. GRINDELWALD, a towm of Switzerland, in the canton of Bern, feated among mountains, at the foot of a celebrated glacier, 25 miles fouth-eaff of Thun, E. Long. 7. 43. N. Lat. 46. 27. GRINDING, or Trituration, the aCl of break* ing or comminuting a folid body, and reducing it into powder. See Pulverisation and Levigation. The painters colours are grinded on a marble or porphyry, either with oil or gum-water. Grinding is alfo ufed for rubbing or wearing off the irregular parts of the furface of a body, and reducing it to the deftined figure, whether that be flat, concave, or the like. The grinding and polifhing of glafs is a confider¬ able art; for which fee GiAss-Grinding. For the grinding of optical glaffes, fee Optics, the Mechanical Part. Grinding, in cutlery, is an operation univerfally underftood, by which edge-tools are fharpened. Ac¬ cording to the ufual praflice, this operation is attended with confiderable inconveniency, occafioned by the ex¬ trication of heat from fridlion. The fteel very foon be¬ comes ignited when the friction is performed on a dry ftone j and even when immerfed in water, the opera¬ tion muff be flow, to prevent the water_ from being thrown off by the centrifugal force *, and if the water is poured on the {tone from above by means of a cock, the quantity will be too fmall to preferve a fufficiently low temperature. But let the quantity of water be ever fo great, if the inflrument to be fharpened has not its point or edge fo held as to meet the ftream, it will al- moft: inevitably be made fofter. To remedy thefe defedls in the common mode of grinding, Mr Nicholfon made an experiment with a grind flone G 11 I Grinding, grindllone from Newcaftle of a fine gut Grinfted. diameter, with a block of mahogany to be employed ^^ 1 with emery on the face of it. The grindftone and block were fixed on an axis, to be applied occafionally .between the centres of a ftrong lathe. Both were cylindrical, and of the fame diameter •, the wood was grooved in op- pofite directions, in which th« emery might be lodged. The face of the Hone was left fmooth, with a trough under it to hold the water. The cylinder of wood was faced with emery and oil, and the ftone was ufed with water. A file was the inftrument ground, and it was propofed to efface all the teeth. I he mechanifm of the lathe produced the rotation, by which the grinding ap¬ paratus made five revolutions in a fecond. The opera¬ tion of the flone was flow, and the workman foon found inconvenience from the water in the trough being foon exhaufted j but the emery cylinder cut rather falter. The friftion operated by quick changes on the whole furface of the file, yet it foon became too hot to be held conveniently by the uncovered hand j and even when it was held with a cloth, fuch was the rapid increafe of heat as to decompofe the oil, which emitted an empy- reumatic odour. When the ftone became dry, the file was tried on the face of it, which foon became blue, and then nearly red-hot. After this both cylinders were covered with tallow, and emery \vas fprinkled up¬ on the wooden cylinder, when the fame inftrument was held to the ftone in rapid motion. I he friCtion at firft was fcarcely apparent, but the preflure of the tool foon fufed the tallow, and the ftone cut very faft. Wlren the tool after fome time began to be a little heated, it was removed to a new zone of the cylinder, by which means the temperature was diminifhed. Similar effe£ts accompanied the ufe of the wooden cylinder. WTen oil was ufed upon the cylinder of wood, the heat occafioned by the friftion raifed the temperature of the inftrument and of the oil in a ftate of fluidity ; but when tallow inftead of oil was employed, molt of the heat was ufed in fufing that fubftance. Ihe in- creafed capacity of the melted talloxv abforbed this heat, which became latent, and did not raife the temperature : and when the tallow already melted began to grow hot, as well as the tool, the employing another zone of con- fiflent tallow reduced the temperature. This difcovery may yet be of confiderable impor¬ tance, for which we are indebted to the ingenuity of the learned editor of the Journal which bears his name, a performance which is much efteemed upon the conti¬ nent as well as at home, by every man of literature and fcience. GRINSTED, East and West j two towns near Salifbury in Wiltfhire. Grinsted, Eaft, a town 29 miles from London, feated on a hi 11$ near the borders of Surry, near Afh- down forell. It has a handfome church, which was re¬ built after being burnt down 1683. On November 12. 1785, the beautiful towTer having lately fallen to decay, fell down, and part lighting on the church very confiderably damaged it. An hofpital in the reign of King James I. for 3 1 poor people of this town, xvas built and endowed with 330I. a-year. It is a bo¬ rough by prefcription, governed by a bailiff and his brethren ; has fent burgefies to parliament ever fince the firfl: of Edward II. who are elecled by about 35 burgage-holders j had a charter for a monthly market [ 109 ] GUI 10 inches in from Henry VII. and is generally the place, for the aflizes. The returning officer here is the bailiff, who is chofen by a jury of burgage-holders. Its market is on Thurfday 5 and its fairs, which are well frequented, are July 13 and December 11 j which laft is a great one for Welfh runts, that are bought up here by the Kentifh and Suffex farmers, and for fat hogs and other cattle. Grinsted, We/f, in Suffex, a. town above 10 miles to the fouth-weft of Eaft-Grinfted. GRIPES, in Medicine, a fort of cholic or painful diforder of the low'er belly, occ£fioned by irritating mat¬ ters, or by wind pent up in the inteflines. See Medi¬ cine Index. / GRIPSWALD, a flrong and confiderable town of Pomerania in Germany; formerly imperial, but now fubjeft to the Swedes, with a good harbour and uni- verfity. E. Long. 13. 53. N. Lat. 54. 12. GRISGRIS, a fuperflition greatly in vogue among the negroes in the interior parts of Africa. The grif- - gris, according to Le Maire, are certain Arabic cba- ra&ers mixed with magical figures drawn by the ma- rabuts or priefls upon paper. Labat affirms, tfiat they are nothing elfe than fcraps of the Koran in Ara¬ bic ", but this is denied by Barbot, wdio brought over one of tbefe grifgris to Europe, and fhowed it to a number of perlons deeply fkilled in oriental learning. None of thefe could find the leafl trace of any charac - ter they underflood. Yet, after all, , this might be owing to the badnefs of the hand-writing j and the words are probably of the Mandingo language, though the characters are an attempt to imitate the Arabic. The pooreft negro never goes to war without bis gnf- gris, as a charm againft wmunds ", and if it proves in¬ effectual, the prieft transfers the blame on the immo¬ rality of his conduct. Thefe priefts invent grifgris a- gainft all kinds of dangers, and in favour of all defires and appetites j by virtue of which the poffeffors may obtain or avoid whatever they like or diflike. I hey defend them from ftorms, enemies, difeafes, pains, and misfortunes $ and preferve health, long life, wealth, honour, and merit, according to the marabuts. No clergy in the w7orld are more honoured and revered by the people than tbefe impoftors are by the negroes 5 nor are any people in the world more unpoverifhed by their priefts than thefe negraes are, a grifgris being Griafled II Grifons. frequently fold at three flaves and four or five oxen. The grifgris intended for the head is made in tfie form of a crofs, reaching from the forehead to the neck behind, and from ear to ear •, nor are the arms and (boulders neglefted. Sometimes they are plant¬ ed in their bonnets in the form of horns j at other times, they are made like ferpents, lizards, or fome other animals, cut out of a kind of pafteboard, &r. There are not wanting Europeans, and otherwile in¬ telligent feamen and merchants, who are in fome degree infeded with this weaknefs of the country, and believe that the netjro forcerers have an acffual communication with the devil, and that they are filled witn the ma¬ lignant influence of that evil fpirit, when they fee them diflort their features and mufcles, make horrid grimaces, and at laft imitate all the appearance of epi¬ leptics. GRISONS, a people fituated among the Alps, and allies of the Swifs. Their country is bounded on the " north Grifons. G R I t ! ^ north by the counties of Surgans and Bludenz, the canton of Gians, and the principality of Lichtenllein : on the foutli by the canton’s Italian bailiwics, the county oi Chavenne, and the Valteline j on the eaft by tne territories of Venice and Milan; and on the ^ rr • .°^ Italian bailiwics, and the canton y, r n" 13 divided into three leagues, viz. the h ripn or gray league, the league of the houfe of God and that of tne ten jurifdiBions ; which unite and form one vepuohc. The two fir it lie towards the fouth, and the third towards the north. The length of the whole is above 70 miles, and the breadth about 60. The inha¬ bitants are faid to have had the name of Grifons from tne gray coats they wore in former times. This coun- trv, lying among the Alps, is very mountainous ; but ae mountains yield good pafture for cattle, Iheep, and goats, with fome rye and barley : in the valleys there is plenty of grain, pulfe, fruits, and wine. This coun¬ try alfo abounds with hogs and wild-fowl; but there is a fcarcity of fifli and fait, and their horfes are moftly pure lafed of foreigners. The principal rivers are the Xhme, the Inn and the Adda. Here are alfo feveral Jakes, molt of which lie on the tops of the hills. The language of the Grifons is either a corrupt Italian or the German. Each of the leagues is fubdivided into ieveral leffer communities, which are fo many demo¬ cracies ; every male above 16 having a fhare in the £0- vernnjent of the community, and a vote in the eledion of magnates. Deputies from the feveral communi¬ ties conftitute the general diet of the Grifon leagues w nc 11 meets annually, and alternately at the capital of each league ; but they can conclude nothing without the confent of their conllituents. This country was anciently a part of Rhetia. After the extinction of the Roman empire in the weft, it was fome time fub- t0 dukeS’ °r tbofe of Swabia- Then the nil)op of Coire and other petty princes, dependent on the emperors of Germany, became mafters of great part of it : at laft, by the extin&ion of fome, pur- chafe, voluntary grants, and force, it got rid of all its lords, and .ere&ed itfelf into three diftincl republics, each of which, as we obferved already, is fubdivided into a certain number of communities, which are a Tort of republics, exercifing every branch of fovereignty, except that of making peace or war, fending embaffies, concluding alliances, and enafting laws relating to the whole country, which belong to the provincial diets of the feveral leagues. The communities may be compa¬ red to the cities of Holland, and the diets of the feve¬ ral leagues to the provincial ftates. The particular diets are compofed of a deputy from each community; and both m them and the communities every thing is deter¬ mined by a majority of votes. In the communities, every male above 16 has a vote. Befides the annual provincial diets for choofmg the chiefs and other offi¬ cers, and deliberating on the affairs of the refpeaive leagues, there are general diets for what concerns all the three leagues or whole body. In both thefe the reme-entatives can do nothing of themfelves, but are tied down to tta infliudions of their principals. There is a general feal for all the three leagues ; and cacu particular league has a feparate feal. Befides the ftated times of meeting, extraordinary diets are fome- times fummoned, when either the domeftic affairs of the iiate or any foreign minifter require it. In the ge- 3 ^ ] G R I neral dmts, the Grey League has 28 votes ; that of he Houfe of God, 23 ; and that of the Ten Jurifdic- k tions, 15. Thefe leagues, at different times, have en¬ tered into clofe alliances with the neighbouring can¬ tons and their affocates. The bailiwics belonging iu common to the three leagues are thofe of the Valte- hne,. Chievane, Bormio,. Meyenfeld, Mahans, and Jennins ; the officers of which are nominated fucceffive- Jy by the ieveral communities every two years The yearly revenues arifing to the Grifons from their baili- wics is faid to amount to about 13,500 fiorins. The public revenues altogether are but fmall, though there are many private perfons in the country that are rich. However in cafe of any extraordinary emergency they tax themfelves in proportion to the neceffity°of the’ iervice and the people’s abilities. They have no re¬ gular troops, but a well-difciplined militia ; and unon occafion,.it is faid, can bring a body of 30,000 fight¬ ing men into the field : but their chief fecurity arifes from the narrow paffes and high mountains by which they are furrounded. , O/*116 jurisprudence, religion, &c. of the Grifons, the following account is given by Mr Coxe in his tra¬ vels in Switzerland. Throughout the three leagues the Roman law prevails, modified by the municipal cuftoms.' I he courts of juftice in each community are compofed of the chief magiftrate, who prefides, and a certain number of jurymen, chofen by the people : tJiey have no regular falaries,. but receive for their attendance, a iinall fum, arifing in fome communities from the ex- pences of the procefs, which are defrayed by the crimi¬ nals ; in others from a ffiare of the fines. They enjoy the power of pardoning or diminilhing the penalty, and of receiving a ccmpofition in money. This mode of proceeding fuppofes what is as abfurd in theory as it is contrary to experience, that judges will incline to mer¬ cy when it is their intereft to convicl ; or will impar- tiahy infficl punifhment, even when injurious to their own private advantage.—The prifoners are examined in private ; frequently tortured for the purpofe of forcing confeffion, when the judges either divide the fines, or remit the puniffiment for a compofition. In fome di- ftrias a criminal trial is a kind of feftival to the judges, for wffiom a good repaft is provided at the ex¬ pence of the prifoner if convi&ed ; and thus the fol¬ lowing allufion, in Garth’s Difpenfary, applied with more wit than truth to our courts of juftice, is literally fulfilled :— J ‘ And wretches hang, that jurymen may dinef Capital punifhments, however, are extremely rare * a circumftance arifing not from a want of feverity in the penal ftatutes, or from a propenfity to merev in the judges : but becaufe the latter draw more advantages from fining than executing an offender. In a word to ule the expreffion of Burnet, which is as true at prefent as it was in his time, “ Many crimes go un~ puniffied, if the perfons who commit them have either great credit or much money.” It is remarkable, that torture is more frequently applied, and for fmaller de¬ linquencies, in thefe independent republics, than in the fubjetf provinces. The inffi&ion of it depends entirely upon the arbitrary will of the judges; a majority of whom may order it for an offence which is not capi¬ tal, nor even punilhable by corporal penalties. Thus it Grifons. GUI [ j Grifons* it is not uncommon, in thofe communities where fines ate divided among the judges, to torture women of loofe conduct, for the ptirpofe of compelling them to confefs with whom they have been connedfed ; for as fuch offences are punifhable by fines, the more perfons are convifted, the larger {hare of money is diltributed among the judges for the trouble of their attendance. .Even in the diflridls where the fines are paid to the community, torture is often no lefs wantonly inflidled, becaufe when the prifoner is not found guilty, the expences of the procefs fall upon the public, and the judges receive little emolument. Even in the civil courts moft caufes are decided by bribing the judges ; and appeals in thofe communities, wherein they are admitted, fcarcely ferve any other end than to enlarge the fphere of corruption. Coire and a few other places are excepted from this general refledtion. the religion of the Grifons is divided into catholic and reformed. The dodlrines of the reformation were firft preached about the year 1524, and received at Flaefch, a fmall village in the Ten Jurifdiftions upon the confines of Sargans ; from thence they were ex¬ tended to Mayenfeld and Malantz, and foon after¬ wards through the whole valley of Pretigau. The new opinions fpread with fuch celerity, that before the end ot the 16th century they were embraced by the whole league of the ten jurifdidtions (excepting part of the community of Alvenewr), the greatell part of the Houfe of God, and a few communities in the Grey League. 1 he difference of religion nearly excited a civil war between the twm fedfs, as well at the firft introduftion of the Reformation as at the beginning of the troubles in the Valteline. In the latter inflance, the two parties rofe in arms 5 but the Catholics being overpowered by the Protefiants, matters were amicably adjufted. Since that period all religious concerns have been regulated ■with perfedf cordiality. According to the general confent of the three leagues, each community being abfolute within its little territory,- has the power of appointing its own particular worfhip, and the inhabi¬ tants are free to follow7 either the Catholic or Reformed perfuafion. In the adminillration of civil affairs reli¬ gion has no interference : the deputies of the general diet may be members of either communion, as chofen by the communities which they reprefent. By this mo¬ derate and toierating principle, all religious diffenfions have been fuppreffed as much as poffible 5 and the moft perfedt amity fubfifts between the two feds. In fpiritual concerns, the Catholics for the moft part are under the jurifdiaion of the bifhop of Coire. For tne affairs of the Reformed churches, each league is di¬ vided into a certain number of diftri&s, the minifters whereof affemble twice every year: thefe affemblies are called colloquia. Each colloquium has its prefident, and each league a Tuperintendant called a dean. The upreme authority in fpiritual concerns is vefted in the \nod, which is compofed of the three deans, and the cieigy of each league j the fynod affembles every year alternately in each of the three leagues. Candidates lor holy orders are examined before the fynod. The necedary qualifications for admiflion into the church ought to be the knowledge of Hebrew, Greek, and Latin ; but tins rule is not- ftri rr r3 ] G R O by the commentary he had made at that age on Mar- tianus Capella. In I59^» he accompanied the Dutch ambaflador into France, and was honoured with leveral marks of efteem by Henry V. He took his degree of docrtor of laws in that kingdom; and at his return to his native country, devoted himfelf to the bar, and pleaded before he wras 17 years of age. He w-as not 24 when he was appointed attorney-general. In 161^ he fettled in Rotterdam, and was nominated fvndic of that city j but did not accept of the office till a pro- mife was made him that he ffiould not be removed from it. T his prudent precaution he took from his forefeeing, that the quarrels of the divines on the doc¬ trine of grace, which had already given rife to many fadions in tlm rtate, would occafion revolutions in the d’^ef cities. The fame year he was fent into England, on account of the divifions that reigned between the traders of the two nations, on the right of firtiing in the northern feas j but he could obtain no fatisfadion. He was afterwards fent to England, as it is thought’ to perfuade the king and the principal divines to favour the. Arminians; and he had feveral con¬ ferences with King James on that fubjed. On his return to Elolland, his attachment to Barnevelt in¬ volved him in great trouble ; for he was feized, and Sentenced to perpetual imprifonment in 1619, and to forfeit all.his goods and chattels. But after having been treated with great rigour for above a year and a half in his confinement, he was delivered by the advice and artifice of his wife, who having obferved that his keepers had often fatigued themfelves with fearching and exa¬ mining a great trunk full of foul linen which ufed to oe wafhed at Gorkum, but now let to pafs without open¬ ing it, flic advifed him to bore holes in it to prevent his bemg tliiled, and then to get into it. He complied with this advice, and was carried to a friend’s houfe in Gorkum ; where drefling himfelf like a mafon, and taking a rule and trowel, he parted through the market¬ place, and ffepping into a boat wxmt to Valvet in Brabant. Here he made himfelf knowm to fome Ar¬ minians, and hired a carriage to Antwerp. At firlt there was a defign of profecuting his wife, who rtaid in the prifon ; and fome judges were of opinion that fhe ought to be kept there in her hufband’s ftead: hou^- ever, ffie was releafed by a plurality of voices, and uni- yerfally applauded for her behaviour. He now retired into France, where he met with a gracious recep¬ tion from that court, and Louis XIII. fettled a pen- hon upon him. Having refided there eleven years he returned to Holland, on his receiving a very kind letter from Frederic Henry prince of Orange : but Ins enemies renewing their perfecution, he went to Hamburgh; where, in 1634, Queen Chriftina of biveden made him her counfellor, and fent him am- b. ‘dor "?to France. Alter having difeharged the du¬ ties ol this office above eleven years, he returned in order to give an account to Queen Chriftina of’his embafly ; when he took Holland in his w'ay, and re¬ ceived many honours at Amfterdam. He was intro¬ duced to her Swediffi majerty at Stockholm ; and there begged that ffie would grant his difmiffion, in older that he might return to Holland. This he ob¬ tained with difficulty ; and the queen gave him many marks of her efteem, though he had many enemies at this court. As he was returning, the ffiip in F which Grot! us. \ G IV O [n Grotfcaw which he embarked was call arvay on the coaft of Po¬ ll merania ; and being now fick, he continued his jour- , Gr^tt0 , ney by land 5 but was forced to flop at Roftock, where he died, on the 28th of Auguft 1645. His body Was carried to Delft, to be interred in the fepulchre of his anceftors. Notwithftanding the embaffies in which he was employed, he compofed a great num¬ ber of excellent works } the principal of which are, 1. A treatife De jure belli et pacts, which is efteem- cd a mafter-piece. 2. A treatife on the truth of the Chriftian religion. 3; Commentaries on the Holy Scriptures. 4. The hillory and annals of Holland. 5. A great number of letters. All which are written in Latin. GROTSCAW, a town of Turkey in Europe, in the province of Servia, where a battle w7as fought be¬ tween the Germans and Turks, in the year 1739, in which the Germans ivere forced to retreat with lofs. E. Long. 21. o. N. Lat. 45, O. GROTSKAW, a ftrong town of Germany, capital of a province of the fame name in Silefia. It is very agreeably feated in a fruitful plain. E. Long. 17- 35* N. Lat. 50. 42. GROTTO, or Grotta, a large deep cavern or den in a mountain or rock. Hhe word is Italian, grotta, formed, according to Menage, &c. from the Latin crypta. Du Cange obferves, that grotta was ufed in the fame fenfe in the corrupt Latin. The ancient anchorites retired into dens and grot¬ toes, to apply themfelves the more attentively to medi¬ tation. Okey-hole, Elden-hole, Peak’s-hole, and Pool’s- hole, are famous among the natural caverns or grottoes of our country. The entrance to Okey-hole, on the fouth fide of Mendip-hills, is in the fall of thofe hills, which is be- fet all about with rocks, and has near it a precipitate defeent of near twelve fathoms deep, at the bottom of which there continually iflues from the rocks a confi- derable current of water. The naked rocks above the entrance {how thenifelves about 30 fathoms high, and the whole afeent of the hill above is about a mile, and is very fleep. As you pafs into this vault, you go at firft upon a level, but advancing farther, the way is found to be rocky and uneven, fometimes afeending and fometimes defeending. I he roof of this cavern, in the higheft part, is about eight fathoms from the ground, but in many particular places it is fo low, that a man muft ftoop to get along. The breadth is not lefs vari¬ ous than the height, for in fome places it is five or fix fathoms wade, and in others not more than one or two. It extends itfelf in length about twTo hundred yards. People talk much of certain ftones in it, refembling men and w7omen, and other things 5 but there is little matter of curiofity in thefe, being only {hapelefs lumps of a common fpar. At the fartheft part of the cavern there is a good ftream of water, large enough to drive a mill, which paffes all along one fide of the cavem, and at length hides down about fix or eight fathoms among the rocks, and then preffing through the clefts of them, difeharges itfelf into the valley. The river within the cavern is well ftored w ith eels, and has fome trouts in it ; and thefe cannot have come from with- there being lo great a fall near the entrance. In dry fummers, a" great number of frogs are feen all along i ] G it o this cavern, even to the farther part of it $ and on the Grotto, roof of it, at certain places, hang vaft numbers of bats, as 1 v they do in almoft all caverns, the entrance of which is either level, or but {lightly afeending or defeending j and even in the more perpendicular ones they are fome¬ times found, provided they are not too narrow, and are fufficiently high. The cattle that feed in the paftures through which this river runs, have been knowm to die fuddenly fometimes after a flood 5 this is probably owing to the waters having been impregnated, either naturally or accidentally, with lead ore. Elden hole is a huge profound perpendicular chafm, three miles from Buxton, ranked among the natural wonders of the Peak. Its depth is unknown, and is pretended to be unfathomable. Cotton tells us he feunded 884 yards j yet the plummet ftill drew. But he might ealily be deceived, unlefs his plummet was very heavy $ the weight of a rope of that length might well make the landing of the plummet fcarce percei¬ vable. Peak’s-hole, and Pool’s-hole, called alfo the Devil's A—fe, are two remarkable horizontal fprings under mountains ; the one near Caftleton, the other juft by Buxton. They feem to have owed their origin to the fprings which have their current through them •, when the water had forced its way through the horizontal fiflures of the ftrata, and had carried the loofe earth away with it, the loofe ftones muft fall down of courfe i and where the ftrata had few or no fiflures, they re¬ mained entire •, and fo formed thefe very irregular arches, which are now fo much wondered at. The water which paffes through Pool’s hole is impregnated with particles of limeftone, and has incrufted the whole cavern in fuch a manner that it appears as one fohd rock. In grottoes are frequently found cryftals of the rock, flalaftites, and other natural conglaciations, and thofe often of an amazing beauty. M. Homberg conjec¬ tures, from feveral circumftances, that the marble pil¬ lars in the grotto of Antiparos vegetate or grow. That author looks on this grotto as a garden, whereof the pieces of marble are the plants $ and endeavours to Ihow, that they could only be produced by fome ve¬ getative principle. See Antipargs. At Foligno in Italy is another grotto, confifting of pillars and orders of architefture of marble, with their ornaments, &c. fcarcely inferior to thofe of art j but they all grow downwards : fo that if this too be a gar¬ den, the plants are turned upfide down. Grotto del Cani, a little cavern near Pozzuoli, four leagues from Naples, the air of which is of a mephitical or noxious quality ; whence alfo it is called bocca ve- tienofa, the poifonous mouth. “ Two miles from Naples (fays Dr Mead), juft by the Lago de Agnano, is a celebrated mofeta, commonly call¬ ed la Grotto del Cani, and equally deftruftive to all with¬ in the reach of its vapours. It is a fmall grotto about eight feet high, twelve long, and fix broad 5 from the ground arifes a thin, fubtile, warm fume, vifible enough to a difeerning eye, which does not fpring up in little parcels here and there, but in one continued ftream, covering the whole furface of the bottom of the cave 3 having this remarkable difference from common va¬ pours, that it does not like fmoke difperfe itfelf into the air, but quickly after its rife falls back again, and returns G R O [ii returns to the earth j the colour of the fides of the grotto being the meafure of its afcent: for fo far it is of a darkiih-green, but higher only common earth. And as I myfelf found no inconveniency by Handing in it, fo no animal, if its head be above this mark, is the leaft injured. But when, as the manner is, a dog, or any other creature, it forcibly kept below it *, or, by reafon of its fmallnefs, cannot hold its head above it, it prelently lofes all motion, falls down as dead, or in a fwoon ; the limbs convulfed and trembling, till at laft no more figns of life appear than a very weak and al- molt infenlible beating of the heart and arteries } which, if the animal be left a little longer, quickly ceafes too, and then the cafe is irrecoverable j but if it be fnatched out, and laid in the open air, it foon comes to life again, and fooner if thrown into the adjacent lake.” The fumes of the grotto, the fame author argues, are no real poifon, but ad chiefly by their gravity ; elfe the creatures could not recover fo foon, or if they did, fome fymptoms, as faintnefs, &c. would be the conie- quence of it. He adds, “ that in creatures killed there¬ with, when difleaed, no marks of infeaion appear *, and that the attack proceeds from a want of air, by which the circulation tends to an entire ftoppage } and this fo much the more, as the animal infpires a fluid of a quite different nature from the air, and fo in no re- fpea fit to fupply its place. Taking the animal out, while yet alive, and throwing it into the neighbouring lake, it recovers : this is owing to the coldnefs of the water, which promotes the contraflion of the fibres, and fo.aflifts the retarded circulation $ the fmall portion of air which remains in the veficulae, after every expi¬ ration, may be fuflacient to drive out the noxious fluid. After the fame manner, cold water a£ts in a dehqutum animi: the lake of Agnano has no greater virtue in it than others.” The air in this grotto was for a long time reckon¬ ed to be of a poifonous nature, and thought tofuffocate the animals which breathed it. Dr Hales imagined that it deftroyed the elafticity of the air, caufed the veficles of the lungs to collapfe, and thus occafioned hidden death.—It is now, however, found that this air is nothing elfe than fixed air, or carbonic acid gas, which iffues from the earth in that place in great quantity. Grotto del Serpi, is a fubterraneous cavern near the village of Saffa, eight miles from the city of Brac- cano in Italy, defcribed by Kircher thus: “ The grotto delferpi is big enough to hold two perfons. It is per¬ forated with feveral fiftular apertures, fomewhat in manner of a fieve j out of which, at the beginning of the fpring feafon, iffues a numerous brood of young fnakes of divers colours, but all free from any particu¬ lar poifonous quality. In this cave they expofe their lepers, paralytics, arthritics, and elephantiac patients, quite naked ; where, the warmth of the fubterraneous fleams refolving them into a fweat, and the ferpents clinging varioully all around, licking and fucking them, they become fo thoroughly freed of all their vicious humours, that, upon repeating the operation for fome time, they become perfeftly reftored.” This cave Kircher vifited himfelf j and found it warm, and every way agreeable to the defcriptiou given of it. He faw the holes, and heard a mur¬ muring hiding noife in them. Though he miffed fee- Grotto, Grove. 5 1 . G R 0 ing the ferpents, it not being the feafon of their creep¬ ing out •, yet he faw a great number of their exuviae, ^ or floughs, and an elm growing hard by laden with them.- The difcovery of this cave was by the cure of a Mufeum leper going from Rome to fome baths near this place. ^ Lofing his way, and being benighted, he happened upon this cave. Binding it very warm, he pulled off his clothes *, and being weary and fleepy, had the good fortune not to feel the lerpents about him till they had wrought his cure. Milky Grotto, Crypt a Laclea, a mile diftant from the ancient village of Bethlehem, is faid to have been thus denominated on occafion of the bleffed Virgin, who let fall fome drops of milk in giving fuck to Je- fus in this grotto. And hence it has been commonly fuppofed, that the earth of this cavern has the virtue of reftoring milk to women that are grown dry, and even of curing fevers. Accordingly, they are always digging in it, and the earth is fold at a good rate to fuch as have faith enough to give credit to the fable. An altar has been built on the place, .and a church juft by it. Grotto, is alfo ufed for a little artificial edifice made in a garden, in imitation of a natural grotto. The outfides of thefe grottoes are ufually adorned with ruftic architedlure, and their infide with {hell-work, foffils, &c. finilhed likewife with jets d’eau or foun¬ tains, &c. A cement for artificial grottoes may be made thus : Take two parts of white rofin, melt it clear, and add to it four parts of bees wax : when melted together, add two or three parts of the powder of the flone you defign to cement, or fo much as will give the cement the colour of the ftone : to this add one part of flower of fulphur: incorporate all together over a gentle fire, and afterwards knead them with your hands in warm water. With this cement the ftones, {hells, &c. after being well dried before the fire, may be cemented. Artificial red coral branches, for the embellifliment of grottoes, may be made in the following manner : Take clear rofin, diffolve it in a brafs-pan ; to every ounce of which add two drams of the fineft vermilion : when you have ftirred them well together, and have chofen your twigs and branches, peeled and dried, take a pencil and paint the branches all over whilft the compofition is warm , afterwards Ihape them in imita¬ tion of natural coral. This done, hold the branches over a gentle coal fire, till all is fmooth and even as if poliflied. In the fame manner white coral may be prepared with white lead, and black-coral with lamp¬ black. A grotto may be built with little expence, of glafs, cinders, pebbles, pieces of large flint, {hells, mofs, ftones, counterfeit coral, pieces of chalk, &c. all bound or cemei^ed together with the above defcribed cement. GROVE, in Gardening, a fmall wood impervious « to the rays of the fun. Groves have been in all ages held in great venera¬ tion. The profenchce, and high-places of the Jews, whither they reforted for the purpofes of devotion, v/ere probably fituated in groves : See Jofhua xxiv. 26. The profeuchae in Alexandria, mentioned by Philo, P 2 had GKO [ j had groves about them, becaufe he complains that the Alexandrians, m a tumult againft the Jews, cut down the trees of their profeuchse. J he ancient Romans had a fort of groves near feve- ral of their temples, which were coniecrated to fome god, and called /uci, by antiphrafis, a non iucendo, as being lhady and dark, d he veneration which the an¬ cient druids had for groves is -well known. Modern groves are not only great ornaments to gaidens : but are alio the greatelt relief againlt the violent heats of the fun, affording fhade to walk under in the hottell parts of the day, when the other parts °f garden are ufelefs; fo that every garden is de¬ fective which has not fhade. Groves are of two forts, viz. either open or clofe. Open groves are fuch as have large fhady trees, which Rand at fuch diftances, as that their branches ap¬ proach fo near to each other as to prevent the rays of the fun from penetrating through them. ^ Clofe groves have frequently large trees Handing in them j but the ground under thefe is filled with ihrubs or underwood ; fo that the walks which are in them are private, and fcreened from winds : by which means. they are rendered agreeable for walking, at thofe times when the air is either too hot or too cold in the more expofed parts of the garden. Thefe are often contrived io as to bound the open groves, and -icquently to hide the walls or other inclofures of the garden : and when they are properly laid out, with dry walks winding through them, and on the fides of thefe fweet-fmelling flirubs and flowers irregularly planted, they have a charming effeft. Grove, Henry, a learned and ingenious Prefby- teiian divine, was born at launton in Somerfetfhire, in 1683. Having obtained a fufficient flock of claffical li¬ terature, he went through a courfe of academical learn¬ ing, under the reverend Mr Warren of Taunton, who had a flourifhing academy. He then removed to Lon¬ don, and fludied fome time under the reverend Mr Rowe, to wdiom he was nearly related. Here he contradled a friendfhip wdth feveral perfons of merit, and particularly with Dr Watts, which continued till his death, though they were of different opinions in feveral points warmly controverted among divines. Af¬ ter two years fpent under Mr Rowe, he returned into the country, and began to preach with great reputa¬ tion 5 when an exa£t judgment, a lively imagination, and a rational and amiable reprefentation of "Chriflia- nity, delivered in a fweet and well-governed voice, rendered him generally admired ; and the fpirit of de¬ votion which prevailed in his fermons procured him the efleem and friendfhip of Mrs Singer, afterwards Mrs Row, which (he expreffed in a fine ode on death, addreffed to Mr Grove. Soon after his beginning to preach, he married ; and on the death of Mr Warren, was chofen to fucceed him in the academy at Taunton. This obliging him to refide there, he preached for 18 years to two fmall congregations in the neigh¬ bourhood ; and though his falary from both was lefs than twenty pounds a-year, and he had a growing family, he went through it cheerfully. In 1708, he publifhed a piece, entitled, The Regulation of Diver- fions, drawn up for the ufe of his pupils. About the fame time, he entered into a private difpute by letter with Dr Sajpauel Clarke : but they not being able to con- ] G r o yince each other, the debate was dropped with expref- G lions of great mutual efleem. He next wrote feveral — papers printed m the Speftator, viz. Numbers 588. 601. 626. 635. Ihe latl was republifhed, by the di- ledion of Dr Gibfon biihop of London, in the Evi- dences of the Chriflian Religion, by Jofeph Addifon, Eiq. In. 1725, Mr James, his partner in the aca¬ demy, dying, he fucceeded him in his pafloral charge at Fulwood, near launton, and engaged his nephew to undertake the.other parts of Mr James’s work as tutor j and in this fituation IVIr Grove continued till his death, which happened in 1738. His great con¬ cern with his pupils, was to infpire and cherifh in them a prevailing love of truth, virtue, liberty, and genuine religion, without violent attachments or pre¬ judices in favour of any party of Chriflians. He re- pieiented truth and virtue in a mofl engaging light $ and though his income, both as a tutor and a minifler, was . infutficient to fupport his family, without break¬ ing into his paternal eflate, he knew not how to refufe the call of charity. Befides the above pieces, he wurote, 1. An Effay towards a demonflration of the Soul’s Immortality. 2. An Effay on the Terms of Chriftian Communion. 3. The Evidence of our Saviour’s Re- furreclion confidered. 4. Some Thoughts concerning the Proof of a Future State from Reafon. 5. A Dif- courfe concerning the Nature and Defign of the Lord’s Supper. 6. Wildom the firft fpring of A6lion in the Deity.. 7. A Difcourfe on Saving Faith. 8. Mifcel- lanies in profe and verfe. 9. Many Sermons, &c. Af¬ ter his deceafe, his poflhumous wTorks were publifhed by fubfcription, in four volumes otilavo, with the names of near 'joo fubfcribers, among whom wTere foine of the belt judges of merit in the eftablifhed church. GROUND, in painting, the furface upon which the figures and other r’jedls are reprefented. The ground is pro, erly underflood of fuch parts of the piece as have nothing painted on them, but retain the original colour upon which the other colours are applied to make the reprefentations. A building is faid to ferve as a ground to a figure when the figure is painted on the building. Ihe ground behind a pidlure in miniature is com¬ monly blue or crimfon, imitating a curtain of fattin or velvet. Ground, in etching, denotes a gummy compofi- tion fmeared over the furface of the metal to be etched, to prevent the aquafortis from eating, except in fuch places where this ground is cut through with the point of a needle. See Etching. GROUND-Hngling, fifhing under water without a float, only with a plumb of lead, or a bullet, placed about nine inches from the hook ; which is better, becaufe it wall roll on the ground. This method of fifhing is mofl proper in cold weather, when the fifh fwim very low. The morning and evening are the chief feafons for the ground line in filhing for trout ; but if the day prove cloudy, or the water muddy, you may filh at ground all day. GRovND-Tack/e, a fhip’s anchors, cables, &c. and in general whatever is neceffary to make her ride fafe at anchor. Ground-Ivy. See Glechoma, Botany Index. Ground- GRO ['117] GRO Ground II Grout he ad. GRovND-Pine. See Teucrium, Botany Index. GROUNDSEL. See Senecio, Botany Index. GROUP, in painting and iculpture, is an ailem- blage of two or more figures of men, beads, fruits, or the like, which have fome apparent relation to each other. See Painting. The word is formed of the Italian groppo, a knot. The Groups, a cinder of iflands lately dilcovered in the South fea. They lie in about S. Lat. 18. 12. and W. Long. 142. 42. They are long narrow dips of land, ranging in all direSlions, fome of them ten miles or upwards in length, but not more than a quar¬ ter of a mile broad. They abound in trees, particu¬ larly thofe of the cocoa nut. They are inhabited by well-made people, of a brown complexion. Mod of them carried in their hands a ilender pole about 14 feet in length, pointed like a fpear 5 they had likewife fomething diaped like a paddle, about four feet long. Their canoes were of diderent fizes, carrying from three to fix or feven people, and fome of them hoided a fail. GROUSE, or Growse, Moor-fowl, or Moor-game. See Tetrao, Ornithology Index. GROUTHEAD, or Greathed, Robert, a learn¬ ed and famous biihop of Lincoln, was born at Stow in Lincolndiire, or (according to others) at Stradbrook in Suffolk, in the latter part of the twelfth century. His parents were fo poor, that when a boy he was re¬ duced to do the meaned offices, and even to beg his. bread ; till the mayor of Lincoln, druck with his ap¬ pearance and the quicknefs of his anfwers to certain quedions, took him into his family, and put him to fchool. Here his ardent love of learning, and admi¬ rable capacity tor acquiring it, foon appeared, and procured him many patrons, by whofe adidance he was enabled to profecute his dudies, fird at Cambridge, afterwards at Oxford, and at lad at Paris. In thefe three famous feats of learning, he fpent many years in the mod indefatigable puri’uit of knowledge, and be¬ came one of the bed and mod univerfal fcholars of the age. He was a great mader not only of the French and Latin, but alio of the Greek and Hebrew lan¬ guages, which was a very rare accomplhhment in thofe times. We are affured by Roger Bacon, who was inti¬ mately acquainted with him, that he fpent much of his time for almod forty years in the dudy of geometry, adronomy, optics, and other branches of mathematical learning, in all which he very much excelled. Theo¬ logy was his favourite dudy, in which he read leisures at Oxford with great applaufe. In the mean time, he obtained feveral preferments in the church, and was at length ele&ed and confecrated biihop of Lincoln, A. D. 1235. In this dation he foon became very fa¬ mous, by the purity of his manners, the popularity of his preaching, the vigour of his difcipline, and the boldnefs with which he reproved the vices and oppofed the arbitrary mandates of the court of Rome ; of this lad it may be proper to give one example. Pope In¬ nocent IV. had granted to one of his own nephews named Frederick, who was but a child, a provilion to the fird canon’s place in the church of Lincoln that ihould become vacant ; and lent a bull to the arch- bidiop of Canterbury, and Innocent, then papal legate in England, commanding them to fee the provifion made effeftual •, which they tranfmkted to the bifiiop of Lincoln. But that brave and virtuous prelate Grout bear]. boldly refufed to obey this unreafonable mandate, and ' v 1 fent an anfwer to the papal bull containing the follow¬ ing fevere reproaches againd his holinefs for abufing his power: “ If we except the fins of Lucifer and Antichrid, there neither is nor can be a greater crime, nor any thing more contrary to the dodlrine of the gofpel, or more odious and abominable in the fight of Jefus Chrid, than to ruin and dedroy the fouls of men, by depriving them of the fpiritual aid and minidry of their padors. This crime is committed by thofe who command the benefices intended for the fupport of able padors, to be bedowed on thofe who are incapable of performing the duties of the padoral office. It is im- podible therefore that the holy apodolic fee, which received its authority from the Lord Jefus Chrid, for edification, and not for dedru&ion, can be guilty of fuch a crime, or any thing approaching to fuch a crime, fo hateful to God and fo hurtful to men. For this would be a mod manifed corruption and abufe of its authority, which would forfeit all its glory, and plunge it into the pains of hell.” Upon hearing this letter, his holinefs became frantic with rage, poured forth a torrent of abufe againd the good bifhop, and threatened to make him an objeiff of terror and ado- nidnnent to the whole world. “ How dare (faid he) this old, deaf, doating fool, difobey my commands ? Is not his mader the king of England my fubjeft, or rather my dave ? Cannot he cad him into prifon, and crulh him in a moment ?” But the cardinals by degrees brought the pope to think more calmly, and to take no notice of this letter. “ Let us not (faid they) raife a tumult in the church without necelfity, and precipitate that revolt and feparation from us, which we know mud one day take place.” Remarkable words, when we redeft when and by whom they were fpoken ! The bidiop did not long furvive this noble dand againd the.grofs corruptions and tyranny of the church of Rome : for he fell fick at his cadle of Bug- den that fame year; and when he became fenfible that his death was drawing near, he called his clergy into his apartment, and made a long difcourfe to them, to prove that the reigning pope Innocent IV. was An¬ tichrid. With this exertion his drength and fpirits were fo much exhauded, that he expired foon after, Oiffober 9. 1253. A contemporary hidorian, who* was perfedly well acquainted with him, hath drawn his character in the following manner. “ He was a free and bold reprimander of the pope and the kincr 3 an admonidier of the prelates; a correftor of the monks 5 an indru&or of the clergy ; a fupporter of the dudious j a cenfurer of the incontinent ; a fcourge and terror to the court of Rome ; a diligent fearcher of the fcriptures; and a frequent preacher to the people. At his table he was hofpitable, polite, and cheerful. In the church he was contrite, devote, and folemn • and in performing all the duties of his office he was venerable, addive, and indefatigable. The illudrious Roger Bacon, who was mod capable, and had the bed opportunities of forming a true judgment of the ex¬ tent of his learning, by perufing his works, and by frequently converfing with him, hath given this ho¬ nourable tedimony in his favour. “ Robert Grouthead biihop of Lincoln, and his friend Friar Adam de Ma- rifco, are the two mod learned men in the world, and excel G R O [ i Growth, excel all ilie rell of mankind both in divine and human " v knowledge.” This moft excellent and learned prelate was a very voluminous writer, and compofed a prodi¬ gious number of treatifes on a great variety of iubjefts in philofophy and divinity, a catalogue of which is gi¬ ven by Bale. GROWTH, the gradual increafe of bulk and fta- ture that takes place in animals or vegetables, to a cer¬ tain period.—The increafe of bulk in fuch bodies as have no life, owing to fermentations excited in their fubftance, or to other caufes, is called Expansion, Swelling, &c. The growth of animals, nay even of the human fpe- cies, is fubjeft to great variations. A remarkable in- ftance in the laft was obferved in France in the year 1729. At this time the Academy of Sciences exa¬ mined a boy who was then only feven years old, and who meafurcd four feet eight inches and four lines high without his fhoes. His mother obferved the ligns of puberty on him at two years old, which continued to increafe very quick, and foon arrived at the ufual ftandard. At four years old he was able to lift and tofs the common bundles of hay in ftables into the horfes racks; and at fix years old could lift as much as a ftur- -dy fellow of twenty. But though he thus increafed in bodily ftrength, his underftanding was no greater than is ufual with children of his age, and their play¬ things were alfo his favourite amufements. Another boy, a native of the hamlet of Bouzan- quet, in the diocefe of Alais, though of a flrong con- ftitution, appeared to be knit and ftiflf in his joints tilt he was about four years and a half old. During this time nothing farther was remarkable of him than an extraordinary appetite, which was fatisfied no other- wife than by giving him plenty of the common ali¬ ments of the inhabitants of the country, confifting of rye-bread, chefnuts, bacon, and water •, but his limbs foon becoming fupple and pliable, and his body beginning to expand itfelf, he grew up in fo extraordi¬ nary a manner, that at the age of five years he mea- fured four feet three inches 5 fome months after, he was four feet eleven inches; and at fix, five feet, and bulky in proportion. His growth was fo rapid, that one might fancy he faw him grow: every month, his clothes required to be made longer and wdder j and what was ftill very extraordinary in his growth, it was not preceded by any ficknefs, nor accompanied with any pain in the groin or elfewhere. At the age of five years his voice changed, his beard be¬ gan to appear, and at fix he had as much as a man of thirty ; in fliort, all the unqueftionable marks of pu¬ berty were vifible in him. It was not doubted in the country but this child was, at five years old, or five and a half, in a condition of begetting other children •, which induced the reftor of the parilh to recommend to his mother that fhe would keep him from too fa¬ miliar a converfation with children of the other fex. Though his wit was riper than is commonly obfervable at the age of five or fix years, yet its progrefs. was not in proportion to that of his body. His air and man¬ ner ftill retained fomething ckildilh, though by his bulk and ftature he refembled a complete man, which at firft fight produced a very lingular contraft. His voice was ftrong and manly, and his great ftrength 3 ] G R U rendered him already fit for the labours of the country. Grub At the age of five years, he could carry to a good di- II fiance three meafures of rye, weighing 84 pounds ;Grubenha" when turned of fix, he could lift up eafiiy on his ftioul-' ''t"' » ders and carry loads of 150 pounds weight a good way off: and thefe exercifes were exhibited by him as often as the curious engaged him thereto by fome liberality. Such beginnings made people think that he would foon (hoot up into a giant. A mountebank was already foliciting his parents for him, and flatter¬ ing them with hopes of putting him in a way of making a great fortune. But all thefe hopes fud- denly vanilhed. His legs became crooked, his body flirunk, his ftrength diminifhed, his voice grew fen- fibly weaker, and he at laft funk into a total imbecility. In the Paris Memoirs alfo there is an account of a girl who had her menfes at three months of age. When four years old, flie was four feet fix inches in height, and had her limbs well proportioned to that height, her breafts large and plump, and the parts of generation like thofe of a girl of eighteen •, fo that there is no doubt but that fhe was marriageable at that time, and capable of being a mother of children. Thefe things are more Angular and marvellous in the northern than in the fouthern climates, where the fe¬ males come fooner to maturity. In fome places of the Eaft Indies, the girls have children at nine years of age. Many other inftances of extraordinary growth might be brought, but the particulars are not remarkably different from thofe already related.—It is at firft; fight aftonithing that children of fuch early and prodigious growth do not become giants: but when we confider, , that the figns of puberty appear fo much fooner than they ought, it feems evident that the whole is only a more than ufually rapid expanfion of the parts, as in hot climates ; and accordingly it is obferved, that fuch children, inftead of becoming giants, always decay and die apparently of old age, long before the natural term of human life. GRUB, in Zoology, the Englifh name of the hexa- pode worms, produced from the eggs of beetles, and which at length are transformed into winged infetts of the fame fpecies with their parents. GRUBBING, in Agriculture, the digging or pull¬ ing up of the ftubs and roots of trees. When the roots are large, this is a very trouble- fome and laborious talk; but Mr Mortimer hath fhown how it may be accomplifhed in fuch a manner as to fave great expence by a very fimple and eafy method. He propofes a ftrong iron hook to be made about two feet four inches long, with a large iron ring faftened to the upper part of it. This hook muft be put into a hole in the fide of the root, to which it muft be faftened ; and a lever being put into the ring, three men, by means of this lever, may wring out the root, and twift the fap-roots afunder. Stubs of trees may alfo be taken up with the fame hook, in which work it will fave a great deal of la¬ bour, though not fo much as in the other •, becaufe the ftubs muft be firft cleft with wedges, before the hook can enter the Tides of them, to wrench them out by pieces. GRUBENHAGEN, a town and caftle of the duchy l G U A [ ii Gruinales duchy of Brur.Mc, in Lower Saxony, remarkable for II its mines of filver, copper, iron, and lead. E. Long. Guaualaja- ^ N> Lat> 45> . rx- , GRUINALES (from grus, “ a crane”), the name of the fourteenth order in Linnaeus’s Fragments of a Natural Method, confiding of geranium, and a few other genera which the author confiders as allied to it in their habit and external drufture. GRUME, in Medicine, denotes a concreted clot of blood, milk, or other fubdance. Hence grumous blood is that which approaches to the nature of grume, and by its vilcidity and dagnating m the capillary veilels produces feveral diforders. GRUPPO, or Turned Shaze, a mufical grace, de¬ fined by Playford to confid in the alternate prolation ■ of two tones in juxtapofition to. each other, with a clofe on the note immediately beneath the lower of them. See Shake. GRUS, in antiquity, a dance performed yearly by the young Athenians around the temple of Apollo, on the day of the Delia. I he motions and figures of this dance were very intricate, and varioufly interwoven } fonie of them being intended to exprefs the windings of the labyrinth wherein the minotaur was killed by Thefeus. Gltus, in Jlflronomij, a fouthern condellation, not vifible in our latitude. The number of dars m tnis condellation, according to Mr Sharp’s Catalogue, is 13. " Grus. See Ardea, Ornithology Index. GRUTER, James, a learned philologer, and one of the mod laborious writers of his time, rvas born at Antwerp in 1560. He was but a child when his fa¬ ther and mother, being perfecuted for the Protedant religion by the duchefs of Parma, governefs of the Ne¬ therlands, carried him into England. He imbibed the elements of learning from his mother, who was one of the mod learned women of the age, and beddes French, Italian, and Englidr, was a complete midrefs of Latin, and well fkilled in Greek. He fpent fome years in the univerfity of Cambridge j after w'hich he went to that of Leyden to dudy the civil lawr •, but at lad applied himfelf wholly to polite literature. After travelling much, he became profeffor in the univerfity of Heidel- burgh j near which city he died in 1627. He wrote many wmrks $ the mod confiderable of which are, 1. A large colleflion of ancient infcriptions. 2. Thefaurus criticus. 3. Delicice poetaru?n Gallorum, Italorum, et Belgarum, (b'c. GRUYERS, a town of Swifferland, in the canton of Friburgh, with a cadle. It is famous for its cheefe, which bears the fame name. E. Long. 7.33. N. Lat. 46- 35* . . , p . GRY, a meafure containing one-tenth of a line. A line is one-tenth of a digit, and a digit one-tenth of a foot, and a philofophical foot one-third of a pendu¬ lum, whofe diadromes, or vibrations, in the latitude of 45 degrees, are each equal to one-fecond of time, or one-fixtieth of a minute. GRYLLUS, a genus of infefts, belonging to the order Hemiptera. See Entomology Index. GRYPHITES, crow’s stone, an old name for a mineral found in clay and gravel pits. GUADALAJARA, or Guadalaxara, a town of Spain, in New Cadile, and did rid of Alcala, feated 9 1 G U A on the river Herares. W. Long. 2. 47. N. Lat. 40. Cuadalaj*.. 36. Guadalajara, a confiderable town of North A-Guadalupe. merica, and capital of a rich and fertile province of the s—-y—J fame name, with a bidiop’s fee. W. Long. 114. 59. N. Lat. 20. 20. GUADALAVIAR, a river of Spain, which rifes on the confines of Arragbn and New Cadile, and, run¬ ning by Turvel in Arragon, erodes the kingdom of Valencia, paffes by the town of the fame name, and o If r- To 1 lo low Valencia. GUADALQUIVER, one of the mod famous ri¬ vers of Spain, rifes in Andalufia, near the confines of Granada, and running quite through Andalufia, by the towns of Baiza, Andaxar, Cordova, Seville, and St Lucar, falls at lad into the bay of Cadiz. GUADALUPE, a handfome town in Spain, in Edramadura, with a celebrated convent, whofe druc- ture is magnificent, and is immenfely rich. It is feat¬ ed on a rivulet of the fame name. W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat. 39. 12. Guadalupe, one of the Caribbee iflands, belonging to the French, the middle of which is feated in about N. Lat. 16 30. W. Long. 61. 20. It was taken by the French in 1794, but retaken the fame year. This iiland, which is of an irregular figure, may be about 80 leagues in circumference. It is divided into twro parts by a fmall arm of the fea, which is not above two leagues long, and from 15 to 40 fathoms broad. This canal, known by the name of the Salt River, is navigable, but will only carry veffels of 50 tons bur¬ den. That part of the illand which gives its name to the whole colony is, towards the centre, full of craggy rocks, where the cold is fo intenfe, that nothing will grow upon them but fern, and fome ufelefs dirubs co¬ vered with mofs. On the top of thefe rocks, a moun¬ tain called la Souphrierc, or the Briniflone Mountain, ri¬ fes to an immenfe height. It exhales, through various openings, a thick black fmoke, intermixed with fparks that are vilible by night. From all thefe hills flow numberlefs fprings, which fertilize the plains below, and moderate the burning heat of the climate by a re- fredung dream, fo celebrated, that the galleons which formerly ufed to touch at the Windward iflands, had orders to renew their provifion with this pure and falu- brious water. Such is that part of the iiland properly called Guadalupe. That which is commonly called Grand Terre, has not been fo much favoured by nature. It is indeed lefs rugged *, but it wants fprings and rivers. The foil is not fo fertile, or the climate fo wholefome or fo pleafant. No European nation had yet taken pofieflion of this ifland, when 550 Frenchmen, led on by two gentlemen named Loline and DupleJJis, arrived there from Dieppe on the 28th of June 1635. They had been very im¬ prudent in their preparations. Their provifions were fo ill chofen, that they were fpoiled in the paffage, and they had fhipped fo few, that they were exhauded in two months. They were fupplied with more from the mother-country. St Chridopher’s, whether from fcar- city or defign, refufed to fpare them any 5 and the fird attempts in hufbandry they made in the country could! not as yet afford any thing. No refource was left for G U A [i ■•pe. the colony but from the favages; but the fuperriuities of a people, who cultivate but little, and therefore had never laid up any llores, could not be very confiderable. The new comers, not content with what the favages might freely and voluntarily bring, came to a refolution to plunder them ; and hollilities commenced on the l6th of January 1636. The Caribs, not thinking themfelves in a condition openly to refift an enemy who had fo much the advan¬ tage from the fuperiority of their arms, dehroyed their own provifions and plantations, and retired to Grande Terre, or to the neighbouring iflands. From thence the moll defperate came over to the ifland from which they had been driven, and concealed themfelves in the thickeft parts of the forefls. In the day-time, they Ihot with their poifoned arrows, or knocked down Tvith their clubs, all the Frenchmen who were fcatter- ed about for hunting or lilhing. In the night, they burned the houfes and deltroyed the plantations of their unjull fpoilers. A dreadful famine was the confequence of this kind of war. The colonilfs were reduced to graze in the fields, to eat their own excrements, and to dig up dead bodies for their fubfiifence. Many who had been flaves at Algiers, held in abhorrence the hands that had broken their fetters ; and all of them curled their exilf- ence. It was in this manner that they atoned for the crime of their invafion, till the government of Aubert brought a peace with the fa wages at the end of the year 1640. The remembrance, however, of hardlhips en¬ dured in an invaded illand, proved a powerful incite¬ ment to the cultivation of all articles of immediate ne- celhty ; which afterwards induced an attention to thofe of luxury confumed in the mother-country. The few inhabitants who had efcaped the calamities they had drawn upon themfelves, were foon joined by fome dif- contented colonills from St Chriltopher’s, by Europe¬ ans fond of novelty, by failors tired of navigation, and by fome lea-captains, who prudently chofe to commit to the care of a grateful foil the treafures they had faved from the dangers of the fea. But Hill the profperity of Guadalupe v;as Hopped or impeded by obllacles ari- ling from its fituation. The facility with wdiich the pirates from the neigh¬ bouring iilands could carry off their cattle, their Haves, their very crops, frequently brought them into a defpe¬ rate fituation. Intefline broils, arifing from jealoufies of authority, often diflurbed the quiet of the planters. The adventurers w7ho went over to the Windward iilands, difdaining a land that was fitter for agriculture than for naval expeditions, were eafily drawn to Marti- nico by the convenient roads it abounds with. The protection of thofe intrepid pirates brought to that ifland all the traders wTho flattered themfelves that they might buy up the fpoils of the enemy at a low price, and all the planters w’ho thought they might fafely give them¬ felves up to peaceful labours. This quick population could not fail of introducing the civil and military go¬ vernment of the Caribbee iflands into Martinico. From that time the French miniflry attended more ferioufly to this than to the other colonies, which were not fo immediately under their direClion $ and hearing chiefly of this ifland, they turned all their encouragements that way. It was in confequence of this preference, that in % 20 ] G U A 1700 the number of inhabitants in Guadalupe amount-Guadalupe, ed only to 3825 white people, 325 favages, free ne-'—~v——^ groes, mulattoes, and 6725 flaves, many of whom were Caribs. At the end of the year 1755* ti16 colorw wras peo¬ pled with 9643 whites, 41,140 flaves of afl ages and of both lexes. Her faleable commodities were the produce of 330 fugar-plantations, and 15 plots of in¬ digo ; befides cocoa. coflee, and cotton. Such was the Hate of Guadalupe when it was conquered by the Bri- tilh in the month of April 1759. France lamented this lofs \ but the colony had rea1- fon to comfort themfelves for this difgrace. During a fiege of three months, they had feen their plantations deilroyed, the buildings that ferved to carry on their works burnt down, and fome of their flaves carried off, Flad the enemy been forced to retreat after all thefe de- vaHations, the ifland w7as ruined. Deprived of all af- fiflance from the mother-country, which w7as not able to fend her any iuccouis j and expecting nothing from the Dutch (who, on account of their neutrality, came into her roads), becaufe flie had nothing to offer them in exchange ; ihe could never have fubfiffed till the en- fuing harvefl. The conquerors delivered them from thefe apprehen- fions. '1 he Britiffi, indeed, are no merchants in their colonies. The proprietors of lands, wdio moflly refide in Europe, lend to their reprefentatives whatever they want, and draw the whole produce of the effate by the return of their fliip. An agent fettled in fome fea-port of Great Britain is intrufled with the furnilhing the plantation and receiving the produce. This wTas im- prafticable at Guadalupe •, and the conquerors in this refpeft wrere obliged to adopt the cuffom of the con¬ quered. The Britifli, informed of the advantage the French made of their trade with the colonies, haffened; in imitation of them, to fend their Ihips to the conquer¬ ed ifland ; and fo multiplied their expeditions, that they overHocked the market, and funk the price of all Eu¬ ropean commodities. The coloniffs bought them at a very low price *, and, in confequence of this plenty, ob¬ tained long delays for the payment. To this credit, which was neceffary, wTas foon added another arifing from fpeculation, which enabled the co¬ lony to fulfil its engagements. A great number of ne¬ groes w?ere carried thither, to haffen the growth and enhance the value of the plantations. It has been faid in various memorials, all copied from each other, that the Englifh had Hocked Guadalupe with 30,000 du¬ ring the four years and three months that they remain¬ ed maflers of the ifland. The regiflers of the cuflom- houfes, which may be depended on, as there could be no inducement for an impofition, atteff that the num¬ ber was no more than 18,721. This wras fufficient to give the nation well-grounded hopes of reaping great advantages from their new conqueH. But their hopes were fruilrated $ and the colony, with its dependencies, was reflored to its former poffeffors by the treaty of peace in July 1763. By the furvey taken in 1767, this ifland, including the fmaller iflands, Defeada, St Bartholomew7, Mari- galante, and the Saints, dependent upon it, contains 11,863 white people of all ages and of both fexes, 752 free blacks and mulattoes, 72,761 flaves \ which makes in all a population of 85,376 fouls. The QUA [12 Guadiana The produce of Guadalupe, including xyhat is pour- 11 ed in from the fmall iflands under her dominion, ought Gualeor. t0 verv COnfiderable. But in 1768 it yielded to the mother-country no more than 140,418 quintals of line^ fugar, 23,603 quintals of raw fugar, 34,205 quintals of coffee, 11,955 quintals of cotton, 456 quintals ot cocoa, and 1884 quintals of ginger. Guadalupe was taken by the Britifh in 1794; but it was retaken the fame year. GUADIANA, a large river of Spain, having its fource in New Caftile, and, pafling crofs the high^ mountains, falls down to the lakes called Ojos of Guadiana y from whence it runs to Calatrava, IMedelin, Merida, and Badajox in Eftremadura of .Spain ; and after having run for fome time in Alentejo in i oitugal, it pafl'es on to feparate the kingdom oi Algarve from Andalufia, and falls into thq bay or gulf of Cadiz, be¬ tween Caftro Marino and Agramonte. GUADIX, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Granada, with a bifhop’s fee. It was taken from the Moors in 125:3, who afterwards retook it, but the Spaniards again got pofieffion of it in 14^9 ^ feated in a fertile country, in W. Long. 2. 47. N. Lat. 37. 4. GUAJACUM, Lignum Vita:, or Pock wood; a genus of plants belonging to the dccandua clafs } and in the natural method ranking under the 14^1 order, Gruinales. See Botany and Materia Medic a Index. GUALEOR, Gualior, or Gowalier, a large town of Indoftan in Afia, and capital of a province of the fame name, with an ancient and celebrated fortrefs of great ftrength. It is fituated in the very heart of Hin- doftan Proper, being about 80 miles to the fouth of Agra, the ancient capital of the empire, and 130 from the neareit part of the Ganges. From Calcutta it is, by the neareft route, upwards of 800 miles, and 910 by the ordinary one ; and about 280 from the Britifh fron¬ tiers. Its latitude is 26. 14. and longitude 78. 26. from Greenwich. In the ancient divifion of the empire it is claffed in the foubah of Agra, and is often mentioned in hiitory. In the year 1008, and during the two following centu¬ ries, it was thrice reduced by famine. It is probable that it mull in all ages have been deemed a military poll of the utmoft confequence, both from its fituation in refpeft to the capital, and from the peculiarity of its fite, which was generally deemed impregnable. With refpeft to its relative pofition, it muft be conlidered that it ftands on the principal road leading from Agra to Malwa, Guzerat, and the Decan : and that too, near the place where it enters the hilly traft which advances from Bundelcund, Malwa, and Agimere, to a parallel with the river Jumnah, throughout the greatefl part of its courfe. And from all thefe circumflances of gene¬ ral and particular fituation, together with its natural and acquired advantages as a fortrefs, the poffeffion of it was deemed as neceffary to the ruling emperors of Hindoftan as Dover caftle might have been to the Sax¬ on and Norman kings of England.—Its palace was ufed as a Hate prifon as early as 1317, and continued to be fuch until the downfal of the empire.—On the final difmemberment of the empire, Gualeor appears to have fallen to the lot of a rajah of the Jat tribe; who alfumed the government of the dillridt in which it is Vol. X. Part I. i ] G U A immediately fituated, under the title of Rana of Go-* GuaIeor: hud or Gohd. Since that period it has changed maf- v—• ters more than once $ the Mahrattas, whofe dominions extend to the neighbourhood of it, having fome- times poffeffed it, and at other times the Rana : but the means of transfer were always either famine or treachery, nothing like a liege having ever been at¬ tempted. Gualeor was in the poffeffion of Madajee Scindia, a Mahratta chief, in 1779, at the clofe of which year the council-general of Bengal concluded an alliance with the Rana •, in confequence of which four batta¬ lions of fepoys oi 500 men each, and fome pieces or artillery, were fent to his affitlance, his diftridt being overrun by the Mahrattas, and himfelf almoft Ihut up in his fort of Gohud. The grand objedf of this alliance was to penetrate into Scindia’s country, and finally to draw Scindia himfelf from the weftern fide of India, where he was attending the’ motions of General God¬ dard, who was then employed in the redudfion of Gu¬ zerat ; it being Mr Hattings’s idea, that when Scindia found his own dominions in danger, he would detach himfelf from the confederacy, of which he was the principal member, and thus leave matters open for an accommodation with the court of Poonah. It fell out exadlly as Mr Haffings predidted. Major William Popham was appointed to the command of the little army fent to the Rana’s affiftance ; and was very fuc- cefsful, as well in clearing his country of the enemy, as in driving them out of one of their own moft valu¬ able diftridts, and keeping poffeffion of it : and Mr Ha- Ilings, who juftly concluded that the capture of Gua- lebr, if practicable, would not only open the way into Scindia’s country, but would alfo add to the reputa¬ tion of our arms in a degree much beyond the rilk and expence of the undertaking, repeatedly expreffed his opinion to Major Popham, together with a wiih that it might be attempted } and founding his hopes of fuccefs on the confidence that the garrifon would pro¬ bably have in the natural ftrength of the place. It was accordingly undertaken •, and the following account of the place, and the manner of our getting poffeflion of it, was written by Captain Jonathan Scott, at that time Perfian interpreter to Major Popham, to ms bro¬ ther Major John Scott. “ The fortrefs of Gualeor ftands on a vaft rock of about four miles in length, but narrow, and of unequal breadth, and nearly ftat at the top. The fides are fo fteep as to appear almoft perpendicular in every part ; for where it was not naturally fo, it has been feraped away j and the height from the plain below is from 200 to 300 feet. The rampart conforms to the edge of the precipice all round ; and the only entrance to it is by fteps running up the fide of the rock, defended on the fide next the country by a wall and baftions, and farther guarded by feven ftone gateways, at certain diftances from each other. Therarea within is full of noble buildings, refervoirs of water, wells, and culti¬ vated land ; fo that it is really a little diftridl in it- felf. At the north-weft foot of the mountain is the town, pretty large, and well built ; the houfes all of ftone. To have befieged this place would be vain, for nothing but a furprife or blockade could have carried it. “ A tribe of banditti from the diftridt of the Rana C,) had G U A [12 had been accuflomed to rob about this town, and once in the dead of night had climbed up the rock and got into the fort. This intelligence they had communica¬ ted to the Rana, who often thought of availing himfelt of it, but was fearful of undertaking an enterprile of fuch mcment with his own troops. At length he in¬ formed Major Popham of it, who fent a party of the robbers to conduct fome of his own fpies to the fpot. They accordingly climbed up in the night, and found that the guards generally went to deep after their rounds. Popham now ordered ladders to be made •, but with fo much fecrecy, that until the night of furprife only myfelf and a few others knew it. On the 3d of Auguft, in the evening, a party was ordered to be in readinefs to march under the command of Captain Wil¬ liam Bruce j and Popham put himfelf at the head of two battalions, which w7ere immediately to follow the {forming party. To prevent as much as poflible any noife in approaching or afcending the rock, a kind of Ihoes of woollen cloth were made for the fepoys, and duffed with cotton. At 11 o’clock the wdrole detach¬ ment marched from the camp at Reypour, eight miles from Gualeor, through unfrequented paths, and reach¬ ed it at a little before daybreak. Juft as Captain Bruce arrived at the foot of the rock, he faw the lights which accompanied the rounds moving along the rampart, and heard the fentinels cough (the mode of fignifying that all is well in an Indian camp or garrifon), which might have damped the fpirit of many men, but ferved only to infpire him with more confidence, as the moment for aflion, that is, the interval between the palling the rounds was now afcertained. Accordingly when the lights were gone, the wooden ladders were placed a- gainit the rock, and one of the robbers firft mounted, and returned wuth an account that the guard was retired to fleep. Lieutenant Cameron, our engineer, next mounted, and tied a rope-ladder to the battlements of the wall •, this kind of ladder being the only one adapt¬ ed to the purpofe of fcaling the wall in a body (the wooden ones only ferving to afcend from crag to crag of the rock, and to affift in fixing the rope-ladders). When all was ready, Captain Bruce with 20 fepoys, grenadiers, afcended without being difcovered, and fquatted down under the parapet } but before. a rein¬ forcement arrived, three of the party had fo little re- colle&ion as to fire on fome of the garrifon who hap¬ pened to be lying alleep near them. This had nearly ruined the whole plan : the garrifon were of courfe alarmed, and ran in great numbers towards the place but ignorant of the ftrength of the affailants (as the men fired on had been killed outright), they fulfered themfelves to be flopped by the warm fire kept up by the fmall party of the grenadiers, until Major Popham him/elf, with a confiderable reinforcement, came to their aid. The garrifon then retreated to the inner buildings, and difcharged a few rockets, but foon af¬ terwards retreated precipitately through the gate •, whilft the principal officers, thus defected, afl'embled together in one houfe, and hung out a flag. Major Popham fent an officer to give them affurance of quar¬ ter and protection 5 and thus, in the fpace of two hours, this important and altoniffiing fortrefs was com¬ pletely in our poffeffion. We had only 20 men wound¬ ed and one killed. On the fide of the enemy, Bapogee 2 ] G U A the governor was killed, and molt of the principal offi¬ cers wounded.” Thus fell the ftrongefl fortrefs in Hindoflan, garri- foned by a chofen body of 1200 men, on Augull 4. 1780 ; and which, before the capture of it by the Britilh, was pronounced by the princes of Hindoitan, as far as their knowledge in the military art extended, to be impregnable. In 1783 Madajee Scindia befieged this fortrefs, then poffelfed by the Rana of Gohud, with an army of 70,000 men, and effedled the reduc¬ tion by the treachery of one of the Rana’s officers, who formed the pla# of admiffion of a party of Scin- dia’s troops} thefe were immediately fupported by ano¬ ther party, wffio attacked an oppofite quarter, and got admiffion alfo. GUAM, the largefl: of the Ladrone iflands in the South fea, being about 40 leagues in circumference. It is the only one among the innumerable iflands that lie fcattered in the immenfe South fea which has a town built in the European ftyle, with a regular fort, a church, and civilized inhabitants. The air is excel¬ lent, the water good, the garden fluffs and fruits are exquifite, the flocks of buffaloes innumerable, as are thofe of goats and hogs, and all kinds of poultry abound in an affonifhing degree. There is no port in which worn-out failors can be more fpeedily reftored, or find better or more plentiful refrefhments, than in this. But Guam did not formerly enjoy this ftate of abundance. When it was firft difcovered by Magel¬ lan in 1521, with the other eight principal iflands that lie north of it, which, wdth a multitude of fmaller ones, form together that archipelago known by the name of the Ladrones, they were all crowded with in¬ habitants, but afforded no refreihments to navigators except fifh, bananas, cocoa nuts, and bread fruit j and even thefe could not be procured but by force, amidit (bowers of the arrows and lances of the natives. I he Spaniards carried thither from America the firft flock of cattle, of fowls, of plants, and feeds, and fruits, as w'ell as garden fluffs, which are all now found in fuch abundance. The Ladrone iflands, and Guam in particular, were covered wdth inhabitants wffien they w7ere difcover¬ ed. It is faid that Guam alone contained upon its coaft more than 20,coo people. Thefe men were fe¬ rocious favages and bold thieves, as all the iflanders in the South feas are, undoubtedly becaufe they w'ere un¬ acquainted with the rights of property 5 but they were fo favage, fo incapable of fupporting the yoke of ci¬ vilization, that the Spaniards, who undertook to bring them under the regulations of law and order, have feen their numbers almoft annihilated within the fpaCe of two centuries. Under the government of their miflionaries, thefe fierce iflanders, after having long defended, by cruel wTars, the right of living like wdld beads under the guidance of inftincl, being at laid ob¬ liged to yield to "the fuperiority of the Spanifh arms, gave themlelves up to defpair : they took the refolu- tion of adminiftering potions to their women, in order to procure abortions, and to render them fterile, that they might not bring into the wrorld, and leave behind them, beings that were not free, according to the ideas that they had of liberty. A refolution fo vio¬ lent, G U A [ i Guam, lent, and fo contrary to the views and intentions of —m——* nature, was perfifted in with fo much obftinacy in the nine Ladrone iflands, that their population, which at the time of the difcovery confided of more than 60,000 fouls, does not now exceed 800 or 900 in the whole extent of the archipelago. About 20 or 30 years ago, the fcattered fragments of the original natives were colledled and eflablifhed in the ifland of Guam, where they now begin to recover by the wife precautions, and prudent, though tardy, exertions of a government more adapted to the climate of thefe iilands and to the ge¬ nius of their inhabitants. The principal fettlement, which the Spaniards call the town of Agana, is fituated about four leagues north-eaft of the landing-place, on the fea-fhore, and at the foot of fome hills, not very high, in a beautiful well-watered country. Belides this, there are 21 fmaller fettlements of Indians round the ifland, all on the fea-fhore, compofed of five or fix families, who cultivate fruits and grain, and employ themfelves in filhing. The centre of the ifland is dill uncleared. The trees are not very tall, but they are fit for the building of houfes and of boats. The foreds are in general very thick. The Spaniards at fird cleared certain portions of land to turn them into favannahs for the feeding of cattle. The formation of favannahs confids in multiplying within the foreds fmall cleared fpots feparated only by thickets and rows of trees, and kept clean from fhrubs of every kind. The Spaniards fow thefe fpots with grafs feeds, and other indigenous plants that are fit for padurage. Thefe meadows, be¬ ing effe&ually fhaded on every quarter, preferve their frefhnefs, and afford the docks and herds a fhelter from the fun and the great heat of noon. The cattle that were formerly brought to the favannahs of Guam from America have multiplied adonidnngly : they are become wild, and mud be (hot when wanted, or taken by dratagem. The woods are likewife full of goats, of hogs, and fowls, which were all originally brought thither by the Spaniards, and are now' wild. The defh of all thefe animals is excellent. In the favannahs, and even in the heart of the foreds, there is a vad multitude of pigeons, of parroquets, of thrufhes, and of black¬ birds. Among the indigenous trees of the country, the mod remarkable are, the cocoa-nut tree and the bread-fruit tree. The woods are alfo filled with guav as, bannanas, or plantains of many varieties, citrons, lemons, and oranges, both fweet and bitter, and the fmall dwarf thorny china-orange wdth red fruit. The caper-budi abounds in all the Ladrone iflands 5 and as it is con- ftantly in flower, as well as the citron and orange flirubs, with many other of the indigenous plants, they perfume the air with the mod agreeable fmells, and delight the eye with the riched colours. The rivers of Guam, which are either rivulets or torrents, abound in fifli of an excellent quality : the Indians, however, eat none of them, but prefer the in¬ habitants of the fea. The turtle, wrhich grow here as large as thofe in the ifland of Afcenfion, are not eaten either by the Indians or Spaniards. The cultivated crops lately introduced are, the rice, the maize, the indigo, the cotton, the cocoa, the fu- 3 ] G u A gar-cane, which have all fucceeded. That of tue Guim maize, efpecially, is of adonilhing fertility: it is com- II mon to find in the fields where this grain is cultivated pliar^ntep; plants of twelve feet high, bearing eight or ten fpikes from nine to ten inches in length, fet round with w'ell- filled feeds. The gardens are dored with mangoes and pine-apples. The former is one of the fined fruits imaginable : it was brought from Manilla, and may be eaten in great quantity without any bad confequences. —Horfes have been brought to Guam from Manilla, and affes and mules from Acapulco. The Indians have been taught to tame and domedicate the ox, and to employ him in the draught. This ifland, the land of which rifes' gradually from the fea-fliore towards the centre by a gentle acclivity, is not very mountainous. The inhabitants fay, that its foil is equally rich and fertile over the whole ifland, except in the northern part, which forms a peninfula almod deditute of water. But in the red, you can¬ not go a league without meeting a rivulet. Upon pe¬ netrating a little way into the interior part of the coun¬ try, to the ead and the fouth of Agana, many fprings of fine water are found, forming, at little didances, bafons of pure water, which, being fliaded by thick trees, preferve a mod agreeable coolnefs in fpite of the heat of the climate. The indigenous inhabitants are fuch as they were defcribed by Magellan $ of fmall dature, fuihciently ugly, black, and in general dirty, though they are continually in the water. The women are for the mod part handfome, well made, and of a reddifli co¬ lour. Both fexes have long hair. This fcanty people have become by civilization, gentle, honed, and hofpi- table. They have, however, at the fame time acqui¬ red a vice that was unknown to their favage ancedors. The men are a little addifted to drunkennefs, for they drink freely of the wine of the cocoa-nut. They love mufic and dancing much, but labour little. They are paflionately fond of cock-fighting. On Sundays and holidays they gather together in crowds after the fer- vice, at the door of the church ; where each Indian brings his cock td match him with that of his neigh¬ bour, and each bets upon his own.—The miflion of Guam is now in the hands of the Augudine friars, who have fupplanted the Jefuits. E. Long. 1430 13'. N. Lat. 130 10'. GUAMANGA, a confiderable town of South A- merica, and capital of a province of the fame name in Peru, and in the audience of Lima, with a bifhop’s fee. It is remarkable for its fweatmeats, manufactures, and mines of gold, filver, loaddone, and quickfilver. W. Long. 740 15k S. Lat. 130 10'. GUANUGO, a rich and handfome town of South America, and capital of a didrict of the fame name in the audience of Lima. W. Long. 750 ij'. S. Lat. 9- 55- v GUANZAVELCA, a town of South America, in Peru, and in the audience of Lima. It abounds in mines of quickfilver. W. Long. 740. 39'. S. Lat. 12. 36. GUARANTEE, or Warrantee, In Law, a term relative to warrant or warranter, properly fignifying him whom the warranter undertakes to indemnify or fecure from damage. Guarantee is more frequently ufed for a warranter, £L2 or G U A [ 124 ] or a perfon who undertakes and obliges hxmfelf to fee afiemble at a fecond perfon perform what he has ftipulated to the third. See Warranty. GUARANTY, in matters of polity, the engage¬ ment of mediatorial or neutral ftates, whereby they plight their faith that certain treaties {hall be invio¬ lably obferved, or that they will make war a gain it the aggreffor. GUARD, in a general fenfe, lignifies the. defence or prefervation of any thing} the act of oblerving what paifes. in order to prevent furprife} or the care, pre¬ caution, and attention, we make ufe of to pi event any thing from happening contrary to our intentions or inclinations. Guard, in the military art, is a duty pertormed by a body of men, to fecure an army or place from being lurprifed by an enemy. In garnfon the guards are relieved every day : hence it comes that every fol- dier mounts guard once every three or four days in time of peace, and much oftener in time of war. See Honours. Advanced Guard, is a party of either hone or foot, that marches before a more confiderable body, to give notice of any approaching danger. Ihefe guards are either made ftronger or weaker, according to fitu- ation, the danger to be apprehended from the enemy, or the nature of the country. Van Guard. See Advanced Guard. Artillery Guard, is a detachment from the army to fecure the artillery w'hen in the field. Their corps de garde is in the front of the artillery park, and their fentries difperfed round the fame. This is generally a 48-hours guard •, and, upon a march, this guard marches in the front and rear of the artillery, and muft be fure to leave nothing behind : if a gun or waggon breaks down, the officer that commands the°0guard is to leave a fufficient number of . men to affift the gunners and matroffes in getting it up again. ‘ Artillery Quarter-Guard, is frequently a non-com- miffioned officer’s guard from, the royal regiment of artillery, whofe corps de garde is ahvays in the iiont of their encampment. Artillery Rear-Guard, confifts in a corporal and fix men, ported in the rear of the park. Corps de Garde, are foldiers entrufted with the ' guard of a port, under the command of one or more officers. This word alfo fignifies the place where the guard mounts. r Grand Guard j three or four fquadrons of horie, commanded by a field-officer, ported at about a mile or a mile and a half from the camp, on the right and left wings, towards the enemy, for the better {ecurLy o£ the camp. Forage Guard, a detachment fent out to fecure foragers, and who are ported at all places, where either the enemy’s party may come to difturb the fo¬ ragers, or where they may be fpread too near the enemy, fo as to be in danger of being taken. This guard confifts both of horie and foot, and muft re¬ main on their ports till, the foragers are all come off the ground. Main Guard, is that from which all other guards are* detached. Thofe who are for mounting guard G U A their refpeftive captain’s quarters, and march from thence to the parade in good order; where, after the whole guard is drawm up, the {mall guards are detached to their refpeftive ports : then the fubalterns throw lots for their guards, who are all under the command of the captain of the main guard. This guard mounts in garrifon at different hours, ac¬ cording as the governor pleafes. Piquet Guard, a good number of horfe and foot, always in readmefs in cafe of an alarm : the horfes are generally faddled all the time, and the riders booted. The foot draw up at the head of the battalion, frequently at the beating of the tat-too} but after¬ wards return to their tents, where they hold them- felves in readmefs to march upon any fudden alarm. This guard is to make refiitance in cafe of an attack, until the army can get ready. Baggage Guard, is ahvays an officer’s guard, who has the care of the baggage on a march. The wag¬ gons ffiould be numbered by companies, and follow one another regularly : vigilance and attention in tne paffage of hollow ways, woods, and thickets, mult be ftrittly obferved by this guard. Quarter Guard, is a imall guard commanded by a fubaltern officer, potted in the front of each battalion, at 222 feet before the front of the regiment.. Rear Guard, that party of the army which brings up the rear on a march, generally compofed of all the old grand guards of the camp. The rear-guard of a part is frequently eight or ten horfe, about $oo paces behind the party. Hence the advance-guard going out upon a party, form the rear-guard in their retreat. Rear Guard, is alfo a corporal’s guard placed in the rear of a, regiment, to keep good order in that part of the camp. Standard Guard, a fmall guard under a corporal, out of each regiment of horfe, who mount on foot in the front of each regiment, at the diitance of 20 feet from the ftreets, oppofite the main ftreet. French Guard, only mounts in the time of a fiege, and fometimes confifts of three, four, or fix battalions, according to the importance of the fiege. I his guard muft oppofe the befieged when they tally out, proteft the workmen, &c. Provq/l Guard, is always an officer’s guard that at¬ tends the provoft in his rounds, either to prevent de- fertion, marauding, rioting, &c. See Provost. Guard, in fencing, implies a pofture proper to de¬ fend the body from tR fword of the antagonift. Ordinary Guards, fuch as are fixed during the cam¬ paign, and relieved daily. Extraordinary Guards, or detachments, which are only commanded on particular occafions, eithei tor the further fecurity of the camp, to cover the foragers, or for convoys, efcorts, or expeditions. Guards, alfo imply the troops kept to guard the king’s perfon, and confift both of horfe and foot. Horfe Guards, in England, are gentlemen chofen for their bravery, to be entrufted with the guard of the king’s perfon ; and were divided into four troops, called the if, 2d, $d, and. tyh troop of horfe-guards. The firft troop was raifed in the year 1660, and the command Guard. G U A [12 uard. command given to Lord Gerard j the iecond in 1601, and the command given to Sir Philip Howard ; the third in 1693, and the command given to Earl I'ever- fliam ; the fourth in 1702, and the command given to Earl Newburgh. Each troop had one colonel, two lieutenant-colonels, one cornet and major, one. guidon and major, four exempts and captains, four brigadiers and lieutenants, one adjutant, four tub-brigadiers and cornets, and 60 private men. But the four troops are now turned into two regiments of life-guards. Horfe-Grenadier Guards, are divided into two tioops called the \ft and id troops of horfe-grenadier guards. The firft troop was raffed in 1693, and the command given to Lieutenant-general Cbolmondeley ; the fecond in 1702, and the command given to Lord Forbes. Each troop has one colonel, lieutenant-colonel, one guidon or major, three exempts and captains, thre.e lieutenants, one adjutant, three cornets, and 6o pii- vate men. Teamen of the Guard, firft raifed by Henry VIL ip the year 1483. They are a kind of pompous foot- guards to the king’s perfon ; and are generally called by a nickname the Beef Eaters. They were anciently 250 men of the firft rank under gentry and of larger ftature than ordinary, each being required, to be fix feet high. At prefent there are but 100 in conftant dutv, and 70 more not on duty ; and when any one of the too dies, his place is fuppiied out of the 70. They go drefled after the manner of King Henry VIIPs time. Their firft commander or captain was the earl of Oxford, and their pay is 2s. 6d. per day. Foot Guards, are p-egiments of foot appointed for the guard of his majefty and his palace. I here are three regiments of them, called the xji, id, and ^d, regiments of foot-guards. They were raifed in the year 1660 ; and the command of the firft given to Colonel Ruffel, that of the fecond to General Monk, and the third to the earl of Linlithgow. The firft . regiment is at prefent commanded by one colonel, one lieutenant- colonel, three majors, 23 captains, one captain-lieu¬ tenant, 31 lieutenants, and 24 enfigns ; and contains three battalions. The fecond regiment has one colo¬ nel, one lieutenant-colonel, two majors, 14 captains, one captain-lieutenant, 18 lieutenants, 16 enfigns, and contains only two battalions. The third regiment is the fame as the fecond. The French Guards are divided into thofe within, and thofe without the palace.—The firft are the gardes du corps, or body-guards; which confift of four com¬ panies, the firft of which companies was anciently Scots. See Scots Guards, infra. The guards without are the Gens d'Armes, light horfe, mufqueteers, and two other regiments, the one of which is French and the other Swifs. New arrangements, however, have taken place in this department as wTell as others fince the late revolu¬ tion. Scots Guards, a celebrated band, which formed the firft company of the ancient gardes du corps ©f France. It happened from the ancient Jntercourfe between France and Scotland, thpt the natives of the latter king¬ dom had often diftinguifhed themfelves in the fervice of the former. On this foundation the company of Scots guards, and the company of Scots gendarmes, were in- 5 1 G U A ftituted.—Both of them owed their inftitution to Guard. < Charles VIL of France, by whom the firft Handing ^ army in Europe was formed, anno 1434 ? ■^md tnexr fates cannot but be interefting to Scotfmen. See Gen¬ darmes. Valour, honour, and fidelity, muft have been very confpicuous features of the national charafter of the Scots, when fo great and civilized a people as the French could be induced to chooie a body qf them, foreigners as they were, for guarding the perions ot their fovereigns.—Of the particular occafion and ica- fons of this predilection we have a recital by Louis XII. a fucceeding monarch. After fetting forth the (ervic.es which the Scots had performed for Charles VII. in t expelling the Englifh out of h ranee, and reducing the kingdom to his obedience, he adds—“ Since which Htf °f reduction, and for the fervice of the Scots upon that^ ^ occafion, and for the great loyalty and virtue which he^^ ma_ found in them, he feledled 200 of them for the guard ^er 0f re. of his perion, of whom he made an hundred men atqueftsto arms, and an hundred life-guards: And the hundred that prince^ men at arms are the hundred lances of our ancient or¬ dinances ; and the life-guard men are thoie or our guard who Hill are near and about our perfon.•’—As to their fidelity in this honourable ftation, the hifto- rian, fpeaking of Scotland, fays, “ lire French have fo ancient a friendftiip and alliance with the Scots, that of 400 men appointed for the king’s life-guard, there are an hundred of the faid nation who are the neareft to his perfon, and in the night keep the keys of the apartment where he ileeps. 1 here are, moreover, an hundred complete lances and two hundred yeomen of the faid nation, befides feveral that aredifperfed through the companies: And for fo long a time as they have ferved in France, never hath there been one of them found that hath committed or done any fault againft the kings or their ftate ; and they make ufe of them as of their own fubjefts.” The ancient rights and privileges of the Scottifti life-guards were very honourable ; efpecially of the twenty-four firft. The author of the Ancient Alli¬ ance fays, “ On high holidays, at the ceremony of the royal touch, the ereclion of knights of the king’s order, the reception of extraordinary ambaffadors, and the public entries of cities, there muft be fix of their number next to the king’s perfon, three on each fide ; and the body of the king muft be carried by thefe only, wherefoever ceremony requires. They have the keeping of the keys of the king’s lodging at night, the keeping of the choir of the chapel, the keeping the boats where the king pafles the rivers; and they have the honour of bearing the wftiite filk fringe in their arms, which in France is the coronne coleur. The keys of all the cities where the king makes his entry are given to their captain in waiting or out of waiting.—. He has the privilege, in waiting or out of waiting, at ceremonies, fuch as coronations, marriages, and fu¬ nerals of the kings, and at the baptifm and marriage of their children, to take duty upon him. 'The coro¬ nation robe belongs to him; and this company, by the death or change of a captain, never changes its rank, as do the three others.” This company’s firft commander, who is recorded as a perfon of great valour and military accomplilh- ments, was Robert Patillock, a native oi Dundee G U A [ 126 ] G U A Guard, and the band, ever ardent to diflinguiflr itfelf, contx- Ouardian. nued in great reputation till the year 1578. From that period, the Scots guards were lefs attended to, and their privileges came to be iixvaded. In the year 1612, they remonllrated to Louis XIII. on the fub- jeft of the injuftice they had fuffered, and fet before him the fervices they had rendered to the crown of France. Attempts were made to re-eftablilh them on their ancient foundation ; but no negociation for this purpofe was effeftual. The troops of France grew jealous of the honours paid them : the death of Francis II. and the return of Mary to Scotland, at a time when they had much to hope, were unfor¬ tunate circumilances to them : the change of religion in Scotland was an additional blow ; and the acceflion of James VI. to the throne of England difunited al¬ together the interefts of France and Scotland. The Scots guards of France had therefore, latterly, no connexion with Scotland but the name. GuARD-Botit, a bo?t appointed to row the rounds amongft the flxips of war which are laid up in any harbour, &c. to obferve that their officers keep a good looking-out, calling to the guard-boat as ffie paffes, and not fuffering her crew to come on board, without hav¬ ing previoully communicated the watch-word of the night. GuARn-Ship, a veflel of war appointed to fuperin- tend the marine affairs in a harbour or river, and to fee that the (hips which are not commiffioned have their proper watchword kept duly, by fend¬ ing her guard-boats around them every night. She is alfo to receive feamen who are impreffed in the time .of war. GUARDIAN, in Lau\ a perfon who has the charge of any thing 5 but more commonly it lignifies one who has the cuftody and education of fuch perfons as have not fufficient difcretion to take care of themfelves and their own affairs, as children and idiots. Their bufinefs is to take the profits of the minor’s lands to his ufe, and to account for the fame : they ought to fell all moveables within a reafonable time, and to convert them into land or money, except the minor is near of age, and may want fuch things him- felfj and they are to pay intereft for the money in their hands that might have been fo placed out j in which cafe it will be prefumed that the guardians made ufe of it themfelves. They are to fuftain the lands of the heir, without mdking deftru&ion of any thing thereon, and to keep it fafely for him : if they com¬ mit wafte on the lands, it is a forfeiture of the guardi- anlhip, 3 Edw. I. And where perfons, as guardians, hold over any land, without the confent of the perfon wffio is next entitled, they (hall be adjudged trefpaf- fers, and ffiall be accountable ; 6. Ann. cap. xviii. Guardian, or Warden, of the Cinque ports, is an of¬ ficer who has the jurifdiftion of the cinque-ports, with all the power that the admiral of England has in other places. Camden relates, that the Romans, after they had fettled themfelves and their empire in our ifland, ap¬ pointed a magiftrate, or governor, over the eaft parts wffiere the Cinque-ports lie, with the title of comes litto- ris Saxoniciper Britanniam; having another, who bore the like title, on the oppofite fide of the fea. Their bufinefs was to ftrengthcn the fea coaft with munition, 1 againlt the outrages and robberies of the barbarians j Guardian and that antiquary takes our warden of the Cinque- .11 ports to have been ere&ed in imitation thereof. TheGuatima1a'. wardenffiip is a place of value, luppofed -vorth 7000I. per annum. Guardian of the Spiritualities, the perfon to whom the fpiritual jurifdidion of any diocefe is committed, during the time the fee is vacant. A guardian of the* ipiritualities may likewife be either fuch in law, as the archbilhop is of any diocefe within his province ; or by delegation, as he whom the archbilhop or vicar- general for the time appoints. Any fuch guardian has power to hold courts, grant licences, difpenfations, pi'obates of wills, &c. GUAREA, a genus of plants belonging to the oc- tandria clafs. See Botany Index. GUARINI, Battista, a celebrated Italian poet, born at Ferrara in 1538. He was great-grandfon to Guarino of Verona, and was fecretary to Alphonfo duke of Ferrara, who intrufted him with feveral im¬ portant commiffions. After the death of that prince, he was fucceffively fecretary to Vipcenzio de Gonza- ga, to Ferdinand de Medicis grand duke of Tufca- ny, and to Francis Maria de Feltri duke of Urbino. But the only advantages he reaped under thefe various mailers were great encomiums on his wit and compofi- tions. He was well acquainted with polite literature j and acquired immortal reputation by his Italian poems, efpecially by his Bajior Fido, the moll known and ad¬ mired of all his works, and of which there have been innumerable editions and tranflations. He died in 1612. GUARDIA, or Guarda, a town of Portugal, in the province of Beira, with a bilhop’s fee. It con¬ tains about 2300 inhabitants, is fortified both by art and nature, and has a ftately cathedral. W. Long. 6. 37. N. Lat. 40. 20. Guardi a-Alferez, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the Contado di Molife, with a bi- ffiop’s fee. E. Long. 14. 36. N. Lat. 41. 39. GUARGALA, or Guerguela, a town of A- frica, and capital of a fmall kingdom of the fame name, in Biledulgerid, to the fouth of Mount Atlas. E. Long. 9. 55. N. Lat. 28. o. GUARIBA, the name of a fpecies of monkey. See Simia, Mammalia Index. GU AST ALL A, a llrong town of Italy, in the duchy of Mantua, with the title of a duchy, remark¬ able for a battle between the French and Imperialilfs in 1734. It was ceded to the duke of Parma in 1748, by the treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle. It is feated near the river Po, in E. Long. 10. 38. N. Lat. 44. 55. GUATIMALA, the audience and province of, in New Spain, is above 750 miles in length, and 450 in breadth. It is bounded on the well by Soconjufco, on the north by Verapax and Honduras, on the eaft by Nicaragua, and on the fouth by the South fea. It a- bounds in chocolate, which they make ufe of inftead of money. It has 12 provinces under it: and* the native Americans, under the domiixions of Spain, profefs Chriftianity, mixed indeed with many of their own fu- perftitions. There is a great chain of high mountains, which runs acrofs it from eaft to weft, and it is fub- je£t to earthquakes and ftorms. It is, however, very fertile; and produces befides chocolate, great quanti- Giiat'ma’a II Gudgeon. G U E tics of cochineal and cotton, indigo, tvoad, and honey. GuatiMALA, St Jago de, is the capital of the above audience, with a bifhop’s fee, and an univeriity. It carries cn a great trade, efpecially in chocolate. W. Long. 90. 30. N. Lat. 14. o. St Jago de Guatimala was almoft ruined in 1541, by a ftorm and an eruption from the volcanic mountain Guatimala. It was afterwards rebuilt at a good di- ftance from this mountain. But in 1773, it was again deftroyed by a terrible earthquake. The town then contained 60,000 inhabitants •, but no traces of it now remain •, 8000 perfons perifhed by this earthquake, and the lofs has been eilimated at 15 millions ilerling. GUAVA. See Psidtum, Botany Index. GUAXACA, a province in the audience of Mexi¬ co, in New Spain, which is very fertile in wheat, In¬ dian corn, cochineal, and caflia. It is bounded by the gulf of Mexico on the north, and by the South fea on the fouth. It contains mines of gold and lilver. Guax- aca is the capital town. Guaxaca, the capital town of the above province, with a bilhop’s fee. It is without walls, and does not contain above 20C0 inhabitants $ but it is rich, and they make very fine fweet-meats and chocolates. It has feveral rich convents, both for men and women. W. Long. 100. N. Lat. 17. 25. GUAYRA, a dillridl of the province of La Plata, in South America, having Krafil on the eaft, and Pa¬ raguay on the weft. GUBEN, a handfome town of Germany, in Low¬ er Lufatia, feated on the river Neifte, and belonging to the houfe of Saxe Marfenburg. E. Long. 14. 59. N. Lat. 51. 55. GUBER, a kingdom of Africa, in Negroland. It is furrounded with high mountains ) and the Villages, which are many, are inhabited by people who are em¬ ployed in taking care of their cattle and ftieep. There are alfo abundance of artificers, and linen-weavers, who fend their commodities to Tombuto. The whole country is overflowed every year by the inundations of the Niger, and at that time the inhabitants fow their rice. There is one town which contains almoft 6000 families, among whom are many merchants. GUBIO, a town of Italy, in the territory of the church, and in the duchy of Urbino, with a bilhop’s fee. E. Long. 12. 38. N. Lat. 43. 18. GUDGEON, a fpecies of cyprinus. SccCyprinus, Ichthyology Index. This fifti, though fmall, is of fo pleafant a tafte, that it is very little inferior to fmelt. They fpawn twice in the fummer feafon ; and their feeding is much like the barbels in ftreams and on gravel, flighting all manner of flies: but they are eafily taken with a fmall red worm, fiftiing near the ground j and being a lea¬ ther-mouthed fifti, will not eafily get off the hook when ftruck.—The gudgeon may be fiftied for with float, the hook being on the ground ; or by hand, with a running line on the ground, without cork or float. But although the fmall red worm above-mentioned is the beft bait for this fifli, yet wrafps, gentles, and cad- baits wflll do very well. You may alfo fifti for gudgeons with twm or three hooks at once, and find very plea¬ fant fport, where they rife any thing large. When you angle for them, ftir up the fand or gravel with a [ 127 ] G U E balfam, long pole ; this will make them gather to that place, GtSc'geon bite fafter, and with more eagernefs. , II. Sea Gudgeon, Roch-Jijh, or Black Goby. See Gobius, ,Guer^lc e,< Ichthyology Index. GUEBRES, or Gabres. See Gabres. GUELPHS, or Guelfs, a celebrated fadlion in Italy, antagonifts of the Gibelins. See Gibelins. The Guelphs and Gibelins filled Italy with blood and carnage for many years. The Guelphs flood for the Pope, againft the emperor. Their rife is referred by fome to the time of Conrad III. in the twelfth century 5 by others to that of Frederick I. and by others to that of his fucceffor Frederick II. in the thir¬ teenth century. The name of Guelph is commonly faid to have been formed from JVe/f, or Welfo, on the following occafion: the emperor Conrad III. having taken the duchy of Bavaria from Welfe VI. brother of Henry duke of Bavaria, Welfe, aflifted by the forces of Roger king of Sicily, made wrar on Conrad, and thus gave birth to the faftion of the Guelfs. Others derive the name Guelfs from the German Wolff, on account of the grievous evils committed by that cruel faftion : others deduce the denomination from that of a German called Guelfe, w'ho lived at Pi- ftoye 5 adding, that his brother, named Gibel, gave his name to the Gibelins. See the article Gibelins. GUELDERLAND, one of the united provinces, bounded on the weft by Utrecht and Holland, on the eaft by the bilhoprick of Munfter and the duchy of Cleves, on the north by the Zuyder fea and Overyffel, and on the fouth it is feparated from Brabant by the Maefe. Its greateft extent from north to fouth is about 47 miles, and from weft to eaft near as much j but its figure is very irregular. The aix here is much healthier and clearer than in the maritime provinces, the land lying higher. Excepting fome part of what is called the Li?Aioe, the foil is fruitful. It is watered by the Rhine, and its three branches, the Wahal, the Yffel, and the Leek, belides leffer dreams. In 1079, it was raifed to a county by the emperor Henry IV. and in 1339 to a duchy by the emperor Louis of Bavaria. It had dukes of its own till 1528, when it was yielded up to the emperor Charles V. In 1576, it acceded to the union of Utrecht. It is divided into three diftricls, each of which has its ftates and diets. Thofe for the whole province are held twice a-year at the capital towns. The province fends 19 deputies to the ftates- general. Here are computed 285 Calvinift minifters, 14 Roman Catholic congregations, 4 of the Lutheran perfuafion, befides 3 others of Remonftrants and Ana- baptifts. The places of moft note are Nimeguen, Zutphen, Arnheim, Harderwyft, Loo, &c. GUELDRES, a ftrong town of the Netherlands, in the duchy of the fame name. It wras ceded to the king of Pruflia, by the peace of Utrecht, and is feated among marlhes. E. Long. 6. N. Lat. 51. 30. It fur- rendered to the French in 1794. GUERCINO. See Barbieri. GOERICKE, Otto or Otho, a German philofo- pher of confiderable eminence, w'as born in 1602, and died at Hamburg in 1686. In conjunction with Tor¬ ricelli, Pafchal, and Boyle, he contributed much to the farther explanation of the properties of air. He WTas counfellor to the elector of Brandenburg, and bur- gomaftqi G U I Giurnfey goiTiafler of Magdeburg, but his greateft celebrity was J1 derived from his philofophical difcoveries, in a particu- i OuK.na. ^ manner the invention of the air-pump. Mr Boyle indeed made approaches towards the difcovery of it much about the fame time, but with that candour which is ever the charafteritlic of great and enlighten¬ ed minds, he confeffed that the merit of it belonged exclufively to Guericke, the account of whoie experi¬ ments firft enabled him to bung his defign to any thing like maturity. Our author has alto the merit of inventing the two brats hemifpheres, by which the preffure of the air is illuftrated, and an inftrument tor determining the changes in the hate of the atmotphere, ■which fell into difufe on the invention of the barome¬ ter. By confulting his tube he predicted approaching ftorms, on which account he was deemed a forcerer by the ignorant multitude. It is worthy of obferyation, that w hen his brafs hemifpheres were applied to each other, and the air exhaufted, it refilled the efforts of lixteen horfes to draw them afunder. He compoied fe- veral treatifes in natural philofophy, the principal or which is entitled Kxpentnenta MagdeburgicaJ 1672, folio, which contains his experiments on a vacuum. GUERNSEY, an iiland in the Englilh channel, on the coaft of Normandy, fubject to Britain j but (as wTell as the adjacent ifiands) governed by its own laws. See JERSEY. It extends from call to welt in the form of a harp, and is thirteen miles and a half from the fouth-weft to north call, and tw'elve and a half, where broadelt, from eaft to weft. The air is very healthy, and the foil naturally more rich and fertile than that of Jerfey 5 but the inhabitants negledf the cultivation of the land for the fake of commerce : they are, how¬ ever, fufficiently fupplied with corn and cattle, both for their own ufe and that of their Ihips. 1 he iflanu is well fortified by nature w7ith a ridge of rocks, one of which abounds with em^ry, ufed by lapidaries in the polilhing of Hones, and by various other artificers. Here is a better harbour than any in Jerfey, w'hich occafions its being more reforted to by merchants *, and on the fouth fide the Ihore bends in the form of a cref- cent, enclofing a bay capable of receiving very large Ihips. The ifland is full of gardens and orchards *, whence cyder is fo plentiful, that the common people tile it inftead of fmall beer, but the more wealthy drink [French wine. GUETTARDA, a genus of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tricoccce. See Botany Index. GUIANA, a large country of South America, is bounded on the eaft and north by the Atlantic ocean, and the river Oroonoko j on the fouth, by the river of the Amazons 5 and on the weft, by the provinces of Grenada and New Andalufia, in lerra Firma, from which it is feparated both on the wTeft and north by the river Oroonoko. It extends above 1200 miles from the north-eaft to the fouth-weft, that is, from the mouth of the river Oroonoko to the mouth of the river of the Amazons, and near 600 in the contrary direftion. Moft geographers divide it into two parts, calling the country along the coaft Caribbeana Proper, and the interior country Guiana Proper : The Lift is alfo ftyled El Dorado by the Spaniards, on account of the immenfe quantity of gold it is luppofed to contain. G U T The Portuguefe, French, and Dutch, have all fet- Guiana, tlem.rnts along the coaft. What lies fouth of Cape North belongs to the firft of thefe nations 5 the coaft; between Cape North and Cape Orange is poffoiTed by the natives 5 French Guiana, Old Cayenne, or Equi- noclial France, extends from Cape Orange, about 240 miles along the coaft, to the river Marani 5 where the Dutch territory begins, and extends to the mouth of the Orooncko. Along the coaft, the land is low7, marlhy, and fub- ject to inundations in the rainy feafon, from a multi¬ tude of rivers which defcend from the inland moun¬ tains. Hence it is, that the atmofphere is fuffocating, hot, moift, and unhealthful, efpecially where the w7oods have not been cleared away. Indeed, the Eu¬ ropeans are forced to live in the moft difagreeable fi- tuations, and fix their colonies at the mouths of the rivers, amidft ftinking marlhes, and the putrid ooze of fait moralfes, for the convenienny of exportation and importation. “ Dutch Guiana (according to the account of a phy- fician who refided feveral years at Surinam) was firft difcovered by Columbus in 1498. It lies between the 70 of north and the 50 of fouth latitude, and between the 530 and 6o° of longitude weft from Eondon. It is bounded on the north and eaft, by the Atlantic ; on the w eft, by the rivers Oroonoko and Negroe 5 and on the fouth, by the river of the Amazons. “ It was formerly divided among the Spaniards, Dutch, French, and Portuguefe 5 but, except its fea coaft, and lands adjacent to its rivers, it has hitherto remained unknown-to all but its original natives \ and even of thefe, it is only w7hat w7ere the Dutch territo¬ ries that foreigners have any knowledge of} for thole of the Spaniards, French, and Portuguefe, are inaccef- fible to them. “ This country, on account of the diverfity and fer¬ tility of its foil, and of its vicinity to the equatoi-, which paffes through it, affords almoit all the produc¬ tions of the different American countries between the tropics, befides a variety peculiar to itfelf.” Dutch Guiana was formerly the property of the Englilh, who made fettlements at Surinam, where a kind of corrupt Englifh is ftill fpoken by the negroes. The Dutch took it in the reign of Charles the Second j and it w7as ceded to them by a treaty in 1674, in ex¬ change for w7hat they had poffeffed in the province now called New York. The land for 50 miles up the country from the fea- coaft is flat; and, during the rainy feafons, covered two feet high w7ith water. This renders it inconceiv¬ ably fertile, the earth, for 12 inches deep, being- a ftratum of perfeft manure : an attempt was once made to carry fome of it to Barbadoes 5 but the wood-ants fo much injured the veffel, that it was never repeated. The excefiive richnefs of the foil is a difadvantage, for the canes are too luxuriant to make good lugar } and therefore, during the firfl: and fecond crops, are convert¬ ed into rum. There are fome trees on this part; but they are fmall and low, confifting chiefly of a fmall fpecies of palm, intermixed w7ith a leaf near 30 feet long and three feet wide, which grow7s in clufters, called a Trocelie, and at the edges of running-water, w7ith mangroves. Farther [ 123 ] G U I Farther inward the country riies j though flill fertile, is lefs durable. It is covered with forefts of valuable timber, that are always green ; and there are fome fandy hills, though no mountains; in the French territories, however, there are mountains, according to the report of the Indians, for they have never been vifited by any other people. In this country the heat is feldom difagreeable : the trade-winds by day, the land breezes in the even¬ ing, and the invariable length of the nights, with gentle dews, refreih the air, and render it temperate and falubrious. There are two wet feafons and two dry, of three months each, in every year 5 and, du¬ ring more than a month in each wet feafon, the rain is inceffant. The dry feafons commence fix weeks before the equinoxes, and continue fix weeks after. The wet feafons are more wholefome than the dry, becaufe the rains keep the waters that cover the low lands, next the fea, frefii and in motion ; but during the dry feafon it ftagnates, and, as it waftes, becomes putrid, fending up very unwholefome exhalations. Bloflbms, green and ripe fruit, are to be found upon the fame tree in every part of the year. There are fome fine white and red agates in Guiana, which re¬ main untouched j and mines of gold and filver, which the Dutch will not fuffer to be wrought. The inhabitants of Guiana are either natives, who are of a reddifii brown j or negroes and Europeans $ or a mixed progeny of thefe in various combinations. The natives are divided into different tribes, more or lefs enlightened and polifhed, as they are more or lefs remote from the fettlements of the Europeans. They allow polygamy, and have no divifion of lands. The men go to war, hunt, and fifti; and the women look after domeftic concerns, fpin, weave in their fafhion, and manage the planting of cafiava and manive, the only things which in this country are cultivated by the natives. Their arms are bows and arrows $ fharp poi- foned arrows, blown through a reed, which they ufe in hunting : and clubs made of a heavy wood called iron-wood. They eat the dead bodies of thofe that are flain in war; and fell for (laves thofe they take pil- foners j their wars being chiefly undertaken to furnilh the European plantations. All the different tribes go naked. On particular occafions they wear caps of feathers j but, as cold is wholly unknown, they cover no part but that which dillinguifhes the fex. They are cheerful, humane, and friendly ; but timid, except when heated by liquor, and drunkennefs is a very com¬ mon vice among them. Their houfes confift of four (lakes fet up in a qua¬ drangular form, with crofs poles, bound together by (lit nibbees, and covered with the large leaves called troctlies. Their life is ambulatory $ and their houfe, which is put up and taken down in a few hours, is all they have to carry with them. When they remove from place to place, which, as they inhabit the banks of rivers, they do by water in fmall canoes, a few veffels of clay made by the wTomen, a flat (lone on which they bake their bread, and a rough (lone on which they grate the roots of the caffava, a hammock and a hatchet, are all their furniture and utenfils j mod of them, however, have a bit of looking-glafs framed in paper, and a comb. Their poifoned arrows are made of fplinters of a Vol. X. Part I. t 129 ] GUI and the foil, hard heavy wood, called cacario; they are about 12 inches long, and fomewdrat thicker than a coarfe knit¬ ting needle : one end is formed into a (harp point ; round the other is -wound fome cotton, to make it fit the bore of the reed through which it is to be blown. They will blow thefe arrows 40 yards with abfolute certainty of hitting the mark, and with force enough to draw blood, which is certain and immediate death. Againll this poifon no antidote is known. The In¬ dians never ufe thefe poifoned arrows in war, but in hunting only, and chiefly againft the monkeys j the flelh of an animal thus killed may be fafely eaten, and even the poifon itfelf (wallowed with impunity. GUIAQUIL, alfo denominated byfomeGuAiAQUlL, a city, bay, harbour, and river, in Peru, South Ameri¬ ca. The city is the fecond of Spanifh origin, being as old as the year 1534. It lies on the weft fide of the river of the fame name, in i° iT S. Lat. and 790 17' W. Long. It is divided into the old and new towns, between which there is a communication by means of a wooden bridge. It is two miles in extent, and defend¬ ed by two forts. The churches, convents, and houfes, are of wood, and it contains about 20,000 inhabitants. The wromen are celebrated for their perfonal charms, polite manners, and elegant drefs. This place is mod of all noted for a (hell-fifh no larger than a nut, which produces the mod beautiful purple dye in the w'orld. It is the blood of the fi(h, preffed out by a particular procefs. The commerce here is very confiderable, the produdlions of the country alone forming the greateft part of it, which confift of timber, fait, horned cattle, mules, and colts, pepper, drugs, and a kind of wool much finer than cotton, made ufe of for mattreffes and beds. GUIARA, a fea-port towm of South America, and on the Caracca coaft. The Englilh attempted to take it in 1739 and 1743 j but they w^ere repulfed both times. W. Long, 66. 5. N. Lat. 10. 35. GUICCIARDINI, Francisco, a celebrated hi- (lorian, born at Florence in 1482. He profeffed the civil law with reputation, and wras employed in feve- ral embaflies. Leo X. gave him the government of Modena and Reggio, vand Clement VII. that of Ro¬ magna and Bologna. Guicciardini was alfo lieutenant- general of the pope’s army, and diftinguiftied himfelf by his bravery on feveral occafions $ but Paul III. ha¬ ving taken from him the government of Bologna, he retired to Florence, where he was made counfellor of (late, and was of great fervice to the houfe of Medi- cis. He at length retired into the country to wnite his hiftory of Italy, which he compofed in Italian, and which comprehends what paffed from the year 1494 to 1532. This hiftory is greatly efteemed; and was continued by John Baptift Adriani, his friend. He died in 1540. Guicciardini, Lewis, his nephew, compofed a hiftory of the Low Countries, and memoirs of the af¬ fairs of Europe, from 1530 to 1560. He wrote with great fpirit againft the perfecution of the duke d’Alva, for which he imprifoned him. Died in 1583. GUIDES, in military language, are {dually the country people in the neighbourhood of an encamp¬ ment j who give the army intelligence concerning the country, the roads by w’hich they are to march, and the probable route of the enemy. R GUIDIj GUI [ 130 ] GUI GUIDI, Alexander, an eminent Italian poet, born at Pavia in 1650. Having a defire to fee Rome, he there attradled the notice of Queen Chriftina of Swe¬ den, who retained him at her court ; he alfo obtain¬ ed a confiderable benefice from Pope Innocent XI. and a penfipn from the duke of Parma. For a good office he did the ftate of Milan with Prince Eugene, he was enrolled among the nobles and decurions of that town j and died in 1712. Nature had been kinder to his in¬ tellects than to his exterior form •, his body was fmall and crooked, his head was large, and he was blind of his right eye. A collection of his works was publilhed at Verona in 1726. GUIDO ARETIN. See Aretin. Guido Reni, an illuitrious Italian painter, born at Bologna in 1595. In his early age he was the dif- ciple of Denis Calvert, a Flemiffi mailer of good re¬ putation ; but afterwards entered himfelf in the fchool of the Caracci. He firlt imitated Ludovico Caracci j but fixed at lait in a peculiar ftyle of his own, that fecured him the applaufe of his owrn time and the ad¬ miration of pofterity. He w-as much honoured, and lived in fplendor : but an unhappy attachment to gam¬ ing ruined his circumltances; the j-efleCtion of which brought on a languiihing diforder, that put an end to his life in 1642. There are feveral defigns of this great mailer in print, etched by himfelf. GUIDON, a fort of flag or Itandard borne by the king’s life-guard ; being broad at one extreme, and al- moit pointed at the other, and flit dr divided into two. The guidon is the enfign or flag of a troop of horfe- guards. See Guard. Guidon, alfo denotes the officer who bears the gui¬ don. The guidon is that in the horfe-guards which the enfign is in the foot. The guidon of a troop of h'orfe takes place next below the cornet. Guidons, guidones, or fchola guidonum, was a com¬ pany of prielts eltablilhed by Charlemagne, at Rome, to conduft and guide pilgrims to Jerulalem, to vilit the holy places : they were alfo to affilt them in cafe they fell lick, and to perform the lalt offices to them in cafe they died. GUIENNE, a large province of France, nowr^form- ing the department of Gironde and that of Lot and Ga¬ ronne, bounded on the north by Saintogne, Angoumois, and Limofin *, on the ealt by Limolin, Auvergne, and Languedoc } on the fouth by the Pyrenees, Lower Navarre, and Bearn; and on the wTelt by the ocean. It is about 225 miles in length, and 200 in breadth. It is divided into the Upper and Lower. The Upper comprehends Querci, Rouergue, Armagnac, the terri¬ tory of Comminges, and the county of Bigorre. The Lowrer contains Bourdelois, Perigord, Agenois, Con- domois, Bazadois, the Lander, Proper Gafcony, and the diltriCt of Labour. The principal rivers are, the Garonne, the Adour, the Tam, the Aveiron, and the Lot. Bourdeaux is the capital town. GUILANDINA, the nickar tree, a genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs, and in the na¬ tural method ranking under the 33d order, Zomw/tfcc*?. See Botany Index. GUILD, (from the Saxon guildane, to “ pay”), lig- nifies a fraternity or company, becaufe every one was gildare, i. e. to pay fomething towards the charge and fupport of the company. As to the original of thefe guilds or companies: It wTas a law among the < Saxons, that every freeman of fourteen years of age fliould find fureties to keep the peace, or be commit¬ ted : upon which certain neighbours, confilting of ten families, enter into an affociation, and become bound for each other, either to produce him who committed an offence, or to make fatisfaftion to the injured par¬ ty : that they might the better do this, they raifed a fum of money among themfelves, which they put into a common flock j and when one of their pledges had committed an offence, and was fled, then the other nine made fatisfadtion out of this flock, by payment oi: mo¬ ney, according to the offence. Becaufe this affociation confifled of ten families, it was called a decennary : and from hence came out later kinds of fraternities. ^ But as to the precife time when thefe guilds had their ori¬ gin in England, there is nothing of certainty to be found ; lince they were in ufe long before any formal licence wras granted to them for fuch meetings. It feems to have been about the dole of the eleventh cen¬ tury, fays Anderfon, in his Hiftory of Commerce, vol. i. p. 70. that merchant-guilds, or fraternities, w-hich w7ere aftenvards ffyled corporations, came firft into ge¬ neral ufe in many parts of Europe. Mr Madox, in his Firma Burgi, chap. i. $ 9. thinks, they w^ere hardly known to our Saxon progenitors, and that they might be probably brought into England by the Normans ; although they do not feem to have been very nume¬ rous in thofe days. The French and Normans might probably borrow them from the free cities of Italy, where trade and manufadtures were much earlier pro¬ pagated, and wffiere poflibly fuch communities were firit in ufe. Thefe guilds are now companies joined to¬ gether, with laws and orders made by themfelves, by the licence of the prince. Guild, in the royal boroughs of Scotland, is (till ufed for a company of merchants, who are freemen of the borough. See Borough. Every royal borough has a dean of guild, who is the next magiftrate below the bailiff. He judges ot controverfies among men concerning trade, diiputes between inhabitants touching buildings, lights, water- courfes, and other nuifances $ calls courts, at which his brethren of the guild are bound to attend j ma¬ nages the common flock of the guild; and amerces and colledts fines. Guild, Gild, or Geld, is alfo ufed among our anci¬ ent writers, for a compenfation or muldt, for a fault committed. GviLD-Hall, or Gild-Hall, the great court of judi¬ cature for the city of London. In it are kept the mayor’s court, the ffieriff’s court, the court ot hutt¬ ings, court of confidence, court of common council, chamberlain’s court, &c. Here alfo the judges fit upon nifiprius, &c. GUILDFORD, or Guldeford, a borough-town of Surry, fituated on the river Wey, 31 miles fouth- weft of London. Near it are the ruinous_walls of an old caftle, this having been in the Saxon times a royal villa, wThere many of our kings ufed to pafs the feftivals. Here is a corporation confifting of a mayor,, recorder, aldermen, &c. which fent members to parlia¬ ment ever fince parliament had a being. The great road from London to Chichefter and Portfmouth lies through this town, which has always been famous for GUI [13 Guillemot good inns, the cleaneft of linen, and other excellent . ,11 . accommodations ; and the affizes are often held here. Guihotine. jts manufa$;ory formerly was cloth, of which there are Hill fome fmall remains. Here is a fchool founded by King Edward VI. alfo an almfhoufe endowed with lands worth 300I. a-year, of which 100I. to be em¬ ployed in fetting the poor at work, and the other 200I. for the maintenance of a matter, 12 brethren, and 8 fitters, who are to have 2s. 6d. a-week. Ihere are, befides, two charity-fchools for 30 boys and 20 girls. TThere were three churches in this town, but one of them fell down in April 1740. There is a fine circu¬ lar courfe for horfe-matches, which begin when the Newmarket races are ended. King Vlilliam III. found¬ ed a plate of 100 guineas to be run for here every May, and ufed to honour the race with his prefence, as did once King George I. The river Wey is made navigable to the town, and by it a great quantity of timber is carried to London, not only from this neighbourhood, but from Suffex and Hampfhire woods, above 30 miles off, from whence it is brought hither in the fummer by land carriage. This navigation is alfo of great fupport to Farnham market, corn bought there being brought to the mills on this river within feven miles dittance, and, after being ground and dreffed, is fent down in barges to London. The road from hence to Farnham is very remarkable, for it runs along upon the ridge of a high chalky hill, called St Catharine's, no wider than the road itfelf, from whence there is an extenfive pro- fpecft, viz. to the north and north-wett, over Baglhot Heath, and the other way into Suffex, and almoft to the South Downs. The town fends two members to parliament; and gives title of earl to the North family. GUILLEMOT. See Colymbus, Ornithology Index. GUILLIM, John, of Welfh extra&ion, was born in Herefordfhire about the year 1565. Having com¬ pleted his education at Brazen-nofe college, Oxford, he became a member of the college of arms in Lon¬ don *, and he was made rouge croix purfuivant, in which poll he died in 1621. He publittied, in 1610, a celebrated work, entitled the Difplay of Heraldry, folio, which has gone through many editions. To the fifth, which came out in 1679, was added A Treatife of Honour Civil and Military, by Captain John Loggan. GUILLOTINE, the name of an inftrument intro¬ duced by the authors of the French revolution, for be¬ heading thofe who were condemned to death. The de¬ cree for ufing it paffed on the 20th of March 1792, by order of the national affembly. It was not a new in¬ vention, properly fpeaking, but the revival of an in¬ ftrument known before. It feems to have been firft ufed under the name of maiden, in the barony of Hali¬ fax in Yorkfhire, and it was likewife fet up in Scot¬ land, but we have no good authority for afferting that it was ever ufed, although fome are of opinion that Re¬ gent Morton, wrho brought a model of it from England, fuffered by it himfelf. See Maiden. Guillotine, the fuppofed inventor, a phyfician of Lyons, and a member of the national affembly, thought it an honour conferred upon his name, by having it united with this inftrument of death. His invention was expenfive, and it received the moft unqualified ap- plaufe, both from the members and from the galleries. The propriety of ufing it was referred to a committee, 1 ] G U I with inftruftions to take the opinion of the moft able Guinea. furgeons refpetting it. M. Louis, an eminent i'urgeon of Paris, declared it well fitted for the talk, and com¬ mended the judgment of M. Guillotine in the contri¬ vance. His difeovery upon this occafion was rewarded by the legiilature with a donation of 2000 livres; and it was ordered to be printed in the Paris Journals. As far as this inftrument diminiihes the duration of the dreadful conflidt with death, it may be deemed mer¬ ciful, and is, in this refpeft, preferable to the hanging of malefactors by the neck ; but the agitation of the mind is probably augmented by the long feries of pre¬ paratory operations. The hands of the criminal are tied behind his back 5 he is ftretched on his mce on a ftrong plank. He is then fattened to the plank, his neck is adjufted to the block, and a balket placed be¬ fore him to receive his head, which in the fpeedieft manner muft take up fome time, although we recoliedt to have read of 21 (viz. Brilfot and his party) who were all decapitated in the courfe of 36 minutes. The conftrudtion of the guillotine has been varioufly modified, and was at length made fo portable as to conftitute part of the travelling equipage of a commif- fioner from the national affembly ; and a reprefenta- tion of it was put upon the coins, as an ornament. On a piece of ten fous value, which wras ftruck at Mentz in the year 1793, there was for the device, the fafees and axe of ancient Rome, crowned with a red cap, and furrounded by a laurel wTreath, having for an infeription, Republique Frangoife, I793> (an 2)* GUINEA, a large trad! of country lying on the weft fide of the continent of Africa, extends along the coaft three or four thoufand miles, beginning at the river Senegal, fituated about the 17th degree of north latitude (being the neareft part of Guinea as well to Europe as to North America). From that river to the river Gambia, and in a foutherly courfe to Cape Sierra Leona, is comprehended a coaft of about *]00 miles $ being the fame trad! for wdiich Queen Elizabeth grant¬ ed charters to the firft traders to that coaft. From Sierra Leona, the land of Guinea takes a turn to the eafhvard, extending that courfe about 15GO miles, in¬ cluding thofe feveral divifions known by the names of the Grain Coajl, the Ivory Coaji, the Gold Coaji, and the Slave Coajl, with the large kingdom of Benin. From thence the land runs fouthward along the coaft about 1200 miles, which contains the kingdoms of Congo and Angola; where the trade for flaves ends. From which to the fouthermoft cape of Africa, called the Cape of Good Hope, the country is fettled by Caffres and Hottentots, who have never been concerned in the making or felling Haves." 1. Of the parts which are above mentioned, the firft is that fituated on the great river Senegal, which is faid to be navigable more than 1000 miles, and is by travellers deferibed to be very agreeable and fruitful. Mr Brue, principal fadlor for the French African company, who lived 16 years in that country, after deferibing its fruitfulnefs and plenty near the fea, adds *, “ The farther you go from the fea, the coun- * AfiUJt try on the river feems the more fruitful and well im- Colha. proved, abounding with Indian corn, pulfe, fruit, Here are vaft meadows, which feed large herds of1 great and fmall cattle, and poultry numerous: the villages that lie thick on the river, Ihow the country R 2 if GUI [ 132 ] GUI Guinea, is well peopled.” The fame author, in the account of ' a voyage he made up the river Gambia, the mouth of which lies about 300 miles fouth of the Senegal, and is navigable about 600 miles up the country, fays, “ that he was furprifed to fee the land fo well culti¬ vated 5 fcarce a fpot lay unimproved •, the low lands divided by fmall canals were all fowed with rice, &c. the higher ground planted with millet, Indian corn, and peafe of different forts *, their beef excellent j poultry plenty and very cheap, as well as all other necelfaries of life.” Mr Moore, who was fent from England about the year 1735, in the fervice of the African company, and refided at James hort on the river Gambia, or in other faftories on that river, about five years, confirms the above account of the fruitful- nefs of the country. Captain Smith, who was fent in the year 1726 by the African company to furvey their fettlements throughout the whole coafl of Guinea, * Voyage to fayS «• the country about the Gambia is pleafant and Guinea, fruitful $ provifions of all kinds being plenty and ex- P’3*» 34’ ceeding cheap.” The country on and between the two above-mentioned rivers is large and extenfive, in¬ habited principally by thofe three Negro nations known by the name of ’Jalofs, Yulis% and Matuhngos. The Jalofs polfefs the middle of the country. The Fulls principal fettlement is on both fides of the Senegal: great numbers of thefe people are alfo mixed with the Mandingos 5 which laft are moftly fettled on both fides the Gambia. The government of the Jalofs is reprefented as under a better regulation than can be expefted from the common opinion we entertain of the negroes. We are told in Aflley’s Colleftion, “ That" the king has under him feveral minillers of date, who aflift him in the exercife of juftice. The grand jerafo is the chief juftice through all the king's dominions, and goes in circuit from time to time to • hear complaints and determine controverfies. Fhe king’s treafurer exercifes the fame employment, and has under him alkairs, who are governors of towns or villages. That the kondi, or viceroy, goes the cir¬ cuit with the chief juftice, both to hear caufes and in- fpe£l into the behaviour of the alkadi, or chief ma- giftrate of every village in their feveral diftridls.” Vaf- concelas, an author mentioned in the Colleftion, fays, “ the ancienteft are preferred to be the prince’s coun- fellors, who keep always about his perfon; and the men of moft judgment and experience are the judges.” The Fulis are fettled on both fides of the river Sene¬ gal : their country, which is very fruitful and popu¬ lous, extends near 400 miles from eaft to weft. They are generally of a deep tawny complexion, appearing to bear fome affinity to the Moors, whofe country they join on the north : they are good farmers, and make great harveft of corn, cotton, tobacco, &c. and breed great numbers of cattle of all kinds. But the moft particular account we have of thefe people is \ 'Travels from Moore, who faysf, “ Some of thefe Fuli blacks, into dijlant wh0 dwell on both lides the river Gambia, are in fub- farts of jgftion to the Mandingos, amongft whom they dwell, Africa, haying been probably driven out of their country by 5?' ' war or famine. They have chiefs of their own, who rule with much moderation. Few of them will drink brandy, or any thing ftronger than water and fugar, being ftrift Mahometans. Their form of government goes&on eafy, becaufe the people are of a good quiet difpofition, and fo well inftru&ed in what is right, that Guinea, a man who does ill is the abomination of all, and none v will fupport him againft the chief. In thefe countries the natives are not covetous of land, defiring no more than what they ufe j and as they do not plough with horfes and cattle, they can ufe but very little j there¬ fore the kings are willing to give the Fulis leave to live in their country, and cultivate their lands. If any of their people are known to be made Haves, all the Fulis will join to redeem them ; they alfo fupport the old, the blind, and lame, amongft themfelves j and as far as their abilities go, they fupply the neceffities of the Mandingos, great numbers of whom they have maintained in famine.” The author, from his own obfervations, fays, “ They were rarely angry, and that he never heard them abufe one another.” The Mandingos are faid by Mr Brue before men¬ tioned, “ to be the moft numerous nation on the Gambia, befides which, numbers of them are difperfed over all thefe countries 5 being the moft rigid Maho¬ metans amongft the negroes, they drink neither wine nor brandy, and are politer than the other negroes. The chief of the trade goes through their hands. Many are induftrious and laborious, keeping their grounds well cultivated, and breeding a good ftock of cattle f. Every town has an alkadi, or governor, f Afleyt who has great power j for molt of them having two common fields of clear ground, one for corn, and the *)’ other for rice, the alkadi appoints the labour of all the people. The men work the corn ground, and the women and girls the rice ground ; and as they all equally labour, fo he equally divides the corn amongfl: them ; and in cafe any are in want, the others fupply them. This alkadi decides all quarrels, and has the firft voice in ail conferences in town affairs.” Some of thefe Mandingos, who are fettled at Galem, far up the river Senegal, can read and write Arabic tolerably; and are a good hofpitable people, who carry on a trade with the inland nations. “ They are extremely populous in thofe parts, their women being fruitful, and they not fuffering any perfon amongft them, but fuch as are guilty of crimes, to be made Haves.” We are told from Jobfon, “ That the Mahometan Ne¬ groes fay their prayers thrice a-day. Each village has a prieft who calls them to their duty. It is fur- prifing (fays the author), as well as commendable, to fee the modefty, attention, and reverence they obferve during their worlhip. He alked fome of their priefts the purport of their prayers and ceremonies j their anfwer always was, “ that they adored God by pro- ftrating themfelves before him j that by humbling themfelves they acknowledged their own infignificancy, and farther intreated him to forgive their faults, and to grant them all good and neceffary things, as well as deliverance from evil.” Jobfon takes notice of fe¬ veral good qualities in thefe negro priefts, particular¬ ly their great fobriety. They gain their livelihood by keeping fchool for the education of the children. The boys are taught to read and write. They not only teach fchool, but rove about the country, teaching and inftnufting, for which the whole country is open to them ; and they have a free courfe through all places, though the kings may be at war with one an- ther. The three fore-mentioned nations pra£lice feveral trades, GUI Guinea, trades, as fmlths, potters, faddlers, and weavers. Their j fmiths work particularly neat in gold aud lilver, and make knives, hatchets, reaping hooks, fpades, and (hears to cut iron, &c. Their potters make neat tobacco pipes, and pots to boil their food. Some authors fay, that weaving is their principal trade : this is done by the women and girls, who fpin and weave very fine cotton cloth, which they dye blue or black.. Moore fays, the Jalofs particularly make great quantities of the cotton cloth *, their pieces are generally 27 yards long, and about nine inches broad, their looms being very narrow j thefe they few neatly together, fo as to fupply the ufe of broad cloth. It was in thefe parts of Guinea that M. Adanfon, correfpondent of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, was employed from the year 1749 }° year * 753» wholly in making natural and philotophical ob- fervations on the country about the rivers Senegal and Gambia. Speaking of the great heats in.Senegal, he ^Twyartto fays*, “ it is to them that they are parti/indebted for Senegal, Stc. the fertility of their lands j which is fo great, that, with p. 308. little labour and care, there is no fruit nor grain but grows in great plenty.” Of the foil on the Gambia, he fays, “ it is rich and deep, and amazingly fertile; it produces fpontaneouf- ly, and almoft without cultivation, all the necelfaries of life, grain, fruit, herbs, and roots. Every thing matures to perfection, and is excellent in its kind.” One thing which always furprifed him, was the pro¬ digious rapidity with which the fap of trees repairs any lofs they may happen to fuftain in that country , “ And I was never (fays he) more altonilhed, than when landing four days after the locutts had devoured all the fruits and leaves, and even the buds of the trees, to find the trees covered with new leaves, and they did not feem to me to have fuffered much.” “ It was then (fays the fame author) the. fith feafon ; you might fee them in fhoals approaching towards land. Some of thefe ihoals were 50 fathoms fquare, and the fifh crowded together in fuch a manner, as to roll up¬ on one another, without being able to fwim. As foon as the negroes perceive them coming towards land, they jump into the water with a balket in one hand, and fwim with the other. They need only to plunge and to lift up their bafket, and they are fure to return loaded wdth fiih.” Speaking of the appearance of the country, and of the difpofition of the people, he fays, “ which way foever I turned mine eyes on this plea- fant fpot, I beheld a perfeCl image of pure nature *, an agreeable folitude, bounded on every fide by charm¬ ing landfcapesj the rural fituation of cottages in the mid ft of trees j the eafe and indolence of the negroes, reclined under the ftiade of their fpreading foliage j the fimplicity of their drefs and manners j the whole revived in my mind the idea of our firft parents, and I fsemed to contemplate the world in its primitive ftate. They are, generally fpeaking, very good-natured, foci- ablepand obliging. I was not a little pleafed with this my firft reception 5 it convinced me, that there ought to be a confiderable abatement made in the accounts I had read and heard everywhere of the favage charac¬ ter of the Africans. I obferved, both in the negroes and Moors great humanity and fociablenefs, which gave me itrong hopes that I fhould be very fafe amongft them, and meet with the fuccefs I defired in my inquiries af- GUI ter the curiofities of the country.” He was agreeably Guinea. ^ amufed with the converfation of the negroes, their fa- ^ bles, dialogues, and wdtty (lories with which they enter¬ tain each other alternately, according to their cuftom. Speaking of the remarks which the natives made to him with relation to the ftars and planets, he fays, “ it is amazing that fuch a rude and illiterate people Ihould reafon fo pertinently in regard to thofe heavenly bodies; there is no manner of doubt, but that with proper inftru- ments, and a good will, they would become excellent aftronomers.” 2. That part of Guinea known by the name of the Grain and Ivor?/ Coajl extends about 500 miles. I he foil is faid to be in general fertile, producing abun¬ dance of rice and roots } indigo and cotton thrive with¬ out cultivation, and tobacco would be excellent if carefully manufactured} they have fi(h in plenty; their flocks greatly increafe *, and their trees are loaded with fruit. They make a cotton cloth, which fells well on the coaft. In a word, the country is rich, and the commerce advantageous, and might be greatly aug¬ mented by fuch as would cultivate the friendftiip of the natives. Thefe are reprefented by fome writers as rude, treacherous people j whilft: feveral other authors of credit give them a very different charafter, de- fcribing them as fenfible, courteous, and the faireft traders on the coaft of Guinea. In the ColleCHon, they are faid j[ to be averfe to drinking to excefs, and fuchi|A°bii. as do are feverely pumlhed by the king’s' order. P- On inquiry why there is fuch a difagreement in the charadler given of thefe people, it appears, that though they are naturally inclined to be kind to ftrangers, with whom they are fond of trading, yet the frequent injuries done them by Europeans have occafioncd their being fufpicious and (hy: the fame caufe has been the occafion of the ill treatment they have fometimes given to innocent ftrangers, who have attempted to trade with them. As the Europeans have no fettle- ment on this part of Guinea, the trade is carried on by fignals from the (hips, on the appearance of wrhich the natives ufually come on board in their canoes, bring¬ ing their gold-duft, ivory, &c. which has given oppor¬ tunity to fome villanous Europeans to carry them off with their effeCts, or retain them on board till a ran- fom is paid. It is noted by fome, that fince the Eu¬ ropean voyagers have carried away feveral of thefe people, their miftruft is fo great, that it is very difficult to prevail on them to come on board. Smith remarks, “ As we paffed along this coaft, we very often lay be¬ fore a town, and fired a gun for the natives to come off j but no foul came near us : at length we learnt by fome (hips that were trading down the coaft, that the natives came feldom on board an Englifti (hip, for fear of being detained or carried off: yet at laft fome ven¬ tured on board } but if thefe chanced to fpy any arms, they would all immediately take to their canoes, and make the beft of their way home. They had then in their poffeflion one Benjamin Crols^ the mate of an Englifti veffel, who was detained by them to make re- prifals for fome of their men, who had formerly been * carried away by fome Euglifti veffel.” In the Collec¬ tion we are told, “ This villanous cuftom is too often prattifed, chiefly by the Briftol and Liverpool (hips,. . and is a great detriment to the flave-trade on the wind- gj Qui^ca^ ward coaft.” John Snock, mentioned in Bofman |, p, 440>. when [ 133 1 G U I [ *3+ ] G U I p. 441. 1 Aflleys Coiua. vol. ii. P S65- § Smith's V y age to ■Guinea, £• 5U. •Guinea, uhen on tlie coaft, wrote, “ We caft anclior, but not one negro coming on board, I went on fhcre 5 and after having itaid a while on the ftrand, fome negroes came to me j and being defirous to be informed why they did not come on board, I was anfvvered, that about two months before, the Englifh had been there with two large veffels, and had ravaged the country, de- llroyed all their canoes, plundered their houfes, and car¬ ried off fome of their people, upon which the remain¬ der fled to the inland country, where moft of them were at that time •, fo that there being not much to be done by us, wTe were obliged to return on board. When I inquired after their wars with other countries, they told me they w'ere not often troubled with them •, but if any difference happened, they chofe rather to end I!Deferiftkn^e Jifpute amicably than to come to arms ||.” He of