L-iga-- tl ^■2. \ \ > \ Encyclopaedia Britannica GTE Cryftals /CRYSTALS, in Chemi/lry, falls or other matters II Ihot or congealed in the manner of cryltal. See Ctefiphoru chemistry jn(ieX . an(} Crystallizatiom. CTESIAS, a native of Cnidos, who accompanied Cyrus the fon of Darius in his expedition againft his brother Artaxerxes; by whom he was taken prifoner. But curing Artaxerxes of a wound he received in the battle, he became a great favourite at the court of Perfia, where he continued praddifing phyfic for 17 years, and was employed in feveral negociations. He wrote the Hilfory of Perfia in 23 books, and a Hi- ffory of the Indies : but thefe works are now loft, and all we have remaining of them is an abridgment com¬ piled by Photinus. The moft judicious among the an¬ cients looked upon Ctefias as a fabulous writer ; yet feveral of the ancient hiftorians and modern Chriftian writers have adopted in part his chronology of the Af- fyrian kings. C FESIBIUS, a mathematician of Alexandria, a- bout 120 years before Chrift. He was the firft who invented the pump. He alfo invented a clepfydra, or a w'ater-clock. This invention of meafuring time by water was’wonderful and ingenious. Water was let drop upon wheels which it turned : the wheels com¬ municated their regular motion to a fmall wooden image, which by a gradual rife pointed with a flick to the proper hours and minutes, which were engraven on a column near the machine. This artful invention gave rife to many improvements ; and the modern man¬ ner of meafuring time with an hour-glafs is in imita¬ tion of the clepfydra of Ctefibius. CFESIPHON, a celebrated Greek architeft, who gave the defigns of the famous temple of Ephefus, and invented a machine for bringing thither the co¬ lumns to be ufed in that noble ftrufture. He flouriftr- ed 544 B. C. Ctesiphon, in Ancient Geography, a large village, or rather a fine city, of Chalonitis, the moft fouthern province of Aflyria. It was fituated on the left or eaft fide of the Tigris, oppodte to Seleucia on this fide j and built by the Parthians, to rival Seleucia. Here the kings of Parthia palfed the winter (Strabo) ; as they did the fummer at Ecbatana. Ctesiphon was alfo the name of feveral noted per- fons of antiquity. 1. An Athenian, who advifed his fellow citizens to crown publicly Demofthenes with a golden crown for his probity and virtue. This was oppofed by the orator AEfchines, the rival of De- Voi. VII. Part I. CUB mofthenes, who accufed Ctefiphon of feditious views. Cub, Demofthenes undertook the defence of his friend, in Cuba, a celebrated oration ftill extant, and AEfchines was ba- ‘ 'r~~ niflied. 2. A Greek architeift, w7ho made the plan of Diana’s temple at Ephefus. 3. An elegiac poet, whom King Attalus fet over his poffeffions in AEolia. 4. A Greek hiftorian, who wrote a hiftory of Boe- otia. CUB, a bear’s whelp. Among hunters, a fox and marten of the firft year are alfo called cubs. Sec Ursus. CUBA, a large and very important ifland in the Weft Indies, belonging to Spain. On the eaft fide it begins at 20. 20. N. Eat. touches the tropic of Can¬ cer on the north, and extends from 74. to 85. 15. W. Long. It lies 60 miles to the weft of Hiipaniola, 25 leagues north of Jamaica, 100 miles to the eaft of Ju- catan, and as many to the fouth of Cape Florida ; and commands the entrance of the gulfs both of Mexi¬ co and Florida, as alfo the windward paflages. "By this fituation it may be called the key of the Weft In¬ dies. It was difcovered by Columbus in 1492, who gave it the name of Ferdinando, in honour of King Ferdinand of Spain ; but it quickly after recovered its ancient name of Cuba. The natives did not regard Columbus with a very favourable eye at his landing j and the weather proving very tempeftuous, he jfoon left this ifland, and failed to Hayti, now' called Hifpa- nio/a, wdrere he was better received. The Spaniards, however, foon became mailers of it. By the year 1511 it was totally conquered } and in that time they had deftroyed, according to their own accounts, feve¬ ral millions of people. But the pofTeflion of Cuba was far from anfwering the expedlations of the Spanifti adventurers, whofe avarice could be fatiated with nothing but gold. Thefe monfters, finding that there was gold upon the ifland, concluded that it muft coits from mines ; and therefore tortured the few inhabi¬ tants they had left, in order to extort from them a dif- covery of the places where thefe mines lay. The mi- feries endured by thefe poor creatures were fuch that they almoft unanimoully refolved to put an end to their own lives; but were prevented by one of the Spaniih tyrants called Vafco Porcellos. This wretch threaten¬ ed to hang himfelf along with them, that he might have the pleafure, as he faid, of tormenting them in the next world worfe than he had done in this; and fo much were they afraid of the Spaniards, that this A threat CUB [ 2 threat diverted tlrefe poor favages from their defperate threat aivtr i Havannah was built, refolulion. In 151!, tnc town « 1, nres now the principal place on the illan . were at firft built only of wood ; and the to f If was for a long time fo inconfiderable, that 'n 53 ” aken by a French pirate, who obliged the mha- bhants to pay 700 ducats to lave it from being burn . The ve y day after the pirate’s departure, three Spa- niih Ihips arrived from Mexico, and having unloaded their cargoes failed in pnrfuit of the pirate Ih.p. But foch wasgthe’cowardice of the officers, that the pirate took all the three (hips, and returning to the Havan- rah obliged the inhabitants to pay 7°° ducats more. To prevent misfortunes of this kind, the inhabitants buiU their houfes of done 5 and the place has fince been ftrongly fortified. See Havannah. ■ According to the Able Raynal, tne Spamlh fettle- ment at Cuba is very important on three account^ I. The produce of the country, which is con 2 As being the llaple of a great trade J and, 3. As , . : k^v to t|,e Well Indies. T he principal pro- S^i^ts cotton. The commodfty W of fiigar i and this, whichldU ^ItftlfbeV» give* Cuba thatTau o7p,orpeti.y forf which^ fee™ u f„gngeednebruteven fnd 'ZntllLZ yet it has plains fufficiently extenfive, and well enough watered, f p- pl th -fumpfton Cd ; e g«a,e part of E P _ rlnroperiV ntaIger«ould enable it ,0 furpafs every i ^tSrrtM^^p?^, ‘that ,0 thls’day they have buf fr f,'antat.or,s where with the finelt canes, they ™k' but“partly of coatfe fngar at a great 1 the mothe/- fnr the Mexican market, and part y ‘ ntrv while the indolent inhabitants are content 'to0 import fugar for ‘'■'f^'^entpTedwfth ""o- PeTu'therVwas Sufficient, with the little brought from Caracca aud Buenos Ayres, to fupplv all Spam. But S trade too has declined through the negligence of t court of Madrid, in not gratifying the gene fcarce be applied to any other purpofe than that o Ceding canle. The hundredth part of this ifland is ^ . VPt cleared. The true plantations are all confined to the beaut'ful plains of the Havannah, and even tho e are not whit they might be. All thele plantations 1 CUB tocrether may employ about 25,000 male and female ilaves The7 number of whites, meftees, mulattoes ,nd free negroes upon the whole idand, amounts to about To,coo- The food of thefe different fpecies con- fifts of excellent pork, veiy bad beef, .^nd caJa^ bread The colony would be more flounflnng, modu'aions bad not been made the property of a com- lauy, whofe exclufive privilege operates as a conftant ;ld invariable principle of difeouragement. If any , . ,, f,irinlv the want of an open trade, and a- tXShe grftlces occafioned by'his monopoly at Cuba it would be the advantage which this .{land has rsj? *."=riwn*t > colony ltfelf* , . became acquainted with tempt upon Fl°r df i"hlL It was immediately dif- . tVle "7 canifw® beft route the (hips bound covered that this take ; and to irth^we'ahh'of the ffiand is principally, tf no, al- t0pCUBE,0tnG„v.elry, a Mid body confining of fix or quantity, being ouantitv whereof it is the be eq„al ,0 the numbe or^uanm, f ^ cube-root , as 2 is • q . anj is the » lo ^ and two times 4 is o , anu u-j- times 2 is 4, ano ,,7^ gee Algebra. “rUBEBS0 iti’he litwl Vln, dried truit CUBEBb, in tne m ^ often lomewhat refembling a gram f P PP [rom the ifland of Java, i^rlan^r and pungency, they are far mfe- rl°CUBK^equat 1 on. Je' ^LThe word is derived CUB'D1,f ;adif “and i^ve" ihem from their be- from .»««, a ^ ’ comJon die> or of a cubic fi- ,nS Thefe bodies owe this fhape to an admixture , J ,be re are only two known fpecies of the of lead, and there y ^ w.th thin genus. I- A c“ . d,miJs Df Yotkfhire, and fume flakes, found in the lea . nrifi 2 A milky white other parts of the iing is’found in the lead- one with thicker cru .. VnrUlhire hut is ufually mines of Derbylh.re and Yorklbire, ‘"cubit8 Tn't! e menfurntion of the ancients a long me^ffi«,^equal to the length of a man’s arm, from the 'he cu'bft °oTtheUScti?tu- equal .0 , loot 9.888 inches. i roe Qf two mufcles CUBITiEUS muscles ^e name of the hand. See Anato „ . ne or the arm, teach- CUB1TUS, m otherwife called uha, ing from the elbm\ to t^^w ^ ^ for all that or the greater fojfi e- elbow and the wrifl } m- part of the arm between he dbq Ue ano the eluding the ulna or cubitus, proper.. radius. in Anatomy, the CUBOhDES, or Os Cvbifokmz, feventh cue [ Cucking- feventh bone of the foot; fo called from. Its being In ftool form of a cube or die. Cucumis CUCKING-stool, an engine invented for punifh- _U 1 '■ Ing fcolds and unquiet women, by ducking them in water j called in ancient times a tumbrel, and fome- times a trebuchet. In Domefday, it is called cathedra Jlercoris ; and it was in ufe even in the Saxon times, by whom it was deferibed to be cathedra in qua nx- qfee rnulieres fedentes aquis demergebantur. It was an¬ ciently alfo a punilhment inflidled upon brewers and bakers tranfgrefling the laws who w’ere thereupon in fuch a ftool immerged over head and ears injlercore, fome ftinking water. Some think it a corruption from ducking Jlool ; others from choaking-Jlool, quia hoc tnodo demerfee aquis fere fuffocantur. See Castioa- tory. CUCKOW. See Cuculus, Ornithology Index. Cv enow-Spit, the fame with froth-fpit. See Froth- Spit, and Cicada. CQCUBALUS, BERRY-BEARING CHICK-WEED: A genus of plants belonging to the decandria clals ; and in the natural method ranking under the 22d order, Caryophyllei. CUCULUS, the Cuckow, a genus of birds belong¬ ing to the order of picse. See Ornithology Index. CUCUMBER. See Cucumis, Botany Index. CUCUMIS, the Cucumber : a genus of plants be¬ longing to the moncecia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 34th order, Cucurbitacece. See Botany Index. Four varieties of the cucumis fativus are chiefly cul¬ tivated in this country. They are raifed at three dif¬ ferent feafons of the year: 1. on hot-beds, for early fruit 5 2. under bell or hand glaffes, for the middle crop j 3. on the common ground, which is for a late crop, or to pickle. The cucumbers which are ripe before April are unwholefome ", being raifed wholly by the heat of the dung without the afliftance of the fun. Thofe raifed in April are good, and are raifed in the following manner. Towards the latter end of January, a quantity of frelh horfe-dung muft be procured with the litter among it j and a fmall proportion of fea-coal allies Ihould be added to it. In four or five days the dung will begin to heat; at which time a little of it may be drawn flat on the outfide, and covered with two inches thicknefs of good earth : this muft be covered with a bell-glafs } and after twro days, when the earth is warm, the feeds muft be fown on it, covered with a quarter of an inch of frelh earth, and the glafs then let on again. The glafs muft be covered with a mat at night, and in four days the young plants will ap¬ pear. When thefe are feen, the reft of the dung muft be made up into a bed for one or more lights. This muft be three feet thick, beat clofe together, and co¬ vered three inches deep with fine frelh earth •, the frame muft then be put on, and covered at night, or in bad weather, with mats. When the earth is hot enough, the young plants from under the bell muft be removed into it, and fet two inches diftance. The glafles muft be now and then a little raifed, to give air to the plants, and turned often, to prevent the wet from the fteam of the dung from dropping down upon them. The plants muft be watered at proper times j and the water ufed for this purpofe muft be ] cue fet on the dung till it becomes as warm as the air in Cucumis the frame : and as. the young plants increafe in bulk, Cuc^rbita they muft be earthed up, which will give them great additional ftrength. If the bed is not hot enough, fome frelh litter ftiould be laid round its fides : and if too hot, fome holes Ihould be bored into feveral parts of it with a flake, which will let out the heat ; and when the bed is thus brought to a proper coolnefs, the holes are to be Hopped up again with frelh dung. When thefe plants begin to Ihoot their third or rough leaf, another bed muft be prepared for them like the firft ; and when it is properly warm through the earth, the plants of the other bed muft be taken up, and planted in this, in which there muft be a hole in the middle of each light, about a foot deep, and nine inches over, filled with light and fine frelh earth laid hollow in form of a bafon : in each of thefe holes there muft be fet four plants: thefe muft be, for two or three days, lhaded from the fun, that they may take firm root j after which they muft have all the fun they can, and now and then a little frelli air, as the weather will permit. When the plants are four or five inches high, they muft be gently pegged down towards the earth, in dire£lions as different from one another as may be j and the branches afterwards pro¬ duced Ihould be treated in the fame manner. In a month after this the flowers will appear, and foon af¬ ter the rudiments of the fruit. The glaffes Ihould now be carefully covered at night ; and in the day¬ time the whole plants fhould be gently fprinkled with wrater. Thefe will produce fruit till about midfum- mer ; at which time the fecond crop will come in to fupply their place : thefe are to be raifed in the fame manner as the early crop, only they do not require fo much care and trouble. This fecond crop ftiould be fown in the end of March or beginning of April. The feafon for fowing the cucumbers of the laft crop, and for pickling, is towards the latter end of May, wrhen the weather is fettled : thefe are fown in holes dug to a little depth, and filled up wdth fine earth, fo as to be left in the form of a bafon ; eight or nine feeds being put into one hole. Thefe will come up in five or fix days; and till they are a week old, are in great danger from the fparrows. After this they require only to be kept clear of weeds, and watered now and then. There ftiould be only five plants left at firft in each hole ; and when they are grown a little farther up, the worft of thefe is to be pulled up, that there may finally remain only four. The plants of this crop will begin to produce fruit in July. CUCURBIT, the name of a chemical veffel em¬ ployed in diftillation, when covered wdth its head. Its name comes from its elongated form in fhape of a gourd : fome cucurbits, however, are fhallow and wide-mouthed. They are made of copper, tin, glafs, and (lone ware, according to the nature of the fub- ftances to be diftilled. A cucurbit, provided with its capital, conftitutes the veffel for diftillation called an alembic. CUCURBITA, the Gourd, and Pompion : A ge¬ nus of plants belonging to the moncecia clafs j and in the natural method ranking under the 34th order, Cucurbitacece. See Botany Index. All the fpecies of gcurds and pompions, with their refpe£tive varieties, are raiied from feed fown annually A 2 in Cucurbit a- ceae CUD [4 April or the beginninR of M»y, either with ht with- out the help of attificial heat. But the plants forward- 11 ed a hot bed till about a month old, produce fruit Ciuldalorc. h or f|X „ceks e;,rlier on that account, and V ripen proportionably fooner. The firft fpecies part.cu- dy will fcarce ever produce tolerably feed fru.t m this country, without the treatment above mentioned In this country thefe plants are cult,vated only for curiofity ; but in the places where they "ofh the they anfvver many important purpofes. In both the Indies bottle-gourds are very commonly cultivated and fold in the markets. They make the principal food of the common people, part.culaily m the war months of Tune, July, and Augult. foe Arabians Tall this kind of gourd cWiA It grows commonly “ the mountains-in thefe delerts. rhe natives bo. and feafon it with vinegar •, and fometunes, filling the fhell with rice and meat, make a kind of pudding o it The hard fhell is ufed for holding water, and fome of them are capacious enough to contain 22 ga , thefe however, are very uncommon. I he fruit ot the nompion likewife conftitutes a great part of the food of the common people during • t Pa°^ feafoned with butter, vinegar, &c. ufed able good fauce for butchers meat, and are alio tiled in Lr 'n England they are feldom ufed till grown to maturity. A hole is then made m one fide, ^TOU^\ which the pulp is fcooped out •, after being ive e „£ "the feeds, it is mixed with diced apples, mi , fugar and grated nutmeg, and thus a kind of pud- lincr is made The whole is then baked in the oven, ancf goeTbvthe name of a ^rfUn pye. For ,h,s pur- uof-8thc plants are cultivated in many places of . g land by the country people, who ra, = them upon o d dung-hill. The third fpecies s^"d Sou, half -:-^rda,r:feaTeiameth0e ^manmneet,.drhhytme people edeemed delicate eating. CUCURBITACEiE, the name of the 34th order in Linnteus’s fragments of a natural method, confiding of p antT which refemble the gourd in external figure, habit v rtues, and fenfible qualities. This order con- ^ats’,he following genera, via. gyonovia melorhria, pair,flora, angaria, bryon.a cucum.s, cucu.bita, lea momordica, ficyos, tricholanthes. r f . CUCURUCU, in Zoology, the name of a erpe 1^ found in America, growing 10 or 12 fee g‘ 1 alfo very thick in proportion to its length, and is o yellowifh colour, ftrongly variegated with black Ipot which are irregularly mixed among the yellow, ^nd often have fpots of yellow within them. . y ' poifonous fpecies, and greatly dreaded by the native but its fiefh is a very rich food, and much elteemea among them, when properly prepared. t in CUD, fometimes means the infide 01 t beafls but generally the food that they keep there, ^d chew over again. See Anatomt Index. CUDDALORE, a town on the coatt of Coro- ma^deHnfndia, belonging to the Ae place where Fort St David once Hood. N. Lat. I.. 1 CUD ,0. E. Long. 79. 5 V 30. This place was reduced by CtaUdwe. the French in the year 1781 ; and in 1783 undeiwent a fevere fiege by the Britifh forces commanded by ge¬ neral Stuart. At this time it was become the prin¬ cipal place of arms held by the enemy on that coaft: they had exerted themfelves to the utmoil in fort y- ing it; and it was garrifoued by a numerous body o the belt forces of France, well provided with artil¬ lery, and every thing neceffary for making a v-gorous de Previous to the commencement of the fiege, they had conllrufted ftrong lines of defence all along the fort excepting one place where the town was covered by a wood, fuppofed to be inacceflible. Through i wood, however! General Stuart began to cut ns way on which the befieged began to draw a line of forti - cation within that alfo. The Bntilh commander then determined to attack thefe fortifications before they were quite completed *, and for this purpote a vigorous attack was made by the Uoops under General Lruce. The grenadiers affailed a redoubt which greatly an- noyedgthem, but were obliged to retire • on which the whole army advanced to the attack of the lines. J he French defended themfelves with relolution j and as both narties charged each other with fixed bayonets, a dreadful {laughter enfued. At laft the Bntifli were obliged to retreat j but the French having imprudent¬ ly cSome out of their lines to puvfue them, were in Iheir turn defeated, and obliged to give up the lines they had conftrUaed with lo much pains and lo gal- UuUy defended.^ M - the hal£ were Europeans; -and that of the French was "0 Though'the^Britilh proved viaorious in this edi¬ ted yet the viflory colt fo dear that there was not now a fufficient number to carry on the fiege wn.1^ ftrL^fdlmimmeTfollhAlTtL’le^^ himfe^was kiZ whf about *9= of his countrymen, and as many taken pnfoners. ^ of the lfhremarkable1 c'ircumftarmes that happened during moft remarkaoi _ of Sepoy grenadiers en- the whole war, viz. A ^ oppP0fed to them with countering the 1 • them. This extraor- fixed bayonets, an over whh due applaufe, dinary bravery was J for themfelves. but procured for ^at oorps^p,^, ^ Lnngefr No Sr operation of any conference took Cuddy II Cud worth. CUD' [5 place during the fiege, which was now Toon ended by the news of peace having taken place between the bel¬ ligerent powers of Europe. CUDDY, in a fitlf rate man of war, is a place lying between the captain-lieutenant’s cabin and the quarter¬ deck ; and divided into partitions for the mailer and other officers. It denotes alio a kind of cabin near the Hern of a lighter or barge of burden. CUDWEED. See Gnaphahum, Botany In¬ dex. CUDWORTH, Ralph, a very learned divine of the church of England in the 17th century. In Janu¬ ary 1657, he was one of the perfons nominated by a committee of the parliament to be confulted about the Englilh tranllation of the bible. In 1678 he publilhed his ^Hrue IntelleBual Syjlem of the Univerfe ; a work which met with great oppofition. He likewile publilh- ed a- treatife, entitled, Deus jujlificatus : or, “ The di¬ vine goodnefs of God vindicated, againft the aflertions of abfolute and unconditionate reprobation.” He em¬ braced the mechanical or corpafcular philofophy : but with regard to the Deity, fpirits, genii, and ideas, he followed the Platonilfs. He died at Cambridge in 1688. The editor of the new edition of tire Biogra- phia Britannica obferves, that it is not eafy to meet with a greater llore-houfe of ancient literature than the “ Intellectual Syllem j” and various writers, we believe, have been indebted to it for an appearance of learning which they might not otherwife have been able to maintain. That Dr Cudworth wras fanciful in fome of his opinions, and that he was too devoted a follow'er of Plato and the Platonifts, will fcarcely be denied even by thofe who are moll fenfible of his gene¬ ral merit. The retleftions that have been call upon fuch a man as the author, by bigotted writers, are altogether contemptible. It is the lot of dilfinguilhed merit to be thus treated. Lord Shaftefbury, fpeaking on this fubjeft, has given an honourable teftimony to the me¬ mory of Dr Cudwrorth. “ You know (lays his lord- Ihip) the common fate of thofe who dare to appear fair authors. What was that pious and learned man’s cafe, who wrote the Intelleflual Syftem of the Uni¬ verfe ! I confefs it was pleafant enough to confider, that though the whole world were no lefs fatisfied w?ith his capacity and learning, than with his fincerity in the caufe of Deity ; yet he was accufed of giving the upper hand to the atheills, for having only Hated their reafons, and thofe of their adverfaries, fairly to¬ gether.” It is obferved by Dr Birch, that Dr Cudworth’s Intelle&ual Syftem of the Univerfe has raifed him a reputation, to which nothing can add but the publi¬ cation of his other writings ftill extant in manufcript. That thefe writings are very valuable cannot be doubt¬ ed. We may be affured that they difplay a great compafs of fentiment and a great extent of learning. Neverthelefs, from their voluminous quantity, from the abftrufenefs of the fubjedts they treat upon, and from the revolutions of literary tafte and opinion, it is morally certain that the publication of them would not be fuccefsful in the prefent age. Mr Cudw’orth’s daughter Damaris, who married Sir Francis Maftiam of Oates in Eflex, was a lady of genius and learning : Ihe had a great friendlhip for Mr Locke, who refided ] C U F feveral years at her houfe at Oates, wffiere he died in 1704. C UE, an item or inuendo, given to the aftors on the u ftage what or when to fpeak. See Prompter. CUENZA, a town of Spain, in New Caftile, and in the territory of the Sierra, with a bilhop’s fee. It was taken by Lord Peterborough in 1706, but reta¬ ken by the duke of Berwick. It is feated on the river Xucar, in W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 40. 10. CUERENHERT, Theodore Van, a very extra¬ ordinary perfon, w'as a native of Amfterdam, where he was born in 1552. It appears, that early in life he travelled into Spain and Portugal ; but the motives of his journey are not alcertained. He was a man of fcience, and according to report, a good poet. The filler arts at firft he confidered as an amufement only i but in the end he w^as, it feems, obliged to have re- courfe to engraving alone for his fupport. And though the different ftudies in which he employed his time prevented his attachment to this profdjion being fo clofe as it ought to have been, yet at leal! the marks of genius are difcoverable in his w7orks. they are flight, and haftily executed wuth the graver alone j but in an open carelefs ftyle, fo as greatly to refemble de- figns made with a pen. He wras eftablilhed at Haer- lem j and there purfuing his favourite ftudies in litera¬ ture, he learned Latin, and was made fecretary to that town, from whence he was fent leveral times as am- baffador to the prince of Orange, to wffiom he addref- fed a famous manifelto, which that prince publiflied- in 1566. Had he flopped here, it had been wellj but direfling his thoughts into a different channel, he undertook an argument as dangerous as it was abfurd. He maintained that, all religious communions were corrupted ; and that, without a fupernatural million, accompanied wuth miracles, no perfon had a right to adminifter in any religious office : he therefore pro¬ nounced that man to be unworthy the name of a Chriftian who would enter any place of public wor- fhip. This he not only advanced in words, but ftrove to fhow the fincerity of his belief by praflice ; and for that reafon would not communicate wuth either Pro- teftant or Papift. His works were publiflied in three volumes folio in 1630 j and though he was feveral times imprifoned, and at laft fentenced to banifhment, yet he does not appear to have altered his fentiments. He died at Dergoude in 1590, aged 68 years. It is no fmall addition to the honour of this lingular man, that he was the inftruflor of that juftly celebrated artift Plenry Goltzius. Cuerenhert wmrked jointly with the Galles and other artifts, from the defigns of Martin Hemlkerck. The fubjeffs are from the Old and New Teftament, and confift chiefly of middling fized plates lengthwife. He alfo engraved feveral fubjefls from Franc. Floris. CUERPO. To walk in cuerpo, is a Spanifli phrafe for going without a cloak ; or without all the forma¬ lities of a full drefs. CUFF, Henry, the unfortunate fecretary of the unfortunate earl of Effex, was born at Hinton St George in Somerfetftfire, about the year 1560, of a genteel family, who were poffeffed of confiderable e- ftates in that county. In 1576, he wras entered of Trinity college Oxford, where he focm acquired con- fiderable Cue !' Cuff. Cu']as II Cuirafs. GUI [6 fiJerable rEpiitation as a Grecian and difputant. He r n n • !„ 4.1 ml lideraDie reputation da a ^ obtained a fellow (hip in the above-mentioned college ; but was afterwards expelled for fpeakmg difrefpedt- fully of the founder (a). He was however, foon after admitted of Merton college ; of which, in 15M6, he was clefted probationer, and in 1588 fellow. n this year he took the degree of mafter of arts.. Some time after he was elefted Greek profeffor and in 1594 proftor of the univerfity. When he left Oxford is uncertain ; nor are we better informed as to the means of his introduftion to the earl of Effex. W hen t at nobleman was made lord lieutenant of Ireland, . Cuff was appointed his fecretary, and continued inti¬ mately connefted with his lordfh.p until his confine¬ ment in the tower j and he is generally fuppofed o have advifed thofe violent meafures which ended 11 their mutual deftruaion. The earl indeed confeffed as much before his execution and charged him to lus face with being the author of all his misfortunes. Mr Cuff was tried for high-treafon convlftcd’ and TeXe' cuted at Tyburn on the 30th of March 1601. Lord Bacon, Sir Henry Wotton, and Camden, fpeak of him in very harlh terms. He was certainly a man of learning and abilities. He wrote two books; the one entitled, The Differences of the Ages of Man s Life; the other, De V” ; f rwle tfiacno. The firft was publilhed after his death , the fecond is ftill in manufeript.. CU]AS, James, in Latin Cujacius, the beft civi¬ lian of bis time, was born at Touloufe, of obfeure p - rents in 1520. He learned polite literature and hi- ftory’; andacquired great knowledge in the ancient laws, which he taught with extraordinary reputation at Touloufe, Cahors, Bourges, and Valence in Dau- phine. Emmanuel Philibert, duke of Savoy, lnv.lted him to Turin, and gave him fingular marks o his e- fteem. Cujis afterwards refufed very advantageous offers from Pope Gregory XIII. who was defirous of having him teach at Bologna : but he.chofe rather to fix at Bourges, where he had a prodigious number of fcholars ; whim he not only took great pleafure m nftruaing, but aflifted with his fubftance which oc- cafioned his being called the ^ He died at Bourges in 1590, aged 70. H are in high efteem among civilians. ... CUIAVIA, a territory of Great Poland, having on the north the duchy of Pruflia, on the weft the pala¬ tinate of Kalifk, and on the fouth thofe of Licici an Rava and on the weft that of Ploczko. It coma,ns two palatinates, the chief towns of which are Inow- ]„ez and Bred; as alfo Uladiilaw, the oap.talofthe a'CUIRASS, a piece of defenftve armour, made of iron plate, well hammered, ferving to cover the body, from the neck to the girdle, both be.ore and behind. Some derive the word, by corruption, from 1 C U L the Italian cuore, “ heartbecaufe it covers that Cmrafllers part ; others from the French cuir, or tbc Latin ron- , others from the French cuir, or rne ^auu cu,t- CullTage> “ leather whence coriaceous : becaufe delenlive arms were originally made of leather. The cuirals was not brought into ufe till about the.year 1300, though they were known both to the ancient Greeks and Romans in different forms. . „ CUIRASSIERS, cavalry armed with cuiraiies, as moft of the Germans are : The French have a. regi¬ ment of cuiraffiers ; but we have had none in the Britifti army fince the revolution. CULDEE, in church-hiftory, a fort of monkiih priefts formerly inhabiting Scotland and Ireland. Be¬ ing remarkable for the religious exercifes of preaching and praying, they were called, by way of eminence cultores Dei; from whence is derived the %\ord cul- cfees. They made choice of one of their ow-n frater¬ nity to be their fpiritual head, who was afterwards called the Scots bijhop. r , • , CULEMBACH, adiftriftor marquifate olthe clrcl<- of Franconia, in Germany. It is bounded on the weft by the bifhopric of Bamberg ; on the fouth by the t - ritory of Nuremberg ; on the eaft by thc Pa|ff Bavaria and Bohemia; and on the north y g land and part of the circle of Upper Saxony. It is high mountains; the moft confiderable °f atter »re thofe of Frichtelbetg, all of them covered " P'"e trees Here are the fources of four large rivers, the Maine, the Sala, the Eger, and the Nab.. quifate is the upper part of the burgraviate of Nu K CulIk.ach, a town of Germany, In Wancoma, the capital of the marquifate of the fame nam . ^ good fortifications, and .is fea.ed confluence of fwo branches of the r.ver Mame. / "“fy and burnt by the Huffites m 143°. b> hc tants of Nuremberg in 1573* E. L g- LCULEUS, in Roman antiquity, the largeft mea- ^ "-apachy forcings ^"pints, Engliih wine-meafure, and was 11,095 ^lid inCCULEX, the GNAT ; a genus of infers b^ngtng to the order of diptera. See E^omotogy ^ CUTIACAN, a province of North A 7 ’ the audience of Guadalajara. It is bounded on the north by New Mexico on the ^ ^ ^"the i i^S^lty, ;„d has rich t TAGE a barbarous and immoral practice, wherewSs “of manors ancient,y affumed a right to the firft night of their vaffals brides. culleNj (a) The founder of Trinity College was Sir 1 ho^y ‘gown, out of fun, no d°ubt* Cuff’ bp-pe\ui:ijrle abr:.mention^. “ A pox heads of colleges in h^n^ Wood was told this ftory by Dr Bathurft. G U L [ Cullen. CULLEN, a borough town in the county of Banff v— 1 in Scotland. It is fituated on the fea-coaft. W. Long. 2. 12. N. Lat. 57. 38. The manufacture of linen and damafk has been eftablifhed in this town for more than 50 years. Cullen, Dr William, an eminent phyfician and diftinguifhed medical teacher, was born in Lanarkfhire, in the wTeft of Scotland, 11th December 1712. His father was for fome time chief magiftrate of the town of Hamilton ; but though a very refpettable man, his circumftances were not fuch as to permit him to lay out much money on the education of his fon. William there¬ fore, after ferving an apprenticefhip to a furgeon apothe¬ cary in Glafgotv, went feveral voyages to the Weft In¬ dies as a furgeon in a trading veffel from London : but of this employment he tired, and fettled himfelf, at an early period of life, as a country furgeon in the parilh of Shotts, where he ftaid a fhort time praftifing a- mong the farmers and country people, and then went to Hamilton with a view to praclife as a phyfician, hav¬ ing never been fond of operating as a furgeon. While he refided near Shotts, it chanced that Archi¬ bald duke of Argyle, who at that time bore the chief political fway in Scotland, made a vifit to a gentleman of rank in that neighbourhood. The duke was fond of literary purfuits, and was then particularly engaged in fome chemical refearches, which required to be elu¬ cidated by experiment. Eager in thefe purfuits, his grace, while on this vifit, found himfelf much at a lofs for the wTant of fome fmall chemical apparatus, which his landlord could not furnifh : but happily recolle&ing young Cullen in the neighbourhood, he mentioned him to the duke as a perfon who could probably furnifh it. —He was accordingly invited to dine; was introduced to his grace,—who was fo much pleafed with his know¬ ledge, his politenefs and addrefs, that he formed an ac¬ quaintance which laid the foundation of all Doftor Cul¬ len’s future advancement. The name of Cullen by this time became familiar at every table in that neighbourhood j and thus he came to be known, by charafter, to the duke of Hamilton, who then refided, for a fhort time, in that part of the country : and that nobleman having been fuddenly ta¬ ken ill, the afiiftance of young Cullen was called in j which proved a fortunate circumftance in ferving to promote his advancement to a ftation in life more fuited to his talents than that in which he had hitherto moved. The duke was highly delighted with the fpright- ly charadfer and ingenious converfation of his new acquaintance. Receiving inftrudlion from him in a much more pleafing, and an infinitely eafier way than he had ever before obtained, the converfation of Cullen proved highly interefting to his grace. —No wonder then that he foon found means to get his favourite doftor, who was already the efteem- ed acquaintance of the man through whofe hands all preferments in Scotland were obliged to pafs, appointed to a place in the univerfity of Glafgow, where his fin- gular talent* for difcharging the duties of the ftation he now occupied foon became very confpicuous. During his refidence in the country, however, feve¬ ral mportant incidents occurred, that ought not to be paired over in filence. It was during this time that was formed a connexion in bulinefs in a very humble 7 ] C U L line between two men, who became afterwards eminent- Cullen, ly confpicuous in much more exalted ftations. William, v— afterwards Dodlor Hunter, the famous ledturer on ana¬ tomy in London, was a native of the fame part of the country ; and not being in affluent circumftances more than Cullen, thefe two young men, ftimulated by the impulfe of genius to profecute their medical fludies with ardour, but thwarted by the narrownefs of their fortune, entered into a copartnery bufinefs as furgeons and apothecaries in the country. The chief end of their contradf being to furnifh the parties with the means of profecuting their medical ftudies, which they could not feparately fo w’ell enjoy, it was ftipulated, that one of them alternately fhould be allowed to ftudy in what college he inclined, during the winter, while the other fhould carry on the bufinefs in the country for their common advantage. In confequence of this agreement, Cullen was firft allowed to ftudy in the u- niverfity of Edinburgh for one winter ; but when it came to Hunter’s turn next winter, he, preferring Lon¬ don to Edinburgh, went thither. There his lingular neatnefs in difledling, and uncommon dexterity in ma¬ king anatomical preparations, his affiduity in ftudy, his mildnefs of manner, and pliability of temper, foon re¬ commended him to the notice of Dr Douglas, who then read leftures upon anatomy and midwifery there j who engaged Hunter as an affiftant, and whofe chair he afterwards filled with fo much honour to himfelf and fa- tisfadfion to the public. I hus was diffolved, in a premature manner, a copart¬ nery perhaps of as lingular a kind as is to be found in the annals of literature : nor w as Cullen a man of that dilpofition to let any engagement with him prove a bar to his partner’s advancement in life. The articles w-ere freely departed from by him •, and Cullen and Hunter ever after kept up a very cordial and friendly correfpond- ence; though, it is believed, they never from that time had a perfonal interview. During the time that Cullen pradlifed as a country furgeon and apothecary, he formed another connedfion of a more permanent kind, which happily for him, was not difiolved till a very late period of his life. With the ardour of difpofition he pofTefled, it cannot be fup- pofed he beheld the fair fex with indifference. Very early in life he took a ftrong attachment to an amiable wroman, a Mifs Johnfton, daughter to a clergyman in that neighbourhood, nearly of his own age, who was prevailed on to join with him in the facred bonds of w-edlock, at a time when he had nothing elfe to recom¬ mend him to her except his perfon and difpofitions. After giving to him a numerous family, and partici¬ pating with him the changes of fortune which he ex¬ perienced, ftie died in fummer 1786. In the year 1746, Cullen who had nowT taken the degree of dodlor in phyfic, w as appointed a ledlurer in chemiftry in the univerfity of Glafgow : and in the month of Odtober began his kdtures in that fcience. His fingular talents for arrangement, his diftindlnefs of enunciation, his vivacity of manner, and his know ledge of the fcience he taught, rendered his le&ures intereft¬ ing to the ftudents to a degree that had been till then unknowm at that univerfity. He became, therefore, in fome mealure, adored by the ftuderts. The former pro- feffors were eclipftd by the brilliancy ot his reputation 5 and he had to experience all thole little rubs that envy x and C XT L . . [ 8 Cullen, and difappomted ambition naturally threw in his wav. ' Rc^ardlefs, however, of thefe iecret fliagreens, he piei- fed forward with ardour in his literary career ; and, fu jported by the favour of the public he confoled him- felf for the contumely he met with from a few indi¬ viduals. His praaice as a phyfician increafed from day to day •, and a vacancy having occurred m the year Cullen. he was then appointed by the king proleilor of r» o rnpnt medicine i7tharuniverfity. This new appointment ferved only to call forth his powers, and to bring to light talents that it was not formerly known he poile - fed ; fo that his fame continued to increaie. _ As, at that period, the patrons of the umverfity of Edinburgh were conllantly on the watch for the mo ft -eminent medical men to lupport the rifing fame of the vcoilege, their attention was foon direaed towards Gul¬ den ; who, on the death of Dr Plummer, profeflor of chemiftry, was, in 1756, unammoufly invited to accept the vacant chair. This invitation he accepted: and ha¬ ving refigned all his employments m Glafgow, he be- gan"bis academical career in Ed.nburgh m the month of Oclober of that year; and there he refided till his dC IfAhe admiffion of Cullen into the univerftty of Glaf¬ gow gave great fpirit to the exertions of the ftudents, fhis was ftill, if poffible, more ftrongly felt in Edin¬ burgh Chemiftry, which had been till that time of fmall account in that umverfity, and was attended to y very few of the ftudents, inftantly became a favourite iludy ; and the leftures upon that faence were more frequented than any others m the umverfity, anatomy alone excepted. The ftudents, in general, fpoke of Cullen with the rapturous ardour that is natural to youth when they are highly pleafed. Thefe eulog,UI™ appeared extravagant to moderate men, and cou d not fail to prove difgufting to his colleagues. A party was formed among the ftudents for oppofing this new fa¬ vourite of the public ; and thefe ftudents, by mifrepre- fenting the doftrines of Cullen to others who could no have an opportunity of hearing thefe doth lines them- felves, made even fome of the moft intelligent men in the univerfity think it their duty publicly to oppoie thefe imaginary tenets. The ferment was thus augmented , and it was fome time before the profeflors difeovered the arts by which they had been impofed upon, and univerfal harmony reftored. During this time of public ferment, “ en ” fteadiiy forward, without taking any part himfelf in hefe difputes. He never gave ear to any talcs re peft- his colleagues, nor took any notice of the doflrmes they taught: That fome of their unguarded ftnaures St at time, come to his knowledge is not impoffi- ble i but if they did, they feemed to make no nnpreflion 011 Theih*attempts of a party of (Indents to lower the charafter of Cullen on his firft outlet in the univerfity of Edinburgh having proved fruitlefs, his fame as a profef- fo? and his reputation as a phyfician, became more 7d more refpeited every day. Nor could it well be otherwife: Cullen’s profefiional knowledge was alway^ ereat and his manner of letturing fingularly clear and Lellimble, lively and entertaining 5 and to his patients, bis conduft in general as a phyfican was fo pkafing^ his addrefs fo affable and engaging, and his manner lo open, fo kind, and lo little tcgulated by pecumary ] C U L confiderations, that it was impoffible for thofe who had occafion to call once for his medical afliftance, ever to be fatisfied on any future occafion without it. He be¬ came the friend and companion of every family he vi- fited ; and his future acquaintance could not be dil- ^But if'Dr Cullen in his public capacity deferved to be admired, in his private capacity by his ftudents he deferved to be adored. His conduft to them was io attentive, and the intereft he took in the private con¬ cerns of all thofe ftudents who applied to him lor ad¬ vice, was fo cordial and fo warm, that it was impofli- ble for anyone who had a heart fufceptible of gene¬ rous emotions, not to be enraptured with a conduit io uncommon and fo kind. Among ingenious youth gratitude eafily degenerates into rapture—into reipett nearly allied to adoration. Thole who advert to this natural conftruftion of the human mind, will be at no lofs to account for that popularity that Cullen enjoy- ed-a popularity, that thofe who attempt to weigh every occurrence by the cool ftandard of reafon alone, will be inclined to think exceflive. It is fortunate, however, that the bulk of mankind will ever be in¬ fluenced in their judgment not le s by feelings and a - feaions than by the cold and phlegmatic dilates of reafon. The adoration which generous conduit ex¬ cites is the reward which nature hath appropriated excluiively to difinterefled beneficence. 1 his was the fecret charm that Cullen ever earned about with him, which fafeinated fuch numbers of thofe who had in¬ timate accefs to him. This was the power which his envious opponents never could have an opportunity o fcThe'general condua of Cullen to his (Indents teas this With all fuch as he obferved to be attentive and diligent, he formed an early acquaintance, by inviting them by twos, by threes, or by fours at a time, to fup with him, convening with them on thefe occafions w th the moft engaging cafe, and freely entering with them on the fubjeil of their ftudies, their amufements their difficulties, their hopes, and future profpeds. In this way he ufually invited the whole of Hs numerous dais, tilUie made himfelf acquainted with ffieir abilities, their private charafter, and their objeds of purfuit. ThofePamong them whom he found moft afliduous belt difpofed or the moft friendlefs, he invited the ™ft fre¬ quently,’ till an intimacy was gradually formed which proved^highly beneficial to them. Their doubts ruth regard to their objeds of ftudy, he liftened to with at¬ tention, and folved with the moft obliging c°ndelcen- fion His library, which confifted of an excellent a - br ment of the belt books, efpecia ly on medical fub- X was at all times open for their accommodation A Vfle advice in every cafe of difficulty to them, they lh; had'iu: (lower readi.y .0 ob«e,„ They feeiued to be his family, and few perfous of d, - IrZfhed merit have left the univerSt, of Edmburgh in his time, with whom he did not keep up a cor.el- oondeuce till they were fairly eftabltfhed m bufmefs. By thefe means, he came to have a moft accurate know¬ ledge of the ftate of every country, with lefpeft to pralitioners in the medical line ; the only u e he made of which knowledge, was to direft ftudtnts in their choice of places, where they might have an 0PP0lt^n>- r rr in bnfinefs with a reafonable profpect ox ty of engaging m bulinels VMtu u fuccefs. l C U L [9 Cullen, fu'ccexs'. Many, very many, able men has he thus put into a good line of bufinefs, where they never could have thought of it themfelves •, and they are now reaping the fruits of this beneficent forefight on his part. Nor was it in this wray only that he befriended the ftudents at the univerfity of Edinburgh. Poffefiing a benevolence of mind that made him ever think firlt of the wants of others, and recolle&ing the difficulties that he himfelf had had to ftruggle with in his younger, days, he was at all times Angularly attentive to their pe¬ cuniary concerns. From his general acquaintance a- mong the ftudents, and the friendly habits he was on with many of them, he found no difficulty in difcover- ing thofe among them who were rather in embarraffed circumftances, without being obliged to hurt their de¬ licacy in any degree. To fuch perfons, when their habits of ftudy admitted of it, he was peculiarly at¬ tentive. They wTere more frequently invited to his houfe than others ; they were treated with more than ufual kindnefs and familiarity 5 they were conduced to his library, and encouraged by the moft delicate addrefs to borrow from it freely whatever books he thought they had occafion for: and as perfons in thefe circum¬ ftances were ufually mote ffiy in this refpeft than others, books wrere fometimes preffed upon them as a fort of conftraint, by the doctor infilling to have their opinion of fuch or fuch paffages they had not read, and defiring them to carry the book home for that purpofe. He in ffiort, behaved to them rather as if he courted their company, and flood in need of their acquaintance than they of his. He thus raifed them in the opinion of their acquaintance to a much higher degree of eftima- tion than they could otherwife have obtained ; which, to people whofe minds were deprefled by penury, and whofe fenfe of honour was lharpened by the confciouf- nefs of an inferiority of a certain kind, was Angularly engaging. Thus they were infpired with a fecret fenfe of dignity, which elevated their minds, and excited an uncommon ardour of purfuit, inftead of that melancho¬ ly inactivity which is fo natural in fuch circumftances, and which too often leads to defpair. Nor was he lefs delicate in the manner of fupplying their wants, than attentive to difcover them. He often found out fome polite excufe for refufing to take payment for a firft courfe, and never was at a lofs for one to an after courfe. Before they could have an opportunity of applying for a ticket, he would fometimes lead the converfation to fome fubjeft that occurred in the courfe of his leCluresj and as his leClures were never put in writing by him¬ felf, he would fometimes beg the favour to fee their notes, if he knew they had been taken with attention, under a pretext of affifting his memory. Sometimes he would exprefs a wilh to have their opinion of a particu¬ lar part of his courfe, and prefented them with a ticket ^for that purpofe •, and fometimes he refufed to take payment, under the pretext that they had not received his full courfe the preceding year, fome part of it ha¬ ving been neceflarily omitted for want of time, which he meant to include in this courfe. By fuch delicate addrefs, in which he greatly excelled, he took care to forerun their wants. Thus he not only gave them the benefit of his own leftures, but by refufing to take their money, he alfo enabled them to attend thofe of ethers that were necelfary to complete their courfe of Vol. VII. Part I. 1 C U L ftudies. Thefe were particular devices he adopted to Cullen, individuals to whom economy was neceffary j but it —v—— was a general rule with him, never to take money from any ftudent for more than two courfes of the fame fet of le&uies, permitting him to attend thefe le&ures as many years longer as he plealed gratis. He introduced another general rule into the univer¬ fity, that was diftated by the fame principle of difin- terefted beneficence, that ought not to be here paf- fed over in filence. Before he came to Edinburgh, it was the cuftom of medical profefibrs to accept of fees for their medical affiftance, when wanted, even from medical ftudents themfelves, who were perhaps attend¬ ing the profeffbr’s own lectures at the time. But Cul¬ len never would take fees as a phyfician from any ftu¬ dent at the univerfity, though he attended them, when called in as a phyfician, with the fame affiduity and care as if they had been perfons of the firft rank, who paid him moft liberally. This gradually induced others to adopt a fimilar practice ; fo that it is now become a general rule for medical proftflbrs to decline taking any fees when their affiftance is neceffary to a ftudent. For this ufeful reform, with many others, the ftudents of the univerfity of Edinburgh are folely indebted to the liberality of Dr Cull en. The firft leftures which Cullen delivered in Edin¬ burgh w’ere on chemiftry ; and for many years he alfo gave clinical lectures on the cafes which occurred in the royal infirmary. In the month of February 1763, Dr Alfton died, after having begun his ufual courfe of lectures on the materia medica; and the magiftrates of Edinburgh, as patrons of that profefforffiip in the uni¬ verfity, appointed Dr Cullen to that chair, requefting that he would finifti the courfe of leblures that had been begun for that feafon. This he agreed to do ; and though he was under a neceffity of going on with the courfe in a few days after he was nominated, he did not once think of reading the leftures of his predeceffor, but refolved to deliver a new courfe entirely his own. The popularity of Cullen at this time may be guefied at by the increafe of new ftudents who came to attend his courfe in addition to the eight or ten who had en¬ tered to Dr Alfton. The new ftudents exceeded 100. An imperfeft copy of thefe leflures thus fabricated in hafte, having been publiffied, the doftor thought it ne- cefiary to give a more correft edition of them in the latter part of his life. But his faculties being then much impaired, his friends looked in vain for thofe ftriking beauties that charafterifed his literary exer¬ tions in the prime of life. Some years afterwards, on the death of Dr White, the magiftrates once more appointed Dr Cullen to give lectures on the theory of phyfic in his ftead. And it was on that occafion Dr Cullen thought it expedient to refign the chemical chair in favour of Dr Black, his former pupil, whofe talents in that department of fcience were then well known, and who filled the chair till his death with great fatisfaftion to the public. Soon after, on the death of Dr Rutherford, who for many years had given leflures with applaufe on the pra&ioe of phy¬ fic, Dr John Gregory (whofe name can never be men¬ tioned by any one who had the pleafure of his acquain¬ tance without the warmeft tribute of a grateful refpedl) having become a carididate for this place along with Dr Cullen, a fort of coropromife took place between them, B by C U L [ Cullen, by which they agreed each to give le&ures alternately "■“■"■v ■■,l ' on the theory and on the praftice or phyfic during their ioint lives, the longed: lurvivor being allowed to hold either of the claffes he Ihould incline. In c0,^‘e^ quence of this agreement, Dr Cullen delivered the nrr courfe of leftures on the praftice of phyfic in winter 1766, and Dr Gregory fucceeded him in that branch the following vear. Never perhaps did a literary ar¬ rangement take place that could have proved more be¬ neficial to the Undents than this. Both thefe men poj- fefled great talents, though of a kind extremely dithmi- lar. Both of them had certain failings or defeats, which the other rvas aware of, and counteracted. Each o them knew and relpefted the talents of the other. Tney co-operated, therefore, in the happieft manner, to en¬ large the uuderftanding, and to forward the purfurts o their pupils. Unfortunately this arrangement was loon deftroyed by the unexpe&ed death of Dr Gregory, who wms cut off in the flower of life by a fudden and unforefeen event. After this time, Cullen continued to give leaures on the pradice of phyfic till a tew months before his death, which happened on the 5th of February 1790, in the 77th year of his age. _ In drawing the charaaer of Dr Cullen, his biogra¬ pher, Dr Anderfon obferves, that in fcientific purimts men may be arranged into two grand claffes, which, though greatly different from each other in their ex¬ tremes, yet approximate at times fo near as to be blend¬ ed indiferiminately together 5 thofe who ponds a ta- * lent for detail, and thofe who are endowed with the faculty of arrangement. The firft may be faid to view obiindividually as through a micrcfcope. 1 he field of vifion is confined 5 but the objeas include within that field, which muff ufually be con fide red finely and aoart from all others, are feen with a won¬ drous degree of accuracy and diffmanefs. I he otner takes a fw’eeping view of the . univerfe at }ayge» confiders every objea he perceives, not individu¬ ally, but as a part of one harmonious whole : His mind is therefore not fo much employed in examining the Se¬ parate parts of this individual objea, as in tracing its relations, conneaions, and dependencies on a‘ round it.—Such was the turn of Cullen’s mind. I he talent for arrangement was that which peculiarly il- tinguiffied him from the ordinary clafs of mortals ; and this talent he poffeffed perhaps in a more diftmguilhed decree than any other perffm of the age m which he lived. Many perfons exceeded him in the minute know¬ ledge of particular departments, who, knowing this, naturally looked upon him as their inferior ; but pol- fefling not at the fame time that glorious faculty, which, “ with an eye wide roaming, glances from the earth to heaven ” or the charms which this talent can intu.e into congenial minds, felt difguft at the pre-eminence he obtained, and aftonilhment at the means by which he obtained it. An Arirtotle and a Bacon have had their talents in like manner appretiated } and many are the perfons who can neither be exalted to luolime ideas with Homer, norravifhed with the natural touches of a Shakefpeare. Such things are wifely ordered, that every department in the univerfe may be properly filled by thofe who have talents exadly fuited to the talk affign- ed them by heaven. Had Cullen, however, poffeffed the talents for ar¬ rangement alone, froall would have been his title to 10 ] C u L that hich degree of applaufe he has attained. With- Cullen, out a knowledge otfa&s, a talent for arrangement pro- duces nothing but chimeras ; without materials to work upon, the ffru&ures which an over-heated imagination may rear up are merely “ the bafelefs fabric of a vifion.” Nb man was more fenlible of the juftnefs of this icmaik than Dr Cullen, and few were at greater pains to avoid it. His whole life, indeed, was employed, almott with¬ out interruption, in colle&ing fads. Whether he was reading, or walking, orconverfing, thefe were continu¬ ally falling into his way. With the keen perception of an eagle, he marked them at the firft glance ; and with¬ out Hopping at the time to examine them, they were ftored up in his memory, to be drawn forth as occafion required, to be confronted with other fafts that had been obtained after the fame manner, and to have their truth afcertained, or their falfity proved, by the evidence which Ihould appear when carefully examined at the impartial bar of juftice. Without a memory retentive in a lingular degree, this could not have been done j but fo very extraordinary was Dr Cullen’s memory, that till towards the very decline of life, there was fcarcely a fa£l that had ever occurred to him which he could not readily recolleff, with all its concomitant cir- cumftances, whenever he had occafion to refer to it. It was this faculty which fo much abridged his labour m ftudy, and enabled him fo happily to avail himfeif of the labour of others in all his literary fpeculations. He of¬ ten reaped more by the converfation of an hour than another man would have done in whole weeks of labo¬ rious ftudy. , ^ In his preleaions, Dr Cullen never attempted to read His ledures were delivered viva voce, without having been previoufly put into writing, or thrown in¬ to any particular arrangement. The vigour of his mind was fuch, that nothing more was neceffary than a few ftiort notes before him, merely to prevent him from va- ryincr from the general order he had been accuftomed to obferve This gave to his difcourfes an eale, a vt- vacity, a variety, and a force, that are rarely to be met with in academical difcourfes. H.s leftures, by confe- quence, upon the fame fubjea, were never exaftly the fame. Their general tenor indeed was not much va¬ ried • but the particular illuftrations weie always new, well fuited to the circumftances that attrafted the ge¬ neral attention of the day, and were delivered m the particular way that accorded with the caft of mind the prelector found himfeif in at the time, lo thefe cir¬ cumftances muft be afcribed that energetic artlefs elo¬ cution, which rendered his leaures fo generally capti¬ vating to his hearers. Even thofe who could not fol¬ low him in thofe extenfive views his penetrating mind glanced at, or who were not able to underftand thole apt allufions to collateral objeaswhich hecould only rapidly point at as he went along, could not help being warm¬ ed in fome meafure by the vivacity of his manner. But to thofe who could follow him m his rapid career, the ideas he fuggefted were fo numerous the views he laid open were fo extenfive, and the objects to be at- tained were fo important-that every aftive faculty o£ the mind was roufed; and fuch an ardour of enthufiafm was excited in the profecution of ftudy, as appeared to be perfeftly inexplicable to thofe who were merely un¬ concerned fpeftators. In confequence of this unfhack- led freedom in the compofition and delivery of *as _* Cullen. C U L [ II 1 C U tures, every circumftance was in the niceft unifon with was tall and thin, Hooping much the tone of voice and exprefhon of countenance, which the particular caft of mind he was in at the time infpi- red. Was he joyous, all the figures introduced for il- lullration were fitted to excite hilarity and good hu¬ mour : was he grave, the objefts brought under view were of a nature more foieran and grand : and was he peevifh, there was a peculiarity of manner in thought, in word, and in a£tion, which produced a moil Hriking and interefting effedf. The languor of a nervelefs uni¬ formity was never experienced, nor did an abortive at¬ tempt to excite emotions that the fpeaker himfelf could not at the time feel, ever produce thofe difcordant ideas which prove difgufting and unpleafing. It would feem as if Dr Cullen had confidered the proper bufinefs of a preceptor to be that of putting his pupils into a proper train of Itudy, fo as to enable them to profecute thofe ftudies at a future period, and to car¬ ry them on much farther than the ihort time allowed for academical preleftions would admit. He did not, therefore, fo much drive to make thofe who attended his lectures deeply verfed in the particular details of objects, as to give them a general view of the whole fubjefl to fhew what had been already attained re- fpe&ing it j to point out what remained yet to be dif- covered ; and to put them into a train of ftudy that fhould enable them, at a future period, to remove thofe difficulties that had hitherto obftrucled our progrefs, and thus to advance themfelves to farther and far¬ ther degrees of perfe&ion. If thefe were his views, nothing 'could be more happily adapted to them than the mode he invariably purlued. He firft drew, with the ftriking touches of a mailer, a rapid and general outline of the fubjeft, by which the whole figure was feen at once to Hart boldly from the canvas, diftinft in all its parts, and unmixed with any other obje£l. He then began anew to retrace the pidlure, to touch up the lef- fer parts, and to finiffi the whole in as perfect a manner as the Hate of our knowledge at the time would permit. Where materials were wanting, the pi&ure there conti¬ nued to remain imperfedt. The wants were thus ren¬ dered obvious ; and the means of fupplying thefe were pointed out with the moll careful difefimination. The iludent, whenever he looked back to the fubjeft, per¬ ceived the defeats; and his hopes being awakened, he felt an irrefiftible impulfe to explore that hitherto un¬ trodden path which had been pointed out to him, and fill up the chafm which Hill remained. Thus were the aflive faculties of the mind moll powerfully excited; and inftead of labouring himfelf to fupply deficiencies that far exceeded the power of any one man to accom- pliffi, he fet thoufands at work to fulfil the talk, and put them into a train of going on with it. It was to thefe talents, and to this mode of apply¬ ing them, that Dr Cullen owed his celebrity as a pro- felTor; and it was in this manner that he has perhaps done more towards the advancement of fcience than any other man of his time, though many individuals might perhaps be found who were more deeply verfed in the particular departments he taught than he himfelf was. Dr Cullen’s external appearance, though ftriking and not unpleafing, was not elegant. He had an expref- five countenance, and a lively eye. In his perfon he bout the Ihoulders; CuHodert. and when he walked, he had a contemplative look, feemingly regarding little the obje&s around him. Ac¬ cording to the obfervation of one who was well ac¬ quainted with the character of Cullen, he was eminent¬ ly diltinguiffied as a profeflbr for three things. “ The energy of his mind, by which he viewed every fubjtft with ardour, and combined it immediately with the whole of his knowledge. “ The fcientific arrangement which he gave to his fubjeft, by which there was a hicidus ordo to the dulleft fcholar. He was the firft perfon in this country who made chemiftry ceafe to be a chaos. “ A wonderful art of interelling the lludents in every thing which he taught, and of raifing an emulative en- thufiafm among them.” Life of Cullen by Dr Anderfon in the Bee. CULLODEN, a place in Scotland within two miles of Invernefs, chiefly remarkable for a complete vidlory gained over the rebels on the 16th of April 1746. That day the royal army, commanded by the duke of Cumberland, began their march from Nairn, formed into five lines of three battalions each ; headed by Major-general Hulke on the left, Lord Sem- pill on the right, and Brigadier Mordaunt in the cen¬ tre 5 flanked by the horfe under the Generals Hawley and Bland, who at the fame time covered the cannon on the right and left. In this order they marched about eight miles, when a detachment of Kingfton’s horfe, and of the Highlanders, having advanced before the reft of the army, difeovered the van of the rebels commanded by the young Pretender. Both armies immediately formed in the order and numbers ftiown in the annexed fcheme. About two in the afternoon the rebels began to Cannonade the king’s army j but their artillery being ill ferved, did little execution; while the fire from their enemies was feverely felt, and occafioned great diforder. The rebels then made a puffi at the right of the royal army, in order to draw the troops for¬ ward ; but finding themfelves difappointed, they turn¬ ed their whole force on the left; falling chiefly on Barrell’s and Monro’s regiments, where they attempt¬ ed to flank the king’s front line. But this defign alfo was defeated by the advancing of Wolfe’s regi¬ ment, while in the mean time the cannon kept play¬ ing upon them with cartridge-fhot. General Hawley, with fome Highlanders, had opened a paflage through fome ftone walls to the right for the horfe which ad¬ vanced on that fide ; while the horfe on the king’s right wheeled off upon their left, difperfed their bo¬ dy of referve, and met in the centre of their front line in their rear ; when being repulfed in the front, and great numbers of them cut off, the rebels fell in¬ to very great confufion. A dreadful carnage was made by the cavalry on their backs ; however, fome part of the foot ftill preferved their order ; but King¬ fton’s horfe, from the referve, gailopped up brifkly, and falling upon the fugitives, did terrible execution. A total defeat inftantly took place, with the lofs of 2500 killed, wounded, and prifoners, on the part of the rebels, while the royalifts loft not above 200. The young Pretender had his horfe (hot under him during the engagement; and after the battle retired to the B 2 houfe C U L [12 Culloden, houfe of a faftor of Lord Lovat, about ten miles from Culm, invernefs, where he ftaid that night. Next day he U~v fet out for Fort-Auguftus, from whence he P^ed his iourney through wild deferts w!th great difficulty and diftrefs^ till at laft he fafely reached France, as related under the article Britain, N° 423. (a). CULM, or Culmus, among botamfts, a draw or haulm ; defined by Linmeus to be the proper trun of the graffes, which elevates the leaves, flower, and ^This fort of trunk is tubular or hollow, and has frequently knots or joints diftributed at proper di an- ces through its whole length. The leaves are long, fleck and placed either near the roots in great nu - bers, or proceed finely from the of the ftalk, which they embrace at the bale, hk flieath or glove. 1 C U L The haulm is commonly garniffied with leaves: fometimes, however, it is naked j that is, devoj4 leaves, as in a few fpecies of cypiefs-grafs. Molt graffes have a round cylindrical ftalk} m fome fpecies of fchcenus, fcirpus, cyprels grafs, and others, it is The ftalk is fometimes entire, that is, has no bran¬ ches •, fometimes branching, n \n fchanus aculeatus et capenfis j and not feldom confifts of a number of fcales, which lie over each other like tiles. . , Laftly, in a few graffes, the ftalk is not mterrupted with joints, as in the greater part. _ The fpace con¬ tained betwixt every two knots or joints, is termed by botanifts internodium, and articulus culmi. 7This fpecies of trunk often affords certain marks of diftinaion in difcriminatin^ the fpec.es. rhus .n the genus eriocaulon, the fpecres are fcarce to be^.ft^ Culm . I I gg HE UJ StUOy§UI^ piEMOH (a) P/an of the Battle of Culloden. jCauoijn^ neaiansg; s‘uoll§^ ‘iNnvaaop\[ *2ua; Suitu3TJ ?| n jj H§iia mdm9s J31-uo3n I || || 9JI°AV •ansnj4 -usq aofex\r ..mps™ ^||||^|1||^i|||2"||||0^If||i’M1Ea 'SU°08"aV- r •ai-avwaaTV J° ’u33 'in3l.T •GNVTa ’USQ ’AIMFIV SiSONI'H 3HJh •wn-aoNy pioT ptioffO N. Duke of Perth. The REBEL ARMY. Lord John Drummond. Lord Geo. Murray. e o o o ^ Q ^ ^ On 2 "O o 3 o ^ SB to ^ O T3 S O o O o o 3 5 A o |. 0 S 0 | o "5 o £. O 4^ o o tr* ^ ^ c O w O O -5 O ^ o 3. O 3 r > O n ^ S' O O- O O o 3’ o w 05 Left flank 400. Dd. John Drummond. Guards, huffars, Firft column 800. Thole of the above, who have only guns, and Kilmarnock’s guards. Fitzjames’s juaras, nunais, , r and Perthffiire The young Pretender. horie. fquadron. Second column 800. Right flank 400 Piquets, by Stapleton. Third column 800. Ld. Lewis Gordon’s and Glenbucket’s, to be ready to luccour when needlul. The D. ot Perth’s reg. and Ld. Ogilvie s, not to fire without pofitive order-, and to keep clofe as afrefficorpsde referve. 800.- Colonel Roy Stuart’s, and thole of the above who have only guns. -In all 8350. Park wall, broke down by the Campbells. CUM Culmife- guifhed but by the angles of the cu^rns or ftalks. rous Thefe in fome fpecies are in number 5, in others 6, r J] and in others 10. land.' CULMIFERO.US plants, (from culmus, a ftraw -■■■ y - or haulm) : plants fo called, which have a fmooth jointed ttalk, ufually hollow, and wrapped about at each joint with fingle, narrow, lharp-pointed leaves, and the feeds contained in chaffy hulks ; iuch are oats, wheat, barley, rye, and the other plants of the natu¬ ral family of the Grasses. CULMINATION, in AJIronomy, the palfage of any heavenly body over the meridian, or its greateft altitude for that day. CULPRIT, a term ufed by the clerk of the ar¬ raignments, when a perfon is indicled for a criminal matter. See Plea to Indiflment, par. II. CULROSS, a royal borough town in Scotland, 11- tuated on the river Forth, about twenty-three miles north-weft of Edinburgh. Here is a magnificent houfe, which was built about the year 1590 by Ed¬ ward Lord Kinlofs, better known in England by the name of Lord Bruce, llain in the noted duel between him and Sir Edward Sackville. Some poor remains of the Ciftercian abbey are ftill to be feen here, found¬ ed by Malcolm earl of Fife in 1217. The church w^as jointly dedicated to the Virgin and St Serf confeffor. The revenue at the dilfolution was 768 pounds Scots, befides the rents paid in kind. The number of monks, exclufive of the abbot, was nine. W. Long. 3. 34. N. Lat. 56. 8. CULVER1N, a long llender piece of ordnance or artillery, ferving to carry a ball to a great diftance. Manege derives the word from the Latin colubrina; others from coluber, “ fnake either on account of the length and llendernefs of the piece, or of the ra¬ vages it makes. There are three kinds of culverins, viz. the extra¬ ordinary, the ordinaiy, and the leaft fized. 1. The culverin extraordinary has 5^ inches bore ; its length 32 calibers, or 13 feet’, weighs 4800 pounds j its load above 12 pounds; carries a Ihot 5^ inches diameter, Weighing 20 pounds weight. 2. The ordinary cul verin is 12 feet long; carries a ball of 17 pounds 5 ounces ; caliber 54 inches; its weight 4500 pounds. 3. The culverin of the leaft fi'ze, has its diameter 5 inches; is 12 feet long; weighing about 4000 pounds; carries a Ihot 3^ inches diameter, weighing 14 pounds 9 ounces. CULVERTAILED, among Ihipwrights, fignifies the fattening or letting of one timber into another, fo that they cannot flip out, as the corlings into the beams of a (hip. CUM A, or Cumj*e, in Ancient Geography, a town of iEolia in Alia Minor. The inhabitants have been acculed of ftupidity for not laying a tax upon all the goods which entered their harbour during 300 years. They were called Cumani, CUMtL, or Cuma, in Ancient Geography, a city of Campania near Puteoli, founded by a colony from Chalcis and Cumae of /Eolia before the Trojan war. The inhabitants were called Cumcei. One of the Si¬ byls fixed her refidence in a cave in the neighbour¬ hood, and wras called the Cumean Sibyl. CUMBERLAND, Cumbria, lo denominated from the Cumbri, or Britons who inhabited it; one of the GUN moft northerly counties in England. It wras formerly Cumber- a kingdom, extending from the vallum of Adrian to 1 the city of Dumbritton, now Dumbarton on the frith cunf.uS. of Clyde in Scotland. At prefent it is a county of v——• England, which gives the title of duke to one of the royal family, and fends turn members to parliament. It is bounded on the north and north-weft by Scot¬ land ; on the fouth and fouth-eaft by part ot Lanca- flrire and VVeftmorland : it borders on the eaft w ith Northumberland and Durham ; and on the weft is walhed by the Irifti fea. The length from north to fouth may amount to 55 miles, but the breadth does not exceed 40. It is well watered with rivers, lakes, and fountains; but none of its ftreams are navigable. In fome places there are very high mountains. The air is keen and piercing on thefe mountains, towards the north ; and the climate is moift, as in all hilly- countries. The foil varies with the face of the coun¬ try ; being barren on the moors and mountains, but fertile in the valleys and level ground bordering on the fea. In general, the eafttrn parts of the (hire are barren and defolate ; yet even the leaft fertile parts are rich in metals and minerals. The mountains of Copland abound with copper: veins of the fame metal, with a mixture of gold and filver, were found in the reign oi Queen Elizabeth among the fells of Dement ; and royal mines were formerly wrought at Kef- wick. The county produces great quantities of coal, fome lead, abundance of the mineral earth called black-lead, feveral mines of lapis calaminaris : and an inconfiderable pearl fifhery on the coaft near Raven- glafs. Cumberland, Richard, a very learned Engliflv divine in the latter end ot the 17th century, was fon of a citizen of London, and educated at Cambridge. In 1672 he publiflred his excellent Treatile of the Law's of Nature ; and in 1686, An ElTay toward the Jew'ifli Weights and Mi alures. After the Revolution he was nominated by King William to the biftropric of Peterborough, without the leaft folicitation on his part. Fie purfued his Ifudies to the laft ; and the world is obliged to him for clearing up leveral difficul¬ ties in hiftory, chronology, and philofophy. After the age of 83, he applied himfelf to the ftudy of the Coptic language, of which he made himielf mafter. He was as remarkable tor humility of mind, benevo¬ lence of temper, and innocence of life, as for his ex- tenfive learning. Fie died in 1718. CUMINUM, cumin : A genus of plants belong¬ ing to the pentandria clals ; and in the natural method ranking under the 45th order, Umbellatce. See Bo¬ tany Index. CUNAEUS, Peter, born in Zealand in 15^^* wa8 diftinguilhed by his knowdedge in the learned langua¬ ges, and his fkill in the Jewifh antiquities. He alfo ftudied law, which he taught at Leyden in 1615 ; and read politics there till his death, in 1638. His principal work is a treatife, in Latin, on the republic of the Fie brew's, CUNEIFORM, in general, an appellation given to any body having the lhape of a wedge. CuNEiFORM-2?o«e, in Anatomy, the feventh bone of the cranium, called alfo os bajilare, and os fphenoides. See Anatomy Index. CUNEUS, in antiquity, a company of infantry- j. drawn f «3 1 Cunning ham. CUN [ i Cuniculus drawn up in form of a wedge, the better to break through the enemy’s ranks. CUNICULUS. See Lepus, Mammallia Index. Cuniculus, in mining, a term uled by authors in diftinftion from puteus, to exprefs the feveral iorts of paffages and cuts in thefe fubterranean works. The cuniculi are thofe dire nated from their place of refidence and from their worfhip. CUNODONTES, a people mentioned by Solinus and liidorus, and by them luppefed to have the teeth of dogs. They wTere probably denominated, fays Dr Bryant, from the objeft of their worfhrp, the deity Chan-Adon, which the Greeks expreffed Kvxoday, and thence called his votaries Cunodontes. CUNONIA : A genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index. CUOGOLO, in Natural Hijiory, the name of a ftone much uled by the Venetians in glafs-making, and found in the river Felino. It is a froall Hone of an impure white, of a fhattery texture, and is of the fhape of a pebble. CUP, a veffel of capacity of various forms and ma¬ terials, chiefly to drink out of. In the Ephem. Ger¬ man. we have a defcription of a cup made of a com¬ mon pepper-corn by Ofwald Nerlinger, which holds 1 200 other ivory cups, having each its feveral handle, all gilt on the edges; with room for 400 more. Cup, in Botany. See Calyx, Botany Index. Cvp-Ga/ls, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by au¬ thors to a very Angular kind of galls, found on the leaves of the oak and fome other trees. They are of the figure of a cup, or drinking-glals without its foot, being regular cones adhering by their point or apex to the leaf ; and the top or broad part is hollow¬ ed a little way, fo that it appears like a drinking- glafs with a cover, whicli was made fo fmall as not to clofe it at the mouth, but fall a Itttle way into it. This cover is flat, and has in the centre a very fmall protuberance, refembling the nipple of a woman’s breaft. This is of a pale green, as is aifo the whole of the gall, excepting only its rim that runs round the top : this is of a fcarlet colour, and that very beautiful. Befides this fpecies of gall, the oak leaves furnifli us wuth feveral others, fome of which are oblong, fome round, and others flatted ; thefe are of various fizes, and appear on the leaves at various fealbns of the year. They all contain the w'orm of fome (mail fly ; and this creature paffes all its changes in this its ha¬ bitation, being fometimes found in the worm, fome- times in the nymph, and fometimes in the fly ftate, in the cavity of it. CUPANIA, in Botany : A genus of plants belong¬ ing to the monoecia clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 38th order, Tricocca. See Botany ' Index. CUPEL, in Metallurgy, a fmall veffel which ab- forbs metallic bodies when changed by fire into a fluid fcoria ; but retains them as long as they continue in their metallic ftate. One of the moft proper materials for making a veffel of this kind is the allies of ani¬ mal bones ; there is fcarcely any other fubftance which fo ftrongly refifts vehement fire, which is fo readily im¬ bibes metallic fcoriae, and which fo little difpofed to be vitrified by them. In want of thefe, fome make ufe Cupel, Cupella- tion. CUP [i ufe of vegetable aihes, freed by boiling in water from their faline matter, which would caule them melt in The bones, burnt to perfeft whitenefs, fo that no particle of coaly or inflammable matter may remain in them, and well waftied from filth, are ground into moderately fine powder ; which in or^ler to its being formed into cupels, is moiftened with juft as much water as is fufficient to make it hold together when ftrongly preffed between the fingers j fome direft glu¬ tinous liquids, as whites of eggs or gum-water in or¬ der to give the powder a greater tenacity : but the inflammable matter, however fmall in quantity, which accompanies thefe fluids, and cannot be eaffly burnt out from the internal part of the mafs, is apt /^ive a oart of the metallic fcoria that has been abiorbed, and to occafion the veffel to burft or crack. The cu¬ pel is formed in a brafs ring, from three quarters of an inch to two inches diameter, and not quite lo deep, placed upon fome fmooth fupport: the ring being fill¬ ed with moiftened powder, which is preffed dole with the fingeis 5 a round-faced peftle, called a monk, is ftruck down into it with a few blows of a mallet, by which the mafs is made to cohere, and rendered iul- ficiently compad, and a (hallow cavity formed in the middle : the figure of the cavity is nearly that d a fphere, that a fmall quantity of metal melted 111 it may run together into one bead. To make tj16 ca* vity the fmoother, a little of the fame kind of aihes levigated into an impalpable powder, and not moift¬ ened, is commonly fprinkled on the furface, through a fmall fine fieve made for this purpofe, and the monk again ftruck down upon it. The ring or mould is a little narrower at bottom than at top ; fo that by prel- ' ftng it down on fome of the dry powder fpread upon a table, the cupel is loofened, and forced upwards a little; after which it is eafily pulhed out with the finger, and is then fet to dry m a warm place tree CUPELLATION, the aft of refining gold or iil- ver by means of a cupel. For this purpofe another veffel, called a muffle, is made ufe of, within which one or more cupels are placed. The muffle is placed upon a grate in a proper furnace, with its mouth facing door, and as clofe to it as may be. The furnace be¬ ing filled up with fuel, fome lighted charcoal is thrown on the top, and what fuel is afterwards neceffary is fupplied through a door above. The cuPels are fet ,n thePmuffle ; and being gradually heated by the five kindling of the fuel, they are kept red-hot for fome time, that the moifture which they ftrongly re¬ tain may be completely diffipated : for if any vapours fhould iffue from them after the metal is put in, they would occafion it to fputter, and a part of it to be thrown off in little drops. In the fides of the muffle are fome perpendicular flits, with a knob over the top of each, to prevent any fmall pieces of coals or afties from falling in. The door, or fome apertures made in it, being kept open, for the infpeftion of the cupels, frefti air enters into the muffle, and paffes off throng thefe flits : by laying fome burning charcoal on an iron plate before the door, the air is heated before its admiffion 5 and by removing the charcoal, or fupply- ing more, the heat in the cavity of the muffle may be foroewhat diminiffled or increafed more fpeedily than Cupdia- tion. 6 ] CUP can be effe&ed by fuppreffing or exciting^ the fire in the furnace on the outfide of the muffle. _ The renew-1^ al of the air is alfo neceffary for promoting the fcon- fication of the lead. . The cupel being of a full red heat, the lead caft in¬ to a fmooth bullet, that it may not fcratch or injure the furface, is laid lightly in the cavity it immedi¬ ately melts •, and then the gold or filver to be cupelled is cautioufly introduced either by means of a {mall iron ladle, or by wrapping them in paper, and cap¬ ping them on the lead with a pair of tongs. .1 he quantity of lead fflould be at leaft three or four times that of the fine metal : but when gold is very impure, it requires 10 or 12 times its quantity of lead for cu- pellation. It is reckoned that copper requires lor its fcorification about 10 times its weight of lead : that when copper and gold are mixed in equal quantities, the copper is fo much defended by the gold, as not to be feparable with lefs than 20 times its weight ot lead ; and that when copper is in very fmall proportion, as a 20th or 30th part of the geld or filver, upwards ot 60 parts of lead are neceffary for one of the copper. The cupel muft always weigh at leaft half as much as the lead and copper ; for otherwife it will not be iut- ficient for receiving half the fcoria : there is little dan¬ ger, however, of cupels being made too fmall lor the. quantity of a gold affay. . , . c r . The mixture being brought into thin fufion, the heat is to be regulated according to the appearances; and in this confift! the principal nicety m the ope¬ ration. If a various coloured Ikm nfes to the top, which liquefying, runs off to the fides, and is there abforbed by the cupel, vifibly ftainmg the parts it en¬ ters ; if a frefti fcoria continually fucceeds, and is ab¬ forbed nearly as faft as it is formed, only a fine circle of it remaining round the edge of the metal ; if the lead appears in gentle motion, and throws up a fume a little way from the furface •, the fire is of the pro¬ per degree, and the procefs goes on fucceishilly. F Such a fiery bvightnefs of the cupel as prevents its colour from being diftinguiftied, and the fumes of the lead rifing up almoft to the arch of the muffle, are marks of too ftrong a heat 5 though it muft be obfer- ved, that the elevation of the fumes is not always in proportion to the degree of heat •, for if the heat greatly exceeds the due limits, both the fumes and ebullition will entirely ceafe. In thefe circumftances the fire muft neceffarily be diminiffled : for while the lead boils and fmokes vehemently, its fumes are ap carry off fome part of the gold 5 the cupel is liable to crack from the hafty abforpUon of the fcoria, and p of the gold and filver is divided mto globules, wmc lying difeontinued on the cupel after the prpeefs is - niffled, cannot eafily be collefted *, if there is no ebul¬ lition or fumes, the fcorification does not appear to go on. Too weak a heat is known by the dull rednefs of the cupel j by the fume not rifing from the furface of the lead •, ’and the fcoria like bright drops in bngu d motion, or accumulated, or growing confiftent all over the metal. The form of the furface affords affo an ufeful mark of the degree of heat 5 the ftronger t e fi e, the more convex is the furtace 5 and the weaker, the more flat : in this point, however, regard imffl be had to the quantity of metal ^ a large quantity being always flatter than a fmall one in an equal fire; ar[b t Capelling Furnace I! CuprelTus. CUP [i 1 owards the end of the procefs, the fire muit be increafed j for the gr'eateft part of the fufible metal lead being now worked off, the gold and filver will not continue melted in the heat that was fufficient before. As the lait remains of the lead are feparating, the rain- bovy colours on the furface become more vivid, and variouily interfed one another with quick motions. Soon after, difappearing all at once, a fudden lumi¬ nous bnghtnefs of the button of gold and filver fliows the procefs to be finiflied. The cupel is then drawn forwards towards the mouth of the muffle ; and the button, as foon as grown fully folid, taken out. CUPELLING furnace. See Cupelling Fur¬ nace. t: CUPID, in Pagan mythology, the god of love. I here feems to have been two Cupids ; one the fon of Jupiter and Venus, whofe delight it was to raife fenti- ments of love and virtue j and the other the fon of Mars and the fame goddefs, who infpired bafe and im¬ pure dehres. The fiift of thefe, called Eros, or true love, bore golden arrows, which caufed real joy, and a virtuous affedion ; the other, called Anteros, had leaden arrows, that railed a paflion founded only on defire, which ended in fatiety and difguft. Cupid was always drawn with wings, to reprefent his inconftancy: and naked, to ftiow that he has nothing of his own. He was painted blind, to denote that love fees no fault m the objed beloved ; and with a bow and quiver of arrows, to {how his power over the mind. Sometimes he is placed between Hercules and Mercury, to (how tne prevalence of eloquence and valour in love ; and at others is placed near Fortune, to fignify that the fuc- cds of lovers depends on that inconftant goddefs Sometimes he is reprefented with a helmet on his head and a ipear on his ihoulder, to fignify that love dif arms the fierceft men ; he rides upon the backs of pan¬ thers and lions, and ufes their manes for a bridle to denote that love tames the moll favage beafts. He is hkewife pidured riding upon a dolphin, to fignify that blVernr,Slr-fTeXte.nds over the fea no lefs than land. CUi OLA in Archite&ure, a fpherical vault, or the round top of the dome of a church, in the form of a cup inverted. CUPPING, in Surgery, the operation of applying cupping-glaffes for the difcharge of blood and other humours bv the {kin. See Surgery. CUPRESSUS, the cypress tree : A genus of plants belonging to the moncecia clafs ; and in the na- tura! method ranking under the 51ft order, Confer*. oee Botany Index. J . r.je wo°d ol the fempervircns, or evergreen cyprefs, rs fa.d to refift worms, moths, and putrefa&ion, and o laft many centuries. The coffins in which the A fhen.ans were wont to bury their heroes, were made, lays Thucydides, of this wood ; as were likewife the cheffs containing the Egyptian mummies. The doors ot St I eter s church at Rome were originally of the ume materials. Thefe, after lafting upwards of 600 years at the end of which they did not difcover the maJIelt tendency to corruption, were removed by or- T Eugi"mSrIV- of brafs fubftituted m their place. The fame tree is by many eminent au¬ thors recommended as improving and meliorating the "Vo7, VILtn 1 and exhal--s,guP0: 7 1 CUR which account many ancient phyficians of the eaftern Cuprum countries uled to fend their patients who were troubled Anmior,iu’ cale . VFliU Vv CI c uuuuieu with weak lungs to the ifiand of Candia, where thefe tiees grew in great abundance ; and where, from the falubrious air alone, very few failed of a perfeft cure. In the fame ifiand, fays Miller, the cyprefs-trees were fo lucrative^ a commodity, that the plantations were called dos filue ; the felling of them being reckoned a daughter’s portion. Cyprefs, fays Mr Pococke, is the only tree that grows towards the top of Mount Leba¬ non, and being nipped by the cold, grows like a fmall oak. Noah’s ark is commonly fuppofed to have been made of this kind of wood. CUPRUM ammoniacale. See Chemistry///- rr Pr^'^db£“- - -»s-’ ,he IUrdi("f bits, called genetics, have a ring that ferves mftead o a c'u., Tn^arrieryX'n hard and callous dwelling on the hind’part of the hock, attended “,th ^ fometimes with pain and lamenefs. See Srav s. 8 1 CUR CURCAS, a name given in Egypt to an efculent root, approaching to the tafte and virtues of the colo- cafia. It is alfo a name ufed m Malabar for a fmall — v fruit of the (hape and fize of a hazel nut. Both thefe things have the credit of being ftrong provocatives : and it is very probable that the curcas of the Eaft In¬ dies may be the fruit called be// by Avicenna, and faid to poffefs the fame virtues. Garcias has been led into a very great error by this fimilarity of names and vir¬ tues •, and fuppofes the curcas of Egypt the fame with that of the Eaft Indies. . , CURCULIO, a genus of infers belonging to the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index. ^ CURCUMA, turmeric: A genus ot plants fie- longing to the monandria clafs } and in the natura method ranking under the 8th order, Scitdmines. See Botany Index. , CURDISTAN, a country of Afia, fituated between the Turkifti empire and Perfia, lying along the eaftem coaft of the river Tigris, and comprehending great part of the ancient Affyria. Some of the inhabitants live in towns and villages, and others rove from place to place, having tents like the wild Arabs, and are alfo Jobbers like them. Their religion is partly Chriftian, and partly Mahometamfm. # - CURDLING, the coagulating or fixing ot any fluid body, particularly milk. See Cheese, Agri¬ culture Index. r a Paufanias fays, that Anftmus fon of Apollo, and Cvrene, daughter of the river Peneus, were the fitft who found out the fecret of curdling milk. At Florence they curdle their milk for tbe ma ^ of cheefe with artichoke flowers, in lieu of the xenne.. ufed for the fame purpofe among us. _ f . The Bifaltse, a people of Macedonia, Rochfort ob- ferves live wholly upon curdled milk, i. e. on curds. Hu ' dd» "hat curds arc the whole food of the pcoo e of Upper Auvergne in France, and whey their on y dr CURETES, in antiquity, a fort of pnefts or people of the ifle of Crete, called alfo Corybantes. See Co- rybantes and Crete. The Curetes are laid to have been originally of Mount Ida in Phrygia-, for winch reafon they were alfo called Idee: DaByl, See Bao TYLucian and Diodorus Siculus reprefent them as very expert in calling of darts > though other authors give them no weapons but bucklers and P>kes ’ b“ aU agree in furnifhing them with tabors and caftanettas -A relate, that they ^f is^fat t^ and cladldingst uCrn0from hearing the cries of young ^upheTther; he° was favef from being deftroy- ^ Some authors, however, give a dlfferent the Curetes. According to Pezron and others, the Curetes we e, in the times of Saturn, &c. and in the countries of Crete and Phrygia, what the druids were afterwards among the Gauls, &c.i. e. they were pnefts wtuThad Caraods^ iu°thofe^dayslt w^s ffippoftd0there was no communication with the gods bT by divinations, auguries, and the operations of • . Curetes paffed for magicians and enchan- re:Sg; t’o thefcthey aSded the ftudy of the ftars, of- CUR [ : flurfeu ture, and poefy ; and To were philofophers, aftrono- mers, &c. —Voffius, de Idoldt. diftinguidies three kinds of Cu- retes j thofe of ^Etolia, thofe of Phrygia, and thofe of Crete, who were originally derived from the Phry¬ gians. The firft, he fays, took their name from tonfure ; in regard, from the time of a combat wherein the enemy feized their long hair, they always kept it cut. Thofe of Phrygia and Crete, he fuppofes, were fo called from xagej, young man, in regard they were . young, or becaufe they nurfed Jupiter when he was young. CURFEU, Curfew, or Courfew, a fignal given in cities taken in war, &c. to the inhabitants to go to bed. Palquin fays, it was fo called, as being intend¬ ed to advertife the people to fecure themfelves from the robberies and debaucheries of the night. CuRFEir-Be/I, in French couvrefeu, and in law Latin of the middle ages, ignitegium, or pyritegium, was a fignal for all perfons to extinguilb their fires. The molt eminent curfew in England was that eftablilhed by William the Conqueror, who appointed, under fevere penalties, that, at the ringing of a bell at eight o’clock in the evening, every one Ihould put out their lights and fires and go to bed ; whence to this day, a bell rung about that time is called a curfew-bell. This law was abolilhed by Henry I. in i too. This praftice was highly necefiary to prevent acci¬ dents in thofe ages when the fires were placed in a hole in the middle of the floor, under an opening in the roof to allow the efcape of the fmoke. This hole was covered up when the family went to bed. The fame praflice ftill exifts in fome countries, and particu¬ larly in fome parts of Scotland. But befides fecuring houfes againft accidents by fire, the law which was very generally eftablilhed in Europe for extinguilhing or covering fires, was probably meant alfo to check the turbulence which frequently prevailed in the middle ages, by forcing the people to retire to reft or to keep within doors. From this ancient pra&ice, in the opinion o Beckmann, has arifen a cuftom in Lower Saxony of faying, when people wilh to go home fooner than the company choofe, that they hear the biirgerqlocke, the burgher’s bell. The ringing of the prayer-bell, as it is called, which is ftill praftifed in fome Proteftant countries, accord- lug to Beckmann, -originated in that of the curfeu-bell. Pope John XXIII. dreading that fome misfortunes were to befal him,' ordered every perfon on hearing the igmtegium to repeat the ave Maria three times, with a view to avert them. When the appearance of a co¬ met, and a dread of the Turks, alarmed all Chriften- dom, Pope Calixtus VIII. increafed thefe periodical times of prayer, by ordering the prayer-bell to be runo- alio at noon. blr/}. of Invent, ii. ioi. CURIA, in Roman antiquity, was ufed for the fe- nate-houfe. There were feveral curia; in Rome*, as the curia calabra, faid to be built by Romulus: the curia h of ilia, by Tullus Hoftilus; and the curia pom- peia, by Pompey the Great. Curia alfo denoted the places where the curise uled to aflemble. Each of the 30 curiae of old Rome had a temple or chapel afligned to them for the com¬ mon performance of their facrifices, and other offices of their religion $ fo that they were not unlike our pa- 9 ] CUR rilhes. Some remains of thefe little temples feem to have fubfifted many ages after on the Palatine hill, where Romulus firft built the city, and afterwards re- fided. Curia among the Romans, alfo denoted a portion or divifion of a tribe. In the time of Romulus, a tribe confifted often curiae, or a thoufand men ; each curia being one hundred. That legiflator made the firft di¬ vifion of his people into thirty curiae. Afterwards curia or damns curialis, becaufe ufed for the place where each curia held its alfemblies. Hence alfo curia palled to the fenate-houfe ; and it is from hence the moderns came to ufe the word curia, “ court,” for a place of juftice, and for the judges, &c. there af- fembled. Varro derives the word from cura, “ care,” q. d. an aflembly of people charged with the care of public affairs. Others deduce it from the Greeks j maintaining, that at Athens they called the place where the magi- ftrate held, his alfizes, and the people ufed to affemble : xv(>ix, again, may come irom authority, power; becaufe it was here the laws were made. Curia, in our ancient cuftoms.—It was ufual for the kings of England to fummon the bilhops, peers, and great men of the kingdom, to fome particular place, at the chief feftivals in the year ; and this af- fembly is called by our hiftorians curia ^ becaufe there they confulted about the weighty affairs of the nation j whence it was fometimes alfo called folemnis curia, ge- nerahs curia, auguflalis curia, and curia publico, &c See Witena-Mo*. ^ Curia Baronum. See CouRT-Baron. Curio Claudenda, is a writ that lies againft him who fliould fence and inclofe the ground, but refufes or de¬ fers to do it. CURIATII, three brothers of Alba, maintained the intereft of their country againft the Romans, who had declared war againft thofe of Alba. The two ar¬ mies being equal, three brothers on each fide were chofen to decide the conteft ; the Curiatii by thofe of Alba, and the Horatii by the Romans. The three firft were wounded, and two'of the latter killed j but the third, joining policy to valour, ran away j and having thus tired the Curiatii, he took them one after another and killed them all three. CURING, a term ufed for the preferving fifli, flefh, and other animal fubftances, by means of certain ad¬ ditions of things, to prevent putrefa&ion. One great method of doing this is by expofing the bodies to the fmoke of wood, or rubbing them with fait, nitre, &c. CURIO, the chief and prieft of a curia.—Romulus, upon dividing the people into curise, gave each divi¬ fion a chief, who was to be prieft of that curia, under the title of curio and fa men curialis. His bufinefs was to provide and officiate at the facrifices of the cu¬ ria, which were called curionia ; the curia furniihing him with a fum of money on that confideration, which penfion or appointment was called curioniutn. Each divifion had the eleftion of its curia ; but all thefe par¬ ticular curios were under the direftion of a fuperior or general, called curio maximus, who was the head of the body,, and elefted by all the curios affembled in the comitia curialis. All thefe inftitutions were introduced by Romu- C 2 lus, CUR Coriofus las, ami confirmed by Numa, as Current. CURIOSUS, an officer of the Roman empire du- v 'ring the middle age, appointed to take care that no f.auds and irregularities were committed ; particularly no abufes in what related to the polls, the roads, &c. and to give intelligence to the court of what palTed in the provinces. This made the curiofr peopk of muortance and put then in a condition of doing xnoPre harm’ than they prevented •, on which account, Honorius caffiiered them, at leaft in fome parts of the ^ enThe’cu””ofl"came pretty near to what we call trollers. they had their name from cura, carep. quodcuru agendis et eveBionibus curfus pubha infpici- ^ CU°RLEW. See Scolopax, Ornithology Index. CURMI, a name given by the ancients to a ort o malt liquor or ale. It was made of barley, and uas drunk by the people of many natrons °f wme, according to Diolcorides’s account. He accuies o caufing pains in the head, generating bad jurces and difordf/na the nervous fyftem. ^ He alio lays, that m the weftern part of Iberia, and in Britain, iuch a iurt of liquor was in his time prepared from wheat mftea CURNOCK, a meafure of corn containing four bu- ^CURRANS^or Currants, the ^ fruit of a Ipecies of groffularia. See Grossularia, Botany Index' The white and red fort are molfly uted for the black and chiefly the leaves, upon firft coming out, are in ufe to flavour Engliffi fpints and counterfeit French brandy. Currants greatly affuage drought, cool and fortify the ftomach, and help digeftion } and the ieUy of black currants is faid to be very efficacious in curing inflammations of the throat. 111 Currants dfo fignify . fmaller kmd of gr»P« brnnerht orincipally from Zante and Cephalonia. ihey are gathered off the bufties, and laid to dry in the fun, and ffi put up in large bmts. They are opening and pecloral} but are more ufed in the kitchen t an in ^CURRENT, or Currant, a term ufed to exprefs the prefent time. Thus the year 1804 ^ the current vear the 20th cunent is the 20th day ot the month now’ running.—With regard to commerce, the puce current, of aly ^handife ^ ^ ^ bBffiuferfor^ny thing that has or ts re¬ ceived in commerce } in which fenfe ue fay, cunent “ in Na,ig,ur, ceitain ment of the water ot the fea, by wh.ch all bodies fioarioir therein are compelled to alter their courfe or velocity, or both, and fnbmit to the laws impofed on tile'fea "currents are either natural and general, as arifing from ."e diurnal rotation of the earth about its axis i or accidental and particular, caufed by the waters being driven againft promontories, or in if. and 11 rail i where, wanting room to fpraad, fh" ate driven'back, and thus diflorb the ordinary flux7 of the fea. Currents ate various and direaed towards different parts of the ocean, of which tome F 20 ] CUR Halicarnaffeus re- are conftant, others periodical. The moft extraordl* Halicarnaiieus ^ curren; 0f the fea is that by which part of the ^ Atlantic or African ocean moves about Guinea rom Cape Verd towards the curvature or bay of Atnca, which they call Fernando Poo ; viz. from weft to eaft, contrary to the general motion : And fuch is the force of the current, that when flups approach too near ie {here, it carries them violently towards that bay and deceives the mariners in their reckoning. There 1S a great variety of drifting currents which do not la , but return at ceitain periods: and thefe do, moft them, depend upon and follow the anmverfary winds or monfoons, which by blowing in one place maycaue a current in another. Vaienms nifoiras us, that at lava, in the ftraits of Sunda when the ™onfoons blow from the weft, viz. in the month of May, the currents fet to the eaft ward, contrary to the genera! motion. Between the ifland of Celebes and Madura, when the weftern monfoons fet in, viz. in December, January, and February, or when the wmds blow from the north-weft, or between t e noiti an J . currents fet to the fouth-eaft or between the ^ou and eaft At Ceylon, from the middle of Maich to Oaober, the curren.: fet to the fouthward, and rn the other parts of the year to the northward rbecaufe at this time the fou.hern monfoons blow and at^he other the northern. Between Coch.n-Ch.na and lacca, when the weftern monfoons blow, viz. . April to Auguft, the currents fet eaftward again the general motion •, but the reft of the year they fet sveftward, the monfoon conlpmng 'l^Cun’ motion. They run fo fttongly in thefe feas, that un^ experienced Jlors mitlake them for waves that beat upon the rocks, known nfually by name of W- ers So for fome months after the i^th ol t ebrua y, the currents fet from the Maldives towards India on the eaft, againft the general motion of the fea. On the {hore of China and Cambodia, in the months of Oao- ber November, and December, the currents fet to the north-weft, and from January to the ^th-weft vrh they run with fuch rapidity about the of Parcel that thev feem fwifter than an arrow. At Fulo k,on dme upon the coaft of Cambodia, though the mon- Zul are ffiifting, yet the -rents fet ftrong y to wards the eaft, even when they blow to a con y point Along the coafts of the bay ol Bengal, as Gr as the Cape Romania, at the extreme point of Malacca the current runs fouthward m November and / December When the monfoons blow fiom China S Malacca, the fea runs fwiftly Pulo Camb^ta Pulo Condore on the coaft of Cambodn . Y of Sans Bras, not far from the Cape of Good Hope, .1 a current particularly remarkable, where tne fea ,m,s fcomTaft to weft to the landward ; a,^ Uus more vehemently, undou'b‘tedly owing intTS ?e«ing ’ of progriff-ve motion of the current mayt "thef quitl down^ the ho.tom, or to a cer- faion'and'veiocUy oV currents is a very material .ar CUR f Current, tide in navigation, it is highly ncceflary to difcover Curriculus. b°th, in order to afcertain the fliip’s fituation and courfe with as much accuracy as poftible. The moft fuccefsful method which has been hitherto pradtifed by mariners for this purpofe, is as follows : A com¬ mon iron-pot, w'hich may contain four or five gallons, is fufpended by a fmall rope, fafiened to its ears or handles, fo as to hang diredly upright, as when pla¬ ced upon the fire. This rope, which may be from 70 to 100 fathoms in length, being prepared for the experiment, is coiled in the boat, which is hoifted out of the fiiip at a proper opportunity, w'hen there is little or no wind to ruffle the furface of the fea. The pot being then thrown overboard into the water, and immediately finking, the line is ilackened till about 70 or 80 fathoms of the line are run out j after wfflich the line is faftened to the boat’s ftern, by which Ihe is accordingly redrained and rides as at an anchor. The velocity of the current is then eafily tried by the log and half-minute glafs, the ufual method of difcovering the rate of a fhip’s failing at fea. The courfe of the dream is next obtained by the compafs provided for this operation. Having thus found the fetting and drift of the current, it next remains to apply this ex¬ periment to the purpofes of Navigation ; for which fee that article. Under-CuRRENrs, are difiinft from the upper or ap¬ parent, and in different places fet or drive a contrary way. Dr Smith makes it highly probable, that in the Downs, in the ffraits of Gibraltar, &c. there is an under-current, whereby as much water is carried out as is brought in by the upper currents. This he argues from the offing between the north and fouth Foreland, where it runs tide and half-tide, i. e. it is ebb or flood in that part of the Downs three hours before it is fo off at fea : a certain fign, that though the tide of flood runs aloft, yet the tide of ebb runs under-foot, i. e. clofe by the ground ; and fo at the tide of ebb it will flow under foot. This he confirms by an experiment in the Baltic found, communicated to him by an able feamen prefent at the making it. Being there then with one of the king’s frigates, they went with their pinnace into the mid ftream, and were carried violently by the current. Soon after that, they Junk a bafket with a large cannon bullet to a certain depth of water, which gave a check to the boat’s motion; and finking it Hill lower and lower, the boat was driven a-head to the windward againft the upper current, the current aloft not being above four or five fathom deep. He added, that the lower the bafket was let down, the ftronger the under-cur¬ rent was found. From this principle, it is eafy to account for that continual indraught of water out of the Atlantic into the Mediterranean through the ftraits of Gibraltar, a paffage about 20 miles broad ; yet without any fen- fible rifing of the water along the coafls of Barbary, &c. or any overflowing of the land, which there lies very low.—Dr Halley, however, folves the currents fetting in at the ftraits without overflowing the banks, by the great evaporation, without fuppofing any un¬ der current. CURRICULUS, in our ancient writers, denotes the year or courfe of a year. ASlutn ejl hoc annorum Dominic* mcarnationis quater quinquagcnis ct quinquies i ] CUR quints lujiris, et tribus curriculis: i. e. In the year Currie 1028 ; for four times fifty make two hundred, and five . II times two hundred make one thoufand ; five lurtres are^^f; twenty-five years, and three curriculi are three years. • CURRIERS, thofe who drefs and colour leather after it comes from the tan-yard. See Tanning. CURRODREPANUS (formed of currus, “ cha¬ riot,” and $3i7rxvov “ fcythe” or “ fickle”), in anti¬ quity, a kind of chariot armed with fcythes The driver of thefe chariots was obliged to ride on one of the horfes, as there was no other feat for him ; the ufual place for him being all armed with knives, as was likewife the hinder part of the chariot. There were no feythes pointing down to the earth, either from the beam or axle-tree ; but thefe were fixed at the head of the axle-tree in fuch a manner as to be moveable by means of a rope, and thereby could be railed or let down, and drawn forward or let fall back¬ ward, by relaxing the rope. CURRYING, the method of preparing leather with oil, tallowq &c. The chief bufinefs is to foften and fupple cow and calve-fkins, which make the upper leather and quar¬ ters of fhoes, covering of faddles, coaches, and other things which muft keep out water. 1. Thefe Ikins, after coming from the tanner’s yard, having many fltfliy fibres on them, the currier foaks them fome time in common water. 2. He takes them out, and ftretches them on a very even wooden horfe ; then with a paring knife he ferapes off all the fuperfluous flefh, and puts them in to foak again. 3. He puts them wet on a' hurdle, and tramples them with his heels till they begin to grow foft and pliant. 4. Pie foaks thereon train-oil, which by its un&uous quality is the beft liquor for this purpofe. 5. He fpreads them on large tables, and faftens them at the ends. There, with the help of an inftrument called a pummel, which is a thick piece of wmod, the under fide of which is full of furrow's crofting each other, he folds, fquares, and moves them forwards and backwards feveral times, under the teeth of this inftrument, which breaks their too great ftiffnefs. This is what is properly called currying. The order and number of thefe operations is varied by different curriers, but the material part is always the fame. 6. After the fkins are curried, there may be occafion to colour them. The colours are black, white, red, yellow, green, &c. the other co¬ lours are given by the fkinners, who differ from cur¬ riers in this, that they apply their colours on the ftefti fide ; the curriers on the hair fide. In order to whiten Ikins, they are rubbed with lumps of chalk or white lead, and afterwards with pumice-ftone. 7. When a Ikin is to be made black, after having oiled and dried it, he paffes over it a puff dipt in w'ater impregnated with iron ; and after his firft wetting, he gives it ano¬ ther in a w’ater prepared with foot, vinegar, and gum- arabic. 1 hefe different dyes gradually turn the Ikin black, and the operations are repeated till it be of a Ihining black. The grain and wrinkles, which contri¬ bute to the fupplenefs of calves and cows leather, are made by the reiterated folds given to the Ikin in every direction, and by the care taken to ferape off all hard parts on the colour fide. CURSING and Swearing, an offence agninft God and religion, and a fin of all others the moll ex> travagant Curtius. CUR [ Curfitor travagant and unaccountable, as having, no benefit or 11 advantage attending it. By the laft ftatute againft this , crime, 19 George II. which repeals all former ones, ' every labourer, failor, or foldier, profanely curfing or fwearing, fliall forfeit is.-, every other perfon under the rank of a gentleman, 2S. J and every gentleman or perfon of fuperior rank, 5s. to the poor of the panlh *, and, on a fecond conviftion, double : and, for every fubfequent offence, treble the fum firft forfeited, with all charges of conviction : and, in default ol payment, {hall be fent to the houfe of corre&ion for ten days. Any juftice of the peace may conviCt upon his own hearing, or the teftimony of one witnefs; and any conftable or peace officer, upon his own hearing, may fecure any offender, and carry him before a juftice, and there convia him. If the juftice omits his duty, he forfeits 5!. and the conftable 40s. And the ad is to be read in all pariffi churches, and public chapels, the Sunday after every quarter day^ on pain of 51- to be levied by warrant from any juftice. Befides this pu- niffiment for taking God’s name in vain in common difcourfe, it is enaded, by flat. 3. Jac. I. c. 21. tbat 1 in any ftage-play, interlude, or ffiow, the name o. the Holy Trinity, or any of the perfons therein, be jeft- inely or profanely ufed, the offender fliall forfeit 10 . one moiety to the king, and the other to the informer CURSITOR, a clerk belonging to the court ot chancery, whofe bufmefs it is to make out original writs. In the ftatute 18 Edw. III. they are called c/eris ofcourfe, and are *24 in number, making a cor¬ poration of themfelves. To each of them is allowed a divifion of certain counties, into which they inue out the original writs required by the fubjeCV. CURTATE distance, in sljlronomy, the diftance of a planet from the fun to that point, where a per¬ pendicular let fall from the planet meets with the CURT AT ION, in AJlronomy, is the interval be¬ tween a planet’s diftance from the fun and the curtate diftance. r t? 1 j CURTEYN, (Curtana'), was the name ot i^dward the Confeffor’s fword, which is the firft fword carried before the kings of England at their coronation and it is faid the point of it is broken as an emblem ot mercy. CURTIN, 22 7 CUR he lived, are points no one pretends to know. By his Curvature ftyle he is fuppofed to have lived in or near the Au- Curuje> guftan age -, while feme are not wanting, wiio nna- —v gine the work to have been compofed in Italy about 300 years ago, and the name of Quintus Curtius to be fi&itioufly added to it. Cardinal du Perron was fo great an admirer of this work, as to declare one page of it to be worth 30 of Tacitus *, yet M. le Clerc, at the end of his Art of Criticifm, has charged the writer with great ignorance and many contradictions. He has neverthelefs many qualities as a writer, which v\ill always make him admired and applauded. ^ CURVATURE of a Line, is the peculiar man¬ ner of its bending or flexure, by which it becomes a curve of any form and properties. Thus the nature ot the curvature of a circle is fuch, as that every point m the periphery is equally diftant from a point within, called the centre ; and fo the curvature ot the lame circle is everywhere the fame. But the curvature in all other curves is continually varying. CURVE, in Geometry, a line which running on continually in all directions, may be cut by one right line in more points than one. See Conic Sections Curue of Equable Approach._ Leibnitz firft pro- pofed to find a curve, down which a body deicending by the force of gravity, {hall make equal appfoaches to the horizon in equal portions of time. This curve, as it has been found by Bernoulli and others, is the fecond cubical parabola placed with its vertex upper- moft, and which the defending body muft enter with a certain determinate velocity. The queftion was ren¬ dered general by Varignon for any law 01 gravity, by which a body may approach towards a given point by equal fpaces in equal times. Maupertuis aifo refolved the problem in the cafe of a body defending m a me¬ dium whofe refiftance is as the fquare of the velocity. Curves, Algebraical or Geometrical, are thole in which the relation of the abfeiffes to the ordinates can be expreffed by a common algebraic equation. Curves, Hranfcendental or Mechanical, are thole which cannot be defined or expreffed by an algebraic equation. . . CURVET, or Corvet, in the manege, an air >n which the horfe’s legs are railed higher than in the CURTIN, Curtain, or Courtin, in Fortification, de™''V0^1’erbe^\ngthae^oUe^aifeTboth his fore-legs at is that part of the rampart of a place which is betwixt war , advanced, (when he is going flraight the flanks of two. baftions, bordered with a parap ci’rcle) and as his fore legs are five feet high, behind which the foldiers ftand to fire upon the covered way and into the moat. CURTIUS, Marcus, a Roman youth, who de¬ voted himfelf to the gods manes for the fafety ot his country, about 360 years before the Auguftan age. A wide gap had fuddenly opened in the forum, and the oracle had faid that it never would clofe before Rome threw into it whatever it had moft precious. Curtius immediately perceived that no lefs than a human fa- crifice was required. He armed himfelf, mounted his horfe, and folemnly threw himfelf into the gulf, which inftantly clofed over his head. Curtius, Quintus, a Latin, hiftonan who wrote the life of Alexander the Great in 10 books, of which the two firft are not indeed extant, but are fo well fupplied by Freinffiemius, that the lofs is fcarcely re¬ gretted. Where this writer was born, or even when once, cqua^ arr,) properly denotes the point of a fpear or fwmrd : but is uied in aftronomy to exprefs the points or horns of the moon, or any other luminary. Cusp, in A/rology, is ufed for the firft point of each of the 12 houfes, in a figure or fcheme of the heavens. See House. CUSPIDATED, in Botany, are fuch plants w'hofe leaves are pointed like a fpear. CUSP1NIAN, John, a German, was born at Swein- furt in 1473, and died at Vienna in 1529. He was firft phyfician to the emperor Maximilian I. and em¬ ployed by that prince in feveral delicate negociations. We have of his in Latin, 1. A hittory of the Roman emperors from Julius Ctefar to the death of Maximi¬ lian I. Degory Wheare, in his Methodus Le^endce Hiftoria, calls this “ luculentum fane opus, et omnium Icc- tione digniffimum.’” 2. A hiftory of Auftria j being a kind of continuation of the preceding. 3. A hiftory of C U S [24 Cairo of the origin of the Turks, and of their cruelties to- tl wards CHriftians. Gerard Voflius calls Culpiman mag- num [no fintly exemplified in the follmving flory. When Connantinoole was was at .Lt H • a of an illuftrious family, fell i.fto the hands of Mahome 11 who felf ,m with 1 Pr,,ne °/ y°",h !‘nd 8‘0ry- His ^avage heart being fubdned by her charms he fltut him y abLUl t^bmv'anVll LT i° “if"", Vt0b,“n'd ^ “ "’“ke’ht ^uent naffinn Th r ,7y’ d J ° }'* rene- War relaxed* fur ''ia°rv was no longer the monarch’s favourite manders 'fhfitlh!’ “CCl!l,"n,ed t0 b““'y. began to murmur, and the infeaion Ipread even among the com- Sm ofiLdLrfe^hewllbiidvTo ;trrhe,fideli7nh-' Ted who dul ac^Zt his refolution. He ordered Muftapha to affemble^rh0 ,IS ^ 011’’ The lultan, after a gloomy filence, formed tired to Irene’s apartment KWr hlf 7? I Irr°PS ”'Xt rmoimnS i and then with precipitation re. beftow fo many farm carelfes Todve Vnew? n”"" l “'T" f° ucharming ! ,lcver before did the prince beftow their utmoft art and rar f j r ewuultre to her beauty, he exhoited her women next morning to and pulling off her ve demand ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ °f"the ^ After an awful n ,,,<1^1, - u ^ mtb 3 fierce look’ whether they had ever beheld fuch a beauty ? witltlhe other puling outllffclmhar0^^3^ young Greak by her beautiful locks ?„d graudees, withlyes fild and fmls l l s f H 7/ ^ "’f bodJ'.« 0ne Then turning his love.” However ftranoe it mav a.,nPa - WOrd/fays he)’. when 11 1S ^7 will, knows to cut the bands of the moft brutal averfion^ diredted both to the f^™ ^ that defire °f enjoyment may confift with of Sully’s Memoirs ; to ’whkh f e the re^! WW,,“- °f haV£ « ^ book c u s [ 26 ] c u s Cuftom and Habit. the habitual reliOi for a particular difli, is far from be mg the fame with a vague appetite for food. That difference notwithflanding, it is ttill remarkable, that nature hath enforced the gratification of certain natu¬ ral appetites effential to the fpecies, by a pain ol the fame fort with that which habit produceth. The pain of habit is lefs under our power than any other pain that arifes from want of gratification • hun- aer and thirft are more eafily endured, efpecially at firft, than an unufual intermiffion of any habitual plea- fure : perfons are often heard declaring, they would forego deep or food, rather than tobacco. We muff not, however, conclude, that toe gratification of an habitual appetite affords the fame delight with the gra¬ tification of one that is natural : far from, it, the pain of want only is greater. , , , The flow and reiterated a&s that produce a < , ftrengthen the mind to enjoy the habitual P^afure in greater quantity and more frequency than onginal y , and by that means a habit of intemperate gratification is often formed : after unbounded a&s of intemperan , the habitual relilh is foon reftored and the pain for want of enioyment returns with frefh vigour. _ . The caufes of the prefent emotions hitherto m view, are either an individual, fuch as a companion a cer tain dwelling-place, a certain amufement , or a par thcuiar fpecies^ fuch as coffee mutton or^ny c,her food. But habit is not confined to fuch. A con ta train of trifling diverfions may form fuch a habit in the mind, that it cannot be eafy a moment without amufement: a variety in the objefts prevents a habit "y one in particular : but as the train is uniform with refpeft to amufement, the habit is formed accor¬ dingly ; and that fort of habit may be denominated j gieric habit, in oppofition to the former which « a fbecific habit. A habit of a town-life of country dpor , of folitude, of reading, or of bufinefs, wher^fuffici^- ly varied, are inftances of generic habits, livery ipe Lc habit hath a mixture of the generic ; for the ha- Sof any one fort of food makes the tafte agreeable j we /re fond of that tafte wherever found. I hus . in deprived Of a„ habitual obieft takes up with tvhat raoft refetnbles it ; deprived of ‘obacc.°’ ter herb will do rather than want; a hab.t of punch ^akes wine a good refource : accuftomed to the fweet fociety and comforts of matrimony, the man un¬ happily deprived of his beloved objed, inclines the fooPne/to a fticond. In general, when we are deprive of a habitual objea, we are fond of its qualities m y othe^objuft^ ^ afligned above, why the caufes of intenfe pleafure become not readily habitual: but now we difcover, that thefe reafons conclude only againft fpecific habits. In the cafe of a weak pleafure, a ha- blt is formed by frequency and uniformity of reitera¬ tion which, in ^he cafe of an intenfe pleafure, pro¬ duceth fatiety and difguft. But it is remarkable that ■fatietv and difwuft have no effea, except as to that Ss fingly which occ.fions them ; a fur e.« of honey produceth not a loathing of fugar i mtemper nee with one woman produceth no difrehih of the lame nleafure with others. Hence it is eafy to account fo a generic habit in any intenfe pleafure : the deltg it we had in the gratification of the appetite, inflames the imagination,Sand makes us fearch, with avidity, for the fame gratification in whatever other objea it can be found. And thus uniform frequency m grati- fying the fame paflion upon different objefts, produ¬ ceth at length a generic habit. In this manner one acquires an habitual delight in high and poignant iau- ces rich drefs, fine equipages, crowds of company, and in whatever is commonly termed pleafure. 1 here con¬ curs at the fame time, to introduce this habit, a pe- culiaritv obferved above, that reiteration of afts en¬ larges the capacity of the mind to admit a more plen¬ tiful gratification than originally, with regard to fre¬ quency, as well as quantity. r , ... Hence it appears, that though a fpecific habit can¬ not be formed but upon a moderate pleafure, a gene¬ ric habit may be formed upon any fort of plealure, moderate or immodei^te, that hath variety of obje&s. The only difference is, that a weak pleafure runs na¬ turally into a fpecific habit j whereas an intenfe plea¬ fure is altogether averfe to fucb a habit. In a word, it is only in Angular cafes that a moderate pleafure produces a generic habit •, but an intenfe pleafure can¬ not produce any other habit. r . j The appetites that refpeft the prefervation and pro¬ pagation of the fpecies, are formed into habit in a pe¬ culiar manner ; the time as well as mealure of their gratification is much under the power of cuftom j which, introducing a change upon the occafions a proportional change in the appetites. Thus, it the body be gradually formed to a certain quantity of food at ftated times, the appetite is regulated accord,”S J > and the appetite is again changed, vvTen a different habit of body is introduced by a different praaice. Here it would feem, that the change is not made upon the mind, which is commonly the cafe m paflive la- bits. but upon the body. , . * When rich food is brought down by ingredients of a plainer tafte, the compofition is fufceptible of a Ipe- cific habit. Thus the fweet tafte of fugar, rendered lefs poignant in a mixture, may, in courle of time, produce a fpecific habit for fuch mode¬ rate pleafures, by becoming more intenfe, tend to ge^ neric habits-, fo intenfe pleafures, by becoming more moderate, tend to fpecific habits. The beauty of the human figure, by a ipecial commendation of nature, appears to us fuprerne a the great variety of beauteous forms beftowed iipon animals. The various degrees in which individuals enjoy that property, render it an objea fometimes of a^oderate, fometimes of an intenfe, pamon. The moderate paflion, admitting frequent rciter^ mn with- out diminution, and occupying the mind without ex haufting it, turns gradually ftronger ull it becomes habit Nay, inftances are not wanting,_ ot a face at firft difagreeable, afterwards rendered ^different y familiarity, and at length agreeable by cuftom On g io that uf faint impreffions waxing giadnally more to that “ nroduce a fpetilic habit. But the mind C U S [ CnfTom by the pain of fatiety ; and thus a generic habit is and Habit, formed, of which inconftancy in love is the neceffary confequence ; for a generic habit, comprehending every beautiful object, is an invincible obftru6Hon to a fpecific habit, which is confined to one. But a matter which is of great importance to the youth of both fexes, deferves more than a curfory view. Though the pleafant emotion of beauty differs widely from the corporeal appetite, yet when both are dire&ed to the fame objeft, they produce a very ftrong complex paffion j enjoyment in that cafe muff be exquifite ; and therefore more apt to produce fa¬ tiety than in any other cafe whatever. This is a ne¬ ver-failing effect, where confummate beauty in the one party, meets with a warm imagination and great fenfibility in the other. What we are here explain- ing, is true without exaggeration j and they muff be infenfible upon whom it makes no impreffion : it de* ferves well to be pondered by the young and the amo¬ rous, who, in forming the matrimonial fociety, are too often blindly impelled by the animal pleafure merely, inflamed by beauty. It may indeed happen, after the’ pleafure is gone, and go it muff with a fwift pace, that a new connexion is formed upon more dignified and more lafting principles; but this is a dangerous experiment ; for even fuppofing good fenfe, good tem¬ per, and internal merit of every fort, yet a new con¬ nexion upon fuch qualifications is rarely formed : it commonly, or rather always happens, that fuch quali¬ fications, the only folid foundation of an indiffoluble connexion, are rendered altogether invifible by fatiety of enjoyment creating difguft. One effeft of cuftom, different from any that have been explained, muff not be omitted, becaufe it makes a great figure in human nature : though cuftom aug¬ ments moderate pleafures, and leffens thofe that are intenfe, it has a different effeft with refpeft to pain ; for it blunts the edge of every fort of pain and diftrefs^ faint or acute. Uninterrupted mifery, therefore, is attended wdth one good effeft; if its torments be in- ceffant, cuftom hardens us to bear them. The changes made m forming habits are curious. Moderate pleafures are augmented gradually by reite¬ ration, till they become habitual j and then are at their height : but they are not long ftationary : for from that point they gradually decay, till they'vanifh altogether. The pain occafioned by want of gratifica¬ tion runs a different courfe : it increafes uniformly ; and at laft becomes extreme, when the pleafure of gratification is reduced to nothing. —■ - • It fo falls out, I hat wTat we have w^e prize not to the worth, While we enjoy it ; but being lack’d and loft,’ Why then we rack the value ; then we find The virtue that poffeflion would not flhow us Whilft it was ours. Much ado about Nothing, Adi iv. fc. 2. The effedl of cuftom with relation to a fpecific habit is difplayed through all its varieties in the ufe of to¬ bacco The tafte of that plant is at firft extremely unpleafant; our difguft leffens gradually till it vaniftt altogether j at which period the tafte is neither agree¬ able not difagreeable : continuing the ufe of the plant we begin to relifh it j and our relifti improves by ufe, 7 ] c u s till it arrive at perfedfion * from that period it gradu- Cuftofn ally decays, while the habit is in a flate of increment, aild Habit, and confequefttly the pain of want. The refult is, that ■"v—*^ when the habit has acquired its greateft vigour, the relifh is gone ; and accordingly we often fmoke and take fnuff habitually, without fo much as being con- fcious of the operation. We mull expedf gratification after the pain of want j the pleafure of which gratifi¬ cation is the greateft when the habit is the moft vi¬ gorous : it is of the fame kind with the pleafure one feels upon being delivered from the rack. This plea¬ fure, however, is but occafionally the effedl of habit; and, however exquifite, is avoided as much as poffible becaufe of the pain that precedes it. With regard to the pain of want, W’e can difcover no difference between a generic and a fpecific habit : but thefe habits differ widely with refpedl to the pofi- tive pleafure. We have had occafion to obferve, that the pleafure of a fpecific habit decays gradually till it turn imperceptible : the pleafure of a generic habit, on the contrary, being fupported by variety of gratifi¬ cation, fuffers little or no decay after it comes to its height. However it may be with other generic ha¬ bits, the obfervation certainly holds with refpedl to the pleafures of virtue and of knowledge ; the pleafure of doing good has an unbounded fcope, and may be fo vaiioufly gratified that it can never decay : fcience is equally unbounded ; our appetite for knowledge ha¬ ving an ample range of gratification, where difeove- nes are recommended by novelty, by variety, bv uti¬ lity, or by all of them. In this intricate inquiry, we have endeavoured, but without fuccefs, to difcover by what particular means it is that cuftom hath influence upon us ; and now nothing feems left, but to hold our nature to be fo fra¬ med as to be fufceptible of fuch influence. And fup¬ pofing it purpofely fo framed, it will not be difficult to find out feveral important final caufes. That the nower of cuftom is a happy contrivance for our good, cannot have efcaped any one who refleas, that bufinefs is our province, and pleafure our relaxation only. Now fa¬ tiety is_ neceffary to check exquifite pleafures, which otherwife would engrofs the mind, and unqualify us for bufinefs. On the other hand, as bufinefs is fome- times painfu1, and is never pleafant beyond modera¬ tion, the habitual increafe of moderate pleafure, and the converfion of pain into pleafure, are admirably contrived for difappointing the malice of fortune, anil for reconciling us to whatever cou-rfe of life may be our lot : How ufe doth breed a habit in a man ! I his fliadovvy defect, unfrequented woods, I better brook than flourifhmg peopled towns. Here I can fit alone, unfeen of any, And to the nightingale’s complaining notes I une my diftieffes, and record my woes. 7'wo Gentlemen of Verona, Ad v. fc. 4. As the foregoing diftindions between intenfe and moderate, hold in pleafure only, every degree of pain being foftened by time, cuftom is a catholicon for pain and diftrefs of every fort ; and of that regulation the final caufe requires no illuftration. Another final caufe of cuftom will be highly reliftied by every perfon of humanity, and yet has in a great 2 meafure C U s [2 Cuftoin meafure been overlooked; wbich is, that cuflom hath and Habit. a greater influence than any other known caute, to 1 y ’ put the rich and the poor upon a level, "cav l'ea lures, the (hare of the latter, become fortunately ftronger by cuftom ; while voluptuous pleafures, the fliare of the former, are continually lohng g.oun bv fatiety. Men of fortune, who poffefs palaces, fump- tuous gardens, rich fields, enjoy them lefs than paiTen- pers do. The goods of Fortune are not unequally diftributed ; the opulent poffefs what others enjoy. And indeed, if it be the effeft of habn to produce the paint of want in a high degree while there is little pleafure in enjoyment, a voluptuous life is of ail the lead to be envied. Thofe who are habituated to high feeding, eafy vehicles, rich furniture, a crovvd of va¬ lets. much deference and flattery, enjoy but a (mall (bare of happinefs, while they are expofed to mani¬ fold dillreffes. To fuch a man, enflaved by cafe and luxury, even the pettv inconveniences in travelling, ot a rough road, bad weather, or homely fare, are fen- ous evils : he lofes his tone of mind, turns peevdh, and would wreak his refentment even upon the common accidents of life. Better far to ufe the goods ot for¬ tune with moderation : a man who by temperance and activity hath acquired a hardy conftitution, is, o the one hand, guarded againft external accidents , and, on the other, is provided with great variety of enjoy¬ ment ever at command. r v,* A ...bb We (hall clofe this branch of the fubjeft wit article more delicate than abitrufe, viz. what authorny cuftom ought to have .OVerh°Ul' abandon One particular is certain, that we ctieenu y to the authority of cuftom things that nature hat indifferent. It is cullom, not nature that b» ^ - bliftied a difference between the nght band and t e left, fo as to make it awkward and dlfagreeable to one the left where the right is commonly ufed. 1 be - rious colours, though they affetl us differently are al of them agreeable in their purity : but cufton, h s regulated that matter in another manner , a black upon a human being, is to us difagreeable and a white fkin probably not lefs fo to a negro 1 bus things, originally indifferent, become agreeable or dil¬ atable by the force of cuftom Xor w.H e want to pro¬ cure reft, or any caufes which may feem oppofite to fuch an effed, provided cuftom has rendered them ne¬ ceffary. 3. Ejfe&s on the Moving Fibres. A certain degree of tenfion is neceffary to motion, w7hich is to be deter¬ mined by cuftom ; e. g. a fencer, accuftomed to one foil, cannot have the fame fteadinefs or aflivity with one heavier or lighter. It is neceffary alfo that every motion fhould be performed in the fame fituation, or pofture of the body, as the perfon has been accuftomed to employ in that motion. Thus, in any chirurgical operation, a certain pofture is recommended ; but if the operator has been accuftomed to another, fuch a one, however awkward, becomes neceffary afterwards to his right performance of that operation. Cuftom alfo determines the degree of ofcillation of which the moving fibres are capable. A perfon accu¬ ftomed to ftrong mufcular exertions is quite incapable of the more delicate. Thus writing is performed by Small mufcular contra&ions ; but if a perfon has been accuftomed to ftronger motions with thefe mufcles, he will write with much lefs fteadinefs. This fubjecft of tenfion, formerly attributed to the Jimple jibres, is probably more ftriftly applicable to the moving; for befides a tenfion from flexion, there is alfo a tenfion from irritation and fympathy ; e. g. the tenfion of the ftomach from food, gives tenfion to the whole body. Wine and fpirituous liquors give tenfion : e. g. a perfon that is fo affe£led with tremor as Scarce- Tnftom ly to hold a^glafs of any of thefe liquors to his head, antl has no fooner fwallowed it, than his whole body be¬ comes fteady ; and after the fyftem has been accu¬ ftomed to fuch ftimuli, if they are not applied at the ufual time, the whole body becomes flaccid, and of confequence unfteady in its motions. Again, cuftom gives facility of motion. This feems to proceed from the diftenfion wTich the nervous power gives to the moving fibres themfelves. But in whatever manner it is occafioned, the effeft is obvious j for any new or unufual motion is performed with great difficulty. It is fuppofed that fenfation depends on a commu¬ nication with the fenforium commune, by means of or¬ gans fufficiently diftended with nervous influence. We have found, that fenfibility is diminifhed by repetition. And we have norv to obferve, that in fome cafes it may be increafed by repetition, owing to the nervous power itfelf flowing more eafily into the part on ac¬ count of cuftom. Attention to a particular objeiff may alfo determine a greater influx into any particular part, and thus the fenfibility and irritability of that particu¬ lar part may be increafed. But with regard to facility of motion, the nervous power, no doubt, flows moft eafily into thofe parts to which it has been accuftomed : yet facility of motion does not entirely depend on this, but in part alfo on the concurrence of the aftion of a great many mufcles j e. g. Window has obferved, that in performing any motion, a number of mulcles concur to give a fixed point to thofe intended chiefly to a£I, as well as to o- thers that are to vary and modify their attion. This, however, is aflifled by repetition and the freer influx *, as by experience wc kn»w the proper attitude for gi¬ ving a fixed point in order to perform any aflion with facility and fleadinefs. Cuftom gives a fpontaneous motion alfo, which feems to recur at ftated periods, even when the exciting caufes are removed. Thus, if the ftomach has been accuf¬ tomed to vomit from a particular medicine, it will re¬ quire a much fmaller dofe than at firft, nay, even the very fight or remembrance of it will be fufficient to produce the effeft : and there are not wanting inftances of habitual vomiting, from the injudicious adminiftra- tion of emetics. It is on this account that all fpaf- modic affe&ions fo eafily become habitual, and are fo difficult of cure ; as we muft not only avoid all the ex¬ citing caufes, even in the fmalleft degree, but alfo their affociations. Cuftom alfo gives ftrength of motion ; ftrength de¬ pends on ftrong ofcillations, a free and copious influx of the nervous power, and on denfe folids.- But in what manner all thefe circumftances have been brought about by repetition, has been already explained. The effe<5i of cuftom in producing ftrength, may be thus illuftrated : a man that begins with lifting a calf, by continuing the fame prailice every day, will be able to lift it when grown to the full fize of a bull. All this is of confiderable importance in the pra&ice of phyfic, though but too little regarded ; for the re¬ covery of weak people, in a great meafure, depends on-the ufe of exercife fuited to their ftrength, or rather within it, frequently repeated and gradually increafed. Farthei, it is neceffary to oblerve, that cuftom regu- 2 lates c u s [ 3° 1 C U S Ouftom lates the particular celerity with which each motion is and Habit. to be performed j for a perfon, accuftomed, for a con- ' v fiderable time to one degree of celerity, becomes inca¬ pable of a greater j e. g. a man accuftomed to flow walking will be out of breath before he can run 20 paces. ’ The train or order in which our motions are to be performed, is alfo eftabliftied by cuftomj for if a man hath repeated motions, for a certain time, in any particular order, he cannot afterwards perform them in any other. Cuftom alfo very frequently aftociates motions and fenfations : thus, if a perfon has been in ufe of affociating certain ideas with the ordinary fti- Hiulus which in health excites urine, without thele ideas the ufual inclination will fcarce excite that ex¬ cretion ; and, when thefe occur, will require it even in the abfence of the primary exciting caufe : e. g. it is very ordinary for a perfon to make urine when go- incr to bed j and if he has been for any length of time accuftomed to do fo, he will ever afterwards make urine at that time, though otherwife he would often have no fuch inclihatlon : by this means fome lecre- tions become in a manner fubjeft to the will. I he fame may be faid of going to ftool; and this affords us a good rule in the cafe of coftivenefs •, tor by en¬ deavouring to fix a dated time for this evacuation, it will afterwards, at fuch a time, more readily return. It is farther remarkable, that motions are infeparably ai- fociated with other motions: this, perhaps, very often proceeds from the neceffary degree of tenfion ; but it * alfo often depends merely on cuftom, an inliance oi which we have in the uniform motions of our eyes. 4 EffeBt on the whole Nervous Power. V\ e have found, that, by cuftom, the nervous influence may be determined more eafily into one part than another •, and therefore, as all the parts of the fyftem are ftrong- lyconnefted, the fenfibility, irritability, and ftrength of any particular part, may be thus increaled. Cu¬ ftom alfo has the power of altering the natural tem¬ perament, aud of inducing a new one. It is alio in the power of cuftom to render motions periodical and periodically fpontaneous. An inftance of this we have in fleep, which is commonly laid to be owing to the nervous power being exhaufted, the neceffary confe- quence of which is fleep, e. g. a reft of the voluntary motions to favour the recruit of that power •, but it this were the cafe, the return of fleep fhould beat dif¬ ferent times, according as the caufes which dimimih the nervous influence operate more or lefs powerfully whereas the cafe is quite otherwife, thefe returns of fleep being quite regular. This is no lefs remarkable in the appetites, that return at particular periods, in¬ dependent of every caufe but cuftom. Hunger, e. g. is an extremely uneafy fenfation *, but goes oft of it- felf if the perfon did not take food at the ulual time. The excretions are farther proofs of this, e. g. going to ftool, which, if it depended on any particular nu¬ tation, fhould be at longer or fhorter intervals accord¬ ing to the nature of the aliment. There are many other inftances of this difpofition of the nervous influ¬ ence. to periodical motions, as the flory oi the idiot of Stafford, recorded by Dr Plot (Speftator, I\ 447*), who, being accuftomed to tell the hours of the church- clock as it ftruck, told them as exaftly when it did not ftrike by its being out of order. Montaigne tells us of fome oxen that were employed in a machine tor drawing water, who, after making 300 turns, which was the ufual number, could be ftimulated by no whip ?; 1 - or goad to proceed farther. Infants, alio, cry foi and expedf the bread at thofe times in which the nurle has been accuftomed to give it. Hence it would appear, that the human economy is fubjcdl to periodical revolutions, and that thefe hap¬ pen not oftener may be imputed to variety 5 and this feems to be the realon why they happen oftencr in the body than mind, becauie that is fubjeft to greater va¬ riety. We fee frequent inftances of this in diieaies, and in their crifesj intermitting fevers, epiltpfies, afth- mas, &.c. are examples of periodical affedtions ; and that critical days are not fo ftrongly marked m this country as in Greece, and fome others, may be im¬ puted to the variety and inftability of oui climate ; but perhaps (till more to the lefs fenfibility and irritability of our fyftem *, for the exhibition of medicine has little eftedl in difturbing the crifes, though it be commonly affigned as a caule. , , . . , •, We are likewife fubjeft to many habits independent of ourlelves, as fiom the revolutions of the ctleihal bodies, particularly the fun, which determines the bo¬ dy perhaps, to other daily revolutions befides ileepmg and waking. T here are alfo certain habits depending on the feafons. Our connexions, likewife, with re- fpeX to mankind, are means of inducing habits. T bus regularity from affociating in bufinefs induces regular habits both of mind and body. There are many difeafes which, though they arole at firft from particular caufes, at laft continue mere y through cuflom or habit. Thefe are chiefly o the nervous fyftem. We ftiould therefore ftudy to coun- teraX fuch habits-, and accoidingly Piippocrates, among other things for the cure of epilepfy, orders an entire change of the manner of life. W e htewife imitate this in the chincough j which often refills all remedies, till the air, diet, and ordinary train ol hie, are change. ^ ^ ^ Blood-vejfch. From what has been faid onthe nervous power, the diftribution of the fluius muft neceffarily be varioufly affeXed by cuftom, and with that the diftribution of the different excretions j for though we make an eftimate of the proportion qt the excretions to one another, according to the climate and feafons, they muft certainly be veiy much varied ^ On this head we may obferve, that blood-letting has a maniftft tendency to increale the quantity of the blood ; and if this evacuation be repeated at itatea times, fucb fymptoms of repletion, and fuch motions, are excited at the returning periods, as rencer the ope¬ ration neceffary. The fame has been obierved in ionic fpontaneous htmorrhagies. Thefe, indeed, at fir , may have fome exciting caufes, b«t afterwards tney fetm to depend chiefly on cuftom. I he belt proof ot this is with regard to the menfttual evacuation. 1 here is certainly iomething originally m females, that deter¬ mines that evacuation to the monthly periods. Con- ftart repetition of this comes to fix it, mdepencent of ft rung caufes, either favouring or preventing repletion j e c. blood-letting will not impede it nor flung the body induce it : and, indeed, fo much is this evacua¬ tion conntXed with periodical motions, that it is httle in our power to produce any efteX by medicines but C U S [ Cuftoms. at thofe particular times. Thus if we would relax 1 the uterine fyftem, and bring back this evacuation when fupprefled, our attempts would be vain and fruit- lefs, unlefs given at that time when the menfes fhould have naturally returned. CUSTOMS, in political economy, or theTduties, toll, tribute, or tariff, payable to the king upon mer- chandife exported and imported, form a branch of the perpetual taxes. See Tax. The confiderations upon which this revenue (or the more ancient part of it, which arofe only from exports) was inverted in the king, were faid to be two : i. Be- caufe he gave the fubjecf leave to depart the kingdom, and to carry his goods along with him. 2. Becaufe the king was bound of common right to maintain and keep up the ports and havens, and to proteft the merchant from pirates. Some have imagined they are called with us cujloms, becaufe they were the inheritance of the king by immemorial ufage and the common law, and not granted him by any ftatute: but Sir Edward Coke hath clearly drown, that the king’s firft claim to them was by grant of parliament 3 Edw. I. though the re¬ cord thereof is not now extant. And indeed this is in exprefs words confeffed by ftatute 25 Edw. I. c. 7. wherein the king promifes to take no cuftoms from merchants, without the common affent of the realm, “ faving to us and our heirs the cuftoms on wool, Ikins, and leather, formerly granted to us by the' commonalty aforefaid.” Thefe were formerly called hereditary cujloms of the crown ; and were due on the exportation only of the faid three commodities, and of none other : which were ftyled the Jlaple commodi¬ ties of the kingdom, becaufe they were obliged to be brought to thofe ports where the king’s ftaple was eftablifhed, in order to be there firft rated, and then exported. They were denominated in the barbarous Latin of our ancient records, cujluma, (an appellation which feems to be derived from the French word ecu- Jlum or coutumy which fignifies toll or tribute, and Owes its own etymology to the word coujf, which fig¬ nifies price, charge, or, as ure have adopted it in Englilh, cq/ly) ; not confuetudines, which is the language of our law whenever it means merely ufages. The duties on wool, fheep-fkins or woolfells, and leather exported, w'ere called cujluma anti qua Jive magna^ and were payable by every merchant, as well native as ftranger : with this difference, that merchant-ftran- gers paid an additional toll, viz. half as much again as was paid by natives. The cujluma parva et nova were an impoft of 3d. in the pound, due from merchant- ftrangers only, for all commodities as w7ell imported as exported ; which wras ufually called the aliens duty, and was firft granted in 31 Edw. I. But thefe ancient hereditary cuftoms, efpecially thofe on wool and wool- fells, came to be of little account, wThen the nation be¬ came fenfible of the advantages of a home manufacture^ and prohibited the exportation of wool by ftatute n Edw. III. c. 1. Other cuftoms payable upon exports and imports were diftinguiftied into fubfidies, tonnage, poundage, and other imports. Subfidies were fuchl as were im- pofed by parliament upon any of the ftaple commodi¬ ties^ before mentioned, over and above the cujluma antiqua et magna : tonnage was a duty upon all wines imported, over and above the prifage and butlerage 31 ] c u s aforefaid : poundage was a duty impofed ad valorem, Curtoms. at the rate of i2d. in the pound, on all other mer- v——1 * chandife whatfoever : and the other imports were fuch as were occafionally laid on by parliament, as circumftances and times required. Thefe diftinCHons are now in a manner forgotten, except by the officers immediately concerned in this department} their pro¬ duce being in effeCl all blended together, under th© one denomination of the cujloms. By thefe we underftand, at prefent, a duty or {\da- Blacipom's fidy paid by the merchant at the quay upon all im- Comment. ported as well as exported commodities, by authority of parliament j unlefs where, for particular national reafons, certain rew’ards, bounties or drawbacks, are allowed for particular exports or imports. The cuf¬ toms thus impofed by parliament are chiefly contain¬ ed in two books of rates, fet forth by parliamentary authority; one figned by Sir Haibottle Grimefton, fpeaker of the houfe of commons in Charles II.’s time ; and the other an additional one, figned by Sir Spencer Compton, fpeaker in the reign of George I. to which alfo fubfequent additions have been made. Aliens pay a larger proportion than natural fubjeds, which is what is now generally underftood by the aliens duty ; to be exempted from which is one principal caufe of the frequent applications to parliament for aCls of naturalization. T hefe cuftoms are then, we fee, a tax immediate¬ ly paid by the merchant, although ultimately by the confumer. And yet thefe are the duties felt leaft by the people : and if prudently managed, the people hardly confider that they pay them at all. For the merchant is eafy, being fenfible he does not pay them for himlelf j and the confumer, who really pays them, confounds them with the price of the commodity ; in the fame manner as Tacitus obferves, that the em¬ peror Nero gained the reputation of abolifhing the tax of the fale of Oaves, though he only transferred it from the buyer to the feller ; fo that it was, as he ex- preffes it, remijjum magis fpecie, quam vi : quia cum venditor pendere juberetur, in partem pretii emptoribus accrejceoat. But this inconvenience attends it on the other hand, that thefe imports, if too heavy, are a check and cramp upon trade j and efpecially when the value of the commodity bears little or no proportion to the quantity of the duty impofed. This in confe- quence gives rife alfo to fmuggling, which then be¬ comes a very lucrative employment: and its natural and moft reafonable puniftunent, viz. confilcation of the commodity, is in fuch cafes quite ineffeftual j the intrinfic value of the goods, which is all that the fmuggler has paid, and therefore all that he can lofe, being very inconfiderable when compared with his profpeft of advantage in evading the duty. Recourfe muft therefore be bad to extraordinary puniffiments to prevent it; perhaps even to capital ones: which deftroys all proportion of punifliment, and puts murderers upon an equal footing with fuch as are rcaL} guilty of no natural, but merely a pofitive of¬ fence. T here is alfo another ill confequence attending high impofts on merchandife, not frequently confidered, but indifputably certain j that the earlier any tax is laid on a commodity, the heavier it falls upon the conlumer in the end; for every trader, through N whofe GUT [ 32 J CUT who fa hands it paffes, muft have a profit, not only up on the raw material and his own labour and time m preparing it, but alfo upon the very tax itlelf, which he advances to the government-, otherwiie he .oies the ufe and intereft of the money which he fo advances. To inftance in the article for foreign paper. 1 he merchant pays a duty upon importation, which he does not receive again till he fells the commodity, perhaps at the end of three months. He is therefore equally entitled to a profit upon that duty which he pays at the cuftomhoufe, as to a profit upon the original price which he pays to the manufaaurer abroad j and con- fiders it accordingly in the piice he demands ot the llationer. When the ftationer fells it again, he re¬ quires a profit of the printer or bookfeller upon the whole fum advanced by him to the merchants : and the bookfeller does not fail to charge the fu 1 proper- tion to the {Indent or ultimate confumer j who there¬ fore does not only pay the original duty, but the pro¬ fits of thefe three intermediate traders who have iuc- ceffively advanced it for him. This might be carried much farther in any mechanical, or more complicated, branch of trade. , 1 1• 1 CusroM-Houfe, an office eftabbffied by the king s authority in the maritime cities, or port towns, for the receipt and management of the cuftoms and duties of importation and exportation, impofed on merchandiies, and regulated by books of rates. ... GUSTOS brev 1 um, the principal clerk belonging to the court of common pleas, whofe bufinefs it is to receive and keep all the writs made returnable in that court, filing every return by itfelf j and, at the end of each term, to receive of the prothonotanes all the re¬ cords of the nifi prius, called the fo/leas. Cvstos Rotulorum, an officer who has the cuftody of the rolls and records of the feffion of peace, and alio of the commiffion of the peace itfelf.. He ufually is feme perfon of quality, and always a juftice of the peace, of the quorum, in the county where he is appointed. t 1 r - % 1 Cvstos Spiritvalium, he that exercifes the f pi ritual iurifdiaion of a diqcefe, during the vacancy of any fee, which, by the canon law, belongs to the dean and chapter -/but at prefent, in England, to the archffifhop of the province by prefcription. Gustos Temporatium, was the perfon to whom a va¬ cant fee or abbey was given by the kibg as fupreme lord. His office was, as fteward of the goods and Pr«“ fits, to give an account to the efeheator, who did the like to the exchequer. Tr • CUT-a feather, in the fea-language. If a Iffip has too broad a bow, it is common to fay, fle unUnot cut a feather; that is, (he will not pafs through the wa¬ ter fo fwift as to make it foam or froth. Cut-Purfe, in Law; if any perfon clam^ et fecrete, and without the knowledge of another, cut his purfe or pick his pocket, a d fteal from thence above the value of twelve pence, it is felony excluded clergy. Cut-purfes or facculariiy were more feverely pumfh- ed than common thieves by the Roman and Athenian CvT-Water, the ffiarp part of the head of a {hip be¬ low the beak. It is fo called, becaufe it cufs or di¬ vides the water before it comes to the bow, that it may not come too fuddenly to the breadth of the (hip, Cutaneous which would retard it. uch would retard it. . . Cutting. CUTANEOUS, in general, an appellation given to whatever belongs to the cutis^ or Ikin. Thus, we fay cutaneous eruptions ; the itch is a cutaneous dileaie. CUTH,or Cuthah, in Ancient Geography, a pro¬ vince of Affyria, which, as feme fay, lies upon the A- ra.xes, and is the fame with Cuffi : but others take it to be the fame with the country which the Gieeks calk Sufiana, and which to this very day, fays Dr Wells, is by the inhabitants called Chufefan. F. Calmet is of opinion that Cuthah and Scythia are the fame place, and that the Cutbites who were removed into Samaria by Salmanefer (2 Kings xvii. 24.) came from Cufh or Cuth, mentioned in Gen. ii. 13. See the article Gush. The Cuthites worfhipped the idol Nergal, Id. ibid. 30. Thefe people were tranfplanted into Samaria in the room of the Ifraelites, who before inhabited it. Calmet is of opinion, they came from the land of Cuffi, or Cuthah upon the Araxes; and that their hrft fet- tlement was in the cities of the Medes, fubdued by Salmanefer and the kings of Affyria his predeceffors. The Scripture obferves, that the Cuth.tes, upon tie.r arrival in this new country, continued to worfhip the crods formerly adored by them beyond the Euphrates. Efarbaddon king of Affyria, who fucceeded Senache- rib, appointed an Ifraelitifh prieft to go thither, and inftrua them in the religion of the Hebrews. _ But thefe people thought they might reconcile their old fuperflition with the worfhip of the true God. d hty therefore framed particular gods for themfelves, which they placed in the feveral cities wffiere they dwe t. The Cuthites then worfhipped both the Lord and wu falfe gods together, and chofe the loweft of the people to make priefts of them in the high places , and they continued this prance for a long time. aftei,' wards they forfook the worffiip of idols, and adhered, only to the law of Mofes, as the Samaritans, who are defeended from the Cuthites, do at this day. CUTICLE,the SCARF SKIN. See Anatomy Index. CUTICULAR, the fame with Cutaneous. CUTIS, the skin. See Anatomy Index. _ . CUTTER, a fmall veffel, commonly navigated in the channel of England. It is furnifhed with one maft, and rigged as a (loop. Many of thefe veffels are ufed in an illicit trade, and others are employed y government to take them •, the latter of which are f ^e" Anne, he was made a lieutenant-general of the -orces -j C Y A in Holland •, commander in chief of the forces in Ire- Cutts land, under the duke of Ormond, March 23. 1704-5 > Cyaxares. and afterwards one of the lords juftices of that king- , dom, to keep him out of the way of adion •, a emmm- ftance which broke his heart. He died at Dublin Ian. 26. 1706-7, and is buried there in the cathedral of Chrift church. He wrote a poem on the death o Queen Mary ; and publiftied, in 1687, ‘ ex' ercifes, written upon feveral occafions and dedicated to her royal highnefs Mary prmcefs of £ contains, befides the dedication figned J. Cutts, veries tolhat princefs j a poem on Wifdom •, another to Mr Waller on his commending it ; feven more copies verfes (one of them called La Mu/e Cavalier, which had been aferibed to Lord'Peterborough, and as fuch men¬ tioned by Mr Walpole in the lift of that nobleman s writings), and 11 fongs ; the whole compofing but a very thin volume ; which is by no means fo Scarce as m/Walpole fuppofes it to be. A fpecimen poetry (of which the five firft lines are quoted by Steele in his fifth Taller) is here added : Only tell her that I love, Leave the reft to her and fate ; Some kind planet from above May perhaps her pity move Lovers on their ftars muft wait; Only tell her that I love. Why, oh, why (hould I defpair . Mercy’s piftur’d in her eye \ If (lie once vouchfafe to hear, Welcome hope, and welcome fear. She’s to6 good to let me die j Why, oh, why fhould I defpair r1 PITVETTE, or Cunette, in Fortification, is a kind of ditch within a ditch, being a pretty deep trench, about four fathoms broad, funk, and running along the middle of the great dty ditch, to hold wa¬ ter ;Serving both to keep off the enemy, and prevent him’fa^mining.^ m ^ verb f ns aw), was a common mealure among '>>' Greeks and Romans, both of the liquid and dry kind. Il ' “ equal to an ounce, °.r ^rLuLch-ladle. The Roman topers were ufed to modes o Thpv fav that the cyathus of the Greeks wefg'hed to drachms ; and Galen fays the fame| LoUgh eliewhere he fays, that a cyathus contains .2 fhysLthat among^the Veterinarii ,he cyathns contain- Cd CYAXARES, fon of Phraortes, was king of M«- diaC7nd P«f.a. He bravely ^/-ded ^kingdom, which the Scythians had .nvaded. H d ^ at lfe b" VOIld thVnve; Hat- JHe died af- ter a reign of 40 yea fome to be the fams Cvaxares f Jfon of Aftyagcs king SSrHe^d feven provinces to hither. CYC [35 dominions, and made war againft the Afiyrians, whom Cyrus favoured. CYBEBE, a name of Cybele, from becaufe in the celebration of her feftivals men were driven to madnefs. CYBELE, in Pagan mythology, the daughter of Ctelus and Terra, and wife of Saturn. She is fup- pofed to be the fame as Ceres, Rhea, Ops, Vefta, Bo¬ na Mater, Magna Mater, Berecynthia, Dindymene, &c. According to Diodorus, Ihe was the daughter of a Lydian prince, and as foon as Ihe was born fhe was expofed on a mountain. She was preferved by fucking fome of the wild beads of the foreft, and re¬ ceived the name of Cybele from the mountain where her life had been preferved. When {he returned to her father’s court, {he had an intrigue with Atys, a beautiful youth, whom her father mutilated, &c. AH the mythologifts are unanimous in mentioning the amours of Atys and Cybele. In Phrygia the feflivals of Cybele were obferved with the greateft folemnity. Her priefls, called CorylanteSj Galli, &c. were not ad¬ mitted in the fervice of the goddefs without a previous mutilation. In the celebration of the feftivals, they imitated the manners of madmen, and filled the air with fhneks and bowlings mixed with the confufed noife of drums, tabrets, bucklers, and fpears. This was in com¬ memoration of the forrow of Cybele for the lofs of her favourite Atys. Cybele was generally reprefented as a robuft woman far advanced in her pregnancy, to intimate the fecundity of the earth. She held keys in her hand, and her head was crowned with rifing tur¬ rets, and fometimes with the leaves of an oak. She fometimes appears riding in a chariot drawm by two tame, lions : Atys follows by her fide, carrying a ball in his hand, and fupporting himfelf upon a fir-tree which is facred to the goddefs. Sometimes {he is re¬ prefented with a fceptre in her hand, with her head covered with a tower. She is alfo fcen with many breafts, to {how that the earth gives aliments to all li¬ ving creatures; and ftie generally carries two lions un¬ der her arms. From Phrygia the worfhip of Cybele pa fled into Greece, and was folemnly eftabliftied at Eleufis under the name of the Eleuftnian myjleries of Ce¬ res. The Romans, by order of the Sibylline books brought the ftatue of the goddefs from Peflinus into’ Italy 5 and when the {hip which carried it had run on a {hallow.bank of the Tiber, the virtue and innocence of Claudia was vindicated in removing it with her girdle. It is fuppofed that the myfteries of Cybele were firft known about 257 years before the Trojan war, or 1580 years before the Auguftan age. The Romans W'ere particularly fuperftitious in waftiing eve¬ ry year, on the 6th of the kalends of April, the ftirine of this goddefs in the waters of the river Almon. There prevailed many obfcenities in the obfervation o the feftivals ; and the priefts themfelves were the moft eager to ufe indecent expreflions, and to {how their unbounded licentioufnefs by the impurity of their actions. . CYBELLICUM m armor, a name given by the an¬ cients to a fpecies of marble dug in a mountain of that name in Phrygia. It was of an extremely bright white with broad veins of bluiftl black. CYCAS, in Botany : A genus of plants belonging to the natural order, Fahnce. See Botany Index. ] CYC This is a valuable tree to the inhabitants of India, as Cyca? it not only furnifhes a confiderable part of their conftant II bread, but alfo fupplies them with a large article of,Cychulet’. trade. Fhe body contains a farinaceous fubftance, ' m which they extraft from it and make into bread in this manner : they faw the body into fmall pieces, and after beating them in a mortar, pour v/ater upon the mafs; this is left for fome hours to fettle. When fit, it is {trained through a cloth, and the finer particle* of the mealy fubftance running through with the wa¬ ter, the grofs ones are left behind and thrown away. After the farinaceous part is fufficiently fubfided, the water is poured oft*, and the meal being properly dried, is occafionally made into cakes and baked. Thefe cakes are faid to eat nearly as well as wheaten bread, and are the fupport of the inhabitants for three or four months in the year. The fame meal more finely pulverized, and reduced into granules, is what is called/^, which is fent in¬ to all parts of Europe, and fold in the {hops as a great ftrengthener and reftorative. There is a fort of fago made in the W^eft Indies, and fent to Europe in the fame manner as that from the Eaft 5 but the Weft India fago is far inferior in quality to the other. It is fuppofed to be made from the pith of the areca oleracea. See Areca. The brood boom (or bread-tree) of the Hotten¬ tots, a plant difcovered by Profeifor Thunberg, is defcribed as a new fpecies of this genus, by the name of cycas Caffra, in the No*oa ASa Reg. Soc. Sclent. ulf. vol ii. p. 283. Table V. The pith, or medulla, which abounds in the trunk of this little palm, Mr Sparrman informs us, is colleded and tied up in drefled calf or flieep-lkms, and then buried in the earth for the {pace of feveral weeks, till it becomes fufficiently mellow and tender to be kneaded up with water into a pafte, of which they afterwards make fmall loaves or cakes, and bake them under the allies. Other Hot¬ tentots, not quite fo nice, nor endued with patience enough to wait this tedious method of preparing it, are faid to dry and roaft the pith or marrow, and after- w'ards make a kind of frumenty of it. CYCEON, from ***<)«,», “ to mixa name given by the ancient poets and phyficians to a mixture of meal and water, and fometimes of other ingredients. Thefe conftituted the two kinds of cyceon ; the coarfer being of water and meal alone j the richer and more delicate compofed of wine, honey, flour, wTater and cheefe. Homer, in the nth Iliad, talks of cy¬ ceon made with cheefe and the meal of bailey mixed with wine, but without any mention either of honey or water j and Ovid, defcribing the draught of cyceon given by the old woman of Athens to Ceres, mentions only flour and water. Diofcorides underftood the word in both thefe fenfes ; but extolled it moft in the coarfe and Ample.kind : he fays, when prepared with W'ateralone, it refrigerates and nourilhes greatly. CYCINNIS, a Grecian dance, fo called from the name of its inventor, one of the fatyrs belonging to Bacchus. It confifted of a combination of grave and gay movements. CYCLADES insulae ; iflands anciently fo called, as Pliny informs us, from the cyclus or orb in which they lie 5 beginning from the promontory Germftum of Euboea, and lying round the ifland Delos, (Plinv). E 2 Where - Cvelamen II Cycloid. CYC [36 Where they are, and what their number, is not fo generally agreed. Strabo fays, they were at firft reckoned 12, but that many others were added : yet moft of them lie to the fouth of Delos, and but. few to the north ; fo that the middle or centre, afcribed to Delos, is to be taken in a loofe, not a geometrical, fenfe. Strabo recites them after Artemidorus, as fol¬ lows : Helena, Ceos, Cynthus, Seriphus, Melus, Si- phus, Cimolus, Prepefinthus, Olearus, Naxus, Parus, Syrus, Myconus, Terms, Andrus, Gyarus; but he excludes from the number Prepefinthus, Olearus, and Gyarus. CYCLAMEN, sowbread : A genus ot plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs •, and in the natural method ranking under the 2lft order, Preoix. See Botany Index. . . CYCLE, in Chronology, a certain period or ienes of numbers, which regularly proceed from the firft to the laft, and then return again to the firft, and fo cir¬ culate perpetually. See Chronology, N 26. Cycle of IndiBion, is a leries of 15 years, return- ina conftantly around, like the other cycles, and com¬ menced from the third year before Chrift ; whence it happens, that if 3 be added to any given year of Chrift, and the fum be divided by 15, what remains is the year of the indi&ion. . Cycle of IndtHion, a period of 15 years, in ule a- mong the Romans. It has no conneftion with the celeftial motion, but was inftituted, according to Ba- ronius, by Conftantine who. having reduced the time which the Romans were obliged to ferve to 15 years, he was confequently obliged every 15 years to impole, or indicere according to the Latin expreflion, an extra¬ ordinary tax for the payment of thole who were dii- charged •, and hence arofe this cycle, which, irom the Latin wmrd indicere, was ftyled indithon. Cycle of the Moon, called alfo the golden number, and the Metonic cycle, from its inventor Melon the Athenian, is a period of 19 years, which when they are completed, the new moons and full moons return on the fame days of the month, fo that on whatever days the new and full moons fall this year, 19 years hence they will happen on the very fame days of the month, though not at the. fame hour, as Melon and the fathers of the primitive church thought and therefore, at the time of the council of Nice when' the method of finding the time for obferving the teaft of Eafter was eftabliftied, the numbers of the lunar cycle were inferted in the kalendar, which, upon the ac¬ count of their excellent ufe, were fet in golden letters, and the year of the cycle called the golden number of that year. Cycle of the Sun, a revolution of 28 years, which being elapfed, the dominical or Sunday letters return to their former place, and proceed in the fame order as before, according to the Julian kalendar. CYCLISUS, in Surgery, an inftrument in. the form of a half moon, ufed in fcraping tne fkull, in Cafe of fra&ures on that part. CYCLOID, a curve on which the doctrine ot pen¬ dulums, and time-meafuring inftruments, in a great meafure depends. Mr Huygens demonftrated, that Lorn whatever point or height, a heavy body, ofcillatin.g on a fixed centre, begins to defcend, while it continues to move in a cycloid, the time of its falls or ofcillations ] C Y D will be equal to each other. It is likewife demonftra- ble. that it is the curve of quickeft defcent, i. e. a body falling in it, from any given point above, to ano¬ ther not exactly under it, will come to this point in a * lefs time than in any other curve palling through thofe two points. This curve is thus generated : fuppofe a wheel or circle to roll along a ftraight line till it has completed juft one revolution j a nail or point in that part of the circumterence of the circle, which at the beginning of the motion touches the ftraight line, will, at the end of the revolution, have defcribed a cycloid on a vertical plane. CYCLOPiLDIA, or Encyclopedia, denotes the circle or compafs of arts and fciences. A cyclo¬ pedia, fay the authors of the French Encyclopedic, ought to explain as much as poflible the order and connexion of human knowledge. See Lncyclope- Cyclo- psedia Cyder. CYCLOPS, in Fabulous Hi/lory, the fons of Nep¬ tune and Amphitrite the principal of whom were Brontes, Steropes, and Peracmon j but their whole number amounted to above an hundred. Jupiter threw them into Tartarus as foon as they were born j but they were delivered at the interceflion of Tellus, and became the aftiftants of Vulcan. T hey were of pro¬ digious ftature, and had each only one eye, which was placed in the middle of their foreheads. Some mythologifts fay, that the Cyclops fignify the vapours railed in the air, which occafion thunder and lightning : on which account they are reprefented as forging the thunderbolts of Jupiter. Others repre- fent them as the fir ft inhabitants of Sicily, who were cruel, of a gigantic form, and dwelt round Moriht iEtna. CYCLOPTERUS, the sucker, a genus of fifties belonging to the order of amphibia nantes. See Ich¬ thyology Index. CYDER, or Cider, an excellent drink made of the juice of apples, eipecially of the more curious table kinds} the juice of thefe being efteemed more cordial and pleafant than that of the wild or harfh kinds. . In making this drink, it hath long been tnought neceftaiy, in every part of England, to lay the harder cyder- fruits in heaps for fome time before breaking their pulps ; but the Devonftiire people have much impro¬ ved this prafhce. In other countries, the method is to make thefe heaps of apples in a houfe, or unaer .ome covering inclofed on every fide. Pnis method hath been found defeftive, becaufe, by. excluding the free air, the heat foon became too violent, and a great perfpiration enfued, by which in a fhort time, the lofs of juice was fo great, as to reduce the fruit to half their former weight, attended with a general rot- tennefs, rancid fmell, and difagreeable tafte. In the South-hams, a middle way has been purfued, to avoid the inconveniences and lofs attending the above. They make their heaps of apples in an open part of an or¬ chard, where, by the means of a free air and lefs per¬ fpiration, the defired maturity is brought about, with an inconfiderable wafte of the juices and decay of the fruit entirely free of ranknefs j and though l@me ap¬ ples rot even in this manner, they are very few, and are ftill fit for ufe ; all continue plump and full of juices, and very much heighten the colour of cydeis, without ill tafte or fmell. C Y ,D . . f 37 ] Cyder. In purfuing the Devonfhire method it is to be ob- bafon is compofed ferved, I. That all the promifcuous kinds of apples that have dropped from the trees, from time to time, are to be gathered up and laid in a heap by them- felves, and to be made into cyder after having lo lain about ten days. 2. Such apples as are gathered from the trees, having already acquired fome degree of ma¬ turity, are likewife to be laid in a heap by themfelves for about a fortnight. 3. The later hard fruits, which are to be left on the trees till the approach of froft is apprehended, are to be laid in a feparate heap, where they are to remain a month or fix weeks, by which, notwithftanding froft, rain, &c. their juices will re¬ ceive fuch a maturation, as will prepare them for a kindly fermentation, and which they could not have attained on the trees by means of the coldnefs of the feafon. It is obfervable, that the riper and mellower the fruits are at the time of colle&ing them into heaps, the ftrorter fhould be their continuance there •, and on the contrary, the harfher, immaturer, and harder they are, the longer they flrould reft. Thefe heaps fhould be made in an even and open part of an orchard, without any regard to covering from rain, dews, or what elfe may happen during the apples Haying there 5 and whether they be carried in and broke in wet or dry weather, the thing is all the fame. If it may be objefled, that during their having lain together in the heap, they may have imbibed great humidity, as well from the air as from the ground, rain, dews, &c. w'hich are mixed with their juices j the anfwer is, this will have no other effedl: than a kindly diluting, natural to the fruit, by which means a fpeedier fermentation enfues, and all heterogeneous humid particles are thrown off. The apples are then ground, and the pummice is received in a large open-mouthed veffel, capable of containing as much thereof as is fufficient for one ma¬ king, or one cheefe. Though it has been a cuftom to let the pummice remain fome hours in the veffel, appro¬ priated to contain it, yet this praflice is by no means commendable j for if the fruits did not come ripe from the trees, or otherwise matured, the pummice remain¬ ing in the vat too long, wilTacquire fuch harlhnefs and coarfenefs from the fkins as is never to be got rid of j and if the pummice is of well ripened fruit, the con¬ tinuing too long there will occafion it to contra# a ftrarpnefs that very often is followed with want of fpi- rit and pricking : nay, fometimes it even becomes vi¬ negar, or always continues of a wheyifh colour ; all which proceeds from the heat of fermentation that it almoft inftantly falls into on lying together ■, the pum¬ mice therefore flrould remain no longer in the vat than until there may be enough broke for one prefling, or that all be made into cheefe, and preffed the fame day it is broken. See farther on this fubje# Agri¬ culture Index. In Plate CLXVIII. is a perfpe#ive view of the cy¬ der prefs and apple-mill. A, B, the bottom or lower beam ; C, D, the upper beam; 5, 6, 7, 8, the up¬ rights ; 4, 4, e, e, fpurs; Z, 2, 12, braces, or crofs- pieces; #, b, capitals; X, blocks; g, the ferew; E, the back or receiver ; F, the cheefe or cake of pummice, placed on the ftage or bafon ; G, the ftage or bafon ; TOf 1 Of beams that fupport the pieces of which the Cyrionia. C Y D 11, perpendicular pieces for fup- Cyder-fpi- porting thefe beams; H, the buckler; R, S, a cir- r|1|t cular trough of the apple-mill; T, L, V, compart¬ ments or divifions, for different forts of apples; M, the mill ftone ; L, M, axis of the mill-ftone ; N, the fpring-tree bar. CrDEK-Spirity a fpirituous liquor drawn from cyder by diftillation, in the fame manner as brandy from wine. The particular flavour of this fpirit is not the moft agreeable, but it may with care be divefted wholly of it, and rendered a perfedftly pure and infipid fpirit upon rectification. The traders in fpirituous li¬ quors are well enough acquainted with the value of filch a fpirit as this: they can give it the flavours of fome other kinds, and fell it under their names, or mix it in large proportion with the foreign brandy, rum, and arrack, in the fale, w'ithout any danger of a difeovery of the cheat. CrDER-lVine. See Agriculture Index. CYDERKIN. See Agriculture Index, CYDIAS, a painter who made a painting of the Argonauts in the iith Olympiad. This celebrated piece was brought by the orator Hortenfius for 164 talents. CYDNUS, in Ancient Geography, a river of Cili¬ cia ; rifing in Mount Taurus, to the north of Tarfus, through whofe middle it ran, in a very clear and cold ftream, which had almoft proved fatal to Alexander on bathing in it; falling into the fea at a place called Rhegma, a breach, the fea breaking in there, and af¬ fording the people of Tarfus a ftation or port for their ftiips. The water of the Cydnus is commended by Strabo, as of fervice in. nervous diforders and the gout. CYDONIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the three moft illuftrious cities of Crete, fituated in the north-weft of the ifland, with a locked port, or walled round. The circumftances of the founding of Cydon are uncertain. Stephen of Byzantium fays, that it was at firft named Anollonia from Cydon the fon of Apol¬ lo. Paufanias aferibes the founding of it to Cydon the fon of Tegetus, who travelled into Crete. Hero¬ dotus affirms, that it was founded by the Samians, and that its temples were ereCled by them. Alexander,, in the firft book of the Cretans, informs us, that it received its name from Cydon the Ion of Mercury. Cydon was the largeft city in the ifland; and was enabled to hold the balance between her contending neighbours. She fuftained fome famous fieges. Pha- leucusj general of the Phocians, making an expedi¬ tion into Crete with a fleet and a numerous army, in¬ verted Canea both by fea and land ; but loft his army and his life before its walls. In fucceeding times, when Metellus fubdued the ifland, he affailed Cydon with all his forces; and after combating an obftinate refiftance, fubje#ed it to the power of Rome. Cydon occupied the prefent fituation of Canea ; only extend¬ ing half a league farther towards St Odero ; where on the fea-fhore the remains are ftill to be feen of fome ancient walls which appear to have been of a very fo~ lid conftruftion. See Canea. CYDONIA, the quince; fo called from Cydon, a town of Crete, famous for its abounding with this fruit. Linnaeus has joined this genus to the apple and pear; but as there is fuch a remarkable difference be- l tween 2 C Y M [ tween the fruits, Mr Miller, treats the quince as a genus by itfelf. The fpecies are, I. The oblonga, with an oblong fruit, lengthened at the bafe. 2. The mali- forma, with oval leaves, woolly on their upper fide, with fome other varieties. The Portugal quince is the moft valuable; its pulp turns to a fine purple when ftewed or baked, and becomes much fofter and lefs auftere than the others ; fo is much fitter for making marmalade. The trees are all eafily propagated, ei¬ ther by layers, fuckers, or cuttings; which muft be planted in a moift foil. Thofe railed from fuckers are feldom fo well rooted as thofe which are obtained from cuttings or layers, and are fubjeft to produce fuckers again in greater plenty ; which is not fo proper for fruit-bearing trees. Thefe trees require very little pruning : the chief thing to be obferved is, to keep their ftems clear from fuckers, and cut off fuch branches as crofs each other: likewife all upright luxuriant flioots from the middle of the tree Ihould be taken off, that the head may not be too much crowded with wmod, which is of ill confequence to all fruit-trees. Thefe forts may alfo be propagated by budding or grafting upon (locks raifed by cuttings ; fo that the bed forts may be cultivated this w^ay in greater plenty than by any other method. Thefe are alfo in great elleem to bud or graft pears upon; which for fummer or autumn fruits are a great improvement to them, efpecially thofe defigned for walls and efpaliers; for the trees upon thefe ftocks do not fhoot fo vigoroufly as thole upon free-ftocks, and therefore may be kept in_ lefs compafs, and fooner produce fruit: but hard winter fruits do not fucceed fo well upon thele (locks, their fruit being fubjeft to crack, and are commonly llony, efpecially all the breaking pears: therefore thefe Hocks are only fit for melting pears and and a moift foil. CYGNUS, the swan. See Anas, Ornithology Index. . Cygnus, the S’joan, in AJlronomy, a confledation of the northern hemifphere, between Lyra and Cepheus. The liars in the conllellation Cygnus, in Ptolemy’s ca¬ talogue, are 19 > *n lycho’s 18 ; in Ilevelius s 47 • in the Britannic catalogue 81. CYLINDER, in Geometry, a folid body fuppofed to be generated by the rotation of a parallelogram. Rolling or Loaded Ctlinder, a cylinder which rolls up an inclined plane ; the phenomena of which are explained under Mechanics. CYLINDROID, in Geometry, a folid body ap¬ proaching to the figure of a cylinder, but differing from it in fome refpefls, as having the bafes elliptical, but parallel and equal. CYLINDRUS, in Natural Hijlory; the name ol a genus of Ihell-fiih, of which there are many elegant and precious fpecies. CYMA, in Botany ; the tender llalks which herbs fend forth ’in the beginning of the fpring, particularly thofe of the cabbage kind. Cyma, or Cymatium, in ArchiteEiure, a member or moulding of the corniche, the profile of which is waved, that is, concave at top, and convex at bottom. CYMBAL, a nrufical inllrument in ufe among the ancients. The cymbal was made of brals, like our kettle-drums, and, as fome think, in their form, but fraaller, and of different ufe. Ovid gives cymbals 3e ] C Y 'N the epithet ol genialia, becaufe they were ufed at wed- Cymbal dings and other diverfions. Cyrsegirus, Caffiodorus and Ifidore call this inftrument acetabu- > ^, lum, the name of a cup or cavity of a bone wherein ano ther is articulated ; and Xenophon compares it to a horle’s hoof; whence it mull have been hollow ; which appears, too, from the figure of feveral otherthings de¬ nominated from it; as a bafin, caldron, goblet, calk, and even a Ihoe, fuch as thofe of Empedocles, which were of brafs. In reality, the ancient cymbals appear to have been very different from our kettle-drums, and their ufe of another kind: to their exterior cavity was fallened a handle; whence Pliny compares them to the upper part of the thigh, and Rabanus to phials. They were (truck againft one another in cadence, and made a very acute found. Their invention was attributed to Cybele ; whence their ufe in fealts and facrifices: fetting afide this occafion, they were feldom ufed but by diffolute and’effeminate people. M. Lampe, who has written exprefsly on the fubjeft, attributes the invention to the Curetes, or inhabitants of Mount Ida in Crete ; it is certain thefe, as well as the Cory- bantes or guards of the kings ot Crete, and thole of Rhodes and Samothracia, were reputed to excel in the mufic of the cymbal. The Jews had their cymbals, or at lead indruments which tranllators render cymbals; but as tc their mat¬ ter and form, critics are dill in the dark. I he mo¬ dern cymbal is a mean indrument, chiefly in u'.e among vagrants, gyplies, &c. It confids of deel wire, in a triangular form, whereon are paffed five rings, which are touched and diifted along the triangle with an iron rod held in the left hand, while it is fupported in the right by a ring, to give it the freer motion. Duran- dus fays, that the monks uted the word cymbal for the cloider-bell, ufed to call them to the refeftory. CYME, in Ancient Geography, a city built by Pe- lops on his return from Greece. Cyme the Amazon gave it name, on expelling the inhabitants, according to Mela. Latin authors, as Nepos, Livy, Mela, Pliny, Tacitus, retain the appellation Cyme, after the Greek manner. It dood in iEolia, between Myrina and Phocaea (Ptolemy) ; and long after, in Peutinger’s map, is fet down nine miles didant from Myrina.—— From this place was the Sibylla Cumaea, called Ery~ thrcea, from Erythrt, “ a neighbouring place.” It was the country of Ephorus. Hefiod was a Cumean ori¬ ginally (Stephanus) ; his father coming to fettle at Ki- cra in Boeotia. . CYMENE, in Botany, a name given by the ancient Greeks to a plant with which they ufed to dye woollen duffs yellow, and with which the women of thofe times ufed alfo to tinge the hair yellow, which was then the favourite colour. 1 he cymene or the Greeks is evidently the fame plant with the lulea herba ot the Latins : or what is now called dyers weed. See Re- seda, Botany Index. _ , . CYNiEGIRUS, an Athenian, celebrated lor his extraordinary courage. Pie was brother to the poet JEfchylus. After the battle of Marathon he puriued the flying Perfians to their fhips, and feized one of their veffels with his right hand, which was imme¬ diately fevered by the enemy. Upon this he feized I C Y N [ 39 ] C Y N Cynanche the veffel with his left hand, and when he had loft that I! alfo, he ftill kept his hold with his teeth. ty|lic^ CYNANCHE, in Medicine^ a difeafe, in which the throat is inflamed and fwelled to fuch a degree as fome- times to threaten fuffocation. See Medicine Index. CYNANCHUM, BASTARD DOGSBANE : A genUS of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 30th order Con¬ tort*. See Botany Index. CYNARA, the artichoke: A genus of plants belonging to the fyngenelia clafs. See Botany Index. The varieties of the artichoke are propagated by flips or fuckers, arifing annually from the ftool or root of the old plants in fpring, which are to be taken from good plants of any prefent plantation in March or the beginning of April, and planted in the open quarter of the kitchen garden, in rows five feet afunder: and they will produce artichokes the fame year in autumn. It Ihould, however, be remarked, that though artichokes are of many years duration, the an- nual produce of their fruit will gradually leflen in the fize of the eatable parts after the third or fourth year, fo that a frefh plantation fhould be made every three or four years. The cardoon is a very hardy plant, and profpers in the open quarters of the kitchen-garden. It is propagated by feed fowm annually in the full ground in March : either in a bed for tranfplantation, or in the place where they are defigned to remain. The plants are very large, fo murt ftand at confiderable diftances from one another. By this means you may have fome fmall temporary crops between the rows, as of lettuce, fpinach, endive, cabbage, favoy, or bro- coli plants. In the latter end of September, or in Oc¬ tober, the cardoons will be growm very large, and their footftalks have acquired a thick fubftance ; you muft then tie up the leaves of each plant, to admit of earthing them clofely all round for blanching, which will take up lix or eight wrecks; and thus the plants will come in for ufe in November and December, and continue all winter. CYN/EUS, of Theffaly, the fcholar of Demofthenes, flouriihed 275 years before Chrift. Pyrrhus had fo high an efteem for him, that he fent him to Rome to folicit a peace ; and fo vaft was his memory, that the day after his arrival he faluted all the fenators and knights by name. Pyrrhus and he wrote a Treatife of War, quoted by Tully. CYNICS, a fe£l: of ancient philofophers, who va¬ lued themlelves upon their contempt of riches and rtate, arts and fciences, and every thing, in ftiort, ex¬ cept virtue or morality. The Cynic philofophers owe their origin and infti- tution to Antifthenes of Athens, a difciple of Socrates •, who being alked of what ufe his philofophy had been to him, replied, “ It enables me to live with myfelf.” Diogenes wras the moft famous of his difciples, in whofe life the fyftem of this philofophy appears in its greateft perfeflion. He led a moft wretched life, a tub having fcrved him for a lodging, w-hich he rolled before him wherever he went. Yet he was neverthe- lels not the more humble on account of his ragged cloak, bag, and tub ; for one day entering Plato’s houfe, at a time when there was a fplendid entertain- raent there for feveral perfons of diftinftion, he jump¬ ed upon a very rich couch in all his dirt, faying, “ I trample on the pride of Plato.” “ Yes (replied Plato), out with great pride, Diogenes.” He had the utmoft contempt for all the human race ; for he walked the ftreets of Athens at noon-day with a lighted lan- thorn in his hand, telling the people, “ He was in fearch of a man.” Among many excellent maxims of morality, he held fome very pernicious opinions : for he ufed to fay, that the uninterrupted good fortune of Harpalus, who generally palled for a thief and a robber, was a teftimony againft the gods. He re¬ garded chaftity and modefty as weaknefies. Hence Laertius obferves of him, that he did every thing open¬ ly, whether it belonged to Ceres or Venus 5 though he adds, that Diogenes only ran to an excels of impu¬ dence to put others out of conceit with it. But impu¬ dence was the charadleriftic of thefe philofophers ; who argued, that what was right to be done, might be done at all times, and in all places. The chief principle of this fe£t in common with - the Stoics, w^as, that we Ihould follow nature. But they differed from the Stoics in their explanation of that maxim ; the Cynics being of opinion, that a man followed nature that gratified his natural motions and appetites ; while the Stoics un- derftood right reafon by the word nature. CrNic-Spafm, a kind of convulfion, wherein the pa¬ tient imitates the bowlings of dogs. CYNIPS, a genus of infefts belonging to the hy- menoptera order. See Entomology Index. CYNOCEPHALUS, in "/.oology, the trivial name of a fpecies of Simia. See Mammalia Index. CYNOGLOSSUM, hound’s tongue; a genus of plants belonging to the pentandria dais, and in the natural method ranking under the 41ft order, ylfperifo* Ha. See Botany Index. CYNOMETRY, in Botany; a genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking with thole of which the order is doubt¬ ful. See Botany Index. CYNOMORIUM, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬ longing to the monoecia clafs, and in the natural me¬ thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See Botany Index. CYNOPHONTIS, in antiquity, a feftival obferv- ed in the dog days at Argos, and fo called *7™ i. e. from killing dogs ; bccaufe it was ufual on this day to kill all the dogs they met with. CYNOREXY, an immoderate appetite, to the de¬ gree of a difeafe, called alfo fames canina and bulimy. CYNOSARGES, a place in the fuburbs of Athens, named from a white or fwift dog, rvho fnatched away part of the facrifice offering to Hercules. It had a gymnafium, in which ftrangers or thofe of the half- blood performed their exerciles ; the cafe of Hercules, to whom the place wras confecrated. It had alfo a court of judicature, to try illegitimacy, and to examine whe¬ ther perfons were Athenians of the whole or half blood. Here Antifthenes fet up a new fefl of philofophers call¬ ed Cynics, either from the place, or from the fnarling or the impudent difpofition of that feft. C YNOSCEPHALiTi, in Ancient Geography, a place in Theffaly near Scotuffa ; where the Romans, under Q^Flaminius, gained a great vidory over Philip, fon of Demetrius king of Macedon. Thefe Cynofce- phalce Cynic- fpafm I! Gynofce- phaise. C Y P E Cynoffema phalce are Email tops of feveral equal eminences •, named il from their refemblance to dogs heads, according to Cyplionifm. plutarch. ^ ( CYNOSSEMA, the tomb of Hecuba, on the pro¬ montory Maftufia, over againft Sigeum, in the fouth of the Cherfonefus Thracica •, named either from the figure of a dog, to which lire was changed, or from her fad reverfe of fortune (Pliny, Mela). ' CYNOSURA, in AJlronomy, a denomination given by the Greeks to urfa minor, “ the little bear,” by which failors fleer their courfe. of xiivecajic, q. d. the dog’s tail, tion next our pole, conflfling whereof are dilpofed like the riot, and three lengthwife reprefenting the beam 3 whence fome give it the name of the chariot, or Charles's wain. # . Cynosura, CynofurcC) or Cy nofur is, in Ancient Geography, a place in Laconia 3 but whether mari¬ time or inland, uncertain. Here Aifculapius, being thunderflruck, was buried (Cicero). Cynosura was alfo the name of the promontory of Marathon in Attica, oppofite to Euboea. Cynosura, in Mythology, a nymph of Ida in Crete. She nurfed Jupiter, who changed her into a ftar which bears the fame name. It is the fame as the urfa mi¬ nor. The word is formed This is the conftella- of feven {tars 3 four four wheels of a cha- CYNOSURUS, in Botany; a genus of plants be¬ longing to the triandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under the 4^ order, Graminece. See Botany j[n dex • ' CYNTHIUS and Cynthia, in Mythology, fur- names of Apollo and Diana, derived from Cynthia, the name of a mountain in the middle of the ifland of Delos. . . CYNTHUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain ol the ifland Delos, fo high as to overfhadow the whole ifland. On this mountain Latona brought forth Apollo and Diana : hence the epithet Cynthius (Virgil), and Cynthia, (Lucan, Statius). CYNURIA, or Cynurius Ager, in Ancient Geo¬ graphy, a diflria of Laconia, on the confines of Ar- polis. A territory that proved a perpetual bone ot contention between the Argives and Spartans (Thu¬ cydides). For the manner of deciding the difpute, fee Thyrea. CYPERUS, in Botany, a genus of plants belong¬ ing to the triandria clafs, and in the natural method tanking under the 3d order, Calamaria. See Botany Index. CYPHON, in antiquity, a kind of punifhment ufed by the Athenians. It was a collar made of wood 3 Ip called becaufe it conflrained the criminal who had this punifhment inflifled on him to bow down his head.. CYPHONISM, (Cyphonifmus,) from x-vpav, which has various fignifications 3 derived from kvQos, crooked; a kind of torture or punifhment in ufe among the an- CieThe learned are at a lofs to determine what it was. Some will have it to be that mentioned by St Jerome in his Life of Paul the Hermit, chap. 2. which con¬ futed in fmearing the body over with honey, and thus expofing the perfon, with his hands tied, to the warm fun to invite the flies and other vermin to perfecute him. 40 1 C Y P CYPRtEA, or Cowrie, a genus of {hells belong¬ ing to the order of vermes teflacea. See Concho- logY Index. . — This genus is called cypnea and venerea from its be¬ ing peculiarly dedicated to Venus, who is faid to have endowed a fhell of this genus with the powers of a re¬ mora, fo as to impede the courfe of the {hip which was fent by Periander tyrant of Corinth, with orders to emafculate the young nobility of Corcyra. CYPRESS. See Cupressus, Botany Index.. CYPRIANUS, Thascius-C/ecilius, a principal father of the Chriftian church, wTas born at Carthage in Africa, at the latter end of the fecond or beginning of the third century. We know nothing more of his parents than that they were Heathens 3 and he himfelf continued fuch till the lafl 12 years of his life. He applied himfelf early to the fludy of oratory 3 and, fome of the ancients, particularly La£lantius, inform us, that he taught rhetoric in Carthage with the high- eft applaufe. Cyprian’s converfion is fixed by Pear- fon to the year 246 3 and was at Carthage, where, as St Jerome obferves, he had often employed his rhe¬ toric in the defence of paganifm. It was brought about by one Caecilius, a prieft of the church of Car¬ thage, whofe name Cyprian afterwards took 3 and between whom there ever after fubfifted fo clofe a frendfhip, that Ciecilius at his death committed to Cy¬ prian the care of his family. Cyprian was alfo a married man himfelf 3 but as foon as he was convert¬ ed to the faith, he refolved upon ftate of continence, which was thought a high degree of piety, as not be¬ ing yet become general. Being now a Chriftian, he was to give the ufual proof of the fincerity of his cors- verfion 3 and that was by writing againft Paganifm and in defence of Chriftianity. With this view he compofed his^piece De Gratia Dei, or concerning the errace of God,” which he addreffed to Donatus, It is^a work of the fame nature with the Apologetic of Tertullian, and the Oftavius of Minutius Felix. He Cypraea j! Cyprianus. next compofed a piece De Idolorum Vamtate, or ‘ up¬ on the vanity of idols.” Cyprian’s behaviour, both before and after his baptifm, was fo highly pleafing to the bifhop of Carthage, that he ordained him a prieft a few months after. It was rather irregular to ordain a man thus in his very noviciate 3 but Cyprian was fo extraordinary a perfon, and thought capable of doing fuch Angular fervice to the church, that it feemed allowable in this cafe to difpenfe a little with the form and difeipline of it. lor befides his knowft talents as a fecular man, he had acquired a high re¬ putation of fanftity flnce his converfion 3 having not only feparated himfelf from his wife, as we have ob- ferved before, which in thole days was thought an ex¬ traordinary a£l of piety, but alfo configned over all his goods to the poor, and given himfelf up entirely to the things of God. It was on this account no doubt, too, that when the bifhop of Carthage died the year after, that is, in the year 248, none was judged io proper to fucceed him as Cyprian. The quiet and re- . pofe which the Chriftians had enjoyed during the laft 40 years, had, it feems, greatly corrupted their man¬ ners 3 and therefore Cyprian’s firft care, after his ad¬ vancement to the bifhopric, was to correct diforders and reform abufes. Luxury was prevalent among them) and many of their women were not fo ftri<3 C Y P [ / €yprinus as they fliould be, efpecially in the article of drefs. This occafioned him to draw up his piece De habitu . '-'i^ llv virginum, or “ concerning the drefs of young wo¬ men in which, befides what he fays on that parti¬ cular head, he inculcates many leflbns of modefty and fobriety. In the year 249, the emperor Decius be¬ gan to iflfue out very fevere ediils againft the Chri- ftians, which particularly affetfled thole upon the coait of Africa ; and in the beginning of 250, the Heathens, in the circus and amphitheatre of Carthage, infilled loudly upon Cyprian’s being thrown to the lions : a common method of deltroying the primitive Chrilti- ans. Cyprian upon this withdrew from the church at Carthage, and lied into retirement, to avoid the fury of the perfecutions. He wrote, in the place of his re¬ treat, pious and inftruflive letters to thofe who had been his hearers ; and a!fo to the hbellatici, a name by which thole pulillanimous Chriltians were called, who procured certificates of the Heathen magiftrates, to fhow that they had complied wfith the emperor’s or¬ ders in facrificing to idols. At his return to Carthage, he held feveral councils on the repentance of thofe who had fallen during this perfecution, and other points of dilcipline ; he oppofed the fchemes of Novatus, and Novatianus j and contended for the rebaptizing of thofe who had been baptized by heretics. At lalf he died a martyr in the perfecution of Valerian and Gallienus, in 258. Cyprian wrote 81 letters, and feveral treatifes. The bell edition of his works are thofe of Pamelius in I 568 •, of Rigaltius in 1648 ; and of Oxford in 1682. His wmrks have all been tranflated into Englilh by Dr Marfhal. CYPRINUS, a genus of filhes, belonging to the order of abdominales. See Ichthyology Index. CYPRIPEDIUM, the lady’s slipper j a genus of plants belonging to the gynandria clals, and in the natural method ranking under the yth order, Orchidea. See Botany Index. CYPRUS, an illand fituated in the Levant, or molt eafterly part of the Mediterranean fea, between 33 and 36 degrees of eaft longitude, and 30 and 34 of north latitude. In ancient times this illand was known by the names of Acamis, Ceraftis, Afpalia, Amathus, Macaria, Cryptos, Colinia, Sphecia, Paphia, Salarninia, /Erofa, and Cyprus. The etymologies of thefe names are neither very eafily found, nor are they of much importance. The name by which it was moil gene¬ rally known is that of Cyprus, faid to be derived from cypros, the name of a fhrub or tree with which the ifiand abounds ; fuppofed to be the cyprefs. Cyprus, according to Eratollhenes, was firft difco- vered by the Phoenicians, two or three, generations be¬ fore the days of Afterius and Minos, kings of Crete ; that is, according to Sir Ifaac Newton’s computation, 2006 years before the Chrillian era. It was at that time fij full of wood that it could not be tilled, and the Phoenicians firlt cut down that wood for melting copper, with which the illand abounded j and after- wa rds, when they began to fail without fear on the Mediterranean, that is, after the Trojan w-ar, they built great navies of the wmod produced on this illand. Jo- fephus, however, informs us, that the defeendants of Cittim, the fon of Javan, and grandlon of Japhet, were the original inhabitants of Cyprus. According to his account, Cittim, leeing his brother Tarlhilh fettled in Vol. VII. Part I. 1 1 GYP Cilicia, where he built the city of Tarfus, fettled with Cyp his followers in this oppofite iflahd j and either he or his defendants laid the foundation of the city of Cittim, which according to Ptolemy, was the mofl ancient in the illand. As Cyprus was too narrow to contain the great numbers who attended him, he left here as many as might feive to people the country, and with the relt paffed over to Macedon. The illand of Cyprus w’as divided among feveral petty kings till the time of Cyrus the Great. lie lub- dued them all j but left each in pcfTeffion of his king¬ dom, obliging them only to pay him an annual tribute, and to fend iupplies of men, money, and fhips, when required. The Cyprian princes lived thus luhjedl to the Perfians till the reign of Darius Hyftafpes, when they attempted to (hake off the yoke, but with bad iuc- cels ; their forces being entirely defeated, and them- felves again obliged to fubmit. They made another more fuccefsful attempt about the year before Cbrilt 357 ; but, however, could never totally free them- leives from their fubjeftion. It is very probable that they fubmitted to Alexander the Great, though hilto- rians are filent as to that event. On the death of the Macedonian conqueror, the dominion of Cyprus was diiputed by Antigonusand Ptolemy the fon of Lagus. At laft Antigonus prevailed, and the whole iiland iub- mitted to him about 304 years before Chrilf. He and his fon Demetrius kept pofleflion of it for 11 years, when it was recovered by Ptolemy, and quietly poi- fefled by him and his defendants till 58 years before Chrift, when it was moft unjuffly feized by the Ro¬ mans. In the time of Augulfus, it began to be rack¬ ed among the proconlular provinces, and to be govern¬ ed by magilfrates fent thither by the fenate. In the year 648 it was conquered by the Saracens j but reco¬ vered by the Romans in 9<;7. They held it, however, but for a very iliort time, and the barbarians kept pof- ieffion of it till the time of the croifades. It was then reduced by the croifaders; and Richard I. of England gave it to the princes of the Lufignan family, who held it till the year 1570. They divided it in;o 12 provinces, in each of which was a capital city from which the province w^as denominated. So confider- able was the ifland at this time, that befides the cities above-mentioned, an^d others of lefs note, it contained 800 villages. In 1570 it wms taken by the Turks, and though it hath ever fince continued under their tyran¬ nical yoke, is ftill fo confiderable as to be governed by a beglerbeg, and feven fangiacs under him. The air in this ifland is for the moll part very un- wholefeme, on account of the many fens and marfhes W'ith which the country abounds. The loil is an ex¬ cellent fertile clay j and would produce all the necef- faries of life in abundance, if properly cultivated. There are but few fprings or rivers in this illand ; fo that when the rains do not fall plentifully at the uiual feafons, the inhabitants are much dillreffed by the fcarcity of water. By reafon of the uncultivated date of the country» they are alfo greatly in felled with poi- fonous reptiles of various kinds. The people are ex¬ tremely ignorant and lafeivious, as indeed they are re- maiked to have been from the remotef! antiquity. An¬ ciently the worlhip of Venus was eftabliflied in this ifland, whence her title among the poets of the Cyprian queen ; and fuch an inclination had the inhabitants to F become C Y R [42 Cyrano become the votaries of this goddefs, both in theory and " |{ practice, that the young women ufed to proditute Cyrenaica t]ienifeives in l-,er temple in order to raife themfelves ' portions. Nor are their fucceffors-foid to be much bet¬ ter at this day. The exports of the ifland are filks, oil, cotton, wine, fait, and turpentine : the imports are French and Venetian broad cloths j and fometimes a few bales of Englilh manufa&ure, cutlery wares, fu- gar, tin, lead, &c. Knights of Cyprus, an order inftituted by Guy de Lufignan, titular king of Jerufalem, to whom Richard I. of England, after conquering this ifland, made over his right. CYRANO, Bergerac, a French author, born in Gafcony, about the year 1620. He firft entered into the army, where his natural courage engaged him fre¬ quently in duels in the quality of a lecond ; which, with other rafli aftions, procured him the title of the Intrepid. But the little profpeft he faw of prefer¬ ment made him renounce the trade of w7ar for the exercife of wit. His comic hiftories of the dates and empires in the fun and moon, ftiow him well acquaint¬ ed with the Cartefian philofophy, and to have a lively imagination. Our Lord Orrery clafies nim with Swilt for his turn of humour, which he fays the latter adopt¬ ed and purfued. CYRENAICA, an ancient kingdom of Africa, cor- refponding to the prefent kingdom and defert of Baica and Tripoli. It was originally inhabited by a number of barbarous nations, differing little from great gangs of robbers. Afterwards fome colonies from Greece let- tied here, and Cyrenaica became lo powerful a ftate, that it waged war with Egypt and Carthage, often with fuccefs. In the time of Darius Hyftafpes, Arce- filaus, the reigning prince in Cyrenaica, w as^ driven from the throne : on w;hich his mother Pheretima ap¬ plied for afliftance to the king of Cyprus.. Her fon af¬ terwards returning to Barca, the chief city of Cyrene, was there affaflinated, together with his father-in-law. Pheretima finding herfelf dilappointed by the^king of Cyprus, applied to Darius Hyftafpes, and by tne aflift- tince of the Perfians reduced Barca. Here {he beha¬ ved with the utmoft cruelty, caufing all thofe who had been concerned in her fon’s death to be impaled, and the breafts of their wives to be cut off and affixed near them. She is faid to have been afterwards devour¬ ed by worms j which was looked upon as a divine judg¬ ment for her exceflive cruelty. I he priloneis in the mean time were fent to Darius, who lettled them in a diftrift of Baftria, from them called Barca. Cyre¬ naica, however, feems to have remained free till the time of Alexander the Great, who conquered it along with Egypt. Soon after his death the inhabitants recovered their liberty 5 but we e in a ftiort time redu¬ ced by Ptolemy king of Egypt. Under thefe kings it remained till Ptolemy Phyfcon made it over to his baftard fon Apian, who in the 658th year of Rome left it by will to the Romans. The lenate permitted all the cities to be governed by their own laws ; and this immediately filled the country with tyrants, thofe who were moft potent in every city or diftria endeavour¬ ing to affume the fovereignty of it. I hus the kingdom was thrown into great confufion ; but Lucullus in a good meafure reftoied the public tranquillity on his coming thither during the firft Mithridatic war. It was ] C Y R found impoflible, however, totally to fupprefs thefe Cyrenaks difturbances till the country was reduced to the form C^;L of a Roman province, w'hich happened about 20 years < 1 after the death of Apian, and 76 before Chrift. Upon a revolt, the citv of Cyrene was ruined by the Romans ; but they afterwards rebuilt it. In procefs of time it fell to the Arabs 5 and then to the Turks, who are the prefent mailers of it. CYRENAICS, a fed! of ancient philofophers, jo called from their founder Ariftippus of Cyrene, a dil- ciple of Socrates. . _ The great principle of their dodlrine w7as, that the fupreme good of man in this life is pleafure ; whereby they not only meant a privation of pain, and a tran¬ quillity of mind, but an aflemblage of ail mental and fenfual pleafures, particularly the l.aft. _ _ ? Cicero makes frequent mention of Ariftippus’s fchool, and fpeaks of it as yielding debauchees. Three difciples of Ariftippus, after his death, divided the fe£t into three branches under which divifion it languilh- ed and funk : the firft called the Hegefiac fchool j the fecond the Annicenan ; and the third the Iheodoran ; from the names of their authors. CYRENE, in Ancient Geography, the capital of Cvrenaica, and one ol the cities called Pentapohs, di- ftant from Apollonia, its fea-port, 10 miles, fituated on a plain, of the form of a table, according to Stra¬ bo : A colony of the Thereans. Though they were defeendants of the Lacedemonians, yet they differed from them in their turn of mind or difpofition, apply¬ ing themfelves to philofophy ; and hence arofe the Cy- renaic feft, at the head of which was Ariftippus, who placed all happinefs in pleafure. The Cyreneans weie a people much given to aurigation, or the ufe of the chariot, from their excellent breed of horles, (Pindar, Ephorus, Strabo). CYRIL, St, bilhop of Jerufalem, fucceeded Maxi¬ mus in 350. He w’as afterward depoled lor the crime of expofing to fale the treafures of the church, and ap¬ plying the money to the fupport of the poor during .a great famine. Under Julian he was reftored to his fee, and was firmly eftablilhed in all his old honours and dignities under Thecdofius ■, in w hich he conti¬ nued unmolefted to his death in 386. The remains of this father confift only of 23 catechefes, and one letter to the emperor Conftantius. Cyril, St, patriarch of Alexandria, fucceeded Theophilus, his uncle, in 412.. Scarce was he mftal- led, when he began to exert his authority with great rigour j he drove the Novatians and Jews from Alex¬ andria, permitting their wealth and fynagogues to be taken from them. This proceeding highly dilplealed Oreftes, the governor of the city, who law that il the bilhop’s authority was not foon fuppreffed, it might grow too ftrong for that of the magiftrate. Lpon which a kind of civil war broke out between Oreftes and the bilhop ; many tumults were raffed, and feme battles fought in the very ftreets of Alexandria. St Cyril alfo diflinguilhed himfelf by his zeal againfl Neftorius.bi- {hop of Conftantinople, who, in lome of his homilies, had afferted that the Virgin Mary ought not to be cal¬ led the mother of God. The difpute at firft proved unfavourable to Cyril, whole opinion was not only condemned, but himielf deprived of his bilhopric and thrown ipto prifon. But he was foon after releai^ C Y R [ 4.3 1 C Y R Cyrus. and gained a complete viftory over Neftorius, who in was depofed from his fee of Conftantinople. Cyril returned to his fee at Conftantinople, where he died in 444. St Cyril alfo wrote againft Theodoras of Mopfuefta, Diodorus of Tarfus, and Julian the apo- ftate. He compofed commentaries on St John’s gof- pel, and wrote feveral other books. His works were published in Greek and Latin in 1638, in fix volumes folio. CYRUS, the fon of Cambyfes the Perfian, by Man- dane the daughter of Aftyages king of the Medes. The two chief hiftorians, who have written the life of Cyrus, are Herodotus and Xenophon ; but their ac¬ counts of him are different, in as much as the latter makes his father a king of Perfia, and the former a meaner man. The account of Herodotus, as Dr Pri- deaux obferves, indeed contains narratives that are much more ftrange and furprifing, and confequently more diverting and agreeable to the reader : and for this reafon more have chofen to follow him than Xeno¬ phon. Herodotus informs us, that Aftyages king of the Medes dreamed that a vine fprung from the w’omb of his daughter Mandane, the branches whereof over- Ihadowed all Afia j whereupon having confulted the foothfayers, he was told that his dream portended the future power and greatnefs of a child who fhould be born of his daughter : and further that the fame child Ihould deprive him of his kingdom. Aftyages, to pre¬ vent the accompliftiment of this prediftion, inftead of marrying his daughter to fome powerful prince, eave her to Cambyfes, a Perfian of mean condition, and one who had no great capacity for forming any important defign, nor for fupporting the ambition of his fon, by his own riches and authority. Nor did Aftvages ftop here : the apprehenfions he was under left Mandane’s fon might perhaps find that affiftance in his own cou¬ rage, or fome lucky circumftances which his family was not able to fupply him with, induced him to take a refolution of defpatching the child, if there (hould be any. As foon, therefore, as he underftood bis daugh¬ ter was with child, he^ commanded one of his officers, whofe name was Harpagus, to deftroy the infant as loon as it came into the world. Harpagus, fearing the refentment of Mandane, put the child into the hands of one who was the king’s ftiepherd, in order to expofe him. The fhepherd’s wife was fo extremely touched with the beauty of Cyrus, that file defired her hufband rather to expofe her own fon, who was born fome time before, and preferve the young prince. Af¬ ter this manner Cvrus was preferved, and brought up among the king’s Ihephferds. One day, as the neighbouring children were at play together, Cyrus was chofen king ; and having punifti- ed one of his little play fellows with fome feverity, for difobeying his commands, the child’s parent complain¬ ed of Cyrus to Aftyages. This prince Cent for young Cyrus, and obferving fomething great in his air, his manner and behaviour, together with a great refem- blance of his daughter Mandane, he made particular inquiry into the matter, and difcovered that, in reality, Cyrus was no other than his grandfon. Harpagus, who was the inftrument of preferving him, was punch¬ ed with the death o'f his own fon : however, Aftyao-es believing that the royalty which the foothfayers had promifed to the young prince, was only that which he Cyi had lately exercifed among the fhepherds children, v troubled himfelfno more about it. Cyrus being grown up, Harpagus difclofed the whole fecret of his birth to him, together with the manner wherein he had deliver¬ ed him from the cruel refolution of his grandfather. He encouraged him to come into Media, and promifed to furnifh him with forces, in order to make him ma¬ iler of the country, and depofe Allyages. Cyrus heark¬ ened to thefe propofitions, engaged the Perfians to take up arms againft the Medes, marched at the head of them to meet Aftyages, defeated him, and poffeffed himfelf of Media. He carried on many other w ars j and at length fat down before Babylon, which after a long fiege he took. The relation of Cyrus’s life from Xenophon is as follows : Aftyages king of Media married his daugh¬ ter Mandane to Cambyfes king of Perfia, fon to Achae- menes king of the fame nation. Cyrus was born at his father’s court, and was educated with all the care his birth required. When he was about the age of 12 years, his grandfather Aftyages fent for him to Media, together with his mother Mandane. Some time after, the king of Affyria’s fon having in aded Media, Aftyages, with his fon Cyaxares and his grand¬ fon Cyrus, marched againft him. Cyrus diftinguilh- ed himfelf in this war, and defeated the Affyrians. Cambyfes afterwards recalled him, that he might have him near his owm perfon j and Aftyages dying, his Ion Cyaxares, uncle by the mother’s fide to Cyrus, fuc- ceeded him in the kingdom of Media. Cyrus, at the age of 30 years, was, by his father Cambyfes, made general of the Perfian troops; and fent at the head of 30,000 men to the affiftance of his uncle Cyaxares, whom the king of Babylon, with his allies the Cappadocians, Carians, Phrygians, Cilicians, and Paphlagonians, were preparing to attack. Cyax¬ ares and Cyrus prevented them, by falling upon them and difperfing them. Cyrus advanced as far as Baby¬ lon, and fpread terror throughout the country. From this expedition he retired to his uncle, towards the frontiers of Armenia and Affyria, and w’as received by Cyaxares in the tent of the Affyrian king svhom he had defeated. After this Cyrus carried the w'ar into the countries beyond the river Halys, entered Cappadocia, and fub- dued it entirely. From thence he marched againft Croefus king of Lydia, beat him in the firft battle ; then befieged him in Sardis his capital ; and after a fiege of fourteen days obliged him to furrender. See Croesus. After this, Cyrus having reduced almoft all Afia, repafled the Euphrates, and made war upon the Affyrians. He marched direftly to Babylon, took it, and there prepared a palace for his uncle Cyaxares, whither he might retire, if at any time he had an in¬ clination to come to Babylon ; for he was not then in the army. After all thefe expeditions, Cyrus return¬ ed to his father and mother into Perfia, where they were ftill living : and going fome time after to his uncle Cyaxares into Media, he married bis coufin the only daughter and heirefs of all Cyaxares’s dominions, and went with her to Babylon, from whence he fent men of the firft rank and quality to govern all the fe¬ veral nations which he had conquered. He engaged again in feveral wars, and fubdued all the nations F 2 which C Y R Cyrus, wliicli lie between Syria and the Red fen. —v ' at the age of 70 years, after a reign of 30 : but au¬ thors differ verv much concerning the manner of his death. Herodotus, Juftin, and Valerius Maximus re¬ late, that he died in the war againft tne Scythians.} and that falling into an ambuih which Queen lomyris had laid for him, (he ordered his head to be cut off, and call into a veffel full of blood, faying, “ Thou haft always thirrted after human blood, now glut thy- felf with it.” Diodorus the Silician fays, that he was taken in an engagement and hanged. Ctelias affures us, that he died of a wound which he received in his thigh : but by Xenophon’s account he died peaceably in his bed, amidft his friends and fervants } and certain ' it is, that in Alexander’s time his monument was fhown at Pafagarda in Perfia. From all this it is eafy to conclude, that we are but impcrfetlly acquainted with the hiftory of this great prince, the founder of the Perfran, and deftroyer of the Chaldean, empire. We learn fewer particulars ot it from Scripture, but then they are more certain than any that we have produced. Daniel (yin. 3^ 20.) in the famous vifion wherein God (bowed him the ru n of feveral great emperors, which were to precede the birth of the Mefliah, reprefents Cyrus to us under the idea of “ a ram, which had two horns} and the two horns were high, but the one was higher than the other, and the higher came up laft. Phis ram pulhed weftward, and northward, and fouthward, (o that no beads might Hand before him } neither was there any that could deliver out of his hand, but be did ac¬ cording to his will, and became great.’.’ t he ram s two horns fignify the two empires which Cyrus re¬ united in his petfon } that of the Medes, and that o the Perfians. The laft was greater and more power¬ ful than the empire of the Medes } or otherwiie, theie two horns fignify the two branches of Cyrus s iuccel- fors. His Con Cambyfes dying, the empire was trans¬ ferred to Darius the fon of Hyftafpes, and was conti¬ nued down to Darius Codomannus, who, |s Calmet ✓thinks, is the great horn which the he-go.at, that de¬ notes Alexander, run againft. In chap.yii. 5. Daniel compares Cyrus to a bear, with three ribs in the mouth of it, to which it was (aid, “ Arile, devour.much fpfti.” Cyrus fucceeded his father Cambyies m the kingdom of Perfia, and Darius the Mede, by Xeno¬ phon called Cyaxares, and Aftyages in the apocryphal chapter (xiii. 1.) of Daniel, in the kingdom of the Medes and empire of Babylon. He was monarch ot all the eaft } or as he fpeaks (2 Chr. xxxvi. 22, 23. and Ezr. i. X, 2.) “ of all the earth,” when he per¬ mitted the Jews to return to their own country, m the year of the world 3466, before Jefus Chnft 538. The enemies of the Hebrews, making ufe ot this prince’s affedion to his own religion, prevailed with him to put a flop by his orders to the building of , the temple at Jerufalem } (Ezra.iv. 5.) 1 he pio- phets frequently foretold the coming of Cyrus } and Ifaiah fxliv. 28.) has been fo particular as to declaie his name 200 years before he was born. Jofepbus (Antiq. lib. H. c. 2.) fays, that the Jews of Babylon {bowed this paffage of the prophet to Cyrus } and that this prince, in the edift which he granted them for their return, acknowledged that he received the empire of the world from the God of Ilrael} and that the [ 44 1 C Y'S . , .. He died fame God had defcribed him by name in the writings of the prophets, and foretold that he thould buiid .a temple to him at Jerufalem. Cyrus is pointed out in Scripture under the name of the righteous man and the (hepherd of Ifrael, (Ifaiah xli. 2. 10 xlvi. 11. and xliv. 28.) Notwithftanding this, God lays ot him (Ifaiah xlv. 5.) “I girded thee, though thou haft not known me.” And Jeremiah calls Cyrus and his peo¬ ple who overthrew the Babylonith empire, thieves and robbers. The taking of Babylon by Cyrus is clearly fet* down by the prophets, and may be feen under the articles Bav-ylon and Belshazzar. Archbilhop Uflier fixes the birth of Cyrus to the year of the world 340c } his firit year at Babylon to 3466, and his death to 347 C. The eaftern people will have it, that Cyrus by' his mother’s fide was defcended from lome of the Hebrew prophets : as alfo that his wife was a Tew, which is the reafon (fay they) that this prince fo attached himfelf to the Jews, to whom he was io nearly allied. r ^ v * Cyrus II. was the younger fon of Darius Nathus, And the brother of Artaxerxes. He was lent by . his father at the age of 16 to affift the Lacedaemonians againft Athens. Artaxerxes fucceeded to the throne at the death of Nothus} and Cyrus, who was ot an afpiring foul, attempted to affaftinate him. He »vas difcovered, and had been puniftied with death, had not his mother Paryfatis faved him from the hands of tae executioner by her tears and entieaties. f J,,s cl^cl'Jn* fiance did not in the leaft check the ambition of Cy¬ rus } he was appointed over Lydia and the iea-coalts, where he fecretly fomented rebellion and levied troops under various pretences. At laft he took the held with an army of 100,000 barbarians, and 13,000 Greeks under the command of Clearchus. Artaxer¬ xes met him with 900,000 men near Cunaxa. I he battle was long and bloody } and Cyrus might have perhaps obtained the victory, had not his uncommon raftineis proved his ruin. It is faid that the two royal brothers met in perfon, and their engagement ended in the death of Cyrus, 401 years bemre the Auguftan aoe Artaxerxes was fo anxious of its being umver- ially reported that his brother had fallen by his hand .lT tn 8path two of his fabled!s for boaitin* Cy-us. Gyft. that he put to death two of his fubjeds for boafting that they had killed Cyrus. The Greeks, who .were engaged in the expedition, obtained much glory in the bank} and after the death of Cyrus they remained vidorious in the field without a commander. 1 hey were not difcouraged, though at the d.ftance of above 600 leagues from their country, and furrounded on every fide by a powerful enemy. They unammoufiy united in the eledion of commander s, and traverfed all Afia in fpite of the continual attacks ot the Perfians , and nothing is more truly celebrated in ancient hiftory than the bold retreat of the ten thoufand . Hie jour¬ ney that they made from the place of their firft em¬ barkation till their return, has been calculated at I 1.55 leagues, performed in the fpace of 15 months, including all'the time which was devoted to take reft and re- frefhment. This retreat has been celebrated by Xe¬ nophon, who was one of their leaders, and among the friends and fupporters of Cyrus. CYST, the bag or tunic including all incyfted tu¬ mors, as the fcirrhus, atheroma, fteatoma, mehceres, &c- CYSTIC, t'vftic II Czar. C Z A [ 45 ] C Z E CYSTIC, in Anatomy, a name given to two arte¬ ries and two veins. Cystic DuB. See Anatomy Index. CY THERA, -orum, in Ancient Geography, an ifland oppofite to Mallea, a promontory, and to Boise, a town of Laconia ; with a cognominal town, which has an excellent port called Scandea. The ifland w'as facred to Venus, with a very ancient temple of that goddtfs exhibited in armour at Cythera, as in Cyprus : now Cerigo. CYTHEREA, in Mythology, the furname of Ve¬ nus, fo called from Cythera an ifland, where Are had a temple efleemed the moft ancient in Greece, and on the fhores of which Are was believed to be borne by the Zephyrs, furrounded by the Loves, the Tritons, and Nereides, reclining in a languifhing pofture in a fea- flrell. They give the name of Cytheriades to the Graces which attended her on the fliore without quit¬ ting her, except on thofe occaflons when Are rather chofe to be waited upon by the Plealutes. CYTINUS, a genus of plants belonging to the gynandria clafs } and in the natural method ranking under the iith order, Sarmentacece. See Botany Index. CYTISUS, tree trefoil, a genus of plants be¬ longing to the diadelphia clafs, and in the natural me¬ thod ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilionacea. See Botany Index. CYZICEN3, Cyzicena, among the ancient Greeks, were a fort of magnificent banqueting houies, always looking toward the north, and ufually opening upon gardens. They had their name from Cyzicus, a city very con- fiderable for the grandeur of its buildings ; fituated in an ifland of Myfia, bearing the fame name. CYZICUM, or Cyzicus, in Ancient Geography, one of the nobleft cities of the Hither Alia; fityated in a cognominal ifland of the Propontis, on the coaft of My- fla \ joined to the continent by two bridges (Strabo) ; the firft by Alexander : the city, a colony of the Mi- lefians (Pliny). Rendered famous by the fiege of Mi- thridates* which was raifed by Lucullus.—The inhabi¬ tants were made a free people by the Romans, but for¬ feited their freedom under Tiberius. It was adorned with a citadel and walls round it ; had a port and marble towers; and three magazines, one for arms, another for warlike engines, and a third for corn. Cyzieeni, the people \ noted by the ancients for their timidity and effeminacy : hence the proverb in Zeno- dotus and others, Tindlura Cy%enica, applied to perfons guilty of an indecency through fear ; but Stateres Cy- %icenii minimi Cyziceni, denote things executed to per¬ fection. CZACKTHURN, a flrong town of Germany, in Aufl ria, and near the frontiers of Hungary. It is feat- ed between the rivers Drave and Muhir, in E. Long. 17. 19. N. Lat. 46. 24. CZAR, a title of honour, affumed by the grand dukes, or, as they are now ftyled, emperors of Ruflia. The natives pronounce it tzar, cr zaar ; and this, by corruption (it has been fancied), from Cafar, “ em¬ peror,” from fome imagined relation to the Roman emperors. But this etymology does not feem correCL When the czar Peter formerly required of the Euro¬ pean courts an acknowledgment of his imperial titles, and that the appellation of Emperor fhould never be omitted, there was great difficulty made about it, efpecially at the court of Vienna ; which occafioned him to produce the famous letter, written in the Ger¬ man tongue, from Maximilian I. emperor of Germany, to Vaffili Ivanovitch, confirming a treaty of alliance offenfive and defenfive againfl: Sigifmond king of Po¬ land. In this difpatch, which is dated Auguft the 4th, 1514, and is ratified with the feal of the golden bull, Maximilian addreffes Vaffili by calling him Kayftr and Herrfcher alter RuJJ'en, “ emperor and ruler of all the Ruffias.” But independently of this document, there could be no doubt that the foreign courts, in their intercourie with that of Mofcovv, ftyled the love- reigns indiferiminately Great Duke, Czar, and Em¬ peror. With refpeCl to England in particular, it is certain, that in Chancellor’s Account of Ruffia, fo early as the middle of the 16th century, Ivan Vaffilie- vitch II. is called Lord and Emperor of all Ruffin ; and in the Englifh difpatches, from the reign of Elizabeth to that of Anne, he is generally addreffed under the fame appellation. When the European powers, how¬ ever, ft vied tire czar Emperor of Mufcovy, they by no means intended to give him a title fimilar to that which w!as peculiar to the emperor of Germany ; but they bellowed upon him that appellation as upon an Afiatic fovereign, in the fame manner as we now fay the emperors of China and Japan. When Peter, therefore, determined to affume the title of em¬ peror, he found no difficulty in proving that it had been conferred upon his predeceffors by moft of the European powers ) yet when he was defirous of affix¬ ing to the term the European fenfe, it wras conftdered as an innovation, and was produfHve of more negocia- tions than would have been requifite for the termina¬ tion of the moft important ftate affair. At the fame time it occafioned a curious controverfy among the learned, concerning the rile and progrefs of the titles by which the monarchs of this country have been di- ftinguifhed. From their refearches it appeared, that the early fovereigns of Ruflia were called great dukes, and that Vaffili Ivanovitch was probably the firft wffio ftylcd himfelf tzar, an expreffionwffiich in the Sclavonian language fignifies king; and that his fucceffors con¬ tinued to bear within their, own dominions. that title as the moft; honourable appellation, until Peter the Great firft took that of Povelitel, or emperor. After many delays and objecVions, the principal courts of Europe confented, about the year 1722, to addrefs the fovereign of Ruffia with the title of Emperor ; without prejudice, neverthelefs, to the other crowned heads of Europe. CZASLAU, a town of Bohemia, and capital of a circle of the fame name. Here is the higheft tower in all Bohemia ; and near this place the king of Pruffia gained a viftory over the Auftrians in 1742. It is feated on the river Crudenka, in E. Long. 15. 33. N. Lat. 49. 50. CZENSTOKOW, a town of Poland in the pala¬ tinate of Cracovia, with a fort, in which they keep a rich treafure, called “ the treafure of the Virgin Mary.” The pilgrims flock hither fo much for the fake of a convent near it, that it is called the T^oretta of Poland. The town is fituated on the river Warte. E. Long. Tzar Czenftc- kenv. 19. 15. N. Lat. 50. 48. CZERNIC, D A C [46 Czernic, CZERNIC, a town of Carniola, in Auftria, fitua- Czernikou.te^ ;n Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 46. 12. It is remark- able for its lake * for a particular defcription of which fee the article Circhnitzer. CZERNIKOU, a confiderable town of Mufcovy, and capital of a duchy of the fame name, with a caille. 1 D A C It is feated on the river Dezna, in E. Long. 32. 13. Czongrodt, N. Lat. 51. 20. CZONGRODT, a town of upper Hungary, and capital of a territory of the fame name, at the conflu¬ ence of the rivers Teilfe and Keres. E. Long. 20. 57* N. Lat. 46. 50. D. D ' 11 Dacca. D THE fourth letter of the ^ third confonant. alphabet, and the Grammarians generally reckon D among the lingual letters, as fuppofing the tongue to have the princi¬ pal (hare in the pronunciation thereof; though the Ab¬ bot de Dangeau feems to have reafon in making it a palate letter. The letter D is the fourth in the He¬ brew, Chaldee, Samaritan, Syriac, Greek, and ^Latin alphabets ; in the five firft of which languages it has the fame name, though fomewhat differently fpoke, e. g. in Hebrew', Samaritan, and Chaldee Daleth, in Syriac Doleth, and in Greek Delta. The form of our D is the fame with that of the Latins, as appears from all the ancient medals and in- fcriptions, and the Latin D is no other than the Greek A, rounded a little, by making it quicker and at two ilrokes. The A of the Greeks, again, is borrowed horn the ancient chara&er of the Hebrew Daleth .- which form it ftill tetains, as is fhown by the Jefuit Souciet, in his Differtation on the Samaritan Medals. D is alfo a numeral letter, fignifying jive hundred, which arlfes hence, that in the Gothic char-afters, the D is half the M, which fignifies a thoufand. Hence the verfe. Litcra D velut A ttuingenlos Jignijicahit. A dafli added a-top D, denotes it to hand for jive thoufand. . . . Ufed as an abbreviation, it has various fignifications: thus D (lands for Doftor j as, M. D. for Doftor of Medicine ; D. T. Doftor of Theology *, D. D. im¬ plies Doftor of Divinity, or “ dono dedit * D. D. L>. is ufed for “ dat, dicat, dedicat and D. D. D. D. for “ dignum Deo donum dedit. ’ _ DAB, the Enghfh name of a fpecies of 1 leuro- nectes. See Ichthyology Index. DABUL, a town of Afia, in the Eaft Indies, on the coaft of Malabar, and to the fouth of the gulf of Cambaye, on a navigable river. It was formerly very flourifhing, but is now much decayed. It belongs to the Portuguefe, and its trade confifts principally in penper and fait. E. Long. 72. 50. N. Lat. 1 7. 30. DACCA, a town of Afia, in the kingdom or Ben¬ gal in the Eaft Indies, fituatcd in E. Long. 86. 10. N Lat 24. O—The advantages of the fituation of this place, and the fertility of the foil round it, have long fince made it the centre of an extenfive commerce. The courts of Delhi and Muxadavad are furniftied nom thence with the cottons wanted for their own con- I fumption. They each of them maintain an agent on ^ the fpot to fuperintend the manufafture of them 5 and w he has an authority, independent of the magiftrate, over the brokers, weavers, embroiderers, and all the workmen whofe bufineis has any relation to the object of his commiflion. Thefe unhappy people are forbid¬ den, under pecuniary and corporeal penalties, to fell, to any perfon whatever, a piece exceeding the value of three guineas: nor can they, but by dint of money, relieve themfelves from this oppreflion. In this, as in all the other markets, the Europeans treat with the Moorifti brokers fettled upon the fpot, and appointed by the government. They likewife lend their name to the individuals of their own nation, as well as to Indians and Armenians living in their fettle- ments, who, without this precaution, would infallibly be plundered. The Moors themfelves, in their private tranfaftions, fometimes avail themfelves of t.^e fame pretence, that they may pay only two, inftead of five per cent. A diftinftion is obferved, in their contrafts, between the cottons that are befpoke and thofe which the weaver ventures, in fome places, to manulafture on his own account. 1 he length, the number .oi threads, and the price, of the former are fixed: nothing further than the commiflion for the latter is ftipulated, becaufe it is impoflible to enter into the fame detail. Thefe nations that make a point of having fine goods, take proper meafures that they may be enabled to advance money to their workmen at the beginning of the year. The weavers, who in general have but little employ¬ ment at that time, perform their work with lefs hurry than in the months of Oftober, November, and De¬ cember, when the demand is prefling. Some of the cottons are delivered unbleached, and others half bleached. It w^ere to be wifhed that this cuftom might be altered. It is very common to lee cottons that look very beautiiul go eft in the bleach¬ ing. Perhaps the manufafturers and brokers iorewe how they will turn out j but the Europeans have not fo exquifite a touch, nor fuch an experienced eye, to difeern this. It is a circumftance peculiar to India, that cottons, of what kind foever they are. can never be well bleached and prepared but in the place wnere they are manufaftured. If they have the misfortune to get damage before they are {hipped for Europe, they muft be fent back to the places from whence they came. DACE, a fpecies of Cyprinus. See Ichthyo- wcy Index. This Dace. DAG Dachaw . fiHi Is extremely common In our rivers, and Dacier. Sjves the expert angler great diverfion. The dace will ■—-y—■ ■ ^,te any but he is more than ordinarily fond of tne ftone caddis, or May fly, which is plentiful in the latter end of April and the whole month of May. Great quantities of thefe may be gathered among the reeds or fedges by the water-fide j and on the hawthorn bufhes near the waters. Thefe are a large and hand- fome bait} but as they only laft a fmall part of the year in feafon, recourfe is to be had to the ant-fly. Of thefe the black ones found in large mole-hills "or ant-hills are the beft. Thefe may be kept alive a long time in a bottle, with a little of the earth of the hill, and fome roots of grafs j and they are in feafon throughout the months of June, July, Auguft, and September. The bed feafon of all is when they fwarm, which is in the end of July or beginning of Auguft} and they may be kept many months in a veflel waflied out with a fo- lution of honey in water, even longer than with the earth and grafs-roots in the vial; though that is the mod convenient method with a fmall parcel taken for one day’s fifliing. In warm weather this fifh very fel- dom refufes a fly at the top of the water; but at other times he mud have the bait funk to within three inches of the bottom. T he winter fifhing for dace requires a very different bait : this is a whfte ma^aot with a reddidi head, which is the produce of the eggs of the beetle, and is turned up with the plough in great abundance. A parcel of thefe put in any veffel, with the earth they were taken in, will keep many months, and are an excellent bait. Small dace may be put into a glafs jar with frefti w7ater; and there pre- ferved alive for a long time, if the water is properly changed. They have been obferved to eat nothing but the animalcula of the water. They will grow very tame by degrees. DACHAW, a town of Bavaria in Germany. It is pretty large, well built, and feated on a mountain, near the river Amber, 10 miles N. W. of Munich. Here the eleftor has a palace and fine gardens. E. Long- II. 30. N. Lat. 48. 20. 6’ DACIA, in Ancient Geography, a country which I rajan, who reduced it to a province, joined to Moelia by an admirable bridge. This country lies extended be¬ tween the Danube and Carpathian mountains, from the river Tibifcus, quite to the north bend of the Danube ; io as to extend thence in a dired line to the mouth of the Danube and to the Euxine ; on the north fide, next the Carpates, terminated by the river Hierafus’ now the Truth; on the weft by the Tibifcus or Teifs | compnfing a part of Upper Hungary, all Tranfylvania and VV allaehia, and a part of Moldavia. Daci, the people ; a name which Strabo takes to be the fame with the^ Davi of comedies ; neighbours, on the weft, to the Getee, an appellation common alfo in come- dies. Jofephus mentions a fet of religious men among * ^ Dad, whom he calls Plifti, and compares with the . em * tbefe Plifti no other author makes any men¬ tion. Dacicus, the epithet affumed by fome empe- rors, (Juvenal). There was a Dacia Aureliana, a part ot Ulyncum, which was divided into the eaftern and weftern ; Sirmium being the capital of the latter, and Sardica of the former. But this belongs to the lower age. 0 DACIER, Axdilew, born at Caftres in Upper [ 47 1 D A C Languedoc, 1651, had a great genius and Inclination for learning, and ftudied at Saumur under Tannegui le Fevre, then engaged in the inftrudion of his daugh¬ ter, who proved afterwards an honour to her lex. This gave rife to that mutual tendernefs which a marriage of 40 years could never weaken in them. The duke of Montaufier hearing of his merit, put him in the lift of commentators for the ufe of the Dauphin, and enga¬ ged him in an edition of Pompeius Feftus, which he publilhed in 1681. His edition of Horace, printed at Paris in ten vols izmo, and his other works, raifed him a great reputation. He was made a member of the academy of inferiptions in 1695. When the hif- tory of Louis XIV. by medals wras finilhed, he was chofen to prelent it to his majefty; who being inform¬ ed of the pains which he had taken in it, fettled upon him a penlion of 2000 livres, and appointed him keep¬ er of the books of the king’s clolet in the Louvre. When that poll was united to that of library-keeper to the king, he was not only continued in the privilege of his place during life, but the lurvivance rvas granted to his wife; a favour of which there had been no inftance before. But the death of Madame Dacier in 1720, ren¬ dered this grant, which was fo honourable to her, in- effe&ual. He died September 18. 1722, of an ulcer in the throat. In his manners, lentiments, and the whole of his condudt, he ivas a complete model of that ancient philofophy of which he was fo great an ad¬ mirer, and which be improved by the rules and prin¬ ciples of Chriftianity. Dacier, Anne, daughter of Tannegui le Fevre, profeffor of Greek at Saumur in France. She early Ihowed a fine genius, which her father cultivated with great care and fatisfa&ion. After her father’s death Ihe went to Paris, whither her fame had already reach¬ ed ; Ihe was then preparing an edition of Callimachus, which flie publifhed in 1674. Having ftiown fome ftieets of it to Mr Huet, preceptor to the dauphin, and to feveral other men of learning at the court, the work was fo highly admired, that the duke of Montaufier made a propofal to her of publiftiing feveral Latin au¬ thors for the ufe of the dauphin. She rejedled this pro- polal at firft, as a talk to which ftie was not equal.- But the duke infifted upon it; fo that at laft; he gain¬ ed her con fen t; upon w'hich flie undertook an edition of Florus, publiftied in 1674. Her reputation being notv fpread over all Europe, Chriftina, queen of Swe¬ den, ordered Count Konigfmark to make her a compli¬ ment in her name : upon which Mademoifelle le Fevre fent the queen a Latin letter, with her edition of Flo¬ rus ; to which her majefty wrote an obliging anfwer, and not long after fent her another letter, to perfuade’ her to abandon the Proteftant religion, and made her confiderable offers to fettle at her court. In 1683 flie married Mr Dacier; and foon after declared her defign to the duke of Montaufier and the biftiop of Meaux of reconciling herfelf to the church of Rome, which ftie had entertained for fome time : but as Mr Dacier was not yet convinced of the reafonablenefs of fuch a change, they retired to Caftres in 1684, where they had a fmall eftate, in order to examine the points of controverfy between the Proteftants and the Roman Catholics. They at laft determined in favour of the latter, and made the public abjuration in 1685. Af¬ ter this, the king gave both hulhand and wife marks of Dacier. “ vc:r ofe.t“ tylTc meafure. See Curetes and Corybahtes. Daxay!, of his favour, m loy^, u*^ “ft'— . . Daftyli. cation 0f her fon and daughter, who made a prodigi- * ous progrefs : the fon died in 1694, and the daughter became a nun in the abbey of Longchamp. She had another daughter, who had muted in her ad the vir¬ tues and accomplishments that could adorn the (ex *, but Pm died at 18. Her mother has immortalized her me¬ mory in the preface to her tranflation of the Iliad. Madame Dacier was in a very infirm ftate of health the two lad years of her life 5 and died, after a very pain¬ ful ficknefs, Auguft 17- aged 69- f‘e ^ re* markable for her firmnefs, generofity, equality 01 tem- P DACTYL, (daBylus), a foot in the Latin and Greek poetry, confiding of a long fyliable, followed by two fhort ones •, as carmine. c „ Some fay it U derived from a onger. becaafe it is divided into three jomts, tire firft of vvh.ch is longer than the other two. The da£lvl is faid to have been the invention of Dionyfius or Bacchus, who delivered oracles m this meafure at Delphos, before Apollo. 1 he Greeks ca it The daftyl mid fpondee are the molt ccnfiderable of the poetical feet ; as being the mea- fures ufed in heroic verie by Homer, Virgil, & • Thefe two arc of equal time, but not equal motion The fpondee has an even, ftrong, and fie ad y Pac^lk^ a trot : the daftyl refembles the nimbler ilrokes of a g D \CTYLI idjei > the Fingers of Mount Ida. Concerning thefe, Pagan theology and fable give very different accounts. The Cretans paid divine worflup to them, as thofe who had nurfed and brought up he god Jupiter 4 whence it appears, that they were he fame as the Corybantes and Curetes. Neverthelefs Strabo makes them different •, and fays, tha* the trad‘- tion in Phrygia was, that “ the Curetes and Corybantes v ere defcendfid from the Daftyli Idmi : that there were originally an hundred men in the .(land, whoweie cal- \jDaclyli Idetii from whom fprang nine Curetes, and each of thefe nine produced ten men, as many as the fingers of a man’s two hands *, and that this gave the name to the anceftors of the Daftyh Idam He re¬ ntes another opinion, which is, that there were hut five Daftyli Idee! 4 who, according to Sophocles, were the inventors of iron : that thefe five brothers had five bftcrs and that from this number they took the nmne of Fibers of Mount Ida, becaufe they were in number fen : and that they worked at the foot of this moun¬ tain Diodorus Siculus reports the matter a i'ttk dif- ferently. He fays, “ the firfl inhabitants of the ifland of Crete were the Daftyli Id?i, dence on Mount Ida : that feme faid they were a Z ?°A . ntbers only five in number, equal to the fin- hundred , , , whence they had the name of Ly -giria„s, a„d addifled to Syffical ceremonies : that Orpheus mid carried their myftenes mto Greece . that he W tvli invented the ufe of iron and fire and y • had been recompenfed with dmne ''‘T™"; ; Diomedes the^rammana^fcy.. the^^ ^ caufe^hafgoddefs lias chiefly worlhipped on Mount Ida in Phrygia ; and DaOrli, becaule that, to prevent Saturn fiom^heaVing the cries of infant Jup.ter, whom 2 DACTYLIC, fomething that has a relation to da‘Anciently there were daftylic as well as fpondaic flutes, tibdJany/ic. The daByltc flutes confided of unequal interval's ; as the daflyhc toot does of unequal meafures^ ic ^ hexameter verfes, ending in a daftyl inftead of a fpondee;, as fpobdaic ver es aie thofe which have a fpondee m the fifth foot inftead °f A^hiftance of a daftylic verfe we have in Virgil 4 Bis patri* cecidere mantis; quin protinus omnia Perlegerent oculis.- TEn. vi. 33. DACTYLIOMANCY, {DaByliomantia), a fort of divination performed by means of a ring. I he word is compofed of the Greek .ring> 0l ^xtvA.c, “ a finger,” and ftutruct, “ divination. Daftviiomancy confifted principally in holding a ring, fufpended by a fine thread, over a round tab e, on the edge whereof were made divers marks ^^b the twenty-four letters of the alphabet The ring m {bak¬ ing. or vibrating over the table, flopped over certain of the letters, which, being joined together, compofed the anfwer required. But the operation was preceded and accompanied by feveral fuperftitious ceremonies for firft the ring was to be confecrated with a great deal of myftery : the perfon who held it was to be clad in linen garments to the very Iboes; his head was be fhaved all round 4 and in bis hand he was to hold vervain. And before be proceeded^ any thing, .e god. were firft to be appeafed by a formulary ot pray¬ ers, &-c. Ammianus Marcellinus gives the procefs at DACTYXIS, cock’s roor grass, a genus or plants belonging to the triandria clais; and in the na- turalmethofl linking unfler the t Dactyls, the fruit of the palm-tree, more uiually ^DACTYLUS, a fort of dance among the an¬ cient Greeks, chiefly performed, Hefychius obfenc , a name given by Pliny to .he PHOuas. SeD^UCHe0In":.lq°uiIyf' ire'fls of Ce.es That god Shaving 'loft he. daugb.e. P.o erp.n^^my- .hologifls be^an.o make fc.ch for fl.e^ighted a torch, and thus fet forth her travels hand. On this account, and in “m”'mora“n "f H r and holding it with his hand, ran with it to a cer- altar, amt no c g , e ave lt to another, tai„ par, of the tan after the Ker ,0 UF.Pom' this feT- ” ^ tL'ptftruc^den'ontinat-ed D iE D L 49 ] D iE M Daetlala, q, rf, lt torch-bearers 5” from (l an undfuous refi- Daeuaius. nous as pine, fir, &c.” whereof the ancients "" made torches ; and “ I have, I hold.”—The A- thenians alfo gave the name daduchus to the high-prieft of Hercules. DALDALA, a mountain and city of Lycia, where Daedalus was buried, according to Pliny.—Alfo two feltivals in Bceotia, fo called ; one of them obferved at Alalcomenos by the Plataeans in a large grove, where they expofed in the open air pieces of boiled flefh, and carefully obferved whither the crows that came to prey upon them directed their flight. All the trees upon which any of thefe birds alighted were im¬ mediately cut down, and with them ftatues wTere made, called Dada/a, in honour of Daedalus. The other fef- tival was of a more folemn kind. It was celebrated every 60 years by all the cities of Boeotia, as a com- penfation for the intermiffion of the fmaller feftivals, for that number of years, during the exile of the Pla¬ taeans. Fourteen of the ftatues called D&da/a were diftributed by lot among the Plataeans, Lebadceans, Coroneans, Orchomenians, Thefpians, Thebans, Ta- nagraeans, and Chaeroneans, becaufe they had effe&ed a reconciliation among the Plataeans, and caufed them to be recalled from exile about the time that Thebes was reftored by Caffander the fon of Antipater. Du¬ ring this feftival a woman in the habit of a bridemaid accompanied a ftatue which was dreffed in female gar¬ ments, on the banks of the Eurotas. This proceflion was attended to the top of Mount Cithaeron by many of the Boeotians, who had places affigned them by lot. Here an altar of fquare pieces of wood cemented to¬ gether like ftones was ereffed, and upon it were thrown large quantities of combuftible materials. Afterwards a bull was facrificed to Jupiter, and an ox or heifer to Juno, by every one of the cities of Boeotia, and by the moft opulent that attended. The pooreft citizens offered fmall cattle ; and all thefe oblations, together with the Dtedala, were thrown into the common heap and fet on fire, arid totally reduced to allies. They originated in this: When Juno, after a quarrel with Jupiter, had retired to Euboea, and refufed to return to his bed, the god, anxious for her return, went to confult Cithaeron king of Platoea, to find fome effeftual meafuie to break her obltinacy. Cithaeron advifed him to drefs a ftatue in woman’s apparel, and carry it in a chariot, and publicly to report it was Platoea the daughter of Afopus, whom he was going to marry. 1 he advice was followed ) and Juno, informed of her hufband’s future marriage, repaired in hafte to meet the chariot, and was eafily united to him, when Ihe difeovered the artful meafures he made ufe of to effeft a reconciliation. DAiDALUS, an Athenian, fon of Eupalamus, de¬ fended from Erichtheus king of Athens. He was the moft ingenious artiif of his age ; and to him we are indebted for the invention of the wedge, and many other mechanical inftruments, and the fails of fhips. He made ftatues which moved of themfelves, and feem- ed to be endowed with life. Talus his filler’s fon promiled to be as great as bimfelf by the ingenuity of his inventions; and therefore from envy he threw him down from a window and killed him. After the murder of this youth, Daedalus, with his fon Icarus, fled from Athens to Crete, where Minos king of the Vol. VII. Part I. country gave him a cordial reception. Daedalus made Dasmon. a famous labyrinth for Minos, and aftifted Pafiphae the queen to gratify her unnatural paflion for a bull. For this aflion Daedalus incurred the difpleafure of Minos, who ordered him to be confined in the laby¬ rinth which he had conftrufted. Here he made him- 1’elf wings with feathers and wax, and carefully fitted them to his body and that of his fon, who was the companion of his confinement. They took their flight in the air from Crete : but the heat of the fun melted the wax on the wings of Icarus, whofe flight was too high, and he fell into that part of the ocean which from him has been called the Icarian fea> The father, by a proper management of his wings, alighted at Cumae, where he built a temple to Apollo, and thence diredfted his courfe to Sicily, where he was kindly re¬ ceived by Cocalus, who reigned over part of the coun- try. He left many monuments of his ingenuity in Sicily, which ftiil exifted in the age of Diodorus Si¬ culus. He was defpatched by Cocalus, who was afraid of the power of Minos, who had declared war againil him becaufe he had given an afylum to Daedalus. The flight of Daedalus from Crete with wings is explain¬ ed by obferving that he was the inventor of fails, which in his age might pafs at a diftance for wings. He lived 1400 years before the Chriftian era. There were two flatuaries of the fame name ; one of Sicyon, fon of Pa- troclus ; the other a native of Bithynia. DAEMON, a name given by the ancients to certain fpirits or genii, which they fay appeared to men, either to do them fervice or to hurt them. The Greek word 'h&iy.ui, is derived (according to Plato, in his Cratylus, p. 39^- Serrani, Vol. i. (from “ knowing or intelligent j” but according to others from ^otiopxi, “ to diftribute,” (fee the Scholiaft on Homer, II. i. ver. 222.). Either of thefe deriva¬ tions agrees with the office aferibed to daemons by the ancient heathens, as the fpirit intrufted with the in- fpe6tion and government of mankind. For, accor¬ ding to the philofophers, daemons held a middle rank between the celeftial gods and men on earth, and car¬ ried on all intercourfe between them ; conveying the addreffes of men to the gods, and the divine benefits to men. It was the opinion of many, that the ce- leftial divinities did not themfelves interpofe in hu¬ man affairs, but committed the entire adminiftration of the government of this lower world to thefe fubal- tern deities: Neque emm pro 7?wjejlate deum eerie ft mm fterit, here curare ; J Apuleius de deo Socratis, p. 677.) Cun&a c cel eft in in vuluntate, numine, et author it ate, fed d.emonum ohfequio, et opera et minifterto fieri arbitran- dum eft; (Id. p. 675). Hence they became the ob- je6!s of divine worfhip. “ If idols are nothing,” fays Celfus (apud Origen. cont. Celf. lib. viii. p. 393.) “ what harm can there be to join in the public feftivals ? If they are daemons, then it is certain that they are gods, in whom we are to confide, and to whom we fhould offer facrifices and prayers to render them propitious.” Several of the heathen philofophers held that there were diffeient kitids of daemons ; that fome of them were fpiritual fubftances of a more noble origin than the human race, and that others had once been men. But thofe daemons who w^ere the more immediate objefts of the eftabliftied worfhip among the ancient G nations D M M [ 5° 1 D JE M Dxmon. nations Were human fpirits, luch as were believed to 1— become daemons or deities after their departure from their bodies. Plutarch teaches (Vit. Romul. p. 36. ect. Paris), “ that according to a divine nature and ju- flicCj the fouls of virtuous men are advanced to the rank of daemons ; and that from daemons, if they are properly purified, they are exalteo into gods, not by any political inftitution, but according to right reafon.” The fame author fays in another place {dr If. e/ Ofir. p. 361.), “ that Ifis and Ofnis were, for their virtue, changed from good daemons into gods, as were Her¬ cules" and Bacchus afterwards, receiving the united ho¬ nours both of gods and daemons.” Heiiod and other poets, who have recorded the ancient hiftory 01 tradi¬ tions on which the public faith and worfliip were foun¬ ded, affert, that the men of the golden age, who were fuppofed to be very good, became daemons after death, and difpen'ers of good things to mankind. Though Jt/non is often ufed in a general fenle as equivalent to a deity, and is accordingly applied to fate or fortune, or whatever elfe was regarded as a god-, vet thole dmmons who were the more immediate ob- ;e£ls of divine worfhip amongfl the heathens, were hu¬ man fpirits as is ftiown in Farmer on Miracles, chap. iii. fedt. 2. . • j j The word daemon is ufed indifferently m a good and a bad lenfe. In the former fenfe, it was very com¬ monly ufed among the ancient heathens. “ VV e mutt fiot (fays Menander) think any daemon to be evil, hurtful to a good life, but every god to be good. Neverthelefs, thofe are certainly miftaken who atium, that daman never fignifies an evil being till after the times of Chrift. Pythagoras held daemons who lent difeafes to men and cattle {Diog. Laert. J it. Pytha- por. p. 514, ed. Amfel.) Zaleucus, in his preface to his Laws (apud Stobaum, Serm. 42.) luppofes. that an evil daemon might be prefent with a man, to influence him to iniuftice. The daemons of Empedocles were evil fpirits, and exiles from heaven (Plutarch ra Suv 'ttra&ilcu). And in his life of Dion (p. 938.) he fays “ It was the opinion of the ancients that evil ■and mifchievous daemons, out of envy and hatred to good men, oppofe whatever they do.” Scarce, did any opinion more generally prevail m ancient times than this, viz. that as the departed fouls of good men became good daemons, fo the departed fouls of bad men became evil daemons. It has been generally thought, that by damans we are to underftand devils, in the. Septuagmt v.erfion of the Old Teftament. Others think the word is in that verfion certainly applied to the ghofts.of Inch dead men as the heathens deified, in Deut. xxxii. 17. PI. cvi. 37. That daman often bears the fame meaning in the New Teftament, and particularly in Acts xvu. 18. 1 Cor. x. 21 1 Tim. iv. 1. Rev. ix. 13. is ihown at large by Mr lofeph Mede (Works, p. 623, etfeq.)^ That the word is applied always to human fpirits in the.New Teftament, Mr Farmer has attempted to fhow m his Effay on demoniacs, p. 208, et feq. As^to tire mean¬ ing of the word deemon in the fathers of the Ch.nftian church, it is ufed by them in the fame fenfe as it was by the heathen philofophers, efpecially the latter P.la- tonifts ; that is, fometimes for departed human ipirits, and at other times for fuch fpirits as had ^ev^r inha- bited human bodies. In tEe fathers, indeed, the word is more commonly taken in an evil fenfe, than in the Djemofi, ancient philofophers. Befides the two foremcntioned kinds of daemons, the fathers, as well as the ancient philofophers, held a third, viz. fuch as fprang from the congrefs of fuperior beings with the daughters of men. In the theology of the fathers, thefe were the woxlt kind of daemons. . . Different orders of daemons held different nations and employments affigned them by the ancients. Good f daemons were confidered as the authors of good to mankind j evil daemons brought innumerable evils both upon men and beafts. Amongft evil daemons there was a great dittimftion with relpeft to the offices ai- figned them j fome compelled men to wickednefs, orhers ftimulated them to madnefs. See Demoniac. Mtich has been faid concerning the daemon of So¬ crates. He pretended to his friends and difciples, and even declared to the world, that a friendly fpirit, whom he called his daman, direfted him how to a& on every important occafion in his life, and reliiained him from imprudence of conduct. In contemplating the chara&er of this great philo- fopher, while wp admire him as the noblelt patron of virtue and moral wifdom that appeared in the hea¬ then world, we are naturally led to inquire, whether what he gave out concerning his da-mon were a trick r. n ... q Vipat-pd imaeination. or of impofture, or the reverie of a heated imagination, or a fober and true account of a favour which heaven de- figned to confer on fo extraordinary a man. To afeertain in this cafe the objeft of our inqui¬ ries, is by no means fo eafy as the iuperficial thinker may be apt to imagine. W hen we confider the dig¬ nity of fentiment and ftmplicity of manners which So¬ crates difplayed through the general tenor of his life, we cannot readily bring ourfelves to think that he could be capable of fuch a trick of impofture. . No¬ thing of the wildnefs of an enthufiaft appears m his charafler ; the- modefty of his pretenficns, and the refpta which in his converfation and conduct he um- formlv teftified for the ordinary duties oi iocial hiey fufficiently prove that he was tree from the influence of blind enthufiafm : we cannot infer, therefore, tnat, like the aftronomer in Rafelas, he was deceived with refpta to his daemon by an overheated imagination. It is no lefs difficult to believe, that God would di- ftinguifli a heathen in fo eminent a .manner, and y et leave him uninftruaed in the principles of true reli¬ gion. Surely, if ever fcepticiim be reafonable, it mult be in fuch matters as the prefent. . . r Yet, if it be ftill infilled, that fome one of thele three notions concerning the daemon of Socrates min be more probable than the others we would rather efteem Socrates an enthufiaft in this mftance than degrade him to the bafe charaaer of an >«Jpoftor, or fuppofe that a fpiritual being aflually revealed himfei to the philofopher, and condefeended to become his conftant attendant and counfellor. People are often under the influence of an over-heated imagination with regard to fome one thing, and cool and fober as to every thing elfe. . , r 1 14 JEM ONI AC (from daman), a human being whole Definition- volition and other mental faculties are overpowered and retrained, and his body poffeffed and aftnated by fome created fpiritual being of fupenor pow-er. . Such feems to be the determinate fenfe of the word , _ D JE M mans con¬ cerning pofl'effion. Demoniac.but it is difputed whether any of mankind ever 'were * v in this unfortunate condition. Difpute ^ *s generally agreed, that neither good nor evil concerning fpirits are known to exert fuch authority at prefent daeinoniacs over the human race : but in the ancient heathen world, and among the Jews, particularly in the days of our Saviour, evil fp’uits at lead are thought by many to , have been more troublefome. Notions of The Greeks .and Romans imagined, that their dei- the Greeks ties, to reveal future events, frequently entered into ftn the prophet or prophetefs who wras confulted, over¬ powered their faculties, and uttered relponfes with their organs of fpeech. Apollo was believed to enter into the Pythonefs, and to didate the prophetic an- fwers received by thofe who confulted her. Other oracles befides that of Delphi were fuppofed to unfold futurity by the fame machinery. And in various other cafes, either malignant daemons or benevolent deities were thought to enter into and to aduate hu¬ man affairs. The Lymphatic!, the Cerriti, the Larvati, of the Romans, were all of this delcription ; and the Greeks, by the ufe of the word (how that they referred to this caufe the origin of madnefs. Among the ancient heathens, therefore, it appears to have been a generally received opinion, that fuperior beings entered occafionally into men, overpowered the faculties of their minds, and aduated their bodily or¬ gans. They might imagine that this happened in in- ffances in which the effeds were owing to the opera¬ tion of different caufes $ but an opinion fo generally prevalent had furely fome plaufible foundation. The Jews, too, if we may truft the facred writings and Jofephus, appear to have believed in dtemoniacal poffeffion. The cafe of Saul may be recolleded as one among many in which fuperior created beings were believed by the Jews to exert in this manner their in¬ fluence over human life. The general tenor of their hillory and language, and their dodrines concerning good and evil fpirits, prove the opinion of daemoniacal poffeffion to have been well known and generally re- j ceived among them. Of mankind In the days of our Saviour, it would appear that in fhed™* ^‘Ern0™acaI poffeffion was very frequent among the ofLrSaT Jews.^.d t^e neighbouring nations. Many rvere the viour. ev*l fpirits whom Jefus is related in the gofpels to have ejeded from patients that were brought unto him as poffeffed and tormented by thofe malevolent dsemons. His apoflles too, and the firft Chriftians, who were mod adive and fuccefsful in the propagation of Chri- flianity, appear to have often exerted the miraculous powers with which they were endowed on fimilar oc- cafions. The daemons difplayed a degree of know¬ ledge and malevolence which fufficiently diftinguifhed them from human beings : and the language in which the daemoniacs are mentioned, and the adions and fentiments afcribed to them in the New7 Teffament, fhow that our Saviour and his apollles did not confi der the idea of daemoniacal poffeffion as being merely ' a vulgar error concerning the origin of a difeafe or dif- eafes produced by natural caufes. T he more enlightened cannot alw-ays avoid the ufe of metaphorical modes of expreffion ; which, though founded upon error, have yet been fo eftablilhed in language by the influence of cullom, that they cannot -be Uiddenly difmiffed. When we read.in the book of [ 51 ] D M 4 Of the Jews. Jofhua, that the fun on a certain occafion flood flill,Daemoniac» to allow that hero time to complete a vidory ; w7e J eafily find an excufe for the condud of the facred hi- tcj- f ftorian, in accommodating his narrative to the popular chnft and ideas of the Jews concerning the relative motions ofhis apofties the heavenly bodies. In all fimilar inflances, we domu.^^< vc not complain much of the ufe of a Angle phrafe, ori- ginally introduced by the prevalence of fome ground-Cal puflef- lefs opinion, the falfity of which is w7ell known to thefiontobe writer. real. But in deferiptions of charaders, in the narration of fads, and in the laying down of fyftems of dodrine, we require different rules to be obferved. Should any perfon, in compliance with popular opinions, talk in ferious language of the qxirtence, difpofitions, declara¬ tions, and adions of a race of beings whom he knew to be abfolutely fabulous, w7e furely could not praife him for candid integrity : we muft fuppofe him to be either exulting in irony over the weak credulity of thofe around him, or taking advantage of their weak- nefs, with the difhoneft and the felfifli view's of an impoftor. And if he himfelf (hould pretend to any connexion w’ith this imaginary fyftem of beings, and ffiould claim, in confequence of his connexion with them, particular honours from his contemporaries; whatever might be the dignity of his charader in all other refpeds, nobody could hefitate even for a mo¬ ment to brand him as an impoftor of the bafeft charac¬ ter. Precilely in this light muft w7e regard the condud: of our Saviour and his apofties, if the idea of daemo- niacal poffeffion were to be confidered merely as a vul¬ gar error. They talked and aded as if they believed that evil fpirits had adually entered into thofe who were brought to them as poffeffed with devils, and as if thofe fpirits were adually expelled by their au¬ thority out of the unhappy perfons w7hom they had paffeffed. They expeded, they demanded too, to have their profeffions and declarations believed, in con¬ fequence of their performing fuch mighty works, and to be honoured as having thus triumphed over the powers of hell. The reality of dsemoniacal poffeffon ftands upon the fame evidence with the gofpel fyftem in general. ^ Neither is there any thing abiurd or unreafonable in^eaf°n- this dodrine. It does not appear to contradid thofea^e‘Je^s°I’ ideas w'hich the general appearance of nature and thetnne.°C" feries of events fugged concerning the benevolence and wifdom of the Deity, and the counfels by which he regulates the affairs of the univerfe. We often fancy ourfelves able to comprehend things to which our underftanding is wholly inadequate : we perfuade ourfelves, at times, that the whole extent of the works of the Deity muft be well known to us, and that his defigns muft always be fuch as w7e can fathom. We are then ready, whenever any difficulty arifes to us, in confidering the condud of Providence, to model things according to -our owm ideas ; to deny that the Deity can poffibly be the author of things which w;e cannot reconcile ; and to affert, that he muft ad on every oc¬ cafion in a manner corrfiffent with our narrow view's. This is the pride of reafon ; and it feems to have fug- gefted the ftrongeft objedions'that have been at any time urged againft the reality of daemoniacal poffef¬ fion. But the Deity may furely conned one order .of G 2 his D JE M [5 Demoniac, his creatures with another. We perceive mutual re- lations and a beautiful connexion to prevail through all that part of nature which falls within the fphere of our obfervation. The inferior animals are con- nefted with mankind, and fubje-aed to their autho¬ rity, not only in inftances in which it is exerted for their advantage, but even where it is tyrannically abu- ied to their deftruaion. Among the evils to which mankind have been fubjeaed, why might not their being liable to demoniacal pofTeffion be one ? \\ hile the Supreme Being retains the fovereignty o the univerfe, he may employ whatever agents he thinks proper in the execution of his purpofes •, he may either commiflion an angel or let loofe a devil j as well as bend the human will, or communicate any particular impulfe to matter. , All that revelation makes known, ail that human reafoncanconjeaure, concerning the exiftence of va¬ rious orders of fpiritual beings, good arid bad, is perfeaiy confiftent with, and even favourable to, the doarine of daemoniacal poffeflion. It was generally believed through the ancient heathen world ; it was equally well known to the Jews and equally refpeaed bv them j it is mentioned in the New leftam.nt in fuch language, and fuch narratives are related concern¬ ing it, that the gofpels cannot well be regarded in any other light than as pieces o{ itnpoftare, and Jefus Chrift mud be confidered as a man who ddhoneftly took advantage of the vveaknefs and ignorance ot ms contemporaries, if this doarine be nothing but a vulgar error : it teaches nothing inconfiftent with the genera! conduft of Providence *, it is not the caution of phi o- fophy, but the pride of reafon, that fuggefts objeaions 8 ap-ainft this doarine. . „ , t Arguments -p^ofe, again, who are unwilling to allow that angels of the Anti- d Ils have ever intermeddled fo much with the dtecon.ft.. concerns of lmman lifei urge a numbet of fpecious ar- gTretbrrid°Ri;nfof old ^ ^ the Greeks i;eve in the reality of daemoniacal poffeffion. They andRomansfu fed that fpiritual beings did at times e"ter ° iuppofed, J/p or daUghters of men, and diftmguifh them- felves in that fituation by capricious fte?ks, deeds of were only wanton mifchief, or prophetic enun . inftances the inftances in which they fuppoied this to ^ppen it of madnefS’ is evident that no fuch thing took place. / heir ac' counts of the date and conduft of thofe perfons whom they believed to be poffeffed in ths fupernatural man- nerf fhow plainly that what they alcribed to the in¬ fluence of daemons were merely the effects of natural difeafes. Whatever they relate concerning the larvati, the cerriti, and the lymphatici, ^ that thefe were merely people difordered m mind, in the fame un or- tunate fituation with thofe madmen and “hots and melancholy perfons whom we have among ourielves. Fedus defcribes the Larvati as being funoft et mente moti. Horace fays, Hellade percujfa, Marius cum prscipitat fe, Cerrilus fuit ? Hie fame Plato, in Ms fays, <>’“< aDi.b:;Pi«eftM more evidently, that all the perfons 2 1 D iE M fpoken of as poffeffed with devils in the New Tef-Demoniac, lament, were either mad or epileptic, and precilely in the fame condition with the madmen and epileptics of modern times- The Jews, among other reproaches which they threw out againd our Saviour, laid, tie hath a devil, and is mad: why hear ye him? Ine ex- predions he hath a devil, and is mad, were certainly ufed on this occafion as fynonymous. With all their vi¬ rulence, they would not furely afcnbe to him at once two things that were inconfident and contradiftory. Thofe who thought more favourably of the character of Tefus, afferted concerning his dncourfes, in reply to his adverfaries, Ihefe are not the words of him that hatfj a “demon; meaning, no doubt, that he fpoke in a more ra¬ tional manner than a madman could be expected to ipeak. The Jews appear to have afcvibed to the influence of daemons, not only that fpecies of madnefs in which the patient is raving and furious, but alfo melancholy ma - nefs. Of John, who fecluded himfelf from mtercourie with the world, and was didinguiflied for abdinence and a&s of mortification, they faid, He hath a dcemon. The youth, whofe father applied to Jefus to free him from an evil fpirit, defcribing his unhappy condition in thefe words, Have mercy on my fon, for he is lunatic and fore vexed with a demon ; for oft times hefalleth into the fire, and oft into the water, was plainly epileptic. Every thing indeed that is related in the New I eda- ment concerning doemoniacs, proves that they were people affeaed with fuch natural difeafes as are far from being uncommon among mankind m the prelent age When the fymptoms of the diforders cured by our Saviour and his apodles as cafes of demoniacal poffeOion, correfpond fo exaaiy with thofe of difeales well known as natural in the prefent age, it would be abfurd to impute them to a fupernatural cauie. It is much more confident with common fenfe and lound philofophy to fuppofe, that our Saviour and his apo¬ dles wifely, and with that condefcenfion to the weak- nefs and prejudices of thofe with whom they converfed, which fo eminently didinguilhed the charaaer of the Author of our holy religion, and mud always be a pro¬ minent feature in the charaaer of the true Chrilfian, adopted the vulgar language in fpeakmg m thofe unfor¬ tunate perfons who were groundlefsly imagined to be poffeffed with daemons, though they well knew the notions which had given rile to fuch modes of ex- predion to be ill-founded-, than to imagine that dd- eafes which arile arprefent from natural cauies, were produced in days of old by the intervention ot dae¬ mons, or that evil fpints dill continue to enter into mankind in all cafes of madnefs, melancholy, or epi- ^ Befides, it is by no means a fufficient reafon for receiving any doftrine as true, that it has been ge¬ nerally received through the world Error, like an epi¬ demical difeafe, is communicated from one to another. In certain circumdances, too, the influence oi' ”"agi- nation predominates, and redra.ns the exertions of reafon. Many falfe opinions have extended their in- fluence through a very wide circle, and ^^med it: long. On every fuch occafion as the pieient, there¬ fore^ it becomes us to inquire, not fo how. ' rally any opinion has been received, or how long it has prevailed, as from what caufes it has originated, and on what evidence it reds. When DAG [ 53 1 D A H Drtjron. Inference from the analogy of nature. Demoniacs When we contemplate the frame of nature, we behold " a grand and beautiful fimplicity prevailing through the whole : Notwithftanding its immenfe extent, and though it contains fuch numberlefs diverfities of being j yet the fimpleft machine conftru&ed by human art does not difplay eafier fimplicity, or an happier connec¬ tion of parts. We may therefore venture to draw an inference, by analogy, from what is obfervable of the order of nature in general to the prefent cafe. 1 o permit evil fpirits to intermeddle with the concerns of human life, would be to break through that order which the Deity appears to have eftablifiied through his works ; it would be to introduce a degree of confufion unworthy of the wifdom of Divine Provi¬ dence. Such are the mofi: rational arguments that have been urged on both fides in this controverfy. Perhaps the daemonianifts have the ftronger probabilities on their fide 5 but we will not prefume to take upon ourfelves the office of arbitrators in the difpute. DyElVIONIACS, in church hifiory, a branch of the Anabaptifts $ whofe diftinguifhing tenet is, that the de¬ vils fh .11 be laved at the end of the world. DAFFODIL. See Narcissus, Botany Index. DAGELET, an ifland on the coaft of Corea, dif- covered by La Peroufe in the year 1787, It is about three leagues in circumference, and is encircled with fteep rocks, excepting a few fandy creeks, which form convenient landing-places. The ifland is covered with fine trees $ and at the time the French navigator vifited it, fome boats were found on the flocks of a Chinefe conftruftion. The workmen, who were fup- pofed to be Corean carpenters, were employed upon them, but fled to the woods on the approach of the ftiips. La Peroufe fuppofes that the ifland is unin¬ habited, and that thefe people go from Corea, and live there during the fummer, for the purpofe of build¬ ing boats. The north-eaft point of this ifland is in N. Lat. 3= 15. E. Long. 129. 2. from Paris. DAGHESTAN, a country of Afia, bounded by Circaflia on the north, by the Cafpian fea on the eaft, by Chirvein a province of Perfia on the fouth, and by Georgia on the weft. Its chief towns are Tarku and Derbent, both fituated on the Cafpian fea. DAGNO, a town of Turkey in Europe, in Albania, with a bithop’s fee. It is the capital of the diftrift of Ducagini, and is feated on the rivers Drino and Nero, near their confluence. It is 15 miles fouth-eaft of Scu¬ tari, and 15 north-eaft of Aleflio. E. Long. 19. 48. N. Lat. 42. o. DAGO, or Dagho, an ifland in the Baltic fea, on the coaft of Livonia, between the gulf of Finland and Riga. It is of a triangular figure, and may be about 20 miles in circumference. It has nothing con- fiderable but two caftles, called Dagger-wort and Pa- den. E. Long. 22. 30. N. Lat. 58. 48. <;jia ^ DAGON, the falfe god of Aftidod *, or as the ‘' V’ Greeks call it jd^otus. He is commonly reprefented as a monfter, half man and half fifli ; whence moft learned men derive his name fiom the Hebrew dag, which fig- nifies “ nfh.,, Tbofe who make him to have been the inventor of bread corn, derive his name from the He¬ brew Dagon, which fagnifes frumen turn ; whence Philo Biblius calls him Zsvs Agsel^a?, 'Jupiter Aratrius. I his deity continued to have a temple at Afhdod Dahomy. *See \Sam. during all the ages of idolatry to the time of the Mac- Dahalac cabees •, for the author of the firft book of Maccabees tells us, that “ Jonathan, one of the Maccabees, having beaten the army of Apollonius, Demetrius’s general, they fled to Azotus, and entered into Bethdagon (the temple of their idol) : but that Jonathan fet fire to Azotus, and burnt the temple of Dagon and all thole w?ho had fled into it. Dagon, according to fome, was the flame with Ju¬ piter, according to others Saturn, according to others, Venus, and according to moft, Neptune. DAHA.LAC is the largeft ifland in the Red fea, and is placed by Mr Bruce, who has given a minute defeription of it, between 15. 27. and 15. 54. N. Lat. It is a low, flat ifland, with a fandy foil, mixed with fhells, and in lummer deftitute of every kind of herb¬ age, excepting a {mall quantity of bent grafs, which is barely fufficient to feed a few antelopes and goats. In many places the ifland is covered with extenfive plan¬ tations of acacia trees, which rarely exceed eight feet in height, fpreading wide, and turning flat at top, probably from the influence of the wflnd, which blows from the fea. No rain falls in Dahalac f^om the end of March to the beginning of Oftober •, but in the in¬ termediate months there are heavy fhowers, during which the water is colletfted in a great number of ar¬ tificial cifterns, to ferve the inhabitants during the en- fuing fummer. Of thefe cifterns, wfliich are faid to be the work of the PerfiaiTs, or, as fome fuppofe, of the firft Ptolemies, 370 yet remain, cut out of the folid rock. The inhabitants of Dahalac are a Ample, fearful, and inoffenfive people. It is the only part of Arabia where no one is furnifhed with arms of any kind. Af¬ ter the rains fall, the grafs fprings up with great luxu¬ riance, and then the goats give the inhabitants a copi¬ ous fupply of milk, which in winter is the principal part of their fubfiftence. The poorer fort live entirely on fhell and other fiftr. The foie employment of the inhabitants is to work the vefiels which trade to the different parts of the coaft. Dahalac contains 12 vil¬ lages or towns, each of which is furrounded with a plantation of doom trees. Of the leaves of this tree, which are of a gloffy white when dried, the inhabitants make balkets of great beauty and neatnefs. This feems to be the only thing like manufadlure in the ifland. Dahalac, as well as the other illands of the Red fea, is dependent upon Mafuah. Each of the 12 villages furnifhes a goat monthly to the governor, and every veffel putting in there for Mafuah, pays him a pound of .coffee, and every one from Arabia a dollar. Thefe are his principal revenues. In the time of the Ptolemies, the pearl fiflrery in the vicinity of Daha¬ lac flouriihed greatly, as well as another valuable filhery, namely, that of tortoifes, DAHOMY, orDAUMA, a powerful -kingdom of Africa, on the coaft of Guinea. Abomy, the modern capital, lies in N. Lat. 7. 59. This kingdom occurs in its true pofition, in the maps of Sanuto, Plancius, and Mercator, where Dawhee, the ancient capital, is denominated Danina. In 1700, it was crazed from the maps of Africa, and the exiftence of the ancient nation of Dauma denied, till 1727, when it emerged from obfeurity, and became known by the conquefts of the maritime ftates of Whidah and Ardra. Between Dauma D A H Bauma and Gago the lake Sigefmes [ 54 j.^aumd hiiu vjdgu iut mn-v. j ot’ Guarda, (which extends about too leagues from eaft to well, and 50 from north to fouth, which lies about 370 miles N. N. E. of Arada, and is reprefented as the fource of various large rivers, which deicend into the gulf of Guinea) is placed by Barbot and Snelgrave, who de¬ rived their authority from the native traders. It nei¬ ther occurs in Ed rid nor Leo, though it is found in the maps to Rufcelli’s edition of Ptolemy, in 1561. Dahomy is a fertile cultivated country ; the foil is a deep rich reddiih clay, intermixed with fand, fcarcely containing a done of the iize of an egg in the whole country. It is extremely produftive of maize, millet, beans, yams, potatoes, caffada, plantain, and the ba¬ nana ; indigo, cotton, tobacco, palm-oil, and lugar, are railed, as well as a ipecies of black pepper. Bread, and a fpecies of liquor, or rather diluted gruel, are formed of the lotus berry. Animals, both wild and tame, are numerous, and the lakes abound in filh. I he maritime diftricls of Whidah and Ardra, betore they were ruined by the Dfthomam, where highly cultivated and beautiful. The charafter of the Daumanefe, or Dahomans, is original and ftrongly marked ; they have retained pe¬ culiar manners, and have had little intercourfe with cither Europeans or Moors. They exhibit the germ of peculiar inftitutions and modifications of manners, 31 pecuiiai . . that have appeared incredible to modern nations, when they perufed the ancient records, of the Egyptians, Hindus, and Lacedaemonians. Like the Lacedemo¬ nians, they difplay a fingular mixture of ferocity and politenefs, of generofity and cruelty. I heir conduct towards Grangers is hofpitable, without any mixture of rudenefs or infult. Their appearance is manly, and their perfons ftrong and aftive ; and though they are lefs addicted to the pradtice of tatowing than their neighbours, their countenance rather dilplays ferocity than courage. Their government is the pureft deipo- tifm ; every fubjetf is a have 5 and every flave impli¬ citly admits the right of the fovereign to difpofe ol his property and of his perfon. “ I think of my king, laid a Dahoman to Mr Norris, “ and then I dare en¬ gage five of the enemy myfelf. My head belongs to the king, not to mvfelf: if he pleafe to fend for it, I am ready to refign it *, or if it be {hot through in bat¬ tle, I am fatisfied—if it be in his fervice. This at¬ tachment continues unftiaken, even when, their neareft relations become the viftims of the avarice or caprice of the king, and his enormities are always attributed to their own indifcretions. With this devoted Ipint, the Dahoman ruihes fearlefs into battle, and fights as lonp as he can wield his labre. The modern hiftory of the Dahomans realizes all that hiftory has recorded of ancient Lacedaemon, and of thofe Lacedaemonians of the north, the in¬ habitants of Tomfburgh, who were forbidden to men¬ tion the name of Fear, even in the moft imminent dangers, and who proudly declared that they would fight their enemies, though they were (Longer than the gods. Saxo relates, that when Frotho, king ot Denmark, was taken prifone.r in battle, he obfti- nately refufed to accept of life, declaring, that the reftoration of his kingdom and treafures could ne¬ ver reftore his honour, but that future ages would al¬ ways fay, Frotho has been taken by his enemy. ] DAI The palace of thekingofDahomy isan extenfive build- Cahomy, ing of bamboo and mud-walled huts, furrounded by a , mud-wall about 20 feet high, inclofing a quadrangular fpace of about a mile fquare. The entrance to the king’s apartment, is paved with human lculls,.the late¬ ral walls adorned with human jaw-bones, with a few bloody heads intermixed at intervals. The whole building refembles a number of farm-yards, with long thatched barns and {beds for cattle, interfered with low mud-walls. On the thatched roofs, numerous hu¬ man {kulls are ranged at intervals, on linall wooden flakes. In allufion to thefe, when the king illues or¬ ders for war, he only announces to his general, that his houfe wants thatch. In this palace, or large houfe, as it is termed by the Dahomans, above 3000 females are commonly immured, and about 5CO are appropri¬ ated by each oTthe principal officers. From this inju¬ rious and deteftable practice, originate many flagrant abufes j the population is diminiftied, the fources at private happinels deftroyed, and the beft feelings of human nature being outraged, the energies of paflion are converted into bitternefs and feiocit)'. The religion of Dahomy is vague and uncertain m its principles, and rather confifts in the performance of fome traditionary ceremonies, than in any fixed iyitem of belief, or of moral conduct. They believe mors firmly in their amulets and fetiches, than m the deity ; theirVationd fetiche"is the Tiger ; and their habita- tions are decorated with ugly images, tinged with blood, ftuck with feathers, belmeared with palm-oil, and bedaubed with eggs. As their ideas of deity do not coincide with thofe of Europeans, they imagine that their tutelary gods are different. “ Perhaps, faid a Dahoman chief to Snelgrave, “ that god may be yours who has communicated fo many extraordinary things to white men •, but as that God has not been pleafed to make himfelf known to us, we muff be la- tisfied with this we worftiip.” The Dahomans manu- fa&ure and dye cotton-cloth, and form a fpe.cies of cloth of palm-leaves. They are tolerably (kilful in working in metals. The bards, who celebrate the ex¬ ploits of the king and his generals, are hkewife the hi- ftorians of the country. . „ . DAILLE, John, a Proteftant mimfter near i'ans, was one of the moft learned divines of the 17th centu¬ ry and was the moft efteemed by the Catholics of all the controverfial writers among the Proteftants. He was tutor to two of the grandfons of the i.lluftnous M. Du Pleflis Mornai. M. Daille having lived 14 ye^s with fo excellent a mafter, travelled into Italy with his two pupils: one of them died abroad j with the other he faw Italy, Switzerland, Germany, Flanders^ Ho - land, and England, and returned in 1621. He was received minifter ip 1623, and firft exercifed his office in the family of M. Du Pleffis Mornai •, but this did not laft long, for that lord died foon after. The me¬ moirs of this great man employed M. DMle the fol¬ lowing year. In 1625 he was appointed mmifter of the church of Saumur, and in 1626 removed to Pans. He fpent all the reft of his life in the fervice of this laft church, and compofed feveral works. His fiift piece was his mafterpiece, and an excellent woik, O the Ufe of the Fathers, printed 1631. It is a ftrong chain of reafoning, which forms a moral demonftration againft thofe who would have religious difputes decid^ DAL [ 55 ] DAL ed by the authority of the fathers. He died in 1670, aged 77. . r . DAIRI, or Cairo, in the hiftory of Japan, is the fovereign pontiff of the Japanefe ; or, according to Kaempfer, the hereditary ecclefiaftical monarch of Ja¬ pan. In effeft, the empire of Japan is at prefent un¬ der two fovereigns, viz. an eccleiiaftical one called the dairo, and a fecular one who bears the title of kubo. the laft is the emperor, and the former the oracle of the religion of the country. DAIRY, in rural affairs, a place appropriated for the management of milk, and the making of butter, cheefe, &c. See Agriculture Index. The dairy-houfe Ihould always be kept in the neatefl order, and fo fituated as that the windows or lattices never front the fouth, fouth-eaft, or fouth-weft. Lat¬ tices are alfo to be preferred to windows, as they ad¬ mit a more free circulation of the air than glazed lights poffibly can do. It has been objedled, that they admit cold air in winter and the fun in fummer ; but the remedy is eafily obtained, by making a frame the fize of or fomewhat larger than the lattice, and con- ilrufting it fo as to Hide backward* and forward at pleafure. Packthread drained acrofs this frame, and oiled cap-paper palled thereon, will admit the light, and keep out the fun and wind. It is hardly poflible in the fummer to keep a dairy- Ijoufe too cool ; on which account none fhould be fi¬ tuated far from a good fpring or current of water. They fhould be neatly paved either with red brick or fmooth hard done ; and laid with a proper defcent, fo that no water may lodge. This pavement diould be well walked in the fummer every day, and all the uten- fils belonging to the dairy fhould be kept perfe£fly clean. Nor fhould we ever differ the churns to be fcalded in the dairy, as the deam that arifes from hot water will injure the milk. Nor Ihould cheefe be kept therein, nor rennet for making cheefe, nor a cheefe- prefs be fixed in a dairy, as the whey and curd will diffufe their acidity throughout the room. The proper receptacles for milk are earthen pans, or wooden vats or trundles ; but none of thefe diould be lined with lead, as that mineral certainly contains a poifonous quality, and may in fome degree affed! the milk : but if people are fo obdinate as to perfid in ufing them, they fhould never forget to fcald them, fcrub them well with fait and water, and to dry them thoroughly, before they depofit the milk therein. In¬ deed all the utenfils diould be cleaned in like manner before they are ufed ; and if after this, they in the lead degree fmell four, they mud undergo a fecond fcrub- bing before they are fit for ufe. DAIS, a genus of plants belonging to the decandria cla.'s ; and in the natural method ranking under the 3 id order, Veprecula. See Botany Index. DAISY. See Bellis, Botany Index. DAKIR, in our datutes, is ufed for the twentieth part of a la’ll of hides. According to the ftatute of 51 Hen. III. De compo/ltione ponderum et menfurarun7t a lad of hides confids of twenty dakirs, and every da- kir of ten hides. But by 1 jac. cap. 33. one lad of hides or fkins is twelve dozen. See Dicker. DALACA, an ifland of the Red fea, which is faid to be very fertile, populous, and remarkable for a pearl fifliery. It is probably the fame with Dahalac, which fee. DALBERGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs. DALEA, a province of Sw'eden, bounded on the north by Dalecarlia, on the ead by the Wermeland and the lake Wener, on the fouth by Gothland, and on the north by Norway and the fea. DALEBURG, a town of Sweden, and capital of the province of Dalea, feated on the wedern batik of the lake Wener, 50 miles north of Gottcnburg. E. Long. 13. o. N. Lat. 59. o. DALECARLIA, a province of Sweden, fo called from a river of the fame name, on which it lies, near Norway. It is divided into three parts, which they call valleys ; and is about 175 miles in length and 100 in breadth. It is full of mountains, which abound in mines of copper and iron, fome of which are of a pro¬ digious depth. The towns are very fmall, and Idra is the capital. The inhabitants are rough, robud, and warlike : and all the great revolutions in Sweden had their rife in this province. The river riles in the Dof- rine mountains, and, running fouth-ead through the pro¬ vince, falls into the gulf of Bothnia. DALECHAMP, James, a phyfician, was born at Caen in Normandy, in 1513. He was didinguiihed for his indultry in botany, as wHl as in other branches* of literature. Pie wrote notes on Pliny’s Natural Hif- tary, and trandated Athenaeus into Latin. He added 30 plates of rare plants to the Diofcorides of Rutllius, printed in 1552. After his death appeared his'“ Hif- tona generalis Plantarum in xviii. hbros digejla” Lugd. 1587, two vols folio. In this work, which is faid to have been the labour of 30 years, the author propofed to include all the botanical difcoveries previous to his owm time, as well as thofe which he had made himfelf. in the vicinity of Lyons and the Alps. Pie alfo pub- lidied editions of “ Paulus iEgineta,” and Cselius Au- relianus, wuth notes 5 a wTork on furgery, and another De PeJie, Y\b. iii. Pie pradbfed phyfic at Lyons from 1552 to 1558, when be died, aged 75. DALECHAMPIA, a genus of plants belonging to the monoecia clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬ ing under the 38th order, Tricoccie. See Botany Index. DALEM, a towm of the united provinces of Hol¬ land, and capital of a diltridl of the fame name. It was taken by the French in 1672, who demolilhed the fortifications. It is feated on the river Bervine, five miles north-eaft of Liege. E. Long. 5. 59. N. Lat. 50. 40. D’ALEMBERT. See Alembert. DALKEI PH, a town of Scotland, in Mid-Lothian, fix miles louth-eaft of Edinburgh 5 W. Long. 2. 20. N. Lat. 55 50. It is the principal refidence of the duke of Buccleugh, who has here a noble houfe and extenfive parks. In this houfe, which at the time was the head quarters of General Monk, the reftoration of Charles II. was' planned.—The duke’s eldeft fon has the title of Earl of Dalkeith. Here is a confider- able corn market weekly on Thurfdays, which fupplies in part both Edinburgh and Glafgow. DALMATIA, a province of Europe, bounded on tha- Dalbergia 11. Dalkeith. DAL f 56 ] DAL Dalrymple.the north by Bofnia, on the fouth by the gulf of Ve- n*ce^ on the eaft by Servia, and on the weft by Mor- lachia. Spalatro is the capital of that part belonging to the Venetians •, and Raguza, of a republic of that name ; the Turks have a third, whofe capital is Herze¬ govina. The air is wholefome, and the foil fruitful ; and it abounds in wine, corn, and oil. D VLRYMPLE, Sir David, a Scottifh lawyer and judge was born in Edinburgh, on the 28th Oaober new ftyle, 1726. His father was Sir James Dalrymple, of Hailes, Bart, and his mother Lady Chriftian Hamilton, a daughter of the earl of Hadington. His grandfather Sir David Dalrymple was the youngeft fon of the firft Lord Stair, and is faid to have been the ableft of that family, fo much diftinguilh^d for ability. He was lord 'advocate for Scotland, in the reign of George I. and his fon, Sir James had the auditorlhip of the ex¬ chequer for life. Sir David Dalrymple was bred at Eton fchool, where he was diftinguiftied as a fcholar, and remarkable as a virtuous and orderly youth ; from thence he went to the univerfity of Utrecht, where he remained till after the rebelliorj in 1746. He was cal¬ led to the bar at Edinburgh, 23d February 1748 J where he was much admired for the elegant propriety of the cafes he drew. He did not attain indeed to the high- eft rank as a praftifing lawyer, but his charafter for found knowledge and probity in the profeflion was great. He was appointed one of the judges or the Court of Seflion in the room of Lord Nelbit, Marcn 6th 1776. with the warmeft approbation of the public ; and in May 1776, one of the lords commiflioners of fufticiary, in the room of Lord Coalfton, who refign- ed. He took his feat on the bench, according to the ufage of the Court of Seflion, by the title of Lord Hailes, the name by which he is generally known a- mong the learned of Europe. As a judge of the iu- fuch dexterity of argument, as clearly to eftabhfh theDalryf^e* right of his pupil, and to form a precedent, at the fame time, for the decifion of all fuch queftions in fu¬ ture. In the year 1773? ^ie publiftied a fmall volume, entitled, “ Remarks on the Hiftory of Scotland.” Thefe appeared to be the gleanings of the hiftorical refearch which he was making at that time, and dit- covered his lordftrip's turn for minute ano. accurate in¬ quiry into doubtful points of hiftory, and at the lame time difplayed the candour and liberality ol his judge¬ ment. This publication prepared the public for the favourable reception of the Annals of. Scotland, in 2 vols 4to, the firft of which appeared in 1776, and the fecond in I779> an(^ fully anfwered the expecta¬ tions which he had raifed. The difficulties attending the fubjeft, the want of candour, and the fpirit.ot * party, had hitherto prevented our having a genuine hiftory of Scotland, in times previous to thofe of Queen Mary ; which had been lately written, in a mafterly manner, by the elegant and judicious Dr Robertlon. Lord Hailes carried his attention to the Scottilh hi¬ ftory, as far back as to the acceffion of Malcolm Can- more, in 1057, and his work contains the annals of 14 princes, from Malcolm III. to ti»e. dea.h of David II. And happy it wras that the affairs of Scot¬ land attrafled the talents of fo able a wuiter, .w ho to the learning and fkill of a lawyer, joined the induftry and curiofity of an antiquarian ; to whom no objedf appears fiivolous or unimportant, that ferves to eluci¬ date his fubjeft. Lord Hailes has fo well authenti¬ cated his work by references to hiftonans of good credit, or deeds and writings of undoubted authority ; and has fo happily cleared it from fable, uncertainty, and conjeflure, that every Scotfman, fince its appear¬ ance, has been able to trace back,, with confidence m genuine memoirs, the hiftory of his country, for^ 736 mong the learned of Europe. As a judge o tne.iu- ^ of the refpCaable p^e -1 and cnW h. ^ ^ indefaUg»u. and of his country ; from which he merited, and obtained high confidence and approbation. But he was not only confpicuous as an able and'up-, right judge, and a found lawyer •, he was alfo eminent as a profound and accurate fcholar *, being a thorough matter’ of claffical learning, the belles lettres, and hiftorical antiquities-y particularly of his own country, to the ftudy of w’hich he was led by ms. prortlhon. Indefatigable in the profecution of the ftudies he culti¬ vated, his time was feduloufly devoted to the promo¬ tion of ufeful learning, piety, and virtue. Numerous are the works that have iffued from his pen, all of them diftinguiffied by uncommon accuracy, tafte, and learn¬ ing Befides fome occafional papers, both lerious and humorous, of his compofing, that appeared in the World ; and a variety of communications, critical, and biographical, in the Gentleman’s Magazine, and other publications of like nature ; he allotted Lome part , of his time to the illuftration and defence of primitive Chriftianity. In the year 1771 he compofed a very learned and ingenious paper, or law-cale, in the dii- puted peerage of Sutherland. He was one of the truftees of the Lady Elizabeth, the daughter o. the laft earl •, and being then a judge., tlm names of two eminent lawyers were annexed to it. In tbit cate, he difplaved the greateft accuracy of refe.arch, and the xnoft profound knowledge of the antiquities and rules of defcent, in this country *, which he managed w ith judge, who with indefatigable induftry, and painful labour, has removed the rubbifti under which the pre¬ cious remains were concealed. Lord Hailes at firft intended, as appears by an ad- vertifement prefixed to his work, to carry down his An¬ nals to the acceffion of James I. but to the great dif- appointment of the public, he flopped ftiort at the death of David II. and a very important period of our hiftory ftill remain^ to be filled.up by an able writer. Lord Hailes’s Annals of Scotland, it is believed, ftand un¬ rivalled in the Englifti language, for a purity and fim- plicity of ftyle, an elegance, perlpicmty, and concue- nefs of narration, that particularly fuited the form of his work ; and is entirely void of that fahe ornament and (lately gait, which makes the works of iome other writers appear in gigantic, but fiftitious majel y. n 1786, Lord Hailes came forward with the excellent DrWatfon, and other writers.in England, rePel Mr Gibbon’s attack on Chriftianity, and publfthed a 4to volume, entitled, “ An Enquiry into the Secon¬ dary caufes which Mr Gibbon, has affigned for the ra- pid Progrefs of Chriftianity,” m which theie is a great difplay of literary acumen, and of zeal for the can ft he efpouies, without the rancour of theological contro- verfy. This was the laft work he fent from the prefs, except a few biographical {ketches of. eminent Scotch¬ men defigned as fpecimens of a Biographic, Scotico, which he juftly confidered as a defideratum in ouiMi- DAL t 57 J DAM t>alfymple. terature ; and which it is much to be regretted, the in- ’ ' » 1 firmities of age, increafing faft upon him, did not allow him to fupply j for he was admirably qualified for the undertaking, not only by his Angular diligence and candour, but from the uncommon extent and accuracy of his literary and biographical knowledge : in which, it is believed, he excelled all his contemporaries. Although his lordlhip’s conftitution had been long in an enfeebled date, he attended his duty on the bench till within three days of his death, which happened on the 29th of November 1792, in the 66th year of his age. His lordlhip was twice married. By his firft wife, Anne Brown, daughter of Lord Coalfton, he left ifiueone daughter, who inherits the family eftate. His fecond marriage, of which there is ifiue alfo one daughter) was to Helen Ferguffon, youngeft daughter of Lord Kilkerran, who furvived him. Though our church does not encourage funeral difcourfes in gene¬ ral, becaufe they are liable to much abufe, a very laudable endeavour was made, in thefe degenerate times, to render his lordfhip’s pre-eminent talents and virtues a theme of inftruftion to mankind, in a fermon preached, foon after his death, in the church of In- verefk, by his learned friend, and venerable pallor, Dr Carlyle 5 from which we lhall tranfcribe a fum- mary view of his charafter as a judge, a fcholar, a Chriftian, and a citizen. “ His knowledge of the laws was accurate and profound, and he applied it in judgment with the moll fcrupulous integrity. In his proceedings in the criminal court, the fatisfaction he gave to the public could not be furpaffed. His ab¬ horrence of crimes, his tendernefs for the criminals, his refpe£l for the laws, and his reverential awe of the Omnifcient Judge, infpired him on fome occafions, with a commanding fublimity of thought, and a feeling folemnity of exprellion, that made condemnation feem jult, as the doom of Providence, to the criminals themfelves, and railed a falutary horror of crimes in the breads of the audience. Confcious of the dignity and importance of the high office he held, hp never departed from the decorum that becomes that reverend character : which indeed it coll him no effort to fup- port, becaufe he a£led from principle and fentiment, both public and private. Affectionate to his family and relations, fimple and mild in his manners, pure and confcientious in his morals, enlightened and entertain¬ ing in his converfation j he left fociety only to regret, that, devoted as he was to more important employ¬ ments, he had fo little time to fpare for intercourfe with them. He was well known to be of high rank in the republic of letters, and his lots will be deeply felt through many of her departments. His labours in illullration of the hillory of his country, and many other works of profound erudition, remain as monu¬ ments of his accurate and faithful refearch for mate¬ rials, and his found jugdment in the feleftion of them. Gf his unfeigned piety and devotion, you have very often been witneffes where we now are. I mull add, however, that his attendance on religious ordinances, was not merely out of refpeft to the laws, and for the fake of example, (motives which Ihould never fail to have influence on perfons of fuperior rank, for the moll obvious reafons) but from principle and con¬ viction, and the mod confcientious regard to his duty ; for he not only praClifed all the virtues and charities Vot. VII. Part L in proof of his faith, but he demonltrated the fincerity Dalrymple of his zeal, by the uncommon pains he took to illullrate primitive Chrillianity, and by his elaborate and able , , . ‘ il-j defences of it againft its enemies. His profound re- fearches into hillory, and his thorough knowledge of the laws, made him perfectly acquainted with the pro- grefs of the conllitution of Britain, from the firll dawn of liberty in the common law of the land, and the trial by jury, which precede all written records, and afterwards in the origin and eftablilhment of par¬ liaments, through all its viciffitudes and dangers, till at lall, by the bleffing of divine Providence, which brought many wonderful events to concur to the fame end, it was renewed, llrengthened, and finally con¬ firmed by the Revolution. It was this goodly and ve¬ nerable fabric of the Britilh conllitution, which the deceafed moll refpeClable charaCler contemplated with admiration and delight, (of late indeed with a mixture of anxiety and fear) as the temple of piety, as the ge¬ nuine fource of greater happinefs and freedom, to a larger portion of mankind, than ever flowed from any government upon earth. Ill indeed can the times bear the lofs of luch an affeClionate patriot, and able guardian of the laws of his country. But we mull not murmur at the will of Providence, which in its mercy may have withdrawn the good man from the evil to come. In mercy, I fay, to him, whofe righte¬ ous fpirit was fo deeply grieved, when he faw the wicked rage, and the people imagine a vain thing.” Such is the memorial which, in the hour of recent forrow, followed this excellent man to the grave ! Be- fide the works already mentioned, Lord Hailes publilh- ed a great number of others, which confilled chiefly of re-editions and tranllation of old works, and editions of MS. papers. DALTON, a town of Lancalhire, in England. It is feated on the fpring-head of a river, in a champaign country, not far from the fea j and the ancient callle is made ufe of to keep the records, and prifoners for debt in the liberty of Fumes. W. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 54. 18. Dalton, John, D. D. an eminent divine and poet, was the fon of the Rev. Mr John Dalton, reflor of Dean near Whitehaven in Cumberland, where he was born in 1709. He was educated at Queen’s College, Oxford ; and became tutor or governor to the Lord Beauchamp, only fon of the earl of Hertford, late duke of Somerfet ; during which time he adapted Milton’s admirable malk of Comus to the ftage, by a judicious infertion of feveral fongs and different paffages fele£led from other of Milton’s works, as well as of feveral fongs and other elegant additions of his own, fuited to the charaflers and to the manner of the ori¬ ginal author. During the run of this piece he indullri- oufly fought out a grand-daughter of Milton’s, who wras then oppreffed with age and poverty j and .pro¬ cured her a benefit from it, the profits of which a- mounted to a very confiderable fum. He rvas promo¬ ted by the king to*a prebend of Worceller ; wdrere he died on the 22d of July 1763. Befides the above, he wrote a deferiptive poem, addreffed to two ladies at their return from viewing the coal-mines near White¬ haven 5 and Remarks on 12 hiftorical defigns of Ra¬ phael, and the Mufeum Grcecum et Egyptiacum. DAM, a boundary or confinement, as to dam up or H dam DAM [ 53 1 DAM Damage II. Damatcus. dam Out. Infra damnum fuutn, within the bounds or limits of his own property or jurifdiftion. DAMAGE, in Law, is generally underftood of.a hurt or hinderance attending a perfon’s eftate : but, in common lav\T, it is a part of what the jurors are to in¬ quire of in giving verdnfl for the plaintiff or defendant in a civil action, whether real or perfonal j lor after giving verd’61 on the principal caufe, they are hkewife afked their confciences touching cofts and damages, which contain the hinderances that one party hath fuf- fered from the wrong done him by the other. See Costs. t- n. t j* DAMAN, a maritime town of the Eaft Indies, at the entrance into the gulf of Cambay. It is divided by the river Daman into two parts ; one of which is called New Daman, and is a handfome town, well fortified, and defended by a good Portuguefe garrifon. The other is called Old Daman, and is very ill built. There is a harbour between the two towns, defended bv a fort. It was taken by the Portuguefe in 1535. The Mogul has attempted to get poffeflion of it ieveral times, but always without effe£I. E. Long. 72. 35. N. Lat. 21. 5. DAMASCENUS, John, an illuftrious lather ot the church in the 8th century, born at Damafcus, where his father, though a Chrilfian, enjoyed the office of counfellor of Hate to the Saracen caliph •, to which the fon fucceeded. He retired afterwards to the mo- naftery of St Sabas, and fpent the remainder of his life in writing books of divinity. His works have been often printed : but the Paris edition in 1712, two vols folio, is efteemed the belt. _ , DAM ASCI US, a celebrated heathen philoiopher, born at Damafcus in the year 540, when the Goths reigned in Italy. Pie wrote the life of his mailer Ifi- dorus 5 and dedicated it to Theodora, a very learned and philofophical lady, who had alfo been a pupil to Jfidorus. In this life, which was copioully written, he frequently made oblique attacks on the. Chriftian reli¬ gion. We have nothing remaining of it but fome ex- trafls preferved by Photius. Damafcius fucceeded Theon in the rhetorical fchool, and Ifidorus in that ot philofophy, at Athens. . _ . . . DAMASCUS, a very ancient city oi Syria, in A- fia, feated in E. Long. 47. 18. N. Lat. 35. o. Some of the ancients fuppofe this city to have been built by one Damafcus, from whom it took its name 5 but the mod generally received opinion is, that it was found¬ ed by Uz the eldeft fon of Aram. It is certain, from Gen. xiv. 5. that it was in being in Abraham’s time, and confequently may be looked upon as one of the mod ancient cities in the world. In the time of King David it feems to have been a very confiderable place *, as the facred hidorian tells us, that the Syrians of Da¬ mafcus fent 20,000 men to the relief of Hadadtzer king of Zobah. We are not informed whether at that time it was governed by kings, or was a republic. A - terwards, however, it became a monarchy which pro¬ ved very troublefome to the kingdom of Ifrael, and would even have dedroyed it entirely, had not tne Dei¬ ty miraculoufiy interpofed in its behalf- ^.t lad this monarchy was dedroyed by Tiglath Pilefer king of Aflyria, and Damafcus was never afterwards governed by its own kings. From the Affyrians and Babylonians it paffied to the Perfians, and from them to the Greeks under Alexander the Great. After his death it belong- Damafcus ed, with the red of Syria, to the Seleucidse •, till t jeir ■Damajk< empire was fubdued by the Romans, about 70 years be- ^, fore Chrid. From them it was taken by the Saracens in 633 ; and it is now in the hands of the Turks.— Notwithdanding the tyranny of the Turkilh govern¬ ment, Damafcus is dill a confiderable place. It is fi- tuated in a plain of fo great extent, that one can but hid difcern the mountains which compafs it on the other fide. It dands on the wed fide .of the plain, about two miles from the head of the river Bariady, which waters it. It is of a long, draight figure, extend¬ ing about two miles in length, adorned with moiques and deeples, and encompaffed with gardens computed to be full 30 miles round. The river Barrady, as foon as it iffues from the clefts of the Antilibanus into the plain, is divided into three dreams, whereof the mid* dlemod and bigged runs diredly to Damafcus, and is didributed to all the cifterns and fountains of the city. The other two feem to be artificial 5 and are drawn round, one to the right and the other to the left, on the borders of the gardens, into which they are let by little currents, and difperfed everywhere. The houfes of the city, whofe dreets are very narrow, are all built on the out fide either with fun-burnt brick or Flemidi wall: and yet it is no uncommon thing to fee the gates and doors adorned with marble portals, carved and inlaid with great beauty and variety ; and within thefe portals to find large fquare courts beautified with fraorant trees and marble fountains, and companed round with fplendid apartments. In thefe apartments the ceilings are ufually richly painted and gilded.; and their duans, which are a fort of low dages feated in the pleafanted part of the room, and elevated about 16 or 18 inches above the door, whereon the Turks eat, deep, fay their prayers, Sec. are doored, and adorned on the fides with variety of marble mixed in mofaic knots and mazes, fpread with carpets, and furnifhed all round with holders and cufhions, to the very height of luxu¬ ry. In this city are ffiown the church of John the Bap- tid, now converted into a famous mofque ; the houfe of Ananias, which is only a fmall grotto or cellar, wherein is nothing remarkable ; and the houie or Ju¬ das with whom Paul lodged. In this lad is an old tomb, fuppofed to be that of Ananias ; which the Turks hold in fuch veneration, that they keep a lamp continually burning over it. There is a cadle belong¬ ing to Damafcus, which is like a little town, having its^ own dreets and houfes; and in this cafile a maga- of the famous Damafcus deel was formerly kept. The fruit-tree called the damafeene, and the flower called the damafkrofe, were tranfplanted from thegar- dens belonging'to this city *, and the filks and linens known by the name of damafus, were probably invented by the inhabitants. Damascus Steel. See Damask. DAM ASIA, in Ancient Geography, a town ot Vindelicia, on the Licus. Afterwards ciWz&AuguJta. Now Augjburg in Suabia, on the Lech. E. Long. 10. 50. N. Lat. 48. 20. . r DAMASK, a fort of filken duff, having fome parts raifed above the ground, reprefenting othfr fioures. Damalk diould be of dreffed filks, both in warp and woof. It has its name from its being ori¬ ginally brought from Damafcus in Syria. There DAM [ 59 1 DAM Damafk There is alfo a fluff in France called the caffart da- Damiens made imitation of the true damafk, having woof of hair, coarfe filk, thread, wool, or cotton. Some have the warp of filk and the woof of thread 5 others are all thread or all wool. Damask is alfo a kind of wrought linen, made in Flanders; fo called, becaufe its large dowers referable thofe of damafks. It is chiefly ufed for tables; a ta¬ ble cloth and a dozen of napkins are called a damajk- fervice. Damask is alfo applied to a very fine fteel, in fome parts of the Levant, chiefly at Damafcus in Syria : whence its name. It is uled for fword and cutlafs blades, and is finely tempered. DAMASKEENING, or Damasking, the art or operation of beautifying iron, fteel, &c. by making incifions therein, and filling them up with gold or filver wire ; chiefly ufed for adorning fword-blades, guards and gripes, locks of piftols, &c. Damafkeening partakes of the mofaic, of engraving, and of carving : like the mofaic, it has inlaid work ; like engraving, it cuts the metal, reprefenting divers figures; and, as in chafing, gold and filver is wrought in relievo. There are two ways of damafking : the one, which is the fineft, is when the metal is cut deep with proper inftruments, and inlaid with gold and filver wire : the other is fuperficial only. DAMELOPRE, a kind of bilander, ufed in Hol¬ land for conveying rnerchandife from one canal to ano¬ ther ; being very commodious for pafling under the bridges. I)AMIANISTS, iii church-hiftory, a branch of the ancient acephali feveritse. They agreed with the catholics in admitting the fixth council, but difowned any diftin&ion of perfons in the Godhead ; and pro- feffed one Angle nature, incapable of any difference : yet they called God “ the Father, Son, and Holy Ghoft.” DAMIENS, Robert Fran^ais, an affaflin by whom Louis XV. of France was wounded in the year 1757. He was born in the fuburbs of Arras, in the year 1714; and feems rather to have been adluated by phrenzy or infanity in the perpetration of the horrid deeds of which he w^as guilty, than by any of the mo¬ tives to which they have been afcribed. This fpirit appeared in the early period of his life ; and fuch w^ere the extravagance and violence of his condudt, that he was diftinguifhed, while a boy, by the appellation of Robert the Devil. When he grew up he entered into the army, ferved as a foldier at the fiege of Philipfburgh, and was pre- fent at feveral engagements. He returned afterwards to France, and became a domeftic fervant in the col- lege of Jeluits at Paris. He married in 1738, which rendered it neceffary for him to refign this fervice. He was then employed in the fame capacity by diffe¬ rent mafters, one of whom, it is faid, he poifoned ; and having robbed another, he was obliged to abfcond to efcape the punifliment due to his crimes. During a period of five months after the difcovery of the rob- bery, he lurked in the neighbourhood of St Omer, Dunkirk, and Bruffels ; and was obferved to exprefs himfelf in an abfurd and incoherent manner concern¬ ing fome difputes which at this time prevailed in France. 1 he following folilociuy is faid to have been uttered by him in a fmall town near Ypres ; ** If I return to Damiens. France—Yes, I will return, I will die there, and the greateft man on earth fliall die likewife, and you fliall hear news of me.” Thefe expreflions were uttered in the month of Auguft 1756 ; and it is probable that they were regarded at the time only as the ravings of a madman. He fpoke indeed in a fimilar drain in the December following, at the houfe of a relation, at Falefque near Arras, faying, “ That the kingdom, his wife, and daughter were all ruined!” It was a- bout this time that he fet out for Paris, and arrived there on the °f December. He was feen at Ver- failles, on the firft day of January 1757. To blunt his feelings, and to prepare himfelf for the perpetration of the horrid a£I, it is faid that he fwallowcd opium for feveral days. But the ftate of mind in which. Damiens is defcribed to have been for fome time be¬ fore, feemed-to render fuch auxiliaries unneceffary. It was on the 5th of January, between five and fix in the evening, that Louis XV. was wounded by the hand of this frantic afTaflin. Fie ftruck with a knife the right fide of the king, while he was furrounded with his courtiers, and juft as he w as entering his car¬ riage to go to Trianon. Damiens was inftantly leized, examined at Verfailles, and afterwards fent to Paris and confined in the tower of Montgommeri, in an a- partment prepared for him, near to that which w^as for¬ merly occupied by Ravaillac the murderer of Hen¬ ry IV. The great court of parliament W'as charged by the king to inftitute his procefs; and although he was fubje&ed to the moft cruel toitures, which he bore with unexampled fortitude, no confeflion or acknow'- ledgment could be extorted which afforded the fmalleft ground for fufpicion that he had a Angle accomplice. When it was found that the torture failed of the pur- pofe for which it was inflidled, he was condemned to die by the fame punifhment which Ravaillac fufiered. The 28th of March following was fixed as the day of his execution. On that day he was brought to the Place de Greve, where the apparatus and inftruments of his deftruftion were prepared. All thefe he beheld with an undifmayed countenance and a tearlefs eye, although he muft have known well that new and more dreadful tortures yet awaited him. His punifhment commenced with burning his right hand ; his flefli was then torn with red-hot pincers ; and the wounds were filled with melted wax, pitch, and lead. In attempt¬ ing to quarter his body, the four horfes which were employed pulled in vain for 50 minutes. All their efforts ieemed to be ineffedlu-l, till the executioners cut with knives the ligaments with which the limbs are attached to the body. Even after the legs were cut he w'as ftill alive, and it was only after the arms were treated in the fame way that he ceafed to breathe, and his body was difmembered. The period of his pu¬ nifhment, from the time he was put upon the fcaffold till his death, was not lefs than an hour and a half; during the greater part of it he feemed to retain his 1 ecolleftion ; for he raifed his head many times, and caft his eyes on his mangled and burned limbs, and on the horfes which were then exerting their whole force to tear his body afunder. And even during the fe¬ vered of his tortures, the firmnefs of his mind was fo little fhaken, that he aifedled fome degree of jocula¬ rity. H 2 Thus DAM [ 60 Bamiens, Thus perWhed this unfortunate affaffin, the hiftory Damietta. 0f whofe life, confidered in itfelf, is fcarcely worthy 1 of a place even for the Ihorteft Iketch ; and indeed we fhould probably not have introduced it here, were it not for the purpofe of reaifying the miftaken views of forae of his biographers. While we are told that he was an infane affaffm, he is charged with the fame de¬ cree of guilt, as if he had been all his life in full pol- fefTion of every rational faculty. But the events of his life leave no doubt of his infanity j and the laft horrid deed which he perpetrated ftrongly confirms it. He was not a floated by either public or private revenge •, he had no accomplices ; and it does not appear that he had any purpofe whatever to ferve by taking away the life of the monarch, even if he had fucceeded and el- caped. In the midft of his moll cruel tortures, he ob- llinately perfifted that it was not his intention to kill the king. According to his own fanatical language, he wifhed that God would touch his heart to induce him to give peace to his kingdom. Our readers will probably anticipate us in remarking the needlefs excefs of lingering punilhment which was inflifted on the infane Damiens •, and fome of them will perhaps be furprifed to be told that the execution was attended by lome ot the ladies of the court. Many of them too will natu¬ rally compare this event with what has happened more lately in our own country •, and rec°lle^ .that a Nl* cholfon and a Hadfield, influenced by a fimilar frenzy which urged them to a fimilar attempt, have been on¬ ly doomed to perpetual confinement, not as a pumlh- ment, but merely to preclude^ the poflfibility of P^r.Pe- trating fuch deeds j becaufe in fuch a ftate of mind they are not recognized by our milder and more equi¬ table laws, as rational beings •, and therefore they are improper objeas of punilhment. . „ DAMIETTA, a port-town of Egypt, fituated on the eaftern mouth of the river Nile, four miles from the fea and IOO miles north of Grand Cairo. E. Long. ’ and N. Lat. 3T. The prefent town ftands upon a different fite from the ancient Damietta, fo repeated¬ ly attacked by the European princes. I he latter ac¬ cording to Abulfeda, was “ a town furrounded by walls, and fituated at the mouth of the eaftern branch of the Nile.” Stephen of Byzantium informs us, that it was called Thamiatis under the government ot the Greeks of the lower empire, but that it was then very inconfiderable. It increafed in importance every day, in proportion as Pelufrum, which was frequently plun¬ dered ^ loft its power. The total ruin of that ancient town occaftoned the commerce of the eaftern parts of the Delta to be transferred to Damietta. It was how¬ ever, no longer a place of ftrength, when, towards the year 238 of the Hegira, the emperors of Conftantino- ple took pofleflion of it a fecond time. The import¬ ance of a harbour fo favourably fituated opened the eyes of the caliphs. In the year 244 of the Hegira, Elmetouakkel furrounded it with ftrong walls. This obftacle did not prevent Roger king of Sicily from ta¬ king it from the Mahometans in the year 550 of the Hegira. He did not, however, long enjoy his con- queft Salah Eddin, who about that period mounted the. throne of Egypt, expelled the Europeans from Da¬ mietta. Fifteen years after they returned to befiege it *, but this able fultan baffled all their efforts. No - withftanding their land army was fupported by a fleet ] dam of 1200 fail, they were obliged to make a difgraceful Damiet^ ^^rwas the fate of this place to be conftantly be- fieeed. In the year 615 of the Hegira, under the reign of Eladel, the crufaders attacked it with a very confiderable force. They landed on the weftern ftiore of the Nile; and their firft care was to furround their camp with a ditch and pallifado. The mouth of the river was defended by two towers, furniftied with nu¬ merous garrifons. An enormous iron chain, ftretch- ing frorn one fide to the other, hindered the approach of veffels. The crufaders carried by ftorm the tower on the fame fide with their camp, broke the chain, and opened the entrance of the river for their fleet Neim Eddin, the fultan’s fon, who was encamped near Damietta, covered it with an army. To flop the ene¬ mies veffels he threw a bridge over the Nile. The Franks overturned it, and the prince adopted the mea- fure of choking up the mouth of the river, which he almoft rendered impaffable by feveral large boats he funk there. After alternate and various fuccefies many bloody battles, and a fiege of 17 nionths the Chriftian princes took Damietta by ftorm. They did not, how¬ ever, long enjoy the fruit of fo much blood Ipilt, and of an armament which had coft immenfe turns. Completely invefted near the canal of Achmoun by the waters of the Nile and by the Egyptian army, they pmchafed their lives and their liberty by the facnfice of thar conqueft. One-and-thirty years after this defeat St Louis car¬ ried Damietta without ftnking a ftroke. The Arabs, however, foon recovered it ; but tired of keeping a place which continually drew upon them the moi- warlike nations of Europe, they totally deftroyed it and rebuilt it further up in the country. This “odern Damietta, firft called Menchie, as Abulfeda tells u , has preferved the memory of its origin in a fquare ft.il called by that name. Writers in general have con¬ founded thefe two towns, afcribing to the one the at¬ tributes of the other. The modern Dam.etta is round¬ ed in a femicircle on the eaftern bank of the ^ ^ ° leagues and a half from the mouth of it. The eye, placed at one of the extremities of the crefcent, takes fn its whole extent. It is reckoned to contain 80,000 fouls. It has feveral fquarcs, the mott conffflerable of which has retained the name of Menchie. The bazars are filled with merchants. spac1ous or^W, colleaing under their porticoes the fluffs of India, the inks of Mount Lebanon, fal ammomac, and pyram,ds of rice, proclaim that it is a commero.al town. The houfes tiiofe in particular which are on the banks o the river, are very lofty. They have in general hand- fome faloons built on the top ot their terraces^ wh ch are cheerful belvideres, open to every wind, whe e h= Turk, effeminately reclining on a fopha, paifo h s h e in fmoking, ,n looking on ^“"nds U- the°other,e*and on L Nile, which, tunning between ^I'dffperifd ove^the town. The public baths, lined with marble, are diftributed in the fame manner as thole of Grand Cairo The linen you are ferv,ed with is clean, and fhe water very pure. The heat and the treatment m ttem fo far from injuring the health, lerve to ftrength- en, nay even to improve it, it uied with moderation. DAM [ 61 ] DAM This cuftom, founded on experience, is general in * Egypt. The port of Damietta is continually filled with a multitude of boats and fmall vefiels. Thole called fcherrn ferve to convey the merchandife on board the {hips in the road, and to unload them j the others car¬ ry on the coafting-trade. This town carries on a great trade with Syria, with Cyprus, and Marfeilles. The rice called me%elaoni, of the fined quality there is in Egypt, is cultivated in the neighbouring plains. The exports of it amount annually to about fix millions of livres. The other articles of the produce of the coun¬ try are linens, fal ammoniac, corn, &c. A ruinous policy for the country prohibits the exportation ot this laft article ; but the law is evaded, and it pafies under the name of rice. The Chriltians of Aleppo and Damafcus, fettled in this town, have for feveral ages carried on its principal commerce. Turkilh indolence, content with extort¬ ing from them from time to time, fuffers them to be¬ come rich. The exportation of rice to foreign coun¬ tries is prohibited ; but by means of fome douceurs to the cullomhoufe-officers, the people of Provence load annually feveral (hips with it. The Boga* preventing them from entering the Nile, their cargoes are con¬ veyed on board by the boats of the country. This in¬ convenience is the fource of endlefs vexation and abu- fes. The boat, which is loaded in the evening with rice of the firft quality, is frequently not that which arrives at the fhip ; an inferior quality is fubftituted for it during the night. The Marfeilles captains, aware of thefe rogueries, without being able to prevent them, endeavour to play off trick againft trick, fo that this commerce has become a general fcene of knavery. But the badnefs of the port is dill more detrimental to Da¬ mietta. The road where the veifels lie being expofed to every wind, the dighted gale obliges the captains to cut their cables and take (belter at Cyprus, or to dand off to fea. It would be eafy, by cutting a canal only of half a league, to open a paflage for drips into the Nile, where there is deep water. This work, which might be executed at very little expence, would render Damietta a noble harbour j but defpotifm, in- fenfible to the intered of the people, is always fur- rounded by dedru&ion in its progrefs, and wTants both the will and the power to create. The tongue of land on which Damietta is fituated, ftraitened on one fide by the river, and on the other by the wedern extremity of lake Menzale, is only from two to fix miles wide from ead to wed. It is inter¬ fered by innumerable rivulets in every direrion, which render it the mod fertile fpot in Egypt. The foil there produces, communibus annis, 80 bufiiels of rice for one. The other produce is in the fame proportion. It is there that nature, lavidfing profufely her pomp and riches, prefents flowers, fruits, and harveds, at every feafon of the year. Winter never deprives it of thefe advantages j its beauties are never impaired by fummer. Dedru&ive heats, as well as chilling colds, are equally unknown in that happy fpot. The ther¬ mometer varies only from 9 to 24 degrees above the freezing point. Damietta is indebted for this charm¬ ing temperature to the immenfe quantity of water with which it is furrounded. The verdure is no¬ where fo frelh} the trees are nowhere covered with fuch quantities of fruit. The riyulets around the Damtetta fields of rice are lined with feveral kinds of reeds, j)an|gC|e„ fome of which rife to a great height. The reed ca/a- . -- — mus is here found in abundance, which is made ufe of for writing by the orientals. Its {lender dalks bear long narrow leaves, which hang gracefully, and fpread- ing branches covered with white flowers. Here alfo are to be feen foreds of papyrus, of which the ancient Egyptians made their paper. Strabo, who calls it biblius, gives an accurate defcription of it. It is here alfo that the lotus, of which the Arabs have preferved the primitive name of nuphar, exalts its lofty dalk above the wraters. Its large calyx blows either of an azure blue or of a brilliant white, and it appears wdth the ma- jedy of the king of the aquatic plants. The marflies and the canals in the interior parts of the country are" filled with this fuperb flower, which diffules a mod agreeable odour. There are a great many villages around Damietta, in mod of which are marmfadtures where the mod beautiful linens of the country are fabricated. The fined napkins in particular are made there, fringed with filk. You are lerved at table with them, but tfpecially on ceremonial vifits, when the flave prefents you with one to wipe your mouth with, after you have drank your flierbet, or eat the Iweatmeats, w’hich are carried round on a filver plate to all the company. Thefe fmall towns, generally furrounded with little w’oods, or trees promifcuoufly planted, form a w’him- fical and pidlurelque affemblage. By the fide of the lycamore and the melancholy tamarind, one fees the elegant caflia tree, with its cluflers of yellow flowers, like thofe of the cytifus. The top of the date-tree, loaded with enormous bunches, rifes above the grove. The caflra, with its fweet-fcented flower, grows under its (hade. The orange and lemon trees cover the la¬ bourer’s cabin with their golden fruit. The banana- tree with its long leaves, the pomegranate with its fcarlet flower, and the fig-tree with its fugary fruit, throw a vafl variety into thefe landfcapes. DAMNII, anciently a people of Britain ; fituated between the Selgovae to the fouth and the Caledonii to the north. Now Clydefdale. DAMNONII. See Danmonii. DAMOCLES, one of the flatterers of Dionyfius the Elder of Sicily. He admired the tyrant’s wealth, and pronounced him the happieft: man on earth. Dio¬ nyfius prevailed upon him to undertake for a while the charge of royalty, and be convinced of the happinefs which a fovereign enjoyed. Damocles afcended the throne, and while he gazed upon the wealth and fplen- dor that furrounded him, he perceived a fword hang¬ ing over his head by a horfe hair. This fo terrified him that all his imaginary felicity vanifhed at once, and he begged Dionyfius to remove him from a fituation which expofed his life to fuch fears and dangers. DAMON, the name of feveral illuftrious ancients j particularly of a Pythagorean philofopher very inti¬ mate with Pythias. When he had been condemned to death by Dionyfius, he obtained from the tyrant leave to go and fettle his domeftic affairs, on promife of re¬ turning at a ftated hour to the place of execution. Pythias pledged himfelf to undergo the puniihment which was to be inflidted on Damon, fhould he not re¬ turn in time, and he confequently delivered himfelf in- I to D A M [ 62 1 dam Diunpier, to the'hands of the tyrant. Damon returned at the ap- '■■'■—v pointed moment, and Dionyhus was fo flruck with the fidelity of thofe two friends, that he remitted the pu- r nilhment, and intreated them to permit him to fhare their friendfhip and enjoy their confidence. DAMPIER, William, an Englilh navigator, was born at Eaft Coker in Somerfetihire, about the year 1652. His parents died tvhile he was young, and ha¬ ving thus become an orphan, he was removed from the Latin fchool, and placed with the mafter of a {hip at Weymouth. In this {hip he made a voyage to New¬ foundland y but, on his return, he left his mafter, with the refolution, as he himfelf ohferves, of never again expofing himfelf to the pinching cold of that northern climate. As the acquifition of experience in the art of nagivation was ever his great obje£l, he engaged himfelf as a common failor in a voyage to the Eaft: Indies. He ferved in the Dutch war under Sir Ed¬ ward Sprague, and was prefcnt at two engagements. The declining ftate of his health would not permit him to remain on board the fleet} he therefore came on fhore, and removed to the country, where he remained fome time. The year following he accepted an offer of employment in Jamaica as an under manager of an eftate j but he only continued a ftiort time in that fitu- ation ; after which he engaged in a coafting trader, and thus acquired an accurate knowledge of all the ports and bays of that ifland. Soon after he entered on board a veflel bound to the bay of Campeachy, and returning a fecond time to the fame coaft, he remained with the logwood-cutters, and engaged himfelf as a common workman. During his flay in this country be colle&ed the materials for the minute and intertft- ing account which he has given of the laborious life of tbefe people, as well as of the geographical de- fcription and the natural biftory of the traft which they occupy. . Satisfied with the knowledge which he bad obtained of the nature of the trade and country, he returned to Jamaica, and from thence to England, where he ar¬ rived in 1678. About the beginning of the year fol¬ lowing he went out to Jamaica as a paffenger, with the intention of revifiting the bay of Campeachy but he was perfuaded to aflociate himfelf with a body, of privateers, as they wrere called, who were then lying in feveral veflels in a bay of that ifiand. T hefe peo¬ ple who were called privateers were pirates, who, having no commiffion whatever from any government, undertook a predatory warfare on the commerce and lettlements of the Spaniards. This body of plunderers was compofed of Englifli, Dutch, and French. In this expedition Dampier crofled the illhmus of Darien with his afibciates, and fpent the year 1680 on .the Pe¬ ruvian coaft, and w7as cccationally fuccefsful in plun¬ dering the towns. The following year, in confequence of a diflenfion which arofe among, them, Dampier and the minority with whom he had joined, recrofled the i-fthmus, and entered with another fleet or privateers, which w’as then ftationed on the Spamlh main *, and, having fpent another yVar among the Weft. India iHands, he, with fome others, proceeded to Virginia in a fingle fhip to difpofe of their prize goods. Here be remained for a year ; and afterwards engaged with a Captain Cook, who, with about 70 men, undertook an expedition againft the Spaniards in the oouth They failed In 1683 in the month of Auguft, touched Dampier. at the coaft: of Guinea, and then proceeded round Cape y—— Horn into the Pacific ocean. Having fallen in with a ftiiip from London, wduch had failed on a ixniilar ex¬ pedition, they joined company ”, and, having touched at the ifland of Jean Fernandez, they made the coaft of South America, cruifing along Chili and Peru, They took fome prizes, and with them they proceeded to the Mexican coaft, which they fed in with near Cape Blanco. While they lay here Captain Cook died, and the command devolved on Captain Davis. Having feparated from the London {hip, they were joined by another commanded by Captain Swan. An attempt to plunder the town ol Guaiaquil was unfuc- cefsful, but'at the mouth of the river they took lome veflels which had about 1000 flaves on board. With thefe negroes Dampier propoled to work.the gold mines in the neighbourhood of Santa Maria on tne ifthmus of Darien, from which the Spaniards had been driven away by fome privateers. But this plan was not adopted. The next objeft of plunder was the Spanifh fleet having on board the treasure of the Peru¬ vian mines \ but the Englilh being ill fupported oy fome French {hips which had joined them, the fleet, after a running fight, got fafe into Panama. The Englilh Ihips afterwards cruifing along the coaft of Mexico, landed, took the town of Puebla Nova, and burnt two others. Dampier leaving Davis, went on board of Swan’s ftiip, and proceeded with him along the northern parts of Mexico, as far as . the fouthern part of California. During this expedition they frequently landed for the puvpofe of plunder, but particularly when they were in want of provifions. Returning from the plunder of one pjaee, 50 of the party were killed by the Spaniards. 'Phis difafter fo difeouraged them that they relinquilhed all farther at¬ tempts on thefe coafts. Swan then propofed to run acrofs the Pacific ocean, and return by. the Eaft Indies ; and in hopes of a fuccefsful crude off the Manillas the crew were perfuaded, with a very {lender provifion, to riik this long paflage. On the laft day of March 1686, they took their departure from Cape Corrientes, and on the ?zd day reached Guam, one ot the Ladrone Hands. About this time the crew talked of killing and eating Swan and the officers, in cale their flock of provifion fliould be exhaufted before it could be fupplied. From Guam they proceeded to Mindanao. While the ffiip lay here a mutiny arofe a mono' the crew, and the majority earned her oft, Swan and fome of his people being left on the Hand. Among the former was Dampier, although it is laid that he had no concern in the mutiny. After cruizing iome time off Manilla, and having careened their vefle! at Polo Condore, in 1687 they were driven tothe L hinele coaft, made the circuit of Luzonia and Mindanao, paffed through the group of fpice Hands, and reached the coaft of New Holland in the beginning of 1688. They left this in March, and having paffed along the weft co a ft of Sumatra, they arrived at tne Nicobar Hands, where Dampier, at his own requeft, and two other EngHflimen, a Portuguefe, and fome Malays, were fet on {bore. Dampier’s objea was to eftablHi a trade in ambergris. Attempting^ navigate a canoe to Acheen in Sumatra, they were overtaken by a jev.ere ftorm, in which they experienced great hardftnps. DAM [ 63 ] DAM Dampier. They at laft reached Sumatra j but the fatigues and conrfe of Trade-winds, Seafona, Tides, &c. in the v diftrefs of the voyage proved fatal to feveral of them, Torrid Zone. 5. A Voyage to New Holland. His who were carried off by a fever. Dampier himfelf obfervations are curious and important, and conveyed was fcarcely recovered at the end of a twelvemonth. in a plain manly ftile. His nautical remarks dilcover After making feveral voyages to different places of a great deal of profeffional knowledge. His know- the Eaft Indies, he afted for fome time as gunner at ledge in natural hiftory is not fcientific ; but it ap- the Englilh fort of Bencoolen. In 1691, wilhing to pears to be accurate, and has been frequently quoted, revifit his native country, he embarked onboard a DAMPS, in (from the Saxon word fliip for England, where he arrived in September. da*n[>, fignifying vapour or exhalation), are certain At this time he brought with him a native of Meangis, noxious exhalations iffuing from fome parts of the one of the fpice illands, who was fuppofed to be the earth, and which prove almoft inftantly fatal to thofe fon of a chief, and after being exhibited aS a fight, died who breathe them. of the. fmallpox at Oxford. Fhefe damps are chiefly obferved in mines and coal- It is not known in what manner Dampier was em- pits j though vapours of the fame kind often iffue from ployed fijr fome years after this period. It appears, old lavas of burning mountains, and, in thofe countries however, that he was at laft engaged in the king’s where volcanoes are common, will frequently enter fervice. He had the command of the Roebuck, a houfes, and kill people fuddenly without the leaf! warn- Hoop of 12 guns and jo men. Phis veffel, it is fup- ing of their approach. In mines and coal pits they pofed, was fitted out for fome voyage of difeovery, for are chiefly of two kinds, called by the miners and col¬ ine had 20 months provifions on board. He failed liers the choke andyfre damps; and both go under one from Britain in 1699, touched at the coaft of Brafil, general name of foul air. The choke-damp, known in and then ran acrofs to the coaft of New Holland, and modern chemiflry by the name of fixed air, os carbonic arrived there on the iff of Augufl, about latitude 26*. and gas, ufually infefls thofe places which have been He proceeded northwards along the coaft, exploring formerly worked, but long neglefted, and are called the country in different places where he landed. To by the miners wafes. No place, however, can be procure refrefhments he found it neceffary to dire ‘lied SamachomM, as far as -d thence ..be DAN [ 67 J DAN Dan lake Genefareth, or of Tiberias, where it comes in- I! creafed by the lake Samachonites and its fprings, and » ani*HLS-; is called the Greater Jordan; continuing its direfl courfe fouthwards, till it falls into the Aiphaltites. Dan, in Ancient Geography, a town to the weft of the fource of the Jordan 5 formerly called Lais (Jo- fhua, Judges, Jofephus). This was the north, as Beerlheba was the fouth, boundary of the Ifraelites j as appears from the common expreflion in Scripture, from Dan to Beerjheba.. At Dan Jeroboam eredted one of the golden calves (1 Kings xii.) Dan, the tribe, extended itfelf weftward of Judah, and was terminated by Azotas and Dora on the Me¬ diterranean (Jofephus). DANAE, in antiquity, a coin fomewhat more than an obolus, ufed to be put into the mouths of the dead, to pay their paffage over the river Acheron. Danae, in fabulous hiftory, was the daughter of Acrifius king of Argos, by Eurydice. She was con¬ fined in a brazen toxver by her father, who had been told by an oracle that his daughter’s fon would put him to death. His endeavours to prevent Danae from becoming a mother proved fruitlefs ; and Jupiter, who was enamoured of her, introduced himfelf to her bed by changing himfelf into a golden ftiower. From his embraces Danae had a fon, with whom (he was ex- pofed on the fea by her father. The wind drove the bark which carried her to the coafts of the illand of Se- riphus, where ftie was faved by fome fiftiermen, and carried to Polydedles king of the place, whofe bro¬ ther, called DiBys, educated the child called Perfeus, and tenderly treated the mother. Polyde&es fell in love with her ; but as he was afraid of her fon, he fent him to conquer the Gorgons, pretending that he wifli- ed Medufa’s head to adorn the nuptials which he was going to celebrate with Hippodamia the daughter of CEnomaus. When Perfeus had viftorioufly finiflied his expedition, he retired to Argos with Danae to the houfe of Acrifius, whom he inadvertently killed. Some fuppofe that it was Proetus the brother of Acrifius who introduced himfelf to Danae in the brazen tower $ and inftead of a golden ftiower, it was maintained that the keepers of Danae were bribed by the gold of her feducer. Virgil mentions that Danae came to Italy with fome fugitives of Argos, and that ftie founded a city called Ardea. DAN AIDES, in fabulous hiftory, the fifty daugh¬ ters of Danaus king of Argos. When their uncle tE- gyptus came from Egypt with his fifty fons, they were promifed in marriage to their coufins ; and before the celebration of their nuptials, Danaus, who had been informed by an oracle that he was to be killed by the hands of one of his fons-in-law, made his daughters fo- lemnly promife that they would deftroy their huibands. They were provided with daggers by their father 5 and all except Hypermneftra ftained their hands with the blood of their coufins the firft night of their nuptials ; and as a pledge of their obedience to their father’s in- jun&ions, they prefented him each with the head of the murdered fons of TEgyptus. Hypermneftra was fiimmoned to appear before her father, and anfwer for her difobedience in fuffering her hufband Lynceus to tfcape ; but the unanimous voice of the people declared her innocent, and Ihe dedicated a temple to the god- defs of Perfuafion. The fifters were purified of this murder by Mercury and Minerva by order of Jupiter} Danaus but according to the more received opinion, they were c condemned to fevere punilhment in hell, and were : compelled to fill with water a veflel full of holes, fo that the water ran out as foon as poured into it •, and therefore their labour was infinite, and their punilhment eternal. The heads of the fons of Aigyptus rvere bu¬ ried at Argos ; but their bodies were left at Lerna, where the murder had been committed. DANAUS, in fabulous hiftory, a fon of Belus and Anchinoe, who after his father’s death reigned con¬ jointly with his brother iEgyptus on the throne of E- gypt. Some time after, a difference arofe between the brothers, and Danaus fet fail with his fifty daughters in quell of a fettlement. He vifited Rhodes, where he confecrated a ftatue to Minerva, and arrived fafe on the coaft of Peloponnefus, where he w as hofpitably re¬ ceived by Gelanor king of Argos. Gelanor had late¬ ly afcended the throne, and the firft years of his reign wTere marked with diffenlions with his fubje6ts. Da¬ naus took advantage of Gelanor’s unpopularity, and obliged him to leave the crown. In Gelanor, the race of the Inachidce was extinguilhed, and the Belides be¬ gan to reign at Argos in Danaus. Some authors fay, that Gelanor voluntarily refigned the crown to Danaus, on account of the wrath of Neptune, who had dried up all the w’aters of Argolis, to punilh the impiety of Inachus. The fuccefs of Danaus invited the fifty fons of Aigyptus to embark for Greece. They wTere kind¬ ly received by their uncle ; who, either apprehenfive of their number, or terrified by an oracle which threaten¬ ed his ruin by one of his fons in-law, caufed his daugh¬ ters, to whom they were promifed in marriage, to mur¬ der them the firft night of their nuptials. His order was executed. Hypermneftra alone fpared the life of Lynceus : (See Dan aides). Danaus at firft perfe- cuted Lynceus with unremitted fury j but he was af¬ terwards reconciled to him, and he acknowledged him for his fon-in-law and fucceffor after a reign of 50 years. He began his reign about 1586 years before the Chri- ftian era } and after death he w'as honoured with a fplendid monument in the town of Argos, which Hill exifted in the age of Paufanias. According to ^Ef- chylus, Danaus left Egypt, not to be prefent at the marriage of his daughters with the fons of his bro¬ ther ; a connexion which he deemed unlawful and im¬ pious. DANCE, or Dancing, as at prefent praflifed, may be defined “ an agreeable motion of the body, ad- jufted by art to the meafures or tone of inftruments, or of the voice.”—But, according to what fome rec¬ kon more agreeable to the true genius of the art, dan¬ cing is “ the art of exprefling the fentiments of the mind, or the paflions, by meafured fteps or bounds that are made in cadence by regulated motions of the body, and by graceful geftures } all performed to the found of mufical inftruments or of the voice.” There is no account of the origin of the praflice of dancing among mankind. It is found to exill among all nations whatever, even the moft rude and barbarous; and, indeed, however much the afiiftance of art may be neceffary to make any one perfedl in the pradtice, the foundation muft certainly lie in the me- chanifm of the human body itfelf. The connexion that there is between certain founds , I 2 and DAN [ 68 Dance, and thofe motions of the human body called dancing, v ’ hath feldom or never been inquired into by philoio- phers, though it is certainly a very curious fpeculation. The power of certain founds not only over the human fpecies, but even over the inanimate creation, is indeed very furprifing. It is well known, that the mod iohd walls, nay the ground itfelf, will be found to lhake at fome particular notes in mufic. This ftrongly indi¬ cates the prefence of fome univerfally dihufed and ex¬ ceedingly elaftic fluid, which is thrown into vibrations by the concuflions of the atmofphere upon it, produced bv the motion of the founding body.—If thefe con¬ cuflions are fo ftrong as to make the large quantity oi elatiic fluid vibrate that is difperfed through a hone wall or a confrderable portion of earth, it is no won¬ der they flrould have the fame effeft upon that invifi- ble and exceedingly fubtle matter that pervades and feems to refide in our nerves. , Some there are that have their nerves conArucled in fuch a manner, that they cannot be abeded by the founds which affed others, and fome fcarce with any 5 while others have fuch an irritability of the nerves in this cafe, that they cannot, without the greated dnh- culty, fit or ft and ftill when they hear a favourite piece of mufic played. ’ , , * . It is conieftured by very eminent philofophers, that all the fenfations and paflions to which we are lubjett, do immediately depend upon the vibrations excited m the nervous fluid above mentioned. Hence, muhea founds have the greateft power over thofe PeoPle who are of a delicate fenfible frame, and who have ftrong paflions. If it be true, therefore, that every paflion in the human nature immediately depends upon a cer¬ tain affe&ion of the nervous fyftem, or a certain mo¬ tion or vibration in the nervous fluid, we fliall immedi¬ ately fee the origin of the different dances among dif¬ ferent nations. One kind of vibration, for inftance, raifes the paflions of anger, pride, &c. which are m- difpenfably neceffary in warlike nations. The found., for fuch there are, capable of exciting a fimilar vi¬ bration, would naturally conftitute the martial mufic among fuch nations, and dances conformable to it would be inftituted. This appears to be the cafe p r- ticularly among barbarous nations as we ihall Prtlent- lv have occafion to remark. Other vibrations of the nervous fluid produce the paflions of joy,Jove, See., and founds capable of exciting thefe particular vibra¬ tions will immediately be formed into mufic for dan¬ cers of another kind. . „ \s barbarous people are obferved to have the ftrong- eft paflions, fo they are alfo obferved to be the moft cafify affeaed by founds, and the moft addiaed t0 d ’ c;nJ Sounds to us the moft difagreeabie, the drum¬ ming with flicks upon an empty cafe, or the node made by blowing into reeds incapable of yielding one mufi- cal note tolerable to us, is agreeable mufic to them. Much more are they affeaed by the found of mftru- ments which have any thing agreeable in them. Mr GaHini informs us, that “ The fpmt of dancing pre¬ vails almoft beyond imagination among both nien and wmmen in moft parts of Africa. It if evefn,raf°rea mftina, it is a rage, in feme countries of tha part of the globe—Upon the Gold coaft efpecially, the inha¬ bitants are fo p rflionately fond of it, that in the midft of their hardeft labour, if they hear a perfon fing, or ] DAN any mufical inftrument played, they cannot refrain from ^ dancing. There are even well attefted ftories of iome negroes flinging themfelves at the feet or an European playing on a fiddle, intreating him to defift, unlefs he had a mind to tire them to death ; it being impoffible for them to ceafe dancing while he continued playing.” The fame thing is found to take place in America, though, as the inhabitants of that continent are found to be of a more fierce and barbarous nature than tne African nations, their dances are ftill more uncouth and barbarous than thofe of the negroes. “ In Mexi¬ co, fays Gallini, they have alfe their dances and mu¬ fic, but in the moft uncouth and barbarous fiyle. For their fymphony they have wooden drums, lomething in form of a kettle-drum, with a kind of pipe or fla- gellet, made of a hollow cane or reed, but very gra¬ ting to an European ear. It is obferved they love every thing that makes a noife,_ how diiagreeable fe- ever the found is. They will alio hum over fomething like a tune when they dance 30 or 40 in a circle, ftretching out their hands, and laying them on each others (boulders. They ftamp and jump, and ule the moft antic geftures for feveral hours, till they are hear¬ tily weary. And one or two of the company feme- times ftep out of the rings to make fport for the reft, by (bowing feats of aftivity, throwing their lances up into the air, catching them again, bending^backwards, and fpringing forwards with great agility.” The origin of dancing among the Greeks was moft certainly the fame as among all other^nations •, but as they proceeded a certain length in, civilization, their dances were of confequence more regular and agree¬ able than thofe of the more barbarous nations. I bey reduced dancing into a kind of regular lyftem ; and bad dances proper for exciting, by means of the lympathy above mentioned, any paflion whatever m the minds of the beholders. In this way they are faid to_ have pro¬ ceeded very great lengths, to us abfolutely incredible. At Athens, it is faid, that the dance of the Eume. i- des or Furies on the theatre had exPreJlve a cba' rafter as to ftrike the fpeftators with irrefiftrble terror : men grown old in the profeflion of arms trembled j the multitude ran out •, women with child mi learned, people imagined they faw in earneft thofe terrible dei¬ ties commiffioned with the vengeance of heaven to pur- fue and punifli crimes upon earth. The Greeks had martial dances, which they reckon¬ ed to be very ufeful for keeping up the warlike fpnit of their youth; but the Romans, though equally war¬ like with the Greeks, never had any thing of the kmdw This probably may be owing to the want ^ that ro¬ mantic turn for which the Greeks were fo remarkable. The Romans had no heroes among them, lueh as Her¬ cules, Achilles, or Ajax ; nor does the whole Roman hiftory furnifh an example of a general that made war after the manner of Alexander the Great. T hough their foldiers were as valiant as ever the Greeks could pie- tendtobe, the objeft with them was the honour of the republic, and not their own perfonal praue. Hence there was lefs fury, and much more cool deliberate va¬ lour, exercifed by the Romans than any other nation whatever. The paffions of pride, refentment, obftmacy, &c. were excited in them, not by the mechanical means of mufic and dancing, but by being ^ught that it was their chief honour to fight for the republic. It does Dance. \ DAN [ % j DAN Dance, not however appear, that the Romans were at all lefs “■"“v" capable of being affedted in this mechanical manner than the Greeks. When dancing was once introdu¬ ced, it had the very fame effedls at Rome as at Athens. Among the Jews, dancing feems to have made a part of the religious worfhip on fome occafions, as we learn from fome paffages in the Pfalms, though we do not find either that or finging pofitively enjoined as a divine precept. In the Chriftian churches mentioned in the New Teftament, there is no account of dancing being introduced as an adl of worlhip, though it is cer¬ tain that it was ufed as fuch in after ages. Mr Gal- lini tells us, that “ at Limoges, not long ago, the people ufed to dance the round in the choir of the church which is under the invocation of their patron faint ; and at the end of each pfalm, inftead of the Gloria Patri, they fung as follows : St Marcel, pray for us, and we will dance in honour of you.—Though dancing would now be looked upon as the higheft de¬ gree of profanation in a religious afifembly, yet it is certain, that dancing, confidered as an expreflion of joy, is no more a profanation than finging, or than fimple fpeaking j nor can it be thought in the leait more abfurd, that a Chriitian fiiould dance for joy that Jelus Chrift is rifen from the dead, than that David danced before the ark when it was returned to him after a long abfence. Plato reduces the dances of the ancients to three clafies. 1. The military dances, which tended to make the body robult, adlive, and well difpofed for all the exetcifes of war. 1. The domeftic dances, which had for their object an agreeable and innocent relaxation and amufement. 3. The mediatorial dances, which were in ufe in expiations and facrifices.—Of military dances there were two forts : the ^ymnopedirjue dance, or the dance of children ; and the enoplian, or armed dance. The Spartans had invented the firil for an early excitation of the courage of their children, and to lead them on infenfibly to the exercife of the armed dance. This children’s dance ufed to be executed in the public place. It was compofed of two choirs; the one of grown men, the other of children : whence, be¬ ing 'chiefly defigned for the latter, it took its name. They were both of them in a date of nudity. The choir of the children regulated their motions by thole of the men, and all danced at the fame time, finging the poems of Thales, Aleman, and Dionyfodotus.— The enoplian or pyrrhic was danced by young men armed cap-a-pee, who executed, to the found of the flute, ail the proper movements either for attack or for defence. It was compofed of four parts.—The f*r.l^ .the podifm or footing; which confifted in a quick fhifting motion of the feet, fuch as was neceflary for overtaking a flying enemy, or for getting away from him when an overmatch.— Fhe fecond part was the xiphifm : this was a kind of mock fight, in which the dancers imitated all the motions of combatants ; aim¬ ing a ftroke, darting a javelin, or dexteroufly dodging, parrying, or avoiding a blow or thruft. The third part, called the komos, confifted in very high leaps or vaultings, which the dancers frequently repeated, for the better ufing themfelves occafionally to leap over a ditch, or fpring over a wall. The tetracomos was the murth and laft part: this was a fquare figure, execu¬ ted by flow and majeftic movements; but it is uncetv tain whether this was everywhere executed in the fame Dance, manner.* Of all the Greeks, the Spartans were thofe who moft cultivated the Pyrrhic dance. Athenams relates, that they had a lawT by which they were obliged to exercife their children at it from the age of five years. This warlike people conftantly retained the cuftom of accom¬ panying their dances with hymns and fongs. The following was fung for the dance called trichoria, faid to be inftituted by Lycurgus, and which had its name from its being compofed of three choirs, one of children, another of young men, and the third of old. The old men opened the dance, faying, “ In time pail w'e were valiant.” The young men anfwered, “ We are fo at prefent.” “ We ftiall be ftill more fo when our time comes,” replied the chorus of children. The Spartans never danced but with real arms. In procefs of time, however, other nations came to ufe only wea¬ pons of wood on fuch occafions. Nay, it was only fo late as the days of Athenaeus, who lived in the fecond century, that the dancers of the Pyrrhic, inftead of arms, carried only flalks, ivy-bound wands (thyrfus) or reeds. But, even in Ariftotle’s days, they had be¬ gun to ufe thyrfufes inftead of pikes, and lighted tor¬ ches in lieu of javelins and fwords. With thefe torches they executed a dance called the conflagration of the •world. Of the dances for amufement and recreation, fome were but Amply gambols, or fportive exetcifes, which had no chai after of imitation, and of which the greater part exift to this day. The others were more complex, more agreeable, figured, and w’ere always accompanied with finging. Among the firft or limple ones was the afcoliafmus : which confifted in jumping, with one foot only, on bladders filled with air or wine, and rub¬ bed on the outfide wuth oil. The dypodium was jumped wfith both feet clofe. The kyheflefls was what is called in this country the fomerfet.—Of the fecond kind w-as that called the wine-prefs, of w7hich there is a defeription in Longinus, and the Ionian dances : thefe laft, in ths original of their inftitution, had nothing but what was decent and modeft ; but, in time, their movements came to be fo depraved, as to be employed in expref- ling nothing but voluptuoufnefs, and even the grofieit obfeenity. Among the ancients there wrere no feftivals nor reli¬ gious aflemblies but what w^ere accompanied with fongs and dances. It was not held poflible to celebrate any? myftery, or to be initiated, without the intervention of thefe two arts. In Ihort, they were looked upon to be fo efiential in thefe kinds of ceremonies, that to exprefs the crime of fuch as were guilty of revealing the facred myfteries, they employed the word kheiflee, “ to be out of the dance.” The moft ancient of thefe religious dances is the Bacchic ; which was not only confecrated to Bacchus, but to all the deities whofe feftival was ce- / lebrated with a kind of enthufiafm. The moft gravs and majeftic- was the hyporchematic ; it was executed to the lyre, and accompanied with the voice. At his re¬ turn from Crete, Thefeus inftituted a dance at w'hich he himfelf aflifted at the head of a numerous and fplen- did band of youths, round the altar of Apollo. The dance was compofed of three parts ; theflrophe, the an- tiflropke, and the flationary. In the ftrophe, the move j ments were from the right to the left; in the antiftro, P.he,, DAN [ 7° 1 DAN Dance, phe, from the left to the right. In the ftatior.ary, they • r—* danced before the altar ; fo that the ftationary did not mean an abfolute paufe or reft, but only a more flow or grave movement. Plutarch is perfuaded, that in this dance there is a profound myftery. He thinks, that by the ftrophe is indicated the motion of the world from eaft to weft ; by the antiftrophe, the motion of the pla¬ nets from the weft to the eaft •, and by the ftationary, the liability of the earth. To this dance Thefeus gave the name oigeranos, or “ the crane becaufe the fi¬ gures which charafterifed it bore a refemblance to thofe defcribed by cranes in their flight. With regard to the modern pra&ice of dancing as an art, there are few diredlions that can be of much fer- vice. The following is extrafted from Mr Gallini’s defcription of the feveral fteps or movements. “ The dancing (fays he) is generally on a theatre, or in a faloon or room. At the theatre there are four parts to be confidered. I. The neareft front to the fpedators. 2, and 3. The two fides or wings. 4. The fartheft front from the fpe&ators. “ In a faloon or room, the place in which are <.ne fpeftators decides the appellation refpeftively to them of right and left. The dancer fhould place himfelf in as advantageous a point of view to them as poffible. “ In the dance itfelf, there are to be diftinguifhed, the attitude of the body, the figure, the pofition, the bends, the rifings or leaps, the fteps, the cabriole, the fallings, the Aides, the turns of the body, the cadences. “ The attitude of the body requires the prefentmg one’s felf in the moft graceful manner to the com- pany. , , “ The/^/r*- is to follow the track prefcribed to the fteps in the dance. _ . ... “ The pofition is that of the varied attitudes, which muft be at once ftriking and eafy, as alfo of the diffe¬ rent exertions of the legs and feet in dancing. “ The bends are infleftions of the knees, of the body, of the head, of the arms. “ The rifings are the contrail to the bends, the ex- tenfion of the knee. One of thefe two motions necef- farily precedes the other. “ Thefiep is the motion by the foot or feet from one place to another. . . . “ The leap is executed by fpringing up into the air •, it begins with a bend, and proceeds with a quick ex- tenfion of the legs, fo that both feet quit the ground. “ The cabriole is the crofting, or cutting of capers, during the leap, before the return of the feet to the k “ The falling is the return of the feet to the ground, by the natural gravitation of the body. ” “ The fide is the aftion of moving the foot along the ground without quitting it. “ The turn is the motion of the body towards either fide, or quite round. “ The cadence is the knorvledge of the difterent meafures, and of the times of movement the moft marked in the mufic. . , , “ The track is the line marked by the dance : it may be either ftraight or curve, and is fufceptible of all the inflexions correfpondent to the various defigns o the compofer. There are the right, _ the diametral line, the circular line, and the oblique line. I he right line is that which goes lengthwife, reckoning from one end of the room towards the other. I he diametral vme. is acrofs the room, from one fide to the other. 1 tie circular line is waving, or undulatory, from one place to another. The oblique line proceeds obliquely from one quarter of the room towards another.—Each of thefe lines may direXly or feparately form the dancer s track, diverfified wdth fteps and pofitions. “ The regular figure is when two or more dancers move in contrary direXions •, that is to fay, that when one moves towards the right, the other moves to the left. The irregular line is when the couples figuring together are both on the fame fide. “ Commonly the man gives the right hand to the lady in the beginning or ending of the dance, as we fee in the minuet, louvre, &c. “ When a great number of dancers figure together, they are to execute the figure agreeably to the compo- fition of the dance, with fpecial attention to keep an eye conftantly on the partner. When, m any given dance, the dancers have danced for fome time m the fame place, the track is only to be confidered as the conduXor of thebut not of figure ; but when the dance continues, without being confined to the fame place, then the track muft be confidered as the conduXor both of the fteps and of the figure. “ Now, to obferve the figure, the dancer muft have placed himfelf at the beginning of the track upon which he is to dance, and comprehend the figure before he himfelf begins it. He is to remark, and conceive whether the figure is right, diametral, circular, or ob¬ lique ■, if it is progreflive or retrogreflive, or towards the right or left. He ftiould have the ^ played or fung to him, to underftand the movement.—\\ nerethe tracks crofs one another, the fteps of each of the couples muft leave a fufficient diftance between them not to confufe the figure. . . , r _„/• “ There are commonly reckoned ten kinds of pofi¬ tions, which are divided into true zxi& falfe, five each.— There are three principal parts of the foot to be oblei- ved ; the toes, the heel, and the ancle. “ The true pofitions are when the two feet are in a certain uniform regularity, the toes turned equally out¬ wards.—The falfe are divided into regular and irregu¬ lar. They differ from the true, in that the toes are either both turned inwards ; or if the toes of one foot are turned outwards, the others are turned inwards. “ In the firft of the true pofitions, toe heels of the two feet are clofe together, fo that they touch j the toes being turned out. In the fecond, the two feet are open in the fame line, fo that the diftance between the two heels is precifely the length of one foot. In the third, the heel of one foot is brought to the ancle of the other, or feems to lock m with it. In the fourth the two feet are the one before the other a foot s length diftance between the two heels which are on the lame line. In the fifth, the two feet are acrofs the one before the other •, fo that the heel of one foot di- reXly oppoiite to the toes of the other. <- l ,1, “ In tL firft of the falfe pofitions, the toes of both feet are turned inwards fo that they touch, the heels being open- The fecond is, when the feet are afunder at a foot’s diftance between the toes o each, which are turned inward, the heels being on a line. The tb is, when the toes of one foot are turned outwards,^he Dance. DAN r 71 ] DAN Dance, other inwards, fo that the two feet form a parallel. 1 The fourth is, when the toes of the two feet are turn¬ ed inwards; but the toes of one foot are brought nearer the ancle of the other. The fifth is, when the toes of the two feet are turned inw’ards, but the heel of one foot is oppofite to the toes of the other. “ There are mixed pofitions, compofed of the true and falfe in combination ; which admit of fuch infi¬ nite variety, and are in their nature fo unfufceptible of defcription by words, that it is only the fight of the performance that can give any tolerable idea of them. “ Of the bends of the knee there are two kinds; the owzjiniple, the other forced. The fimple bend is an inflexion of the knees without moving the heel, and is executed with the foot flat on the ground. The forced bend is made on the toes with more force and lower. “ Much is to be obferved on the head oifeps. Fit ft, not to make any movement before having put the body in an upright pofture, firm on the haunches. “ Begin with the inflexion of the knee and thigh ; advance one leg foremoft, with the whole foot on the ground, laying the ftrefs of the body on the advanced leg. “ There are fome who begin the ftep by the point of the toes ; but that has an air of theatrical affefla- tion. Nothing can be more noble than a graceful eafe and dignity of ftep. The quantity of fteps ufed in dancing are almoft innumerable : they are neverthelefs reducible under five denominations, which may ferve well enough to give a general idea of the different movements that may be made by the leg, viz. the di- red! ftep, the open ftep, the circular ftep, the twifted ftep, and the cut ftep. “ The direft ftep is when the foot goes upon a right line, either forwards or backwards. “ The open ftep is when the legs open. Of this ftep there are three kinds : one when they open outwards; another, when, defcribing a kind of circle, they form an in-knee’d figure ; a third, when they open fide- vvife ; this is a fort of right ftep, becaufe the figure is in a right line. “ The round ftep is when the foot, in its motion, makes a circular figure, either inwards or outwards. “ The twijled ftep, or pas tortille, is when the foot in its motion turns in and out. There are three kinds of this ftep ; one forwards, another backwards, the third fidelong. “ The cut ftep is when one leg or foot comes to ft l ike againft the other. There are alfo three forts of this ftep ; backwards, forwards, and fidelong. “ The fteps may be accompanied with bendings, rifings, leaps, cabrioles, fallings, Hidings, the foot in the air, the tip-toe, the reft on the heel, quarter-turns, half-turns, three-quarter turns, and whole turns. “ There may be pradlifed three kinds of bends, or finkings, in the fteps ; viz. bending before the ftep proceeds, in the ad! of ftepping, and at the laft of the fteps. “ The beginning or initial fink-pace is at the firfi: fetting off, on advancing the leg. “ The bend in the adl of ftepping continues the march or walk. “ The final fink-pace clofes the march. “ The rifing is juft the reverfe of the bend, or fink- Dance, pace, which (hall have preceded it. 'r~ “ Some great mafters in the art of dancing, having obferved that mufic, which is infeparable from it, was capable of being preferved and conveyed by the mufi- cal charadters, imagined by analogy, that the like ad¬ vantage could be procured to the compofition of dan¬ cers. Upon this plan they attempt what is called the chorography, an art which they fuppofe was either utterly unknown to the ancients, or not tranfmitted to us from them. “ It may indeed be eafily allowed, that the track or figure of a dance may be determined by written or en¬ graved lines ; but thofe lines will neceffarily appear fo perplexing, fo intricate, fo difficult, if not impoflible to feize in their various relations, that they are only fit to difguft and difeourage, without the poflibility of their conveying a fatisfadlory or retainable inftrudfion. —Whence it is, that the article Chorography in the French Encyclopedic is univerfally exploded as unintel¬ ligible and ufelefs : though nothing more than an ele¬ mentary indication of the art; and an explanation, fuch as it is, of fome of the technical terms of it.” Stage-DANCES. The Greeks were the firft wdro uni¬ ted the dance to their tragedies and comedies ; not indeed as making part of thofe fpedtacles, but merely as an acceffary. The Romans, as ufual, copied after the Greeks ; but in the reign of Auguftus they left their inftru&ors far behind them. Two very extraordinary men made their appearance at that time : they invented a new fpecies of entertainment, and carried it to an aftonifli- ing degree of perfection. Nothing was then talked of but the wonderful talents and amazing performances of Pylades and Bathylus, who were the firft to in¬ troduce among the Romans what the French call the ballet d'adlion, wherein the performer is both aCtor and dancer. Pylades undertook the hard talk of reprefenting, wuth the affiftance of the dance alone, ftrong and pa¬ thetic fituations. He lucceeded perhaps beyond his own expectation, and may be called the father of that ftyle of dancing which is known to us by the name of grave or fenous pantomitne. Bathylus an Alexandrian, and a freedman of Me- cenas, took upon himfelf to reprefent fuc h fubjeCts as required a certain livelinefs and agility. He was hand- fome in his perfon ; and the two great fcourges of Roman follies, Perfius, and efpecially Juvenal, fpeak of him as the gallant of every woman in Rome. The latter, in his cynic ftyle, even goes fo far as to fay, that when Bathylus performed the dance called, after the name of a celebrated female dancer, Cheromenos- Leda, the graveft matron was turned off her guard, and the young virgin longed for the dancer’s ad- dreffes. Nature had been exceffively partial to thofe two men. They were endowed with genius, and all the exterior charms that could captivate the eye. By their ftudy, application, and the defire to eftablilh a lafting reputation, they difplayed to the greateft advantage all the refources which the art of dancing could fupply. Thefe, like two phenomena, difappeared, and never did the world fee “ their like again.” Government withdrew DAN [7; tS.uicc. withdrew its prote&ion, the art gradually funk into “”~v obfcurity, and became even entirely forgotten on the acceflion of Trajan to the empire. Thus buried with the other arts in entire oblivion, dancing remained uncultivated till about the 15th cen¬ tury, when ballets were revived in Italy at a magnifi¬ cent entertainment given by a nobleman of Lombardy at Tortona on account of the marriage between Galeas duke of Milan and Ifabella of Arragon. Every re- lource that poetry, mufic, dancing, and machinery could fupply, was employed and exhaufted on the oc- cafion. The defcription given of fo fuberb an enter¬ tainment excited the admiration of all Europe, and ex¬ cited the emulation of feveral men of genius, who im¬ proved the hint to introduce among their countrymen a kind of fpe£tacle equally pleafing and novel. It would feem, however, that at fid! the women had no (hare in the public or theatrical dance ^ at leal! we do not fee them mentioned in the various entertain¬ ments given at the opera in Paris till the 21ft of Janu¬ ary 1681, when the then dauphinefs, the princefs of Conti, and fome other ladies of the firft diflinaion in the court of Louis XIV. performed a ballet with the opera called Lc Tnomphe de l"1 Amour. I his union of the two fexes ferved to enliven and render the fpeaacle more pleafing and more brilliant than it ever was at any other period. It was received with fo much ap- plaufe, that on the [6tli of May following, when the fame opera was acted in Paris at the theatre of the Pa¬ lais Roval, it was thought indifpenfable for the fuccefs of that kind of entertainment to introduce female dan¬ cers. They have continued ever fince to be the prin¬ cipal fupport of the opera. The dance is now in fuch commendation, that, par¬ ticularly in France, the opera-houfe feems rather an academy for dancing than calculated for the reprefen- tation of lyric poems. T he difgufting and immoderate length of their recitatives is one of the chief caufes of that general tafte for dancing which prevails amongft them. A wit being afked one day what could be done to keep up an opera threatened with a mod complete damnation? “Do! (fays he)-, why, lengthen the dances and (horten the petticoats.1’ So evident it is, that finging, though apparently the chief purpofe of an opera, is by no means the moft pleafing part of the entertainment for the fpedlators. Thus, what was at firft introduced as a mere accef- fary to the mufical performance, became in procefs of time its only fupport ; and this circumftance excited the emulation of feveral eminent ballet-mafters. The art, however, of compofing thofe grand dances, which are now fo much admired, was for many years in a Hate of infancy, till Monfieur Noverre fiept forth and gave it that degree of peife£lion which it feems impof- iible to exceed. This celebrated ballet-mafter and per¬ former, in a work lately publifhed, has with great ele¬ gance and ingenuity delineated the nature, objefls, and powers of dancing, enumerated the proper requi- lites to give it effedl, and ftiown how much it may be ennobled by an acquaintance with the kindred arts.. Ballets, he obferves, have hitherto been the faint Iketch only of what they may be one day. An art entirely fubfervient, as this is, to tafte and genius, may receive daily variation and improvements. Hiftory, painting, mythology, poetry, all join to vaife it from 2 ] DAN that obfeurity in which it lies buried ; and it is truly Dance, furprifing, that compofers have hitherto difdained io v~~ many valuable refources. According to our author, the reafon why this art has remained fo long in its infancy, is becaufe its ef- fefls have been reftrained to the tranfitory ones of fire works calculated only to pleafe the eye : and it never was fuppoied to have powrers fufficient to fpeak to the heart : whereas it may vie, he fays, with the beft dramatic pieces, prove equally interefting, and captivate the fpedlator by the charms of the moft com¬ plete illufion. If ballets, therefore, fays he, “ are. for the moft part uninterefting and uniformly dull : if they fail in the charadteriftic expreffion which conftitutes their ei- fcnce, the defied! does not originate from the art itielf, but (hould be aferibed to the artifts. Are then the latter to be told that dancing is an imitative art? I am indeed inclined to think that they know it not, fince we daily fee the generality of compofers facrifice the beauties of the dance, and give up the graceful naivete of fentiment, to become the fervile copyift of a cer¬ tain number of figures, known and hackneyed for above a century } fo that the ballets of Phaeton, or of any ancient opera, revived by a modern compofer, would prove fo very fimilar to former ones, that one would think they have undergone no alteration, and are the fame in every ftep. “ Ballet-mafters Ihould confult the produdlions ol the moft eminent painters. T. his w ould bring them nearer to nature, and induce them to avoid, as often as poftible, that fymmetry of figures, which, by repeat¬ ing the objed!, prefent two different pidlures on one and the fame canvas. “ Thofe fymmetrical figures from right to left, ac¬ cording to my judgment, are fupportable only in the entrees, which are not meant to exprefs any thing in particular, but are only calculated to afford foiue relief to the principal dancers. They may be introduced in a general dance at the conclufion of an entertainment y they may alfo be admitted in the pas of four, fix, &c. though in my opinion it be ridiculous even in this cafe to prefer the difplay of bodily {Length and agility to expreffion and fentiment. But fuch figures muft give way to nature in what we call ballets d?ac¬ tion. An inftance, though perhaps not very forcible, may ferve to elucidate and fupport my argument. “ At the fudden and unexpedled appearance of fome young fauns, a troop of nymphs take them- felves to (light with equal affright and precipitation. The former are in purfuit of the latter with that eagernefs which the very hope of pleafure can in- fpire. Now they flop to obferve wftiat impreffion they have made on the nymphs; thefe at the fame time, and for a fimilar reafon, check their career j with fear they furvey their purfuers, endeavour to guefs at their intentions, and provide for a retreat to iome fpot, where they may reft fecure from the dangers that threaten them. Both troops now join, the nymphs refill, defend themfelves, and at laft eftett their elcape with no lefs fwiftnefs than dexterity. ^ “ This I call a bufy aftive feene, in which the dance, as it were, fhould fpeak with energy. -Here ftudied and fymmetrical figures cannot be introduced, without a manifeft violation of the truth, without cie- ftroymg DAN [ 73 ] DAN Dance, ftroying the rules of probability, and without weaken- v ' ing the aftiou and leffening the effeft.—This fcene fiiould be confpicuous ; for its beautiful diforder, and the art of the corupofer, mLift here be the handmaid of nature. “ A ballet-mailer, devoid of talle and difcermnent, wdll make of this a mechanical piece of dancing, and thus deprive it of the effect it was calculated to pro¬ duce for want of entering into the fpirit of it. His nymphs and fauns will be arranged upon a parallel hne : he will place the former in attitudes awkwardly uniform, and infill on the latter holding up their aims to an even altitude ; rather than deviate from the beaten path, and the antique rules of opera-dancing, he will cautioufly avoid to have, on the right and left, his nymphs placed in unequal numbers, but will reduce a fcene of action, which ought to be fupported with Ipirit, to an exercife equally affected and unin- terelting. “ Perhaps fome ill-difpofed critics, fo far Itrangers to the art as not to judge of it from its various effects, will maintain, that the above fcene Ihould prefent only two different objeCts, the one pourtrayed in the love- fick fauns, the other expreffed by the affiight of the nymphs. But how many lliades may ferve to embel- hih thofe pictures ? how varied may be the Itrokes of the pencil ? how oppofite the lights ? and what a number of tints ought to be employed in order to draw trom this twofold lituation a multiplicity of ima¬ ges, each more lively and fpirited than the other > “ As all men (hare the fame paflions, and thefe dif¬ fer in proportion to their fenfations and feelings, they may therefore be worked upon more or lefs powerful¬ ly in proportion as they manifeft themfelves outward¬ ly with more or lefs force and impetuofity. This principle once acknowledged, and nature indeed en¬ forces it daily, it would certainly be more to the pur- pofe to diverfify the attitudes and vary the expreffion ; for then the pantomime aCtion of each perfonape would be diverted of a dilgulting uniformity. The truth of imitation and the Ikill of the painter would confpicuoufly appear in giving a different afpeCt to the. features, fome of them expreffing a kind of fe¬ rocity, others betraying lefs eagernefs, thefe caiting a more tender look ; and to the reff, the languifhing air of voluptuoufnefs. The flcetch of this firft picture naturally leads to the compofftion of the fecond : heie fome nymphs appear divided between fear and defire ; there fome others exprefs by the contraft of their at¬ titudes the various emotions of their foul. Some are more fcornful than their companions, whilft others betray a curiofity equal to their fears. This enfemble gives hfe to the whole picture, and is the more plea- fing tnat it is perfectly confiftent with nature. From tnis expofition, you will not hefitate to agree with me, that fymmetry, the offspring of art iifelf,' ffiould never find place in the ballets d"1 aBion. I (hall beg leave to inquire of all thofe who rea- fon from habitual prejudice, whether they will look for their favourite lymmetry in a herd of ffieep dying fiom tue wolf, or among ft wretched peafants leaving tneir hms knd fields, in order to fhelter them- felves from the fury of a party of enemies? By no means. But the art lies in concealing art itfelf: my aim is by no means to introduce difordcr and confu- Vol. VII. Part I. fion ; on the contrary, I will have regularity even in Dance. irregularity. What I moft infill on is, the intio- *—1 ducing of well concerted groups, fituations foicibly expreffed, but never beyond nature, and above all, a certain eafe in the compofition, which betrays not the labour of the compofer. As for the figures, they are likely to pleafe only in proportion as they quickly iucceed each other, and are deviled with equal tafte and elegance.” A ballet perfeCt in all its parts, our author proceeds to oblerve, is a picture drawn from life, of the man¬ ners, drefles, ceremonies, and cuftoms of all nations. It muff therefore be a complete pantomime, and through the eyes fpeak, as it were, to the very foul of the fpeClator. If it wants expreffion, if it be de¬ ficient in point of fituation and feenery, it degenerates into a fpeClacle equally flat and monotone. According to Plutarch, a ballet is, if the expreffion may be allowed, a mute conyerfation, or a fpeaking- and animated picture, whole language confifts of mo¬ tions, figures, and geftures.—Thefe figures, lays our author, are unlimited in their number, becaufe there are a thouland things that the ballet may exprefs. Phrynicus, one of the oldelt tragedy writers, fays, that he could find in our ballet as many figures as the fea rolls waves in a high winter tide. A well compofed ballot, therefore, may do without the affiftance of words : M. Noverre even remarks that thefe only ferve to weaken the aCtion, and partly deffroy its effeCts. He has no opinion of a pantomime which, in order to be underffood, muff borrow the help of a verbal explanation. “ Any ballet whatever (fays he) deftitute of intrigue, aCtion, and intereff, difplaying nothing more than the mechanical beauties of the art, and though decorated with a pompous title, unintel¬ ligible throughout, is not unlike thofe portraits and pictures to which the painters of old fubferibed the names of the perfonages and aCtion they meant to re¬ present : becaufe they were imperfeCt in point of imi¬ tation, the fituations weakly exprefled, the outlines in- correCl, and the colours unfeemly. “ When dancers fhall feel, and, Proteus-like, trans¬ form themfelves into various flrapes to exprefs to the life the conflict of paflions ; when their features, their very looks, fhall fpeak their inward feelings ; when extending their arms beyond the narrow circle pre- feribed by the rigid rules of pedantry, and with equal grace and judgment giving them a fuller fcope, they Ihall by proper fituations deferibe the gradual and fuc- ceflive progrefs of the paflions; when, in fine, they call good fenfe and genius to the afiiitance of their art 5 then they may expect to diftinguifh themfelves ; ex¬ planatory fpeeches will become ufelefs ; a mute but powerful eloquence will be lubllitu'ed to much better effvCt \ each motion will be a Sentence; every attitude will pourtray a fituation; each gefture convey a thought, and each glance a new Sentiment : every part will pleafe., becaufe the whole will be a true and faithful imitation nature. A ballet, in whatever ffyle it may be, Ihould, ac¬ cording to Ariftotle, be compofed, as well as poetry, of two different parts, which he calls parts of quality and parts of quantity. Nothing exiffs in nature with¬ out matter, form, and figure : the ballet therefore be¬ comes a mere nonentity, ii it be deficient in any of K thofe DAN [74 tliol'e effential parts which mark and col-.flltute the be- inR of any one thing animate or inanimate. I he mat¬ ter here is the fubjed intended for reprefentationits form confifts in the ingenious diftnbution of the plan •, and the various compounding parts conthtute its hgure- Form therefore contains the parts of quality, and the extent the parts of quantity. . Thus it appears, that ballets are in fome degree fubied to the rules of poetical compofition. 1 hey, neverthelefs, differ from tragedies and comedies, in that the former are not fubjed to the three unities of time, place, and adion : Yet they require an unity of plot, in order that the various fcenes may meet and end on the fame point.-The ballet, therefore, may be termed the brother of the drama, though not reftiain- ed to its ftrider rules, which only ferve to cramp the imagination, check its flight, and confine genius j and if adhered to, muff fet afide all thought of compofition of ballets, by depriving them of their chie. ornamen , Noverr J confiders tragedy as the fubjed moft fuitable for the art of dancing. I he fortn^r abo“nds in noble incidents, fituations, &c. and theie produce the beft ftage effeds. Befides, the paflions are more forcibly expreffed by great chaiaders than by common men : the imitation is of courfe lefs difficult, the ac tion in the pantomime more fignificant, natural, air int» The'burmef. of a fkilful matter (be obferves) is to forefee, as it were at one glance, the general effea that may refult from the enfemble and never give the preference to one Tingle part over the whole The only way for him to beftow his thoughts on the greatelt number is to forget for a while the principal charac¬ ter, of the drama; if his whole attention Ihould entire¬ ly be taken up with the parts of his fit.! dancers of both fexes, the aflion is fnfpended, the fcenes are flow in their progrefs, and the whole performance mult fall ffiort of its defired efted. , . • “ In the tragedy of Merope by Voltaire, the princi¬ pal charaders are Merope, Polifonte, _ Egdte, an Narbas : But although the parts of the inferior a dors are not of equal importance, yet they all concur to the general adion, and to the progreffion of the drama, which would appear deficient m fome Part“’ ] ther of thofe charaders be wanting in the reprelenta tion. No ufelefs perfonage ffiould be obtruded on the ftaRe. Every thing therefore that may tend to - en^the effed of the drama ought to be care u y avo - ed and onlv that number of adors ,introduced which is barely requifite for the execution of the perform- tni“ *A ballet is a produdion of the fame kl"d- lt muff be divided into ads and fcenes, each of which, as well as the ad itfelf, muff have its beginning, its middle, and its end ; that is, in other words, expofi- tinn nlot, and denouement. . . , I have obferved above, that the principal per¬ formers in a ballet ffiould be °r a fue MV reafon is, that, in my opinion, it is eaher to give flriking parts to Hercules and Omphale, Ariadne and Bacchus^Aiax and Ulyffes, &c. than to 24 P^fons in their retinue. If thefe have noth’^ are fuperfluous, and of courfe ^ edj but if they are to fpeak, let their converia i DAN tion be confonant with that of the principal charac- The difficulty, therefore, does not lie m a primary and diftindive part to Ajax or Ulyfles > fince it fprings naturally from the importance of their fituation in the play, but in introducing the fi¬ gures in a becoming ftyle, giving them parts of more or lefs importance, conneded with the-adion of the two heroes*, in introducing women, fome ot whom will appear concerned for Ajax, and te greae number ffiowing their partiality for Ulyffes. triumph of the latter, the former s death, prefent to the man of genius a feries of images that vie with each other in point of interefling and pidurefque fixa¬ tions. Thefe, by means of a colouring fkilful y con- trafted, cannot but produce the moft lively (eolations. In fine, a ballet pantomime ffiould be dramatic in all its parts ; and the figure-dancers, who fucceed to the principal performers, ought to continue the kene, not by a number of fymmetnral figures and ftudied fteps but by that kind of animated expreffions which keens up the attention of the fpedators to the mam fubjed for which the preceding adors have prepared the audience. . r “ Yet, either through ignorance, or in coniequence of a vitiated habit, there are bat few well fupported ballets. Dance is introduced for the mere purpok ot dancing the end is fuppofed to be anfwered by the mechanical motions of the feet or by high JumP and that the idea which people of real tafte may ha e of a ballet is fully ani'wered, when inadive performei are introduced in it, who mix and joftle each other, prefenting a confukd heap of pidures, fketched with¬ out taftef awkwardly grouped, and “ that harmony and expreffion, the offspring of the foul, which alone can embelliffi art by giving it life. M. Noverre, in confidenng the knowledge neceffa y for attaining perfedion in the prefent art, oblerves, that mythology, ancient poetry, and chronology, ough to be the primary ftudy of a ballet-mafter, who ought alfo to poffefs a genius for poetry and painting fince the art borrows all its charms fiom a perfed imitation °F Affight knowledge of geometry cannot but prove very advantageous, Is it will help the matter to m.ro- duce his figures in due proportion, to calculate ex ft- and execute with precifion. By means of that un- Dance- lv, and execute wun picv-.nw... - erring guide, he will retrench every fuperfluous accef- farv/and thus enliven the performance. laft.e "lU introduce elegance, genius create variety, and ju g ment cliru£t tlic wliolc# ^ r What is a ballet but a piece of more or kfs com¬ plicated machinery, which ftnkes or furpnks the be¬ holder bv its vanous effeds, only in proportion as thofe are diverfified and hidden That chain and conuedicta of figures, thole motions fucceed.ng each other with rapidity, thofe various ^rms turning con¬ trary ways, that mixture of different incidents, the enfemble and harmony which mark the Heps and ac¬ company the exertions of the dancers ; do not aB thefe give^you the idea of a mecbamfm moft ingemoufly “"BaUe'tVare often built on preternatural fubjefts; feveral of them require rhe affittance of machrnery. For inflance, few of the fubjeas taken from Ov.d mil T)ance. DAN [ 75 be fit for reprefentation, without a change of fcenery, flights through the air, metamorphofes. &c. This author, therefore, muft never be taken for a model, un- lefs the ballet-mafter himfelf be an expert mechanift. None are to be found out of the capital, but journey¬ men and ftage-fweepers, whom the patronage of fome mighty fon of the fock has preferred by degrees to that employment. The talents of thofe upftarts confift in, and reach not beyond, the capacity of putting up the lights which they were wont to fnuft' for many years, or letting down awkwardly a glory of the moft wretch¬ ed ftyle. The theatres in Italy are not remarkable for their machinery ; thofe of Germany, built upon the fame plan, are not lefs deficient in point of that en¬ chanting part of ftage-exhibition ; fo that a ballet- mafter muft, in thefe countries, find himfelf greatly em- barrafled, if, unfkilled in the mechanical arts, he cannot convey his ideas with perfpicuity, by building for that purpofe fmall models, which are better underftood by the generality of workmen than the cleareft verbal ex¬ planation. The theatres of Paris and London are the beft fup- plied with thefe refources. The Englifti are very in¬ genious ; their ftage machinery is more Amplified than the French, and of courfe produces a quicker effe6f. Among them all thele kinds of works are moft ex- q>iifitely finiflied ; that neatnefs, care, and exaftitude, which is remarkable throughout every part, greatly contribute to the preeifion of the whole. Thofe chef- d’oeuvres of mechanifm particularly difplay themfelves in their pantomimes; which, however, are low and trivial, devoid of tafte and intereft, and built upon the meaneft incidents. It may be faid that this kind of en¬ tertainment, which is got up at a prodigious expence, is only calculated to pleafe thofe eyes which are ftiocked at nothing ; and that it would meet with no fuccefs on the French theatres, where no other pleafantry is per¬ mitted but fuch as is not incompatible with decency, abounds with delicacy and wit, and is nowife levelled againft morals and humanity. A compofer who wifties to rife fuperior to the gene¬ rality of ballet-mafters, Ihould ftudy the painters, and trace them in their various manners of drawing and compofing. Both arts have the fame objedft in view, whether it be for taking likeneffes, mixing the colours and preferving the clare-obfcure ; or for grouping the figures properly, laying on the draperies, throwing the former into elegant attitudes, and giving them life and expreflion. Upon the fame principle, the knowledge of anatomy will ferve to render more clear and intelligible the pre¬ cepts which he has to lay down for his pupils. It will be an eafy matter for him to diftinguifti properly be¬ tween the natural and habitual defers in their confor¬ mation. Thefe are the greateft obftacles that fo often impede the progrefs of young beginners. Thus once knowing the caufe, he will be able to remedy the evil; as his leflon and precepts will then be the refult of ilritft attention they never can fail of becoming pro¬ fitable. Drawing is too ufeful in the compofition of ballets for the mafter not to pay a ferious attention to that art; it will contribute to the beauty of the forms; will give to the figures an air of novelty and elegance, animate j DAN the groups, throw the body into graceful pofitidns, and (how the attitudes in a juft precifion. A ballet-mafter who is no proficient in mufic, will make a bad choice of his airs. He will not enter into the fpirit or charafler of them. The motions of his dancers will not-beat time with that precifion and de¬ licacy which are abfolutely neceffary, unlefs he is en¬ dued with that fenfibility of organ which is more com¬ monly the gift of nature that the refult of art, and is far above what may be acquired by long pradtice and fteady application. A good choice of raufic is as elfential to dancing, as the choice of words and the phrafing of a fpeech is to eloquence. It is the tune and time of the mufic that fix and determine the motion of the dancers. If the former be uniform and devoid of tafte, the ballet will, like its model, be dull and unmeaning. By this immediate connexion between mufic and dancing, it clearly appears, that, from a pradlicai knowledge of the former,'the ballet-mafter will derive the greateft advantages. He will then be able to im¬ part his thoughts to the compoler ; and if tafte and knowledge combine together, he tvill either fet the mufic himfelf, or at leaft furnifli the compofer with the principal outlines, to charadlerife the adtion of the dancer ; as this will be varied and expreflive, the ballet cannot fail of being equally fo. Mufic well compofed ftiould paint and fpeak; and the dance fet to thofe founds, will be, as it were, the echo to repeat the words. If, on the contrary, it be mute, if it fpeak not to the ear of the dancer, then all fen- timent and expreflion are banifhed from the perform¬ ance. As nothing can appear trifling to the man of ge¬ nius, nothing ftiould feem fo to the ballet-mafter. It is impoftible for him to diftinguifti himfelf in his pro- feflion, unlefs he applies to ftudy thofe arts which have been juft mentioned. Yet to infill that he ftiould be mafter of them all in that degree of perfedlion which is attainable only by thofe who give themfelves entirely up to the ftudy of each of them in particular, would be requiring a mere impoffibility. All that can be deemed ftridlly requifite, therefore, is a general knowledge, a flight tindlure of thofe feien- ces which, by the connedlion they have with each other, are likely to contribute to the improvement of the art and to its reputation. From the natural union, however, that fubfifts between the arts, and from the harmony which reigns amongft them, that ballet-mafter will ennoble his compofition with the moft fire, fpirit, livelinefs, and intereft, who has moft genius and imagination, and whofe knowledge is moft; extenfive. As to performers and their perfonal qualifications: The firft point to which it is direfled to pay attention when one takes up the profe{lion of a dancer (at leaft fo foon as he becomes capable of refleftion), is his bo¬ dily formation : If one is confcious of any natural de- fed! which feems irremediable by art, it will be beft immediately to renounce every idea that may have been formed of the advantage arifing from popular appro¬ bation. But where perfonal defedls can be reformed by application, ftudy, or the advice and afliftance of judicious mailers, then it becomes an efl'ential concern K 2 quickly Dance. DAN [ 76 1 quickly to cxcr, every effort, before .be parts to be of tbe e«,re-cha,. corrected have acquired ftrength and eonfiftence be- fore nature has unalterably taken ber ben^, and the error becomes too habitual and inveterate. Among other pe.fonal defeat, there are two wb.ch deferve particular notice: The firft ,s that of bet, g jarrete, “ knock-knee’d the other of being arque, or A^man^ faid to be jarrcte or inknee’d when the haunches are ftrait, and incline tb,fh’ lie near and the knees are protuberant, and io dole that they touch and knock together at every ftep, even when the feet are a. a diifance ; fo that fuch a nerron, from the knees to the feet, makes the figure of ! triangle ; in people of this formation, likewife, there U a clumfinefs in the infide of the ancle a great eleva- t;on in the inftep, while th« tendo Acbilhs is not on¬ ly very (lender, but much extended m the articma- tl0The other dePeft, of being arque or bow-legged, is the oppofite of the former, and exiifs in the fame part , namely, from the haunches to the feet, which delcribe a fort of bow ot arch •, for the haunches being in ns cafe hollow, the thighs and knees ftand open, and at a diftance fo that they can never be brought m proper contaft ’like thofe of a well-fhaped perfon j their -ee alfo are long and flat, the ancle juts out, and the Wo Tthiul is large and clofely inferted. A Angle view of thefe diametrically f^^rftmarnT which miUtTorrea thl errors of one of this fort of dancers, - -dta; oughtTbe him with to’feparate and widen the too clofely con- n^-aed parts. The firft ftep to this end is to turn the thighs outwardly, endeavouring to m°ve them “1. o^^p'r. fr.'wbUc^.blj^nd leg tb" placed dcfcribe a line that will enfurc firmncfs and “tI!'/“con’d remedy’to be nfed is, to keep .be knees to the former vicious pofition, without caufin„ an «o^d^^-Uas entirely undifcoverable, unUs •"fb"- ot i„ very qmch movement ^ ^ contr,a;on of Set i . the efc ” of leaping makes them ftiff ltU™t articulation, and forces every pat. rn.o., former and natural fituat , a;„ their uf„al protu’beiance^'tvhich becomes anobffacle to the difplay dan of the enirhm,. The more thefe parts connefl, to the ^ greater dillance will the lower extremities be thrown , hence the legs, neither being able to beat nor croft remain motionlefs at the time of the knees rolling over each other, while the entre-chat, being neither cut bea , nor croffed by the feet, is deprived of that life and hr lianev which are its chief merit. _ , A perfon thus formed, (hould ent.re y renounce the "'^t;„a;dcom^a«d mov^tt Is it -willTnfidlibly"render him weak and P^'f ^ched t i fr> drait lbe mulcles that are attacneu to’thenrjwdiereon the’motions of the trunk depend) have no/a proper and eafy play, which - > in Drooortion to the dimenfion of thefe bones, becauie SinX mulcles fi.oot out or ^vide from a pom. n,„r diftant from the centre of gravity . «'•« *'«« 1 ft grander fort of dancing, and nrre o rerj, ‘^ adauted to fuel, dancers ; ano we may add, that what ever they lole on the fcore of firength, they regam m i onrl addvefs Thev are luxuriant and Ihm ng Dance. no erreat ertorts are retjuticu , -- i,v„vs elegant in their airplay them ^8 ^ employ wr/refource which the motion of the mitep yjyg them. Thefe are advantages which atone .or The art of concealing or overcommg the defeas_ of kd^di^ejd«: at! tural’difloition’^of’the bone,^ labour wiil be as ufeleis ^r1'rAifltouldpreferve a flight ge^fiexron or bend,n .heir P-f—4p''t1'b1‘!r'Hmbs rather extended or fon, ought to k p clofely, by that means ftretched, and to crofs more cloiely, ^ fe_ diminiftiing the vacancy occafioned y IX^S^iKnrn^andrefifl^^their articular ligaments , ivt> ^ requiring on crofs '““p/tace t bc .bg time, the, perform that account kds ipace ^ ore brilliancy, it with more hvehnefs . tn ^ P between the limbs becaufe the light becomes vifible^bet _ ^ ^ is at the moment of c'°ffinS , d.,ncing •, for if the time precifely the ^r-objeure of dam in the entre-chat or crols-Ccp . ,• to give but rolled or huddled over, there i^ no g diflinaion to the_ ^Z joined, prefent an indiftintt ana enec Thefe DAN [77 Dance. Thefe dancers have lefs addrefs than the others, as they generally depend on their ftrength ; and indeed that ftrength is a conftant obftacle to eafe and pliancy; iF it forfakes them a Angle moment, they appear awk¬ ward and ridiculous : nor can they conceal their fitua- tion by any trifling difplay ; that requiring mere ad¬ drefs, would give them time to recover, which their want of natural elafticity otherwife prevents. Dancers who are jarretes, are weak, flender, and de¬ licate ; the others, ftrong and vigorous, large made, and nervous. It is a common opinion, that ftout, fquat-Lmilt men are heavy and flnggifh ; which they doubtlels are in refpeft of bodily weight ; but the. notion is erroneous fo far as regards dancing ; for activity ow'es its very exiftence to mufcular ftrength, and every man who has not a requifite (hare of that wdll always fall heavy. The reafon is evident ; the weak parts, in the inftant of falling, not being able to refift the ftronger (that is, the weight of the body, which acquires a momentum in proportion to the height it falls or defcends from), yield and bend ; and it is at the moment of relaxation or flexion that the noife of the fall is heard ; a circumftance greatly leffened, or rather entirely avoided, when the body is able to main¬ tain itfelf in a perpendicular diredftion ; and while the mufcular fpring is fufficient to oppofe that defcending force, and vigoroufly reftft a fhock which would other- wife deftroy it. Nature has not exempted the fairfex from thofe im- perfe£lions we have been taking notice of; but art, and the ufe of petticoats, come fortunately to the help of the female dancer. The hoop conceals a multitude of defedfs, which the critic’s curious eye cannot afcend to difcover. Moll of them dance wdth their knets open, as if they were naturally arquees ; but, thanks to this bad habit, and to the petticoats, they appear more brilliant than the men ; becaufe, as they beat from the lower part of the leg, they perform the time quicker than we, who, concealing nothing from the fpedlator, are obliged to beat at a greater extent, and to do it originally from the haunch. The vivacity of the fex contributes much to the brilliancy of their execution ; though certainly not lefs is owing to the petticoats, which, by concealing the length of the limbs, catch the attention, and fix it more advantageoufly : thus all the fire of the beats being united in one point, appears more lively and brilliant ; while the eye embraces one objeft only, without being hurried and confufed in proportion to the fpnce it has to overlook. To perfeiftion in dancing, M. Noverre obferves, nothing is more neceflary than the outward turn of the thigh ; yet nothing is more natural to mankind than the contrary pofition ; it is born with us. It will be fuperfluous, in eftabliftiing this truth, to cite for ex¬ ample the Afiatics, the Africans, or any people who dance, or rather leap and move, without art or prin¬ ciple. If we attend only to children, or the ruftic in¬ habitants of the villages, we (hall fee that they all turn their feet inwardly. The other pofition is purely in¬ vention ; and a proof, far from equivocal, of this fault being an imaginary one, is, that a painter would tranf- grefs as much againft nature as the rules of his art, were he to place the feet of his portrait in the fitua- tion of a dancer’s. It is plain, then, that to dance ] DAN' elegantly, walk gracefully, or addrefs ourfelves with •Earre- eafe and manlinefs, we muft abfolutely reverie the na- ^ ture of things ; and force our limbs, by artificial ap¬ plications equally tedious and painful, to affume a very different fituation from what they originally received. Such a change, however neceffary in this art, can only be accomplifhed by laying its foundation in the earlieft itages of infancy, when every bone and muf- cle is in a ftate of pliability, and capable of receiving any direction which we choofe to give them. The difficulty of attaining the outward pofition of the limbs, is owing to our ignorance of the proper aits to be employed. Moft beginners perluade tbernielves that it is to be acquired by forcing the feet to turn outward ; and though this part may readily take lucli a diredtion, from their fupplenefs, and being fo eafily moved at their articulation with the leg : yet this me¬ thod is fo far falfe, as it tends to difplace the ancle- bones, and befides has not any effedl upon either the knees or thighs. Neither is it poffible to throw the knees outwardly' wdthout the’ afliftance of the thigh. The knees have only twm motions, bending and extenfion ; the one drawing the leg backward, the other throwing it for¬ ward : they have no power, therefore, of themfelves to determine or affume an outward pofition ; but muft; eventually depend on the thigh, w!hich entirely com-, mauds all the lower parts of the body, and turns them in conftquence of its owm rotatory motion ; fo that, in fadl, whatever motion or pofition that takes, the knee, foot, and leg, are obliged to follow. M. Noverre condemns the tourne-baunch as a clum- fy and ufelefs invention, wfliich, infttad of producing any good effedf, ferves only to lame thofe who ufe it, by giving a diftortion to the waift, much more dif- agreeable than what it w'as intended to remove. The fimpleft and moft natural means are thofe which reafon and good fenfe ought to adopt ; and of thefe a moderate but continual exercife is indifpenfable : the prasftice of a circular motion or turning of the legs, both inwardly and outwardly, and of bodily beating at full extent from the haunch, is the only certain ex¬ ercife to be preferred. It infenfibly gives freedom, fpiing, and pliancy ; while the motions acquired by ufing the machine have more an air of conftraint, than of that liberty and eafe which ihould ihine con- fpicuous in them. It has been maintained, that a ftrong and vigorous perfon ought to fpring higher and better than a flen¬ der or weaker man. But experience (fays M. Noverre) daily proves the contrary. We fee many dancers, wha cut the time very ftrong, who beat with much vigour and firmnefs, and yet cannot fpring to any confiderable perpendicular elevation : for an oblique elevation, or on one fide, ought here to be diftinguifhed from the former; the latter is faint, and depends entirely upon addrefs in the dancer. There are others, again, whofe flender form renders their execution lefs bold, and rather ele¬ gant than forcible, rather lively than nervous, but who can rife to an extraordinary height : it is to the lhape and formation of the foot, and to the length and ela¬ fticity of the tendon, that this power of elevation is originally owing ; the knees, the loins, and the arm', all co-operate in this adfion ; the ftronger the preffure upon the mufcles, the greater is the re-adlion, and the fpriug DAN Dance, fprlng or leap is proportionably high. '■""■''v'*—motion of the knees participates with thofe of the in- ftep and tcndo Achillis, though the latter are ftill the moft eflential auxiliaries j the mufcles of the trunk lend their afliftance, and preferve the body in a per¬ pendicular direftion •, while the arms, running imper¬ ceptibly to the mutual afliftance of all the parts, ferve as wings to counterbalance the machine. Obferve all thofe animals that have long and (lender ancles, as (lags, roebucks, (keep, cats, monkeys, &c. and you will perceive that they have a quicknefs and facility of fpringing and leaping, which animals dif¬ ferently formed in that part can never obtain. But were a man endowed wuth all the other quali¬ ties eflential to the perfeftion of the art, yet ftill with¬ out ftrength and firmnefs in his loins he never can be a good dancer. This ftrength is certainly the gift.of nature ; but it may be much improved by the afliduity of an able teacher. We daily fee dancers who have neither perpendicularity nor firmnefs, and W'hofe per¬ formance is altogether unftable and irregular; and we likewife fee others, who, though they poflefs not fo great a degree of native force, have all the appearance of finewy firmnefs and mufcular ftrength, in their haunches, back, and loins. Art has furnifhed a fub- ftitute for nature, in the leflbns of fome excellent teacher, who has convinced them, that when once they forego an attention to the loins, it is impoflible to keep themfelves in a right perpendicular line ; and therefore all their exertions will be devoid of tafte : that all wavering and inftability in this part is incon- liftent with perpendicularity and firmnefs, and will cer¬ tainly caufe diftortion of the drape and waift: that tne depreflure and finking of the body deprives the lower parts of that liberty which is neceflary to their eafy motion : that hence the body is undetermined in its pofitions *, frequently drags the limbs •, and conftantly lofes the centre of gravity } and therefore cannot re¬ cover an equilibrium, but after various efforts and con¬ tortions totally repugnant to the gracetul and harmo¬ nious motions of good dancing. Such is the performance of thofe dancers who have no ftrength in their loins, or at lead do not exert what they poflefs. In order to dance well, the body (hould be firm and fteady ; it (hould particularly be naotion- lefs and free from wavering while the legs are in exer¬ tion ; for when the body follows the actions of the feet, it difplays as many grimaces and diftortions as the legs execute different fteps} the perfoimance is then robbed of its eafe, uniformity, harmony, exaft- nefs, firmnefs, perpendicularity, and equilibrium j in a word, of all thofe beauties and graces which are fo eflential to make dancing give pleafure and delight. Many dancers are of opinion, that to be foft and luxuriant, the knees mud be bent very low. But in this they are moft certainly miftaken ; for a more than ordinary flexion of the knees gives rather a drynefs and infipidity to dancing ; and a dancer may be very inelegant, and jerk, as it were, all his movements, as well in bending very low as in not bending at all. I he reafon will appear natural and evident, when we refleft, that the time and motions of the dancer are ftriclly fubordinate to the time and movements of the mufic ; purfuing this principle, it is not to be doubted, that when the flexion of the knees is greater than what the [ 78 1 DAN The alternate air or time of the dance requires, the mealiire then drawls along, languifhes, and is loft. I o recoyei and catch again the time which this unneceffary flexion had deftroyed, the extenfion of the knee muft be equally quick'; and it is this fudden tranfition which gives fuch a harflmefs and fterility to the execution, and renders it as difguftful as the oppofite fault of ftiffnefs and in¬ flexibility. That luxuriant foftnefs requires more to its perfec¬ tion that merely an exa£ flexion and extenfion of the knees ; the fpring of the inftep muft add its affiftance, while the loins muft balance the body to preferve thefe fprings in proper bounds. It is this rare harmony of motion (fays M. Noverre) which has procured the ce¬ lebrated Dupr6 the glorious title of the God of Dance. There are manv dancers, and of an inferior clafs only, who can difplay a great variety of fteps, badly enough cbofen to be fure, and often difplayed without either judgment or tafte ; but it is very uncommon to find among them that exaftnefs of ear (that rare but innate talent of a dancer), which gives life to and damps a value upon fteps, and which diffufes over all their motions a fpint that animates and enlivens them. There are fome ears ftupid and infenfible even to the moft Ample, plain, and ftriking movements ; there are others, more cultivated or refined, that can feel and comprehend the meafure, but cannot feize its intrica¬ cies 5 and there are others again to whom the moft dif¬ ficult airs and movements are eafy and intelligible, and at once comprehended. It is neverthelefs certain, that a dancer may have a very perfeft and nice feeling, and yet not make his feelings intelligible to the audience, if he has not the art of commanding thofe refources which depend upon a proper exertion of the coup de pied: awkwardnefs becomes vifible where the exafteft proportion was neceffary *, and every ftep which would have been becoming, and produced the happieft effeft, had it been fmartly introduced at the conclufion of the meafure, will now be cold and lifelefs, if all the limbs are in motion at once. It requires more time to move the whole body than to exert any (ingle member 5 the flexion and extenfion of the inftep is more readily and quickly made than the reciprocal motion of all the joints. This principle allowed, that the dancer is de- ftitute of precifion, who (iuppefing he poflefles a mu- fical ear) knows not how to time his fteps ; the elafti- city of the inftep, and the more or lefs a£ive play of the mufcles, add to the natural fenfibility of the esr, and (lamp value and brilliancy on the dance. The joint charms of the harmony fpringing from the move¬ ments of the mufic, and the motions of the dancer, captivate even thoie whofe ears are the moft mienfiblw and lead fufceptible of mufical imprcflioiu There are fome countries where the inhabitants in general are endowed with this innate mufical tafte. The Palatinate, Wirtemberg, Saxony, Brandenburg, Auftria, and Bohemia, fupply the orcbeftras of the German princes with many excellent muficians and emi¬ nent compofers. T he Germans, indeed, are born with a very lively and juft tafte ror mufic, and have in them the feeds of true harmony ; nothing is more com¬ mon than to hear concerts, both in the ftreets. and in the (hops of their mechanics, performed vith the greateft fkill and exa&nefs. Such a natural and native tafte for mufic as we have been Dance. DAN [ 79 ] DAN Dance, been mentioning, is ufually accompanied by, or in- —’Y-—*•' eludes in it, a fimilar one for dancing •, they are kin¬ dred arts •, the tender and harmonious accents of the one excite and produce the agreeable and exprel- five motions of the other, and their union entertains the eye and ear with animated pidlures of fentiments j thefe two fenfes, again, convey to the heart the inte- reffing images which affedf them, while the heart, in its turn, communicates them to the mental faculty : thus the pleafure refulting from the harmony and in¬ telligence of thefe two arts, enchants the fpeftator, and fills him with the mofl feducing pleafures of vo- luptuouinefs. Dancing is probably nowhere valued to fuch a de¬ gree as in the provinces of Germany ; where the well known dances of one village are ftrangers in the adja¬ cent hamlet j their fongs of mirth and merriment have no lefs different airs and movements, though they are all marked with that of gaiety. Their dances are pleafing and engaging, becaufe the offspring of fimple nature ; their motions exprefs joy and pleafure j and the exaftnefs with which the whole is performed, gives a peculiar agreeablenels to their fteps, gelfures, and attitudes. Do they fpring ?—a hundred perfons, af- fembled round an oak, or fome ancient pillar, feize the time at one inftant, bound up and defeend with the fame exaiffnefs. Do they wifh to mark the meafure by a coup-de-pied?—^all ftrike with one confent ; or when they catch up their women, you fee them all in the air at an equal height, nor do they defeend but at the precife note that marks the time. The counter-point, which is doubtlefs the touch- flone of a delicate ear, is to them an objeft of no dif¬ ficulty ; hence their dance is fo particularly animated, and the nicety of that organ has the effedf of giving their different motions an air of gaiety and variety al¬ together exquifite. A dancer whofe ear is untuned to harmony, difplays his fteps without order or regularity, wanders from his part, and purfues the mealure without being able to reach it : devoid of judgment, his dancing has nei¬ ther fentiment nor expreffion •, and the mufic which fliould direft his motions, regulate his fteps, and guide his time, ferves only to expofe his imperfedtions and infufficiency. The ftudy of mufic ihuuld therefore be applied to for the purpofe of obviating this defeft, and moie fenfibility and exadtnefs to the organs of It will not be expected that we fhould proceed to give a defeription of all the intricacies and combina¬ tions of fteps that are or can be exerted in dancing ; or enlarge on the mechanical particulars of the art. A differtation on the latter would be infipid and dif- guftful ; for the language of the feet and limbs is addreffed to the eyes, not to the ears : and a detail of the former would be endlefs, fince every dancer has his peculiar manner of joining or varying the time. It may be fufficient juft to mention on this point, that it is in dancing as in mufic, and with dancers as with muficians : Dancing does not abound with more fun¬ damental fteps than mufic with notes j but there are odtaves, breves, femibreves, minims, crotchets, double and treble crotchets ; times to count, and meafures to follow. This mixture, however, of a fmall number of fteps, and a few notes, furnifhes dapeers with a mul- giving hearing titude of connexions and a variety of figures j tafte and genius will always find a fource of novelty in ar¬ ranging them in different manners, and to exprefs va¬ rious ideas. Slow and lengthened, or quick and pre¬ cipitate fteps, and the time correfpondently varied, give birth to this endlefs diverfity. Cou?Ury-'DAticz. See CoumKY-Datice. Country-Dance, commonly fo written, and hence feeming to imply a ruftic way of dancing borrowed from country people or peafants, is by others fuppofed to be a corruption of the French Contre-danfe, where a number of perfons placing themfelves oppofite one to another begin a figure. i?o/,e-DANCER, (fchcenobates), a perfon who walks, leaps, dances, and performs feveral other feats, upon a fmall rope or wire. The ancients had their rope-dancers as well as we. Thefe had four feveral wjays of exercifing their art : The firft vaulted, or turned round the rope like a wheel round its axis, and there hung by the heels or neck. The fecond flew or did from above, refting on their ftomach, with the arms and legs extended. The third ran along a rope ftretched in a right line or up and down. Laftly, the fourth not only walked on the rope, but made furprifing leaps and turns thereon. They had likewife the cremnobates or orobates; that _is, people who walked on the blinks of precipices. Nay more, Suetonius in Gaiba, c. 6. Seneca in his 85th Epiftle, and Pliny, lib. viii. c. 2. make men¬ tion of elephants, that were taught to walk on the rope. St Vitus's Dance. See Medicine Index. DANCETTE, in Heraldry, is when the outline of any bordure, or ordinary, is indented very largely, the largenefs of the indentures being the only thing that diftinguifties it from indented. DANCING. See Dance. Dancing Girls of Egypt. See Alme. Dancing-girls are employed all over the eaft, as af¬ fording great diverfion at all public entertainments. They are all proftitutes ; and by the law s of their fo- ciety, are bound to refufe no one for their price, which is rated according to their beauty and other accompliftnnents. T here are even particular lets of them appropriated to the fervice of the Gentoo temples, and the ufe of the Bramin priefts who attend them. Thefe poor creatures fay that they were firft: debauched by their god, and afterwards by him con- figned over to the uie of the priefts who belong to his temples. Thefe dancing-girls, whether in a fettled or unfet¬ tled condition, live in a band or community under the direftion of feme fuperannuated female of the fame pro- feflion, under whom they receive a regular education, and are trained up in all the arts of love and pleafing, like fcholars in an academy. Thus they acquire the art of captivating the affections of the other (ex to fuch a degree, that nothing is more common than for one of the princes or chief people of the country to take a liking to one of thefe girls, and wafte immenfe fums on her, though at the fame time their own haram is ftocked wdth beauties far fuperior, and who are befides poffef- fed of the natural modefty of the fex, to which the others have not the fmalleft pretenfions. Thus fome of thefe girls acquire immenfe wealth. In the neighbourhood of DAN ■francing. of Goa, for inftance, on a part of the [ So ] continent bor- them to derTng'on the diftrift of that ifland, the dancing-girls founded a village, after being driven from Goa by the zeal of the archbilhop. Here they refide in a^ body corporate, and attend the parties ot pleafure of the no¬ blemen and principal inhabitants, for it is not e\try one’s purfe that can afford them. Here many of them acquire considerable fortunes by this Scandalous traffic, and throw it into a common Slock for the fake of car¬ rying on merchandife •, being concerned in {flipping and the moft profitable voyages, lor wnich tney have iegu- lar faftors and brokers. The drefs of thefe women varies according to the country they live in j but in all it is the moll goi- geous imaginable. They are loaded with jewels, lite¬ rally from top to toe, fince even on their toes they wear rings. Their necks are adorned with carcanets, their arms with bracelets, and their ancles with chains of gold and filver, often enriched with precious Slones. They alfo wear nofe jewels, which at firll have an odd appearance, but to which the eye is foon reconciled. In IndoSlan, thefe dancing-girls, as well as the other women of the country, have a peculiar method of pre- ferving and managing their breads, which at the lame time makes no inconfiderable part of their finery- They inclofe them in a pair of hollow cafes, exadtly fitted to them ; made of very light wood, linked to¬ gether and buckled at the back. Thefe at once con¬ fine their breads fo that they cannot grow to any dii- gudfully exuberant fize j though, from their fmooth- nefs and pliancy, they play fo freely with every mo- DAN ujcm be mad women than morris-dancers. I he Dancing band of mufic that attends them is not lefs Singular in Da «dini> in its way : it is chiedy compoled of three or four men, ( j who hold two pieces of bell-metal in their hands, with which they make an inceflant noife ; another man beats what he is pleafed to call a drum j and that they may not want vocal mufic to complete the band, there are always two others appointed to ling. 1 hefe lad gene¬ rally lay in their mouths a good loading ca betel-nut before they begin; which, after having been wed chewed, tinges the faliva with Such a rednefs, that a dranger would judge them to bleed at the mouth by too violent an exertion of their voice. 1 hefe gentry are called ticky tenv boys, from the two words ticky taw, which they continually repeat, and chant with great vehemence. The dancing-girls are fometimes made ufe of in their religious ceremonies, as when the priedsi bring forth the images of their gods into the open fields on a car ornamented with lafcivious figures, theie girls dance before the images amidd a great crowd or people ; and having been felefted for their fupenor beauty, are very profitable to their mailers the pritds, who are faid to proditute them to all comers.” Mr Grofe informs us, that “ thefe dances would hardly at fird reliib with Europeans, efpccially as they are accompanied with a mufic far from delightful, con¬ fiding of little drums called gumgums, cymbals, and a fort of fife, which makes a hideous din, and are played on by men, whofe effeminacy, grimaces, and uncouth {drivelled features, all together diock the eye and tor¬ ture the ear. However by ufe we become reconciled tion of the body, that they do not crudi the tender texture of the fledi in that part, like the diff whale¬ bone days in ufe among the Europeans. 1 he out- fide of them is fpread over with a thin-plate of go d or filver, or fet with gems, if they can afford it. Ano¬ ther occafional ornament the dancing-girls put on, par¬ ticularly when they refort to their gallants, viz. a necklace of many loofe turns, compofed of flowers drung together, which they call mogrees, fomewhat refembling Spanidi double jeffamy, but of a much dronger and more agreeable fragrant odour, and iar preferable to any perfumes. “ 'I bey have nothing, fays Mr Grofe, “ of that naufeous boldnefs which cha¬ racterizes the European proditutes, their dyle of ie- duftion being all foftnefs and gentlenefs. With regard to the performances of tbefe women as dancers, we have various accounts. Hie author ot Memoirs of the late War in Afia, acquaints us “ that their attitudes as well as movements are not ungrace¬ ful. Their perfons are delicately formed, gaudily at¬ tired, and highly perfumed. By the continuation ot wanton attitudes, they acquire, as they grow warm m the dance, a frantic lafeivioufnefs themfelves, and com¬ municate, by a natural contagion, the mod voluptuous defires to the beholders.” Mr Ives feems to have been verv cool on this fubjeft. “ I could not (fays he) fee any thing in their performance worthy of notice. Their movements are more like tumbling or fliowing podures than dancing. Their drefs is thm and light ; and their hair, necks, cars, arms, wrids, fingers, legs, feet, and even their toes, are covered with nngs ot Kold and filver, made after a clumfy manner. I hey wear two rings in their nofes ; and by their flaring foQks and odd gefliculations, you would rather luipect Z IUIC tut tai. -J \ r ' to the noife, and may obferve fome not unpleafing airs, with which the dancers keep time: the words often exprefs the matter of a pantomime dance, inch as a lover courting his midrefs ; a procurefs bringing a let¬ ter and endeavouring to feduce a woman from one gallant in favour of another ; a girl, timorous and a- fraid of being caught in an intrigue. All thefe loye- feenes the girls execute in charatter dances, and wiUi no defpicable expreflion, if they are proficients in tne.r art ; for then their geftures, air, and fteps, are mark¬ ing and well adapted. In fome of their dances, even in public, modedy is not much refpeaed by the lafci- vicus attitudes into which they throw themfelves, with¬ out expofing any nudity ; being richly clad_ and be¬ decked with jewels after their manner. But in private parties to which they are called, as in gardens,. they give themfelves a great loofe, and have dances in re¬ serve ; in which, though dill without any groffl,e‘S difeovering their bodies, they are m.dreffes of luch motions and lewdnefs of looks and gefiures as are pei- haps more provoking. ‘DANDELION. See Leontodon, Botany Index. DANDINI, Pietro, an eminent painter, was born at Florence in 1646, and received his fird indruaions in the art of painting from Valero Spada, who exce - led in fmall drawings with a pen. Whfidhe was un¬ der the care of that artid, he gave fuch evident proofs of a ready genius, that he was then placed as a dii- ciple with his uncle Vicencio Dandmi, a maker of great reputation through all Italy who had been bred up under Pietro da Cortona. He afterwards tra¬ velled through mod of the cities of Italy dudymg the works of thofe who were mod didinguilbed ; and re¬ dded for a long time at Venice, where he copied the DAN [ Danclini paintings of Titian, Tintoretto, and Paolo Veronefe. II .He next vifited Parma and Modena, to defign the ane ' , works of Gorregio ; omitting no opportunity that might contribute to improve his hand or his judgment. When he returned to Florence, the grand duke Cof- mo III. the grand duchefs Vitoria, and the prince Ferdinand, kept him perpetually employed, in frefco painting as well as in oil; his fubje&s being taken not only from facred or fabulous hiftory, but from his own invention and fancy, which frequently furnilhed him with fuch as were odd and fingular, and efpecially with whimlical caricatures. He died in 1712.—This ma¬ iler had a moll extraordinary talent for imitating the ilyle of even the moll celebrated ancient painters qf every fchool, particularly Titian, Veronefe, and Tin¬ toretto $ and with a force and elegance, equal to his fubjefts of hiltory, he painted portraits, landfcapes, architedlure, flowers, fruit, battles, animals of all kinds, and likewife fea-pieces; proving himfelf an uni- verfal artift, and excellent in every thing he under¬ took. He had a fon, Oftavio, who proved not inferior to him in any branch of his profeflion, and was an honour to his family and his country. Dandini, Ca-fare, hiftory painter, was born at Flo¬ rence ; and was the elder brother and firft inftru61or of Vincentio Dandini, the uncle of Pietro. This mafte-r had fucceflively lludied as a difciple with Cavalier Cur- radi, Paflignano, and Criftofano Allori $ from whom he acquired a very plealing manner of defigning and colouring. He was extremely corre61 in his drawing, and finilhed his piftures highly. Several noble altar- pieces in the churches of Florence are of his hand ; and one, which is in the chapel PAnnonciata, is par¬ ticularly admired. D ANDOLO, Henry, doge of Venice, a brave ad¬ miral and politician. With a Venetian fleet he took Conftantinople in 1203, and had the moderation to re- iufe to be emneror. He died in 1250. DANEGELT, an annual tax laid on the Anglo- Saxons, firft of is. afterwards of 2s. for every hide of land throughout the realm, for maintaining fuch a num¬ ber of forces as were thought fufficient to clear the Bri- tifh feas of Danifh pirates, which heretofore greatly annoyed our coafts. Danegelt was firft impofed as a ftanding yearly tax on the whole nation, under King Ethelred, A. D. 991. That prince, fays Camden, Britan. 142. much diftreflfed by the continued invafions of the Danes, to procure a peace, was compelled to charge his people with heavy taxes, called Danegelt.—At firft he paid lo.-oool. then i6,oool. then 24,000!. after that 36,0001. and laftly 48,000!. Edward the Confefibr remitted this tax : William I. and II. reaflumed it occafionally. In the reign of Henry I. it was accounted among the king’s ftanding revenues; but King Stephen, on his coronation-day, abrogated it for ever. No church or church-land paid a penny to the dane¬ gelt ; becaufe, as is fet foi'th in an ancient Saxon law, the people of England placed more confidence in the prayers of the church than in any military defence they could make. DANEF, Peter, abbot of St Nicholas de Verdun, was one of the perfons chofen by the duke of Montau- Vot. VII. Part I. 81 ] DAN fier to write on the claffics for the ufe of the dauphin. Daniel, He had a (hare in Phaedrus, which he publiftied with notes and explications in Latin. He alfo wrote a dic¬ tionary in Latin and French, and another in French and Latin. He died at Paris in 1709. DANIEL, the fourth of the greater prophets, was born in Judea, of the tribe of Judah, about the 25th year of the reign of Jofiah. He was led captive to Babylon, with other young Hebrew lords, after the taking of Jerufalem by Nebuchadnezzar, who took them into his fervice. That prince gave them mafters to inftrudt them in the language and fciences of the Chaldeans, and ordered them to be fed with the moft delicate viands: but they, fearing that they ftiould eat meat forbidden by the law of Mofes, defired the king’s officers to allow them only pulfe. The wifdom and conduit of Daniel pleafing Nebuchadnezzar, that prince gave him feveral polls of honour. It is com¬ monly believed, that this prophet, rvhen but 12 years of age, made known the innocence of the chafte Su- fannah: but the learned are not agreed, that the young Daniel, who confounded the old men, was the fame with this prophet. However, he explained Nebuchad¬ nezzar’s dream of the myfterious ftatue, which foretold the four great monarchies ; on which account he was made prefeil of the province of Babylon. In the reign of Darius, the king of the Medes, he refufed to adore the golden ftatue of the king, and was c-.ft into the lions den, when thofe beafts, though pinched with hun¬ ger, did him no manner of hurt. And he explained the charadlers written on the wall of the room where Belffiazzar was feafting. It is believed that Daniel died in Chaldea, and that he did not take advantage of the permiffion granted by Cyrus to the Jews of returning to their own country. St Epiphanius fays he died at Babylon ; and herein he is followed by the generality of hiftorians. The prophecies of Daniel concerning the coming of the Meffiah, and the other great events of after-times, are fo clear and explicit, that, as St Jerome tells us, Porphyry obje&ed to them, that thofe which related to the kings of Syria and Egypt, chap. xi. muft have been written after the times of Antiochus Epiphanes } whereas his prophecy was tranflated into Greek 100 years before his time, and the .tranflation was in the hands of the Egyptians, who had no great kindnefs for the Jews and their religion. And thofe prophecies foretelling the fuccefs of Alexander, chap. viii. 5. xi. 3. were ffiown to Alexander by the Jews, in confequence of which they obtained feveral privileges from him ; (j4nt. lib. xi. c. 8.) The ftyle of Daniel is not fo lofty and figurative as that of the other prophets 5 it is clear and concife, and his narrations and deferiptions Ample and natural : in fliort, he writes more like a hiftorian than a prophet. The Jews do not reckon Daniel among the pro¬ phets ; part of his book, that is, from the fourth verfe of his fecond chapter to the end of the feventh chap¬ ter, was originally written in the Chaldee language $ the reafon of which was, that in that part he treats of the Chaldean or Babylonifli‘affairs : all the reft of the book is in Hebrew. The firrt fix chapters of the book of Daniel are a hiftory of the kings of Babylon, and what befel the Jews under their government. In the .laft fix he is altogether prophetical, foretelling not L only J / DAN [ 82 ] t>aniel, only what fliould happen to his own church and nation, Danmonii. events in which foreign princes and kingdoms were ' v concerned. _ . Daniel, Samuel, an eminent poet and hiitonan, was born near Taunton in Somerfetfhire in the year 1562, and educated at Oxford ; but leaving that um- verfity without a degree, he applied himfelf to Enghfh hiftory and poetry under the patronage of the earl ot Pembroke’s family. He was afterwards tutor to the lady Anne Clifford ; and, upon the death of Spenler, was created poet-laureat to Queen Elizabeth. In King Tames’s reign he was appointed gentleman extraordi¬ nary, and afterwards one of the grooms of the privy- chamber to the queen confort, who took great delight in his converfation and writings. He wrote an hiitory of England, feveral dramatic pieces, and fome poems ; and died in 1619. , T c Daniel, Gabriel, a celebrated Jefuit, and one ot the belt French hilforians, was born at Rouen in 1649. He taught polite literature, philolophy, and divinity, among the Jefuits *, and was fuperior of their houfe at Paris, where he died in 1728.. There are a great number of his works publilhed in French, of which the principal are, 1. An Hiftory of France, of which he alfo wrote an abridgment in nine volumes, X2mo. 2. An Hiftory of the French Militia, in two vols Mo. 2. An Anfwer to the Provincial Letters. 4. A Voyage to the World of Defcartes. 5. Letters on the doftrines of the Theorifts, and on Probability. 6. New difficulties relating to the knowledge ot Brutes : And, 7. A theological treatife on the Effica¬ cy of Grace. . . r r , DANMONII, an ancient Bntiffi nation, luppoied to have inhabited that traft of country which is now called Cornwall and Devonjhire, bounded on the iouth by the Britiffi ocean, on the weft by St George’s chan¬ nel, on the north by the Severn fea, and on the eaft by the country of the Durotriges. Some other Britiffi tribes were alfo feated within thefe limits j as the Coi- fini and Oftidamnii •, and, according to Mr Baxter, thev were the keepers of their flocks and herds. As the feveral tribes of the Danmonii fubmitted without much refiftance to the Romans, and never joined in any re¬ volt againft them, that people were under no neceffity of building many forts, or keeping many garnfons in their country. This is the reafon why fo few Ro¬ man antiquities have been found m that country, and fo little mention is made of it and its ancient inhabi¬ tants by Roman writers. Ptolemy names a few places, both on the fea-coafts and in the inland parts of this country, which were known to, and frequented by, the Romans. The mort confiderable of thefe places ai_e the two famous promontories of Bolerium and Ocn- uun,, now the LandVend and the L.zard i and the towns of Ifca Danmoniomm and 1 ..marc, now Exeter and Saltafli. As the Danmonii fubmitted lb tamely to the Romans, they might perhaps permit them to live for fome time at leaft, under their own princes and their own laws •, a privilege which we know they granted to fome other Britiffi Hates. In the moft per- feft ft ate of the Roman government in Britain, the country of the Danmonii made a part of the province called Flava Caefarienfis, and was governed by the pre- fident of that province. After the departure of the Romans, kingly government was immediately revived J D A -N among the Danmonii in the perfon of Vortigern, who was perhaps defcended from the race of their ancient princes, as his name fignifies in the Britifti language a chieftain or the head of a family. . DANTE, Aligheri, one of the firft poets ot ltal7* was born at Florence in 1265, of an ancient and ho¬ nourable family. Boccacio, who lived in the lame period, has left a very curious and entertaining treatile, on the life, the ftudies, and manners of this extraor¬ dinary poet, whom he regarded as his matter, and tor whofe memory he profeffed the higheft veneration. This biographer relates, that Dante, before he was nine years old, conceived a paffion for the lady whom he has immortalized in his fmgular poem. Her age was near his own ; and her name was Beatrice, the daughter of Folco Portinari, a noble citizen o Flo¬ rence. The paffion of Dante, however, like that at his fucceffor Petraich, feems to have been of the chalte and platonic kind, according to the account he has himfelf given of it, in one of his early productions, en¬ titled Vita Nuova; a mixture of myftenous poetry and profe : in which he mentions both the origin of his affe&ion and the death of his miftrels, who, according to Boccacio, died at the age of 24. T he fame author afferts, that Dante fell into a deep melancholy in con- fequence of this event, from which his friends endea¬ voured to raife him, by perfuading him to marriage. After fome time he followed their advice and repent¬ ed it ; for he unfortunately made choice of a lady who bore fome refemblance to the celebrated Xantippe. The poet, not poffeffing the patience of Socrates, ie- parated himfelf from her with fuch vehement exFe(' fions of diffike, that he never afterwards admitted her to his prefence, though ffie had born him feveral chil¬ dren. In the early part of his life ^ gamed fome. credit in a military charaCIer ; diftinguiffimg himlelt by his bravery in an aftion where the Florentines obtain¬ ed a fignal viClory over the citizens of Arezzo. Fie became ftill more eminent by the acqmfition of civi honours ; and at the age of 25 he rofe to be one o the chief magiftrates of Florence, when that dignity was conferred by the fuffrages of the people. From this exaltation the poet himfelf dated his principal misfortunes, as appears from the fragment of a letter quoted by Leonardo Brum, one of his early biogra¬ phers, where Dante fpeaks of his political failure w. h that liberal franknefs which integrity infpires Italy was at that time diftraaed by the contending faaions of the Ghibellins and the Guelphs : the latter, among whom Dante took an aftive part, were again divlded into the Blacks and the Whites. Dante, fays Gravi- na exerted all bis influence to unite thefeJ1"fe"°'. Pf " tie’s ; but his efforts were ineffeaual, and he had the misfortune to be unjuftly perfecuted by thofe of his own fadion. A powerful citizen of Florence, named Corfo Donati, had taken meafures to terminate thefe inteftine broils, by introducing Charles of Valois, bro¬ ther to Philip the Fair king of France Dante, with great vehemence oppofed, this difgraceful projea, and obtained the baniffiment of Donati and h,« Part’ZanS^ The exiles applied to the pope (Boniface VI1L), and by his affittance fucceeded in their defign. dj_ es o Valois entered Florence in triumph, and thofe who had oppofed his admiffion were bamffied m the,r * Dante had been difpatched to Rome as the ambaffa- BAN f ^ante‘ ^or °f his party ; and was returning, when he received “"~V-W intelligence of the revolution in his native city. His enemies, availing themfelves of his abfence, had procu¬ red an iniquitous fentence againft him, by which he was condemned to banifliment, and his poffeflions were confifcated. His two enthufiaftic biographers Boccacio and Manetti, exprefs the warmeft indigna¬ tion againft the injuftice of his country. Dante, on receiving this intelligence, took refuge in Sienna, and afterwards in Arezzo, where many of his party were affembled. An attempt was made to furprife the citv of Florence, by a fmall army which Dante is fuppo- fed to have attended : the defign mifcarried, and our poet is conjectured to have wandered to various parts of Italy, till he found a patron in the great Candella Scala, prince of \ erona, whom he has celebrated in his poem. 1 he high fpirit of Dante was ill fuited to courtly dependence ; and he is faid to have loft the favour of his Veronefe patron by the rough franknefs of his behaviour. From Verona he retired to France, according to Manetti ; and Boccacio affirms that he difputed in the theological fchools of Paris with great reputation. Bayle queftions his vifiting Paris at this period of his life 5 and thinks it improbable, that a man, who had been one of the chief magiftrates of Florence’ fhould condefcend to engage in the public fquabbles of the Parifian theologifts j but the foirit both of Dante and the times in which he lived fufficiently account for this exercife of his talents ; and his refidence in France at this feafon is confirmed by Boccacio, in his life of our poet, which Bayle feems to have had no opportunity of confulting. The eleftion of Henry count of Luxemburgh to the empire, in November 1308, afforded Dante a pro- IpeCt of being reftored to his native city, as he attached mmfelf to the intereft of the new emperor, in whofe lervice he is fuppofed to have written his Latin trea- tife De Monarchia, in which he afferted the rights of the empire againft the encroachments of the Papacy. In the year 13ix, he inftigated Henry to lay fiege to rlorence 5 in which enterprife, fays one of his bio- graphers, he did not appear in perfon, from motives of reipeCt towards his native city. The emperor was re- pulled .by the Florentines j and his death, which hap¬ pened in the fucceeding year, deprived Dante of all hopes concerning re-eftabliffiment in Florence. After this disappointment, he is fuppofed to have paffed Some years m roving about Italy in a ftate of poverty and autre Is, till he found an honourable eftabliffiment at Kaverina, under the protection of Guido Novello da i olenta, the lord of that city, who received this illuf- tnous exile with the moft endearing liberalitv, continu- ed to protect him through the few remaining years of is life, and extended his munificence to the allies of the poet. Eloquence was one of the many talents which Dante pciidied in an eminent degree. On this account he lU!Tt0- , beCn emPloyed on fourteen different embaffies in the courfe of his life, and to have fuc- ceeded of them.. His patron Guido had occa- difnatrh 7 V * ,n a ferv,ce of this nature, and with thhe Vh,m -aS hlS a["baffador to negociate a peace avainft R enetIans’ who were preparing for hoflilities againft Ravenna Manetti afferts that he was unable o procure a public audience at Venice, and returned S.3 ] DAN to Ravenna by land, from his apprehenfions of the Venetian fleet ; when the fatigue of his journey, and' the mortification of failing in his attempt to preferve his generous patron from the impending danger, threw him into a fever, which terminated in death on the 14th of September 1321. He died, however, in the palace of his friend 5 and the affeClionate Guido paid the moft tender regard to his memory. This muni¬ ficent patron (fays Boccacio) commanded the body to be adorned with poetical ornaments, and, after being carried on a bier through the ftreets of Ravenna by the moft illuftrious citizens, to be depolited in a marble coffin. Fie pronounced himfelf the funeral oration, and expreffed his defign of ere&ing a fplendid monu¬ ment in honour of the deceafed : a defign which his fubfequent misfortunes rendered him unable to accom • plilh. At his requeft, many epitaphs were written on the poet:. the beft of them (fays Boccacio) by Giovan¬ ni del Virgilio of Bologna, a famous author of that time, and the iptimate friend of Dante. Boccacio then cites a few Latin verfes, not wrorth tranfcribing, fix of which are quoted by Bayle as the compofition of Dante himfelf, on the authority of Paul Jovius. In 1485 Bernardo Bembo, the father of the celebrated cardinal, raifed a handfome monument over the neglefted allies of the poet, with the following infcription : Exigua tumuli Danthes hie forte jacehas Squalenti nulli cognita pane ftu ; j$t nunc marmoreo Jubmxus con dens arcu^ Omnibus et cultu fplendidiore nites ; Nitnirum Bembus, Mufs incenfus Etrufcis, Hoc tibi, quern in primis ha cohere, dedit. Before this period the Florentines had vainly endea¬ voured to obtain the bones of their great poet from the city of Ravenna. In the age of Leo X. they made a fecond attempt, by a folemn application to the pope for that purpofe j and the great Michael Angelo, an enthufiaftic admirer of Dante, very liberally offered to execute a magnificent monument to the poet. The hopes of the Florentines were again unfuccefsful. The particulars of their lingular petition may be found in the notes of Codivi’s Life of Michael Angelo. At what time, and in what place, he executed the great and lingular work which has rendered him im¬ mortal, his numerous commentators feem unable to determine. Boccacio afferts, that he began it in his 35th year, and had finilhed feven cantos of his Infer¬ no before his exile ; that in the plunder of his houfe on that event, the beginning of his poem w^as fortu¬ nately preferved, but remained fonfome time neglect¬ ed, till its merit being accidentally difeovered by an intelligent poet named Dino, it was fent to the mar¬ quis Marcello Malefpina, an Italian nobleman, by whom Dante wTas then protected. The marquis reftored thefe loft papers to the poet, and intreated him to proceed m a work which opened in fo promifing a manner. To this incident we are probably indebted for the poem of Dante, which he muft have continued under all the difadvantages of an unfortunate and agitated life. It does not appear at what time he completed it ;* per¬ haps before he quitted Verona, as he dedicated the Pa- radife to his Veronefe patron. The critics have vari- oully accounted for his having called his poem Ccme- dia. He gave it the title (faid one of his fons), be- k 2 eaufe Dante. Dante, Dantzic. DAN [ 84 1 caufe it opens with diftrefs and clofes with felicity. Poland. The very high eftimation in which tins produa.on was ’ held by his country, appears from a Angular mftitution. The republic of Florence, in the year 1373, affigped a public llipend to a perfon appointed to read lettures on the poem of Dante: Boccacio was the firft perlon engaged in this office-, but his death happening m two vears after his appointment, h.s comment extended only to the feventeen firft cantos of the Inferno. I he critical differtations that have been written on Dan are almoft as numerous as thofe to which Homer has given birth ; the Italian, like the Grecian hard, has been the fubjeft of the higheft panegyric and ot the groffeft inveaive. Voltaire has fpoken of him mth that precipitate vivacity, which fo frequen y e lively Frenchman to infult the reputation ot the nobkft writers. In one of his entertaining letters, he fays to an Italian abbe, Je fais grand cas du couraSe'J™C lenuel vous avtz ofe dire que Dante etoit un fou et Jon linage un monJre.-Le Dante P^a entrerdar, /es bib/iotheques des curieux, mats il. ne /era j But more temperate and candid critics have not been wanting to difplay the merits of this original poet. Mr Warton has introduced into bis laft volume on "g poetry, a judicious and fpmted fummary of Dante PeDA™TEC>&« BaptiJU a native of Perugia, an ex- celknt mathcmatkian. called the new for the wings he made himfelt, and with which he flew fevetal tin.* over the lake Thrafymenus. He tell tn one ot his' enterprifes, the iron work with which he managed one of his wings haying failed; by which acctden broke his thigh: but it was fet by the furgeons, and he was afterwards called to Venice to profefs mathe- “DANTZIC, the capital of Poliih Pruffia fituated on a branch of the Viftula, about four tmles above where it falls into the Balttc; tn E. Long. ‘8 36. N Lat. 20. This city is famous n hiftory on many accounts, particularly that of its being oimer- ly at^the head of the Hanfeatic affociation, commonly caUed the Uanfe-towns. It is large, beautitul, po¬ pulous, and rich ; its houfes general y are ^ high : and many of its ftreets are planted with chel^ niU trees. One of the fuburbs is called^ Scotland, and the Scots have great privileges, m confeqJC"CCf° their gallant defence of the town, under one of the fa- m-dy ogf Douglas, when it was befieged by the Pole . It is faid there are upwards of 30,000 Pe^la!S ° ^ much eiteemed Hijloria fui Tempo™, wherein, under rtte veartSoT, he fo highly celebrates «s commerce and' grandeur. It is a repubbc, datmtug ajmall r oTthe king and the republic of dan Dantzic. Poland. Its magiftracy, and the majority of its'inha bitants are Lutherans although the Romamfts and Calvinifts be equally tolerated in it. It has 26 paidhes, with many convents and holpitais. I he inhabitants have been computed to amount to 200,000 but latei computations fall very confiderably *hort otit, as ap¬ pears by its annual bill ot mortality, exhibited by Dr Bufching, who tells us, that in the year 1752, there died but 1846 perfons. Its own ihippmg is numerous^ but the foreign ffiips conftantly reiorting to it are more fo wheicof 1014 arrived there m the year 1752 , m Uich year alio 1288 Poliih veffels came down the Viftula chiefly laden with corn tor its matchkis gra- It!? from whence .hat grain is dillr.bu.ed to many foreign nations, Poland being juftly deemed the great- eft magazine of corn in all Lurope, and Dantzic the greateft port for diftributing it every where: betides- which, Dantzic exports great quantities ot naval ftoies and a vaft variety of other articles. Dr Bulching a - firms, that it appears from ancient records, as early as ,1? year 997, that Dantzic was a large commercial city yand not a village or inconfiderable town, as fome pretend. The inhabitants of Dantzic have olten ch nVed their mailers, and have iometimes been un¬ der the protection of the Enghffi and Dutch; but ge¬ nerally have ffiown a great predikaion kr the king¬ dom and republic of Poland, as being lets likely to ri¬ val them in their trade, or abridge them ot their im¬ munities, which reach even to the privilege of coining money. Though ttrongly fortified, and poffeffed of ! ro large brafs cannon, it could not, horn its fitua- tion Hand a regular fiege, being iurrounded with emi¬ nences. In 1734, the inhabitants dilcovered a remark¬ able attachment and fidelity towards Stamflaus king of Poland, not only when his enemies the Ru ia were at their gates, but even in pofftffion ot C1^- This city was exempted by the late king of Piuffia from thok claims which he made on the neighbouring countries; notwithftanciing which, his Pru^an jefty loon after thought proper to fe.ze on ^ te r tones belonging to Dantzic, under pretence of their having beenformerly part of Polith Pruffia. He then proceeded to poffefs himfelf of the port-duties belong- C to tbat city, and ereded a cuftomhoufe in the harboui, where he laid arbitrary and infupportable du- ties upon goods exported or imported. Po the fyftem of oppreffion, cuftomhoutes were ereaed at the very gates of Dantzic, fo that no perfons could go in or out of the town without being learch- ed in ffie ftriaeft manner. Such is the treatment which the city of Dantzic has received from the king nf Pruffia though few cities have ever exifted which n compLended in fc many general and par- ricular treaties, and whole rights and liberties have been fo frequently fecured, and guaranteed y ° „reat powers, and by fuch a long and regular tucceffi of public aas, as that of Dantzic has been. In the year °7 f was blockaded by his troops on various pre¬ dicts- but by the inte.pof.tion ot the emprefs ot Ruf- fla and of th/king of Poland «hey were withdrawn and a compromife having taken place, the city was reftored to its former immun.ttes. Neverthelefs, its trade has frnce been rather upon the <1'cllne> th^ “ b; chants chooling to fettle whete the.r property may be more fecure. -DANUBE, D A P [ S5 Danube, D ANUBE, the largeft and moft confiderable river Daphne. ;n Europe, rifing in the Black Foreft, near Zunberg j " and running north-eaft through Swabia, by Ulna, the capital of that country, then running eait through Ba¬ varia and Auftria, paffes by Ratiibon, Paffau, Ens, and Vienna. It then enters Hungary, and runs fouth-eall from Prefburg to Buda, and fo on to Belgrade ; after which it divides Bulgaria from Walachia and Molda¬ via, difeharging itfelf by feveral channels into the Black fea, in the province of BelTarabia. Towards the mouth, it was called the IJler by the ancients ; - and it is now faid, that four of the mouths are choked up with fand, and that there are only two remaining. It begins to be navigable for boats at Ulm, and re¬ ceives feveral large rivers as it pafies along. It is fo deep between Buda and Belgrade, that the I urks and Chriftians have had men of war upon it •, and yet it is not navigable to the Black fea, on account of the catarafts. The Danube was generally fuppofed to be the northern boundary of the Roman empire in Europe. It was worlhipped as a deity by the Scy¬ thians. DAPFINE, a daughter of the river Peneus by the goddefs Terra, of whom Apollo became enamour¬ ed. This paflion had been railed by Cupid j with whom Apollo, proud of his late conquelt of the fer- pent Python, had difputed the power of his darts. Daphne heard with horror the addreffes of the god, and endeavoured to remove herfelf from his importu¬ nities by flight. Apollo purfued her, and Daphne, fearful of being caught, intreated the affiftance of the gods, who changed her into a laurel. Apollo crown¬ ed his head with the leaves of the laurel, and for ever ordered that that tree fhould be facred to his di¬ vinity. Some fay that Daphne was admired by Leu¬ cippus, fon of CEnomaus king of Pifa, who to be in her company difguiied his fex, and attended her in the woods in the habit of a huntrefs. Leucippus gained Daphne’s efteem and love ; but Apollo, who was his powerful rival, difeovered his fex, and Leucippus was killed by the companions of Diana. Daphne was al- fo the name of a daughter of Tirefias, prieftefs in the temple of Delphi. She was confecrated to the fervice of Apollo by the Epigoni, or according to others by the goddefs Tellus. She was called Sibyl, on account of the wildnefs of her looks and expreffions when die delivered oracles. Her oracles were generally in verfe; and Homer, according to fome accounts, has introdu¬ ced much of her poetry in his ccmpofitions. Daphne, in Ancient Geography, a fmall village near to, or in the fuburbs of, Antiochia of Seleucis in Syria j with a large grove, well watered with fprings: In the middle of the grove flood the temple of Apollo apd Diana. Its extent was 80 ftadia or 10 miles ; the diftance from the city five miles: A place pleafant and agreeable, from the plenty of water and the tempera¬ ture of the air, and its foft-breathing breezes. The grove was of bay-trees, intermixed with cyprefs: which laft multiplied fo fall, as to occupy the whole of it. Pompey gave fome land for enlarging the grove. An- tiochus Ephiphanes built a very large temple of Daph- nasus Apollo. The place at length became fo infa¬ mous, that people of modefiy and charadler avoided reforting thither j fo that Daphnici mores became pro¬ verbial. ] DAP Daphne, in Ancient Geography, a fmall diflrifl on the lake Samachonitis, in the Higher Galilee, very pleafant, and plentifully watered with fpiings, which feed the Lefs Jordan ; whence its name feems to arife, probably in imitation of that near Antioch of Syria on the river Orontes. Daphne, Spurge-laureli a genus of plants, belong¬ ing to the oflandria clais \ and in the natural method ranking under the 3ill order, Vepreculte. See Bo¬ tany Index. DAPHNEPHORIA, a feftival in honour of A- pollo, celebrated every ninth year by the Boeotians. It was then ufual to adorn an olive bough with garlands of laurel and other flowers, and place on the top a brazen globe, on which were fufpended fmaller ones. In the middle was placed a number of crowns, and a globe of inferior fize, and the bottom was adorned with a faft'ron-coloured garment. The globe on the top re- prefented the fun or Apollo. That in the middle was an emblem of the moon, and the other of the flars. The crowns, which were 65 in number, reprefented the fun’s annual revolution. This bough was carried in fo- lexqn proceflion by a beautiful youth of an illuftrious fa¬ mily, and whole parents were both living. The youth was dreffed in rich garments which reached to the ground, his hair hung loofe and difhevelled, his head was covered with a golden crown, and he wore on his feet fhoes called Iphicratidcc, from Iphicrates an A- thenian, who firft invented them. He was called Actpn foe,og, laurel-hearer; and at the time he executed the office of prieft of Apollo. He was pieceded by one of his nearell relations, bearing a rod adorned with garlands, and behind him followed a train of vir¬ gins with branches in their hands. In this order the proceffion advanced as far as the temple of Apollo, furnamed Ifmenius, where fupplicatory hymns were fung to the god. This feflival owes its origin to the following circumltance.—When an oracle advifed the Aitolians, who inhabited Arne and the adjacent coun¬ try, to abandon their ancient poffeffions, and go in quefl of a fettlement, they invaded the Theban terri- toiies, which at that time were pillaged by an army of Pelafgians. As the celebration of Apollo’s feftival was near, both nations, who rcligioufly obferved it, laid afide all hoflilities, and according to cuflom cut down laurel boughs from M »unt Helicon, and in the •neighbourhood of the river Melas, and walked in pro¬ ceffion in honour of the divinity. The day that this folemnity was obferved, Polematas the general of the Boeotian army faw a youth in a dream, that prelented him with a complete fuit of armour, and commanded the Boeotians to offer folemn prayers to Apollo, and walk in proceffion with laurel boughs in their hands every ninth year. Three days after this dream, the Boeotian general made a Tally, and cut off the greateft part of the befiegers, who were compelled by this blow to relinquiffi their enterprife. Polematas imme¬ diately inflituted a novennial fellival to the god, who feemed to be the patron of the Boeotians. DAPIFER, the dignity or office of grand mafter of a prince’s houfehold. This title was given by the ~ emperor of Conftantinople to the czar of Ruffia as a teftimony of favour. In France the like officer was in- ftituted by Charlemagne, under the title of dapiferat; and the dignity of dapifer is Hill fubfifting in Germany, the D A R [ 86 ] D A R Dapple-bay the ele&or of Bavaria affuming the title of arch-dapi- D fer c,n^re* whofe office is, at the coronation of , ‘u Ju:iW, the emperor, to carry the firft difli of meat to table on horfeback. DAPPLE-bay, in the manege: When bay horfes have marks of a dark bay, they are called dapple bays. DAPPLE-B/acks: When a black horfe has got fpots or marks more black or fhining than the reft of his fkin, he is called a dapple-black. DAR ANT ASIA, in Ancient Geography, called Forum Claudti by the Romans ", a town of the Cen- trones in Gallia Narbonenfis, fituated between Lemin- cum and Augufta Praetoria. Now Moujhers, and Moujliers en Tarantaife, in Savoy. DARAPTI, among logicians, one of the modes of fyllogifms of the third figure, whofe premifes are uni- verfal affirmatives, and the conclufion is a particular affirmative : thus, Dar- Every body is divifible 5 ap- Every body is a fubftance j ti. Therefore, fome fubftance is divifible. DARDA, a town and fort of Lower Hungary, built by the Turks in 1686, and taken by the Impe- rialifts the next year, in whofe hands it remains. It is feated on the river Drave, 10 miles from its confluence with the Danube, and at the end of the bridge of Ef- feck. E. Long. 19. 10. N. Lat. 45. 45. DARDANELLES, two ancient and ftrong caftles of Turkey, one of which is in Romania, and the other in Natolia, on each fide the channel formerly called the Hellefpont. This keeps up a communication with the Archipelago, and the Propontis or fea of Marmora. The mouth of the channel is four miles and a half over ; and the caftles were built in 1659, to fecure the Turk- iili fleet from the infults of the Venetians. The fhips that come from Conftantinople are fearched at the caftle on the fide of Natolia, to fee what they have on board. DARDANIA, in Ancient Geography, a diftridl of Moefia Superior to the fouth. Now the fouth part of Servia, towards the confines of Macedonia and Illyri- cum.—Dardani wfas the name of the people, who feem to have been defeendants of the Dardam of Troas. Alfo a fmall diftridl of Troas, along the Hellefpont, (Mela, Virgil) j and the ancient name of Samothracia, (Pliny), from Dardanus, who removed thither. DARDANUM promontorium, ('Pliny) 5 Dar- danis, (Strabo) j a promontory of Troas, near Aby- dos, running out into the Hellefpont $ with a cogno¬ mina! town at it, called alfo Bardanus, and Dardanum; all which gave name to the Dardanelles. D ARDANUS, a fon of Jupiter and Ele&ra, who, after the death of his brother Jafion, left Samothrace bis country, and paffed into Afia Minor, wfliere he mar¬ ried Bath, the daughter of Teucer king of Teucria. After the death of his father-in-law he afeended the throne, and reigned 62 years. He built the city of Dardania, and was reckoned the founder of the king¬ dom of Troy. He was fucceeded by Erichthonius. According to fome, Corybas, his nephewr, accompani¬ ed him to Teucria, where he introduced the worlhip ,of Cybele. Dardanus taught his fubjeds to worfliip Minerva, and he gave them two ftatues of the goddefs, one of which is well known by the name of Palla- dium. According to Virgil, Dardanus W’as an Italian by origin. DARE, the fame with dace. See Dace, Ichthy¬ ology Index. DARES, a Phrygian, who lived during the Tro¬ jan war, in which he w'as engaged, and of which he wrote the hiftory in Greek. This hiftory was extant in the age of iElian j the Latin tranllation, now ex¬ tant, is univerfally allowed to be fpurious, though it is attributed by fome to Cornelius Nepos. This tranf- lation firft made its appearance A. D. 1477, at Milan. Homer fpeaks of him, Iliad, v. 10. and 27. DARFOOR, or Darfur, a country or kingdom of Africa, which has been vifited by no other European traveller excepting Mr Browne. This country is of confiderable extent, and in many places covered with wood. During the dry feafon, the appearance of the open country is fterile and barren, but when the rains commence, the dry fandy foil is foon changed into green fields covered with luxuriant vegetation. Con¬ fiderable quantities of maize, fefame, beans, and legu- mens, are raifed by the inhabitants for food. There are feveral fpecies of trees in Darfoor $ but the tama¬ rind alone is valuable for its fruit, or rifes to a confi¬ derable fize. The date, which is diminutive, does not appear to be indigenous. Domeftic animals are, the camel, the fheep, the goat, and horned cattle, which are numerous. Of the milk of the cow, fome of the inhabitants make a kind of cheefe, but the procefs is not generally knowm. The camel is of an inferior quality $ and the horfe and the afs are imported from Egypt and Nubia. Their wild animals are, the lion, the leopard, the hyaena, the wolf, and the wild buf- faloe. The termites, or white ant, abounds; and the co¬ chineal infeft is frequently met with, though it has ne¬ ver been applied to any ufeful purpofe in Darfoor. The rocks are chiefly compofed of gray granite, but in a few places alabafter and marble are found. Nitre is produced in confiderable quantities, fofiil fait is found in one diftrifl, and fulphur is colledted by the paftoral Arabs on the fouth and weft. The principal towns in Darfoor, are Cobbe, the chief refidence of the merchants, fituated in N. Lat. 14. 11. Long. E. G. 28. 8. It is above two miles in length, but extremely narrow, containing numerous trees and vacant fpaces within its boundaries. Swreini, which commands the northern road to Darfoor, is fituated above two jour¬ neys to the north of Cobbe. Kourma, a fmall town, lies 12 or 13 miles to the fouth weft of Cobbe, and Cubcubia, two and a half journeys to the weft. Cubcubia commands the weftern roads, and has a market twice in the week. Cours lies 14 or 15 miles to the north-weft of Cobbe ; Ril, about 60 miles to the fouth eaft of Cobbe, is fitu¬ ated in a fertile plain, commands the fouthern and eaftern roads, and was formerly the refidence of the kings of Darfoor. Gidid, Gelle, and Shoba, are the only other remarkable towns. The villages are numerous, but their population feldom exceeds a few hundred inhabi¬ tants. The population of Darfoor is eftimated by Browne at 200,000 perfons. It confifts of the native tribes of Fur, of a deep black complexion, crifped woolly hair, and features different from thofe of the negroes j Arabs of the tribes of Mahmid, Mahrea, Beni Fefara, Beni Gerar, &c. fome of whom had fet- * ' - tied D A R Darfoor. _ country, while others wander on the fron¬ tiers, and are very numerous ; and a number of emi¬ grants, from the neighbouring ftates, particularly Don- gola, Mahas, Senaar, and Cordofan. Befides thefe, Darfoor comprehends the inhabitants of various fubor- dinate diftrufts, that are fometimes dependant on Dar¬ foor, and fometimes on the furrounding nations: as Bar Rugda, which is generally fubjeft to Bergoo; Dar Berti, Bego, or Dageou, between Darfoor and Bergoo, the power of which formerly predominated over the Furian tribes ; and Zeghawa, formerly an in¬ dependent kingdom, that was accuftomed to raife a thoufand cavalry in war, the inhabitants of which are different in their features from the IM'egroes* The dialeft of Arabic which is vernacular in Dar¬ foor, differs eflentially from that fpoken in Egypt. The native Furians are more cheerful in their difpofi- tions than the Egyptians ; but referable the Moorifh tribes m the violence of their paffions, their difregard to truth, their inattention to cleanlinefs, and their in¬ accurate ideas of property. As the praftice of poly¬ gamy is eflablifhed, their intercourfe with the other fex is xegulated by no attention to delicacy or decency • and the precepts of Mamifm are often infringed, by the relations of brother and lifter being exchanged for a clofer connexion. The fex are, however, fubje&ed to iefs reftraint than in many Mahometan countries. , Fhe women appear in public unveiled, make bargains m the markets, and converfe with the other fex, with¬ out offending their hufbands or relations. The mcft levere labours of the field, and the meaneft domeftic offices, are performed by the women, who are often leen walking after their hulbands, under the preffure of a heaven burden, while thefe ride before them on their affes, without incumbrance and without concern. * hflr houfes are built of clay, commonly by the hands of their women, and are covered with a flattifh roof of thin boards, coated with clay. Salt is the geperal medium of exchange in Darfoor, but, in fome places, imall tin rings of arbitrary value, are employed. A caravan paffes from Darfoor to Egypt, to traffic in llaves, ivory, gum, camels, &c. j but this commercial TruerC£Urfe J?ot reSulai\and is frequently interrupted. IheDongoiefe and Nubian fettlers in Darfoor, who lad been accuftomed to the Egyptian trade, originally opened the route j but merchants are frequently inter- rupted by the Cubba-befh and Bedeiat Arabs ; the laft of whom are not fuppofed to be of Arabic origin. JL he king, or, or as he is denominated, the fultan of artoor, reigns with abfolute authority, and confers the lame arbitrary power on his delegates in the pro- VaCerh Th?Ugh,the PrecePts of the Koran are the oftenfibJe rules of decifion, in litigation, yet the ver- ift depends on the will of the judge ; and, as none but ecclefiafhcs dare exprefs their fentiments of his con- U. ’ t"f‘rr°PI"I0n 18 the only check upon his ca¬ price. I hefe judges, however, difplay confiderable in¬ genuity m developing the moft intricate cafes that oc- cur in a nation verfed in the arts of deceit. I he fultan’s revenues confift in the taxes upon merchandife exported and imported ; the annual tri- oute of live flock from the Arabs, and of corn from the towns and villages, with the amount of fines, for¬ feitures, and prefents. The armies of Darfoor are not numerous, as 4000 troops are reckoned a formidable [ 87 ] DAR Darien, number ; neither are thefe troops remarkable for {kill, Darfobr courage, or perfeverance, though they endure hunger, third, and fatigue, with great refolution, and ufe no other camp equipage, but a light mat adapted to the fize of the body. The troops of Darfoor, not atfually engaged in war, are reviewed at an annual military reftival, termed, Tie leathering of the kettledrum, when preients are offered to the fovereign by all the prin¬ cipal people of the country, and various fuperftitious ceremonies are performed, among which are the facri- fice of a young boy and a girl. Various fuperftitious opinions are blended with the Mahometan,fm of the Furian tribes. The mountaineers iacnfice to the deity of the mountains in order to procure rain. Mahometanifm began to prevail in Darfoor, in the reign of Solyman, of the Dageou race, who is fuppofed by Browne to have lived at fome period between 130 and 150 years ago. The Dageou race are reported to havfe been originally expelled from the vicinity of Tunis, and to have refigned the fceptre to the race of Fur, after being exhaufted by inteftine diffenfions. At the inauguration of every king, they are faid to have kindled a fire, which was preferved burning till his death. At the acceflion of a fultan, the prefent Fu- rians fpread before him various carpets, on which their deceafed monarchs ufed to fit, .and from that which obtains the preference, deduce an omen of his future charafter, which they fuppofe will referable its former pofleffor. DARIC, in antiquity, a famous piece of gold, firft coined by Darius the Mode about 538 years before Uinft, probably during his flay at Babylon, out of the vaft quantity of gold which had been accumulated in the treafury. From thence it was difperfed over the eaft, and alfo into Greece j fo that the Perfian daric which was alfo called fater, was the gold coin beft known m Athens in ancient times. According to Dr Bernard, it weighed two grains more than one of our guineas j but as it was very fine, and contained little alloy, it may be reckoned worth about 259. of our money. Plutarch informs us, that the darics were Itamped on one fide with an archer clothed in a long- robe, and crowned with a fpiked crown, holding a bow in his left hand and an arrow in his right : and on the other fide with the effigies of Darius. Ail the other pieces of gold of the lame weight and value that were coined of the fucceeding kings, both of the Per¬ fian and Macedonian race, were called darics, from Da¬ rius in whofe reign this coin commenced. Qf thefe there were whoie darics and half darics ; and they are called in thofe parts of Scripture written after the Ba- bylomlh captivity adarhonitn; and by the Talmudifts darkonoth. Greaves fays that the daric is ftill found m Perfia ; but it is certainly very fcarce, and perhaps or doubtful antiquity. • . DARIEN, or the Ifthmus of Panama, is a pro¬ vince between South and North America, being a nar¬ row ifthmus or neck of land, which joins them to- gether. It is bounded on the north by the North fea on the fouth by the South fea, on the eaft by the gulf or river of Darien, and on the weft by another part of the South fea and the province of Veragua. It lies in the form of a bow, or crefcent, about the great bay of Panama in the South fea; and is 300 miles in engt , and 60 in breadth. I his province is not 1 the D A R [ 83 Darien, the rlcheft, but is of the greateft importance to Spain, and has been the fcene of more aftions than any other in America. The wealth of Peru is brought hither, and from hence exported to Europe. This has indu¬ ced many enterprifing people to make attempts on Pa¬ nama, Porto-Bello, and other towns of this province, in hopes of obtaining a rich booty. _ ^ The Scotch got poffeffion of part of this province in 1600, and attempted to form an eftablilhment, which would have proved one of the mod ufeful and import¬ ant that ever was projefted. Of the rife, progrefs, and cataftrophe, of this well-imagined, but ill-fated, under¬ taking, Sir John Dalrymple, in the 2d volume ol his Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland, has given a very interefting account, authenticated in every parti¬ cular by unqueftionable documents. The projedtor and leader of the Darien expedition was a clergyman of the name of Pater/on; who having a violent pro- penfity to fee foreign countries, he made his proreilion the inftrument of indulging it, by going to the new weltern world, under pretence of converting the In¬ dians to the religion of the old. In his courfes there, he became acquainted with Captain Dampier and Mr Wafer, who afterwards publidred, the one his V oyages, and the other his Travels, in the region where the le- paration is narrowed between the Atlantic and the South feas-, and both of whom, particularly the firft, appear by their books to have been men ot con ider- able obfervatioil. But he got much more knowledge from men who could neither write nor read, by culti¬ vating the acquaintance of fome of the old bucamers, who, after furviving their glories, and their crimes Bill, in the extremity of age and misfortune, recounted with tranfport the eafe with which they had paffed and repaffed from the one fea to the other, fometimes m hundreds together, and driving Brings of mules before them loaded with the plunder of friends and of foes. Paterfon having examined the places, latisfied himielf, that on the ifthmus of Darien there was a trad ot country running acrofs from the Atlantic to the South fea, which the Spaniards had never poffeffed, and in¬ habited by a people continually at war with them ; that along the coaB, on the Atlantic fide there lay a Bring of iflands called the Snmbaloes, uninhabited, and full of natural flrength and forefts, from which lafl circumflance one of them was called the ifland of the^ Pines; that the feas there were filled with turtk and the manatee or fea-cow •, that mid-way between Porto- Bello and Carthagena, but near 5oleagues diitant from either, at a place called ABa, in the mouth of the Darien, there was a natural harbour, capable of recei¬ ving the greatefi fleets, and defended from Borms by other iflands which covered the mouth of and b'01!1 enemies by a promontory which commanded the pai- fage, and by bidden rocks in the paffage itlelt; that on the other fide of the iflhmus, and in the fame traft of country, there were natural harbours, equally capa¬ cious and well defended *, that the two feas were con- nefted by a ridge of hills, which, by their heigh created a temperate climate m the midfl of the meB fultry latitudes, and were ftieltered by forefts, yet not rendered damp by them, becaufe the trees grew at a diftance from each other, having very little under¬ wood j that, contrary to the barren nature of hi y countries, the foil was of a black mould two or three 1 ] D A R feet deep, and producing fpontaneoufly the fine tropi- cal fruits and plants, and roots and herbs *, that roads could be made with eafe along the ridge, by which mules, and even carriages, might pafs from the one fea to the other in the fpace of a day ; and conlequent- ly this paffage feetned to be pointed out by the finger of nature, as a common centre, to connect together the trade and intercourfe of the univerfe. n • c Paterfon knew that (hips which ftretch in a Braight line from one point to another, and with one wind, run lefs rilks, and require fewer hands, than (hips which pafs through many latitudes, turn with many coafts, and require many winds •, in evidence of which, veffels of feven or eight hundred tons burden are often to be found in the South feas, navigated by no more than eight or ten hands, becaufe thefe hands have little elfe to do than fet their fails when they begin their voyage, and to take them in when they end it; that as foon as fhips from Britain got fo far fouth as to reach the trade-wind, which leldom varies, that wind would carry them to Darien, and the fame wind would carrv {hips from the bay of Panama., on the op- pofite fide of the ifthmus, to the Eaft Indies ; that as foon as (hips coming from the Eaft Indies to the^bay of Panama got fo far north as the latitude ot 40 , to reach the wefterly winds, which, about that latitude, blow almoft as regularly from the weft as the trade winds do from the eaft, thefe winds would carry them, in the track of the Spanifti Acapulco ftnps, t0 coaft of Mexico *, from whence the land-wind, which blows for ever from the north to the fouth, would car¬ ry them along the coaft of Mexico into the bay of Pa¬ nama. So that in going from Britain, (hips would encounter no uncertain winds, except during their pai- fage fouth into the latitude of the trade wind ; in co¬ ming from India to the bay of Panama, no uncertain winds, except in their paffage north to the latitude ot the wefterly winds ; and in going from the other fide of the ifthmus to the eaft, no uncertain wind whatioever. Gold vras feen by Paterfon in fome places ot the ifthmus •, and hence an ifland on the Atlantic fide was called the Gold ifland, and a river on the fide to the South fea was called the Golden river ; but thefe were objects which he regarded not at that time, becaule fiir greater were in his eye ; the removing of diftances, the drawing nations nearer to each other, the prefervation of the valuable lives of fearoen, and the faving. in freight, fo important to merchants, and in time (o im¬ portant to them, and to an animal whofe life is of fo ftrort duration as that of man. By this obfeure Scotfman, a projeft was formed to fettle, on this neglefted fpot, a great and powerful co¬ lony •, not as other colonies have for the molt part been fettled, by chance, and unprotefted by the coun¬ try from whence they went *, but by fyftem, upon ore- fight, and to receive the ample proteamn of thole go¬ vernments to whom he was to ofter his projea. And certainly no greater idea has been formed fince the time of Columbus. _ , . • Paterfon’s original intention w'»s to offer his project to England, as the country which had moft intereftm it not only from the benefit common to all nations, of ftrortening the length of voyages to the but by the effea which it would have hao to conn t the interefts of her European, Weft Indian, American, Darifti. nen. D A R African, and Eaft Indian trade, raterldn having iew acquaintance, and no proteflion in London, thought of drawing the public eye upon him, and ingratiating m eJ with monied men, and with great men, by f. 1 bng the.m to a projeft, which was at that time m embryo, for erefting the Bank of England. ut that happened to him which has happened to many m his fituation : the perfons to whom he applied made ufe of his ideas, took the honour of them to themfelves, were civil to him for a while, and neglea. ed him afterwards. He therefore communicated his perrons in Londo"’ TT^l nexu made ^ of his Proiea t0 the Dutch, the Hamburghers, and the eledor of Brandenburgh ; be- cau e, by means of the palTage of the Rhine and Elbe .•’rough their ftates, he thought, that the great addi- ^ona quantities of Eaft Indian and American goods xvhich his colony would bring into Europe, woidd be iftnbuted through Germany. The Dutch and Ham- i gh merchants, who had moft intereft in the fubjeft ef his vifit, heard him with indifference : The eleflor who had very little intereft in it, received him with honour and kindnefs. But court arts and falfe reports loft him even that prince’s favour. P _ Paterfon, on his return to London, formed a friend ftup with Mr Fletcher of Salton, whofe mind was' inflamed with the love of public good, and all of £hofe ideas to procure it had a fublimity in them letcher brought Paterfon down to Scotland7with him Senior siotl^d^6 TT" °f TweedaIe- then mi! liter tor Scotland ; and then, with that power which perftiaded^the15111' ov^ * diffident one, and ill 1 marquis, by arguments of public good ft ati n to "ad1 7 if W°^d red°Und t0 his admiiffi Tohnfton ^ T ;h£ P,'“jea* L0rd Stam and Mr johnfton, the two fecretanes of ftate, patronifed thole ’nd ri,e"ioPrf'eifn"'h'ChJhey polreired in themfclves : ;’d 'b ord advocate, Sir James Stuart the fame man who had adjuRed the prince of OranEe’s d J\Z u°eceofi „ed se,V?IUt!0n’ '''hofe fonwas >0 » nexions °TW “^Zs Tf* ''M hh ftatute from ParliamentLndbftenvards^a'chaiterTrom the cr„„n terms of it, for creating a trading compa colonies and build Z'Zhclftm oTrte tan«, places not poffefled by other European na-' and^Wh!.’ gr°Und firm under him, talenr fhn-WaS fuPP0rted by almoft all the power and taientsof h,s country, the character of Fletcher and the fanaion of an aft of parliament and royal charter threw h.s projea boldly upon the public, a'nd opened a fubfcnption for a company. The frenzv nfihp^ » exceeded flT a'nd coTenlm, „t°el “ be DaZP y ""'1 they ran dbferibe to the Darien company. The nobility, the gentry the merchants, the nennlp the. i i gentry, command of money for the fame purpofe Almcrth, fe b:irk'„rn z;"ribed Vox. VII. Part x. ' was not at t*‘at tlme above „ C 89 ] D A R But Pate, fon having Soo oool of call, in the kingdom. The famous Mr Darien. Daw, then a youth, afterwards confeffed, that the fa-' V cihty with which he faw the paffion of fpeculation com- mumcate itfelf from all to all, fatisfied him of the pof- fibihty of producing the fame effeft from the fame caufe but upon a larger fcale, when the duke of Orleans in to r„r w th,e eneascd hi” ^ Ms will 1 h- v. u J L bank Into a bubble. Paterftm’s proitdl which had been received by ftrangers with fcJs when opened to them in private, filled them with hopes when Cniamei V U?0n the winS8 of PubIJc Pame : For dane of n ^ Cardr°fs- and Mr Hal- dane ot Gleneagles, the one a generous brand, of a generous ftem, and the other a country gentleman of ortune and character, having been deputed to receive fubfcriptions m EngJand and on'the continent, the TT 8 ’ 1 {Ubfcnbed 300,0001. and the Dutch and Hamburghers 200,000k more. v auth’ort' "l™!1 re 'h'jc^Ioufy of trade (continues our uthor) which has done more mifehief to the trade of mg and than all other caufes put together, created an n onT wifh? t ’ ""d -he h°ufeS °f Iords aild com- i nh of Dec KPreVi°US inqU,ry °r refleaion, on the 3 . December 1695, concurred in a joint addrefs to king, agamft the ellablifliment of the Darien com¬ pany as detrimental to the intereft of the Eaft India ompany. Soon after, the commons impeached feme ela-ZtlT C°Untrymen f°r bei"S inftrumental andirSe^n^lH0011^11^^505 the eftabb'^nieut; benefit 0hf ;rn 0UM ,tUP°n InqUlry’ he that the benefit of it fliould be communicated, by a narticinn tion of rights, to both nations. The king7 anfwer was' oat he had been ill advifed in Scotland ” Fc d”" to his f"S'd h,'S lrC°ttil>ey eni gaged 1200 men for the colony • amnno- ^ younger fons of many of the noble an/moR 'ancient banded a°t .rCOt and’ and 60 “Seers who had been Jif. banded at the peace, who cartied with them fuch of M their D A R [go Darien, tlieir private men, generally raifed on their own, or the ■—v eftates of their relations, as they knew to be faith.ul and brave ; and moft of thofe were Highlanders. The Scots parliament, on the 5th Auguft 1698, unani- moufly addreffed the king to fupport the company. The lord prefident Sir Hugh Dalrymple, brother to Lord Stair, and head of the bench, and the lord ad¬ vocate Sir James Stuart, head of the bar, jointly drew memorials to the king, able in point of argument, in¬ formation, and arrangement •, in which they defended the rights of the company upon the principles of con- ftitutional and of public law. _ And neighbouring na¬ tions, with a mixture of furprife and refpe6f, faw the pooreft kingdom of Europe fending forth the moft gallant and the moft numerous colony that had ever gone from the old to the new world. On the 26th day of July of the year 1698, the whole city of Edinburgh poured down upon Leitn, to fee the colony depart, amidft the tears and prayers and prai- fes of relations and friends, and of their countrymen. Many feamen and foldiets, wdiofe fervices had been re- fufed, becaufe more had offered themfelves than were needed, were found hid in the (hips, and, when order¬ ed afhore, clung to the ropes and timbers, imploring to go without reward with their companions. Twelve hundred men failed in five ftout fhips, and arrived at Darien in two months, with the Jofs of only 15 of their people. At that time it was in their power, moft of whom were well born, and all of them hardily bred and inured to the fatigues and dangers of the late war, to have gone from the northmoft part of Mexico to the fouthmoft of Chili, and to have overturned the whole empire of Spain in the South feas : But modeft, re- fpe&ing their own and their country’s charafter, and afraid of being accufed that they had plunder, and not a fettlement in view, they began with purchafing lands from the natives, and fending meffages of amity to the Spanifh governors within their reach : and then fixed their flatten at Afta, caUing it New St Andrew from the name of the tutelar laint of Scotland, and the country itfelf New Caledonia. One of the fides of the harbour being formed by a long narrow neck of land which ran into the fea, they cut it acrofs fo as to join the ocean and the harbour. Within this defence they ere&ed their fort, planting upon it 50 pieces of cannon. On the other fide of the harbour there was a mountain a mile high, on which they placed a_ watch-houfe, which, in the rarefied air within the tropics, fo favour¬ able for vifion, gave them an immenfe range of pro- fpesft to prevent all furprife. To this place, it was obferved that the Highlanders often repaired to en¬ joy a cool air, and to talk of their friends they had left behind in their hills; friends whofe minds were as high as their mountains. The firft public 3a of the colony was to publilh a declaration of freedom of trade and D A R Darien. religion to all nations. This luminous idea originated with Paterfon. . But the Dutch Eaft India Company haying prefied the king, in concurrence with his Englifh fubjedfs, to prevent the fettlement at Darien, orders had been fent from England to the governors of the Welt In¬ dian and American colonies, to iffue proclamations againft giving affifiance, or even to hold correfpondence with the colony •, and thefe were more or lefs harfhly espreffed, according to. the tempers of the different governors. The Scots trufting to far different treat- ment, and to the fupplies which they expefted from thofe colonies, had not brought provifions enough with them j they fell into difeafes from bad food and from want of food. But the more generous lavages, by hunting and fifiiing for them, gave them that relief which fellow Britons refufed. They lingered eight months, awaiting, but in vain, for afliftance from Scot¬ land ; and almoft all of them either died out or quitted the fettlement. Paterfon who had been the firft that entered the fliip at Leith, was the laft who went on board at Darien. , A .... During the fpace of two years, while the ettablith- ment of his colony had been in agitation, Spain had made no complaint to England or Scotland againft it. The Darien council even averred in their papers (which are in the advocates library), that the right of the company was debated before the king, in prefence ot the Spanilh ambaffador, before the colony left Scot¬ land. But now, on the 3d of May 1698, the Spa- nifh ambaffador at London prefented a memorial to the king, which complained of the fettlement at Darien, as an encroachment on the rights of his mafter. . The Scots, ignorant of the misfortunes of their co¬ lony, but provoked at this memorial, fent out another colony foon after of 1300 men, to fupport an eftablifh- ment which was now no more. But this laft expedi¬ tion having been more haftily prepared than the hrit, was unlucky in its paffage. One of the ftups was loft at fea, many men died on finp-board, and the reft ar¬ rived at different times, broken in their health and difpirited, when they heard the fate of thofe who had gone before them—Added to the misfortunes of the firft colony, the fecond had a misfortune peculiar to itfelf: The general affembly of the church ot Scot¬ land fent out four minifters, with orders “ to take charge of the fouls of the colony, and to eredl a pret- bvtery, with a moderator, clerk, and record ot pro¬ ceedings *, to appoint ruling elders, dea conditions. Captain Campbell alone defired to be had of 1 1 CAR excepted from the capitulation, faying he was fare the Spaniards could not forgive him the mifehief which1 he fo lately had done them. The brave, by their cou¬ rage, often efcape that death which they feem to pro- VOa : ^aP.ta‘n Campbell made his efcape in his veffel and flopping nowhere, arrived fafely at New York and from thence to Scotland, where the company pre- lented him with a gold medal, in which his virtue was commemorated, to inflame his family with the love of hero.c aaions. And the Lord Lyon King at Arms t^hofe office it is in Scotland (and fuch offices fliould be everywhere) to confer badges of diftinflion accord¬ ing to the rules of heraldry upon houourable aaions, gave him a Highlander and an Indian for fupporters to h:s coat of arms. A harder fate attended thofe whom Captain Camp¬ bell left at Darien. They were fo weak in their health as not to be able to weigh up the anchors ofthe Rifino- bun, one of their fhips, which carried 60 guns: But he generous Spaniards affifted them. In going out of he harbour (he ran aground : The prey was tempting, and to obtain it, the Spaniards had only to ftand by InViTr °n L-but fhowe,d that mercT to the Scots gc d!ftrrfS’ ^ °ne °f the ^untrymen of thofe bcots, General Elliot, returned to the pofterity of the Spamards at the end^ of the late conflagration at the lege o Gibraltar. The Darien (hips being leaky and weakly manned, were obliged in their voyage to take fheltenn different ports belonging to Spain'and Eng! land. I he Spaniards in the new world ffiowed them kmdnefs j the Engliffi governments fhowed them none • and in one place one of their fliips was feized and de- tmned. Of thefe only Captain Campbell’s ffiip and another fmall one were faved : The Royal Sun was loft on the bar of Charleftown 5 and of the colony, not more than 30, faved from war, fhipwreck, or difeafe ever faw their country again. ’ Patnr^"’ ha.d ft°od the blow, could not fland the reflexion of misfortune. He was feized with a lunacy in his paflage home after the ruin of the firft coiony ; But he recovered in his own country, where his fpint, ftill ardent and unbroken, prefented a new plan to the company, founded on the idea of King s-j' r to doms, he claimed reparation of his Ioffes from the equi- valent-money given by England to the Darien Com- Pany but got nothing : becaufe a grant to him from % ““'a poniticaTjthaVe bCe" °nly 33 °f h^a'’i- more often to be found in the records of hiftory. ^Fhe application of the Dutch to King William againft the Dauen Company, affords the fureft of all proofs, that it was the mtereft of the Britifli iflands Jfupport it England, by the imprudence of ruining that fettle- ment loft the opportunity of gaining and continuing blvhrv^ tbe§reateftcoramer^^ empire that proba? bly ever will be upon earth. Had ftie treated with Scotland, in the hour of the diftrefs of the company for a joint poffeffion of the fettlement, or adopted the union of the kingdoms, which the fovereign of both Darieh. Mz propofed D A R [ 92 1 D A R Darien, propofed to them, that poffeffion could certainly have ^ been obtained. Had (he treated with Spain to relm- quifh an imaginary right, or at lead to give a paflage acrofs the idhmus, upon receiving duties fo high as to overbalance all the chance of lofs by a contraband trade, fhe had probably obtained either the one or the other. Had (lie broke with Spain for the fake of gaining by- force one of thofe favours, die would have lod far lefs than die afterwards did by carrying a war into that country for many years, to force a king upon the Spa¬ niards againd their will. Even a rupture with Spam for Darien, if it had proved fuccefsful, would have knit the two nations together by the mod fohd of ties, their mutual intered : for the Englilh mud then have depended upon Spain for the fafety of their caravans by land, and the Spaniards upon England for the hiety of their deets by fea. Spain and England would have been bound together as Portugal and England have long been--, and the Spanifli treafures have failed, un¬ derlie wings of Englidi navies, from the Spamdi mam to Cadiz, in the fame manner as the treafures oil or- tugal have failed under the fame proteftion, facred and untouched, from the Brazils to Lilbon. It has been made a quedion, whether King U u- liam behaved with his ordinary dncenty and deadineis, in the affurances of favour which he gave more than once to the company during their didreffes. 1 he hal¬ lowing anecdote makes it probable, that there was a druggie in his bread between the part winch he wnas obliged to aft to pleafe his Englidi and Dutch at the expence of his Scots fubjeds and his own feelings. A providon (hip of the fird colony, in which were 30 gentlemen paffengers, and fome of them of noble birth, having been diipwrecked at Carthagena, the Spaniards, Believing or pretending to believe that they were fmugglers, cad them into a dungeon, and threatened them with death. The company deputed Lord Bad! Hamilton from Scotland to implore King illiams protection for the prifoners. The king at fird refu e to fee him, becaufe he had not appeared at court when he was lad in London. But when th.s difficulty was removed by explanation, an expreffion fell from the king, which ffiowed his fenfe of the generous conduct of another, although influenced by the Enghffi and Dutch Ead India Companies, he could not refolve to imitate it in his own. For Lord BafiPs audience ha ving been put off from time to time, but at lad fixed to be in the council chamber after a council was over the king, who had forgotten the appointment, was pal¬ ling into another room, when Lord Bafil p.aced h m- felfin the paffage, and faid, “ That he came commif- fioned by a great body of his majedy s fubjeas to lay their misfortunes-at his feet; that he had a right to b. heard, and would be heard The king returned, lidened with patience, gave indant orders to apply to Spain for redrefs and then turning to thofe near him, faid “ This young man is too bold, if any man can be too bold in his ^country’s caufed’ I had this anec¬ dote from the prefent earl of Selkirk, giandfon to L°Kin^aWilliam,s defertion of a company erefted upon the faith of his own charter and the Enghffi oppreffions of it,, were the reafons why fo many of the Scots during four fucceffiye reigns, dlAfll^ed ^ the Revolution and of the Union. And that difl.ke, ioined to Engliffi difcontents, brought upon botn coun¬ tries two rebellions, the expenditure of many millions of money, and (which is a far greater lofs) the down¬ fall of many of their nobled and mod ancient fami¬ lies. Sir John Dalrymple's Memoirs of Great Britain and Ireland, vol. ii. r r n -r f DARII, in Logic, one of the modes of fyllogiim ot the firit figure, wherein the major propofition is an u- niverfal affirmative, and the minor and conclufion par¬ ticular affirmatives : thus, .Darii I! Darknefs. Da- Every thing that is moved, is moved by another ; ri- Some body is moved ; 1, Therefore, fome body js moved by ano¬ ther. DARIORIGUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Veneti in Gallia Celtica 5 called in the Notitia Lug- dunends, Civitas Venetum, after the manner of the lower age. Now Vannes, or Venues, in Brittany. W. Long. 2. 37. Lat. 47. 40. r n r c DARIUS, the name of feveral kings of erfia. bee (Hidorx of) Perfia. . „ , , DARK1NG, a market-town of Surrey in England, fituated ten miles ead of Guilford. The market is no¬ ted for corn and provifions, more efpecially for fowls. W. Long. S. 20. N. Lat. 51. 18. _ _ DARKNESS, the abfence, privation, or want ot natural light. “ Darknefs was upon the face ot the deep.” (Gen. 1. 2.) 1 that is to fay, the chaos was plun¬ ged in thick darknefs, becaufe hitherto the light was not created. One of the mod terrible forts ot dark¬ nefs was that which Mofes brought upon Egypt as a plague to the inhabitants of it. The Septuagmt, our tranflation of the Bible, and indeed mod others, in explaining Mofes’s account of this darknefs render it “ a darknefs which may be felt and the \ ulgate has it “ palpable darknefs j” that is, a darknefs confiding of black vapours and exhalations, fo con- denfed that they might be perceived by the organs of feeling or feeing : but fome commentators think that this is carrying the fenfe too far, fince in fuch a me¬ dium as this mankind could not live an hour, much lefs for the fpace of three days, as the Egyptiansaix fa.d to have done, during the time this dar^nej lj!fted7 therefore they imagine, that indead of a darknefs that may be felt, the Hebrew phrafe may figmfy a darknefs wherein men went groping and feeling about for every thing they wanted. Le Clerc is of this opinion, and thinks that Philo, in his life of Mofes underdood the paffage in its right fenfe. “ For in this darknefs (fays bej whoever were in bed, durd not get up ; and fuch as their natural occafions compelled to get up, went feeline about by the walls, or any thing they could lay hold on, as if they had been blind ” What it was that occafioned this darknefs, whether « was m the air or in the eyes ; whether it was a fufpendon of light from the fun in that country, or a black thick vapour which totally intercepted it, there is reafon to think That the defection which the author of the book of Wifdom (xvi. I, 2, 3, &c.) gives us of the,r_ inward terrors and confternation, is not altogether coujeaural, viz. that they were not only prifoners of darknefs, and fettered with the bonds of a long night, but were hor¬ ribly adonidied likewife, and troubled with ^ange ap- Barknefs II Dartos. D A R [ 93 ] paritions; for while over them was fpread an heavy form the fcrotum. night, they were to themfelyes more grievous than dark- nefs. During the laft three hours that our Saviour hanged upon the crofs, a darknefs covered the face of the earth, to the great terror and amazement of the people pre- fent at his execution. This extraordinary alteration in the face of nature (fays Dr Macknight, in his Harmony cf the Gofpels'), was peculiarly proper, whilft the Sun oi righteoufnefs was withdrawing his beams from the land of Ifrael and from the world ; not only becaufe it was a miraculous teftimony borne by God himfelf to his innocence : but alfo becaufe it was a fit emblem of its departure and its eflfefts, at lead; till his light fhone out anew with additional fplendor in the miniflry oi his apoftles. The darknefs which now covered Ju¬ dea and the neighbouring countries, beginning about noon, and continuing till Jefus expired, was not the effedt of an ordinary eclipfe of the fun : for that can never happen but at the new moon ; whereas now it was full moon ; not to mention, that the total dark¬ nefs occafioned by eclipfes of the fun never continues above twelve or fifteen minutes ; wherefore it muft have been produced by the divine power, in a manner We ..a.re no'' t° explain. Accordingly, Luke (xxiii. 44, 45.), after relating that there was darknefs over all the earth, adds, “ and the fun was darkened which perhaps may imply, that the darknefs of the fun did not occafion, but proceeded from, the dark¬ nefs that was over all the land. Farther, the Chriftian writers, in their moft ancient apologies to the Hea¬ thens, affirm, that as it was full moon at the paffover when Chriit was crucified, no fuch eclipfe could hap¬ pen by the courfe of nature. They obferve alfo, that it was taken notice of as a prodigy by the Heathens themfelves. DARLINGTON, a town of the county of Dur- ham, fituated on a flat on the river Skerne, which falls into the Tees. It is a pretty large place, has feveral Ilreets, and a fpacious market-place. It gives title of earl to the Vane family. W. Long. 1. 15. N. Lat. 54- 3°- DARMSTADT, a town of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and capital of the landgraviate hleffie Darmfladt, with a handfome caflle, where its own prince generally refides. It is feated on a ri¬ ver of the fame name, in E. Long. 8. 40. N. Lat. 40. 5°. DARNEL. See Lolium, Botany Index. DARNLEY, Lord. See {Hi/lory of) Scot¬ land. 4 DARTFORD, a town of the county of Kent in England, feated on the river Darent, not far from its- influx into the Thames. E. Long. o. 16. N. Lat. ci. 25. DARTMOUIH, a fea-port town in Devonffiire, feated on the river Dart, near its fall into the fea. It is a well frequented and populous place, having a com¬ modious harbour, and a confiderable trade by fea. The town is large and well builtbut the ftreets are narrow and bad, though all paved. It has the title of an earldom, and fends two members to parliament. W. Long. 4. o. N. Lat. 50. 25. DARIOS, in Anatomy^ one of the coats which D A R It is called the dartos mnfcle ; but Darwirf. Dr Hunter fays, that no fuch mufcle can be found,' and Albinus takes no notice of it in his tallies. _ DARWIN, Erasmus, a phyfician, a poet, and me¬ dical writer, was born at Elflon, near Newark, in Nottinghamfhire, on the 12th December 1731. He was the fourth fon of Robert Darwin Efq. He received the early part of his education at Cheflerfield fchool, under the reverend Mr Burrows, of whom he always fpoke with great refpedl. He was entered, with two of his elder brothers, at St John’s college, Cambridge ; and, being intended for the pra6!ice of medicine, took the degree of M. B. in 1755, defending in his thejis an opinion, that the motion of the heart and arteries is produced by the immediate ftimulus of the blood. During his refidence in Cambridge, IMr Darwun W’as eleaed to one of Lord Exeter’s fcholarfhips, worth about 161. per annum, which, from the meagrenefs of his father’s income at that time, was efieemed a de- fii-able acquifition. After having prepared himfelf for his future profeffion, by an attendance on the ledures oi Dr Hunter, in London, and by a fevere courfe of ftudy at Edinburgh, lie contemplated the metropolis as the proper theatre for his exertions. Deterred, how¬ ever, by the W'ant of an immediate introduftion, and the improbability of obtaining immediate patronage, Dr Darwin thought it altogether more advifeable to’ fettle in the country : the firil place to which he went, in the capacity of a phyfician, w-as Nottingham, where he was entirely difappointed in his hopes of pra&ice • he removed, therefore, to Litchfield, with letters of in- trodu&ion to Lady Grefley and the reverend Mr Se¬ ward. Here his great capacity and various acquire¬ ments were moft juftly appreciated : he refided at Litchfield during a great number of years, in the en¬ joyment of a very extenfive reputation, and a very pro¬ fitable pra&ice, the foundation of which is fuppoled to have been laid by his fuccefs in reftoring to health a gentleman of fortune in the neighbourhood, whofe re¬ covery w'as defpaired of by a numerous circle of friends and acquaintances. In the year 1757 Dr Darwin married Mifs Mary- Howard, daughter of Charles Howard, Efqj by his wife, Elizabeth Foley: Ibe died in 1770. By this jady he had five children, two of whom died in their infancy : the eldeft fon, Charles, he educated to his own profeffion, but he died in the 20th year of his age, very foon after he had finifiied his courfe of ftudies at Edinburgh, where he gained confiderable reputation, by endeavouring to furniffi a criterion for diftinguifliin^ pus from mucus. & Soon after the deceafe of his wife, Dr Darwin com¬ menced his laborious work, the Zoonomia, which, howr- ever, he did not think proper to publiffi till about eight', years fince. 6 In 1778 he obtained a leafe of a piclurefque fpot of ground, about a mile from Litchfield, where a cold bath vyas creeled by Sir John Flayer, an eminent phy¬ fician in the beginning of the laft century: there is a grotto, furrotmded by proje&ing rocks, from the edges- of which trickles a perpetual fhow’er of water. This place became his favourite retreat and amufement:: here he formed a botanic garden, and began his poem on the “ Loves of the Plants,” the feenery of which, “ aa> D A R [94 Darwin. “ as adapted to love-fcenes, and being thence a proper v"-—; rcfidence for the modern goddefs of Botany,” is taken from thefe fequeftered fhades :— And if with thee fome haplefs maid fhould ftray, Difaftrous Love companion of her way, Oh lead her timid fteps to yonder glade, Whofe arching cliffs depending alders {hade ; There as meek Evening wakes her temperate breeze, And moonbeams glimmer through the trembling trees. The rills, that guggle round, {hall foothe her ear. The weeping rocks {hall number tear for tear, See. &c. Canto i, line 25. In 1780, Dr Darwin was called to attend Colonel Sacheverel Pole, of Radbourne-hall, four miles from Derby ", and a few months after the deceafe of the co¬ lonel, he married his reli£t, Mrs Pole, with a jointure of 600k per annum. The marriage of Dr Darwin oc- cafioned his immediate removal from Litchfield to Rad- bourne, where he refided two years, till he got accom¬ modated with a houfe in Derby. In this lall lituation he remained till about two months before his death, when he removed to Breadwall Priory, about three miles from Derby, which was a commodious and peace¬ ful retirement for his old age. During the laft few years, Dr Darwin wras much fubjeft to inflammation in his breaft and lungs; and had a very ferious attack of this difeafe in the courfe of the fpring of 1801, from which, after repeated bleedings, he with difficulty recovered. On the 10th of April 1802, he was attacked with a fevere {hivering fit, followed by a correfpondent hot one, and accom¬ panied with fymptoms of inflammation in his lungs : his furgeon, Mr Hadley, took from him, in the courfe of the day, 25 ounces of blood. The fever was re¬ moved, and in two or three days he became, to all appearance, quite well. On the 17th as he was walk¬ ing in his garden with Mrs Darwin, and a lady of a- bout his own age, the latter remarked, that he would have fufficient employment for ten years in bringing all his plans about the place to perfeftion. “ You ma¬ dam (he replied) have as good a profpeft as any body I know, of your age, of living ten years 5 I have not.” Mts Darwin remarked his good looks, fpirits, and ftrength. He faid, “ I always appear particularly well immediately before I become ill.” He fat with his fa¬ mily in the evening, converfing with his ufual cheer- fulnefs; went to bed, and rofe at fix on the following morning \ wrote fome letters till after feven, when he was feized with a chilly fit, which increafed, and was attended with thirft. He then fat down by the kitchen- fire and drank a confiderable quantity of butter-milk j but feeling himfelf much indifpofed, he lay down on a fofa, when becoming more cold and torpid, he was raifed up, and placed in an arm-chair, where, without pain or any emotion, he expired a little before nine, in the 71ft year of his age. Dr Darwin left a widow and fix children, three boys and three girls, by his laft marriage. 1 here was alfo another child, who died an infant. Befide thefe, he left two natural daughters whom he had eftablifti- ed in a fchool at Afhbourne, and for whofe inftrutlion ] D A R and affiftance lie compofed and publiffied his “ Treatife Darwin, on Female Education.” 1——-y—. During the whole of his life, Dr Darwin was re¬ markable for great benevolence of difpofition, and it was particularly confpicuous in the care he took even of the loweft animals. The keennefs of his feelings on this fubjeft has been attributed to the ftrong impreffion made upon his mind by a reprefentation of the tortures of the inquifition, which was ffiown to him at an early age. He had frequently exprefled a ftrong defire, that the termination of his exiftence might be without pain, having always looked upon death as the lefs evil of the two. He was of a middle ftature, in perfon grofs and corpulent; his features were coarfe, and his counte¬ nance heavy j if not wholly void of animation, it cer¬ tainly was by no means expreffive. In his gait and drefs he was rather clumfy and flovenly, and frequent¬ ly walked with his tongue hanging out of his mouth. His converfation abounded with very unequal failles of wit: when he found himfelf engaged with a power¬ ful antagonift in argument, he had fometimes recourfe to ridicule, a weapon which he did riot always handle W’ith dexterity, for he was affefted with an impediment in his fpeech which rendered his enunciation fcarcely intelligible. About the age of twenty-one, Dr Darwin was fei¬ zed with a fit of the gout j in confequence of which he totally abftained from all fermented liquors, not even tailing fmall beer, or a drop of any kind of wine ; but he ate plentifully of flelh-meat, and all kinds of vege¬ tables and fruit, ufing for his drink, at meals, chiefly water alone, or cream and water, with tea and coffee between them, as ufual. By this abftinence from fer¬ mented liquors, he kept quite free from gout for 15 years, and from fome other complaints to which he had been fubjedf. He then indulged himfelf occafionally with a little wine and water ; cyder and water, &.c. but was fpeedily admonifhed into his former temper¬ ance, by a paroxyfm of the gout. He was in the ha¬ bit of eating a large quantity of food, and his ftomach poffeffed a ftrong power of digeftion. His advice fre¬ quently was “ Eat, or be eaten ;” but he took every opportunity to imprefs a dread of all fermented liquors on the minds of his patients, whofe difeafes he was too ready to reprefent as originating in the frequent ufe of them. In the “ Botanic Garden,” he has alfo taken an opportunity to exprefs his ftrong antipathy againft fermented and fpirituous liquors, by comparing their effedls to that of the Promethean fire : “ The ancient ftory of Prometheus, who concealed in his bofom the fire he had ftolen, and afterward had a vulture perpe¬ tually gnawing his liver, affords fo apt an allegory for the effefts of drinking fpirituous liquors, that one ftrould be induced to think the art of diftillation, as well as fome other chemical proceffes (fuch as calcining gold) had been known in times of great antiquity, and loft again. The fwallowing drams cannot be better repre- fented in hieroglyphic language, than by taking fire into one’s bolom ; and certain it is, that the general effe£l of drinking fermented or {pirituous liquors is an inflamed, fchirrous, or paralytic liver, with its vari¬ ous critical or confequential difeafes, as leprous erup¬ tions on the face, gout, dropfy, epilepfy, and infa- nity.” _ ^ The 1 D A R r 95 Barwin. The various produflions of Dr Darwin’s fanciful and philofophical pen, have long fince been expofed to pub¬ lic criticifin, and received an ample fhare, as well of obloquy as applaufe. Still, however, he has claims to celebrity from the literary luftre which adorns his charadler, as a medical philofopher, a philofophical a- gricultor, and a poet. The pretenfions of Dr Darwin to high rank as a me¬ dical philofopher will, of courfe, fubftantiate them- felves in the merits, numerous and folid as they are, of the “ Zoonomia.” In whichever point of view this work (hall be confidered, whether as a mere repofitory of curious natural and medical faffs, or as a fcheme and fyftem of pathological and phyfiological difquifi- tion, is probably matter of trifling import, fo far as the reputation of its author is concerned. By either mode of appreciation it is, unqueftionably, a noble effort of human labour or of human wit ; and though its illu- ftrious author may have fometimes erred from excels of ingenuity, and been occafionally blinded by too great a love of fyftem, the Zoonomia will ever be confidered as a produftion of tranfcendent merit. As a philofophical agricultor Dr Darwin muft ever be entitled to the higheft confideration. In order to profit by the multitudinous experiments of Hales, Grew, Malpighi, Bonnet, Du Hamel, Buffon, Spal¬ lanzani, Prieftley, &c. collefted in the “ Phytologia,” it is not neceffary to take poffeflion of the air-built the¬ ory of vegetation which is there conftrufted, and fe- curely inhabit it as an edifice whofe folidity is equal to its elegance. Whether the analogy is in fafl fo clofe between the parts and funffions of animal and vegeta¬ ble beings •,—whether the anatomy of the one fo ftrift- ly correfponds with that of the other, as to induce a- belief that the latter are in reality an inferior order of the former, pofleffed of a brain, uterus, mufcles, and complete nervous fyftem, is an inquiry, which, how¬ ever curious, muft furely be fubordinate in comparifon with thofe grand and indifputable difcoveries which the application of chemiftry to agriculture has brought to light. A fmall portion only of the Phytologia is de¬ voted to this fanciful fyftem of vegetable phyfiology : the fecond part, divided into three fedftions, treats on the economy of vegetation ; and the third, on agricul¬ ture and horticulture, is divided into fix fe&ions. Dr Darwin, in his charafter as a poet, does not (land very high in the eftiraation of fome. The ear is fafcinated and feduced by the mellifluence of his num¬ bers, but there is a harlotry in his embellifliments which is unchafte. His cadences are not fufficiently varied for a poem of fuch length as the “ Botanic Garden indeed there is an evident mechanifm in the conftrudtion of his lines which it is by no means plea- fant to dete<3:. But an imagination of unrivalled rich- nefs ; a felicity of allufion to whatever can throw luftre on his fubjeift, to ancient mythology and modern dif¬ coveries, to the works of nature and of art ; if thefe are fome of the effentials of poetry, Dr Darwin may certainly claim them as his own. No man, perhaps, was ever happier in the fele£Hon and compofition of his epithets, had a more imperial command of words, or could elucidate with fuch accuracy and elegance the moft complex and intricate machinery. Who but Dr Darwin would have thought of defcribing a porcelain 1 D A R manufaftory in verfe j the powers and conftruftion of Bar a fleam engine ; the mechanifm of a watch j and the complexity of a cotton-mill ? Thefe, and many fimilar defcriptions, to be found in the Botanic Garden, are inimitable in their way. In fome of his minor effufions he is particularly happy : the beautiful little fong “ to May,” is exquifitely finiftied ; and it would be difficult to find thirty lines in the Botanic Garden to rival in dignity and pathos the “ Addrefs to Swilcar’s Oak,” introduced in the Phytologia. As a profe writer, Dr Darwin was incorre£t *, his grammatical errors are numerous, and he was even de¬ ficient in orthography. In the year 1758, he publifh- ed in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions, “ An attempt to confute the opinion of Henry Earl, concerning the af- cent of vapour and “ An account of the cure of a periodical haemoptoe, by keeping the patient awake” This was followed by “ Experiments‘On animal fluids in the exhaufted receiver.” He inferred in the Derby Mercury, an elegy written at Matlock, and addreffed to Mrs Darwin ; another piece occafioned by the ap¬ pearance of a moft fatal diftemper among horned cat¬ tle, at Calke, near Derby ; and a third article on oc- cafion of the earthquake, which feveral years ago was felt at Derby, and in the furrounding country. In 1782, the Botanical Society of Litchfield publiftled a* tranflation of Linnaeus’s Sy//ema Vegetabilium, the exe¬ cution of which was principally confided to Dr Dar¬ win. His other works have already been mentioned in the courfe of this biographical (ketch. He left a- poem entitled “ The Temple of Nature,” which was publifhed after his death. Next to medicine, mechanics, and almoft every branch of natural hiftory, engaged his attention. He not only purfued thefe ftudies with great ardour and diligence himfelf, but alfo embraced every opportunity of cultivating and encouraging them among his nume¬ rous connexions and acquaintance. Very foon after he fettled in Derby, he i.iftituted and eftablifhed a philo¬ fophical fociety and library, both of which rvere in a flourifhing (late at the time of his deceafe. He alfo took pleafure in encouraging works in natural hi¬ ftory. But though the learning, tafte, and genius of Dr Darwin, were eminently difplayed in thefe purfuits, yet there was one great end, to the attainment of which all his talents and views w’ere directed. He did not hefitate openly and repeatedly to declare, that the acquifition of wealth was the leading obje6t of all his literary undertakings. However, he was by no means infenfible to the va¬ lue of reputation. During the laft years of his life, the love of fame was a paflion which had great pow’er over his mind ; and the incenfe of praife was fo plea- fant to him, that flattery was found to be the moft fuc- cefsful means of gaining his notice and favour. There are reafons for fufpe&ing that Dr Darwin was not a believer in Divine Revelation. A few days be¬ fore his death, a gentleman endeavoured to diicover whether he entertained a belief and expeftation of n future ftate of exiftence : the do£!or was obferved to fpeak with a confiderable degree of fedatenefs on the fubjeft, and remarked, that it w^as natural to extend our wifties and views beyond the prefent fcene, and that DAT [ 96 1 D A U Date. Bafypus it was right to purfue fucli meafures as are likely to fecure our happinefs in another world ; “ but/’ he added, “ let us not hear any thing about hell.” DASYPUS, the Armadillo or Tatou, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of Bruta. See Mammalia Index. DA'I'A, among mathematicians, a term for fuch things or quantities as are given or known, in order to find other things thereby that are unknown. The data of Euclid is the nrft in order of the books that have been written by the ancient geometricians, to facili¬ tate and promote the method of refolution or analyfis. In general, a thing is faid to be given which is either adlually exhibited, or can be found out, that is, which is either known by hypothefis, or that can be demon- ftrated to be known : and the propofitions in the book of Euclid’s data (hew what things can be found out or known, from thofe that by hypothefis are already known : fo that in the analyfis or inveftigation of a problem, from the things that are laid down as given or known, by the help of thefe propofitions, it is de- monftrated that other things are given, and from thefe lad that others again are given, and fo on, till it is de- monftrated that that which was propofed to be found out in the problem is given ; and when this is done, the problem is folved, and its compofition is made and de¬ rived from the compofitions of the data which were em¬ ployed in the analyfis. And thus the data of Euclid are of the mod general and neceffary ufe in the folution of problems of every kind. Marinus, at the end of his preface to the data, is midaken in averting that Euclid has not ufed the fyn- thetical, but the analytical method in delivering them : for though in the analyfis of a theorem, the thing to be demondrated is affumed in the analyfis j yet in the demondrations of the data, the thing to be demondra¬ ted, which is, that fomething is given, is never once affumed in the demondration 5 from which it is mani- fed, that every one of them is demondrated fyntheti- cally : though indeed if a propofition of the data be tjirned into a problem, the demondration of the pro¬ pofition becomes the analyfis of the problem. Simpfori's Preface to his edition of the Data. From the primary ufe of the word data in mathe¬ matics, it has been tranfplanted into other arts ; as philofophy, medicine, &cc. where it expreffes any quan¬ tity, which, for the fake of a prefent calculation, is taken for granted to be fuch, without requiring an immediate proof for its certainty ; called alfo the given quantity, number, or power. And hence alfo fuch things as are known, from whence, either in natural philofophy, the animal mechanifm, or the operation of medicines, we come to the knowledge of others un¬ known, are nowr frequently in phyfical writers called data. DATE, an addition or appendage in writings, aids, indruments, letters, &c. exprefiing the day and month of the year when the aavls( Davit. 114 u !«- itsr £ •.ss-.m.s-—• Frfm his time his fucceffors, holding the feme petty canton of Auvergne, ftyled themlelves da,,fbws ofAu- verene, and bore a dolphin for their arms. Dauphins, or De/phint, in literary hiftory, a name given to the commentators on the ancient L authors who were employed by Louis X . France’for the benefit of the prince, under the care and direflion of M. de Montaufier hn governor and Boffuet and Huet his preceptors. 1 hey t\ere 39 m ^ DAUPHINY, a late province of France, bounded on the weft by the Rhone, on the north by the Rhone and Savoy, on the fouth by Provence, and on the eaft by the Alps, and now forming the departments of Dauphin, which is done by the Jhanh■painter. 7 , n ' —.There is alfo a davit of a fmaller kind occafionally fixed in the long-boat, and employed to weigh the a - chDAUPHIN, is a title which was given to the eld- eft fon of the royal family of France and prefumptive heir of the crown *, on account of the province of Dauphine, which in 1343 ™ g^en PhJP ^ lois, on this condition, by Humbert dauphin of the Viennois. The dauphin, in his letters patent, ftylec himfelf, By the grace of God, eldejl fon of France, an ^^rincicnfly the title or eppeilation of the prince of Viennois in France. . . r .p- Moft authors who have fought the origin of he name Dauphin and Daupkine, feem to have given o much looie to conjeaure. Du Chefne 15 of “P1"1011 th it it was the grandfon of Guy the Fat who firft bore tnar it wcj s that William, file name of dauphin. Chorier obferves, that \V uham,- canon of Notre Dame at Grenoble, who has written the life of Margaret, daughter of Stephen eaU of Bur- trundy, married with Guy, fon of Guy the 1 at, calls the latter Amply Guy the Old, and the former always Count Dauphin i and adds, that no record nor monu¬ ment ever attributes the title of dauphin to Guy the Fat or any of his predecelors : fo that ft muft necef- far iy have taken its rife in his fon, all whofe fucceffors fo conftantly affumed it, that it became the proper name of the'family. He died in . .42, m the flower of his youth i fo that it muft be about the year , 120 that the title commenced ; and without doubt, adds he pn fome llluftrious occafron. He obferves farther, St this prince was of a military difpofit.on, and de¬ lighted in nothing but war t and again, that it was the cuftom of the cavaliers to deck their cafques, coats o a-ms and the houfing of their horfes, with Tome figure arms, uhu mv, & tfipv were rdevice peculHr to^tbemfelves, wbereby they were diftinguiftied from all others engaged in the fame com¬ bat or tournament. From all thele circumftances he conieftures, that this Guy chofe the dolpbm for his fie nature ; that this was the creft of his helmet , and [hat he bore it on his coat in fome notable tournament or battle, wherein be diftinguiftied himfelf. And , Chorier makes no doubt, is the real origin of the ap¬ pellation. Nothing was more common m thofe times than to make proper names become the names of fa¬ milies or dignities. Witnefs the Ademars, Artbands, Ayuards, Atlemans, Berengers, ““X 0,h'r ’ wbn aft owe their names to fome one ot their anceltors, from whom it has been tranfmit.ed throughout the faTh=' feioneurs or lords of Auvergne have likewife borne the appellation oSimpUn ; but the dauphins of Auvergne had it not till a good while after thofe of the Viennois, and even received it from them. T manner wa! this: Guy VIII. dauphm ofV.enno.s, had by his wife Margaret, daughter of Ste.;1,K'n |i ,.tundy, a fon and two daughters. The fon was Guy IX. his fucceffor. Beatrix, one of the daughters, was^married ,0 the conn, d’Auvergne, to Blondel, was William V. or rather, as Ch oner and others hold, Robert VI. father of William \ . I bis nrinee loft the gveateft part of the county Auvergne £h was take! f.om him by hi, uncle Wtlham, af- Drome, iferei and Upper Alps. In fome places it is very fertile •, and produces corn wine, olives woad copperas, filk, cryftal, iron, and copper But greateft part of the prov.nce is barren, and the inha bitants are obliged to go into other countries or iub- fiftence. The mountains abound «n game of aj or s j and here are fir-trees proper for mails. I he principal rivers are the Rhone, the Durance, the Here, and the Drome. ’There is a great number of mineral fpnngs ; and Grenoble is the capital town. DAURAT, John, an eminent French poet, born in 1 C07. In the reign of Henry IT be was preceptor to he kino’s pages, and Charles IX. who took great delight in8 hb converfation, honoured him with t.ie title8of his poet ; but his generofity and want ot ma¬ nagement placed him in that clafs of learned men who have been very near ftarving. Conformable to the ta ,e of the age he had fo much fkill m making anagrams, that feveral illuftrious perfons gave him their names .0 anagrammatize : he alfo undertook to explain the Cen- [uis of Nollradamus.- Making verfes was a difeafe “ him- for no book was printed, nor did any perfon of confequence die, but Daurat made feme verfes on the occafion ; as if he had been poet ordinary, or his I^f had he n a hired ~ life in6 endeavouring1 to^find* all the bihle in Home, H DAY “’aVm ding to the moft natural and obvious r r nf the word fignifies that fpace of time during wiikh i, [onrues’t[gbe light; in contradifth,aicn to night which is that portion of time wherein it IS dark , l ot the fpace of time in which it is light, being fome- what vague and indeterminate^ jke t'me ^ the'day11;^ and fhe Vfrne which1 lapfes f/om its fetting t0 ?hf^8rd ^’is'tto "aken in a large fenfe, fo as ,0 include the night alio ; or «> ; whole apparent revo u 10 a natural day, and ■n which fenfe it is callea oy ^ confurion> •„ by others an artificial one . the ^ day and night.. The D A Y [ ,o The nychthemeron is divided into twenty-four parts, called hours ; which are of two forts, equal, and unequal or temporary. See the article Hour. Different nations begin their day at a different hour. Thus the Egyptians begin their day at midnight 5 from whom Hippocrates introduced that way of reckoning into aftronomy, and Copernicus and others have fol¬ lowed him : But the greatefl part of aftronomers rec¬ kon the day to begin at noon, and fo count twenty- four hours, till the noon of the next day j and not twice twelve, according to the vulgar computa¬ tion. The method of beginning the day at midnight prevails in Britain, France, Spain, and moft parts of Europe. The Babylonians began their day at funrifing : reckoning the hour immediately before its rifing again, the twenty-fourth hour of the day 5 from whence the hours reckoned in this way are called the Babylonia. In feveral parts of Germany, they begin their day at fun- fetting, and reckon on till it fets next day, calling that the twenty fourth hour : thefe are generally termed Ita¬ lian hours. The Jews alfo began their nychthemeron at funfetting : but then they divided it into twice twelve hours as we do ; reckoning twelve for the day, be it long or fhort, and twelve for the night •, fo that their hours continually varying with the day and night, the hours of the day were longer than thofe of the night for one half year, and the contrary the other ; from whence their hours are called temporary : thofe at the time of the equinoxes became equal, becaufe then thofe of the day and night are fo. The Romans alfo reckoned their hours after this manner, as do the Turks at this day. I his kind of hours is called planetary, becaufe the feven planets were anciently looked upon as prefiding over the affairs of the world, and to take it by turns each of thele hours, according to the following order: Saturn firlf, then Jupiter, Mars, the Sun, Venus, Mer- cury, and laft of all the M!oon : hence they denomina¬ ted each day of the week from that planet whofe turn it was to prefide the firft hour of the nychthemeron. d hus, afligning the firfl hour of Saturday to Saturn, the fecond will fall to Jupiter, the third to Mars, and fo the twenty fecond of the fame nychthemeron will fall to Saturn again, and therefore the twenty-third to Jupiter, and the laft to Mars : fo that on the firft hour of the next day, it will fall to the Sun to prefide 5 and by the like manner of reckoning, the firft hour of the next will fall to the Moon ; of the next to Mars ; of the next to Mercury ; of the next to Jupiter ; and of the next to Venus : hence the days of the week came to be diftinguiihed by the Latin names of Dies Saturni, Solis, Luna, Martis, Mercurii, Jovis, and Veneris; and among us, by the names of Saturday, Sunday, Monday, &c. Day-Cou/, in Natural Hi/lory, a name given by the miners of England, and the common people who live in coal countries, to that feam or ftratum of the coal which lies uppermoft in the earth. The fame vein or ftratum of coal ufually runs a great rvay through the country, and dips and rifes in the earth at different places ^ fo that this upper ftratum, or day-coal, is in tne various parts of the fame ftratum, fometimes near the furface, and fometimes many fathoms deep. The fuQterranean fires found in fome of our coal-countries I ] D E A feed principally on this coal j and are nearer to or far¬ ther from the furface as it rifes or finks, DAY-F/y. See Ephemeris, Entomology Index. DAY-iVe/, among fowlers. See Net. Days of Grace, are thofe granted by the court at the prayer of the defendant 01 plaintiff, in whofe delay it is. Days of Grace, in Commerce, are a cuftomary num¬ ber of days allowed for the payment of a bill of ex¬ change, &c. after the fame becomes due. I hree days of grace are allowed in Britain ; ten in France and Danuic ; eight at Naples j fix at Venice, Amfterdam, Rotterdam, and Antwerp •, four at Franc- fort ; five at Leipfic 3 twelve at Hamburgh 3 fix in Por¬ tugal ; 14 in Spain ; 30 in Genoa, &c. In Britain the days of grace are given and taken as a matter of courfe, the bill being only paid on the laft: day ; but in other countries, where the time is much longer, it rvould be reckoned diftronourable for a mer¬ chant to take advantage of it 3 bills are therefore paid on the very day they fall due. Day’s-in the north of Englaud, an arbitrator or perfon chofen to determine an affair in difpute. Intercalary Days. See Intercalary Days. Days Work, among feamen, the reckoning or ac¬ count of the (hip’s courfe during 24 hours, or between noon and noon, according to the rules of trigonome¬ try. See D'ZhXi-Reckoning.. DAZE, in Natural Hijlory, a name given by our miners to a glittering fort of (tone, which often occurs in their works 3 and, as it is an unprofitable fubftance, is one of thofe things they call weeds.. The word da%e takes in, with them, every (lone that is hard and glit¬ tering : and therefore it comprehends the whole genus of the telangia or ftony nodules, which have the flakes of talc in their fubftance : thefe according to the colour of the ftony matter they are bedded in, and their own colour, give the names of black daze, white, red, and yellow daze, to thefe ftones. DEACON, (Diaconus), a perfon in the lorveft de¬ gree of holy orders, whofe bufinefs is to baptife, read in the church, and aflift at the celebration of the eucharift. The wTord is formed from the Latin Diaconus, of the Greek minifter, fervant. Deacons were in- ftituted (even in number, by the apoftles, Acls chap. vi. which number was retained a long time in feveral churches. Their office was to ferve in the Agapte, and to diftribute the bread and wine to the communi¬ cants. Another part of the office of deacons was to be a forj: of monitors and direftors to the people in the exercife of their public devotions in the church 3 for which purpofe they made ufe of certain known forms of w’ords, to give notice when each part of the fervice be¬ gan. Whence they are fometimes called cirokerukes, “ the holy cryers of the church.” Deacons had, by licenfe and authority from the bi~ (hop, a power to preach, to reconcile penitents and grant them abfolution, and to reprefent their biftrops in general councils. Their office out of the church was to take care of the neceffitous, fuch as orphans, wi¬ dows, prifoners, and all the poor and fick who had any title to be maintained out of the revenues of the church 5 .. to inquire into the morals and converfation of the peo¬ ple, and to make their report thereof to the bifhop. Whence, on account of the variety of bufinefs, it W’as ufual to have feveral deacons in the fame church. Lay II Deacon. In- Deaconefs. * mill ■--Mens-Eyes, in the fea language, a kind ot blocks, with many holes in them, but no (heevers, vrhereby the ftirowds are fattened to the chains : the crow-feet reeve alfo through thefe holes *, and, in fome (hips, the main-days are fet tight in them ; but then they have only one hole, through which the lanyards are patted feveral times. See Plate CljXIX. Dead’s Part. See Law Index. Dead Reckoning, in Navigation, the judgment or eftimation which is made of the place wffiere a ttnp is fituated ; without any obfeivation of the heavenly bo¬ dies. It is difeovered by keeping an account of the di- ftance (lie has run by the log, and of her courfe fleered by the compafs; and by rectifying thefe data by the ufual allowance for drift, lee-way, &.c. according to the (hip’s known trim. This reckoning, however, is always to be correfted, as often as any good observa¬ tion of the fun can be obtained. . Dead-SVa, in Geography, a lake of Judea, into which the river Jordan difeharges itfelf; being about 70 miles long and 20 broad. See Asphaltites. ° DE AD- i OpS, Dead I! Deatnefs. D E A [ DEAD-Tops, a difeafe incident to young trees, ana cured by cutting off the dead parts clofe to the next good twig or flioot, and claying them over as in grafting. pEAD-Water, at fea, the eddy-water juft aftern of 7 — , -wv. jum. cmcrn or a imp ; lo called becaufe it does not pafs away fo fwift as the water running by her fides does. They fay that . a fo’P makes much dead-water when fhe has a great eddy following her ftern. DEADLY-carrot. See Thapsia. . DKADLY-Feud, in Englilh law-books, a profeftion of irreconcileable enmity, till a perfon is revenged by the death of his enemy. The word feud is derived 'from the German Fehd; which, as Hottoman obferves, fig- * See Ftudt. mfies modo helium, modo capitales inimicitias *. Such enimity and revenge were allowed by law in the time of the Saxons, viz. If any man was killed, and a pecuniary fatisfa&ion was not made to the kindred it was lawful for them to take up arms and revenge themfeIves on the murderer : which was called dead¬ ly feud. And this probably was the original of an Appeal. r ?E^FNESS, t^le ^ate a perfon who wants the lenfe ot hearing j or the difeafe of the ear, which pre¬ vents its due reception of founds. See Medicine Index. Deafnefs generally arifes either from an obftruaion or a compreflion of the auditory nerve 5 or from fome collection of matter in the cavities of the inner ear: or from the auditory paffage being flopped up by fome hardened excrement; or, laftly, from fome excrefcence, a fwelhng of the glands, or fome foreign body intro¬ duced within it. Thofe born deaf are alfo dumb, as not being able to learn any language, at leaft in the common way. However, as the eyes in fome meafure ferve them for cars they may underftand what is faid by the motion °f the bps tongue, &?. of the fpeaker; and even accuftom themfelves to move their own, as they fee other people do, and by this means learn to fpeak 1 hus it was that Dr Wallis taught two young gentle¬ men born deai to know what was faid to them, and to return pertinent anfwers. Digby gives us another in- Itance of the fame within his own knowledge ; and there was a Swifs phyfician lately living in Amfterdam one John Conrad Amman, who effefted the fame in ieveral children born deaf with furprifing fuccefs He has reduced the thing to a fixed art or method, which he has pubhftied m his Surdus Loquens, Amftelod. 1602 and de Loqire/a, ibid. 1700. ^ 1 rrar“‘ N<> 312- vve have an account by Mr Waller, R. S. Seer, of a man and his After, each 50 oId’.born Jn the fame town with Mr Waller, who had neither of them the leaft fenfe of earing; yet both of them knew, by the motion of the lips only, whatever was faid to them, and would an- wer pertinently to the queftion propofed. It feems hey could both hear and fpeak when children, but th!; feir Whencc they retained their ipeech, which, though uncouth, was yet intelli- Such another inftance is that of Mr Goddy’s daugh¬ ter, mimfter of St Gervais in Geneva, related by Bi- hadPloftUr\ tW° yeafS °ld tbey Perceived (he -ad loft her hearing; and ever fince, though (he hears I03 ] D E A and great noifes, yet hears nothing of what is faid to her. But by obferving the motions of the mouth and lips of others, fhe acquired lo many words, that out of thele fhe has formed a fort of jargon, in which fhe can hold converfation whole days with thofe that can fneak her 1 d in rrn orro Q It ^ 1 ^ 1 • .1 • r- • , _ Deaf, Dean. language. She knows nothing that is faid to her, un, lefs fhe fee the motion of their mouths that fpeak to her, io that in the night they are obliged to light candles to fpeak to her. One thing will appear The ftrangeft part of the whole narration : fire has a filler with whom flie has praftiled her language more than with any body elfe ; and in the night, by laying her and on her filter’s mouth, fhe can perceive by that what Are fays, and fo can difeourfe with her in the dark.” Burn. Let. IV. ?. 24% f !t isobfervable, that deaf perfons, and feveral others the?the^r. tmek ot hearing, hear better and more eafily if a loud tide noife be raifed at the time when you fpeak to them • ^ which is owing, no doubt, to the greater tenfion of the ear-drum on that occafion. Dr Wallis mentions a deaf woman, who if a drum were beat in the room could hear any thing very clearly; fo that her hufband hired a drummer for a fervant, that by this means he might hold converfation with his wife. The fame author mentions another, who, living near a fteeple, could always hear very well if there was a ringing of three - or four bells, but never elfe. ^ DEAL, a thin kind of fir-planks, of great ufe in carpentry. They are formed by fawing the trunk of a tree into a great many longitudinal divifions, of more or lefs thicknefs according to the purpofes they are in¬ tended to ferve. A very good method of feafoning planks of deal and fir is to throw them into fait water as foon as they are fawed, and keep them there three or four davs fre¬ quently turning them; in this cafe they will be’ren¬ dered much harder, by drying afterwards in the air and fun ; but neither this, nor any other method yet known, will prevent them from fhrinkincr. . Rod.Sa of def1 exPand gradually, or crofs the grain, in moi L weather, and contradt again in dry • and thence have been found to make an ufeful hygrometer " n™1" At0Win ofuKentJn EnSland, lying between Dover and Sandwich, in E. Long. 1. 20 N Lat ri 16. is fuppofed to be the Dola of Nennius and is fi’ tuatedon a flat and level coart. This town, according . Pr CamPbell juftifies an obfervation he had made !nf vm fitUa;ionS °f this kind’ viz- they are eis liable than others to be injured by the fea. Th« town of Deal, as far as we are able to fudge excent it may be the fea’s finking a little from it, is in much the fame condit.on in which it ever was, even from the earl,eft accounts The learned Dr Halley has proved,. f -A aT* CuAn0/a’vo} in- P- 426. that Julius Caefar landed here, Auguft 26th, the year before the coming of Thrift 55—The .great conveniency of landing has been of infinite fervree to the place : fo that it is large and populous, divided into the upper and lower towns adorned with many fair buildings, and is in effeft the principal place in the Dowms DEAN, an ecclefiaftical dignitary in cathedral and collegiate churches, and head of the chapter. Fural Deah, called alfo Arch-prejbytcr, originally exercifed junfdiaion over ten churches in the country^ and afterwards became only the bifhop’s fubftitute, to grant D E A [ 1 „rMt Utters of adminiftrafion, probate of wills, &c.; coovoca.e the clergy ; and to fig,., y to them fome- tiraes by letter the bilhop’s will, and to give indu - ST,o the archdeacon. Their office is not loft m that of the archdeacons and chancellors. DrA>: of a Monqfl ry, was a fupenor eftablilhed un¬ der the abbot, to cafe him in taking care of ten monks, whence hs was called decanus. , , .n ' Diax and Chapter, are the council of tbe bilhop, to him with their advice in affa.pf rehgion and alio in the temporal concerns of his fee. When the relt of the clergy were fettled in the ievetal panthes of each diocefefthefe were referved for the celebration of divine fervice in the bilhop’s own cathedral j and the chief of them who prefided over the reft, obtained the name of decanus or dean, being probably at firft appoint¬ ed to fuperintend ten canons or prebendanes. All ancient deans are ekM by the chapter by contre de lire from the king, and letters mitTiye of - commendation, in the fame Hem^VIII out thofe chapters that were founded by Henry VI11. out of the fpoils of the diffolved monaftenes, the deaneiy is donative, and the inftallation merely by the king The chapter, confift.ng of canons o prebendaries, are fometimes “PP0’"''.'*!’/, ‘ Qed fometimes by the bifltop, and fomet.mes eletted by mS They had aifo a check on the b.ffiop at com- lefs confirmed by the dean and chapter. (,f Guild. See Law Index. . DEANERY, the office of a dea»—Deanenes and pretends may become void like a bifhopr.c, bytoth, bi(htri\fa0dea0Cpy,rb“nftmroJ offi« fpiri.ual per^ feCDEATH is generally confidered as the reparation ofS bom the body- in which fenfe ft Bands op- ^Sy'fic!™; SyCOdefinI 'deaih b^tomi ftippage of Ac dtculaiion of the blood, and a ceffatron of the animal and vital funftions confequent thereon ; as re- lpirna’nimala w'y,^ the aflions infepatable from becomfrYlm its'mlnuTe veSgrow into folid fibres taecome g » . , fluids; its greater vefiels no longer pervious to tb d ’ . § con- grow bard and narrow; and every tning u fra died clofed, and bound up j whence the See5 ^“ds^ts me thi fubtileft fluids in the body intercepted and lo11' C°",C0 *°ncoarUr J"'ce’s c^nue'to'™rflow'yVethrot.gh the greater vef- 04 1 D Id. A fels \o the prefervation of life, after the animal func- tic ’s are deftroyed. At length, in the procefs of thefe ”v~ changes, death itfelf becomes inevitable, as the necef- fary confequence of life. But it is rare that life is thus Iona protrafted, or that death fucceeds merely from the decays and impairment of o d age Difeafes, a long and horrid train, cut the work ftiort. The figns of death are in many cafes very uncertain. If we confult what Window or Bruchier have faid on this fubieft, we fhall be convinced, that between life and death the (hade is fo very undiftmguiftiable, that even all the powers of art can fcarcely determine wheie the one ends and the other begins. The colour of the vifage, the warmth of the body, and hipplenefs of tl e ioints are but uncertain figns of life ttiU {ubhftmg , while on the contrary, the palenefs of the complexion, the coldnefs of the body, the ftiffneis of the extremi¬ ties, the ceffation of all motion, and the total lofenfi- bility of the parts, are but uncertain marks of death begun. In the fame manner alio, with regard to the pulfe and breathing-, thefe motions are fo often kept under, that it is impoflible to perceive them. y bringing a looking-glais near to the mouth of the p fon luppofed to be dead, people often expeft to hnd whether he breathes or not. But this is a very uncer¬ tain experiment j the glafs is frequently fulhed by the vapour Pof the dead man’s body 5 and otten the perion is ftill alive, though the glafs is no way tarniftied. In the fame manner, neither burning nor fcanfymg, ne ¬ ther noifes in the ears nor pungent fpmts applied to the noftrils, give certain figns of the difcontinuance o life and There are many inftances of perfons who have endured them all, and afterwards recovered wdthout any external afliftance, to the aftomftiment of the fpeftators. This ought to be a caution againft hafty burials, efpecially in cafes of iudden death, ^ZZ’ In law, there is a natural death nrHer bv its conftitutions made in l62°> v France The order riai^probably fuppreffed by Pope Mc/us MJ.CUS Of the firft There are two krnds o death-waKhes^ ^ Mr we have a good ««> 6ths 0f an inch long, ff a'datk brown «iour, fpottek having pellucid wings Death watch D E A [i Under the vagina, a large cap or helmet on the head, _ and two antennae proceeding from beneath the eyes, and doing the office of probofcides. The part it beats withal, he obferved, was the extreme edge of the face, which he choofes to call the upper-lip, the mouth be¬ ing protradled by this bony part, and lying underneath out of view. This account is confirmed by Dr Derham ; with this difference, that inlfead of ticking with the upper lip, he obferved the infeft to draw back its mouth, and beat with its forehead. That author had two death- watches, a male and a female, which he kept alive in a box feveral months; and could bring one of them to beat whenever he pleafed, by imitating its beating. By this ticking noife he could frequently invite the male to get up upon the other in the way of coition. When the male found he got up in vain, he would get off again, beat very eagerly, and then up again : Whence the ingenious author concludes thofe pul- fations to be the way whereby thefe infedfs w^oo one another, and find out and invite each other to copu¬ lation. The fecond kind of death-watch is an infedl in ap¬ pearance quite different from the firlf. The former only beats feven or eight ftrokes at a time, and quicker 5 the latter will beat lome hours together with¬ out intermiffion j and his ftrokes are more leifurely, and like the beat of a watch. This latter is a fmall grayiffi infedt, much like a loufe when viewed with the naked eye. It is very common in all parts of the houfe in the fummer-months : it is very nimble in running to {bel¬ ter, and fhy of beating when difturbed j but will beat very freely before you, and alfo anfwer the beating, if you can view it without giving it difturbance, or {ba¬ king the place where it lies, &c. The author cannot fay w’hether they beat in any other thing, but he never heard their noife except in or near paper. As to their noife, the fame perfon is in doubt whether it be made by their heads, or rather fnouts, againft the paper; or whether it be not made after fome fuch manner as gralhoppers and crickets make their noife. He in¬ dices to the former opinion. The reafon of his doubt is, that he obferved the animal’s body to {hake and give a jerk at every beat, but could fcarce perceive any part of its body to touch the paper. But its body is fo fmall and near the paper, and its motion in tick- ing fo quick, that he thinks it might be, yet he not perceive it. The ticking, as in the other, he judges to be a wooing aa j as having obferved another, after much beating, come and make offers to the beating lifted!, who, after feme offers, left off beating, and got upon the back of the other. When they were joined, he left off again ; and they continued fome hours joined tail to tail, like dog and bitch in coition. Whether this infedl changes its ftiape, and becomes another animal or not, he cannot fay ; though he has fome caufe to ftifpedt that it becomes a fort of fly. It W at firft a minute white egg, much fmaller than the nits of lice • though the infed! is near as big as a loufe. In March it is hatched, and creeps about wTith its fhell on. When it firft leaves its fhell, it is even fmaller than its egg j though that be fcarce difcernible with¬ out a microfcope. In this ftate it is perfedtly like the mites ^'rom th® mite-ftate they grow gra- ’ Debruized. 05 ] DEB dually to their mature perfedt ftate. When they be- Debenture come like the old ones, they are at firft very fmall, but run about much more fwiftly than before. DEBENTURE, a term of trade ufed at the cu- ftomhoufe for a kind of certificate figned by the officers of the cuftoms, which entitles a merchant exporting goods to the receipt of a bounty or draw-back. All merchandiles that are defigned to be taken on board for that voyage being entered and {hipped, and the {hip being regularly cleared out, and failed out of port on her intended voyage, debentures may be made out from the exporter’s entries, in order to obtain the draw-backs, allowances, bounties, or premiums •, which debentures for foreign goods are to be paid within one month after demand. And in making out thefe de¬ bentures, it muft be obferved, that every piece of vel¬ lum, parchment, or paper, containing any debenture tor drawing back cuftoms or duties, muft, before writ¬ ing,^ be damped, and pay a duty of 8d. The forms of debentures vary according to the mer- chandife exported. In the execution of debentures for tobacco, it muft be particularly obferved, 1. That debentures for the fame quantity may be made on one or more parchments. 2. 1 hat the exporter’s oath muft be printed, fpecifying whether be ads for himfelf oron commiflion. 3. If exported to any other foreign ports than Ireland, the word /reW muft be added to the oath after Great Britain. 4. That as no tobacco may¬ be confumed on board of {hips of war in Europe but what has paid full duties, and been manufactured in Great Britain, no drawback is to be allowed for to¬ bacco exported in any man of war. 5. That the eight pounds per hogftiead of 350 pounds, or more, allowed tor draught at importation, muft not be deduaed on exportation. 6. That debentures for tobacco exported to Ireland muft not be paid till a certificate be pro¬ duced, teftifymg the landing thereof. 7. That no perfons may fwear to the exportation but fuch as are permitted to fwear to debentures for other goods. In debentures for all other foreign goods, no perfon may be admitted to fwear to the exportation but the true exporter, either as a proprietor, or who, being em¬ ployed by commiflion, is concerned in the direaion of the voyage. All kinds of debentures, before delivered or paid to the exporters, are entered into a feparate book kept for that purpofe by the colledtor and comp¬ troller of the cuftoms. 1 UEBITA fundi. See Law Index. Debit a Fruauum. See Law Index. DEBIL^Y, among phyficians, a relaxation of the lolids, otcafiomng oftentimes weakneffes and faint- mgs. DEBIR, in Ancient Geography, a facerdotal city of I aleftine near Hebron ; but neither diftance, nor point oi the compafs on which it lies, can be determi¬ ned It was anciently called Kariath-fepher or Kirjath- fepher, and Kirjath-fanna (Joftiua).—Another Debit in the tribe of Gad, beyond Jordan. DEBRECHEN, a town of Upper Hungary, about 77 miles eaft of Buda. E. Long. 21. 10. N. Lat, v DiEnBIlUIZi??’ In HeraMry, a term peculiar to the Englilh, by which is intimated the grievous reftraint of any ammal, debarred of its natural freedom, by any or the ordinaries being laid over it, 0 DEBT, I DEC [ 106 Debt DEBT, in Lcnv, any thing due to another, whether I! it be money, goods, or fervices ; or the aftion brought Dec anus. £or recovering the fame. National Debt. See Funds and National Debt. DEBTOR, a perfon who owes any thing to ano¬ ther •, in contradiftinttion to creditor, which is he to whom the debt is owing. Debtor, in merchants accounts. See Book-keep¬ ing. Decem- DECADE, a word ufed by fome old writers for the number ten, and decades for an enumeration by tens The word is formed from the Latin decas, which is derived from a Greek word of the fame import. The word has been more peculiarly appropriated to the number of books, q. d. decades, into which the Roman Hiilory of Titus Livius is divided. Hence alfo came decadal arithmetic, the Decameron of Boccacio, &c. DECAGON, in Geometry, a plain figure with ten fides and ten angles. DECAGYNIA (from ${*<*, and yu*v, a wo¬ man), the name of an order, or fecondary divifion, in the clafs decandria, of the fexual method, confiding of plants whofe flowers are furniflied w ith ten ftamma and the fame number of ftyles 5 which laft are confi- dered by Linnaeus and the fexuabfts as the female^ or¬ gans of generation in plants. Neurada and American niahtfliade fumifti examples. DECALOGUE, the ten precepts or command¬ ments delivered by God to Moles, after engraving them on two tables of ftone. The Jews, by way of excellence, call thefe com¬ mandments the ten words, from whence they had af¬ terwards the name of decalogue : but it is to be obfer- ved that they joined the firft and fecond »Tlt0 on®> and divided the lift into t.vo They underlW that a- “ToVptopeny^ Lbidden in ,h=S laft conttnand- ^The emperor Julian objefted to the decalogue, that the ecepl it "contained (thofe only excepted which concern the worfliip of falfe gods, and the observation of he fabbath) were already fo familiar to all nations, Id fo univerfilly received, that they were unworthy, for that very reafon, to be delivered, by fo great a le- emator, to fo peculiar a people. The church of Rome has ft ruck the fecond commandment quite out of t he decalogue •, and to make their number complete, hath fplit the tenth into two : the reafon of which may be • D^EUANVe^*kingdom of Afla, in the peninfula on this fide the’ Ganges, bounded on the fouth by the kingdom of Bifnagar, on the weft by the ocean, on the north by Moguliftan, and on the eaft by the mountains which feparate it from Golconda. 1 n -r • DECANDRIA (&**, ten, and a hujhand), Lin- nteus’s tenth clafs, comprehending thofe hermaphro¬ dite plants which bear flowers with ten ftamma. bee Recantation, among^ chemifts, &c. the gently pouring off a liquor from its faeces, by inclining the lip or canthus of the velfel *, whence the name. DECANUS, in Roman antiquity, an officer who nrefided over the other ten officers, and was heau of The cor.tubcnimm, or ferjeant of a file of foldiers. 1 DEC DECAPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a di ft rift Decapolis beyond Jordan, almoft all of it belonging to the half tribe of Manaffehj before the captivity, called Betb- fan ; but after occupied by the heathen, who could not be driven out. It comprifed, as the name denotes, ten principal cities on the other fide the Jordan, if we ex<, cept Scythopolis, which flood on this fide, but its ter¬ ritory on the other. . . . DECAPROTI, deCemprimi, in Roman antiqui¬ ty, officers for gathering the tributes and taAes. The decaproti were alfo obliged to pay for the dead, or to anfwer to the emperor for the qwota parts of fuch as died out of their own eftates. DECASPERMUM, a genus of plants belonging to the icofandria clafs. See Botany Index. DECASTYLE, in the ancient arehitefture, a build¬ ing w'ith an ordnance of ten columns in front, as the temple of Jupiter Olympius w'as. DECEIT, in Zaw, a fubtile trick or device, to which may be added all manner of craft and collufion, or underhand praftice, ufed to defraud another, by any means whatever. , . DECEMBER, the laft month of the year, wherein the fun enters the tropic of Capricorn, and makes the winter folftice. , In Romulus’s year, December was the 10th month, whence the name, viz. from decern, “ ten for the Romans began their year in March. The month of December was under the protection of Vefta. Romulus affigned it 30 days, Numa redu¬ ced it to 29, which Julius Ctefar increafed to 31. Under the reign of Commodus, this month w/as called, by way of flattery, Ama%onius, in honour of a courtefan whom that prince paflionately loved, and had got painted like an Amazon : but it only kept the name during that emperor’s life. . , , . At the latter end of this month they had the^w- niles ludii and the country people kept the ieaft of the goddefs Vacuna in the fields, having then gather¬ ed in their fruits and fown their corn ; whence feems to be derived our popular feftival called harvejl-home. DECEMPAGI, in Ancient Geography, * town ot Belgica : Now Dieufe, in Lorrain, on the rivulet Seille or Selna, near the lake Lindre, about feven German miles to the north-eaft of Nancy. DECEMPEDA, ten-feet rod, an mltru- ment ufed by the ancients in meafuring. The decempeda was a rule or rod divided into ten feef, whence its name, from decern “ ten, and pes ■bedis “ foot.” The foot was fubdivided into twelve inches, and each inch into ten digits. The decempe¬ da was ufed both in meafuring of land, like the chain among us •, and by architefts to give the proper dimen- fions and proportions to the parts of their buildings, which ufe it ftili retains. Horace, lib. 11. od. 15. bla¬ ming the magnificence and delicacy of the buildings of his time, obferves that it was otherwife m the times ot Romulus and Cato; that in the houfes of private per- fons there were not then known any porticoes meafured out with the decempeda, nor turned to the north to 1 'decemviri, ten magiftrates of abfolute autho¬ rity among the Romans. The privileges of the patri¬ cians raifed diffatisfaftion among the^plebeiansi who, though freed from the power of the larqums, ftdl law . DE C [ 107 ] DEC adminiftration of juftice depended upon the people. For during the celebration of this feall, that Dechales Pecenna'ia W1U anQ caPrice or tneir lupenors, without any writ- »■ ten ftatute to direft them, and convince them that they were governed with equity and impartiality. The tribunes complained to the fenate, and demanded that a code of laws might be framed for the ufe and bene¬ fit of the Roman people. This petition was complied with ; and three ambaffadors were fent to Athens and all the other Grecian ftates, to colleifi; the laws of So¬ lon and of all the other celebrated legillators of Greece. Upon the return of the commiffioners it was univer- fally agreed, that ten new magiftrates called Decemviri fliould be ele&ed from the fenate to put the project into execution. Their power was abfolute, all other offices ceafed after their ele&ion, and they prefided over the city with regal authority. They were invert¬ ed with the badges of the conful, in the enjoyment of which they fucceeded by turns, and only one was preceded by the fafees, and had the power of aflem- bling the fenate and confirming decrees. The firrt de¬ cemvirs were Appius Claudius, T. Genutius, P. Sex¬ tus, Sp. Veturius, C. Julius, A. Manlius, Ser. Sulpi- tius, Pluriatius, 7 . Romulus, Sp. Pofthumius, in the year of Rome 302. Under them the laws, which had been expofed to public view, that every citizen might fpeak his fentiments, were publicly approved of as con- ftitutional, and ratified by the priefts and augurs in the moft folemn and religious manner. They were ten in number, and were engraved on tables of brafs; two w»ere afterwards added, and they were called the laws of the twelve tables, leges duodecitn tabularum, and leges de- cemvirales. The decemviral power, which was beheld by all ranks of people with the greateft fatisfaclion, was continued j but in the third year after their crea¬ tion the decemvirs became odious on account of their tyranny, and the attempt of Ap. Claudius to ravilh Virginia totally abolirtied that office. The people were ■° exafperated againft them, that they demanded them .rom the fenate to burn them alive. Confuls were again appointed, and tranquillity re-cftablifhed in the rtate. There were other officers in Rome called de¬ cemvirs, who were originally appointed in the abfence of the praetor to adminifter juftice. Their appointment became afterwards neceflary, and they generally affift- ed at fales, called fubhajlationes^ becaufe a fpear, ha/la, was fixed at the door of the place where the goods were expoled to fale. They were called decemviri li- tihns judicandis. The officers whom Tarquin appoint¬ ed to guard the Sibylline books were alfo called decem¬ viri. They were originally two in number, called duumviri, m the year of Rome 388, when their num¬ ber was increafed to ten, five of which were chofen from the plebeians and five from the patricians. Sylla Jncreafed their number to fifteen, called quindecem- Virs. DECEIS/NALIA, ancient Roman feftivals, cele¬ brated by the emperors every tenth year of their reign, with facrifices, games, and largeffes for the people. . le emperor Auguftus firft inrtituted thefe folemnities, m which he was imitated by his fucceffors. At the lame time the people offered up vows for the emperor, and for the perpetuity of the empire ; which were there¬ fore called vota decennalia. Auguftus’s view in erta- bhflung the decennalia was to preferve the empire and .he fovereign power without offence or rertraint to the prince ufed to furrender up all his authority into the il hands of the people ; who filled with joy, and charm- Dec;‘n:i:S-j> ed with the goodijefs of Anguflus, immediately deli¬ vered it him back again. DECHALES, Claudius Francis Milliet, an ex¬ cellent mathematician, mechanic, and aftronomer, de- feended from a noble family, and born at Chamberry in 16x1. His principal performances are an edition of Euclid’s elements of geometry, in which the unfervice- able propofitions are reje&ed, and the ufes of thofe re¬ tained annexed ; a difeourfe on fortification ; and ano¬ ther on navigation. Thefe with others have been col¬ lected firft in 3 vols folio, and afterwards in 4, under the title of Mundus Mathematicus ; being indeed a com¬ plete courfe of mathematics. He died in 1678, pro- feffor of mathematics in the univerfity of T urin. DECIATES, or Deciatii, in Ancient Geography, a people of Gallia Narbonenfis, next the borders of Ita- ly, on the Mediterranean. Now the diocefe of Grace and Antibes. Deciatum oppidum, was a town fituated between Antibes and Nice. DECIDUOUS, an appellation chiefly ufed in re- fpe£t of plants 1 thus, the calyx or cup of a flower is faid to be deciduous, wffien it falls along with the flower- petals and, on the contrary, it is called permanent, when it remains after they are fallen. Again, decidu¬ ous leaves are thofe which fall in autumn j in contra- diftinftion to thofe of the evergreens, which remain all the winter. See Defoliation. DECIL, in AJlronomy, an afpedf or pofition of tw o planets, when they are diftant from each other a tenth part of the zodiac. DECIMAL arithmetic, the art of computing by decimal fradlions. See Arithmetic. Circulating DECIMALS, called alfo recurring or repeating decimals, are thofe in which a figure or fe- veral figures are continually repeated. They are di- ftinguiflied into Jingle and multiple, and thefe again into pure and mixed. A pure Jingle circulate is that in which one figure only is repeated j as *222, &c. and is marked thus *2 A pure multiple circulate is that in which feveral fi¬ gures are continually repeated j as *232323, &c. mark¬ ed *23 ; and *524524, &c. marked .524. A mixedfing/e circulate is that which confifts of a terminate j.art, and a Angle repeating figure j as 4*222, &c. or 4*2. And A mixed multiple circulate is that which contains a terminate part with feveral repeating figures ; as 45*5 2 4* That part of the circulate which repeats is called the repetend; and the whole repetend, fuppofed infi¬ nitely continued, is equal to a vulgar fraftion, whofe numerator is the repeating number or figures, and its denominator the fame numbef* of nines : fo *2 is —j and .23 is rr ; and *524 is = £|4. Dr Wallis, it appears, was the firft who diftinclly confidered or treated of infinite circulating decimals, as he himfelf informs us in his Treatife of Infinites. Since his time many other authors have treated on this part of arithmetic j the principal of thefe, how*ever, to whom the art is moftly indebted, are Meffrs Browm, O 2 Cunn, D E -C Becimation Cunn, Martin, Emerfon, Malcolm, Donn, and Henry !l PI-ji-Itp • in whofe. writings the nature and practice o [ io3 1 Deck. i Uunn, martin, r.merion, iviau.unii, ^ Clarke ; in whofe writings the nature and practice o this art may be fully feen, efpecially in the lalt-men- tioned ingenious author. Hutton's Math. Diet. DECIMATION, a punifhment infkaed by the Romans, on fuch foldiers as quitted their polls, or be¬ haved themfelves cowardly in the field. The names ol the guilty were put into an urn or helmet, and as ma¬ ny were drawn out as made the tenth part of the whole number, and thofe were put to the fword, and the others faved. This was called deemare; a word ol the ancient Roman militia, who, to pumlh whole le¬ gions when they had failed in their duty made every tenth foldier draw lots, and put him to death lor an example to the others. . . i j ir As the Romans had their decimatio, they had alio the vicejimatio, and even cerlteftmatio, when only t e 20th or loodth man fuffered by lot. , , DECIPHERING, the art of finding the alphabet of a cipher. For the art both of Ciphering and Deci¬ phering, fee the article Cipher. r . , DECIUS Mus, a celebrated Roman fmnful, who, after many glorious exploits, devoted himfelf to the gods manes for the fafety of his country m a battle again!! the Latins, about 340 years before the Augul- tan age. His fon Decius imitated his example and devoted himfelf in like manner in his fourth confulfinp, when fighting again!! the Gauls and Sammtes. His grandfon alfo did the fame in the war again!! Pyrrl™ and the Tarentines. This aftion of devot,"f ?ne s felf was of infinite fervice to the ftate The fold.ers were animated by the example, and induced to follow with intrepidity a commander who, arrayed in an unufual dre!sP and addrefiing himfelf to the gods with folemn invocation, ruftied into the thickeft part of the enemy to meet his fate. . . c Decius, Cn. Mctius, Trajanus, a native of Pannonia, fent by the emperor Philip to appeafe a !e- dition in Moefia. Inliead of obeying his mafter s com¬ mand, he affumed the imperial purple and foon after marched again!! him, and at his death became the on y emperor. He fignalized himfelf again!! the Perfia”s > and when he marched again!! the Goths, he pu!hed his horfe into a deep mar!h, from which ^ could not extricate himfelf, and he penftied with all his army by the darts of the barbarians, A. D. 251, after a reign °f DECK of a Ship (from dechen, Dan. to cover) ♦, the planked floors of a !hip, which connea the fides together, and ferve as different platforms to fuPPor^ the artillery and lodge the men, as alfo to Feferve the cargo from the fea in merchant veffels. As all hips arebbroader on the lower deck than on the next abov e it, and as the cannon thereof are always heavieft, neceffary that the frame of it ftiould be much ftronger than thJt of the others *, and for the fame realon the fecond or middle deck ought to be ilronger than the ^Shiptof «he"iecond rates are f^d wM. three whole decks, reaching from the ftem to the ftern, befides a forecaftle and a quarter-deck, which ex¬ tends from the ftern to the mamma!! *, between which and the forecaftle a vacancy is left in the middle, open¬ ing to the upper deck, and forming what is called the DEC iuai/1. There is yet another deck above the hinder or aftmoft part of the quarter-deck, called the which alfo ferves as a roof for the captain s cabin or The inferior fliips of the line of battle are equipped with two decks and a half •, and frigates, fl00Ps» fc* with one gun-deck and a half, with a fpar-deck below to lodge the crew. The decks are formed and fuftamed by the beams, the clamps, the water-ways, the carlmgs, the le ges, the knees, and two rows of fmall pillars calledyfofl- chions. See. See thofe articles. That the figure of the deck, together with its corre- fponding parts, may be more clearly underftood, we have exhibited a plan of the lower-deck of a 74 ihip in Plate CLXIX. And as both fides of the deck are exaftly fimilar, the pieces by which it is fupported appear on one fide, and on the other fide the planks of the floor of which it is compofed, as laid upon thofe upper pieces. . , A, the principal or mam haten-way. B, the ftern-poft. C, the ftern. . ,. D, the beams, compofed of three pieces, as exhi¬ bited by D, in one of which the dotted lines Aow the arrangement of one of the beams under the other fide of the deck. . , E, part of the vertical or hanging knees. F, the horizontal or lodging knees, which fatten the bC cT, the carlings, ranging fore and aft, from one beam to another. T th^pump-daks, being large wooden tubes, which return the water from the pumps into the lea. . K the fpurs of the beams, being curved P16**8 of timber ferving as half-beams to lupport the decks, where a whole beam cannot be placed on account o "e”ngWon>, which is bolted by the middle the ftern-poit, tmd whofe ends reft upon the faftnon- PieM'’ the bulk-head or partition, which i"cl°r« manger, and prevents the water whtch enters at hawfe-holes from running aft between decks. NN, the fore hatchway. OO, the after hatchway. P the drum-head of the great capftern. pV the drum-head of the main capftern. O the wing-tranfom knee. R one of the breaft-hooks under the gun-deck. S* the breaft-hook of the gun-deck. TT, the ftation of the chain-pumps. V the breadth and thicknefs of the timbers at th nilctritdtg .0 the gunner's ftore-rootn, and the bread-room. W, the ftation of the fore-mait. X 5 the ftation of the main-maft. I ^boltVof tdecTsf-ufed to retain the “r,’ Thh^ring-bolts'of the fides whereon the tackle, are hooked that fecure the cannon at lea. ^ DEC [ 109 ] DEC Deck, Declama. tion- caa d. The water-ways, through which the leupper holes are pierced, to carry the water off from the deck t into the fea. bb, Plan of the foremoft and aftmoft cable bits, with their crofs pieces gg, and their flandards e e. Thus we have reprefented on one fide all the pieces which fuftain the deck with its cannon ; and on the other fide the deck itfelf, with a tier of 32 pounders planted in battery thereon. In order alfo to fhow the ufe of the breeching and train-tackle, one of the guns is drawn in as ready for charging. The number of beams by which the decks of fhips are fupported, is often very different, according to the pra£tice of different countries •, the ftrength of the tim¬ ber of which the beams are framed $ and the fervices for which the fbip is calculated. As the deck which contains the train of a fire-fhip is furnifhed with an equipage peculiar to itfelf, the whole apparatus is particularly defcribed in the article Fire-^//). FluJh-DECK, implies a continued floor laid from ftem to flern, upon one line, without any flops or in¬ tervals. Half-DECK, a fpace under the quarter-deck of a Ihip of war, contained between the foremoft bulk-head of the fteerage and the fore-part of the quarter-deck. In the colliers of Northumberland the fteerage itfelf is called the half-deck, and is ufually the habitation of the crew. DECLAMATION, a fpeech made in public, in the tone and manner of an oration, uniting the expref- fion of a&ion to the propriety of pronunciation, in or¬ der to give the fentiment its full impreflion upon the mind. According to the manners and cuftoms of the prefent age, public harangues are made only, 1. In the pulpit. 2. In the fenate, in council, or other public affembly. 3. By public profeffors. 4. On the theatre. _ L.With regard to the declamation of the pulpit, the dignity and fandtity of the place, and the importance of the fubjedl, require the preacher to exert the utmoft powers of his voice to produce a pronunciation that is perfeffly diftindl and harmonious, and that he obferve a deportment and adlion which is expreflive and grace¬ ful. No man, therefore, uEo is deftitute of a voice, ftiould afcend the pulpit, and there adl the part of a pantomime before his audience. The preacher ftrould not, however, roar like a common crier, and rend the ear with a voice of thunder ; for fuch kind of decla¬ mation is not only without meaning and without per- fualron, but highly incongruous with the meek and gentle exjrreflions of the gofpel. He fliould likewife take particular care to avoid a monotony; his voice fhould rife from the beginning, as it were by degrees, and its greateft ftrength ftrould be exerted in the applil cation. Each inflexion of the voice fhould be adapted to the phrafe, and to the meaning of the words ; and each remarkable expreflion fhould have its peculiar in¬ flexion. The dogmatic requires a plain, uniform tone of voice only; and the menaces of the gofpel demand a greater force than do its promifes and rewards ; but the latter ftiould not be pronounced in the foft tone of a flute, nor the former with the loud found of a trum¬ pet. The voice ihould ftill retain its natural tone in all its various inflexions. Happy is that preacher, to whom nature has given a voice that is at once ftrong, flexible, and harmonious. An air of complacency and benevolence, as tvell as devotion, ftiould be conftantly vifible in the counte¬ nance of the preacher. But every appearance of affec¬ tation muft be carefully avoided : for nothing is fo dif- guftful to an audience as even the femblance of dif- fimulation. Eyes conftantly rolling, turned towards .heaven, and ftreaming with tears, rather denote a hy¬ pocrite, than a man poffeffed of the real fpirit of reli¬ gion, and that feels the true import of what he preaches. An air of affefled devotion infallibly deftroys the effi¬ cacy of all that the preacher can fay, however juft and important it may be. On the other hand, he muff avoid every appearance of mirth or raillery, or of that cold unfeeling manner which is fo apt to freeze the hearts of his hearers. The body fhould be in general erefl, and in a natu¬ ral and eafy attitude. The perpetual movement, or contortion of the body, has a ridiculous effeft in the pulpit, and makes the figure of a preacher and a har¬ lequin much too fimilar. But, on the other hand, he ought not to remain conftantly upright and motionlefs like a fpeaking ftatue. The motions of the hands give a ftrong expreffion to a difcourfe; but they ftiould be conltantly decent, grave, noble, and expreffive. The preacher, who is inceffantly in action, who is perpetually clafping his hands, or who menaces with a clenched fift, or counts his arguments on his fingers, will only excite mirth among his auditory. In a word, declamation is an art that the facred orator ffiould ftudy with the utmoft af- fiduity. The defign of a fermon is to convince, to af- fedf, and to perfuade. The voice, the countenance, and the a&ion, which are to produce this triple effedf, are therefore the obje&s to which the preacher ftiould particularly apply himfelf. II. The declamation of a minifter or ftatefman in the fenate, in council, or other public affembly, is of a more unconfined nature. To perfuade, to move the pafiions, and gain an afcendency in a public affembly, the orator ffiould himfelf feel the force of what he fays, and the declamation ffiould only exprefs that internal fenfation. But nothing ffiould be carried to excefs. A fuavity in the tone of voice, a dignity of deportment, a graceful aftion, and a certain tranquillity of counte¬ nance, ffiould conftantly accompany the ftatefman when he fpeaks in public, even wffien he is moft earneftly en¬ gaged in debate, or when he is addreffing his fovereign in perfon. A pleafing tone of voice and a diftindl pronunciation, prejudice the hearers greatly in the fpeaker’s favour. A young man may improve thefe to a furprifing degree. _ Demofthenes, who had a na¬ tural impediment in his fpeech, wras accuftomed to go to the lea-ffiore, and partly filling his mouth wdth peb¬ bles, he declaimed with a loud voice. The ftones by degrees gave a volubility to his tongue, and the roar¬ ing of the weaves, reconciled him infenfiblv to the noife of the multitude. . The principal objeft of a public profeffor is the inftrucdon of the ftudious youth ; for which purpofe he is to convince and perfuade. Every tone of voice, every expreflion of the countenance, or aftion of the* body, which can produce this effeft by enforcing the words, ffiould therefore be employed by thofe who are \ to Declama- tion. v—-y— DEC [ii Declama- to teach the fcience. There is, moreover, one very * ' 1 every profeuor ought to tion Dc Mu- fuat lib. i. effential reflection which r- o make, and which is, that the chair from which he ha rangues is furrounded by young Undents, naturally poffeffed with vivacity, not unfrequently ludicrous •, and for the molt part previously initruaed m the ptepara- tory fciences. They are therefore conftantly inclined to criticife, to jell, and to ridicule ; for which reafon, the profeflor Should endeavour to infpire them with re-, foe a and attention, by a grave, commanding, and ve¬ nerable countenance, and carefully avoid all appearance of grimace in his aaion, and every kind of afFeaation in his difcourfe, that he may not afford the leaft oppor¬ tunity of pleafantry. . . . . rp, • IV. We are now come to theatric declamation. I. I ms was very different among the ancients from what it is, and ought to be, with us, from the nature of the thing itfelf, and from the difference of circumftances. _ IN urn- berkfs paffages in Quintilian, and other ancient hi¬ storians, critics, grammarians, and commentators, evi¬ dently prove, that the ancient dramatic declamat o was fubfervient to the rules of the nmfical rhyth- mus 5 and by this, according to Anftides their ac- ' tion, as well as recital, was regulated. But to ex- plain this feeming paradox, it will be neceffary to make here fome preliminary remarks. The ancients gave a much more extenfive Signification than we do to the word mafic {tnufica), which they derived from the mufes, or at leaft from fome of them.. It is for t reafon that the fame AriSlides and Quintilian define it Jo be “ An art that teaches all that relates to the ufe of the voice, and the manner of performing all the mo¬ tions of the body with grace Jrs Scorns in vocibus el motibus. Therefore poetry, declamation, dancing, pantomimes, and many other geftures and exercifes, were fubfervient to this art. . , , , , 2 That part of general mufic which taught the art of declamation and gefture according to the rules of an eftabliShed method (and which we Perf°r™ ftinft, or at moft by the aid of common fenfe) v as distinguished by the name hypocnttc mufic : and tl(*is mufical art was called by the Greeks orchefis ; and by the Romans faltatio. It was, however, lo r0^ being an advantage to the ancients to have had this art which we have not, that it was, on the contrary a ma of great imperfeaion. For, in the firft place, it was an instance of high abfurdity to reprefent a Jragedy’ or comedy before an audience of twenty thoufand people, the fa/greateft part of whom could ^ither hear nor fee what paffed to any good purpofe, ^n1^ they were poffeffed of organs which we have not. 1 he the of London and Paris may conveniently contain abou a thoufand perfons *, and that is found fulhcient in the moft populous cities, where there are feveral places of entertainment on the fame day, and where the people " Zable enough to fucceed each other in their diverfionr. As the feature of the ^ J “ diftinguiflted at fo great a dlfta,nCe’,yd ^e alteration of countenance in or^r to reprelent the different natrions, they were obliged to hfre recourle to mafis ; a wretched childilh invention, that deftroy- ed ^tl the ftrength and variety of eyreff.on^Wejr fobfenrvientTo£ a'SguTaf mlchanifn,; which prevented Suhe refinement, aSnd all the pleafure of forptfe, m o 1 D E Gi’ the performance } and mult have had an effeft horribly E«laat=. difagreeable to thofe who were placed near the Stage. 2. The egregious imperfe6tion of their language like wife, which confifted of fyllables long and Short, whole duration was determined by a fet meafure ot time, and their manner of tuning thefe fyllables, after the method of the orchefis of the Greeks, was another disadvantage. For by this means they determined by notes or charafters placed after the long and Short Syl¬ lables, not only the nature, but the duration, of each aaion. Now, nothing could be more atleaed, more constrained and difgultful, than fuch a method of de¬ claiming. How far fupenor m this refpea are the moderns, who confult nature alone m their theatric de¬ clamation ; who can make the audience hear each Sigh $ who can accompany it with a proper attitude J who can inceffantly vary their aaion •, who can Seize the lucky moment, and make the countenance fully ex- prefs the fenfations of the mind ! Nature does all here * and art, infinitely inferior to nature, did all among the ancients. Modern declamation cannot be fubfervient to a mufical rhythmus, feeing we fpeak rapidly, and without affeaation. Our aaors learn their art without art, from nature itfelf, affifted by reflection *, and they arrive at a degree of excellence infinitely greater than that of the ancients, by a method far more Simple, anu by efforts incomparably more eafy. . . a We do not, moreover, precifely know what the theatric declamation of the ancients was j n°r were the mufical instruments which accompanied that declamation. The title to the Eunuch of Terence fays, for example, “ that Flaccus, the freedman o cfaudius, made the mufic of that P^e m which employed the two flutes, the right and the left. Fhefe flutes, it is likely, gave the tone to the aftor, winch mult have had a very odd effea on th^audie"C.e:v^ of the ancient pieces have fimilar titles. T y would be particularly informed of the art of dc^la11"- ing among the Greeks and Romans, may read to ad¬ vantage the Critical Refleftions on Poetry and Paint- W by the Abbe du Bos. The third part of. that work confifts entirely of learned rcfearches and inge¬ nious reflections on this filly praftice of tbe ancients. But as this art has happily no place in modern decla¬ mation, and can at beft ferve only to make a parad of erudition, we Shall fay no more of it, but pais to "'^We^hink there is good reafon to believe, more¬ over, that the molt poliShed nations of modern Lmope do not accompany their difeouries in general vith fo many gesticulations, as did the Greeks, the Romans, andmher inhabitants of warm climates. They ap¬ pear to have found the method of animating * ddcourfej Td giving it an exprefiion, by the fimple infleaions of T voice and by the features of the countenance; which is far more decent, more juft and rational^ an all thofe contortions which perpetually derange tural attitude of the body and its members, and give the fpeaker the air of a harlequin. effence 6 Exoreffton, therefore, forms at once the eiience and'the end of declamation ; and the means of produ- cing it ctfnSBs, in a pronunciation that is fonorou . - ftinft, and pleafing fuppor.cd ^ a“at SKfST.’ya." -vi. » DEC [ ! Declama- Ills writings produce their proper effeft, the aftor has , tl°n- like wife need of $ good poet to enable him to pleafe ancl affeft by the a£Hon j for it is to little purpofe that he endeavours to charm his auditory by uniting, with nature, all the powers of art, if the poet has not furniflied him with fentiments that are rational and af- feaing. * 7. The a&or, in ftudying his part before a large mirror, where he can fee his whole figure, in order to determine the mod proper expreflions for every thought, fhould confult nature, and endeavour to imitate her. But, in this imitation, he fliould take care not to make too fervile a copy. He has this to obferve, in common with his colleagues, the mailers in all the polite arts j The theatre is intended to exhibit an imitation of na* ture, and not nature itfelf. Tragedy and comedy form piflures of human life; but thefe pi£tures are alfo pieces of perfpe&ive, which require flrokes fomewhat ilronger than nature, that they may be difcerned at a diilance. The a&or is elevated to a confiderable height from the ground ; he is furrounded by fcenery, he is feparate from the audience by the orchellra, and he fpeaks in verfe ; all this is not natural; but the fpedlator is to accede to this neceflary illufion, in order to promote his own pleafure, which would not be fo great as it is were all thefe matters otherwife difpofed. Declamation, therefore, ihould fomewhat exceed, but never lofe fight of, nature. 8. The tone of the aftor’s voice Ihould be natural but regulated by the extent of the theatre j diffidently loud to be heard by all the audience, but not fo vio¬ lent as to rend their ears. A pure and graceful pro¬ nunciation, without any provincial accent, is likewife a great merit in an ador j and he Ihould alfo habituate himfelf to fpeak in a manner perfe&ly diftind. It is a capital point in the pronouncing of verfe, not to fe¬ parate the two hemiltichs, by refting too long on the ccefurU'm the middle, or dwelling on the end of each hemiftich : for, by fo doing, the a£tor falls into a mo¬ notony, an infufferable uniformity of cadence, in a piece that confifts of fome thoufand verfes. The gra¬ dations of the voice demand alfo a very judicious ob- iervance.. The fpeaker, who begins in a high tone, will find it very difficult to fuftain it through the whole piece; and he, who clamours incelfantly, will find his lungs fail him in thofe parts where the vehemence of paffion requires the ftrongeft efforts. If we may be allowed the expreffion, the ftrongeft touches, the bold- eft figures, will not there ftand out from the pi&ure in a linking manner. 9. The deportment of an ador ffiould be conftantly graceful, decent, and proper to the charader he repre- lents. An old man has a different pofition of body from a young petit-maitre; an aged queen from a young pnneefs; a noble gallant from a valet de chambre. A rational obfervance of nature, and an imitation of the beft adors, are here the fureft guides. The fame may be faid of the adion of the hands, the theatric itep, &c. An manimated figure, a body in the pofi¬ tion of a ftatue, and hands immoveable, are as dif- pleafing m the feene, as a player whofe inceffant gefti- culation refembles the adion of a puppet. 10. Every ador who afpires to make his art fome- thmg more than merely mechanical, will begin by enabling himfelf readily to repeat his part, that the ] DEC defed of his memory may not embarrafs his adion. Declara- When he is fo far a mailer of it, he will make it thetory ailion fubjed of ferious refledion in his clofet; endeavour to ^ L feize the true fenfe of the author j and to find out that DeCOdll°n' expreftion of each fentiment and paffion, which is the moft natural, the moft linking, and beft adapted to the ftage ; and which he will cultivate by repeated effays till he is able to render it in its full force. DECLARATORY action. See Law Index. DECLENSION, in Grammar, an infledion of nouns according to their divers cafes ; as nominative genitive, dative, &c. See Grammar. DECL1NAI ION, in ^djlronomy, the diftance of any celeftial objed from the equinodial, either north¬ ward or fouthward. It is either true or apparent, ac- cording as the real or apparent place of the obied is confidered. See Astronomy Index. . DeeuNATioN of the Sea Cotnpafs or Needle, is its va¬ riation from the true meridian of any place. Declination of a Plane or Wall, in Dialing, is the horizontal arch contained between the plane and the prime vertical circle, if you reckon from eaft to weft ; or between the meridian and the plane, reckoning from north to fouth. Many ways are ufed for finding this declination : but the moft eafy and pradicable is by a deolinator. See Declinator. Declinatory, an inftrument chiefly ufed in pradical dialing, for taking the de¬ clinations, inclinations, or reclinations of the planes on which the dials are to be delineated. See Dial¬ ing, N° 24, 25. URE of Judges. See Law Index. DECLIVIIY denotes the reverfe of Acclivi¬ ty. f ufually fignifies either the adion of boiling a fubftance in water, or the water itfelf in which the fubftance has been boiled. It is only appli¬ cable to matters containing fome principles foluble in water: fuch particularly are animal and vegetable matters. Decodion ought not to be ufed with fuch ubltances as contain any volatile principles, as they would be diffipated in the air during the procefs. But it may be fafely ufed, nay even becomes neceffary, when the matters to be treated are folid, and of a clofe and compad texture ; becaufe then the water could not extrad its principles without a boiling heat. Moft foft animal matters, as fleffy, fkin, tendons, may be conve¬ niently boiled in water j becaufe they contain no prin¬ ciple volatile with a boiling heat. Water extrads from them nothing but a gelatinous fubftance, and fome oily parts which float on the furface of the water. All vegetable matters which are inodorous, and particular¬ ly thofe which are hard, as roots, barks, &c. are ge¬ nerally boiled, when an extradion of their principles by water is required.—To this rule, however, there are lome exceptions. Peruvian bark, for inftance, gives its itrength to cold water better than to fuch as is boil¬ ing hot. Many other vegetables alfo have the fame property of yielding lefs to boiling than to cold water. And therefore a general rule may be eftabliffied, that decodion ought not to be employed but when abfo- lutely neceffary; that is, when the fame principles, or the fame quantities of thofe principles, cannot be ob¬ tained by an infufion, and that without heat, if it can be lo done, confidering that the proximate principles of Decolla¬ tion II Decoy. DEG t 11 of vegetables are generally fo delicate, and fo tible of change and decompofition, that frequent y e moft gentle heat changes much their nature and pro- ' Decollation, beheading, a term feidom ufed but in the phrafe decollation of St John BaPu » 'which denotes a painting, wherein is reprefented the Baptift’s head ftruck off from his trunk 5 or the feait held in honour of that martyr. DECOMPOSITION, in Chetriiflry, ufually figm- fies the difunion or feparation of the conftituent parts of bodies.—-It differs from mere mechanical divifion , for when a body is chemically decompofed, the parts into which it is refolved are effentially different from the body itfelf: and though a mechanical force be ap¬ plied to'it ever fo long, or with ever fo much violence, the minuteft particles into which the body “ay r * duced (fill retain their original nature —Thus, tor ex^ ample though we fuppofe nitre, or any other fait, be reduced t§o ever fo fine powder, each particle retains the nature of nitre, as much as the argeft unpounded mafs i but if fulphuric acid be applied, a decompofi takes place, and one of the component parts of the nitre, namely the nitric acid, nfes in the form fumes, which never could have been fufpeaed to hid in the mild neutral fait. , DECORATION, in ArchittBure, any thing tha adorns and enriches a building, church, triumphal arch, or the like, either without fide or within. The orders of architedure contribute greatly decoration *, but then the feveral parts of thofe orders muff have their juft proportions, charaders, and orn - ments • otherwife the" fineft order will bring confufion rather than richnefs. See Architecture. Decorations in churches are pa.nt.ng , vafo fch toons, &c. occafionally applied to the »“‘ls i and fo much condua and difcretion, as not to take off a y thingffona the form of the architeaure. as .s much praaifed in Italy at the folemn feafts. P Decoration is mote part.cnla.ly applied to ^'liT operaT'and other theatrical performances, the decorations tkuft be frequently changed comforma y “ The^amderits had two kinds of decorations for their theatres the firft, called verfiAU,, having three fldes, o tee ' which were turned fucceff.vely to the fpefia- Ztl. the other called JaBi/'t, Ihowmg a new deco- inSDPF.CORUM -m ArchiuBure, is the fuitablenefs of a bS aUnd ihe feveral parts and ornaments there- 0ftKOu" Hettt the fame as uncoupled, at a diftance from one another, oei g p “dECOY in naval affairs, a ftratagem employed by a«pEof Jar tobetrayaveffel of inferior force tnto Decoy. 2 1 DEC an uncautious purfuit, till (be has drawn witbin the range of her cannon, or what is called w . ^ It if ufually performed by painting the ftern and fides in fucb a manner as to difguife the ftup, and . her either much fmaller and of inferior force, or as a 'I11' t\tb\SVtt1;mtettdDaarnts of thJnation^owhich the ftranger ^Dfary^rchfrfn When Ihe has thus provoked the adverf y , hopes of acquiring a prize, {he centim es decoy, by fpreading a great fail, as endeavouring t0 ^aPe at the fame time”that her courfe is ed by an artful alteration of her trim till the enemy approached Decoying is alfo performed to e ude h chafe of a {hip of a fupenor force in a dark ^ght’ chaie 01 a p ^ ^ .nto the fea^ which throwing out a lighted cam p the will burn for a confiderable time and milguide the enemy. Immediately after the calk is_ thrown out, the (hip changes her courfe, and may eaf.ly efcape, .f any tolerable diffance from the toe. Decot among fowlers, a place made tor catching wild-fowl.’ A decoy is generally made “ a large pond furrounded with wood, and beyond t a maflhy and uncultivated country : if the P.ece of wa. «ris not thus furrounded, it will be attended with the nolle and other accidents wh.ch may be frighten the wild-fowl from a quiet haul. , 7 met to fleep, during the day-time in feeunty lf thefe noifes or difturbahees are wilful, it hath dc held that an aton will lie rit (tTht; foon as the evening fets m, the d y A , . r ZZ t') and the wild fowl feed during the night. _ If term it), and t of thcir wingS, during the evening i ftllV the ” dlftance> and is a their flight is heard at a ve y g rifimy nleafimTthough rather melancholy found. This rifing S the decoy in the evening, is in Somerfetlhire called thrIwentCery;ttSreens it fm'at qu^Wes’ to bring fl0Thereare feveral <..>«, as they are called, which, lealun a" arrow ditch that doles atlaft with a funnel- ,ne;,d UP0,:r thefe pipes (which g'™ mirrower^from their firft entrance) is a cont,,™‘ h.|Ve a ipe „r Skewed "the'decoy man always keeps on the lee- VkA’eTf the ducks, to prevent his effluvia reaching It “gaefous noMs.’ All along each pipe, dcellain fntfr tedaiethat Ch Jimp,'offibaee.he wild-’fowl ftmuld trdl^Jan, before they have pa« on rowar^ the end of the ?'?'• go up one of The inducement to e w ducks trained to thefe pipes is, becaufe ^ d^ ^^ whiftle 0f this lead the hs hempfeed ; the lat- StKundLtter wliilff the wild-fowl fly o^ “"'it8 oftet Wpens, Ctver that the wild-fowl are in fuch a (late of fleepinefs and ^".g that «J not follow the decoy-ducks. Ule is then g ^ dec [ Decreet- Arbitral. DeCOy ,ma in feafon, and in only 5 ten deJc°ys» In ^e neighbourhood of Waindeet, it ap¬ peared to amount to 3I,2oo, in which are included fe- vera! other fpecies of ducks: it is alfo to be obferved, that, m the above particular, widgeon and teal are rec- koned but as one, and confequently fell but at half price of the ducks. This quantity makes them fo cheap on tie pot, that we have been affured, feveral decoy-men would be content to contraft for years to deliver their ducks at Bodon, for lod. per couple. The account of the numbers here mentioned, relates only to thofe that were fent to the capital. It was cuftomary formerly to have in the fens an annUal driving of the young ducks before they took wing. Numbers of people affembled, who beat a vaft tiatt, and forced the birds into a net placed at the pot where the fport was to terminate. A hundred and fifty dozens have beeh taken at once : but this practice being fuppofed to be detrimental, has been abolifhed oy act of parliament. DECREE, an order made by a fuperior power for the regulation of an inferior. Decree, in the civil law, is a determination which the emperor pronounces upon hearing a particular caufe between the plaintiff and defendant. Decrees of Councils, are the laws made by them to regulate the do&rine and policy of the church. Decrees vi Chancery, are the determination of the caufe nCe l0r’ UP°n 3 ful1 hearing the merits of a DECREET, in the Law of Scotland, a final decreet or judgment of the lords of feffion, from which an ap¬ pear only lies to parliament. ^ . PECREE^rbHral, in Scots Law, the fentence or ju gment of ope to whom parties voluntarily fubmit Law/S™lnatl°n °f 307 queftion betwixt them. See Vol. VII. Part I. 13 ] DEC DECREMENT, in Heraldry, fignifiesthe wane ofDecremerit the moon from the full to the new. The moon in this I! . date is called moon decrefcent, or in decours ; and when Dcain°' , borne in coat, armour, faces to the left fide of the efcutcheon, as fhe does to the right fide when in the in¬ crement. DECREPITATION, in Chemiflry, fignifies the quick feparation of the parts of a body, occafioned by a lirong heat, and accompanied with a crackline noife. ns eftect is moft frequently produced by water con¬ tained betwixt the parts of the decrepitating body, when thefe parts have a certain degree of adhefion together. This water being quickly reduced into va- pour by the heat fuddenly applied to it, rarefies and burlts with noife the parts which comprefs it. The bo- . dies moft fubjedt to decrepitation are certain falts, fuch as common fait, fulphate of potafh, nitrate of lead, &c the decrepitation of all which proceeds from the wa- ter of their cryftallization. Clays which are not per- C TX^sVand d,nts’ 3re a^'° fubjedl to decrepitation. DECREPITUDE, in Medicine, the confequence of the infirmities of old age j which by degrees leads to death. See Death. DECRETAL, in the canon law, a letter of a pope determining fome point or queftion in the ecclefiafti- c.a iaw* i 1 lle decretals compofe the fecond part of the canon law. The firft genuine one, acknowledged by all the learned as fuch, is a letter of Pope Siricms written in the year 385, to Himerus bifhop of Tarra¬ gona, m Spain, concerning fome diforders which had orept into the churches of Spain. Gratian publifhed a colledt.on of decretals, containing all the ordinances made by the popes till the year 1150. Gregory IX. in 1227, following the example of Theodofius and Tuf- tmian formed a conftkution of his own, colledfing'into one 0 y a the decifions and all the caufes which lerved to advance the papal power ; which colkaion o _ c ecretals was called the pentateuch, becaufe it con- 1 tains five books. tk UMi^RIA^ 3 genUS of PIants belonging to the dodecandria clafs, and in the natural method rank- ing under thofe of which the order is doubtful. MATES agri, tithed fields, or granted on a tithe, as appears from Tacitus, to that rabble of Gauls who fucceeded the Marcomanni, that had till then proved a check to the Roman conquefts up the Khine j and hence probably their name, people living- on the marches or limits of the empire. In Cicero we have Ager Decuman*, which is of the fame import with the Ager Decumas of Tacitus. P DFCHR m 'Tu?10"’ tHat of t€n t0 one* DECURIO, a lubaltern officer in the Roman ar¬ mies. Fie commanded a decuria, which confifted of en men, and was the third part of a turma, or the 30th part of a leg,o of horfe, which was compofed of 5 o men. There were certain magiftrates in the pro¬ vinces called decunones municipales, who formed a body o reprefent the Roman fenate in free and corporate ♦ OW", They conCfted often, whence the name- and eir duty extended to watch over the interefts of their el ow Citizens, and to increafe the revenues of the com¬ monwealth 1 heir court was called curia decurionum and minor fenatus ; and their decrees, called decreta de¬ curionum, were marked with two D. D. at the top. They generally ftyled themfelves civitatumpatres curia- P hsx BED [ n Dtcumrt les, and homrali mtmwifiorum fenatonm. They were Leaf ele&ed with the fame ceremonies as the Roman lena- .11 . tors; they were to be at leaft 25 years of age, and to Dedication. ^ poffeffe(1 Qf a certain fum of money. I he election V happened in the kalends of March. DECURRENT leaf. See Botany Index. DECURY, ten perfons ranged under one chief or leader, called the decurio. , The Roman cavalry was divided into decuries, which were fubdivifions of a century, each century containing ten decuries. . , DECUSSATION, a term in geometij, optics, and anatomy, fignifying the eroding 6f two lines, rays or nerves, when they meet m a point, and then go on le- parately from one anothet. . . v• c DECUSSORIUM, a furgeon’s mftrument, which, by prefling gently on the dura matter, caufes an evacua¬ tion of the pus colleCted between the cranium and the before mentioned membrane, through the perforation m DEDHAMr^town of Effex in England, confid¬ ing of about 400 lofty houfes. The ftreets are not paved, but very clean, occafioned by their lying pretty high. It has one large old church, remarkable for a fine Gothic fteeple, with a great.deal of carved work about it, but much injured by time. U- Long. . N DEDICATION, the aa of confccrating a tem¬ ple, altar, ftatue, palace, &c. to the honour of fome ^ The ufe of dedications is very ancient both among the worftiippers of the true God and among the ea- thens ; the Hebrews call it ronn hhanuchah im ta- tion which the Greek tranflators render and ^r^pturete m’eet with dedications of the ta¬ bernacle, of altars, of the firft and fecond temple and even of the houfes of private perfons |here.aJe ail° dedications of veffels, and garments of the pnefts and Levites, and even of the men themfelves. The heathens had alfo dedications of temples, altars, and images of their gods, &c. Nebuchadnezzar held a folemn dedication of his ftatue, Dan. in. • pi j dedicated gilt bucklers at Jerufalem to Tiberius,?^ de levat. Petronius would have dedicated a IHtue to the emperor in the fame city, ibid. p. 79^* Taclt^’ Hijl. lib. iv. c. 53- mentions the dedication of the ca- pitol, upon rebuilding it by Vefpafian, &c. P The Tews celebrated the anmyerfary of the dediea tion of their temple every year for eight days. Th s was firft enjoined by Judas Maccabeus and the whok r vear of the Syro-Macedoman era 14b, M heathens had the like anniverfaries, as that of the dedication of the tem- of Parthenope, mentioned by Lycophron. Under Chriftianity dedication is only applied to a church : and L properly the eonfecration thereof, performed by a bifhop, with a number of ceremonies prefenbed >y ‘^Ch^Uns finding thentfelves at liberty under „ • Up,, of their ruinous churches, built Conftanttne, d de(lic!,ted them tvith new ones m dedication was ufually per- niuch folemn y. affembled a number of SZns « ;St,he fe^e.y W. have the defenp- , 1 DEE tion of thofe of the churches at Jerufalem and Tyre inDe&atte. Eufebius, and many others in later writers. , » Dedication, in literature, is an addrefs prefixed to a book, foliciting patronage, or teftifying refpeft tor the perfon to whom it is made. The dedication of the fourth part of Mr Edwards’s H.ftory of Birds is cu¬ rious • To God ! the one eternal! the incomprehenjible, the omniprefent, omnifeient and almighty Creator of things that exijl ! from orbs immeafurably great to the mt- nutefpoints of matter! -this Atom is dedicated and devoted, with all poffble gratitude, humiliation, and worfhip, and the highejl adoration both of body and muid, by bis mojt refaned, low, and humble creature, G. R. DEE John, a famous mathematician and aftr°- loger, was born (July 1527) in London, where his fa¬ ther was a wealthy vintner. In 1542, he was fent to St John’s college, Cambridge After five years clofe application to mathematical ftudies, particularly aftro- nomy, be went to Holland, in order to vifit feveral e- minent mathematicians on the continent. Having con¬ tinued abroad near a year, he returned to Cambridge and was there elected one of the fellows of Tm^ college, then firft erefted by King Henry VIII. In I C48, he took the degree of matter of arts j and, in the fame year, left England a fecond time; hisftay at home being rendered uneafy to him, by the fufpicions that were entertained of his being a conjuror ; arifing partly from bis application to aftronomy but efpec.ally on account of a piece of machinery in the of A- riftophanes, which he exhibited to the umverfity, and in which he reprefented the Scarabeus flying up to Jupiter, with a man and a bafket of viftuals on its hack Thefe fufpicions he could never after ftiake off. "" did Ms fubfequent coud»a, as we (hall fee, teud to clear him of the imputation j for if he was not aaually a conjuror, it was not for want of endeavours. Upon leaving England, he went to the umverfity of Louvain ; where he was much efteemed, and vifited by fcv“ral perfons of high rank. Here he refided about two vears, and then let out for France •, where, m the college of Rheims, he read leaures of Euclid s elements with vaft applaufe. In I55U he retu_rae.^ to and was introduced by the fecretary Cecil to King Ed“ ward who afligned him a penfion of 100 crowns, which he afterwards relinquifhed for the reanry of Upton uLn Severn: but foon after the acceftion of Queen Marv having fome correfpondence with the lady Eli¬ zabeth’s fervants, he was accufed of praftifing again the queen’s life by enchantment. On this acc°u"t he fuffered a tedious confinement, and was feveral tim examined-, till, in the year 1555. ^ obtained his li- K^rtv bv order of council* \\Vn Queen Elizabeth afeended the throne, our aftrologicalDee was confulted by Lord Dudley, con¬ cern^ a propitious day forhermajefty’s coronation He was on this occafion introduced to the queen, who nv'de him great promifes, which were never performed, though lhegcondefcended to receive his inftruaions re- Jative to the myftical interpretation of fome of his un¬ intelligible writings, which he pubhfhed about this time. In i<64 he made another voyage to the continent, L orte'to prefent a book which he had dedteated o the emperor Maximilian. He .EnTg‘™ ; the fame year : but in i57L we find himr m L Zn where, being dangeroufly ill, the queen &n« over wo DEE [ I i‘ pliyficians to his relief. Having once more returned to his native country, he fettled at Mortlake in Surrey, where he continued his ftudies with unremitting ardour, and colle&ed a confiderable library of curious books and manufcriptS) with a Variety of inflruments ; moll: of which were afterwards deftroyed by the mob, as belonging to one who dealt wuth the devil. In 1578, the queen being much indifpofed, Mr Dee was fent a- broad to confult wdth German phyficians and philofo- phers (aftrologers no doubt) on the occafion. We now’ behold him again in England, where he was foon after employed in a more rational fervice. Her ma* jelly, defirous to be informed concerning her title to thofe countries which had been difcovered by her fub- jefts, commanded Mr Dee to confult the ancient re¬ cords, and furnilh her with proper geographical de- fcriptions. Accordingly, in a Ihort time he prefented to the queen, in the gardens at Richmond, two large rolls, in which the difcovered countries were geogra¬ phically defcribed and hillorically illuftrated. Thefe rolls are preferved in the Cotton library, AuguQus I. His next employment was the reformation of the ka- lendar, on w’hich fubjedf he wrote a rational and learn¬ ed treatife, preferved in the Alhmolean library at Ox¬ ford. Hitherto the extravagancies of our eccentrical phi- lofopher feem to have been counterpoifed by a tolerable proportion of reafon and fcience 5 but henceforward we confider him as a mere necromancer and credulous al- chymift. In the year 1581, he became acquainted with one Edward Kelly, by whofe affiftance he per¬ formed diverfe incantations, and maintained a frequent imaginary intercourfe with fpirits. He was particu¬ larly intimate, it feems' with the angels Raphael and Gabriel. One of them made him a prefent of a black fpeculum, in which his angels and demons appeared as often as he had occafion for them $ they anfwered ms queflions, and Kelly’s bufinefs was to record their dxaates : Kelly did all his feats upon The devil’s looking-glafs, a done. Hudib. Part II. Canto iii. 631. In 1583, they were both introduced to a certain Po- lilh nobleman, then in England, named Albert Lafci palatine of Siradia, a perfon equally addi&ed to the* lame ridiculous purfuits. He was fo charmed with Dee and his companion, that he perfuaded them to ac¬ company him to his native country. They embarked ■°r. Holland m Sept. 1583 5 and travelling overland, arrived at the town of Lafki in February following! i heir patron, however, finding himfelf abufed by their rule pretenfions, perluaded them to pay a vifit to Ro- dolph king of Bohemia ; who, though a credulous man wf?s loon difgufted with their nonfenfe. They were afterwards introduced to the king of Poland, but with no better fuccefs. Soon after this., they were invited oy a rich Bohemian nobleman to his caftle of Trebona where they continued for fome time in great affluence: owing, as they afferted, to their art of tranftnutation Kelly63"5 °f 3 Certa!n p0wder in the P°Mon cf Dee, now quarrelling with his comnanion in iniqui¬ ty, quitted Bohemia, and returned to England, where hc was once more gracioully received by the queen j 15 ] DEE who, in 1595, made him warden of Mancheder col- lege, in which town he refided feveral years. In 1604, he returned to his houfe at Mortlake, where he died in the year 1608, aged 81 j leaving a large family, and many works behind him.—The black Hone into which Dee ufed to call his fpirits, was in the col- leftion of the earls of Peterborough, whence it came to Lady Elizabeth Germaine. It was next the property of the late duke of Argyle, and is now Mr Walpole’s. It appears upon examination to be nothing but a po- hffled piece of cannel coal.-—That Dee was a man of confiderable acquirements, is beyond a doubt ; his mathematical knowledge is generally allowed : but, unlels we fuppofe him a wicked impoftor, which is by no means improbable, w’e muft tranfmit him to pof- terity as one of the molt foolilh, fuperftitious necro- manceis of his time. Neverthelefs, the celebrated Dr Hook, many years after Dee’s death, took it into his head to prove that his journal, publiffled by Cafaubon, was entirely cryptographical, concealing his political tranfaclions, and that hc was employed by Queen Eli¬ zabeth as a fpy. Dee, the name of feveral rivers in Scotland and England j as thofe whereon the cities of Chefter in England, and New Aberdeen in Scotland, are fitua- ted. The river Dee in Aberdeenfhire abounds with falmon, fo as to form one of the greateft falmon-fiffl. mgs in Scotland. Over this river there is a bridge of feven arches, built by a bifiiop of Aberdeen, who left for its fupport a revenue, which is now fo large, that m order to exhauft the fund, a perfon has a falary to fweep the bridge once a day. DEED, an inftrument written on paper or parch¬ ment, comprehending fome contrail, bargain, or agree¬ ment between the parties thereto, in relation to the matter therein contained. DEEMSTERS, or Demsters (from the Saxon (iema, judge or umpire.) All controverfies in the Ifle of Man are decided without procefs, writings, or any charges, by certain judges, chofen yearly from among themfelves, called deemjlers ; there being two of them for each divifion of the ifiand : they fit judges in all courts, either for life or property ; and with the advice of 24 keys, declare what is law in uncommon emer¬ gencies. DEEPING, a town of Lincolnfhire in England feated on the river Weland, in a fenny ground/’ w! Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 52. 35. DEER, m Zoology. See Cervus.—The method o hunting deer in the ifiand of Ceylon is very parti¬ cular. The huntfmen go out in the night, and only two ufually go together ; the one of thefe carries upo'n his head an earthen vefiel, in which there is fome fire burning and flaming ; the ingredients are generally imall flicks cut into pieces, and common rofin. Of this the other man carries a fupply about him to re¬ plenish the pot when it grows low. The perfon who has the fire upon his head, carries in one hand a flaff on which there are fixed eight bells ; and the larger thefe are, the better. This man goes firfl into The woods, and the other follows clofe behind with a fpear m his hand. As- foon as the deer hears the noife o£ the bells, he turns towards the place whence the found comes ; and feeing the fire, he eagerly runs up to it and ftands gazing at a fmali diftance ; the fecond man P 2 has De fa&o II , Defend. D E F t >> has then nothing to do but to kill him with the Ipear ; for he fees neither of them. Not only deer, but even , elks and hares are thus taken ; for they « the fire, and never fee the men. I he profits of this fort of hunting are very large, and the danger nothing ; for though there are numbers of tygers, elephants, and wild boars, in thefe woods, the huntfmen are m no danger from them while the fire burns, for they all run awTav from it. . . _ • n* _. DE facto, fomething aftually in faft, or exifting , in contradifiinfticm to de jure, where a thing is only fo in iuftice, but not in fad : as a king de fado, is a per- fon who is aftually in poffeffion of a crown, but has no legal right to the fame 5 and a king dejure, is the perfon who has a juft right to the crown, though he is out of poffeflion thereof. DEFAMATION, the fpeakmg ftanderous words of another j for which the flanderer is pumftiable, ac¬ cording to the nature of his offence, either by aftmn upon the cafe at common law, or by ftatute m the ec- CleQFFAULT, in law, is generally taken for non- appearance in court, at a day aftigned ; but imports any omiftion of that which vm ought to do, lor which judgment may be given againft the defaulte . J DEFEASANCE, or Deteiiance, m Law, a con dition relating to fome certain deed, which being per¬ formed the deed is defeated and rendered void, as if it had never been made. The difference between a common condition and a defeafance , tba^the cond, feuded and agreed on between the parties, and having relation to th r>EFECATE,#i Cbemiflry, a term applied to a body freed and purged from f®"5 a"d u,,. •^rECIIr?,Nm terfft a X h^d "been enga- ged inf The word is formed of the Latin J'fivo, to ^DEFECTIVE, in general, an appellation given to tilings which want fome of the properties thatnatu- ra^^fT^r aI-;> are fuch as want either a whole number, a part.cular cale, or ‘^rSm “li ioeeapNpiieTto a verb that has ’’0DEFENCOE,SaindF‘rtP««wf all forts of works tint cover and’ defend the oppofite pofts, as flanks, caLents, parapets, and fauifebrays. bee Foar.r.- CA2r;/DEFPHCE, a fuppofed line drawn from the ancle of4= curtain, or from any other part in the cur- angle o. i f ^ oppofite baftion. '“"defend! in general, hgnifiesfLch the fame with prS - keeping off iniuries offered to any per¬ fon either by enemtes^ot a[ld ftatuteSi fignifies ,0 prohibit’or forbid: vVfrario, defendit W-e ^ f° UfM Whetreecan11y”unffy’iDny manner age, » That ever God defended marriage. 6 1 D E F In 7 Edw. 1. there is a fta.ute entitled, “ *““•“<"** “'Y”* defenfione portandi arma," &c. And “it is defended Drf[nL,^ by law to diftrain on the highways Coke on Littl. i0lDEFEND ANT, in Law, the perfon fued in an ac¬ tion perfonal; as tenant is he who is fued in an aftion real. See Action. - a DEFENDER of /Ae Faith (Fidei Defenfor), a pe¬ culiar title belonging to the king of England *, as C^- tholicus to the king of Spain, and ChrifiamJfimusX* the king of France, &c. Thefe titles were given by the popes of Rome. That of Fidei Defenfor firft con¬ ferred by Leo X. on King Henry \ III. for writing againft Martin Luther ; and the bull for it u,ears date quinto idus OElob. 1521. It was afterwards confirmed by Clement VII. But the pope, on Henry s fupprei- fing the houfes of religion at the time of the Refor¬ mation, not only deprived him of his.title, but depo- fed him from his crown alfo : though in the 35th year of his feign, his title, &c. was confirmed by parl.a- ment ; and hath continued to be ufed by ah fucceed- ing kings to this day. Chamberlayne fays, the title belonged to the kings of England before that time 5 and for proof hereof appeals to feveral charteis gran - ed to the univerfity of Oxford. So that pope Leo s bull was only a renovation of an ancient right. . DEFENDERS, were anciently notable dignita¬ ries both in church and ftate, whofe bufmefs was to look to the preiervation of the public weal, to pro- teft the poor and helplefs, and to maintain the inte- refts and caufes of churches and religious houfes. See Protector. The council of Chalcedon can. 2. calls the defender of a church E*W Codin, * ojje.i aulce ConJ}. makes mention of defenders of the palace. There were alfo a defender of the kingdom, defenfor revni; defenders of cities, defences crvitatu ; defen¬ ders of the people, defenfores plebts ; of the poor, E- therlefs, widows, &c. , , . 1 u ^ About the year 420, each patriarchal church began to have its defender j which cuftom was afterwards in¬ troduced into other churches, and continued to later days under other names 5 as thofe of Advocate and ^iTthe year 407, we find the council of Carthage Hiked .heLmptoi, for defenders, of ^ "0^ 0 Scboltfici, i. e. advocates who were m office, ^ ‘ it might be allowed them to enter and fearch the cab nets and papers of the judges and other civil magif- trates, whenever it Ihould be found neceffary for the ‘"deferens, or Defehekt, in the ancient aflro- nomy an imaginary circle, which, as it were, Carnes about the body of a planet, and ts the lame with he eccentric ; being invented to account for the city perigee, and apogee of the planets. DEFILE, in Fortification, aftraight narrow paffage, through which a company of horfe or foot can pafs only in file, by making a fmall front. DEFINITE, in Grammar, is applied to an article that has a precife determinate fignification ; fuch as the article/Ae Fn Englifh, le and la in French, &c. which fix and afcertainUie noun they belong.to to fome par- • 1 • oc thr kinv le roy: whereas, m the quality oj A ";f .he i’rtidcsV and ife mark nothing Pre- cife, and are therefore indefinite. -rvr-FmmON* D E F [ i Definition DEFINITION, in general, a fhort defcrijstion Defloration.0^ .a thin^ by its ProPert‘es; or, in logic, the expli- i cation of the effence of a thing by its kind and dif¬ ference. DEiTNITIVE, a term applied to whatever termi¬ nates a procefs, queftion,, &.c. in oppofition to provi¬ sional and interlocutory. DEFLAGRATION, in Chemiflry, the kindling or fetting fire to a fait or mineral, &c. either alone or mixed for that purpofe with a fulphureous one, in order to purify it. This fhort procefs has been often recommended to the world as of great ufe in trying the ftrength of brandies and other vinous Spirits, and has been greatly improved in this refpeft by Mr Geoffroy. The common way of trying Spirits by deflagration, is to meafure out any quantity of it, then to heat it, and fet it on fire. If, after it will no longer burn, the remainder is half as much as the quantity meafured out for the trial was, then the Spirit tried is found to con- fift of half water, and half totally inflammable fpirit; that is, it is Somewhat below what we underftand by the term perfeEi proof.—This method is much more certain than that by the crown of bubbles which arifes upon Shaking the fpirit in a phial. Monf. Geoffrey’s method is this: Take a cylindric veffel two inches high, and as much in diameter, confifting of thin plate Silver, that metal being much lefs liable to ruff than copper $ this veflel muff be fitted with a little reftan- gular gage exaaiy graduated into lines, half lines, &c. then the veflel being fet level upon a copper cafe made to contain it, a parcel of the brandy to be examined is poured in, to the height of 16 lines. This height is to be exaftly hit by pouring in more than enough at firft, and then fucking out the overplus wilh a very Small tube. Then the veffel being heated a little, fo as juft to make the liquor fume, it is to be fet on fire and left to go out of itfelf; at the inftant when the flame expires, the gage is plunged perpendicularly into the veffel, and the lines and quarters exaaiy noted which the liquor wants of its former height : this difference gives the precife quantity of alcohol or pure fpirit contained in the liquor. I hus, if eight lines of phlegm are found remaining, this being the half of the 16 lines of the original filling, it is plain, that the li¬ quor contained one half fpirit, or was fomething below proof. If only four lines remained, it was nearly double proof, or of a middle nature betwixt alcohol and common proof-fpirit. DEhLECT ION, the turning any thing afide from its former courfe by Some adventitious or external caufe. The word is often applied to the tendency of a fhip from her true courfe by realon of currents, &c. which turn her out of her right way. It is likewife applied by aftronoraers to the tendency of the planets from the line or their projeftion, or the tangent of their orbit. Deflection of the Rays of Light, a property which Dr Hook obferved in 1675, and read an ac¬ count of before the Royal Society, March 18th the fame year. He fays he found it different both from reflexion and refraftion, and that it was made to¬ wards the. furface of the opaque body, perpendicu¬ larly. This is the fame property which Sir Ifaac New¬ ton calls inflexion. DEFLORATION, or Deflowering, the a£t of 17 ] - D E F violating or taking away a woman’s virginity. See Deflaxiop, Virginity.-—Death or marriage are decreed by the , t civil law in cafe of defloration. ,r The ancients had fo much refpeft for virgins, that they would not put them to death till they had firft procured them to be deflowered. It is laid, the na¬ tives of the coaft of Malabar pay ftrangers to come and deflower their brides. In Scotland, and the northern parts of England, it was a privilege of the lords of the manor, granted them by King Ewen, that they Ihould have the firft night’s lodging with their tenants wives. King Malcom III. allowed the tenants to redeem this fervice at a certain rate, called marcheta, confifting of a certain number of cows: Buchanan fays it was redeemed with half a mark of lilver. The fame cuftom had place in Wales, Flanders, Friefland, and fome parts of Germany. DEFLUXION, in Medicine, the falling the humours from a fuperior to an inferior part of the body. DEFOE, Daniel, a writer famous for politics and poetry, was bred a holier j which profeftion how¬ ever be foon forfook, and became one of the moft enter- priling authors that any age produced. When difeon- tents ran high at the Revolution, and King William was obliged to difmifs his Dutch guards, .Defoe, who had true notions of civil liberty, ridiculed the enemies of government in his well-known poem, called the True-born Englifhman, which had a prodigious fale. The next fatire he wrote was entitled Reformation of Manners; aimed at fome perfons of high rank, who rendered themfelves a difgrace to their country. When the ecclefiaftics in power breathed too much of a fpirit, of perfecution, Defoe wrote a traft called the Short- eft Way with the Diffenters: for which he was called to account, and explained himfelf with great fiimnefs. He was afterwards fentenced to the pillory for attack¬ ing fome public meafures j which fo little intimidated him, that, in defiance of their ufage, he wrote a Hymn to the Pillory. It would be endlefs to enumerate all his publications ; but the following are the principal: the Hiftory of the Plague in 1665 •, a novel entitled the Hiftory of Colonel Jack; a new Voyage round the World by a Company of Merchants, printed for Bet- tefworth, 1725; the Hiftory of Roxana; Memoirs of a Cavalier; the Hiftory of Moll Flanders; a book en¬ titled Religious Courtlhip, which has undergone up¬ wards of 20 editions; and the Life and Adventures of- Robinfon Cmfoe, an admirable performance, of which there have been editions without number, but concern¬ ing which there is an anecdote that does the author of it no credit as to the better part of a writer’s charac¬ ter, honefty. When Captain Woods Rogers touched at the illand of Juan Fernandez, in the South fea, he brought away Alexander Selkirk, a Scotch failor, who had been left aftiore there, and had lived on that defo— late place above four years. When Selkirk came back to England, he wrote a narrative of his adventures, and put the papers into the hands of Defoe, to digeft for publication; who ungeneroufly converted the materials into the Hiftory of Robinfon Crufoe, and returned Selkirk his papers again ! A fraud for which, in a humane view, the diftinguifhed merit of7 that romance can never atone. Daniel Defoe died at Iflington, in 1731. All his produ&ions of the ro¬ mantic D E F [ 118 Defoliation, mantle fpecles, but efpecially the two laft; mentioned, v"*”—' are much in vogue among country readers ; and, on account of their moral and religious tendency, may very probably in fome meafure counteract the perni¬ cious effe&s produced by the too general circulation of modern novels, thofe occafional vehicles of impiety and infidelity. DEFOLIATION, (from de, znA folium “a leaf”); are ] D E F , of themfelves, fufficient for effefting the purpofesDefoliatiec. of vegetation. It is for this reafon, that, unlels in ex-k—“v*—*' ceffive hot weather, gardeners are feldom wont to wa¬ ter fat fucculent plants, as the aloes, which rot when they are moiftened, if the fun does not quickly dry them up. The leaves of all the evergreen flirubs and trees have a thin compaa fkin or cover over their furface ; the fall of the leaves. A term oppofed to fronde- as is eafily difeovered by macerating them in water, m feentia, the annual renovation of the leaves, produced by the unfolding of the buds in fpring. See Fronde- scentia. Molt plants in cold and temperate climates Ihed their leaves every year : this happens in autumn, and is ge¬ nerally announced by the flowering of the common meadow faffron. The term is only applied to trees and Ihrubs •, for herbs perilh down to the root every year, lofing Item, leaves, and all. All plants do not drop their leaves at the fame time. Among large trees, the alh and walnut, although latefl: in unfolding, are fooneft divefted of them : the latter feldom carries its leaves above five months. . On the oak and hornbeam, the leaves die and wi¬ ther as foon as the colds commence j but remain at¬ tached to the branches till they are pulhed off by the new ones, which unfold themfelves the following fpring. Thefe trees are doubtlefs a kind of ever¬ greens : the leaves are probably deftroyed only by cold *, and perhaps would continue longer on the plant, but for the force of the fpring-fap, joined to the moifture. „ In mild and dry feafons, the lilach, privet, yellow jej- famine of the woods, and maple of Crete, preferve their leaves green until fpting, and do not drop them till the new leaves are beginning to appear. I he fig-tree, and many other trees that grow between the tropics, are of this particular clafs of evergreens. The trees in Egypt, fays Doaor Haffelquift, caft their leaves in the latter end of December and beginning of January, having voung leaves ready before all the old ones are fallen off*, and, to forward this operation of nature, few of the trees have buds: the fycamore and willow, indeed, have fome, but with few and quite XovfeJHpuice or feales. Nature did not imagine buds fo rieceflary ’r* the fouthern as in the northern countries . this order to feparate the parenchyma, or pulp, from the veffels of the leaves •, which cannot be effe&ed in any of thefe evergreens till a thin parchment-like cover is taken off. Thefe trees and fhrubs are found by ex¬ periment to perfpire but little, when compared with others which fhed their leaves } and it is, perhaps, principally owing to this clofe covering, as alfo to the fmall proportion of moifture contained in their veffels, that they retain their verdure, and continue through the winter on the trees. Ihe nutritive juices of thefe plants always abound, more or lefs, with an oily quality, which fecures them from being injured by fevere frofts j fo that many of thefe evergreen trees are adapted to grow in the coldeft parts of the habi¬ table world. _ - With refpeft to deciduous trees, the falling ott of the leaves feems principally to depend on the tempera¬ ture of the atmofphere, which likewufe ferves to haften or retard the appearance in queftion. An ardent fun contributes to haften the dropping of the leaves. Hence in hot and dry fummers, the leaves of the lime- tree and horfe-chefnut turn yellow about the firft of September-, whilft in other years, the yellownefs does not appear till the beginning of Oftober. Nothing, however, contributes more to haften the fall of the leaves, than immoderate cold or moift weather in au¬ tumn j moderate droughts, on the other hand, ferve to retard it. As a proof of this pofition, Mr Adanfon relates, that in the year 1759, the leaves of the elm- tree, w-hich generally fall off about the 25th of No¬ vember, continued in verdure and vigour at Pansj where the autumn was remarkably dry, till the 10th of the following month. The following table, refpe&ing the mean times in which different trees (hed their leaves, is founded up¬ on obfervation. occafions a great difference betw-een them. Laftly, fome trees and ftirubs preferve their leaves conftantly through the whole year j and are not in the leaft influenced by the clemency or inclemency of lea- ions. Such are the firs, juniper, yew-, cedar, cyprefs, and many other trees, hence denominated evergreens. Thefe preferve their old leaves a long time after the formation of the new, and do not drop them at any determinate time. In general, the leaves of evergreens are harder, and lefs fucculent, than thofe which are renewed annually. The trees are gene¬ rally natives of warm climates \ as the alaternufes of France and Italy, the evergreen oak of Portugal and Some herbaceous perennials, as the houfe-leeks and navel-worts, enjoy the fame privilege with the ever¬ green trees, and refill the feverities of winter : fome even can difpenfe with the earth for fome time ; being Goofeberry-tree and blad- J der-fena, Walnut and afti, Almond-tree, horfe-chefnut, and lime-tree, Maple, hazel-nut, black pop- plar, and afpen tree. Birch, plane-tree, mountain- ofier, falfe acacia, peat, and apple-tree, -"Vine, mulberry, fig, fumach, and angelica-tree, Elm-tree and willow, Apricot and elder trees, O&ober 1 ft. —— -15th. 3 cr o -20th. -25th. November ill. -10th. -15th. -20 th. It deferves to be remarked, that an evergreen tree grafted upon a deciduous, determines the latter to re¬ even can empeme wun tuc ca.iu ° . • , Thjs 0bfervation is confirmed by re- replete with juices, which the leaves imbibe from the .’ narticulailv by grafting the laurel, humidity of the atmofphere, and whichj in fuck plants, pcated expenmenu, part,cutely by gmt g ^ D E F [ , Deforce- or cherry-bny, an evergreen, on the common cherry j ment, and the ilex, or evergreen oak, on the oak. . " I. DEFORCEMENT, m Law, the cafting any one out of his land, or withholding of lands and tenements by force from the right owner. Deforcement, in Scots Law, the oppofing or refill¬ ing of the officers of the law in the execution of their office. See Law Index. DEFORMITY, the want of that uniformity ne- ceffary to conftitute the beauty of an objeft. See Beauty. Deformity is either natural or moral. Thefe are both referred by Mr Hutchefon to an internal fenfc • and our perceptions of them, as he fuppofes, arifes from an original arbitrary ftruflure of our own minds, by which certain objefts, when obferved, are rendered the occafions of certain fenfations and affeftions. That many obje&s give no pleafure to*our fenfe is obvious. Many are certainly void of beauty; but then lays this author, there is no form which feems necef- farily difagreeable of itfelf, when we dread no other evil from it, and compare it with nothing better of the kind. Many objefts are naturally difpleafing and dif- tafteful to our external fenfes, as well as others pleafing and agreeable \ as fmells, taftes, and fome feparate founds ; but with regard to our fenfe of beauty, no compofition of objects which give not unpleafant fim- ple ideas, feems pofitively unpleafant or painful of itfelf, had we never obferved any thing better of the fame kind. Had there been a fpecies of the form which we now denominate ugly or deformed, and had we never feen or expefted greater beauty, we fliould have received no difguft from it; though the pleafure would not have been fo great in this form as in thofe we new admire. Our fenfe of beauty feems defigned to give us pofitive pleafure j but not pofitive pain or difgufl, any farther than wffiat arifes from difappointment. There are indeed many faces which at firft view are apt to raife dillike. But this is generally not from any pofitive deformity ; but either from want of ex- peded beauty, or from the carrying fome natural in¬ dications of morally bad difpofitions, which we all ac¬ quire a faculty of difeerning in countenances, airs, and geftures. That this is not occafioned by any form po- litively difgufting, appears hence, that’ if, upon long acquaintance, we are fure of finding fweetnefs of tem¬ per, humanity, and cheerfulnefs, though the bodily form continues, it {hall give us no difgurt. There are horrors raifed by fome objefts, which are only the ef- feft of fear for ourfelves, or compaffion towards others, when either reafon, or fome foolifh affbeiation of ideas, makes us apprehend danger; and not the effeft of any thing in the form itfelf. For we find, that moft of thole obje&s which excite horror at firft, when ex¬ perience or reafon has removed the fear, may become the occafion of pleafure. The cafual conjunflion of ideas gives us difguft, when there is nothing difagreeable in the form itfelf] . -Amd this, in effeft, is the caufe of moft of our fantaf- tic averfions to the figures of divers animals, &c. i bus ferpents of all kinds, and many infers, really beautiful enough, are beheld with averfion by many haVe S0t f°me accidental ideas of mif- chief allociated to them. A fimilar reafoning is ap- 19 ] D E F plied to our perception of moral beauty and deformity. Deformity. Inquiry into the Original of our Ideas of Beauty nad' — Virtue, pa (Tim. But it is more juft to diftinguilh between the fenti- ments of delight or difguft, excited in us by beautiful or deformed objefts, which are effetfs of fome caufes and the natural and real qualities of the perceived oh- jefts by which they are produced. There are objefts, lays an excellent writer, which have a natural aptitude to pleafe or offend, or between which and the contem¬ plating mind there is a neceffary congruity or incon- gruity ; and though the aftual perception of the un- derftanding, and confequent feeling of the heart in contemplatingthe actions and affedtions of moral agents, may exift in very different degrees, on account of the incidental obfirudHons arifing from bodily indifpofition mental prejudices and biaffes, and the affociation of ideas ; yet, to every rational mind properly difpofed. morally good adhons muft for ever be acceptable, and can never of themfelves offend ; and morally evil adhons muft for ever be difagreeable, and can never of themlelves-pleafe. What is right in adlions and cha¬ racters is beautiful and amiable, and gives pleafure : what is wrong is deformed and odious, and excites dif¬ guft : right and pleafure, wrong and pain, are as diftindl as caufe and effedt. It is no lefs abfurd to maintain, that the perception of virtue is nothing diftindt from the reception of the pleafure refulting from it, than to infer with fome metaphyficians, that folidity, extenfion, and figure, are only particular modes of fenfation, becaufe attended whenever they are perceived, with fome fen- lations of fight or touch. Thus does the author (how that moral beauty and deformity are real qualities of certain adhons; m which confifts their aptitude to pleafe or difguft. With refpedl to natural beauty, he ob- ierves, that uniformity amidft variety pleafes, becaufe ol the natures of variety and uniformity, which are luch, that whenever united, they are adapted to pleafe every free unbiaffed mind that difeerns them. He ac counts for the pleafure they afford, without referring them to an arbitrary internal fenfe, by the following circumftances that attend them. They are more eafily comprehended by the mind : order and fymmetry give things their liability and ftrength, and fubferviency to any valuable purpofe j regularity and order evidence art and defign. Diforder and confufion, whence de¬ formity anfes, denote only the negation of regularity and order; or any arrangement and difpofition of things, which are not according to a law, rule, or plan and prove not defign. Thefe are not pofitively dilpleafing; except where we previoully expefted or¬ der, or where impotence or want of {kill appear, and the contriver has either failed of his defign or executed In a work entitled Fugitive Pieces, is preferved an eflay on Bodily Deformity by William Hay Efqj who was himfelf what he deferibes, and who m [aUleS hlS T" figUre with great Pleafantry* difeuffes the general fubjeft in a manner equally in- ftrudlive and agreeable. He confiders, 1. The natural confequences of bodily deformity j 2. How it affe&s the outward circumftances; and, 3. What turn it gives to the mind. ° 1 ^ ^certain, that the human frame, being warp. ed and difproportioned, is leffened in ftrength and ac- tivity, D E F [ 120 Deformity, tivity, and rendered lefs fit for its fa^^ns. Scar- I v—J ron bad invented an engine to take oft bis hat, and I ivifh (fays our author) I could invent one to buckle my fhoe, or to take up a thing from the ground, which I can fcarce do without kneeling, for I can bend my body no farther than it is bent by nature, lor this reafon, when ladies drop a fan or glove, I am not the firft to take it up *, and often reftrain my inclination to perform thofe little fervices, rather than expole my fpiderlike fhape. And I hope it will not be conftrued as pride, if I do not always rife from my feat when 1 ought: for if it is low, I find fome trouble in it; and my centre of gravity is lo ill placed, that I am often like to fall back. Things hanging within the reach of others are out of mine ; and what they can execute with eafe, I want llrength to perform. I am in danger of being trampled upon or ftifled m a crowd, where my back is a convenient lodgment lor the elbow of any tall perfon that is near. I can lee nothing, and rtiy whole employment is to guard my perfon. I have forborne to attend his majelly in tne houfe of peers fincc I was like to be fqueezed to death there againft the wall. I would willingly come thither when his maiefty commands, but he is too gracious to expeft impoftibilities. Befides, when I got in, I can never have the pleafure of feeing on the throne one of the bell princes who ever fat on it. _ Thefe, and many others are the inconveniences continually attending a figure’like mine. They may appear grievous to per- fons not ufed to them, but they grow eafier by habit; and though they may a little difturb, they are not u - ficient to deftroy the happmefs of life ; of which, at an average, I have enjoyed as great a fliare as moft men. And perhaps one proof of it may be my writing this efiay : not intended as a complaint agnnll Provi¬ dence for my lot, but as an innocent amufement to myfelf and others. , As to what effea deformity may have on the health, it appears natural to imagine, that as the mward parts of the body muft in fome meafure comply with the outward mould, fo the form of the latter being irregu¬ lar, the firft cannot be fo well placed and difpofed to perform their funftions •, and that generally deformed perfons would not be healthy or long-lived. _ But this is a queftion beft determined by fafts ; and in this cafe the infiances are too few or unobferved, to draw a ge¬ neral conclufion from them : and health is more than is commonly thought in a man's own power and the reward of temperance more than the effea of conftitu- tion ; which makes it ftill more difficult to pafs a judg¬ ment. TEfop could not be young when he died ; and might have lived longer if he had not been murdered at Delphi. The prince of Orange fcarce paffed the meridian of life, and the duke of Luxemburg died the age of 67. The lord treafurer Burleigh lived to 78*, but his fon. the earl of Saliffiury, vvho died about 15 years after him, could not reach near that te. It is faid that Mr Pope’s father was deformed, and he lived to 75 •, whereas the fon died m middle age if he may be faid to die whofe works are immortal. «. My father (adds our author) was not deformed, but aaive and my mother a celebrated beauty, and I, that am fo unlike them, have lived to a greater age, and daily fee my acquaintance of a {Longer frame quitting the ftage before me.” ] D E F But whether deformity, abftraftedly confidered, bepefomuty^ really prejudicial to health, in its confequences it ap-^ * pears to be moft commonly an advantage. Deformed perfons have a lefs ffiare of {Length than others, and therefore ffiould naturally be more careful to preferve it ; and as temperance is the great prefervative oi health, it may incline them to be more temperate. Another great prefervative of health is moderdte ex- ercife, which few deformed perfons can want (Length to perform. As a deformed perfon is not formed for violent exercife, he is lefs liable to fuch diforders as are the natural confequence ot it. He will alfo elcape many accidents, to which men of athletic make, and who glory in their {Length, are always expofing them- felves to make trial and proof of it. If he cannot carry an ox, like Milo, he will not like Milo be band- cuffed in the oak by attempting to rend it. He will not be the man that ffiall ride from London to York in a day, or to Windfor in an hour, for a wager ; or that ffiall be perpetually performing furpnfing long journeys in a furprifing Ihort time, for no earthly bu- finefs but the pleafure of relating them. Confcious oi his own weaknefs, he will be cautious of running into places or occafions of danger. Nature, too, warns de¬ formed perfons to be careful not to offer fuch affronts as may call them forth into the field of falfe honour,^ where they cannot acquit themfelves well for want of {Length and agility *, and they are fecurer from fuch affronts themfelves, fince others will confider the little credit they will gain by compelling them to appear on that feene. On the whole, therefore, it may be con¬ cluded, that deformity is a proteftion to a man s health and perfon ; which ((Lange as it may appear) are bet¬ ter defended by feeblenefs than {Length. ^ 2. The influence of bodily deformity on a man s fortune may next be confidered. Among the lower clafs, he is cut off from many profeffions and employ¬ ments. He cannot be a foldier, he is under ftandard j he cannot be a failor, he wants aftivity to climb the rigging ; he cannot be a chairman or porter, he wants {Length to bear the burden. In higher life, he is ill qualified for a lawyer, he can fcarce be ken over the bar ; for a divine, he may drop from his haffock out of fight in his pulpit. The improvement of his mind is his proper province, and his bufinefs only fuch as depends on ingenuity. If he cannot be a dancing- mafter to adjuft the heels, he may be a fchoolmafter to inftrua the head : he cannot be a graceful after on the ftage ; but he may produce a good play : he would appear ill as a herald in a proceffion ; but may pais as a merchant on the change: he cannot undergo the fatigue of the campaign j but he may auvife the ope¬ rations of it : he is defigned by nature rather to fieep on Parnaffus, than to defeend on the plains of Eohs : he cannot Be crowned at the Olympic games •, but may be the Pindar to celebrate them : he can acquire no glory by the fword *, but he may by the pen, and may grow famous by only relating thofe exploits which are beyond his power to imitate. Lord Bacon (that extenfive and penetrating genius who pointed out every part of nature for examination), in his Effay on Deformity, fays, “ that in their fupe- riors it quencheth jealoufy towards them, as perions that they think they may at pleafure defpiie *, and it layeth their competitors and emulators afleep, as never 2 D E F [ 12 Deformity.believing, they fhould be in a pqffibility of advancement tdl they fee them in poffeflion.” But it is much to be doubted whether this is not more than counterba¬ lanced by the contempt of the world, which it requires no mean parts to conquer j for if (as has been faid) a good perfon is a letter of recommendation, deformity mull be an obftru6!ion in the way to favour. In this refpeft, therefore, deformed perfons fet out in the world to a difadvantage ; and they muft firlt furmount the prejudices of mankind before they can be upon a par with others, and muft obtain by a courfe of behavi¬ our that regard which is paid to beauty at firft fight. W hen this point is once gained, the tables are turned and then the game goes in their favour: for others’ ienfible of their injuftice to them, no fooner find them better than they expefted, than they believe them better than they are ; whereas in the beautiful perfon they iometimes find themfelves impofed upon, jand are angry that they have worftiipped only a painted idol, bor (again take Lord Bacon’s words) “ neither is it aim oft feen, that very beautiful perfons are otherwife of great, virtue : they prove accomplifhed, but not of Sreat ^Plnt i and ftudy rather behaviour than virtue Vv hereas deformed perfons, if they be of fpirit, will free themfelves from fcorn, which muft be either by virtue or malice ; and therefore let it not be marvelled it they iometimes prove excellent perfons, as was Age- lilaus, Zanger the fon of Solomon, JEtop, Gafca pre- fident of Peru ; and Socrates may likewife go amongfl: them, with others.” Nay, he fays “ in a great wit deformity is an advantage to rifing.” And in another part of his works, “ that they who by accident have fome inevitable and indelible mark on their perfons or fortunes, as deformed people, baftards, &c. if they want not virtue, generally prove fortunate.” Qfborn, in his Hiftorical Memoirs of Queen Eliza beth informs us that “ ihe chofe the gbbdlieft per- ons for her houfehold fervants : but in her counfel- lors d.d not put bv fufficiency, though accompanied with a crooked perfon ; as it chanced in a father and a !on of the Cecils both incomparable for prudence.” VSiWeL\ken°Wn, the queen would make father ( Burleigh) fit m her prefence ; telling him that fhe did not ufe him for his legs but his head. But the fon (afterwards lord treafurer and earl of Salifhury) was not fo civilly treated by the populace; and is an in- f ance not. only that envy purfues a great man, but t iat the higheft poft cannot redeem a deformed one from contempt : it attends him like his fhadow, and like that too is ever reminding him of his ill fiemre which is often objeGed for want of real crimes. For’ the lame writer fays of the fame great man, “ that the misfortunes accompanying him from his birth, did not a, ,“le/,ddrt?.thatJ.cloud <>f detraction that fell upon all that he faid or did; amuld in nature, like an optic ipeaacle,. multiplying much in the fight of the people tne apparitions of ill.” Nor was this contempt buried with him : ,t trampled on his allies, and infulted his grave ; as appears by an epitaph, which Ofborn cites, Vol. V II. Part I. ’ i ] D E F a ..void, of ilk as'i't U full of icuirility ; i„ one line ofDcfonmf,-. which there is an epithet, not fo elegant as deferip- v—”"v~“—‘ tive of his perfon, viz>. “ Little Boflive Robin that was lo great.” c oucn contempt in general, joined with the ridicule o. the vulgar, is another certain confequence of bodily deformity ; for men naturally defpife what appears Ids beautiful or ufeful, and their pride is gratified when t icy fee fuch foils to their ow-n perfons. It is this fenle of fupenonty which is teftified by laughter in the lower fort ; while their betters, who know how little any man whatever hath to boaft of, are reftrained by good, fenfe and good breeding from fucb an infult But it is not eafy.to fay why one fpecies of deformity ihould be more ridiculous than another, or why the mob ftiould be more merry with a crooked man, than . with one. that is deaf, lame, fquinting, or purblind. It isa back m a to relievo that bears allthe ridicule; though one would think a prominent belly a more reafonable object of it, fince the laft is generally the eft eft of in¬ temperance, and of a man’s own creation. Socrates was ugly, but not contemned ; and Philopcemen (a) of very mean appearance, and though contemned on that account not ridiculed : for Montaigne fays “ Hi fea tures are but a fuperficial uglinefs, and of little cer" tainty.m the opinion of men; but a deformity of limbs is more fubftantial, and ftrikes deeper in ” As U is more uncommon, it is more remarkable ; and that perhaps is the true reafon why it is more ridiculed by the vulgar. ■' 5. Lhekift confideration on this fubjeft relates to thole paftions and afteaions which moft naturally re- fu!t from deformity. Lord Bacon obferyes, that “ de- foimed perfons are commonly even with nature • for as nature hath done ill by them, fo do they by nature being for the moft part (as the feripture faith) void If find m B-Ut /lays Mr Hay) “ 1 can neither find out this paflage m feripture, nor the reafon of it • nor can I g1Ve my affent or negative to a propofition; till I am well acquainted with the terms of it' If by natural affeaion is here meant univerfal benevolence and deformity neceffanly implies a want of it, a del ormed perfon muft then be a complete monfter. But however common the cale may be, my own fenfations inform me that ,t is not univerfally true. If bv natu ral affeftion is meant, a partial regard for individuals I eheve the remark is judicious, and founded in hu¬ man nature. Deformed perfons are defpifed, ridiculed and ill-treated by others ; are feldom favourites and conimonly neglefled by parent,, guardian, and Klatmn,; and.hereWa, they are not indebted for mu.c h fondnefs, it is no wonder if they repay but little t is the command of feripture, AV tofit our ofeaion) on things below; and it is the voice of reafon not to overvalue what we muft foon part with ; therefore to be fo fond of others as not to be able to bear their ab- ence, or to furvive them, is neither a religious nor mo. ra duty, but a childifh and womanifh weaknefs ; and I muft congratulate deformed perfons, who, by ex- ample, plain perfon of very mean’afpea? ordered Idm'to affiir n" att'l’dan!!’ t,le of the houfe feeing a ““ fiDdi,,g hm r° "W ^ ^ was att'"d- D E F [12 Bcfotmity. ample, are early taught another leffon. 1 wl11 'now lay open my own heart to the reader, that he may iudge if Lord Bacon’s pofition is verified m me. “ I hope it proceeds not from a malignity or heart } but I never am much affeaed with the common ac¬ cidents of life, whether they befal myfelf or others. I am little moved when I hear of death, lots, or mil- fortune ; I think the cafe is common. Trituf. et e medio fortunes dudus acervo ; Juv. Sat. xui. And as it is always likely to happen, I am not fur- nrifed when it does. If I fee a perion cry or beat his breaft on any fuch occafion, I cannot bear him com¬ pany ; but am not a Democritus to laugh at his tolly. I read of battles and fields covered with flam ; of cities deftroyed by fword, famine, peftilence, and earthquake ; I do not thed a tear : I fuppofe it is becaufe they are the ufual ftorms, to which the human fpecies are ex- pofed, proceeding from the juft judgments of God, or the miftaken and falfe principles of rulers. I read ot perfecutions, tortures, murders, maffacres *, my com¬ panion for the fufferers is great, but my tears are flopped by refentment and indignation agamft the con¬ trivers and perpetrators of fuch horrid aaions. But there are many things that bring tears into my eyes whether I will or no j and when I refleft, I am often at a lofs in fearching out the fecret fource from whence they flow. What makes me weep (for weep 1 do) when I read of virtue or innocence in diftrefs ; ot a good man helplefs and forfaken, unmoved by the great- eft infults and cruelties, or courageoufly fupporting himfelf againft oppreflion in the article of death fuppofe it is to fee vice triumphant and virtue fo ill rewarded in this life. May I judge by tnyfelf I fliould imagine that few fincere Chrifttans could read the fufferings of their Saviour, or Lnglifhmen thole ot a Cranmer, Ridley, or Latimer, without tears ; the fir ft dying to eftablilh his religion, the laft to refciie it from corruption. When I read of Regulus returning to tor- ment and Tohn of France to imprifonment, againft the perfuafion of friends, to keep faith with their enemies I weep to think there is fcarce another inftance of fuch exalted virtue. Thofe who often hear me read, know that my voice changes, and my eyes are full, when I meet with a generous and heroic faying, aaion, or cha- xa&er, efpecially of perfons whofe example or command may influence mankind. I weep when I hear a Titus fay, that he had loft the day m which he did no good when Adrian tells his enemy, that he had efcaped y his being emperor ; or Louis XII. that he is not to revenge^the affront of the duke of Orleans. Thefe are the fir ft inftances that happen to occur to me .1 might lecolleft many, too many to infert in this eflay , ye all are but few, compared to inftances of cruelty and revenge: perhaps I am concerned that they are fo rare ; perhaps too I inwardly grieve that I am not in a fituation to do the like. 1 am entertained, but not moved when I read Voltaire’s Hiftory of Charles XII. but I melt into tears on reading Hanway’s chaiaaer of his antagonift Peter the Great. T he firft is a ftory / of a madman ; the other of a father, frienc, and bene- fadtor of his people ; whofe character (as the author obferves in the^onclufion of it) will command the ad¬ miration of all fucceeding generations j and I fuppofe 2 1 D E F I lament, that God is pleafed to advance to royalty foDe&nn^ few fuch inflruments of good to mankind. Again: “ I am uneafy when I fee a dog, a hoife, or any other animal, ill-treated : for I confider them as endued with quick fenfe, and no contemptible (hare of realon ; and that God gave man dominion over them, not to play the tyrant, but to be a good prince, and promote the happinefs of his lubjefts. But l am much more uneafy at any cruelty to my own fpecies J and heartily wifh Procruftes diiciplined m his own bed, and Phalaris in his bull. A man bruifed all over in a boxing match, or cut to pieces in figging a prize, is a fhocking fpeaacle *, and I think I could with lefs horror fee a thoufand fall m battle, than hu¬ man nature thus depreciated and di%raced. Violence, when exerted in wantonnefs or paffion, is brutality , and can be termed bravery only when it is fanaioned by iuftice and neceflity. “ I have been in a fituation to fee not a litt e of the pomp and vanity, as well as of the neceffity and milery of mankind : but the laft only afka me j and if, as a magiftrate, I am ever guilty of partiality, it is in a- vour of the poor. When I am at church among my poor but honeft neighbours in the country, and lee them ferious in performing the ceremonies prefcribed, tears fometimes fteal down my cheek on refleamg, that they are doing and hearing many things they do not underftand, while thofe who underftand them better negleft them *, that they, who labour and live hard, are more thankful to heaven than thofe who fare luxurioufly on the fruits of their labour and are keep¬ ing and repeating the fourth commandment at tne very inftant the others are breaking it. , . , T “ Thefe are feme of the fenfations I feel *, which I have freely and fairly difclofed, that the reader may judge how far I am an inftance of a deformed perfon wanting natural affeaion. And I am a good fubjeft of {’peculation ; becaufe all in me is nature : f- to own the truth, I have taken but little pains (though I ought to have taken a great deal) to correft my natu- ral»^LcmI Bacon’s next pofition is, ‘ That deformed perfons are extremely bold : firft in their own defence as being expofed to fcorn ; but m procefs of time by a generafhabit.’ This probably is fo among the infe¬ rior fort, who are in the way of continual infults , iox a return of abufe is a natural weapon of felf-defence, and in feme meafure juftified by the law of retaliation : To upbraid a man with a perlonal defea, which he cannot help, is alfo an immoral aft j and he who does it has reafon to expeft no better quarter than to hear of faults, which it was in his own power not to com¬ mie. But I find this obfervation far from being veri¬ fied in myfelf: an unbecoming bafhfulnefs has been the ccnfequence of my ill figure,,and of.the worfe manage¬ ment of me in my childhood. I am always uneafy when any one looks ftedfaftly on fo bad a pi^ure ; and cannot look with a proper confidence m the face of another. I have ever reproached tnyielf with tms "ft. but no, able to cortea And „ may be a difadvantage'to a man m the opinion of thole he converfes with •, for though true medefty is amiable, the falfe is liable to mifconftruaion : and when a man is out of countenance for no realon, it may be’ma^' ned that he has fome bad reafen for being - • . t> E F [ j deformity, point of affurance, I am indeed a perfect riddle to my- ' " v_" > f°r who feel a reluctance in crofling a draw¬ ing-room, or in opening my mouth in private compa¬ ny before perfons with whom I am not well acquaint¬ ed, find little in delivering my fentiments in publicj and expofing my difcourfe, often as trifling as my per- fon, to the ears of a thoufand. From what caufe this proceeds, I know not; it may be partly from hopes of wiping off any ill impreflion from my perfon by my dilcourie, partly from a fenfe of doing my duty, and partly from a fecurity in public affemblies from any grofs perfonal reflection. “ Lord Bacon compares the cafe of deformed per¬ fons to that of eunuchs $ ‘ in whom kings were wont to put great truft as good fpies and whifperers ; for they that are envious towards all, are more obfequious and officious towards one.’ But, with fubmiffion to io good a judge of human nature, I own I can difcover no uncommon qualification in them for fpies ) and ve¬ ry few motives to envy peculiar to themfelves. Spies iubmit to that bafe and ungenerous office, either for the fake of intereft or power; if for intereft, it is to gratify their covetoufnefs ; if for power, their ambi¬ tion or revenge 5 which paffions are not confined to the eunuch or deformed, but indifcriminately feize all claffes of men. Envy too may prompt a man to mean actions, in order to bring down the perfon envied to his own level j but if it is on account of fuperiority of fortune it will operate alike on men of all fliapes. Eunuchs have but one peculiar motive to envy : but that (as Lord Bacon expreffes it) makes them envious towards all j becaufe it is for a pleafure wffiich all but themfelves may enjoy. Deformed perfons are de- pnved only of beauty and ftrength, and therefore thofe alone are to be deemed the extraordinary mo¬ tives to their envy ^ for they can no more be beautiful or ftrong than eunuchs be fuccefsful lovers. As to myfelf, whatever fparks of envy might be in my con- ititution, they are now entirely extinguiffied ; for, by frequent and ferious refle&ions, I have long been con¬ vinced of the fmall value of mofl things which men va¬ lue the moft. 1 here another paffion to which deformed per- ions feem to be more expofed than to envy} which is ]ealoufy ; for being confcious that they are lefs amia¬ ble than others, they may naturally fufpeCl: that they are lefs beloved. I have the happinefs to fpeak this from conjeaure, and not from experience ; for it Was my lot, many years ago, to marry a young lady, very piouflv educated, and of a very difiinguiihed family, and whofe virtues are an honour to her family and her lex : fo that I had never any trial of my temper, and can only guefs at it by emotions I have felt in my younger days ; when ladies have been more liberal of 23 ] D E F their fmiles to thofe whom I thought, in every refpe&ftefofmJty, but perfon, my inferiors.” -v—w The mofl; ufeful inference from all this to a deform¬ ed perfon is, to be upon his guard againft thofe frail¬ ties to which he is more particularly expofed $ and to be careful, that the outward frame do not ditfort the foul. Orandum ejl (fays Juvenal), utfit mens fann in corporefano, “ Let us pray for a found mind in a healthy body and every deformed perfon Ihould add this petition, ut [it mens reEia in corpore eurvo, for “ an upright mind in a crooked one.” And let him fre¬ quently apply to himfelf this article of felf-examina- tion, Lenior et melior fs, accedente fen e El a ? *• As age approaches, do your temper and morals improve ?” It is a duty peculiarly incumbent 5 for if beauty adds grace to viitue itlelf, vice muft be doubly hideous in deformity. Ridicule and contempt are a certain confequence of deformity j and therefore what a perfon cannot avoid, he fhould learn not to regard. He Ihould bear it like a man ; iorgive it as a Chriftian ; and confider it as a philofopher. And his triumph will be complete, if he can exceed others in pleafantry on himfelf. Wit will give over when it fees itfelf outdone $ and fo will ma¬ lice, when it finds it has no effeft : and if a man’s be¬ haviour afford no caufe of contempt, it will fall upon thofe who condemn him without caufe, Inftead of repining, therefore, a deformed perfon ought to be thankful to Providence for giving him foch a guard to his virtue and repofe. Thoufands are daily ruined by a handfome perfon $ for beauty is a flower that every one wants to gather in its bloom', and fpares no pains or ftratagem to reach it. All the poetical ftories concerning it have their moral. A Helen occafions war and confufion j the Hyacinths and Ganymedes are feized on for catamites; the En- dymions and Adonifes for gallants ; Narciffus can ad¬ mire nobody but himfelf, and growls old before he is cured of that paffion. Who is a flranger to the ftory of Lucretia killing herfelf for her violated challity ? or of Virginia killed by her father to preferve it > In thofe circumftances, fays Juvenal, ffie might wiffi to change perfons with Rutila, the only lady we know among the ancients celebrated for a hump-back. The handfomeft men are chofen for eunuchs and gallants • and when they are catched in exercifing the laft func! tion, both (b) Horace and Juvenal inform you of the penalties and indignities they undergo. Silius (c) was converted by the irtfatiable Meffalina into a •mf- band } and Sporus, by the monfter Nero, into a wife. I he lau mentioned poet (hows that praying for beau¬ ty is. praying for a curfe ; and (d) Perfius refufes to join in fuch a prayer:, and has not the deformed per- ion reafon to thank his flars, which have placed him Q^2 more f b) Hie fe pnecipitem tefto dedit: ills flagellis Ad mortem cicfus : fugiens hie decidit acrem Prsedonum in turbarti: dedit hie pro corpore nummos: Han.c permmxerunt calones : quin etiam illud Accidit, ut cuidam teftes caudamque falacem Demeteret ferrum Hor. Sat. ii. lib. i. “Qiioldam moechos et mugilis intrat. Juv. ib. (c^ y Optimus hie fet formofiffimus idem G( ntis I atriciae rapitur mifer extinguendus Meffalinae oculis.- Juv. Sat.’ x. (D) Hunc optent generum Rex et Regina : puellfu Hunc rapian.t : quicquid calcaVerit hie, rofa fiat : Aft ego nutrici non mando vota ; negato Jupiter hiec illi-" . Perf. Sat. ii. D £ F r 124. l ^ E G ., , fL t \nd there is no' deformed perfon, who does not mfh DeMon Deformity, more out of danger than even virtue could > for that ^nd ' e , ^ hi,b;t,tion . which is feme- _ » , v 1 could not guard a Jofeph, an (e) Hippolytus a Bel- . Quid profuit olim , . (E)H~7ly,0 gravepropofitum ? Quid Bellerophont. Erubuit ucmpe hmc, feu faftid.a repulfa : Nec Sthenobcea minus quam Creffa excanduit, et fe Concuflere ambte.- J*V- Sm- x' EEC [ 125 ] D E Degrada- arms ftrlpped the condemned of fome piece of his ar- t'°n. mour, beginning with the helmet, and proceeding v '"l1 thus till he wras quite difarmed j which done, they broke his fhield in three pieces with a hammer. Then the king at arms emptied a bafon of hot water on the criminal’s head ; and the judges, putting on mourning habits, went to the church. This done, the degraded was drawm from off the fcaffold with a rope tied under his arm-pits, laid on a bier, and covered wuth mortu¬ ary clothes ; the prieft finging fome of the prayers for the dead ; and then he was delivered to the civil judge and the executioner of juffice. For a more domeftic inffance : Sir Andrew' Harcla, earl of Carlille, being attainted and convi&ed of trea- fon, 18 Edw. II. coram rege: after judgment was pro¬ nounced on him, his fword was broken over his head, and his fpurs hewn off his heels ; Sir Anthony Lucy the judge faying to him, “ Andrew, now thou art no knight, but a knave.” By flat. 13 Car. ll. William Lord Monfon, Sir H'enry Mildmay, and others, wmre degraded from all titles of honour, dignities, and pre¬ eminences, and prohibited to bear or ufe the title of lord, knight, efquire, or gentleman, or any coat of arms, for ever afterwards. It has been maintained that the king may degrade a peer ; but it appears from late authorities, that he cannot be degraded but by afl of parliament. As to eccleliaffics, we have an inffance of degrada¬ tion before condemnation to death, in the eighth cen¬ tury, at Conftanfinople. It is in the perfon of the patriarch Conftantine, whom Conffantine Copronymus . caufed to be executed. He was made to afcend the ambo 5 and the patriarch Nicetas fent fome of his bi- fhops to ffrip him of the pallium, and anathematized him : then they made him go out of the church back¬ wards. But we have a much later inftance in our own hi- ftory ; When Cranmer, archbiihop of Canterbury, was degraded by order of Queen Mary, they dreffed him - *n epifcopal robes, made only of canvas, put the mitre on his head, and the paftoral ffaff in his hand ; and in this attire (bowed him to the people. Which done they ft ripped him again piece by piece. At prefent they do not (land fo much on the ceremony of degra¬ dation in order to the putting a prieft to death ; by reafon of the delays and difficulties that it wmuld oc- cafion. Pope Boniface pronounced that fix bi!hops were required^to degrade a prieft j but the difficulty of affembling fo many bifhops rendered the puniftiment frequently impracticable. In England, a prieft, after having been delivered to his ordinary, if he cannot purge himfelf of the crime laid at his door, his gown and other robes are dripped over his ears by the com¬ mon hangman ; by which he is declared diveited of his orders. It is decided, however, that degradation does not efface the prieftly charafter. Degradation only feems to differ from depofition in a few ignominious ceremo¬ nies which cuftom has added thereto. Accordingly, in the. bufinefs of Arnoul archbiihop of Rheims, fen- tenced in the council of Orleans in 991, it was* deli¬ berated what form they fhould follow in the depofition; whether that of the canons, that is, Ample depofition ; or that of cuftom, viz. degradation. And it was decla¬ red, that he (hould furrender the ring, paftoral ftaff, and pallium, but that his robes (hould not be torn off. Begrada- In effeCl, the canons prefcribe no more than a mere ticm reading of the Jentence. It is the reft, therefore, ad- D( , ^ ded thereto by cuftom, viz. the (tripping off the orna- ments, and the tearing the pontifical veftments, that properly conftitute degradation. Degradation, in Painting, expreffes the leffening the appearance of diftant objeCts in a landfcape, in the fame manner as they would appear to an eye placed at that diftance from them. DEGREE, in Geometry, a divifion of a circle, in¬ cluding a three hundred and fixtieth part of its circum¬ ference. Degree of Latitude. See Latitude. Degree of Longitude. See Longitude. A degree of the meridian on the furface of the globe is varioufly determined by various obfervers. Mr Pi- cart meafured a degree in the latitude of 490 21', and found it equal to 57,060 French toifes. But the French mathematicians, who have lately examined Mr Picart’s operations, affure us, that the degree in that latitude is 57,183 toifes. Our countryman, Mr Norwood, mea¬ fured the diftance between London and York, and found it 905.751 Englilh leet; and finding the difference of latitudes 2° 28', determined the quantity of one de¬ gree to be 367,196 Englilh feet, or 69 Englilh miles and 288 yards. Mr Maupertuis meafured a degree in Lapland, in the latitude of 66° 20', and found it 57,438 toifes. A degree was likewife meafured at the equator by other French mathematicians, and found to contain 56,767.8 toifes. Whence it appears, that the earth is not a fphere, but an oblate fpheroid. . Degree, in the civil and canon law, denotes an interval in kinlhip, by which proximity and remotenefs of blood are computed. See Consanguinity and Descent. ^ Degrees, in Mufc, are the little intervals whereof the concords or harmonical intervals are compofed. Degree, in univerfities, denotes a quality conferred on the ftudents or members thereof, as a teftimony of their proficiency in the arts or fciences, and entitling them to certain privileges. 6 DEJANIRA, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Oeneus king of /Etolia, and wife to Hercules. The centaur Neffus endeavouring to raviftr her, was (lain by Hercules with a poifoned arrow. Neffus, when dy- ing, gave his bloody (Ivirt to Dejanira ; affuring her, that it was a fovereign remedy to cure her hu(hand if ever he proved unfaithful. Some time after, Dejanira thinking (lie had reafon to fufpeft his fidelity, fent him the ftiirt : which he had no (boner put on, than he was leized with the moft excruciating torments. Be¬ ing unable to iupport his pains, he retired to Mount Oeta, and eretfing a pile of wood fet fire to it and threw hunfelf into Ike flames; upon which Dej’anica ’ killed herielt in defpair. DEJEC 1 ION, in Medicine, the aft of voiding the exciements by the anus. See Anatomy, N° 93. Dejection, in Afrohgy, is applied to the planets when in their detriment, as attrologers fpeak i e when they have loft their force or influence, as is pre¬ tended, by reafon of their being in oppofition to fome otners which check and counteraft them. Or it is uled when a planet is in a fign oppofite to that in which it has its greateft effebt or influence, which is called its ; DEI Deification Us exalumn. Thus, the fign Arles being the esnltn- II tion of the fun, the oppofite fign Libra is its dejeaion. Deifm. DEIFICATION, in antiquity. See Apotheosis. DEIPHON, in fabulous hiftory, a brother of Trip- tolemus, fon of Celeus and Metamra. When Ceres travelled over the world, Ihe flopped at his father s court, and undertook to nurfe him and bring him up. To reward the hofpitality of Celeus, the goddefs be- gan to make his fon immortal, and every evening Ihe placed him on burning coals to purify him from what¬ ever mortal particles he dill polled. The uncommon growth of Deiphon aftonifhed Metamra, who wifhed to fee what Ceres did to make him fo vigorous. She was frightened to fee her fon on burning coals; and the fhrieks that (he uttered difturbed the myftenous operations of the goddefs, and Deiphon penfhed in the Fiscal, in the ancient Britifh cuftoms, the name of a ceremony originally dfed in the druidica worfhip, and retained in many places down to a very late period, as a civil ceremony towards perfons of pa - ticular diftinaion. The temples of the ancient B tons were all circular •, and the druids, iti performing the public offices of their religion, never neglefted to m?kp three turns round the altar, accompanied iy ^ the worffiippers. This praftice was fo habitual to the ancient Britons, that it continued income places many ages after the druids and their religion were both de- ftroyed. In the Scottiffi ides, the vulgar never come to the ancient facrificing and fire-hallowing cairns but they walk three times round them, fro™ weft according to the courfe of the fun. 1 ms iantti fied tour, or round by the fouth, is called from deas or deft, “ the right hand,” and foil or>4 t fun -” the right hand bein? ever next the heap or lairm In thf fame iftes it is the cuftom and faffimn of the people to teftify their refpea for their chiet tains the proprietors of their feveral ifies, and other perfons of diftinaion, by performing the deifcal round tfiem in the fame manner. A gentleman giving an recount of his reception in one of the W^ern iflands, 126 ] ^ ^ ^ r • J himfelf by the mere force of natural rea.on, indepen* dent of all revelation, and exclufive of it j and tins re¬ ligion Dr Tindal and others pretend is lo perfea, as to be incapable of receiving any addition or improve- ment even from divine revelation. DEISTS, a clafs of people known alfo under the denomination of Free-thinkers, whofe mft.nguiffiing charaaer it is/not to protefs any particular toim or fyftem of religion ; but only to acknowledge the ex- iftence of a god, and to follow the light and law of nature, rejeaing revelation, and 0PP°r'nbr Chr^ianity* This name feems to have been firft affumed as the denomination of a party about the middle of the l6ch century, by fome gentlemen in France and l a y, who were defirous of thus dliguifing their oppoiition to Chriftianity by a more honourable appellation than that of atheifts. Virot, an eminent reformer, men¬ tions certain perfons, in his epiftle dedicatory prefixed to the fecond tome of his InflruBion Chretienne, publiffi- ed in iq6S, who called themfelves by a new name, that of Deijl*' Thefe, he tells us, P^fe^d Jo ^beve in God, but (bowed no regard to Jefus Chnft, and confidered the doftrine of the apoftles and evangehfts as fables and dreams. He adds, that they laughed * all religion, though they outwardly conformed to the religion of thofe with whom they lived, or whom they wiffied to pleafe, or feared to offend. So^’ H " ferves, profeffed to believe the immortality of the foul , others denied both this doanne and that of provi¬ dence. Many of them were confidered as perfons of acute and fubtile genius, and took pains in drffemina- ting their notions. 4 The deifts hold, that, confidenng the multiplicity of religions, the numerous pretences to revelation, and the precarious arguments generally advanced m proof thereof, the bed and fureft way is to return to die fimplicity of nature and the belief of one God , which is the only truth agreed lo by all nations. 1 y complain, that the freedom of thinking and reafom g is oppreffed under the yoke of religion ; and that the minds of men are ridden and tyrnnmzed by ,he W- Dcifts, eception in one of the Weftern iflands, of Wiping inconceivable nty- :ff ^tifc'alT r ^-' On'I of*/nS ft/ries ; and contend that nothing Ihtntid be^te^ted tl' S e^ his high efleetn for my perion bv making a turn round about me fun-nays and at rile fame rime bleffing me, and wiDung me all happt- n fs But I bid him let alone that p.ece of homage telling him I nas fenfible of his good meaning tomarcs me But this poor man was very much dlfappmnted, ” w.ere alfo h^neighbours , for they ^uMed no, b this ancient ceremony would have been very acceptable ■™ one of them told me that thts was a htng due to my chataaer from them, as to ,tie,r chief and patron j a^d that they could not, and would not, t0 DeIsm/rile doftrine or belief of,be deifts De- •r r r\ Cnd itiav properly be ufed to denote »»’comptebending tbore ttuths which have a real foundation m reafon and nature , ana this fenfe it is lo far from bemg oppoftte to C *y, -h«;t Vs 0ne:tgieThus fome of the deftical wri- riataffea/d Bu, deifm mote precifely fignifies that fyftem o<' religion, relating ' t0 " trfne and pradice, which every man is to d.fcovet fo end that notmng mourn ut to be affented to or believed but what their reafon Cl The dffiinguiffiing charafter of modern deifts is that they reiea all revealed religiony, and difeard all pre- tences Jo it as the effefts of impofture or enthu^fm. They profefs a regard for natural religion, though they are far from being agreed in their notions concerning •t They are claffed by fome of their own writers in¬ to mortal and immortal deifts : the latter^acknowledg¬ ing a future (late ; and the former denying it, or re- prefenting it as very uncertain. Dr Clarke diftinguiihes four forts of deift.. • who pretend to believe the exiftence of an eternal in¬ finite, independent, intelligent Being, who made the world, without concerning himfelf in the , 7 it 2. Thofe who believe the being and natural providence of God, but deny the as morally good or evil, refolvmg it into the aroitr y "onftitutio/of human laws-, and therefo^ they ^ nofe that God takes no notice of them. With _ rboth there claffes, he obferves that them opm on can confiftently terminate in nothing but DEL Delfts atheifm. 3. Thofe who have right concerning the nature, attributes, and all-governing Delaware. » “ ^ ‘ ‘ - providence or God, feem alfo to have fome notion of his moral perfections j though they confider them as tranfeendent, and fuch in nature and degree, that we can form no true judgment, nor argue with any cer¬ tainty concerning them : but they deny the immorta¬ lity of human fouls 5 alleging that men perilh at death, and that the prefent life is the whole of human exiltence. 4. Thofe who believe the exiftence, perfec¬ tions, and providence of God, the obligations of na¬ tural religion, and a ftate of future retribution, on the evidence of the light of nature, without a divine revelation ; fuch as thefe, he fays, are the only true deifts; but their principles, he apprehends, Ihould lead them to embrace Chriftianity ; and therefore he con¬ cludes that there is now no confident fcheme of deifm in the world. The firft deiftical writer of any note that appeared in this country was Herbert baron of Cherbury. He lived and wrote in the 17th century. His book. Z)e Vc- ritate was firft publifhed at Paris in 1624. This, to¬ gether with his book De Caujis Errorum, and his trea- tife De Religione Laid, were afterwards publilhed in London. His celebrated work De Religione Gentilium was publiftred at Amfterdam in 1663 in 410, and in 1700 in 8vo, and an Englifh tranflation of it rvas pub- lilhed at London in 1705. As he was one of the firft that formed deifm into a fyftem, and aflerted the fuf- ficiency, univerfality, and abfolute perfection of na¬ tural religion, with a view to difeard all extraordinary revelation as ufelefs and needlefs, we (hall fubjoin the five fundamental articles of this univerfal religion They are thefe: 1. That there is one fupreme God. 2. 1 hat he is chiefly to be worfhipped. 3. That piety and virtue are the principal part of his worlhip. 4. That we muft repent of our fins ; and if we do fo, God will pardon them. 5. That there are rewards for good men and punifhments for bad men, both here and hereafter. Our own age has produced a number of advocates in the fame caufe 5 and however they may have differed among themfelves, they have been agreed in their attempts of invalidating the evidence and authority of divine revelation. We might men¬ tion Hobbes, Blount, Toland, Collins, Woollafton, Tindal, Morgan, Chubb, Lord Bolingbroke, Hume,’ &c. Some have alfo added Lord Shaftefbury to the number. But the friends of Chriftianity have no reafon to re¬ gret the free and unreferved difeuflion which their re¬ ligion has undergone. Objedions have been ftated and urged in their full force, and as fully anfwered ; argument and raillery have been repelled ; and the controverfy ' between Chriftians and deifts has called lorth a great number of excellent writers, who have illuftrated both the doftrines and evidence of Chriftia¬ nity in a manner that will ever refleft honour on their names, and be of lading fervice to the c'aufe of genu¬ ine religion and the beft interefts of mankind. DEI FY, Godhead; a common appellation given to J?nd the Poets to the heathen gods and goddeffes. DELAWARE, a province of North America, fi- tuated on a river of the fame name. The Dutch, under the pretended purchafe made by [ 127 ] DEL apprehenfions Henry Hudion, took poflefiion of the lands on both Delaw fides the river Delaware } and as early as the year 1623 built a fort at the place, which has fince been called Gloucefter. In 1627, by the influence of William Ufeling, a refpe&able merchant in Sweden, a colony of Swedes and Finns came over, furnilhed with all the neceflaries for beginning a new fettlement, and landed at Cape Henlopen ; at which time the Dutch had wholly quitted the country. The Dutch, however, returned in 1630, and built a fort at Lewiftown, by them named Hoarkill. The following year the Swedes built a fort near Wilmington, which they called Chrif- tein or Chrifiiana. Here alfo they laid out a fmall town, which was afterwards demolilhed by the Dutch. The fame year they erefted a fort higher up the ri¬ ver, upon Tenecum ifland, which they called New Gottenhurgh : they alfo about the fame time built forts at Chefter, Elfinburgh, and other places. John Prinz then governed the Swedes, who, in "i 634, deputed bis fon-in-law, John Papgoia, and returned to Sweden. Papgoia foon followed his father-in-law to his native country, and John Ryfing lucceeded to the govern¬ ment. In 1653, tbe Dutch, under the command of Peter Stuyvelant, arrived in Delaware river, from New Amfterdam (New York), in feven veffels, with 6 or 700 men. They difpoffeffed the Swedes of their forts on the river, and carried the officers and princi¬ pal inhabitants prifoners to New Amfterdam, and from thence to Holland. 7 he common people lubmitted to the conquerors, and remained in the country. On. the firft of Oflober 1664, Robert Carr obtained the fubmifhon of the Swedes on Delaware river. Four years after, Col. Nicolls, governor of New York, with his council, on the 21ft of April, appointed a fcout and five other perfons to affift Capt. Carr in the go¬ vernment of the country. In 1672, the town of New- caftie was incorporated by the government of New York, to be governed by a bailiff and fix affiftants; after the firft year, the four oldeft were to leave their office, and four others to be cbofen. The bailiff was- prefident, with a double vote; the conftable was cho- fen by the bench. They had power to try caufes not exceeding 10I. without appeal. The office of fcout was converted into that of fheriff, who had jurifdic- tion in the corporation and along the river, and was annually chofen. They were to have a free trade, without being obliged to make entry at New York’ as had formerly been the praSice. Wampum was at this time the principal currency of the country. Go¬ vernor Lovelace of New York, by proclamation, or¬ dered that four white grains and three black ones ftiould pafs for the value of a ftiver or penny. This proclamation was publilhed at Albany, Efopus, De¬ laware, Long-ifland, and the parts adjacent. In 1674 Charles II. by a fecond patent, dated June 29th, grant¬ ed to his brother duke of York all that country called by the Dutch New Netherlands, of which the three counties of Newcaftle, Kent, and Suffex, were a part. In 1683, the duke of York, by deed dated Aug. 24th,* fold to William Penn the town of Newcaftle, with the diltriS of 12 miles round the fame 5 and by another deed of the fame date, granted to him the remainder of the territory, which till the revolution was called the Three Lower Counties. Thefe three counties were confidered as a part of Pennfylvania in matters of go¬ vernment. DEL [ 12B ] DEL 6laware. vefnment. The fame governor prefided over both: but v- —V—'the affembly ami courts of judicature were different*, different as to their conflituent members, but in form nearly the fame. At the late revolution they became a diftin£l territory, called The Delaware State. This Hate is bounded on the noith by the territorial line which divides it from Penniylvania, on the eafi, by Delaware river and bay 5 on the fouth, by a due eaft and weft line, liom Cape Henlopen, in lat. 38. 30. to the middle of the penin- fula 5 and on the welt by Maryland. The climate is in many parts unhealthy. I he land is generally low and flat, which occafions the waters to flagnate, and the confequence is, the inhabitants are fubjedl to intermit- tents. The Delaware ftate is divided into three counties, viz. Newcaftle, Kent, Suffex: the chief towns of which are, Wilmington and Nevicaftle, Dover, Mil¬ ford, and Lewiftown. ^ . Three rivers, the Choptank, Nanticok, and Poco- moke, have their fources in this ftate, and are navi¬ gable for vcffels of 50 or 60 tons, 20 or 30 miles into the country. They all run a wefkrly courfe into Chefapeak bay. The fourth part of the ftate is a low flat country, and a confiderable portion of it lies m to- reft. What is under cultivation is chiefly barren, ex¬ cept in Indian corn, of which it produces fine crops. In fome places rye and flax may be raifed, but wheat is a.foreigner in thefe parts. Where nature is deficient in one refource, fhe is generally bountiful m another rrM • • f-all tViirk fnrefts of nines whicl This is verified in the tall thick forefts of pines which are manufadured into boards, and exported in large quantities into every lea-port in the three adjoining ftates. As you proceed north, the foil is moie fertile, and produces wheat in large quantities, which is the flaple commodity of the ftate. They raiie all the other kinds of grain common to Pennsylvania. 1 he ftate has no mountain in it, except 1 hunder Hill, m the weftern part of Newcaftle county, and is. general¬ ly level except fome fmall parts, which are ftony and .uneven. The trade of this ftate, which is inconsider¬ able, is carried on principally with Philadelphia, in boats and fhallops. The articles exported are princi¬ pally wheat, corn, lumber, and hay. There are in this ftate, 21 Prefbyterian congrega¬ tions, belonging to the fynod of Philadelphia : feven Epifcopal churches *, fix congregations of Baptifts, containing about 218 fouls j four congregations of the people called Quakers; befides a Swedifh church at Wilmington, which is one of the the United States, and a number of Methodifts. All thefe denominations have free toleration by the con- ftitution, and live together in harmony. < In the convention held at Philadelphia, in the fum- mer of 1787, the inhabitants of Delaware were rec- honed at 37,000, which is about 26 for every fquare mile. There is no obvious charaaeriftical difference between the inhabitants of this ftate and the Pennlyl- vanians. See Pennsylvania. . . . .n Under the prefent conftitution, the legiflature is divided into two diftina branches, which together are ftvled 7he Genera/ JJfe?nbly of Delaware One branch, called the Uoufe 0/confifts of feven reprefen- tatives from each of the three counties, chofen annu¬ ally by the freeholders. The other branch, called the Council, confifts of nine members, three for a county, Dekw who muft be more than 25 years of age, chofen like- ‘ V wife by the freeholders. A rotation of members is eftabliftied by difplacing one member for a county at the end of every year. All money bills muft origi¬ nate in the boufe of affembly, but they may be alter¬ ed, amended, or rejefted by the legiflative council. A prefident or chief magiftrate is cholen by the joint bal¬ lot of both houfes, and continues in office three years *, at the expiration of which period, he is ineligible the three fucceeding years. If this office becomes vacant during the recefs of the legiflature, or he is unable to attend to bufinefs, the fpeaker of the legiilative coun¬ cil is vice-prefident for the time *, and in bis absence the powers of the prefident devolve upon the Ipeaker of the affen»bly. A privy council, confifting of four members, two from each boufe, cbofen by ballot, is conftituted to affift the chief magiftrate in the admi- piftration of the government. The three juftices ot the fupreme court, a judge of admiralty, and lour iuftices of the common pleas and orphans courts, are appointed by the joint ballot of the prefident and ge¬ neral affembly, and commiffioned by the prefident to hold their offices during good behaviour. I he preli- dent and privy council appoint the fecretary, the at¬ torney-general, regifters for the produce of wills, regi- fters in chancery, clerks of the common pleas, and or¬ phans courts, and the clerks of the peace, who boH their offices during five years, unlefs fooner removed for mal-condua. The houfe of affembly name 24 per- fons in each county for juftices of peace, from which number the prefident, with the advice of his council, appoints and commiffions twelve, who ferve. for leyen years, unlefs fooner difmiffed for mal-admmiftration. The members of the legiflative and privy-councils are iuftices of the peace for the whole ftate.—The courts of common pleas and orphans courts have power to bold chancery courts in certain cafes. 1 he clerk ot the fupreme court is appointed by the chief juftice, and the recorders of deeds by the juftices of the com¬ mon pleas, for five years, unlefs fooner difmifled. A the military and marine officers are appointed by the general affembly. The court of appeals confifts ot ie- ven perfons: the prefident, who is a member, and pre- fides by virtue of bis office, and fix others, three to be chofen by the legiflative council, and three by the houfe of affembly. To this court appeals lie from the fupreme court, in all matters of law and equity. The judges hold their dffice during good be- The iuftices of the feveral courts, the members of the privy council, fecretary, truftees of the loan of¬ fice, cleiks of the common pleas, and all perfons con¬ cerned in army or navy contrafts, are ineligible to ei¬ ther boufe of affembly. Every member, before taking his feat, muft take the oath of allegiance, ^^ub- feribe a religious teft, declaring bis belief in God the Father, in Jefus Chrift, and the Holy Ghoft j and m the infpiration of the Scriptures. The houfe of affembly have the privilege of im¬ peaching delinquent officers of government *, and im¬ peachments are to be profecuted by the attorney-ge¬ neral, or other perfons appointed by the affembly, and tried before the legiflative council. The puniftiment may extend to temporary or perpetual Affability del Iiold offices under government, or to fuel] other penal ties as the laws fhall direft. P There is, in Delaware, no eftablifliment of one re¬ ligious fed in preference to another j nor can any preacher or eiergyman, while in his paftoral employ¬ ment, hold any civil office in the date. miffiOTerEGA rE> in 3 &eneral fenre> a deputy or com- Delegates, commiffioners appointed by the king- under the great feal, to hear and determine appeals from the ecclefiaftical court. Cwrt of Dezegates, the great court of appeal in bv Z l l ^ THefe del^ates are aPPointed b> the king s commiffion under his great feal, and if- iumg out of chancery, to reprefent his royal perfon and hear all appeals to him made by virtue of the da- Him IT, dV-'-19- commiffion is ufunl- ly filled with lords fpintual and temporal, judges of t.ie courts at Wedminder, and doftors of the civil thJV r£ealS *t0 R°me Were alwa7s looked upon by the Engliffi nation, even in the times of Popery, with as being contrary to the liberty of the ffib- 3nf th the, h.0110111; of the crown> and the independence of he whole realm j and were fird introduced, in very tt"' 'TV?, thre ,6th yearof K!nS St£Phe" (A. D. i151) at the fame period (Sir Henry Spel- man obferves) that the civil and canon laws were fird imported into England. But in a few years after, to at Clarend8 the COnftituti°ns made r.ndon, 11 Hen. II. on account of the didurb- the hor^ ^ ArCrh.bi{boP Becket a»d other zealots of Ir J? a- Z eXpLrefsly declare’ that aPPeals in caufes ecclefiadical ought to he from the archdeacon to the diocefan ; from the diocefan to the archbiffiop of the province ; and from the archbiffiop to the king : and are not to proceed any farther without fpeciaUicenfe from the crown. But the unhappy advantage that was given |.n the reign of King John, and his fon Hen. Ill to the encroaching power of the Pope, who was ever ■ gT!f-A-t0 lmpr°v.e a11 opportunities of extending his junfdndion to Britain, at length rivetted the cfdom c appealing to Rome in caufes ecclefiadical fo drong- 2y, that it never could be thoroughly broken off, till the grand rupture happened in the reign of Hen. VIII when all the jurifdiftion ufurped by the Pope in mat¬ ters ecclefiadical was redored to the crown/to which ongmally belonged 5 fo that the datute 25 Hen VIII «s but declaratory of the ancient law of Ae realm But cafe th klng himfelf be party ^ a ^ m- Cults the appeal does not then lie to him in chancery which would be abfurd ; but, by the 24 Henry VI11’ upner h f 'f6 blfh°pS.of the realm» affembled in the upper houfe of convocation. DELEGATION, a commiffion extraordinary given cautwlfh'0 t;ke £08™ranee of. «d determine ^fome cau e which ordinarily does not come before him DELEn" n’ ‘n v°t! La"’- See M'*- PIRiC ar> eminent painter of ar chiteflute and perfpeaive, whs born kt Heufden but in what year is not known. He was a difciple of wanes Hals, ,n whofe fchool lie praaifed to naint that mPaft«Uf 1hllbjeas Wt‘iCh ",ere moa by that mader, fuch as portraits and convention* • by that means he acquired the (kill to defign figures Vol. VIL Pan i,f fpirit and COrKa-’ei's X"™ [ 129 ] del ZtfrT !nfT:on ^"1 bin. to paint atchi. Delete teaure and peafpeflive ; and thofe he fludied with fo II much care, as to make his works admired and coveted De!ft‘v through the Low Countries. His fubjeaS were the ^ nfides of churches, filled with figures j grand temples • magnificent faloons and galleries, with people affieml at concerts of mufic, feadmg, or dancing. Thofe nobf^ft16 blShly > his architeaure was in a noble tade j and the figures were well defigned, as well as grouped with a great deal of judgment. Several uthors mention the performances of this mader with large commendation, for the goodnefs of his invention and neatnefs of his handling * a d‘?dELTTERIOyS’ 3n appellation giv™ to things of °r P01fonous nature. See Poison. • , r ^ tOWn of the Tlnited Provinces and capital of Delftland in Holland. It is a pretty’large place, very clean and well built, with canals'in the reels planted on each fide with trees. The pub- hc bu, dmgs, efpecially the town-houfe, are very mag- of the • f ^ tW° Churches 5 in ^ the tomb ^ pnnc,e off°Arange> who was affaflinatedj and in iVf ^ Adumiral Tr0mp- 11 has a arfenal, and ^ VS ab-°Ut tW° miles in circumference or dikes H a?ainft i^ations b7 three dams . Here is made a prodigious quantity of fine earthen-ware called delft-ware; but the town the meid"' ‘rade>: 11 " PlearM,1y fituated among N L^t thC nVef Shie’ in E* L°r§- 4* I3* Delft Wat e, a kind of pottery of baked earth, co¬ hered with an enamel or white glazing, which gives it the appearance and neatnefs of porcelain. Some kinds of this enamelled pottery differ much from others, ei- IrTnTh hKr fudden heat withoilt breaking, or m the beauty and regularity of their forms, of the!; nam !’dandT°f ^ pa,ntlng with which they are or¬ namented. In general, the fine and beautiful enamel- in externaT’ appr03ch the neareft to porcelain V u 1 a appearance> are at tbe fame time thofe ta^aS 3 bnlk Again’ th°fe which fuf- pottery ’ ^ and refembIe comm™ The bafis of this pottery is clay, which is to be mixed, when too fat, with fueh a quantity of fand that the earth ffiall preferve enough of its duality to be f^nefs^hSneafily 5 and yet tbat its tatnels ffiall be fufficiently taken from it, that it mav °r fiirink too much in drying or in bakin'/ effels formed °f this earth muft be dried very gently to avoid cracking. They are then to be placed^" a furnace to receive a flight baking, which /only meant 1 Slve them a certain confiflence or hardnefi/ And arC tk bC C°!ered wkh an en3mel or glazing* Ivl ich is done, by putting upon the veffels thus prep£ red the enamel, which has been ground very fine and diluted with water. b 7 ’ and As veffels on which the enamel is applied are hue fl.ghUy baked they readily imbibe the water in which the enamel is fufpended, and a layer of this enamel a I Ws to .heir furfi.ee ; thefe velfels may then be paimetl with colouvs compofed of metallic calces, mixed and ground with a fufible glafs. When they are become perleflly dry, they are to be placed in the furnace in¬ cluded ID cafes of baked earth called/e^ori, and ex. R pofed Delia DEL [ ,3° 1 del Belft-ware. pofed to a heat capable oHofing uniformly the enamel . v which covers them. This heat given to fule the ena met being much ftronger than that which was applied at fi.lt to give feme confiftence to the ware, IS alfo the heat neceffary to complete the baking of it. The fur- nace and colours ufed for painting this ware, are Ac fame as thofe employed for porcelain. 1 he glazing, [lich is nothingPbut white enamel, ought to e o onaoue as not to (how the ware under it. 1 here ar nfany receipts for making thefe enamels •, but all of diem are compofed of fand or flints, vitrifying falts chem caix of lead, and calx of tin y and the fand muft be D«3.‘ perfeftly vitrified, fo as to form a glafs c^“eraldy f - fible. Somewhat lefs than an equal part of alkaline ll or twice its weight of calx of lead, is reqmfite to eM fuch vitrifications of fand. The calx of tin s not intended to be vitrified, but to give a whiteopaque ro our to the mafs ; and one part of it is to be added to three or four parts of all the other ingredients taken together. From thefe general principles various en¬ amel may be made to fuit the different kinds of earths. To make the enamel, lead and tin are ca - cined together with a ftrong fire ; and the and is alfo Tbe made into a fri.t with the fait or aihes. The that the fire ftiould be continued twice as long as 0e “dEUA in antiquity, a feftival celebrated every cr . „r • .1.. iilaud of Delos, in honour of Apollo. I-[ wL firft inftituted by Thefeus, who at his return from Crete placed a ftatue there, which he had recel ved from Ariadne. At the celebration .AeJ <=rowned the ftatue of the god ^ afterwards the various windings of the J > Ariadne’s which Thefeus had extricated h.mfelf by Ariadne s affiftance There was another feftival of the la name yearly celebrated by the Athenians in Delos. It alfo^was inftituted by Thefeus, who, when he was flfip the fame which carried 1 heleus, ana i carefully preferved by the Athenians, was called Theo. rL and Ua, When .the, (hip wa^ready^or^h. II Delibera¬ tive. cined together with a itrong nre , auu — —“ r;fl and Delias. When the uup to be made into a fritt with the fait or afhes. The the prieft of Apollo folemnly adorned the ftem whole is then to be well mixed and gtound together. Mld an u„iv«fal luftration was made all The matter is then to be placed under the furnac , S ci The Theori were crowned with lau here it is melted and vitrified during the baking of J proceeded men armed with axes. It is next to he gtound in a null, and ap- Tf^moration of^hefeus, fu^'-toun! plied as above directed. . „• from Troezen to Athens, and denvei , P The oreparation of the white enamel is a very effen- y . . Ih.n arrived at Delos, , ? vsnrr rl^yft-ware. and one in which ma delft-ware, and one in which ma- tial article m d,AntJc> in a memoir con- to be° mixed with about a feventh part of that quantity of calx of tin for common delft-ware, or a fourth part of calx of tin for the fineft kind y a hundred, or a Wired and ten, pounds of fine fand y and about twen- tv o! thirty pounds of fea-falt. Concerning the earth of which the ware is made, he obierves, that ay to ^i-inens, ciuu try'from robbers. When the (hip arrived at Delos, they Offered folemn fscrifices to the god of the fland, Omm aE«eh,ey ^carstfofMivity’preva iled at their xtrateu tnem this feftival it was unlawful to ;n„tPt,o“eath‘any malelaor and on that account the f Socrates was prolonged for 30 days. Dema, a furname of Diana, becaufe Hie was born in DeDELIAC, (Deliacus), among the ancients, deno- V fold fowls, fatted ca- bener.0 P^so^ware made of clay alone are found^o DaE^ultereV; who fold fowls, fatt^ca- a«i?iAJ535iiS occupation. ^ They alfo foid eggs, as ^P-ftomCl- efcape without altering the form of the w'are in dry¬ ing ‘ ’it affords alfo a better ground for the enamel , 1 L-* 1 or. more uloffV and white than when laid which appears ‘"“re « J of clav which are chicfiy CJvTa0gl«“r folfoCfomeUrredcl,°y is added ; which, «Xt^yed Wee parts ^ the^mhly.Js marleT fmm thT -"pfUve delibera- tories, M. d’Antic thinks, that -tne be^t aem w««c «r^ hh Academic Qmiftionf, lib. iv- PW, hb. x cap. 30. and Columella, lib. vm. cap. 8. likctt.le men ti0" lhi mfcAL Problem, a celebrated problem a- mong thi'anefents, concerning the duplication of the CUtnVr IftAMENTA, in antiquity, a libation to the^W g^dEsNalw;ys offered by poutmg down- wards. See See Law Index. DELIBERATIVE, an appellation given to a kind Delidl II. Belli DEL [ , tive voices 5 thofe beneath them have only confulta- tive voices. DELICT, in Scots law, fignifies fuch fmall offences or breaches of the peace as are puniihable only by fine or Ihort imprifonment. DELINQUENT, a guilty perfon, or one who has committed fome fault or offence for which he is nu- nimable. See Britain, N° 97. DELIQUESCENCE, in Chemijiry, fignifies the property which certain bodies have of attradling moi- Imre from the air, and becoming liquid thereby This property is never found but in faline fubftances, or matters containing them. It is caufed by the great afhmty which thefe fubftances have for water The more fimple they are, according to Mr Macquer, the more they incline to deliquefcence. Hence acids, and ertain alkalies, which are the moft fimple, are alfo the moft deliquescent falts. Mineral acids are fo deliquef- cent, tnat they ftrongly imbibe moifture from the air even though they are already mixed with a fufficient quantity of water to be Huid. For this purpofe, it is ufficient that they be concentrated only to a certain thnf ^ h f131!7 fneUtral ralts are deliquefcent, chiefty thofe whofe bafes are not faline fubftances. Salts formed by the vitriolic acid, with fixed or volatile al¬ kalies, earths or moft metallic fubftances, are not de- iquefcent j although this acid is the ftrongeft of all, ™V;o“;rged’attraas ^ of«he ^ Though the immediate caufe of deliquefcence is the a traaion ot the moifture of the air, as we have already • er^e ^et reraa>ns to be ftiown why fome falts attract this moifture powerfully, and others, though veaThl7 Ti- y/lm-Ple’ d° n0t ?‘ttraa k at all- The get able alkali, for mftance, attrafts moifture power- fimnl5 ' a ^ alkali’ th°U8'h to aPPearance equally hvbf if'!?6' n0t attraft 3t aIL Thc add of Tartar by itfelf does not attraft the moifture of the air • but if mixed with borax, which has a little attraftion for moifture, the mixture is exceedingly deliquefcent — Some theories have been fug-p-efted in nrA , for the-fo onri r •> luo^elted’ln order to account for thefe and other fimilar fads ; but we are as yet too and theCqTnted.Wlth the natUre of the atmoiphere terlftlTfi hftn ItS COnft’tuent Parts have to thofe of terreftru! fubftances, to determine any thing with cer¬ tainty on this head. 5 f^1 mM' 7 DELIa Nooning or fainting away: call- lipopfychia, af. In ?fLI<^UIUM (fr°m deliquefco, “ to be diffolved”) ChemiJIry, ls the diffolution or melting of a fait by impending it in a moift cellar. ^ 7 Salt of tartar, or any fixed alkali, fet in a cellar nr other cool moift place, and in an open veffel refolves T "T Tr3 kind °f called by the older °f tartar Per deliquium. Wh^n die id™ ^7’ “ t0 raVC °r talk idly”). to the exte wT u" the mind d° not correfpond induced on thl J ’ 7 7* pr°duced ^ the chan^ DEIlT orYh0r Ch,ld’i“.”'t"- See Midwifery. Mog„rs edpiee, i» s.a ^ nrs £ t 3i ] DEL p.tals of the empire. The road between it and "'.',T'r C.ap,traIf .‘S^a.' famous alley or "’alk K Xr?f ^ r' lm Gh',,'’ fnd '5° 1 ea:;“« in length. Each half league ts marked with a kind of turret l and a'„every lla?e,t,lere are llttle fatays or caravanferas for the benefit of travellers. The road, though pretty good, has many inconveniences. It is not only fre- quented by wild beafts, but by robbers. The latter are fo dexterous at calling a noofe about a man’s neck, that they never fail, if within reach, to feize and ftrangle him They gam their point likewife by means of hand fome women j who, feigning great diftrefs, and * ak5n UP behind the unwary traveller, choak him with the fame fnare.—The capital confifts of three ci- ftrnUH • 77 °ni an0Vher* The nOW quite de- die r fVS faldftoT.havenhad 52 gates: and to have been the refidence of King Porus, conquered by Alexander the Great The fecond, which is alfo in ruins, was demoliflied by Shah Jehan, to build Jeban-abad with he materia s. This makes the third^ city, and joins the rums of the fecond. This city Hands in an ipen plain country, on the river Jumna, which rifes in this province. It is encompaffed with walls, except to¬ wards the river. Thefe are of brick, Hanked with round towers j but without a ditch, and terraced be¬ hind, four or five feet thick. The circumference of the walls may be about nine miles. The fortrefs, which I*™)* and 3 kalP 111 cfrcmt, has good walls and round towers, and ditches full of water, faced with sth; M 1S ^rrOU1?ded wLth fine gardens, and in it s the Moguls palace. See Indostan. E. Long- 79- 25* N. Lat. 2 8. 20. S • J?EI;MEN/JORST» a ftrong town of Germany in the circle of Weftphalia, and county of Oldenburgh’ thl°wrs t0 ?enTmark ’o feated on the river Delm near E-.J0ng- 8- 37- N. Lat. 53. i0. in a E. llland of.the Archipelago, very famous m ancient hiftory. Originally it is faid to have been ? loat,ng •fland, but afterwards it became fixed and immoveable. It was held facred on account of its be- mg.the birth-place of Apollo and Diana.—Anciently this illand was governed by its own kings. Virgil mentions one Anius reigning here in the time of the rojan war. He was, according to that poet, both king and high-pneft of Apollo, and entertained Hineas ith great kindnefs. The Perfians allowed the De- bans to enjoy their ancient liberties, after they had re- duced the reft of the Grecian ilknds. In after ages, •, ^ m jde themfelves mafters of it; and held it td! they were driven out by Mitbridates the Great who plundered the rich temple of Apollo, and obliged the Delians to fide with him. Mithridates was in his urn driven out by the Romans, wlio granted the inha¬ lants many privileges, and exempted them from all forts of taxes. At prefent it is quite abandoned ; thc lands being covered with ruins and rubbifti in fuch a manner as to be quite incapable of cultivation. The crownf 1 ^ f MyCOne,_ hold k ^w, and pay but ten s land tax to the Grand Signior for an illand Wh!CpTrS °niCe °ne °f the richeft in the world Strabo and Callimachus tell us that the ifland of Delos was fbrin^ VhLnVelIn.PUS : but Pliny calls i,: only a ipnng and adds, that its waters fwelled and abafed at the lame time with thofe of the Nile. At prefent there is no river in the ifland, but one of the nobleft R ® fprings DEL . 13 forinps in the world } bring twelve paces in diameter, and inclofed partly by rocks, and partly by a vva . Mount Cynthus, whence Apollo had the fur"am.^ ° Cynthius, is by Strabo placed near the city, and {aid to be fo high, that the whole ifland was covered by its ftiadow j but our ’modern travellers _ fpeak o. it as a hill of a very moderate height. It is but one block of granite of the ordinary fort, cut on that fide which faced the city into regular fteps and inclofed on both fides by a wall. On the top of the mountain are it.ll to be feen the remains of a ftately building with a mofaic pavement, many broken pillars, and other va¬ luable monuments of antiquity. From an inf,“rlPt^ difcovered there fome time ago and which mentl0"s vow made to Serapis, Ifis, ^^Anubis, fome have con- iecfured that on this hill (food a temple dedicated to thefe Egyptian deities, though nowhere mentmned m hitfory.—The city of Delos, as is mamfeft trom the magnificent ruins dill extant, took up that fpacious plain reaching from one coaft to the other U was well peopled, and the richeft city m theArchipelago, efpecfally after the deftruaion of Connth ; merchants flocking thither from all parts, both in regard of the immunity they enjoyed there, and of ^ conv-uent fi- tuation of the place between Europe and Afla, btrado calls it one of the moft frequented empones in the world • and Pliny tells us, that all the commodities o Europe and Afia were fold, purchafed, or exchanged, there^ It contained many noble and ftately bullduig’ as the temples of Apollo, Diana, and Latona , the porticoes of Philip of Macedon, and Durnyflus n y- ches; a gymnafium ^ an oval bafon made at an irn menfe ex^ence, for the reprefentation o fea-fights , and a moft magnificent theatre. The temple of Apo was according5to Plutarch, begun by Eryfichton fon’of CecropV, but aftervvafS,fn!frgfteates of Greece’ liftied at the common charge of all the flat G ^ * Plutarch tells us, that it was one of the moft ftately buildings in the univerfe •, and fpeaks of a . t which, in his opinion, deferved a wonders of the world. It was built with the horns 0 various animals, fo artificially adapted to one another that they hanged together without any cement, altar is faid ihave been a perfea cube ; md the dou¬ bling it was a famous mathematical Problemf 3 p0",^ ancients This went under the name of Proh/ema Deliacum : and is faid to have been propofed by the Sade fol «1- purpofe of ftedng the = nlague. The diftemper was to ceafe when the pro Vflpm was folved.—The trunk of the famous ftatue of Apollo, mentioned by Strabo and Puny, is 1 left of great admiration to travellers. I * , ] , r t rms or legs j but from the parts that are “telain’in ^plainl? »PPe-s, that the -tents ,d , t evaggerate when they commended it as a wonde '? ,rt gIt was of gigantic fixe, though cut out of a fingle* block of marble ; the fhooldets being ^Sce^^^eTs, -f « ionfnfed he^ps inches broad, and two feet three inches thick . whic -in thc Delos, Delphi. 2 1 DEL life of Nicias, that he caufed to be fet up, near the temple of Delos, an huge palm-tree of brafs, which he confecrated to Apollo ; and adds, that^a violent ft of wind threw down this tree on a coloflal itatue railed by the inhabitants of Naxos. Round the temple were magnificent porticoes built at the charge of various princes, as appears from infcnptions which are ftiU ve¬ ry plain. The names of Philip king of Macedon, Di- onyfius Eutyches, Mithridates Euergetes, Mithridates Eunator, kings of Pontus, and Nicomedes king of Bi- thvnia, are found on feveral pedeftals —To ^is temp e the inhabitants of the neighbouring 1 Hands_ fent yea / a company of virgins to celebrate, with danc,"g’ feftival of Apollo and his fifter Diana, and to make offerings in the name of their refpeftive clt,es‘ So very facred was the bland of Delos held by the ancients that no hoftilities were praftifed here, even b/Ac nations that were at war with one another when they happened to meet m this place. Of this Livy gives an inftance. He tells us, that fome Ro¬ man deputies being obliged toput m at Delos m their voyage to Syria and Egypt, found the galleys of Per feus king of Macedon, and thofe of Eumenes king Pergamus, anchored in the fame harbour, though thefe two princes were then making war upon one a"0tb^* —Hence this ifland was a general afylum, and tbe P " teftion extended to all kinds of living creatures 5 for this reafon it abounded with hares, no be^g fuf; fered to enter it. No dead body was Juffc,red ^ buried in it, nor was any woman fuffered to lieu there; all dying perfons, and women ready to be de¬ livered, were carried over to the neighbouring ifland °f DELPHI, in Jndent Geography, a tovm °J)Pho^’ fituated on the fouth-weft extremity of Mount Panvaffus It was famous for a temple and oracle of that god m which the following was faid to be the origin. A num- ber of goatsthat were feeding on Mount Parnaffus, came ne-r a place which had adeep and long perforation. The fleam which iffued from the hole feemed to mfpire the ooa^ and they played and Miked about in filch an uncommon manned, that the goatherd was «en>P«ed to “an on the hole, and fee what CofC“: Mined He was immediately feized with a lit ot en thufiafm his expreflions were wild and extravagant, and oaffed for prophecies. This circumftance was foon known about the country, and many experienced .he fame enthufiaftic infpiration The place was revered a temple was foon after erefted ,n honour of Apollo , and a city built, which became the chief and mod .1- lellrious in Phccis. The influence of its god h.s con- ,rolled the councils of flates, direfted the oou'fe of ar Lies and decided the fate of kingdoms. The ancient hi ft cry of Greece is full of his energy, and an early regifter of his authority. The circumjacent aues wer was early provided with a better habitation An edi¬ fice of ftone was erefted by Trop onl“s aI^ burned fles which fubfifted about 700 years, and was burned in the year 636 after the taking ^ Ho fore Chrift. It is mentioned m the bym DEL [ ■ Delphi, afcribed to Homer. An opulent and Hluftrious fa- v~ ' mily, called Alcmaonidte, which had fled from Athens and the tyrant Hippias, contrafted with the deputies for the building of a new temple, and exceeded their agreement. The front was railed with Parian marble, inllead of the done called Porus ; which refembled it in whitenefs, but wTas not fo heavy. A Corinthian was the architect. The pediments were adorned with Diana, and Latona, and Apollo, and the Mufes ; the fetting of Phoebus or the fun ; with Bacchus, and the women called Thyadcs. The architraves were deco¬ rated with golden armour ; bucklers fufpended by the Athenians after the battle of Marathon, and Ihields taken from the Gauls under Brennus. In the portico were infcribed the celebrated maxims of the feven fages of Greece. There was an image of Homer, and in the cell was an altar of Neptune, with ftatues of the Fates, and of Jupiter and Apollo, who were furnamed Leaders of the Fates. Near the hearth, before the al¬ tar at which Neoptolemus the fon of Achilles was flain by a pried, dood the iron chair of Pindar. In the fan&uary w'as an image of Apollo gilded. The inclofure was of great extent, and filled wuth treafures, in which many cities had confecrated tenths of fpoil taken in war, and with the public4donations of renown¬ ed dates in various ages. It was the grand repofitory of ancient Greece, in which the labours of the fculptor and datuary, gods, heroes, and illudrious perfons, were feen colledfed and arranged ; the inequalities of the area of acclivity contributing to a full difplay of the noble affemblage. The oracles were delivered by a priedefs called Py- thia, wTo received the prophetic influence in the fol¬ lowing manner. A lofty tripod, decked with laurel, was placed over the aperture, whence the facred va¬ pour ilTued. The priedefs, after wafliing her body and efpecially her hair, in the cold water of Cadalia, mounted on it, to receive the divine effluvia. She wore a crown of laurel, and fhook a facred tree, which grew by. . Sometimes Are chewed the leaves ; and the fienzy wfflich follow'ed may with probability be attri¬ buted to this ufage, and the gentler or more violent f) mptoms to the quantity taken. In one indance the paroxyfm was fo terrible, that the prieds and fup- pliants ran awray, and left her alone to expire, it was believed, of the god. Her part was unpleafant j but, if Jlie declined aairrg, they dragged her by force to the tripod. 1 he habit of her order w7as that of virgins. The rules enjoined temperance and chadity, and pro¬ hibited luxury in apparel. The feafon of inquiry was m the fpring, during the month called Bulfius ; after which Apollo was fuppofed to vifit the altars of the Hyperboreans. The city of Delphi arofe in the form of a theatre, upon the winding declivity of Parnaflus, wfflofe fanta- dic tops overfhadow7ed it, like a canopy, on the north, while two immenfe rocks rendered it inacceffible on the’ ead and wed, and the rugged and fliapelefs Mount Cirphis defended it on the fouth. The foot of the lad-named mountain w7as wafhed by the rapid Pliflus, which difeharged itfelf into the fea at the didance of only a few leagues from the facred city. This inaccef¬ fible and romantic fituation, from which the place derived the name of Delphi (dignifying, as explained in the gIoffanes,/ci//^ry, alone), was rendered dill more 33 1 del driking, by the innumerable echoes which multiplied every found, and increafed the ignorant veneration of vifitants for the god of the oracle. The artful mini- ders of Apollo gradually collefted fuch objefts in the groves and temple as rvere fitted to adonifh the fenfes of the admiring multitude. The fplendor of marble, the magic of painting, the invaluable datues of gold and filver, reprefented (to ufe the language of antiqui¬ ty) not the refemblance of an earthly habitation, but rather exprefled the image of Olympus, adorned and enlightened by the aftual prefence of the gods. 1 he protection and luperintendance of this precious depofitory of riches and fuperdition belonged to the Atnphi&yons, as already noticed. But the inhabi¬ tants of Delphi, who, if we may ufe the expreffion, were the original proprietors of the oracles, always con¬ tinued to direCI the religious ceremonies, and to con- duCl-the important bufinefs of prophecy. It was their province alone to determine at w hat time, and on what occafion, the Pythia fhould mount the facred tripod, to receive the prophetic deams by which die commu¬ nicated with Apollo. When overflowing with the heavenly infpiration, flie uttered the confufed words, or rather frantic founds, irregularly fuggefled by the impulfe of the god y the Delphians collected thefe founds, reduced them into order, animated them W’ith fenfe, and adorned them with harmony. The Pythia, appointed and dilmified at pleafure, was a mere inflru- ment in the hands of thofe artful miniders, whofe cha¬ racter became fo venerable and facred, that they were finally regarded, not merely as attendants and wor- fliippers, but as the peculiar family of the god. Their number w as confiderable, and never exaCtly afeertain- ed, fince all the principal inhabitants of Delphi, claiming an immediate relation to Apollo, were enti¬ tled to officiate in the rites of his fan Cl u ary ; and even the inferior ranks belonging to that facred city were continually employed in dances, fedivals, prcceffions, and in difplaying all the gay pageantry of an airy and elegant fuperdition. Delphi was conveniently fituated for the con¬ flux of votaries, lying in the centre of Greece, and, as was then imagined, of the univerfe.- It was cu- ftomary for thofe who confulted the oracle to make rich prefents to the god: his fervants and prieds fead- ed on the numerous viCfims which w'ere facrificed to him ; and the rich magnificence of his temple had be¬ come proverbial even in the age of Homer. In after times, Croefus, the wealthied of monarchs, was par¬ ticularly munificent in his donations. This facred repofitory of opulence was therefore often the ob- jedl; of plunder. Neoptelemus was flain, while facri- ficing,. on fufpicion of a defign of that kind. Xer¬ xes divided his army at Panopeus, and proceeded with the main body through Bceotia into Attica, while a party keeping Parnaflus on the right, ad¬ vanced along Schide to Delphi; but was taken with a panic when near Ilium, and fled. This monarch, it is related, was as w'ell apprifed of the contents of the temple, and the fumptuous offerings of Halyattes and Croefus, as of the effedls which he" had left behind in his own palace. The divine hoard was feized by the Phocenfians under Philomelus, and diflipated in a long w'ar w'ith the Amphidyons. The Gauls experien¬ ced a reception like that of the Perfians, and mani- fefled DEL (134 felled fimilar difmay and fuperftition. Sylia, wanting money to pay his army, fenl to borrow from the holy treafury, and when his meffenger would have fright¬ ened him, by reporting a prodigy,. that the found of a harp had been heard from within the fancluary, replied, it was a fign that the god was happy to oblige The trade of Apollo, after it had flourifhed for a long period, was affefted by the mal-praaices of fome concerned in the partnerthip, who were convxaed ot bribery and corruption, and ruined the charao;er of their principal. The temple in the time of Strabo was reduced to extreme poverty $ but the offerings which remained were very numerous. Apollo, was filent, except fome efforts at intervals to regain his loft credit. Nero attempted to drive him, as it were by violence, from the cavern •, killing men at the mouth, and pol¬ luting it with blood ; but he lingered on, and would not entirely forfake it. Anfwers were reported as given by him afterwards, but not without fufpicion ot forgery. An oracle of Apollo at another place inform¬ ed the confultors, that he ftiould no more recover ut¬ terance at Delphi, but enjoined the continuance ot the accuftomed offerings. The city of Delphi was free under the Romans. In the time of Paufanias, who has particularly defcnbed it, there ftill remained an invaluable treafure ot the of¬ ferings within the court of the temple.. The number, variety, and beauty ofthefe were prodigious. The itore appeared inexhauftible ; and the robbery of Nero, who removed five hundred brazen images, was. rather re¬ gretted than perceived. The holy treafunes, thoug empty, ferved as memorials of the piety and g ory.o the cities which ereded them. The Athenian portico preferved the beaks of (hips and the brazen ftnelds j trophies won in the Peloponnefian war. And a mul¬ titude of curiofities remained untouched. Conftantine the Great, however, proved a more fatal enemy to Apollo and Delphi than either Sylla or Ne¬ ro. He removed the facred tripods to adorn the hip¬ podrome of his new city; where thefe, with the A- pollo, the ftatues of the Heliconian mufes, and the ce- a genus of fiftiesDelphinus, See CktologY Dtlphos. polio, me udiuca /. f , lebrated Pan, dedicated by the Greek cities after the war with the Medes, were extant when Sozomen wrote his hiftory. Afterwards Julian fent Onbafius to reftore the temple; but he was admomftted by an ora. cle to reprefent to the emperor the deplorable condi¬ tion of the place. ‘ Tell him the well-built court is fal¬ len to the ground. Phoebus has not a cottage nor the prophetic laurel, nor the fpeaking. fountain (Ud- fotis) ; and even the beautiful water is extin^. bee Delphos. , 1 • 1 ..n * DELPHINIA, in Antiquity, feafts which the in¬ habitants of Egina celebrated in honour of Apollo, furnamed Delphinim, fo called, as it is pretended be- caufe he affumed the form of a dolphin to conduft Ca- ftilius and his colony from the ifte of Crete to the Sinus CriJJaus Delphinium, one of the courts of judica¬ ture of the Athenians; fo called from the prox.tmty of the place, where they held their affemblies, to t temple of Apollo Delphinius. DELPHINIUM, dolphin-flower, or .Lark- spur ; a genus of plants, belonging to the polyandr.a clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 26th order, Muhifiliquce, See Botany Index, ] DEL DELPHINUS, or dolphin : belonging to the order of Cete. . v £ticl Delphinus, in AJlronomy, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere; whofe ftarsin Ptolemy’s catalogue are 10: in Tycho’s the fame number; m Hevelius s 14; and in Flamftead’s 18. DELPHOS, a town, or rather village, ot I.ur- key in Afia, in the province of Libadia ; occupying part of the fite of the ancient Delphi. See Delphi. A late traveller * informs us, that iome veftiges .ot * Clanditr's temales are vifible ; and above them, in the mountain- rravels in fide' are fepulchres, niches, and horizontal cavities.for Greese. the body, fome covered with {labs., iarther .on is a niche cut in the rock with a feat, intended, it. feems, for the accommodation of travellers wearied with the ragged track and the long afeent. The monaftery is on the fite of the gymnafium. Strong tprrace walls and other traces of a large edifice remain. The village is at a diftance. Caftalia is on the right hand as you afeend to it, the water coming from on high and crol- fing the road; a fteep precipice, above which Lie mountain ftill rifes immenfely, continuing on in that direaion. The village confifts of a few poor cottages of Albanians covering the fite of the temple and oracle. Beneath it to the fouth is a church of St Ehas, with areas, terrace walls, arches, and veftiges of.the build¬ ings once within the court. The concavity ot the rock in this part gave to the fite the resemblance ot a theatre. Turning to the left hand, as it were toward the extremity of one of the wings, you come again to fepulchres hewn in the rock, and to a femicircular re- cefs or niche with a feat as on the other fide. Higher up than the village is the hollow of the kadium, m which were fome feats and fcattered fragments. . Higher up, within the village, is a piece of ancient wall, concealed from view by a fixed, which it fup- Dorts. The ftone is brown, rough, and ordinary, probably that of Parnaffus. On the fouth fide are many inferiptions, with wide, gaps between the letters, which are negligently and faintly cut; all nearly of tie fame tenor, and very difficult to copy. They regifter lame tenor9 ariLi vci j i j j i • r the purchafe of Haves who had entrufted the price of their freedom to the god ; containing the contraa be¬ tween Apollo and their owners, witneffed by his priefts and by fome of the archons. This remnant feems to be part of the wall before Caffotis , as abo e it is ftill a fountain, which fupphes tbe.village with ex¬ cellent water, it is likely from the ancient louree. The water of Caftalia in the neighbourhood from which the Pythia, and the poets who verfined her an¬ fwers, were believed to derive a large fhare of their inflation, defeends through a deft of Parnaffus the rock on each fide high and fteep, ending in two fum- mits ; of which one was called Hyampeia, and had be¬ neath it the facred portion of Autonous, a local hero as diftinguiffied as Phylacus. From this precipwe he Delohians threw down the tamous Affop. by the fl'L, within the cleft, are feen fmall broken Itara leading to a cavity in which U water, ami ^ Per¬ haps up to the top. Grooves have been cut, and the maPrksPof tools are vilible on the rock; but the cur¬ rent inftead of Applying a tamtam, now palles over its native bed, and haftens down a courfe deep worn to join the Fliftus. Clofe by, at the foot of DEL Era of the deluge. Objections to the fad. precipice, is a bafon with fteps on the margin, once, it is likely, the bath ufed by the Pythia. Above, in the fide of the mountain, is a pretty church dedicated to St John, within which are excavations refembling niches, partly concealed from view by a tree. DELTA, is a part of Lower Egypt, which takes up a confiderable fpace of ground between the branches of the Nile and the Mediterranean fea : the ancients called it the ijle of Delta, becaufe it is in the fhape of a triangle, like the Greek letter of that name. It is about 130 miles along the coaft from Damietta to A- lexandria, and 70 on the Tides from the place where the Nile begins to divide itfelf. It is the moll plenti¬ ful country in all Egypt, and it rains more there than in other parts, but the fertility is chiefly owing to the inundation of the river Nile. The principal towns on the coaft are Damietta, Rofetta, and Alexandria; but, within land, Menoufia, and Maala or Elmala. DELTOIDES, in y/tftf/o/Tzy. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles. DELUGE, an inundation or overflowing of the earth, either wholly or in part, by water. We have feveral deluges recorded in hiftory ; as that of Ogyges, which overflowed almoft all Attica ; and that of Deucalion, which drowned all Theffaly in Greece : but the moft memorable was that called the Univerfal Deluge, or Noah's Flood, which overflowed and deftroyed the whole earth ; and from which only Noah, and thofe with him in the ark, efcaped. This flood makes one of the moft confiderable epochas in chronology. Its hiftory is given by Mofes, Gen. ch. vi. and vii. Its time is fixed, by the beft chronologers, to the year from the creation 1656, an- fwenng to the year before Chrift 2293. From this flood, the ftate of the world is divided into diluvian and antediluvian. See Antediluvians. Among the many teftimonies of the truth of this part of the Mofaic hiftory, we may account the ge¬ neral voice of mankind at all times, and in all parts of the tvorld. The objeaions of the free-thinkers have indeed principally turned upon three points, viz. i.The want of any direft hiftory of that event bv the profane writers of antiquity ; 2. The apparent impoflibility of accounting for the quantity of water necefiary to over¬ flow the whole earth to fuch a depth as it is faid to have been : and, 3. There appearing no neceffity for an umverfal deluge, as the fame end might have been accomplifhed by a partial one. I. The former of thefe objeiftions has given rife to feveral very elaborate treatifes, though all that has yet been done m this way has fcarcely been able to filence the objectors. Mr Bryant, in his fyftem of Mythology has with great learning and confiderable fuccefs endea¬ voured to ftiow, that the deluge was one of the prin¬ cipal, if not the only foundation of the Gentile wcr- ftip ; that the firft of their deities was Noah j that all nations ot the world look up to him as their foun¬ der; and that he, his Tons, and the firft patriarchs are alluded to in moft if not all of the religious ctrc- monies, not only of the ancient but of the modern hea¬ thens. In Ihort, according, to this author, the de¬ luge lo far from being forgot, or obfcurely men¬ tioned by the heathen world, is in reality confpicuous throughout every one of their ads of religious worftiip. I he Egyptian Ofiris, according to him, was the fame [ 13S 1 DEL with Ham the ion of Noah, though the name was fome- times beftowed on Noah himfelf. That this is the cafe, Deluge. . . # 10 LUG GUiCj is evident, he thinks, from its being laid that he wasR., 3 , expofed in an ark, and afterwards reftored to day 5 accountW that he planted the vine, taught mankind agriculture, the ancient and inculcated upon them the maxims of religion and heroes, juftice. Something of the fame kind is related of Perfeus. He is reprefented by fome ancient hiftorians as a great aftronomer, and well verfed in other fciences. After being conceived in a fhower of gold, he was ex¬ pofed in an ark upon the waters, and is faid to have had a renewal of life.— The hiftory of Myrina the A- mazon affords a kind of abridgement and mixture of the hiftories of Ofiris and Perfeus. Similar to thefe is the hiftory of Hercules himfelf. But our author ob- ierves, that under the titles of O/iris, Perfeus, Myrina, &c. the ancients fpoke of the exploits of a whole na¬ tion, who were no other than the Cuthites or Cufli- ites, the defcendants of Cufti the fon of Ham and father of Nimrod. Thefe people fpread themfelves into the moft remote corners of the globe ; and hence the heroes whom they reprefented are always fet forth as conquering the whole w’orld.—rAccording to Dio¬ dorus Siculus, the Egyptian Ofiris was the fame with the Dionufus of the Greeks. He is faid to have been twice born, and to have had two fathers and two mo¬ thers ; to have, been wonderfully preferved in an ark ; to have travelled all over the earth; taught the ufe of the vine, to build, plant, &.c. I he Indians claim him as a native of their country, though forae allow that he came from the weft. Of Cronus and Aftarte,- faid that they went over the whole earth, dif- it is pofing of the countries as they pleafed, and doing good wherever they came. The fame is related of’bura- nus, Themis, Apollo, &c. though all their exploits faid to have been the effe&s of conqueft, and are their benevolence enforced by the fword. In a fi- milar manner he explains the hiftories of other heroes of antiquity ; and having thus, in the charafters and hiftory of the moft celebrated perfonages, found traces of the hiftory of Noah and his family, our authoi proceeds to inquire into the memorials of the deluge itfelf, to be met with in the hiftory or religious rites of the different nations of antiquity. “ We may reafonably fuppofe (fays he), that the par-Teftimo- ticulars of this extraordinary event W’ould be grate-nies of the* fully commemorated by the patriarch himfelf, and^efe?eto tranfmitted to every branch of his family ; that they^T1 were made the fubjedl of domeftic converfe, where the hiftory was often renewed, and ever attended wdth author” a reverential awe and horror, efpecially in thofe who had been witneffes to the calamity, and had experien¬ ced the hand of Providence in their favour. In pro- cefs of time, when there was a falling off from the truth, we might farther expe£l, that a perfon of fo high a charaaer as Noah, fo particularly diftinguifhed by the Deity, could not fail of being reverenced by his pofterity ; and wdien idolatry prevailed, that he would be one of the firft among the Tons of men to whom divine honours would be paid. Laftly, we might conclude, that thefe memorials would be inter¬ woven in the mythology of the Gentile world; and that there would be continual allufions to thefe ancient oc¬ currences in the rites and myfteries as they were prac- tifed by the nations of the earth. In conformity to t thefe 5 V arious titles by which T) E L [ I36 thefe fuppofitions, I (hall endeavour to fliow that thefe things did happen ; that the hiftory of the deluge was •eligloufly preferved in the firft ages •, that every cir- cunadance o'f it is to be met with among ^ ^an5 and mythologifts of different countries . and tiaces ° it are to be found particularly in the facred rites of E- gypt and of "Greece. 1 del tears. There is likevsife a proverbial evpref- prk.te. thefe ruppofitions, I IhaU endeavoor to fionyabout Nannacus applied to people of great anu- Stephanos gives great light to .hi, hiftory and fop- plies manv deficiencies. ‘The tradition is (lays he), that there was one formerly named Annaeus, the extent of : to DC xounu paiv — - -vvhofe life was above 300 years.. The peop e w lowere and of Greece. . n , :n the of his neighbourhood and acquaintance had inquired of It will appear from many circumftances in the ot ^ 1q he was t0 live j and there was an more ancient waiters, that the gte« Patriarch was ^f0”C '^rhT/tvhen Annaeus died, all mankind „h,ch highly reverenced by his poften.y 1 hey lOTk'd ^ „ould L deftroyed. The Phrygians, npon this ac Noah was fon h;„hly favoured by heaven ; and ho- diltinguifli-^ , tiilrs each of which had a re- xd. noured him with many titles, eacn or w ference to fome particular part of his hift J. Y ftyled him Prometheus, Deucalion, Allas Pbeuth , Xuthus, Inachus, Ofiris. When ^ere began to b a tendency towards idolatry, and the adoration of t fun was introduced by the poftenty of Ham, the t tie of He/ius, among others, was conferred upon h.m. They called him alfo M»v and M*v, which is the moon. Whe^ colonies went abroad, many took to.themfelve the title of Minyadx and Miny# Jtom him •, ]uft as others were denominated Achamenuht, Auntie, Hehad*, ?^m the fun. People of the former n« to b found in Arabia and in other parts of world- J natives at Orchomenos were ftyled Miny*, as were W of the inhabitants of Theffaly. Noah was the original Zeus and Dios He was the V vine and inventor of fermented liquors . whence lie was denominated Zeuth, which figoifies ferment, ten- dered Zeus by the Greeks. He was alfo called Dio- interpreted by the Latins Baeehus but very tm- p±rly Bacchus was Chus the grandfon of Noah ; as Ammon may in general be efteemed Ham, fo much IeV‘< Among^he'peo^e'oTihe eaft, the true name of the patriarch was preferved •, they called him Noas, VuJ and fon,e«imePs contr,aed Nous; and many pla- and hothV appellation, uu r r;rPek language. Eufebius it had been a term or the oreeK laugung . , h,forms ul that the difciples of Anaxagoras fay, nhat Nous is by interpretation, the del y t md thei hkewife efteem Nous the fame as Prome- i • r TAta wl10 Deucalion. He is laia » rnileAed every forefeeing the approaching deluge, collettefl every Znr, made grVariamJntationsrfrom whence arofe the proverb r. f “"'^'tr “c^mtoces Annaeus, made ufe ot tor people or ^ highly calamitous, ^hen the flood of DeuCal ° came7 all mankind were deftroyed, according as the oracle had foretold. Afterwards, when the (urface oi the earth began to be again dry, Zeus ordered I rome- theus and Minerva to make imaP£S.“f “l” of men -, and, when they were fintihed, he called tne winds, and made them breathe into each, and tendc th r'.om'thefe hiftories Mr Bryant concludes as fol¬ lows ” However the ftory may have been varied, ’the principal outlines plainly point out the perfon who sXde7.o in thefe hiftories. It is, I think, man - fell, that Annaeus, and Nannacn^ and »e» Inachn^^ bn’tlehiSs o'f Deucalion and Prometheus have^^. like reference to the patriarch; in the 6ooth year,theuS( the ak ? the Lcth of whofe life the waters pre-f„m,wi.b anu TUn the eith He was the father of man-Noah. tod Tut rented in him. Hence he is repre- fented by another author,^under ^o-"an",ere forTed aUo!et and^were inftruaed in all that was g°‘‘dNoah was the o.iginal Cronus and Zeus; though ^dS.0 ’The tears ^ f reprefented^s^y S NtbegaltrS and to flood the conn,.y._Th= overfiowing^of that r'v££ ^d^pt it^steir Pey0ePt i« was eve'r attded'wi.h myftical chiet blefli 8 ’ ^ —h* particularly ob* tears and lamentations. -1 deity was Ms. ferved at Coptos, where he prmap^deit^ An ancient writer imagm ^t ^ inundation ; tations ot the peop ^ fu Pfed to make the river r 11 Butrall this was certainly faid and done in me- Sl of a Wer flood, of which they made the over¬ flowing of the Nile a type. reprcfented as a DEL [ Deluge, ages, that there reigned in Egypt Telegonus a prince of foreign extraction, who was the fon of Ones the fhepherd, and the feventh in defcent from Inachus. And in the fame author we read, that a colony went forth from that country into Syria, where they found¬ ed the ancient city of Antioch $ and that they were conduced by Cafus and Belus, who wTere Tons of Ina¬ chus. By Inachus is certainly meant Noah; and the hiftory relates to fome of the more early defen¬ dants of the patriarch. His name has been rendered very unlike itfelf, by having been lengthened with terminations, and likewife falhioned according to the idiom of different languages. But the circum(lances of the hiftory are fo precife and particular, that we cannot mifs of the truth. “ He feems in the eaft to have been called iVoax, Noqfis, Nufus, and iVax ; and by the Greeks his name was compounded Dionufus, The Ammonians, wherever they came, founded cities to his honour ; hence places called Nufa, will often occur $ and indeed a great ma¬ ny of them are mentioned by ancient authors. Thefe though widely diftant, being lituated in countries far removed, yet retained the fame original hillories $ and were generally famous for the plantation of the vine. Mifled by this firailarity of traditions, people in after times imagined that Dionulus muft neceffarily have been where his hiftory occurred ; and as it was the turn of the Greeks to place every thing to the account of conqueft, they made him a great conqueror, who went over the face, of tlife whole earth, and taught mankind the plantati@n of the vine. We are informed that Dionufus went with an army over the face of the* whole earth, and taught mankind, as he paffed along, the method of planting the vine, and how to prefs out the juice, and receive it in proper veffels. Though the patriarch is reprefented under various titles, and even thefe not always uniformly appropriated 5 yet there will continually occur fuch peculiar circumftances of his hiftory as wall plainly point out the perfon re¬ ferred to. The perfon preferved is always mentioned as piefeived in an ark. He is defcribed as being in a itate of darknefs, which is reprefented allegorically as a ftate of death. He then obtained a new life, which is called a fecond birth $ and is faid to have his youth renewed. He is, on this account, looked upon as the firft-born of mankind-, and both his antediluvian and poftdiluvian ftates are commemorated, and fome- times the intermediate ftate is alfo fpoken of. Diodo¬ rus calls him Deucalion ; but defcribes the deluge as m a manner univerfal. «In the deluge which hap¬ pened in the time of Deucalion, almoft all flefti died.’ Apollodorus having mentioned Deucalion » < ((ailing gods). They oftentimes, fays Porphyry, detenbe the fun in the charafter of a man failing upon a float. And Plutarch obferves to the fame purpofe, that they did not reprefent the fun and the moon m chariots, ^ wafted about upon floating machines. In doing which they did not refer to the luminaries, but to a perftm reprefented under thofe titles. The fun, or Oius, is likewife deferibed by Jamblichus as fitting upon the lotus, and failing in a veffel. n . V r , “ It is faid of Sefoftris, that he conftruaed a (hipWonderful which was 280 cubits in length. H was of cedar plated without with gold, and inlaid with fllver , and it was, when finilhed, dedicated to Guns at Thebes. It is not credible that there (hould have been a (hip ot this fize, efpecially in an inland diftna, the molt re¬ mote of any in Egypt. It was certainly a temple and a (brine. ' The former was framed upon this large fcale ; and it was the latter on which the gold and (li¬ ver were fo lavifhly expended. There is a remarkable circumftance relating to the Argonautic expedition , that the dragon (lain by Jafon was ot the fize of a trireme ; by which muft be meant, that it was ot the drape of a (hip in general, for there were no triremes at the time alluded to. And I have moreover (hown that all thefe dragons, as they have been reprefented by the poets, were in reality temples, Dracontia ; where, among other rites, the worfldp of the ferpent was in- ftitutecl. There is therefore reafon to think that this temple, as well as that of Sefoftris, was faflnoned uv refpe£l to its fuperficial contents, after the ino a (hip; and as to the latter, it was probably intended. Reftige. 12 Other em¬ blematical representa¬ tions ex¬ plained. DEL f i in its outlines, to be the exa£t reprefentation of the ark, in commemoration of which it was certainly built. It was a temple facred to Onris at Theba : or, to fay tne truth, it was itfelf called Tbeba; and both the city, laid to be one of the mod: ancient in Egypt, as well as the province, were undoubtedly denominated from it. Now Theba was the name of the ark. It is the very word made ufe of by the facred writer ; fo that we may, I think, be affured of the prototype after which this temple was fafhioned. It is faid in¬ deed to have been only 280 cubits in length ; whereas the ark t)f Noah was 300. But this is a variation of only one-fifteenth in the whole : and as the ancient cubit was not in all countries the fame, we may iup- pole that this diiparity arofe rather from the manner of meafuring, than from any real difference in the extent of the building. It was an idolatrous temple, faid to have been built by Sefoftris in honour of Ofiris. I have been repeatedly obliged to take notice of the ig¬ norance of the Greeks in refpeft to ancient titles, and have drown their mifapplication of terms in many innances ; efpecially in their luppofing temples to have been erefted by perlons to whom they were in reality facred. Sefodris was Ofiris; the fame as Dionufus, .Alenes, and Noah. He is called Sei/ithrus by Abyde- nus ; Xixoulbros by Berofus and Apollodorus ; and is reprelented by them as a prince in whofe time the de¬ luge happened. He was called Zuth, Xuth, and Zeus ; and had certainly divine honours paid to him. “ Paufanias gives a remarkable account of a temple 0 Hercules at Eruthra in Ionia ; which he mentions as of the highed antiquity, and very like thofe of Egypt. The deity was reprefented upon a float, and was fuppofed to have come thither in this manner from Pnoerucia. Aridides mentions, that at Smyrna, upon the fead called Diony/ta, a drip ufed to be carried in proceflion. The fame cudom prevailed among the Athenians at the Panathenma ; when what was termed the facred flup was borne with great reverence through the city to the temple of Dameter at Eleufis. At Pnalerus, near Athens, there were honours paid to an unknown hero, who was reprefented in the dern of a flup. At Olympia, the mod facred place in Greece, was a reprefentation of the like nature. It was a budding hke the fore-part of a fliip, which dood fa¬ cing^ the end of the hippodromus; and towards the middle of it w^as an altar, upon which, at the renewal of each olympiad, certain rites w^ere performed. I think it is pretty plain that all thefe emblemati¬ cal reprefentations, ot which I have given fo many in- flances, related to the hidory of the deluge, and the confervation of one family in the ark. This hidory was pretty recent when thefe works were executed m Egypt, and when the rites were firfl eflablifhed : and there is reafon to think, that in early times mod ihnnes of the Mizraim were formed under the refcm- blance of a fliip, in memory of this great event. Nay, aitner, both fliips and temples received their names from thence, being dyled by the Greeks, who bor¬ rowed largely from Egypt, Nattij, and N<*uj, and ma¬ nners Kxvt'u, NauU, in reference to the patriarch, who was vanoufly dyled Xoas, Nous, and Noah. “ However the Greeks may in their myderies have fometimes introduced a fliip as a fymbol, yet in their references to the deluge itfelf, and to the perfons pre- Deluge. 39 1 DEL ferved, they always fpeak of an ark. And though they were apt to mention the fame perfon under va¬ rious titles, and by thefe means different people feem to be made principals in the fame hiftory ; yet they were fo far uniform in their account of this particular event, that they made each of them to be expofed in an ark. T. hus it is faid of Deucalion, Perfeus, and Dionufus, that they w^ere expofed upon the waters in a machine of this fabric. Adonis was hid in an ark by \ enus, and was fuppofed to have been in a ftate of death for a year. Theocritus introduces a pafloral perlonage named Cojnates, who was expoled in an ark for the lame term, and wonderfully preferved. Of Olins being expofed in an ark vve have a very remark¬ able account in Plutarch $ who mentions, that it was on account of Typhon, and that it happened on the 17th of the month Athyr, when the fun was in Scor¬ pio. This, in my judgment, was the precife time " hen Noah entered the ark, and when the flood came, which, in the Egyptian mythology, was called Tv- phon. J lyphon is one of thofe whofe charadler has been^xplana- greatly confounded. This has arifen from two differ-t on ofthe ent perfonages being included under one name, whoT"^' undoubtedly were diftinguiflied in the language of E- ^ gypt. Typhon was a compound of Tuph or Tupha- On; and fignified a high altar of the Deity. There were feveral fuch in Egypt, upon which they offered human facnfices; and the cities which had thefe al¬ tars were ftyled Typhoman. But there was another Eyphon, who was very different from the former, how¬ ever by miftake blended with that character. By this was fignified a mighty whirlwind and inundation ; and it oftentimes denoted the ocean ; and particularly the ocean in a ferment. For, as Plutarch obferves, by 1 yphon was underftood any thing violent and unruly, it was a derivative from Tuph, like the former name ; which luph feems here to have been the fame as the Suph of the Hebiews. By this they denoted a whirl¬ wind ; but among the Egyptians it was taken in a greater latitude, and fignified any thing boifterous particularly the fea. Plutarch fpeaks of it as denoting the lea ; and fays likewife, that the fait of the fea was called the foam of Typhon. It fignified alfiTa whirlwind, as we learn from Euripides, who expreffes it luphos j and the like is to be found in Hefychius, who calls it a violent wind. “ I he hiftory of Typhon was taken from hiero- glyphical defcriptions. In thefe the dove, oinas, was reprefented as hovering over the mundane egg, which w'as expofed to the fury of Typhon : For" an egg containing in it the elements of life, was thought no improper emblem of the ark, in which were preferved the rudiments of die future world. Hence, in the Dionufiaca, and in other myfteries, one part of the nocturnal ceremony confifled in the confecration of an egg.^ By this, we are informed by Porphyry was figmfied the world. rI'his world was Noah and his fa¬ mily ; even all mankind, inclofed and preferved in the ark. “ In refpea to Typhon, it muff be confeffed that the hiftory given of him is attended with fome obfcu- nty. d he Grecians have comprehended feveral cha- raJ?erJs.rder.°ne term’ wllich the Egyptians undoubt¬ edly diftinguiflied. The term was ufed for a title as DEL [ >4° 1 del Bel,,,., well M a name ; and feveral of tliofe feifonaKes which liad a relation to the deluge, were ftyled lyphoman or Diluvian. All thefe the Grecians have included un¬ der one and the fame name, Typhon. The real deity by whom the deluge was brought upon the earth had the appellation of Typhonian, by which was meant DiluviiDeus (a). It is well known that the ark was conftrudted by a divine commiflion : in which, when it was completed, God inclofed the patriarch and his family. Hence it is faid, that Typhon made an ark of curious workmanfliip, that he might difpofe of the body of Ofiris. Into this Ohris entered, and was Ihut up by Typhon. All this relates to the Typhonian deity who inclofed Noah, together with his family, within the limits of an ark. The patriarch alfo, wl o was thus interefted in the event, had the title o y- phonian. I have Ihown that the ark by the mytho- logifts was fpoken of as the mother of mankind. 1 he flay in the ark was looked upon as a date of and of regeneration. The paffage to life was through the door of the ark, which was formed in its fide. Through this the patriarch made his defcent; and a this point was the commencement of time. I his hi- ftory is obfcurely alluded to in the account of Typhon ; of whom it is faid, that without any regard to time or place, he forced a paffage and burft into light ob¬ liquely through the fide of his mother. This return to light was defcribed as a revival from the grave; and Plutarch accordingly mentions the return of Ofiris from Hades, after he had been for a long feafon in¬ clofed in an ark and in a Hate of death. T111S re' newal of life was by the Egyptians efteemed a fecond ftate of childhood. They accordingly, m their hiero¬ glyphics, defcribed him as a boy, whom they placed Spoil the lotus or water-lily, and called him Orus. He was the fuppofed fon of Ifis ; but it been fiiown thatlfis, Rhea, Atargatis, were a 11 embkms of the ark, that receptacle which was ftyled the mother o mankind. Orus is reprefented as undergoing fro the Titans all that Ofiris fuffered from Typhon , and the hiftory at bottom is the fame. Hence it is fai of Ifis, that (he had the power of making people i - mortal; and that when (lie found her fon Orus, in the mid ft of the waters, dead through the malice ot the Titans, {he not only gave him a renewal of hte, bi alfo conferred upon him immortality. . „ In this manner does our author decipher almoft al the ancient fables of which no fatisfaftory (elution was ever riven before. He (hows that the primitive gods of Egypt, who were in number eight, were no other than the eight perfons faved in the ark ; that almoft all the heathen deities had one way or other a reference o Noah. He fhows that he was charaaenfed under the titles of Janus, Nereus, Proteus, Cannes, ^a§on» ^c; &c. and in ihort, that the deluge, fo far from being unknown to the heathens, or forgot by them was in a manner the bafis of the whole of their worihip. He traces the hiftory of the raven and dove fent forth by Noah in the cuftoms of various nations, not only in D ‘ t the eaft but the weft alfo. Of the numberlefc tefti- monies of the truth of this part of facred hiftory to be met with among the weftern nations, however, we ftiall feleft one more, which is an ancient coin ufually I4 known by the name of the Apamean medal. The Account of learned Falconerius (fays Mr Bryant) has a curiousthe^ differtation upon a com of Philip the Elder, wduch^ was ftruck at Apamea (b), and contained on its re verfe an epitome of this hiftory. The reverfe of moft Afiatic coins relates to the religion and mythology ot the places where they were ftruck. On the reverfe o this coin is delineated a kind of fquare machine float¬ ing upon the water. Through an opening in it are feen two perfons, a man and a woman, as low as the breaft : and upon the head of the woman is a veil. Over this ark is a triangular kind of pediment, on which there fits a dove ; and below it another, which feems to flutter its wings, and hold in its mouth a fina branch of a tree. Before the machine is a man fol¬ lowing a woman, who by their attitude feem to have iuft quitted it, and to have got upon dry land. Upon ‘the ark itfelf, underneath the perfons there inclofed, is to be read in diftinft charafters, NflE. The learn¬ ed editor of this account fays, that, it had fallen to his lot to meet with three of thefe coins They were of brafs, and of the medallion fize. One of them he mentions to have feen in the colleaion of the duke of Tufcany ; the fecond in that of the cardinal O boni ; and the third was the property of Auguftino Chigi, nephew to Pope Alexander VII. r5 Not content with thefe teftimomes, however, 'vhmh Account^ are to be met with in the weftern regions, or at eafttobemet in thofe not very far to the eaftward, our author fhows ith in that “ the fame mythology (of the Egyptians;, and china and the fame hieroglyphics, were carried as far as Chinajapan. and Japan ; where they are to be found at this day. The Indians have a perfon whom they call Buto or Budo. This is the fame as Boutus of Egypt, Battus of Gyrene, and Bceotus of Greece : the account gi¬ ven o}f him is fimilar to that of Typhon ; for it is faid that he did not come to life in the ufual way, but made himfelf a paffage through the fide ^ his mother i which mother is reprefented as a virgin. Th.s hiftory, though now current among the Indians, is of gre antiquity, as we may learn from the accoun given of this perfonage by Clemens Alexandrmus. There is a call of Indians (fays he) who are difciples of Bou- tas This perfon, on account of his extraordinary fanftity, they look up to as a god.” The name of Boutaf Battus, and Boeotus, though apparently con- r j natriarchs vet originally related to the ferred upon th'ra*n"'C rRTe(l. Of this feme machine in which he was p traces may be found among the Greeks. One of the Ammonian names for the ark was Aren or Arene ; and Boeotus is faid by Diodorus Siculus to have been the fon of Neptune and Arne, which is a contraaion oi arene the ark. The chief city, Boutus in Egypt, Piptatch owns that the E^iatts in fotne — Tvphon to he no othet than Heiins the Chi(1) oL; ^““le a^ent name of Apstnea was Cito.us, one of the names o the ark. DEL [141] DEL , De^gg- where was the floating temple, figntfed properly the this world, Dagun will gather up the fragments, and ^ * " city of the float or ark. The Boeotians, who in the make a new one. I make no doubt but the true name Dionufiaca fo particularly commemorated the ark, were of the temple was lacb-Iach, and dedicated to the fuppofed to be defcended from an imaginary perfonage fame god as the Jachufi in Japan. Mr Wife takes no- Boeotus ; and from him likewife their country was tice of the Grecian exclamation to Dionufus, when the thought to have received its name. But Bceotas was terms lacche, 0 lacche, were repeated : and he fuppofes, merely a Variation from Boutus, and Butus, the ark; with great probability, that the Peguan name had a* which in ancient times was indifferently ftyled Theba, reference to the fame deity. It is°certain, that the Argus, Aren, Butus, and Boeotus. T.he term Cibo- worlhip of Dionufus prevailed very early among the tus is a compound of the fame purport, and fignifies nations in the ealt. The Indians ufed to maintain, both the temple of the ark and alfo a place for fliip- that his rites firft began among them. Profeffor Bay- P"1?* . er has Ihown, that traces of his worlhip are Hill to be “ All the myfteries of the Gentile world feem to obferved among the Tamuli of Tranquebar. “ They have been memorials of the deluge, and of the event have a tradition (fays he), that there was once a gigan- which immediately fuCceeded. I hey confided for the tic perfon named Maidajhuren, who wTas born of Nifa- moft part of a melancholy procefs ; and were celebra- dabura near the mountain Meru. He had the horns ted by night in commemoration of the Hate of darknefs of a bull, and drank wine, and made war upon the gods, m which the patriarch and his family had been invol- He was attended by eight Budam, who were gigantic ved. The firft thing at thofe awful meetings was to and mifchievous daemons, of the family of thofe Indian offer an oath of fecrecy to all who were to be initiated : Ihepherds called Kobaler” In this account we have after which they proceeded to the ceremonies : thefe a manifeft reference to the hiftory of Dionufus, as Explanation began with a defcription of chaos; by which was fig- w'ell as that of the Dionufians, by whom his rites w’ere of the w ord nified fome memoiial of the deluge. Chaos was cer- introduced. And we may perceive that it bears tainly the fame as the great abyfs. Who, fays a great refemblance to the accounts tranfmitted by the Epiphanius, is fo ignorant as not to know, that Chaos Grecians. What are thefe Kobaler, who were de- and Buthos, the abyfs, are of the fame purport ? fcended from the fhepherds, but the fame as the Coba- Phe names of the deities in Japan and China, and li of Greece, the uniform attendants upon Dionufus ? the form of them, as well as the mythology with which a fet of priefts whofe cruelty and chicanery rendered they are attended, point out the country from whence them infamous. ‘ The Cobali (fays an ancient au- they originally came. In China the deity upon the thor) were a fet of cruel daemons, who followed in lotus m the midft of waters, has been long a favourite the retinue of Dionufus. It is a term made ufe of for emblem, and was imported from the weft : the in- knaves and cheats.’ figne of the dragon was from the fame quarter. The “ As the deity, in the fecond temple of Syrian Cuthites w’orlhipped Cham, the fun ; whofe name they to which ftrangers were not admitted, was not of a hu- vanoufly compounded. In China moft things which man form, and was called Dagun, we may eafily con- have any reference to fplendour and magnificence, feem ceive the hidden charafter under which he was defcri- to be_ denominated from the fame objeft. Cham is bed. We may conclude, that it was no other than laid, in the language of that country, to fignify any that mixed figure of a man and a fifli, under which he thing fu/>r?me. Cum is a fine building or palace, fimi- was of old worlhipped both in Paleftine and Syria, ar to Coma of the Ammonians. Cum is a lord or ma- He is exprefled under this fymbolical reprefentation in fter ; Cham a fceptre. Laftly, by Cham is fignified a many parts of India; and by the Bramins is called priett, analogous to_ the Chamanim and Chamenim of Hfynou or Vijhnou. Dagon and Vifhnou have a like utha and Babylonia. The country itfelf is by the reference. They equally reprefent the man of the fea I artars called Ham. The cities Cbam-ju, Campion, called by Berofus Oannes; whofe hiftory has been re- Compition, Cumdan, Chamul, and many others of the verfed by the Indians. They fuppofe that he will re¬ fame form, are mamfeftly compounded of the facred ftore the world, when it ftrall be deftroyed by the chief term Cham. Cambalu, the name of the ancient me- God. But by Dagon is fignified the very perfon tropohs, is the city of Cham-bal ; and Milton ftyles it through whom the earth has been already reftored Properly Cambalu, feat of Cathaian Chan. By when it w^as in a ftate of ruin, and by whom mankind this is meant the chief city of the Cuthean monarch ; was renewed. Dagon and Noah, I have Ihown to be or Chan is a derivative of Cahen, a prince. It feems the fame. Viftmou is reprefented, like Dagon, under lometimes in China and Japan to have been exprefled the mixed figure of a man and a fifti, or rather of a C^an and Quano. . TT . man, a princely figure, proceeding from a fifh. The . 1 wo temples are taken notice of by Hamilton, near name of this diftritf, near which the temples above Syrian in Pegu which he reprefents as fo like in ftruc- ftand, we find to be called Syrian ;■ juft as was named ture, that they feemed to be built on the fame model. the region where flood the temples of Afargatis and One of the.e was ca\\zd Kiahack, or the God of Gods Dagon, Syrus, Syria, and Syrian, are all of the fame temple. The other is cafted the temple of Dagun ; and purport, and fignify Coeleftis and Solaris, from Sehor^ the door and windows of it are perpetually fhut, fo that the fun.” none can enter but the priefts. They will not tell of Our author next proceeds to defcribe fome of the what fhape the idol is, but only fay that it is not of Indian temples or pagodas; particularly thofe of Sal- human form. The former deity, Kiakiack, is repre- fette, Elephanta, and another called Dior a, near Au- tented as alleep of a human fhape, and 60 feet long ; runghabad in the province of Balagate, which was and when he awakes, the world is to be deftroyed. As vifited by Thevenot. The traveller relates, that toon as Kiakiack has diffolved the frame and being of “ upon making diligent inquiry among the natives *' about Delude, DEL [ 142 ] D about the origin of thefe wonderful buildings, the con- l< Tenfio the god of light. flant tradition was, that all thefe pagodas, great and fmall, with all their works and ornaments, were made bv gianis •, but in what age they could not tell.” “ Many of thefe ancient ftruflures (continues ]\lr Bryapt) have been attributed to Ramfcandcr, or Alex¬ ander the Great; but there is nothing among thefe {lately edifices that in the leaft favours of Grecian workmanlhip ; nor had that monarch, nor any of the princes after him, opportunity to perform works of this nature. W e have not the leail reafon to tmnk that they ever poflefled the country ; for they wrere called off from their attention this way by feuds and engagements nearer home. There is no tradition ^of this country having been ever conquered except by tne fabulous armies of Hercules and Dionufus. WThat has led people to think that thefe works were the operation of Alexander, is the fimilitude of the name Ramtxan- der. To this perfon they have fometimes been attri¬ buted •, but Ramtxander wTas a deity, the fuppofed fon of Bal; and he is introduced among the perfon- ages who were concerned in the incarnations of Vilh- nou. . “ The temple of Elora, and all the pagodas ot which I have made mention, muff be of great antiquity, as the natives cannot reach their era. 1 hey were un¬ doubtedly the work of the Indo-Cuthites, who came fo early into thefe parts. And that thefe ftruaures were formed by them, will appear from many circum- ftances j but efpecially from works of the fame magni¬ ficence which w7ere performed by them in other places. For fcarce any people could have effe£led fuch great works, but a branch of that family which erefted the tower in Babylonia, the walls of Balbec, aud the pyra¬ mids of Egypt.” . Having then defcribed a number ot Ealt Indian . idols of furprifing magnitude, “ the Babylonians and Egyptians (fays he), and all of the fame great family, ufed to take a pleafure in forming gigantic figures, and exhibiting other reprefentations equally ftupendous. Such were the coloffal flatties at Thebes, and the fphinx in the plains of Coume. The flatue creeled by Nebuchadnezzar in the plains of Dura, was m height threefcore Babylonifh cubits. It was proba¬ bly raifed in honour of Cham, the fun ; and perhaps it was alfo dedicated to the head of the Chaldaic family > who was deified, and reverenced under that title. Marcellinus takes notice of a flatue of Apollo named Comeus ; which, in the time of the emperor Verus, was brought from Seleucia to Rome. This related to the fame deity as the preceding. We may alfo infer, that the temple at K-.mju was erefted to Cham the fun, whom the people worfhipped under the name of Samo- mfu” • n. j It is remarkable, that in Japan the pnefls and no¬ bility have the title of Garni. The emperor Quebacon- dono, in a letter to the Portuguefe viceroy, 1585 tells him that Japan is the kingdom of Charms 5 whom, fays he, we hold to be the fame as San, the origin of all things. By Scin is probably meant San, the fun 5 who was the fame as Cham, rendered here Chamis. The laws of the country are fpoken of as the laws of Charais •, and we are told by Kmmpfer, that all the gods were flyled either Sin or Cami. The founder of the empire is faid to have been Tenjio Dai Sin, or E L Near his temple was a cavern religioufly vifited, upon account of his having been once hid when no fun nor liars appeared. He was efteemed the fountain of day, and his temple was called the temple of Naiku. Near this cavern was ano¬ ther temple, in which the canufi or priefts Ihovved an image of the deity fitting upon a cow. It was called Dam its No Ray, “ the great reprefentation of the fun.” One of their principal gods is fahufi, fimilar to the lacchus of the welt. Kaempfer fays, that he is the Apollo of the Japanefe, and they deferibe him as the Egyptians did Orus. Elis temple Hands in a town called Minnohi: and Jakufi is here reprefented upon a gilt tarate flower j which is faid to be the nymphaa pa- lujlris maxima, or faba Fgyptiaca of Profper Alpinus. One half of a large feallop ihell is like a canopy placed over him ^ and his head is furrounded with a crown of rays. They have alfo an idol named JVIenippe, much reverenced in different parts. Both theie, continues our author, relate to the fame perfon, viz. Noah. Kcempfer, an author of great credit, faw the temple of Dabys, which he truly renders Daibod, at Jedo in Japan. By Daibod was meant the god Budha, whole religion was llyled the Budfo, and which prevailed greatly upon the Indus and Ganges. Kcempfer, from whom Mr Bryant takes this account, fays, that the people of Siam reprefent him under the form of a Moor, in a fitting "poffure, and of a prodigious fize. His fkin is black, and his hair curled (probably), and the images about him are of the lame complexion. “ This god was fuppofed (fays Mr Bryant) to have neither father nor mother. By Budha we are certain¬ ly to underftand the idolatrous fymbol called by home nations Buddo j the fame as Jrgus and Theba (names for the ark). In the mythology concerning it we , may fee a reference both to the machine itfelf and to the perfon preferved in it. In confequence of which we find his perfon alfo fly led Bod, Budha, and Bud¬ do; and in the Weft Butus, Battus, and Bieotus. He was faid by the Indians not to have been born in tne ordinary way, but to have come to light indiredly through the fide of his mother. By Clemens of Alexandria he is called Bouta : and in the hiftory ot this perfon, however varied, we may Frc^ivi; f lation to the arkite deity of the fea, called Pqftaon or Neptune; alfo to Arculus and Dionufus, ftyled Bmotus and 7hebanus. Kaempfer has a curious h.ftory of a deity of this fort called Ahutto ,• whofe temple flood in the province of Bungo, upon the fea ftioie, near the village of Toma. About, a quarter ot a German mile before you come to this village, ftands a famous temple of the god Abutto ; which is faid to be very eminent for miraculoufly curing many >IlVete- rate diftempers, as alfo for procuring a wind and good paffage. For this reafon, failors and paffengers al¬ ways tie fome farthings to a piece of wood, and throw it into the fea, as an offering to this Abutto, to obtain a favourable wind. The fame deity, but under a dif¬ ferent name, was woiflripped in China. 1 he Apis, Mneuis, and Anubis of Egypt, have often been men¬ tioned and explained, as well as the Minotaur of Crete. The fame hieroglyphics occur m Japan ; and we are informed by Marco Polo, that the inhabitants worih.p idols of different flrapes. Some have the head of an fome of a fwine, and others the head of a dog. I he Deluge. ox, DEL [ i Deluge. The moil common reprefentation in this country is * ' that of Godfo Ten Go, or ‘ the ox-headed prince of heaven.’ “ It has already been noticed, that the ark was reprefented under the fymbol of an egg, called the mundane egg; which wras expofed to the rage of Ty- phon. It was alfo defcribed under the figure of a lu¬ nette, and called Selene, the moon. The perfon by W'hom it was framed, and who through its means wTas providentially preferved, occurs under the charaifer of a fleer, and the machine itfelf under the femblance of a cow or heifer. We have moreover been told that it was called Cibotus, wdiich Clemens of Alexandria calls Thebotba. Epiphanius mentions it by the name Idaal Baoth; and fays that, according to an eaflern tradition, a perfon named Nun wras preferved in it. The horle of Neptune was another emblem, as wTas alfo the hippopotamus or river-horfe. The people of Elis made ufe of the tortoife for the fame purpofe, and reprefented Venus as refling upon its back. Some traces of thefe hieroglyphics are to be found in Japan, which were certainly carried thither by the Indie E- thiopians. “ From an account of a temple of Daiboth (probably the lame with Daibod) at Meaco in Japan, we may perceive that the people there fpeak of the renewal of the woild at the deluge as the real creation, which I have fliown to be a common miflake in the hiftories of this event. And though the ftory is told wnth fome variation, yet in all the circumftances of confequence it accords very happily with the mythology of Egypt, Syria, and Greece. It matters not how the emblems have by length of time been mifinterpreted. We have the mundane egg upon the waters, and the concomi¬ tant fymbol of the moon ; and the egg at lafl opened by the afliftance of the facred fleer, upon which the world iffues forth to this day.” The author proceeds afterwards to mention the great veneration paid in thefe parts to the ox and cow $ and fays, that nobody dares injure them. One deity of the Japanefe was Canon,, the reputed lord of the ocean. He was repre¬ fented in an ere£l poflure, crowned with a flower, and coming out of the mouth of a fifh. He is reprefented in the fame manner by the natives of India, and named Vijhnou and Macauter ; and he is to be found in other parts of the call. Father Boufhet mentions a tradi¬ tion among the Indians concerning a flood in the davs of Vifhnou which covered the whole earth. It is moreover reported of him, that feeing the prevalence of the waters, he.made a float ; and being turned into a fifh, he fleered it with his tail. This perfon, in the account of the Banians by Lord, is called Me novo; which certainly fhould be exprefled Men-Now. It is faid, that in the Shafler of this people, a like hiflory is given of the earth being overwhelmed by a deluge, in w'hich mankind perifhed ; but the world was after¬ wards renewed in two nerfons called Menou and Cete- roupa. Vifhnou is defcribed under many characters, which he is faid at times to have affumed. One of ihele, according to the bramins of Tanjour, was that ot Rama Sami. This undoubtedly is the fame as Sama Rama of Babylonia, only reverfed : and it relates to that great, phenomenon the Iris •, which was generally accompanied with the dove, and held in veneration by the Semarim. J 3 1 DEL “ As the hiflory of China is fuppofed to extend up- Deluge. wards to an amazing height, it may be worth while to —\r--= confider the firfl eras in the Chinele annals, as they are reprefented in the writings of Japan : for the Japanefe have preferved hiflories of China; and by fuch a colla¬ tion, I believe no final! light may be obtained towards the difeovery of fome important truths. Hitherto it has not been obferved that fuch a collation could be made. “ the hiflories of this country, the firfl monarch Japanefe of China is named Foki; the fame whom the Chinefe hHt.orycf call Fohi, and place at the head of their lift. ThisChina’ prince had, according to fome, the body, according to others the head, of a ferpent. If we may believe the Japanefe hiftorians, he began his reign above 21,000 years before Chrill. I he fecond Chinefe emperor was Sin-Noo, by the people of China called Sin-Num ; and many begin the chronology of the country with him. He is fuppofed to have lived about 3000 years before Chrift 5 confequently there is an interval of near 18,000 years between the firft emperor and the fecond ; a cir- cumftance not to be credited. The third, who imme¬ diately fucceeded Sin-Noo, u’as Hoam-Ti. In this account we may, I think, perceive, that the Chinefe have adled like the people of Greece and other re¬ gions. ri he hiflories which were imported they have prefixed to the annals of their nation ; and adopted the firft perfo.nages of antiquity, and made themmo- narc.hs in their own country. Whom can we fuppofe lohi, with the head of a ferpent, to have been, but the great founder of all kingdoms, the father of man¬ kind ? I hey have placed him at an immenfe diftance, not knowing his true era. And I think we mav be allured, that under the charadler of Sin-Num and Sin- Noo we have the hiftory of Noah ; and Haam-Ti was- no other than Ham. According to Kaempfer, Sin- Noo was exadlly the fame charader as Serapis of F*- gypt. ‘ He was a hufbandman, and taught mankind agriculture, and thofe arts which relate to the imme¬ diate fupport of life. He alfo difeovered the virtues of many plants ; and he was reprefented with the head of an ox, and fometimes only w ith two horns. His pidure is held in high eftimation by the Chinefe.’ Well indeed might Kaempfer think, that in Sin-Noo he faw the charader of Serapis; for his perfonage was no other than Sar-Apis, the great father of mankind, the fame as Men-Neuas of Egypt, the fame alfo as Dionu- fus and Ofiris. By Du Halde he is called Chin-Nang, and made the next monarch after Fohi. The Chinefe accounts afford the fame hiftory as has been given above.. h “ As ^e family of Noah confided of eight perfons inclufive, there have been writers who have placed fome of them in fucceftion, and fuppofed that there w'ere three or four perfons who reigned between Sin- Noo and Hoam. But Du Flalde fays, that in the true hiftories of the country, the three firft monarchs were Fohi, Chin-Nong, and Hoam, whom he ftyles Hoang-TL. To thefe, he fays, the arts and fciences owe their invention and progrefs. Thus we find, that thofe who were heads of families have been railed to be princes 5 and their names have been prefixed to the lift of kings, and their hiftory fuperadded to the an¬ nals of the. country. It is further obfervable, in the- accounts given of thofe fuppofed kings, that their term* DEL [ 144 1 DEL Deluge tS Hiftory of Japan. of life, for the firft five or fix generations, correfponds with that of the patriarchs after the flood, and decreaies much in the fame proportion. “ The hiftorv of Japan is divided into three eras; which confift of gods, demigods, and mortals. The perfon whom the natives look upon to be the real founder of their monarchy is named Synmu ) in whole reign the Sintoo religion, the moft ancient of the country, was introduced. It was called Sin-sju and Chami-tnitfa ; from Sin and Chami, the deities which were the obje&s of worfhip. At this time it is laid that 600 foreign idols were brought into Japan, lo the Sintoo religion was afterwards added the Budlo, together with the worfhip of Amida. This deity they commonly reprefented with the head of a dog, and efteemed him the guardian of mankind. This re- .lirdon was more complicated than the former, an abounded with hieroglyphical reprefentations and my- fterious rites. It is the fame which I have termed the Arkite Idolatry, wherein the facred fleer and cow were venerated. The deity was reprefented upon the lotus and upon a tortoife, and oftentimes as pro- ceeding from a fifh. In this alfo, under the charafter of Budha, we may trace innumerable memorials ot the ark, and of the perfon preferved in it. The author above, having mentioned the eleventh emperor inclu- five from Syn-Mu, tells us, that in his time thefe rites began. ‘ In his reign Budo, otherwife called Kobotus, came over from the Indies to Japan ; and hroug it with him, upon a wdiite horfe, his religion and doc¬ trines.’ We find here, that the objeft of worfhip is made the perfon who introduced it (a miftake almoft univerfally prevalent) •, otherwife in this fhort account, what a curious hiftory is unfolded ’. “ The only people to whom we can have recourle for any written memorials concerning thefe things are the inhabitants of India proper. They were, we find, the perfons who introduced thefe hieroglyphics both in China and Japan. It will therefore be worth while to confider what they have tranfmitted concern¬ ing their religious opinions-, as we may from hence obtain ftill greater light towards explaining this iym- bolical worfhip. Every manifeftation of God s good- nefs to the world was in the firft ages expreffed by an hieroglyphic ; and the Deity was accordingly de- fcribed under various forms, and in different atti¬ tudes. Thefe at length were miftaken for real trani- figurations; and Vifhnou was fuppofed to have ap¬ peared in different fhapes, which were ftyled incarna¬ tions. In one of thefe he is reprefented under the_ fi¬ gure before mentioned, of a princely perfon coming out of a fifh. In another he appears with the head of a boar, treading upon an evil daemon, which feems to be the fame as the Typhon of the Egyptians. _ On his head he fupports a lunette, in which are feen cities, towers, in fhort, all that the world contains. Jn Baldaeus we have a delineation and hiftory of this in¬ carnation. Kircher varies a little in his reprefenta- tion, yet gives him a fimilar figure of the Deity, and ftyles him ri/hnou Barachater. By this I fhould think was fignified Vifhnou, “ the offspring of the fifh. The bramins fay, that there was a time when the ier- pent with a thoufand heads wdthdrew itfelf, and would not fupport the world, it was fo overburdened with lift, Upon this the earth funk m the great abyis ot waters, and mankind and all that breathed perifhed. Deluge. , But Vifhnou took upon himfelf the form above de- feribed, and diving to the bottom of the fea, lifted up the earth out of the waters, and placed it, together with the ferpent of a thoufand heads, upon the back ot a “’ iT.'he third volume of M. Perron’s Zendavell.. Accoumof there is an account given of the cofmogony of the^™- Perfees ; alfo of the fubfequent great events that en- fued. The fupreme Deity, called by him Ormifda, given by the is faid to have accompliflted the creation at fix di - Per ees. ferent intervals. He firft formed the heavens at the fecond the waters ; at the third the earth. Next in order were produced the trees and vegetables. in the fifth place were formed birds and fifties, and the wild inhabitants of the woods -, and in the fixth and laft place, he created man. Ihe man thus produced is faid to have been an ox-hhe perfon, and is defenbed as confifting of a purely divine and a mortal part. For fome time after his creation he lived in great hap- pinefs; but at laft the world was corrupted by a dae¬ mon named Ahriman. This daemon had the boldnefs to vifit heaven : whence he came down to the earth in the form of a ferpent, and introduced a fet ot wicked beings, called karfejlers. By him the firft ox-like per- fonage, called Aboudad, was fo infeded that he died ; after" which Kaiomorts, probably the divine part, of which the ox was the reprefentative, died alfo. Out ot the left arm of the deceafed proceeded a being called Gofcboraun, who is faid to have raifed a cry louder than the fttout of 1000 men. After fome converfation between the fupreme Deity and Gofchoraun, it was determined to put Ahriman to flight, and to deftroy all thofe wicked perfons he had introduced ; for there now feemed to be an univerfal oppofition to the iu- preme Deity Ormifda. At this feafon a fecond ox¬ like perfonage, is introduced by the name of Tafchter, He is fpoken of both as a ftar and a fun. At the fame time he is mentioned as a perfon upon earth under three forms. By Tafchter is certainly figmfied De AO)ter ; the fame perfon whom the Greek and by- rians reprefented as a female, and called 4/larte. She was deferibed horned, and fometimes with the head of a bull fuppofed to proceed from an egg } and they efteemed her the fame as Juno and the_ moon.^ At laft it was thought proper to bring an univerfal inun¬ dation over the face of the earth ; that all impurity might be waftied away which being accomplifhed by Tafchter, every living creature penlhed, and the earth was for fome time entirely covered. At laft, the wa¬ ters retreating within their proper bounds, the m^n- tain of Albordi in Ferakh-kand firft appeared ; which the author compares to a tree, and luppoles t lat a other mountains proceeded from it. After this there was a renewal of the world $ and the earth was rei ored to its priftine ftate. The particular place where Or¬ mifda planted the germina from a11 m§s were to fpring, was Ferakh-kand, which feems to be the land of Arach j the country upon the Araxes m Armenia.” , j* u- Thus we have given an ample fpecimen ot this very ingenious author’s method of reafonmg, and difcover- ing traces of the facrcd hiftory even m things which have been thought leaft to relate to it. Ihat ^ Greeks and weftern nations had fome knowledge o. DEL ^ Deluge, the flood, has never been denied ; and from what has been already related, it appears that the fame has per¬ vaded the remoteft regions of the eaft. The know¬ ledge which thefe people have of the fall of man, and the evil confequences which enfued, cannot, according to our author, be the confequences of their intercourfe with Chriftians ; for their traditions afford neither any traces of Chrilfianity, nor its founder. Whatever truths may be found in their writings, therefore, mult be de¬ rived from a more ancient fource. “ There are (fays he) in every climate fome (hattered fragments of ori¬ ginal hiftory j fome traces of a primitive and univerfal language : and thefe may be obferved in the names of deities, terms of worfhip, and titles of honour, which prevail among nations widely feparated, who for ages had no connexion. The like may be found in the names of pagodas and temples ; and of fundry other objects which will prelent themfelves to the traveller. Even America would contribute to this purpofe. The more rude the monuments, the more ancient they may poifibly prove, and afford a greater light upon in- 20 qmry” American . ^,e accounts hitherto met with in this continent, accounts of indeed, are far from being equally authentic and fatis- tlie deluge, faftory with thofe hitherto treated of. In Acofla’s hiftory of the Indies, however, w-e are informed, that the Mexicans make particular mention of a deluge in their country, by w7hich all men were drowned. Ac¬ cording to them, one Viracocka came out of the great lake Titicaca in their country. This perfon flaid in I iaguanaco, where at this day are to be feen the ruins oi fome ancient and very ffrange buildings. From thence he came to Cufco, where mankind began to multiply. They {how alfo a fmall lake, where they lay the fun hid himfelf: for which reafon they facri- fice largely to him, both men and other animals Hennepin informs us, that fome of the favages are of opinion, that a certain fpirit, called Othm by the Iro¬ quois, and sltahauta by thofe at the mouth of the ri¬ ver St Lawrence, is the creator of the wmrld 5 that Mejou repaired it after the deluge. They fay, that this Meffou or Otkon, being a-hunting one day, his dogs loft themfelves in a great lake, which thereupon overflowing, covered the whole earth in a Ihort time, and /wallowed up the world. According to Herrera, the people of Cuba knew that the heavens and the earth had been created ; and faid they had much in¬ formation concerning the flood ; and that the world had been deftroyed by water, by three perfons, who came three feveral ways. Gabriel de Cabrera was told by a man of more than 70 years of age, that an old man, knowing the deluge was to come, built a great ihip, and went into it with his family and abun¬ dance of animals j that he fent out a crow7, which did not at firft return, flaying to feed on the carcafes of dead animals, but afterwards came back with a green branch. He is faid to have added other par¬ ticulars nearly confonant to the Mofaic account, as far as Noah’s Tons covering him when drunk, and the ot icr fcolfing at it. The Indians, he faid, defeended rrom the. latter, and therefore had no clothes: but the Spaniards defeending from the former, had both clothes and horfes—The fame author likewife informs us, that it was reported by the inhabitants of Caftilla del Oru in Terra Firma, that when the univcrfal de- Vol, VII. Part I. [ ] DEL luge happened, one man with his wife and children efca- Deluge, ped in a canoe, and that from them the world was peo- '—--v— pled. The Peruvians, according to our author, like- wflfe affirmed, that they had received by tradition from their anceftors, that, many years before there were any incas or kings, when the country was very po¬ pulous, there happened a great flood ; the fea break- ing out beyond its bounds, fo that the land w7as co¬ vered with water, and all the people perifhed. I'o this it is added by the Guancas, inhabiting the vale of Xaufea, and the natives of Chiquito in the province ’ of Callao, that fome perfons remained in the hollow7* and caves of the higheft mountains, who again peo¬ pled the land. Others affirm, that all periffied in a deluge, only fix perfons being faved in a float, from whom defeended all the inhabitants of that country. In Nieuhoff’s voyages to Brazil, we are informed, that the molt barbarous of the Brafilians, inhabiting the in¬ land countries, fcarce knew any thing of religion or an Almighty Being : they have fome knowledge re- N maining of a general deluge ; it being their opinion that the whole race of mankind were extirpated by a general deluge, except one man and his filler, who, being with child before, they by degrees repeopled the world. M. Thevet gives us the creed of the Bra- filians in this matter more particularly. In the opinion of thefe favages the deluge was univerfal. They fay, tnat Sommay, a Caribbee of great dignity, had two chil¬ dren named Tamendonare and Ariconte. Being of con¬ trary dil'pofitions, one delighting in peace and the other in w7ar and rapine, they mortally hated each other. One day Ariconte, the warrior, brought an arm of an enemy he had encountered to his brother, reproaching him at the fame time with cowardice. T he other retorted by telling, that if he had been poffeffed of the valour he boafted, he would have brought his enemy entire. Ariconte on this threw the arm again!! the door of his brother’s houfe. At that inflant the whole village w7as carried up into the Iky, and Tamendonare ftri- king the ground with violence, a vaft ftream of water iftued out from it, and continued to flow in fuch quan¬ tity, that in a Ihort time it feemed to rife above the clouds, and the earth was entirely covered. The two biothers, feeing this, afeended the higheft mountains ol the country, and with their wives got upon the trees that grew upon them. By this deluge all man¬ kind, as well as all other animals, were drowned, ex¬ cept the two biothers above-mentioned and their wflves who having defeended when the flood abated, became’ heads of two different nations,” &c. To thefe American tettimonies we may add anotherTeftimo rT°.te a?d “ndviHzecl Mand of Gtaheite.nies from l>r Watlon , in his difeourfe to the clergy, informs.^1*1*16*16 us, that one of the navigators to the fouthern hemi-ard theEal1 fphere having alked fome of the inhabitants of that* o'eS' illand concerning their origin, was anfwered, thatWTWfr, their lupreme God, a long time ago, being angry,p. 208. dragged the earth through the fea, and their ifland being broken off, was preferved. In the Fall Indies, we are informed by Dr Watfon f, that Sir William t Jones, by whom a fociety for the advancement of A-lJ fiatic literature was inftituted at Calcutta, difeovered m the oldeft mythological books of that country, fuch an account of the deluge as correfponds fufficiently With that of Mofes. 7 T II. The Deluge. Hypothefes concerning the means by which the deluge took place. 23 Suppofed creation and annihi¬ lation of water. 24 Theory of Dr burnet. & See A^y/s. *5 „ Centre of gravity of the earth fuppofed to be Shifted* DEL [1 II. The faft being thus eftablifhed by the univer- fal confent of mankind, that there was a general de¬ luge which overflowed the whole world ) it remains next to inquire, by what means it may reafonably be fuppofed to have been accomplifhed. 1 he hypothefes on this fubieft have been principally the following. I. It has been alferted, that a quantity of water was created on purpofe, and at a proper time armdn- lated, by divine power. This, however, befides its being abfolutely without evidence, is direftly contrary to the words of the facred writer whom the alfertors of this hypothefis mean to defend. He exprefsly de¬ rives the waters of the flood from two fources *, fmt, the fountains of the great deep, which he tells us were all broken up •, and fecondly, the windows of heaven, which he fays were opened : and fpeakmg of the de- creafe of the waters, he fays, the fountains ot the deep and the windows of heaven were flopped, and the waters returned continually from off the earth. Here it is obvious, that Mofes was fo far from having any difficulty about the quantity of water, that he thought the fources from whence it came were not exhaufled j frnce both of them required to be hopped by the ame almighty hand who opened them, left the flood fliould increafe more than it a£fually did. _ 2 Dr Burnet, in his Yellur'is Theona Sacra, endea- vours to fhow, that all the waters in the ocean were not Efficient to cover the earth to the depth affigned by Mofes. Suppofrng the fea drained quite dry, and all the clouds of the atmofphere diffolved into rain, we ffiould ftill, according to him, want much the greateft part of the water of a deluge. To get clear of this difficulty, Dr Burnet and others have adopted Defcartes’s theory. That philofopher fuppofes the an¬ tediluvian world to have been perfetfly round and equal, without mountains or valleys.. He accounts for its formation on mechanical principles, *>7 Juppo- fing it at fir ft in the condition of a thick turbid fluid replete with divers heterogeneous matters; which, fubfiding by flow degrees, formed themfelves into dif¬ ferent concentric ftrata, or beds, by the laws of gravi¬ ty. Dr Burnet improves on this theory, by luppohng the primitive earth to have been no more than a {hell or cruft inverting the furface of the water contained in the ocean, and in the central abyfs which he and others fuppofe to exift in the bowels of the earth*. At the time of the flood, this outward cruft, according to him, broke in a thoufand places ; and confequent- Jy funk down among the water, which thus fpouted up in vaft Calais, and overflowed the whole furface. He fuppofes alfo, that before the flood there was a perfea coincidence of the equator with the ecliptic, and confequently that the antediluvian world enjoyed a perpetual fpring ; but that the violence of the {hock by which the outer cruft was broken, ftufted affo the pofition of the earth, and produced the prefent obli¬ quity of the ecliptic. This theory, it will be obfer- ved, is equally arbitrary with the former But it is, befides, direftly contrary to the words of Mofes, who affures us, that'all the high hills were covered; while Dr Burnet affirms that there were then no hills m be¬ 46 ] DEL courfe to a fhifting of the earth’s centre of gravity, De!uge- . which, drawing after it the water out of its channel, overwhelmed the feveral parts of the earth fuccel- fively# 4. The inquifitive Mr Whifton, in his New Theory Mr Whif- of the Earth, {hows, from feveral. remarkable coinci-ton’s theo. dences, that a comet defeending in the P^tie of the ecliptic, towards its perihelion, parted juft before the earth on the firft day of the deluge ; the conferences whereof would be, firft, that this comet, when it came below the moon, would raife a vaft and ftiong tide, both in the fmall feas, which according to his hypo¬ thefis were in the antediluvian earth (for he allows no great ocean there as in ours), and alfo in the abyts which was under the upper cruft of the earth. And this tide would rife and increafe all the time of the approach of the comet towards the earth ; and would be at its greateft height when the comet was at its leaft diftance from it. By the force of which tide, as alfo by the attraaion of the comet, he judges, that the abyfs muft put on an elliptical figure, whole lur- face being confiderably larger than the former fphen- cal one, the outward cruft of the.earth, incumbent on the abyfs, muft accommodate itfelf to that figure, which it could not do while it held folid, and conjoined together. He concludes, therefore, that it muft. of ne- ccffity be extended, and at laft broken by the violence of the faid tides and attraaion ; out of which the in¬ cluded water iffuing, was a great means of the deluge ; this anfwering to what Mofes fpeaks of the foun¬ tains of the great deep being broke open. -“Again, the fame comet, he {hows, in its defeent towards the fun, parted fo clofe by the body of the earth, as to in¬ volve it in its atmofphere and tail for a confiderable time ; and of confequence left a vaft quantity of its vapours, both expanded and condenfed, on its furface ; great part of which being rarefied by the folar ing 2. Other authors, fuppofmg a fufficient fund of wa¬ ter in the abyfs or fea, are only concerned for an ex¬ pedient to bring it forth *. accordingly fome have re- a great parr 01 j heat, would be drawn up .nto the and afterwards return in violent rams: and this he takes to be what Mofes intimates by.‘‘ the windows of hea¬ ven being opened,” and particularly by the forty- days rain.” For as to the following rain, which with this made the whole time of raining 150 days, Mr Whifton attributes it to the earth coming a lecond time within the atmofphere of the comet, as the comet ron i«s return from the fun Laftly, to remove this vaft orb of waters again, he fuppofes a mighty wind to have arifen, which dried up fome, and forced the reft into the abyfs through the clefts by which it came up : only a good quantity remained in the al¬ veus of the great ocean, now firft made, and in leffer feas, lakes, &c. This theory was at firft only propoled as an hypothefis; but, on further confideration, Mr Whifton drought he could aftually prove that a come did at that time pafs very near the earth, and that t was the fame which afterwards appeared in 168b. After this he looked upon his theory.no longer as an hypothefis, but publiffied it m a particular traff en¬ titled The Caufe of the Deluge demonf rated. But the uncertainty of the comet’s return in 1758, th' abfolute failure of that which ought to have appeared in 1788 or 1789, muft certainly render Mr Whifton s calculations for fuch a length of time extremely du¬ bious * and the great fimilarity between the tails of co- Brets*/and ftraaL of tuaric matter, renders h.s fcp- r> e. l Deluge, pofition of their being aqueous vapours exceedingly improbable. 5. According to Mr de la Pryme, the antediluvian world had an external fea as well as land, with "V Theory of Mr de la Pryme/ Deluge. 2S Hutchinfo- nian the«- ry. moun¬ tains, rivers, &c. and the deluge was effected by break¬ ing the fubterraneous caverns and pillars thereof, with dreadful earthquakes, and caufing the fame to be for the moft part, if not wholly, abforbed and fwallowed up, and covered by the feas that we now have. Laft- ly, this earth of ours arofe out of the bottom of the antediluvian fea: and in its room, jufl as many iflands are fwallowed down, and others thruil up in their ftead. On this, as on all the other hypothefes, it mav be re¬ marked, that it is quite arbitrary, and without the leaft foundation from the words of Mofes. The facred hi- ftorian fpeaks not one word of earthquakes, nay, from the nature of the thing, wre know it is impoflible that the flood could have been occafioned by an earth¬ quake, and the ark preferved, without a miracle. It is certain, that if a (hip finks at fea, the commotion excited in the water by the defcent of fuch a large body, will fwallow up a fmall boat that happens to come too near. If the pillars of the earth itfelf then were broken, what muft the commotion have been, when the continents of Europe, Afia, and Africa, de¬ fended into the abyfs at once ; not to mention Ame¬ rica, which lying at fo great a diftance from Noah, he might be fuppofed out of danger from that quarter. By what miracle was the little ark preferved amidft the tumult of thofe impetuous waves which muft have ruflred in from all quarters ? Befides, as the ark was built not at fea, but on dry ground, when the earth on which it refted funk down, the ark muft have funk along with it; and the waters falling in as it were over¬ head, muft have dallied in pieces the ftrongeft veflel that can be imagined. Earthquakes, alfo, operate fud- denly and violently; whereas, according to the Mofaic account, the flood came on gradually, and did not ar¬ rive at its height till fix weeks, or perhaps five months, after it began. 6. Mr Hutchinfon and his followers prefent us with a theory of the deluge, which they pretend to derive from the word of God itfelf. This theory hath been particularly enlarged upon and illuftrated by Mr Cat- cot, who in 1768 publifhed a volume on the fubje£t. This gentleman afferts, that when the world was firft created, at the time when it is faid to have been “with¬ out form and void,” the terreftrial matter was then entirely diflblved in the aqueous ; fo that the whole formed, as it were, a thick muddy water. The figure of this mafs wras fpherical; and on the outfide of this iphere lay the grofs dark air. Within the fphere of earth and water was an immenfe cavity, called by Mofes the deep; and this internal cavity was filled w ith air of a kind fimilar to that on the outfide. On the creation of light, the internal air received elafticity fufficient to burft out through the external covering of earth and water. Upon this the water defcended, filled up the void, and left the earth in a form fimilar to what it hath at prefent. Thus, according to him, the antediluvian w'orld, as well as the prefent, con- fifted of a vaft colledlion or nucleus of w>ater, called the great deep, or the abyfs; and over this the (hell of earth perforated in many places ; by which means the waters of the ocean communicated with the abyfs. 147 1 DEE 1 he breaking up of thefe fountains was occafioned by a miraculous preflure of the atmofphere, from the im- v mediate aftion of the Deity himfelf. So violent was this preffure, that the air defcended to where it had been originally; occupied the fpace of the abyfs; and drove out the waters over the whole face of the dry land. But this account, fo far from being infallibly certain, feems inconfiftent with the moft common ob- fcrvation. No preflure, however violent, will caufe w'ater rife above its level, unlefs the preflure is unequal. If, therefore, the atmofphere entered into the fuppofed abyfs, by a Vehement prefl'ure on the furface of the ocean, that preflure muft only have been on one place, or on a few places; and even though we fuppofe the atmofphere to have been the agent made ufe of, it is impoflible that it could have remained for any time in the abyfs without a continued miracle; as the pref¬ fure of the water would immediately have forced it up again through thofe holes which had afforded it a paf- fage downwards. The explication given from Hutchinfon by Mr Cat- cot, of the “ windows of heaven,” is fomew'hat ex¬ traordinary. According to him, thefe windows are not in heaven, but in the bowels of the earth ; and mean no more than the cracks and fifliues by which the airs, as he calls them, found a paflage through the Ihell or covering of earth, which they utterly dif- folved and reduced to its original ftate of fluidity. It is, however, difficult to conceive how the opening of fuch windows as thefe, could caufe a violent rain for 40 days and nights. It is not to be fuppofed, that we can pretend to af- certain any thing on the fubjedt more than others have done. The following conjedlures, however, may be offered on the manner in which the deluge might have happened, without any violence to the eftablilhed laws of nature. 1. If we confider the quantity of water requifite for Another the purpofe of the deluge, it will not appear fo very ex- theory, traordinary as has been commonly reprefented. The height of the higheft hills is thought not to be quite four miles. It will therefore be deemed a fufficient allowance, when we fuppofe the waters of the deluge to have been four miles deep on the furface of the ground. Now it is certain, that water, or any other matter, when fpread out at large upon the ground, feems to occupy an immenfe fpace in comparifon of what it does when contained in a cubical veflel, or when packed together in a cubical form. Suppofe we wanted to overflow a room 16 feet every way, or containing 256 fquare feet, with water, to the height of one foot, it may be nearly done by a cubical veflel of fix feet filled with water. A cube of eight feet will cover it two feet deep, and a cube of ten feet will very nearly cover it four feet deep. It makes not the leaft difference whether we fuppofe feet or miles to be co¬ vered. A cube of ten miles of water would very near¬ ly overflow 256 fquare miles of plain ground to the height of four miles. But if we take into our account the vaft number of eminences with which the furface of the earth abounds, the above-mentioned quantity of water would do a great deal more. If, therefore, we attempt to calculate the quantity of water fufficient to deluge the earth, we muft make a very confiderable allowance for the bulk of all the hills on its furface. T 2 To DEL [ *48 1 DEL Deluge. To confider tills matter, however, In its utmoft lati- v-—'tude: The furface of the earth is fuppofed, by the latelt computations, to contain I99>512>595 miles. To overflow this furface to the height ot four miles, is required a parallelepiped of water 16 rod68 deep, and containing 49,878,148 fquare miles ot lur- face. Now, confidering the immenfe thickneis ot the globe of the earth, it can by no means be improbable, that this whole quantity of water may be contained in its bowels, without the neceflity of any remarkable abvfs or huge colleftion of water, fuch as moft of our theoritls fuppofe to exift in the centre. It_ is cer¬ tain, that as far as the earth has been dug, it hath been found not dry, but moift 5 nor have we the leaft reafon to imagine, that it is not at lead equally morn, all the way down to the centre. How moift it really is cannot be known, nor the quantity of water requi¬ site to impart to it the degree of moifture it has j but we are fure it muft be immenfe. _ The earth is com¬ puted to be near 8000 miles in diameter. I he ocean is of an unfathomable depth*, but there is no reafon for luppoling it more than a few’ miles. 1 o make ad rea- fonable allowance, however, we {hall fuppole the whole folid matter in the globe to be only equal to a cube of 5000 miles *, and even on this fuppofition we ihall find, that all the waters of tlm deluge would not be half fufficient to moiften it. T he above-men¬ tioned parallelepiped of w’ater would indeed contain 798 oqo,^68 cubic miles of the fluid*, but the cube of earth containing no lefs than an hundred and twenty- five thoufand millions of cubic miles, it is evident that the quantity afligned for the deluge wopld fcarce be known to moiften it. It could have indeed n°™ore effea this way, than a Angle pound of water could have upon 150 times its bulk of dry earth. We are per- fuaded therefore, that any perfon who will try by ex¬ periment how’ much water a given quantity ot earth contains, and from that experiment will make calcula¬ tions with regard to the whole quantity of water contain¬ ed in the bowels of the earth, muft be abundantly iatii- fied, that though all the water of the deluge had been thence derived,the diminution of the general ftore would, comparatively fpeaking, have been next to nothing. 2. It was not from the bow’els of the earth only that"the waters were difeharged, but alfo from the air*, for we are affured by Mofes, that it rained 40 days •and 40 nights. This fource of the diluvian waters hath been confidered as of fmall confequence by almoft every one who hath treated on the fubjeft. The general opi¬ nion concerning this matter we (hall tranfenbe from the Univerfal Hiftory, Vol. I. where it is very fully expreis- ed “ According to the obfervations made ot the quantity of water that falls in rain, the rains could not afford one ocean, nor half an ocean, and would be a very inconfiderable part of what was neceffary tor a deluge. If it rained 40 days and 40 nights throughout the whole earth at once, it might be fufficient to Uy all the lower grounds under water, but it would figm- fv very little as to the overflowing of the mountains *, fo that it has been faid, that if the deluge had been made by rains only, there would have needed not 40 days, but 40 years, to have brought it to pafs. And if we fuppofe the whole atmofphere condenfed in¬ to water, it would not all have been fufficient for this effeft 5 for it is certain that it could not have riiea above 32 feet, the height to which water can be raifed Deluge, by the preffure of the atmofphere : for the weight of the whole air, when condenled into water, can be no more than equal to its weight in its natural rtate, and muft become no lefs than 800 times denfer ; fpr that is the difference between the weight of the heavieft: air and that of water.” On this fubieft we muft obferve, that there is a very general miftake with regard to the air, fimilar to the above-mentioned one regarding the earth. Becaufe the earth below our feet appears to our fenies firm and com- paft, therefore the vaft quantity of water, contained even in the moft folid parts of it, and which ^will rea¬ dily appear on proper experiment, is overlooxed, and treated as a non-entity. In like manner, becaufe the air does not always deluge with exceffive rains, it is alfo imagined that it contains but very little water. Becaufe the preffure of the air is able to raife only 32 feet of w’ater on the furface of the earth, it is therefore fuppofed we may know to what depth the atmofphere could deluge the earth if it was to let fall the whole water contained in it. But daily obferva- tion (hows, that the preffure of the atmoiphere hath not the leaft connexion wdth the quantity of water it contains. Nay, if there is any_ connexion, the air feems to be lighteft when it contains moft water. In the courfe ot a long fummer’s drought, for inftance, the mercury in the barometer will ftand at 30 inches, or little more. If it does fo at the beginning of the drought, it ought to afeend continually during the time the dry weather continues ; becaufe the air is all the while ab(orbing water in great quantity from the furface of the earth and fea. This, however, is known to be contrary to fad. At fuch times the mercury does not afeend, but remains ftationary ; and what is ftill more extraordinary, when the drought is about to have an end, the air, while it yet contains the whole quantity of water it abforbed, and hath not difeharged one Angle drop, becomes fuddenly lighter, and the mercury will perhaps fink an inch before any rain falls. The moft furprifing phenomenon, however, is yet to come. Af¬ ter the atmofphere has been difeharging for a number of days fucceflively, a quantity of matter 800 times hea¬ vier than itfelf, inftead of being lightened by the dif- charge, it becomes heavier, nay, fpecijically heavier, than it was before. It is alfo certain, that very, dry provided it is not at the fame time very hot, isal- ways heavieft*, and the drieft air which we are acquaint¬ ed with, namely Dr Prieftley’s dephlogijlicated*\x (oxy. gen gas), is confiderably heavier than the air we com¬ monly breathe. For thefe reafons, we think the quan- tity of water contained in the whole atmofphere ought to be confidered as indefinite, efpecially as we know that by whatever agent it is fufpended, that agent muft coun- teraft the force of gravity, otherwife the water would immediately defeend ; and while the force of gravity in any fubftance is counterafted, that fubftance cannot appear to us to gravitate at all. _ , . -,0 3. The above confiderations render it/ro^/e.atlealt that there is in nature a quantity of water fufficient to delude the w’orld, provided it was applied to the pur- pofe We muft next confider whether there is any na¬ tural agent powerful enough to effeauate this purpofe. We {hall take the phrafes ufed by Moles in their moft obvious fenfe. The breaking up-of the fountains of the Deluge * See Ehc tricity and E.'vapara- tioa. ■f See Earth quake. DEL [ i deep, we may reafonably fuppofe to have been the open- ^ ing’ of all paffages, whether fmall or great, through which the fubterraneous waters poflibly could difeharge themfelves on the furface of the earth. opcnui'y of the windows of heaven we may alio fuppofe to be the pouring out the water contained in the atmofphere, through thofe invilible paflages by which it enters infuch a manner as totally to elude every one of our fenfes, as when water is abforbed by the air in evaporation. As both thefe are faid to have been opened at the fame time it feems from thence probable, that one natural agent was employed do do both. Now it is certain, that the induftry of mpdern inquiry hath difeovered an agent unknowm to the former ages, and whofe influence is great, that with regard to this world, it may be faid to have a kind of omnipotence. I'he agent we mean is eleftricity. It is certain, that, by means of it, immenfe quantities of water can be raifed to a great height in the air. This is proved by the phenomena of w’ater-fpouts. Mr Forfter relates, that he happen¬ ed to lee one break very near him, and obferved a flalh of lightning proceed from it at the moment of its breaking. The conclufion from this is obvious. When the eleftric matter was difeharged from the water, it could no longer be fupported by the atmofphere, but immediately fell down. Though water fpouts do not often appear in this country, yet every one muff have made an obfervation fomewhat fimilar to Mr Forfter’s. In a violent ftorm of thunder and rain, after every flafh of lightning or difeharge of eleftricity from the clouds, the ram pours down with increafed violence ; thus Ihow- ^.at t^le cloud, having parted with fo much of its electricity, cannot longer be fupported in the form of vapour, but muff defeend in rain. It is not indeed yet difeovered that eleftricity is the caufe of the fufpenfion of water m the atmofphere ; but it is certain that eva¬ poration is promoted by electrifying the fluid to be - ^.apora1ted *• I,: may therefore be admitted as a pofR. bihty, that the electric fluid contained in the air is the agent by which it is enabled to fufpend the water which rues in vapour. If therefore the air is deprived ° .he due proportion of this fluid, it is evident that ram muff frill in prodigious quantities. Again, we are alfured from the moft undeniable ob- vat ions, that eleftricity is able to fwell up water on tie furface of the earth. This we can make it do even m our trifling experiments j and much more mufl the whole force of the fluid be fuppofed capable of doing it, i applied to the waters of the ocean, or any others. The agitation of the fea in earthquakes is a fuflicient -proof of this f. It is certain, that at thefe times there is a ddcharge of a vaft quantity of eleftric matter from the earth into the air ; and as foon as this happens, all becomes quiet on the furface of the earth. Irom a multitude of obfervations it alfo appears, that there is at all times a pafiage of eleftric matter ’from the atmofphere into the earth, and vice verfa, from the earth into the atmofphere. There is therefore no ab- furdity in fuppofing the Deity to have influenced the action of the natural powers in fucb a manner that for 40 days and nights the elefrric matter con¬ tained in the atmofphere fliould defeend into the bowels of the earth,—if indeed there is oecafion for fuppo- fing any fuch immediate influence at all, fince it is not impoffible that there might have been, from fome na- 49 ] DEL tural caufe, a defeent of this matter from the atmo- deluge. fphere for that time. But by whatever caufe the de- v*— feent was occafioned, the confequence would be, the breaking up of the fountains of the deep, and the opening the windows of heaven. The water contained in the atmofphere being left without fupport, would defeend in impetuous rains; while the w’aters of the ocean, thofe from which fountains originate, and thofe con¬ tained in the folid earth itfelf, would rife from the very centre, and meet the waters which defeended from above. Thus the breaking up of the fountains of the deep, and the opening the windows of heaven, would accompany each other, as Mofes tells us they aflually did ; for, according to him, both happened on the fame day. In this manner the flood would come on quietly and gradually, without that violence to the globe which Burnet, Whifton, and other theorifls, are obliged to fuppofe. The abatement of the waters would enfue on the afeent of the ele&ric fluid to where it was be¬ fore. The atmofphere would then abforb the water as formerly ; that which had afeended through the earth would again fubfide ; and thus every thing would re¬ turn to its prifline ftate. III. Having thus fliown in what manner it is poflible that an univerfal deluge might take place by means of the natural agents known to us at prefent, we fliall next confider fome more of the evidences that fuch an event actually did happen, and that the deluge w^as univerfal. The proof here is fo llrong from the tnw ditions prevalent among almoft every nation on the face of the earth, and which have been already fo amply treated, that no farther objedlion could be made to the Mofaic account, were it not that the nccefity of an univerfal deluge is denied by fome, who contend that all the deluges mentioned in hiitory or recorded by tradition were only partial, and may be accounted for from the fwelling of rivers or other ac¬ cidental caufes. Many indeed, even of thofe who profefs to believe the Mofaic account, have thought that the deluge w^as not univerfal; or, though*3 it might be univerfal with refpeft to mankind, that it was not fo w-ith regard to the earth itfelf. The learn- yoflfu® s ed liaac \oflius.was of this opinion, though his rea-feheme 8f a Ions leem principally to have been that he could not Partial de- conceive how an univerfal deluge could happen. “ To luge‘ effect this (fays he) many miracles muff have concur- red ; but God works no miracles in vain. What need wras there to drown thofe lands w-here no men lived or are yet to be found ! Tis a foolith thing to think that mankind had multiplied fo much before the flood as to have overfpread all the earth. How flow and fluggiflv the fir ft men were in propagating their kind,.is evident trom hence, that Noah was but the ninth in a lineal defeent from Adam, They are quite wide of the truth, therefore, who think mankind to have fpread over all the earth in the days of Noah, who perhaps- at that time had not extended themfelves beyond the borders of Syria and Mefopotamia : but no reafon ob¬ liges us to extend the inundation of the deluge be¬ yond thofe bounds which are inhabited ; yea, it is al- together abfurd to aver, that the effetf of a p’unifhment inflicted upon mankind only, ftiould extend to thofe- ? aces where no men lived. Although we Ihould there¬ fore believe that part of the earth only to have bear overflowed DEL [ 1S° 1 DEL Deluge, overflowed by the waters which we have mentioned, “—v and which is not the hundredth part of the terrelfrial globe, the deluge will neverthelefs be univerfal, (ecume¬ nical, fince the deftiu£fion was uniyerfal, and over¬ whelmed the whole habitable world.” 3i Coetfogon’s Another fcheme of a partial deluge is publifhed by Ccheme. Mr Coetlogon in his Univerfal Hiftory of Aits and Sciences, under the article Antediluvians. This ap¬ pears to have been formed with a defign to accommo¬ date the belief of a deluge to the opinions of the free¬ thinkers, who deny the truth of the Mofaic accounts, as he teUs us that they are willing to allow it. Accord¬ ing to this author, the firft inhabitants of the earth be- in^- placed at the confluence of two great rivers, the Eu¬ phrates and Tigris, thofe rivers may have overflowed their banks all of a hidden, and furprifed the neighbour¬ ing inhabitants not yet accuftomed to fuch forts of vifits, and drowned part of them (and if really defigned as a puniihment), fuch as w'ere more guilty. That iome of the animals, particularly the more flothful, and con- fequently not fo apprehenfive of danger or fo ready to take to flight to avoid it, might have been involved in the fame calamity, as well as fome of the volatiles, which being deprived of food by the earth’s being co¬ vered with water, might have perifhed ; particularly thofe who, by the too great weaknefs of their wings to fupport their bodies, were not proper for a long flight. As for others who had thefe advantages above the reft, they would no doubt take care of their ovv^ prefervation, by flying to thofe parts of the earth which their natural inftinft could fhow them free from the inundation. . . , , „ 3* c A third fcheme of a partial deluge is given by the Wfleet’s learned Bifttop Stillingfleet in his Ongines Sacrce. “ I fcheme. cannot (fays he) fee any urgent neceflity from the Scripture to affert, that the flood did fpread itlelf all over the furface of the earth. That all mankind (thofe in the ark excepted) were deftroyed by it, is moft certain, according to the Scripture. When the Lord faid, that he would deftroy man from the lace of the earth, it could not be any particular deluge ot fo fmall a country as Paleftine, as fome have ndicu- loufly imagined ; for we And an univerfal corruption in the earth mentioned as the caufe} an univerlal threatening upon all men for this caufe *, and after¬ wards an univerfal deftruaion expreffed as the eftedt of this flood. So then it is evident, that the flood sgard to mankind \ but irom a particular enumeration of the feveral kinds of deluge. ^ creeping things and fowls, if they were not all de- ftroved ? To "this 1 anfwer *, I grant that, as far as the flood extended, all thefe were deftroyed: but I fee no reafon to extend the deftruaion of tnefc beyond that compafs and fpace of the earth where men inha¬ bited, be caufe the puniftiment upon thebeafts was oc- cafioned by, and could not be concomitant with, the deftruaion of man ; but (the occalion of the deluge being the fin of man, who was pumfhed in the beafts that were deftroyed for his fake, as well as in himielf) where the occafion was not, as where there were ani¬ mals and no men, there feems no neceflity of extend¬ ing the flood thither.—But to what end, will it there¬ fore be replied, did God command Noah, with lo much care, to take all kinds of birds, beafts, and creep¬ ing things, into the ark with him, if all theie living creatures were not deftroyed by the flood ? I anfwer, becaufe all tbofe things were deftroyed wherever the flood was. Suppofe then the whole continent of Aha was peopled before the flood, which is as much as in reafon we may fuppofe *, I fay, all the living creatures in that continent were deftroyed j or if we may fuppole it to have extended over our whole continent of the ancient known world, what reafon would there be, that in the oppofite part of the globe, which we fuppofe to be unpeopled then, all the living creatures ihou.d there be deftroyed, becaufe men had finned in this . and would there not have been on this fuppofition a iulh- cient reafon to preferve living creatures m the ark lor future propagation ?” &c. 33. Thus we have the flrength of all the arguments A that have been offered in fufport of a partial deluge, ^ * P. and which may all be fummed up in the three follow- }mp0{£ble. ing articles: 1. The impoffibility, in a natural way of accounting for the quantity of water, neceffary to overflow the whole world ; 2. The fmall number of mankind fuppofed at that time to have exifted on the earth 5 and, 3. The inutility of an univerfal de¬ luge, when the divine purpofes could have been equa|- ly well anfwered by a partial one. But to all this we may make one general anfwer, that a deluge is in the nature of things impoflible. We cannot imagine that the waters could accumulate upon any country without going off to the fea, while the lat¬ ter retained its ufual level-, neither can we fuppofe any part of the fea to remain above the level of the reft On the fuppofition of Bifhop Stillingfleet, there¬ fore, that the deluge extended over the whole conti¬ nent of Afia, we know that it muft have covered the was univerfal with regard to marncuiu * thence follows no neceflity at all of afferting the urn- ^ verfality of it as to the globe of the earth, unlefs it be nem of‘ £rarat? on which the ark reftecl : fufficiently proved that the whole earth was peopled. Taurus, &c. The height of Ararat is in- before the flood, which I defpair of ever feeing proved, Ca^u ’ 1 au ^ j credit pretends to sud what reafon can there be to extend the flood be- ^;™'^'deadS to ; but /rom the diflance at vond the occafion of it, which was the corruption of have mankind ?—-The only probability then of afferting the univerfality of the flood, as to the globe of the earth, is from the deftruftion of all living creatures to¬ gether with man. Now though men might not have ‘ fpread themfelves over the whole furface of the earth, yet beafts and creeping things might which were all deftroyed with the flood ; for it is faid, that all flefti died that moved upon the earth, both of fowl and of cattle, and of every creeping thing that creepeth upon the earth, and every man.’ To wl]at j™1 there be not only a note of univerfality added, but luch have alcenaea lo ns tup , which it is feen, we can fcarce look upon tt to be in¬ ferior to the moft celebrated mountains of the old continent * Sir John Chardin thinks that ^ of Caucafus is higher and fuppofing each of thefe to be only a mile and a half in height, the fea all round the globe muft have been raifed to the fame height , and therefore all that could remain of dry ground as a (belter to animals of any kind, muft have been uninhabitable tops of fome high mountains fcattered at immenfe diftances from one another. \\ e may_ there¬ fore with equal reafon fuppole that thefe were m^hke DEL [i , 3^uge. ^ tnaimer covered, and that no living creature whatever v could find flicker even for a moment : and it is cer¬ tainly more agreeable to the charadfer of the Deity to believe, that he would at once deftroy animal life by fuflbcation in water, rather than allow numbers of them to colledt themfelves on the tops of mountains to perifli with hunger and cold. It is befides very improbable, that any creature, whether bird or beaft, could fuftain a continued rain of 40 days and 40 nights, even without fuppofing them to have been abfolutely immerfed in water. This confideration alone is fufficient to fliow, that if there was a deluge at all, it muft have been univerfal with regard to the world as well as the human race 5 and the poflibility of fuch a deluge by natural means has already been evinced. Under the article Antedi¬ luvians it is fliown, that, according to the moft mo¬ derate computation, the world mult have been vaflly more full of people than at prefent. The leaft calcu¬ lation there made indeed feems incredible ; fince ac¬ cording to it, the world muft have contained upwards of 68,719 times as many inhabitants as are at prefent to be met with in the empire of China, the moft po¬ pulous country in the world : but China bears a much larger proportion to the habitable part of the world than this. The violences exercifed by mankind upon one another have always been the means of thinning their numbers, and preventing the earth from being overftocked with inhabitants ; and the ftrong expref- fion in Scripture, that the « earth was filled with vio¬ lence,” Ihows that it muft have gone to an extraordi¬ nary height.. But though this violence muft have un¬ doubtedly thinned the old world of its inhabitants it muft likewife have difperfed fome of them into diftant regions. There is therefore no reafon for fuppofing that before the flood the human race were not driven into the remoteft regions of the habitable world or that America was deftitute of inhabitants then more thanu is at prefent. At any rate, the fchemes of V oiims and Coetlogon, who would confine the whole race of mankind to a fmall part of Afia, muft appear evidently futile and erroneous in the higheft degree. Objections" ome objections have been made to the doftrine of from i'ome''an um.verfal deluge from the ftate of the continent of and the number of finals peculiar to that ing peculiar fnd 0ther co«ntriej. which could not be fuppofed to to certain to^uch a diftance either to or from the ark of countries. I;oah- tbis fubje&.Bilhop Stillingfleet obferves that the fuppofition of animals being propagated much farther in the world than mankind before the flood feems. very probable, “ becaufe the produaion of ani¬ mals is parallel in Genefis with that of fifties, and both of them different from man. For God faith, Let the waters, bring forth every moving creature that hath lire, viz. filh and fowl: And accordingly it is faid that the waters brought forth abundantly every living crea ture after their kind, and every fowl after his kind. Accordingly, in the produaion of beafts, we read Let the earth bring forth the living creature after ^rd’ Ci?ttler’ an,d. e,V.ery creePJng thing, and beaft of the earth, after his kind : and it was fo.” But in the produaion of man it is faid, ‘ Let us make man m our image, and after our likenefs.’ From hence I obferve this difference between the formation of ani¬ mals and of man, that in one God gave a prolific 51 ] DEL power to the earth and waters for the produaion of Deluge, the feveral living creatures which came from th-m, fo ——y-— that the feminal principles of them were contained in the matter out of which they were produced ; which was otherwife in man, who was made by a peculiar hand of the great Creator himfelf, who thence is faid to have formed man out of the dull of the ground. “ If now this fuppofition be embraced, by it we prefently clear ourfelves of many difficulties concern¬ ing the propagation of animals in the world, and their confervation in the ark j as how the unknown kind of ferpent in Brazil, the flow-bellied creature in the In¬ dies, and all thofe ftrange fpecies of animals feen in the Weft Indies, fhould either come into the ark of Noah, or be conveyed out of it into thofe countries which are divided by fo vaft an ocean on one fide, and at leaft fo large a tra and as men increafed in number, and ex¬ tended their habitations, they would be able to drive them further off, or defend themfelves from their de¬ predations.” The fame mode of reafomng is by our author made ufe of with regard to aquatic animals. The multitude of thefe indeed, however great, could be no detriment to man, who lived on land ; but il we confider how large and numerous a fpawn firtres call at once, and in how rtiort a time they multiply to im- menfe numbers, he thinks it reafonable to conclude that only one pair was created at once ^ and that the command to the waters to bring forth abundantly both firtr and fowl, related only to the variety of fpecies, not to a number of each. 2. Though at the relloration of the world it was to be repeopled by fix perfons inftead of two, and though at the fame time animal food was given to man, yet Noah was commanded only to take a fing e pair _ each of the animals, clean hearts, which are but few m number, only excepted. It is further obfervable, that notwithfianding this fcanty fupply of ammais tiey had increafed fo much by the time of Nimrod, that it then became neceffary to hunt and deftroy them; mid Nimrod was celebrated for his courage and fkil! in that neceffary employment. “ So numerous (adds he') were the animals before the flood, though but two of a kind were created, that Dr \\ oodwaid, from the remains of that earth, as well the animal a' Vege- table productions of it flill preferved, concludes, tha « at the time the deluge came the earth was with herbage, and fo thronged with -imals th* fuch an expedient was even wanting to eafe of the bu den, and to make room for a new fucceflion of its pro dUf10Mr Cockburn is of opinion that Amerl^a have been peopled before the flood, as the old conti¬ nent could ^ be fuppofed able to hold the number Df r^Withregard to the main difficulty, viz. how the animals peculiar to different countries coffi^mvel t:o pit "itatTmtica! whkhVirtmp’stillingfleet chiefly A Vica • each of them having animals peculiar to them¬ felves It is alfo pcffible, that there might formerly be a more eafy communicatmn be^ American continents than there €'e^r.XKTbf^«, d* .roughtheark refted on Mount f pTac^ waS built, which n, ght be tar enoug J “cX"Selca’^gh, no,, have fo far .0 the arb as ^^on.y^apued^Thls Deluge. 39 52 3 DEL tamia would have had as far to travel from thence to _ America, as the American animals from their own country to Mefopotamia, according to the common opinion. But in whatever part of the earth Noahlived and the ark was built, it was at God scommand that the feveral kinds of animals came thither in order to their prefervation; and his command could bring them from the firtheft parts of the earth during the 12o years that all the world lay under condemnation. Though after all, none of the animals might have very far to travel to the ark; for if only one pair of each kind was created at firft, and all of theie in °>\near one place, fince they were all brought before Adam, and received names from him, there is no abfurdity m fuppofing that fome of every kind might remain in the country where they were firft produced, from thence Noah’s habitation might not be very diftant. _ can any objeaion be brought from the extmaion ot fome fpecies of animals in certain countries, of the world, fince they might have been hunted and de¬ ft royed either by the human race or by other crea ur Thus it is faid, that there are now few or no deer m Switzerland, though formerly there were a gr«t many when it was full of woods. In Britain a fo there are no wolves now to be found, though the ifland was m- fefted with them in former tirtres. of ^ fab. In confidering the fubjea of the deluge, g ^ fiftence of queftions which occur, one is, by what means were carimor ms ravenous animals, which feed only upon fteffi, ported in the ark ? For this fome authors have fup-the pofed, that Noah, beftdes thefe animals whom he took into the ark for prefervation took hkewife a great number for flaughter. For this purpofe Biffiop W il- kinshas allowed no fewer than 1825 flieep, thoug be was of opinion that there were no carnivorous animals before the flood ; and this latter opinion is adopted by Mr Cockburn. The idea indeed of flaugh- tering a number of harmlefs animals to fat is fy a lew vile rapacious ones, and that too in a place defigned for the3common afylum of the animal creation, feems inconfiftent with that fcheme of mercy difplayed m the whole tranfaftion. It is by much the more Pr0“ bable fuppofition then, that though fome animals had been accuftomed to live on flelh in their natural ftate they could neverthelefs fubftft upon vegetable food! This feems the more probable, as fome animals naturally carnivorous, particularly dogs and cats, may L fupported in their domeftic ftate by vegetable food 1 If we extend this to the whole canine and fe- alone. If we exte"d tn,S, j moft of the beafts of 4-,to^ds, panthers nolves, r ^ * u c far Bears aie well known fometimes fnakes wiUea, bread and naUk- and there Is no reafon to fuppofe that even the moft c - nivorous birds could not be kept alive by gram or o- ther vegetable food. By thus «clud“« iu her of uCelels animals, a very conliderablo Ipace sv^ be allowed tor th^ c.rcukt.OTof^air^^^.^u, DEL Deluge. [ i habitants, the great fpace' neceffary for the food with which they were to be fupplied, and the con¬ tinual pollution of the air by their dung and filth, as well as the effluvia from their bodies, there feems little probability that even fuch a vaft bulk of air could fuffice for any length of time. This diffi¬ culty will appear the greater, when we confider that any ventilation was impoffible, as this could not have been done without both opening the door and win- dow ; and the former, we are certain, was not opened until the time that the command was given to come forth out of the ark. Neither is there the fmalleft probability, that the opening of a fingle window could renew the air in fuch a manner as to make it fit for breathing throughout the whole extent of the ark. In this particular, therefore, we muft have recourfe to the immediate interpofition of Divine power, and fup- pofe that the air was miraculoufly preferved of a fuffi- cient degree of purity, as the garments of the Ifrae- lites were preferved from turning old, and their feet from being affeded by the journey through the dcfert in which they wandered fo long.—Many other que- ftions concerning the economy of the ark might be propofed ; as, how they lupplied themfelves with wa¬ ter ; in what manner they could ufe fire for the dref- fing of their victuals, &c. But as every anfwer to thefe muft be founded wholly upon conjecture, and none can pretend that there was a natural impoffibility of effecting any of thefe things, we forbear to infill farther upon them. The cafe, however, is very dif¬ ferent with refpeft to the air neceffary for fuftaining animal life j for here there is a plain impoffibility in a natural way; nay, w'e may even doubt whether the general mafs of atmofphere, after being deprived of its cleClric matter, or otherwife altered in fuch a manner as to let fall fuch a quantity of the water it contain¬ ed, was fit for the fupport of animal life ; fo that a miracle would have been neceffaiy at any rate. To this indeed it may be replied, that on fuch a fuppofi- tion, men and other animals would have been de- ftroyed, not by the flood, but by the vitiated air they oreathed. But, as has been already hinted, it is im¬ probable that any living creature could refill the vio¬ lent rain which took place, and which would foon drive the birds from their Ihelter, as the waters begin¬ ning to overflow the ground would foon expel the hu¬ man race from their houfes ; and it would not be till the end of the 40 days and 40 nights that the air could beat its worft ftate, long before which time all animal life would be extindf. f We a‘a11 conclude this article with confidering fome Senpbce0, ' altuerati°"SJ which ^PRofed to have taken in confe- P,aC.e !.n .t5le world m confequence .of the deluge. One quence of °‘ tlle‘e 15 the much greater quantity of water on the the deluge, prefent than on the old world. Dr Keill has indeed endeavoured to prove, that the prefent extent of the furface of the waters is neceffary to raife fuch a quan¬ tity of vapours as.may fupply the furface of the earth with ram. and with fprings. In anfwer to this, it is laid, that it may be juftly queftioned whether all fprings are derived from the vapours raifed by the fun’s heat > and, 2. Whether the primitive earth flood in need of luch a quantity of ram to render it as fertile as the pre- ient Dr Woodward gives the following reafon for fuppofing the antediluvian feas to have been nearly of Vol. VII. Part I. * 41 Changes 53 3 DEL the fame extent with thofe at prefent, viz. that “ the fpoils of the fea, the fhells and other marine bodies, are left in fuch prodigious numbers, and in heaps upon heaps in the earth, befides thofe which have long fince perifhed, that they could not have been left in fuch quantities, had not the feas occupied much the fame fpace as they do now.” This argument, however, is thought by Mr Cockburn to be alfo inconclufive : “ For (fays he), 1. Animal food, whether fifti or flefh, was not ufe.d by mankind before the deluge : but, 2. Suppofe it had, yet for the firft 500 years the num¬ ber of mankind was but final], and likely at a great diftance from the fea j fo that the increafe of all kinds of filh during fo long a time muft have been prodigi¬ ous. We need not be furpnfed, then, at the immenfe quantities of the exuvice of marine animals left on the earth by the deluge. But the reafon he brings to prove that the feveral continents of the world were encompaffed with feas as they are now, viz. that as there are different forts of fifties in the different feas of the world, fo the exuviae of the fame kind are ge¬ nerally found upon contiguous lands, does not always hold, fince there are fome {hells found in the continent which are ftrangers to the parts of the fea contermi¬ nous to thefe continents. That the feas in the pre¬ fent earth are vaftly more extended, and confequently the dry land fo much lefs in proportion, may likewife be inferred from the great multitude of iilands that lie near the ffiores of the greater continents, if it be true what fome allege, that they are parts broken off by the deluge from the main land, which before that reached to and beyond them. And though iflands are thought to be rarely found in the great ocean, yet there have of late been found in the midft of the In¬ dian ocean vaft clufters of ifiands, &c. To all this it may be replied, That the Mofaic ac¬ count fays nothing of the extent of the feas either be¬ fore or after the flood ; but Amply tells us, that the waters were poured out upon the furface of the earth from the windows of heaven and the fountains of the deep, and that as the flood decreafed, the waters re¬ turned from off the face of the earth. If part of them returned, we have not the leaft reafon to fuppofe that the whole did not do fo likewife. That the fiffi, as well as land animals, were more numerous in the ante¬ diluvian world than now when fuch quantities are de- ftroyed by mankind, is very probable, as we fee they abound to this day in uninhabited places. This may account for . the aftonifliingr quantities of their exuviae to be met with in many different parts of the earth ; but from the formation of iflands nothing can be concluded concerning the antediluvian world. Late difcoveries have (hown that many iflands have a volca¬ nic origin ; others are formed by the growth of coral 5 fome by an accumulation of fea-weeds and other mat¬ ters floating on the furface of the ocean, and detained upon fand banks or funk rocks : while not a few of thofe near the great continents owe their origin to the quantities of mud brought down by the great rivers w'bich empty themfelves into the ocean. Authentic hillory fcarcely affords an inftance of an ifland formed by the breaking off a piece from the continent, though it does many ot iflands being joined to continents by fome one or other of the caufes juft mentioned. The inferior fertility of the earth after the deluge is U much Deluge, DEL [i Deluge, much infilled upon by the fame author, for the f0}!r0W- ing reafons: “ I. The grant of animal food to Noah and his pofterity *, rvhich he thinks is an indication of greater barrennels in the ground than formerly. 2. Our Saviour compares the days of Noah with thole of Lot j and as the country about Sodom is faid to have been exceedingly fertile like the garden of the Lord, he is of opinion that the antediluvian world mult have been very fertile alfo. 3. As (according to Dr Wood¬ ward) the firft earth brought forth all manner of plants of itfelf, without any labour or culture of man, and even before there was a man to till the ground, we may reafonably fuppofe that the exterior ftratum or furface of the earth confided of fuch terreftnal matter as was fit for thefe productions j that is, of a rich light mould, affording plentifully matter for , vegetation. Now, though God was pleafed, upon man’s tranfgreffion, to withdraw in part his benedic¬ tion from the earth *, yet the earth itfelf was untouch¬ ed till the deluge, the fame furface of rich mould was ftill upon it, and brought forth plentifully, efpecially when man’s culture for corn was added. But the inundation of waters at the deluge greatly altered the conftitution of the earth itfelf *, it mixed and confound¬ ed this upper ftratum of vegetative earth with other terreftrial matter not fit for vegetation, with land, gra¬ vel, ftones, and all kinds of mineral matter, which mult needs render the earth in general much lels fertile than before, and which made the plough neceffary to dig up the proper vegetative mould, and bring it to the furface, and alfo manure or compoft to mcreafe and enrich it ; neither of which before the flood it needed. 4. There is a moral reafon why the earth after the flood fhould be lefs fertile than before. The luxu¬ riant produaions of the firft earth, after man’s nature became corrupted, and to deviate more and more from righteoufnefs, ferved only to excite and foment his luffs, and to minifter plentiful fuel to his vices and luxury. To cut off, therefore, fuch occafion of hn and wickednefs, God, in great mercy to men, retrench¬ ed the earth in its former fertility, thereby obliging them to labour and diligence, and employing mott of their time to procure their neceffary fubfiftence, which the earth by diligent culture will ftill afford, but not that luxuriant abundance it did before the flood. It we take a furvey of the different regions and countries of the world, we {hall find this to be the truth of the cafe. Some places, both in Afia and America, are as it were a paradife in refpeft of the reft, to (how us perhaps what was and would have been the ftate of the earth had not man finned j. but far the greateft part is nothing to be compared to thefe, and evidently fhows that effedl which the fins of men had upon the earth itfelf. In a word, if we take a furvey of the whole, it cannot be thought that the firft bleffmg was xeftored to the earth after the flood, or that it came out of the hands of its Maker in the {fate it is nt pre- fent, fince fo great a part of it bears ftill the marks of the curfe laid upon it.” Notwithftanding all that is here alleged, the extra¬ ordinary fertility of the ancient earth mutt ftill ap¬ pear very problematical, if we confider all circumftan- ces. For, . I. Even at the creation, when the earth was at its utrooft perfe&ion, we cannot fuppofe that every part 54 1 DEL of it produced fpontaneoufly like the garden of Eden. _ Demge. On the contrary, we are told that this garden was planted by the Lord God, and that Adam was put into it to drefs it and to keep it. It appears, therefore, that even in the Paradifaical ftate the earth would not have produced food for man without culture j for as God planted the firft garden, there can be no doubt that had man continued in his ftate of innocence and mul¬ tiplied, he muft have planted other gardens when it be¬ came neceffary. After the fall, the fertility of the earth was exprefsly removed, and that not m a flight degree j but if we can judge from the prefent ftate of things, it muft have become extremely wild and bar¬ ren. Thus, when it is faid, “ Thorns alfo and thirties (hall it bring forth to thee-,” we may judge of the ftate of the foil from that which we fee bringing iorth thorns and thirties at this day. Every one knows that an abundant crop of thefe weeds indicates poor ground, which will require a great deal of cultivation to bring it into order. Nay, that we may be fure that the cul¬ tivation of the earth was at this time no eafy matter, it is likewife faid, “ In forrow (halt thou eat of it all the days of thy life.” Hence it would appear, that the antediluvian earth, inftead of being more fertile, was much more barren than at prefent. That the a- bour of cultivating the ground at that time was alio fo great as to be almoft intolerable, is evident froin the fpeech of Lamech on the birth of Noah : “ This fame (fays he) (hall comfort us concerning our work and toil of our hands, concerning the ground which the Lord hath curfed.” t, 2 There is a very evident natural reafon why the antediluvian world Ihould have been moi^ barren than the prefent, and why the deluge ftiould have removed that barrennefs. Under the article Antediluvians, N° IQ. it is hinted, that the purity of the air at that time was a principal caufe of the longevity of the hu¬ man race. If this was really the caie which is very probable, we muft fuppofe the atmofphere to have then contained a greater quantity of pure air than it does at prefent j for experiments have put it beyond doubt, that from this the fupport of animal life is im¬ mediately derived. But this kind of air, however fa¬ vourable to animal life, is found to be very unfavour¬ able to vegetation 5 and therefore m proportion to i s abundance in the antediluvian atmofphere, the animals will be healthy, and the vegetables weak, puny, and fickly. But the deluge, by overflowing the earth for a whole year, deftroyed every animal and vegetable, and confequently induced a vaft putrefaftion all over the globe j the confequence of which.was the Prod“ tion§of an immenfe quantity of what « called phlogft- catedair (azoticgas). This mixing with the pure atmo¬ fphere vitiated it into fuch a degree as to make it lefs S to animal life, but more fo to vegetation. Hence the prefent world muft naturally be more fer¬ tile than the former-, and not only on this account, but by reafon of its being manured by the ftagnation of the waters upon its furface for a twelvemonth and the immenfe quantity of animal matter left by them, the ground, inftead of being leffenedm its ^ihty, as Dr Woodward fuppofes, muft have been reftored as far as we can judge, to the very ftate it was m at its original^formation. ^ ^ cafe appears probable from DEL Deluge. xvhat the Deity faid to Noah after offering up his facri- fice. I will not (fays he) curfe the ground any more for man’s fake.” Now this was plainly intimating that the earth was reftored to its primitive fertility, and that he would no more take it away ; for when he did fo to the primitive world', it was in thefe wTords, “ Cur- fed is the ground for thy fake.” That the curfe here alluded to was really the depriving the earth of its fertility, and not the overflowing the earth with water, is evident; becaufe, after declaring that he would no more curfe the ground for man’s fake, he adds, “ Nei¬ ther will I again fmite every living thing as I have done.” 4. The moral reafons afligned why the ptefent [ *5$ 1 DEM world Ihould be lefs fertile than the former, feem to be inconclufive. However barren we may reckon the earth juft now, it is certain that it produces, or might produce, much more than would fuffice for all its in¬ habitants. The difficulties which mankind undergo are not at all owing to the barrennefs of the earth, but to their own conduft, or their oppreflion of one another. Neither does it clearly appear that animal food is really in any degree cheaper than vegetable, but rather the contrary.: fo that whatever was the zeafon of this grant after the flood, we cannot fairly afcribe it to a forefight of the future barrennefs of the earth. Another queftion which naturally occurs on the fubjedl of the deluge is, Whether there was any rain before it or not ? The argument againft the exiftence of rain before the flood, is obvioufly derived from the rainbow being made a fymbol of the divine favour im¬ mediately after. It is certain, indeed, that unlefs we fuppofe the nature of light or of water to have been different before this event from what it was afterwards, there is a natural impoflibility of the refra&ion of the fun’s light being prevented from {bowing the appear¬ ance of a rainbow, whenever the fun and” clouds were in a certain pofnion with regard to one another. It appears improbable to thofe who take this fide of the queftion, that the Deity fliould inftitute any thing as an emblem of his difpleafure being turned away, when the fame emblem had been feen perhaps a very fliort time before the cataftrophe happened. On the other hand, it is replied, that there is no abfurdity in fuppo- fing this to have been the cafe; for though the rain¬ bow exifted before the deluge, yet it never was ap¬ pointed to be the fymbol of this particular event, viz. the reconciliation of the Deity ; and the impoffibility of vegetables being fupplied with a fufficient quantity of moifture without rain, is likewife urged as a decifive argument. Still, however, it appears, that even ve¬ getation. may fubfift, and that in its utmoft perfec¬ tion, without rain; for we are informed, that by means of a mift the ground was originally watered, and vegetables fupplied with moifture, before there’ was any rain ; and if this was the cafe at one time, it might have been at any other, or at any number of times we can fuppofe. Indeed, as matters ftand at prefent, this would undoubtedly be a very fcanty fup- ply and perhaps fo it was in the antediluvian world $ and thus the want of rain might have been one caufe of that barrennefs in the antediluvian world which we "ave abcady mentioned as probable, and which Mr Bryant mentions as the opinion of all the ancient my- Demadci thologifts, || DEMADES, a famous Athenian, who from being Pemetrius; a mariner, became a great orator, and appealed Philip by his eloquence, after the famous vi&ory over the A- thenians at Cheronea, in the 338th year B. C. DEMAIN, or Demesne, in Law, is commonly underftood to be the lord’s chief manor place, with the lands thereto belonging, which he and his ancef- tors have, time out of mind, kept in their own manual occupation. DEMAND, in its popular fenfe, denotes a calling for or requiring one’s due. Demand, in Law, has amorefpecial fignification, as contradiftinguiftied ixom p/aint; for all civil aftions are purfued either by demands or plaints; according to which the purfuer is called either demandant or plaintiff; viz. in real adlions, demandant; and in perfonal ac¬ tions, plaintiff. See Plaintiff. DEMESNE. See D EMAIN. Demesne Lands. See Revenue. DEMETRIA, a feftival in honour of Ceres, called by the Greeks Demeter. It was then cuftomary for the votaries of the goddefs to lafti themfelves with whips made with the bark of trees. The Athenians had a folemnity of the fame name in honour of Deme¬ trius Poliorcetes. . DEME IRIUS, a fon of Antigonus and Strato- nice, furnamed Poliorcetes, “ Deftroyer of towns.” At the age of 2 2, he was fent by his father againft Ptolemy, who invaded Syria. He was defeated near Gaza j but he. foon repaired his lofs by a vittory over one of the generals of the enemy. He afterwards failed with a fleet of 250 Ihips to Athens, and reftored the Athe¬ nians to liberty, by freeing them from the power of Caffander and Ptolemy, and expelling the garrifon, which was ftationed there under Demetrius Phalereus! After this fuccefsful expedition, he befieged and took Munychia, and defeated Callander at d'hermopylse. His reception at Athens after thefe victories was at¬ tended w'ith the greateft fervility, and the Athenians were not afliamed to raife altars to him as a god, and confult his oracles. This uncommon fuccefs raifed the jealoufy of the fucceffors of Alexander ; and Seleu- cus Caffander and Lyfimachus united to deftroy An¬ tigonus and his fon. Their hoftile armies met at Ipfus, 299 years before the Auguftan age. Antigonus was’ killed in the battle ■, and Demetrius, after a fevere lofs, retired to Ephefus. His ill fuccefs raifed him many enemies; and the Athenians, who had lately adored him as a god, refufed to admit him into their city. He foon after ravaged the territory of Lyfima¬ chus, and reconciled himfelf to Seleucus, to whom he gave his daughter Stratonice in marriage. Athens now laboured under tyranny, and Demetrius relieved it and pardoned the inhabitants. The lofs of his poffelfions, in Afia recalled him from Greece, and he eftabHffied’ himfelf on the throne of Macedonia by the murder of Alexander the fon of Caffander. Here he was conti¬ nually at war with the neighbouring ftates, and the fuperior power of his adversaries obliged him to leave* Macedonia, after he had fat on the throne for feven years. He paffed into Afia, and attacked fome of the provinces of Lyfimachus, with various fuceefs; but fa- U 2 mine / DEM [ 156 1 DEM Demetrius, mine and peftilence deftroyed the greateft part of his v-"" ' army, and he retired to the court of Seleucus for fup- port and afliftance. He met with a kind receptionj but hoftilities were foon begun j and after he had gained fome advantages over his fon-in-law, Demetrius was totally forfaken by his troops in the field of battle, and became an eafy prey to the enemy. Though he was kept in confinement by his fon-in-law, yet. he maintained himfelf like a prince, and paffed his time in hunting, and in every laborious exercife. His Ion Antigonus offered Seleucus all his poffeflions, and even his perfon, to procure his father’s liberty j but all proved unavailing, and Demetrius died in the 54ttl of his age, after a confinement of three years, 286 years before Chrift. His remains were given to An- tigonus, and honoured with a fplendid funeral pomp at Corinth, and hence conveyed to Demetrias. His pofterity remained in poffeffion of the Macedonian throne till the age of Perfeus who was conquered by the Romans. Demetrius has rendered himfelf famous for his fondnefs of diffipation when among the diffolute, and for his love of virtue and military glory in the field of battle. He has been commended as a great warrior •, and his ingenious inventions, his warlike en¬ gines, and ftupendous machines in the war with the Rhodians, juftify his claims to that chara&er. He has been blamed for his voluptuous indulgences j and his biographer obferves that no Grecian prince had more wives and concubines than Poliorcetes. _ His obedience and reverence to his father has been juftly admired •, and it has been obferved, that Antigonus ordered the ambaffadors of a foreign prince particularly to remark the cordiality and friendlhip which fubfifted between him and his fon. , , 1 • r Demetrius, furnamed Donatus, fucceeded his rather Antigonus on the throne of Macedonia. He reigned 12 years, and was fucceeded by his fon Philip. _ Demetrius, a fon of Philip king of Macedonia, delivered as an hoflage to the Romans. His delivered his father from a heavy accufation laid be¬ fore the Roman fenate. When he returned to Mace¬ donia, he was falfely accufed by his brother Perfeus, who was jealous of his popularity, and his father too credulouflv confented to his death. _ Demetrius I. furnamed Soter or Saviour, was Ion ot Seleucus Philopator, the fon of Antiochus the Great, king of Syria. His father gave him as a hoftage to the& Romans. After the death of Seleucus, Antio¬ chus Epiphanes, the deceafed monarch’s brother, ulur- ped the kingdom of Syria, and was fucceeded by us fon Antiochus Eupator. This ufurpation difplealed Demetrius, who was detained at Rome. He procured his liberty on pretence of going to hunt, and lied to Syria, where the troopts received him as their law u fovereign. He put to death Eupator and Lyfias, and eftablifhed himfelf on his throne by cruelty and opprel- fion. Alexander Bala, the fon of Antiochus Epiphanes, laid claims upon the crown of Syria, and defeated De¬ metrius in a battle, 250 years before Chriit. Demetrius II. furnamed Nice tor, or Conqueror was fon of Soter, to whom he fucceeded by the afliftance of Ptolemy Philometor. He married Cleopatra the daughter of Ptolemy, who was before the wife ot the expelled monarch Alexander Bala. Demetrius gave himfelf up to luxury and voluptuoufnefs, and fuffered Demetrius his kingdom to be governed by his favourites. At Den^Au that time a pretended fon of Bala, called Diodorus Uci> Tryphon, feized a part of Syria •, and Demetrius, to • » oppofe his antagonift, made an alliance with the Jews, and marched into the eaft, where he was taken by the Parthians. Phraates, king of Parthia, gave him his daughter Rodogyne in marriage ; and Cleopatra was fo incenfed at this new connexion, that (he gave her- felf up to Antiochus Sidetes her. brother-in-law and married him. Sidetes was killed in a battle agamu the Parthians, and Demetrius regained the poffeltion ot his kingdom. His pride and oppreflion rendered him odi¬ ous : and his fubje£ts afked a king of the houfe °f Se- leucus from Ptolemy Phyfcon king of Egypt ; and ^ metrius, unable to refill the power of his enemies, fled to Ptolemais, which was then in the hands of his wife Cleopatra. The gates were (hut up againft his approach by Cleopatra ; and he was killed by order of the gover¬ nor of Tyre, whither he had fled for proteaion, A. U. C. 627. He was fucceeded by Alexander Zebina, whom Ptolemy had raifed to the throne. . Demetrius Phalereus, a celebrated orator and Peri¬ patetic philofopher, was the fcholar of Theophraftus. He acquired fo much authority at Athens, that he go¬ verned the city for ten years j and ruled with lo much wifdom and virtue, that they fet up 36 ftatues in honour of him. By the flanders of fome malicious perlons in his abfence, he was, however, condemned to die j and his image was pulled down j which, when Demetrius heard, he faid, they could not pull down that virtue for which thofe images were fet up. He efcaped into Egypt, and was prote&ed by Ptolemy Lagus. This king, it is faid, afked his advice concerning the fuccet- fion of his children to the throne •, viz. whether he ought to prefer thofe he had by Eundice to Ptolemy Philadelphus, whorfl he had by Berenice . and Deme¬ trius advifed him to leave his crown to the former. This difpleafed Philadelphus fo much, that his father being dead, he banifhed Demetrius ; who was after¬ wards killed by the bite of an afp. Demetrius compofed more works in profe and verfe than any other Peripa¬ tetic of his time j and his writings confifted of Poef.ry, hiftoiy, politics, rhetoric, harangues, and embalhes. None of them are extant except his rhetoric, which is ufually printed among the Rhetores Se/efli. Demetrius, a Cynic philofopher, difciple of Apo - lonius Tyaneeus, in the age of Caligula. . The empe¬ ror wilbed to gain the philofopher to his mtereft by a large prefent; but Demetrius refufed it with indigna¬ tion, and faid, If Catigula wifhes to bribe me let him fend me his crown. Vefpafian was difpleafed with his infolence, and banifhed him to an ifland. The Cynic derided the punifhment, and bitterly inveighed againft the emperor. He died in a great old age ; and Seneca obferves that “ nature had brought him forth to fhow mankind that an exalted genius can live fecurely, with¬ out being corrupted by the vices of the world. DEMI (formed from dxmidium), a uled in compofition with other words to figmfy half. DEMi-Attici, boroughs or larger villages of Alt. The Athenian tribes were diftinguifhed into Demi. - mer, in his catalogue, diliinguifhes the Athenians by the appellation Demos. And when Thefeus Preval1^ DEM [ i Demi-cul- on them to quit the country and fettle at Athens, they ftill continued to frequent the demi, and to perform their feveral religious ceremonies there. DEMi-Cuhenn, a piece of ordnance ufually 4^ inches bore, 2700 pounds weight, 10 feet long, and carrying point blank 175 paces. A demi-culverin of the lead fize is 44 inches bore, 10 feet long, and zoco pounds weight. It carries a ball of 4 inches diameter and of 9 pounds weight, and its level range is 174 paces. A demi-culverin of the largeft fort is 4^ inches bore. I3y feet long, and weighs 3000 pounds weight. It carries a ball 4^ inches diameter, weighing 12 pounds II ounces, point blank 178 paces. DzMi-God. See Hero. DEMi-Gorge, in Fortification, is that part of the poly¬ gon which remains after the flank is raifed, and goes from the curtain to the angle of the polygon. It is half of the vacant fpace or entrance into a baftion. Df.Mi-^uaver, a note in Mujtc, two of which are - equal to a quaver. Demi-Semi-Quaver, in Mific, the fliorteft note, two of them being equal to a femi-quaver. DEMISE, in Law, is applied to an eftate either in fee-fimple, fee-tail, or for a term of life or years; and fo it is commonly taken in many writs. The king’s death is in law termed the demife of the king. Demise and Redemife, denote a conveyance where there are mutual leafes made from one to another of the fame land, or fomething out of it. DEMIURGE (from which denotes a “public fervant,” and tgyov “work”), in the mythology of the eaftern philofophers, was one of the iEONS employed by the fupreme Deity in the creation of the world. 1 he character they gave him is a compound of Ihining qualities and infupportable arrogance ; and his exceflive lull of empire effaces his talents and virtues. He is reprefented as claiming dominion over the new world he has formed, as his fovereign right; and excluding totally the fupreme Deity from all concernment in it, he demands from mankind, for himfelf and his affo- ciates, divine honours. DEMOCRACY, from “ people,” and “ to command” or “ govern 5” the fame with a popular government, wherein the fupreme power is lodged in the hands of the people 5 fuch were Rome and Athens of old $ but as to our modern republics, Bafil only ex¬ cepted, their government comes nearer to ariftocracy than democracy. See Law Index. - DEMOCRITUS, one of the greateft philofophers of antiquity, was born at Abdera, a town of Thrace, about the 80th Olympiad ; that is, about 460 years* before Chrift. His father, fays Valerius Maximus, was able to entertain the army of Xerxes 5 and Dio¬ genes Laertius adds, upon the teflimony of Herodotus, that the king, in requital, prefented him with fome* Magi and Chaldeans. From thefe Magi and Chalde- ans4Democritus received the firfl part of his education ; and from them, whilft yet a boy, he learned theology and aftronomy. He next applied to Leucippus, and learned from him the fyftem of atoms and a vacuum. His father dying, the three fons, for fo many there were, divided the eftate. Democritus made choice of that part which confifted in money, as being, though the leaft {hare, the moft convenient for travelling ; and it isfaid, that his portion amounted to above 100 talents, Demo¬ critus, 57 ] DEM which is near 20,000k fterling. His extraordinary inclination for the fciences and for knowledge, induced him to travel into all parts of the world where he hoped (Dem0lvrc* to find learned men. He went to vifit the priefts of Egypt, from whom he learned geometry •, he confulted the Chaldeans and the Perfian philofophers; and it is faid that he penetrated even into India and Ethiopia, to confer rvith the Gymnofophifts. In thefe travels he wafted his fubftance 5 after which, at his return, he was obliged to be maintained by his brother ; and if he had not given proofs of the greateft underftanding, and thereby procured to himfelf the higheft honours, and the ftrongeft intereft of his country, he would have incurred the penalty of that law which denied in¬ terment in the family-fepulchre to thofe who had fpent their patrimony. After his return from travelling, he lived at Abdera, and governed there in a moft abfolute manner, by virtue of his confummate wifdom. The magiftrates of that city made him a prefent of 500 ta¬ lents, and erefted ftatues to him even in his lifetime : but being naturally more inclined to contemplation than delighted with public honours and employments, he withdrew into folitude and retirement. Democri¬ tus inceffantly laughed at human life, as a continued farce, which made the inhabitants of Abdera think he was mad $ on which they fent Hippocrates to cure him : but that celebrated phyfician having difcourfed with the philofopher, told the Abderians, that he had a great veneration for Democritus ; and that, in his opinion, thofe who efteemed themfelves the moft heal- tny were the moft diftempered. Democritus died, ac¬ cording to Diogenes Laertius, in the 361ft year before the Chriftian era, aged 109. It is faid that he put out his eyes, in order that he might meditate more pro¬ foundly on philofophical fubjefts; but this has little pro¬ bability. He was the author of many books, which are loft ; and from thefe Epicurus borrowed his philofophy. DEMOIVRE, Abraham, an eminent mathema¬ tician, was born at Vitri in Champagne, May 1667. The revocation of the edia of Nantz, in 1685, deter¬ mined him to fly into England, rather than abandon the religion of his fathers. He laid the foundation of his mathematical ftudies in France, and perfefted bim- felf at London ; where a mediocrity of fortune obliged him to employ his talents in this way, and to read pu¬ blic le&ures for his better fupport. The Principia Mathematica of Newton, w’hich chance is faid to have thrown in his way, made him comprehend at once, how little he had advanced in the fcience he profeffed! He fell hard to w’ork: he fucceeded as he went along ; and he foon became conne&ed with, and celebrated among, the firft-rate mathematicians. His eminence and abilities foon opened to him an entrance into the Royal Society of London, and afterwards into the Aca¬ demy of Sciences at Paris. His merit was fo known and acknowledged by the former, that they judged him a fit perfon to decide the famous conteft between Newr- ton and Leibnitz. The colleftion of the academy of Paris contains no memoir of this author, who died at London Nov. 1754, foon after his admiflion into it j but the Philofophical T ranfaftions of London have fe¬ veral, and all of them interefting. He publifhed alfo fome capital works, fuch as, Mifcellanea Analytica, de fenebus et quadrature, &c. 1730, 4to. But perhaps he has been more generally known by his “ Doftrine i ' “ oi Detnon- jftrable ll Demo- fthenes. DEM I u of Chances •, or, Method of calculating the Pro- “ babilities of Events at Play.” This work was firfl: printed 1618, in 4to, and dedicated to Sir Ifaac New¬ ton : it was reprinted, 1738, with great alterations and improvements; and a third edition was afterwards pu- bliihed with additions, and “ A Treatife on Annui- “ ties,” dedicated to Lord Carpenter. DEMONSTRABLE, a term ufed in the fchools to fignify that a thing may be clearly proved. Thus, it is demonftrable, that the three angles of a triangle are equal to two right ones. DEMONSTRATION, in Logic, a feries of fyllo- gifms, all whofe premifes are either definitions, felf- evident truths, or propofitions already eftablilhed. See Logic. DEMONSTRATIVE, in Grammar, a term given to fuch pronouns as ferve to indicate or point out a thing. Of this number are hie, hac, hoc, among the Latins $ and this, that, thefe, thofe, in Englilh. DEMOSTHENES, the famous Athenian orator, was born at Athens 38* B. C. He loft his father at feven years of age j and was placed under the condudl of guardians, who robbed him of his fubftance, and ne- gle£led his education. Demofthenes repaired this lofs by his love of eloquence and his extraordinary abilities. He became the difciple of Ifaeus and Plato, and ap¬ plied himfelf to ftudy the orations of Ifocrates. At the age of 17 he gave an early proof of his eloquence and abilities againft his guardians, from whom he ob¬ tained the retribution of the greateft part of his eftate. His rifing talents were, however, impeded by various natural defeas. But thefe were at laft conquered by dint of refolution and unwearied attention. He de¬ claimed by the fea-lhore, that he might be ufed to the noife of a tumultuous affembly $ and with pebbles in his mouth, that he might correa a defea in his Ipeech. He praaifed at home with a naked fword hanging over his (boulder, that he might check an ungraceful motion to which he was fubjea. He alfo confined himfelf in a fubterraneous cave, to devote himfelf more clofely to ftudious purfuits j and to eradicate all curio- (ity of appearing in public,, he (haved one half of his head. In this folitary retirement, by the help of 9. glimmering lamp, he compofed the greateft part of his orations, which have ever been the admiration of every age j though his contemporaries and rivals inveighed againft them, and obferved{,that they fmelt of oil. His abilities as an orator raifed him to confequence at A- thens, and he was foon placed at the head of govern¬ ment. In this public capacity he roufed his country¬ men from their indolence, and animated them againft the encroachment of Philip of Macedonia. In the battle of Cheronaea, Demofthenes betrayed his pufilla- nimity, and faved his life by flight. After the death of Philip, he declared himfelf warmly againft his fon and fucceffor Alexander *, and when the Macedonians demanded of the Athenians their orators, Demofthenes reminded his countrymen of the fable of the iheep, which delivered their dogs to the wolves. By the prevalence of party, however, he was forced to retire from Athens j and in his bamfhment, which he piifled at Treezen and ALgina, he lived with more effemi¬ nacy than true heroifm. When Antipater made war againft Greece after the death of Alexander, Demo- fthencs was publicly recalled from his exile, and a galley l 158 ] DEM was fent to fetch him from iEgina. His return was attended with much fplendor, and all the citizens ^ crowded at the Piraeus to fee him land. His triumph and popularity were fliort. Antipater and Craterus were near Athens, and demanded all the orators to be delivered up into their hands. Demofthenes fled to the temple of Neptune in Calauria } and when he faw that all hopes of fafety were vanifhed, he took a dole of poifon, which he always carried in a quill, and ex¬ pired on the day that the Thefmophoria were celebra¬ ted, 322 years before Chrift. The Athenians raifed a brazen ftatue to his honour, with an infeription tranf- lated into this diftich : Dema- fthenes. Si tibi par meriti robur, Vir magne,fuijfet, Grttcia non Macedo JnccubuiJJ'et hero. Demofthenes has been defervedly called the prince of orators. Indeed no orator had ever a finer field than Demofthenes in his Olynthiacs and Philippics, which are his capital orations } and undoubtedly to the greatnefs of the fubjeft, and to that integrity and public fpirit which breathe in them, they owe a large portion of their merit. The fubjedl is, to excite the indignation of his countrymen againft Philip of Macedon, the public enemy of the liberties of Greece j and to guard them againft the treacherous meafures by which that crafty tyrant endeavoured to lull them into a neglefl of their danger. I o attain this end, we fee him ufe every proper means to animate a people diftinguiftred by juftice, humanity, and valour, but in many inftances become corrupt and degenerate. He boldly accufes them of venality, indolence, and indifference to the public good j while, at the fame time, he reminds them of their former glory, and of their prefent refources. His contemporary orators, who were bribed by Philip, and who per- fuaded the people to peace, he openly reproaches as traitors to their country. He not only prompts to vigorous meafures, bnt teaches how they are to be carried into execution. His orations are ftrongly a- nimated, and full of the impetuofity and ardour of public fpirit. His compofition is not diftinguiftied by ornament and fplendour. It is an energy of thought, peculiarly his own, wThich forms his charadler, and raifes him above his fpecies. He feems not to attend to words, but to things. We forget the orator, and think of the fubjeft. He has no parade and oftenta- tion, no ftudied introdudlions : but is like a man full of his fubjea ; who after preparing his audience by a fentence or two for the reception of plain truths, enters direaiy on bufinefs. The ftyle of Demofthenes is (Long and concife *, though fometimes, it muft be confelieo, harfti. and abrupt. His words are highly expreflive, and his ar¬ rangement firm and manly. Negligent of lefler graces, he feems to have aimed at that fublime which lies in fentiment. His aftion and pronunciation are faid to have been uncommonly vehement and ardent ; which, from the manner of his writings, we ftiould readily believe. His charafter appears to have been of the auftere rather than of a gentle kind. He is always grave, ferious, paflionate } never degrading himfelf, nor attempting any thing like pleafantry. If. his admirable eloquence be in any refpeft faulty, it is that he fometimes borders on the hard and dry. He may DEM Demo- may be thought to want fmoothnefs and grace j which De fter is attribut®d to Ilis imitating too clofely the manner ■ e’r‘^> er‘- of Thucydides, who was his great model for ftyle, and whofe hiftory he is faid to have tranfcribed eight times with his own hand. But thefe defedls are more than atoned for by that mafterly force of maf- culine eloquence, which, as it overpowered all who heard it, cannot in the prefent day be read without emotion. Cicero calls him a perfeft model, and fuch as he him- felf wifhed to be. Thefe tivo great princes of eloquence have been often compared together ; but the judgment hefitates to which to give the preference. The arch- bilhop of Cambray, however, feems to have dated their merits with great juflice and perfpicuity in his Reflec¬ tions on Rhetoric and Poetry. The paflage, tranfla- ted, is as follows : “ I do not hefitate to declare that I think Demollhenes fuperior to Cicero. I am per- fuaded no one can admire Cicero more than I do. He adorns whatever he attempts. He does honour to language. He difpofes of words in a manner peculiar to himfelf. His ftyle has great variety of charafler. Whenever he pleafes, he is even concife and vehement; for inftance, againft Catiline, againft Verres, againft Antony. But ornament is too vifible in his writings. His art is wonderful, but it is perceived. When the orator is providing for the fafety of the republic, he forgets not himfelf, nor permits others to forget him. Demofthenes feems to efcape from himfelf, and to fee nothing but his country. He feeks not elegance of expreflion ; unfought for, he pofleffes it. He is fupe¬ rior to admiration. He makes ufe of language, as a modeft man does of drefs, only to cover him. He thunders,, he lightens. He is a torrent which carries every thing before it. We cannot criticife, becaufe we are not ourfelves. His fubjeft enchains our atten¬ tion, and makes us forget his language. We lofe him from our fight : Philip alone occupies our minds. I am delighted with both thefe orators ; but I confefs that I am lefs affe&ed by the infinite art and magnifi¬ cent eloquence of Cicero, than by the rapid fimplicity of Demofthenes.” DEMPSTER, Thomas, a very learned man, but of a Angular charaaer. He was born in Scotland, but we do not find in what year. He went over to France for the fake of embracing the Catholic religion, and taught claffical learning at Paris about the beginning of the 17th century. Though his bufinefs was to teach fchool, yet he was as ready to draw his fword, and as quarrelfome as if he had been a duellift by profeflion : and it is faid, that there fcarce pafied a day but he had fomething or other of this kind upon his hands. This fpirit and.turn of temper drew him into many fcrapes • and one in particular, which obliged him to quit the country. Gran.gier, principal of the college of Beau¬ vais at Paris, being obliged to take a journey, appoint¬ ed Dempfter his fubftitute. Dempfter caufed whip a fcholar, in full fchool, for challenging one of his fel¬ lows to fight a duel. The fcholar, to revenge this af- - front» brought three gentlemen of his relations, who were of the king’s life-guards, into the college. Demp¬ fter made the whole college take arms ; hamftrung the three life-guard-men’s horfes before the college vate ; and put himfelf into fuch a pofture of defence,0 that [ 159 1 DEN Derb’gh. the three fparks were forced to alk for quarter. He Dempfter gave them their lives; but imprifoned them, and did of court not releafe them for fome days. They fought another way to revenge themfelves : they caufed an informa¬ tion to be made of the life and moral behaviour of Dempfter, and got fome witnefles to be heard againft him. Upon this he went over to England, where he found refuge ; but did not make any long flay. He went, abioad again, and read leftures upon polite learn¬ ing in feveral univerfities ; in that of Nifmes particu¬ larly, where he difputed for a profeflbr’s chair, and ob¬ tained it. He wrent to Bologna, and was profeflbr there for the remainder of his life } and was there alfo admitted a member of the Academy Della Rotte. He died there in September 1625, having behind him fe¬ veral learned works j as Commentaries on Rofinus de An- tiquitatibus Romanorum, and upon Claudian, &c. j four books of Epiftles ; feveral dramatic pieces, and other poems ; fome books of law ; an Apparatus to the Hi¬ ftory of Scotland ; a Martyrology of Scotland ; and a Lift of the Scottifli Writers. Demfstkr of Court, the name formerly given in Scotland to the common executioner or hangman. DEMSTER, or Deemster. See Deemster. DEMULCENTS, among phyficians, medicines good againft acrimonious humours. Such are the roots of marlh-mallows, of white lilies, of liquorice, and of viper-grafs, the five emollient herbs, &c. DEMURRAGE, in Commerce) an allowance made to the mailer of a fliip by the merchants, for flaying in a port longer than the time firft appointed for his de¬ parture. DEMURRER, in Law, a flop put to any a£Hon upon lome point of difficulty which muft be determined by the court, before any further proceedings can be had in the fuit. DEN, a fy 11 able which, added to the names of places, ffiows them to be fituated in valleys or near woods ; as Tenterden. DENARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the chief filver coin among the Romans, wrorth in our money about fevenpence three farthings. As a weight, it was the feventh part of a Roman ounce. Denarius is alfo ufed in our law-books for an Engliffi penny. DENBIGHSHIRE, a county of Wales, bounded on the fouth by Merioneth and Montgomery fhires, on the north by Flintfhire and the Irifli fea, on the’ weft by Caernarvon and part of Merionethfhire. It is about 40 miles long and 21 broad. The air is whole- fome, but ffiarp, the county being pretty hilly, and the fnow lying long on the tops of the mountains. The foil m general is barren : but the vale of Clwyd, fo called from its being watered by that river, is a very fertile pleafant fpot of great extent, and well inhabited. The chief commodities are black cattle, ffieep, and goats, rye, called here amelcorn> and lead-ore. The county fends two members to parliament, viz. a knight for the ffiire, and a burgefs for Denbigh the capital. Denbigh, the capital towm of Denbighffiire in North Wales. It isfeated on the fide of a rocky hill, on a branch of the river Clwyd, and was formerly a place of great ftrength, with an impregnable caftle, now de- moliflied. It is pretty large, well built, and inhabited by DEN 3- 3°- DenJera by tanners and glovers, and gives the title of the noble family of Fielding. W. Long. N. Lat. 53. 15. DEND ERA, a town of Egypt, on the weft fide of the Nile. Near it are very magnificent ruins, fuppoied to be thofe of an ancient temple of Serapis. It is 48 miles fouth fouth-eaftof Girge, and 242 fouthof Cairo. E. Long. 31. 40. N. Lat. 26. 10. DENDERiVIOND, a handfome and ftrong town of the Auftrian Netherlands, in Flanders, with a ftrong citadel. It was taken by the allies in i'7o6, and by the French in 1745. It is farrounded by marftres and fine meadows, which the inhabitants can lay under water wrhen they pleafe. It is feated at the contlu- ence of the Dender aud Scheldt. E. Long. 4. 3. N. Lat. 51. 3. DENDR ACHATES, in Natural Hi/lory, the name •ufed by the ancients for an extremely elegant and beautiful fpecies of agate, the ground of which is whitifh, variegated with veins of a brighter white. Thefe veins are beautifully difpofed in a number of va¬ rious figures j but generally in many concentric irregu¬ lar circles, drawn round one or more points. It is common alfo, in various parts of this ftone, to find very beautiful delineations of trees, mofles, fea-plants, and the like, fo elegantly expreffed, that many have erro- neoufly taken them for real plants included in the fub- ftance of the ftone : whence the name dendrachates. DENDROMETER (from a tree, and I meafure\, an inftrument invented by. Mefirs Dun- combe and Whittel, for which they obtained a patent ; and i’o called from its ufe in meafuring trees. This in¬ ftrument confifts of a femicircle A (fig. 1.), divided into two quadrants, and graduated from the middle.; upon the diameter B there hangs a plummet L for fixing the inftrument in a vertical pofition ; there is alfo a chord D parallel to the diameter, and a radius E, palling at Plate CLXVIII. rmht angles through the diameter and chord. From a point on the radius hangs an altimeter C, between the chord and diameter, to which is fixed a fmall femi¬ circle G, and a ferew, to confine it in any pofition. The altimeter, which is contrived to form the fame ano-le with the radius of the inftrument as the tree forms with the horizon, is divided from its centre both ways into forty equal parts : and thefe paits aie again fubdivided into halves and quarters. Upon the fmall femicircle G, on w'hich is accounted the quantity of the angle made by the altimeter and radius, aie ex¬ preffed degrees from 60 to 120, being 30 on each qua¬ drant. The radius is numbered with the fame fcale of divifions as the altimeter. There is alfo a nonius to the fmall femicircle, which (hows the quantity of an angle to every five minutes. On the back of the inftrument the ftock M of the Hiding piece is confined to the axis N, which moves concentrically parallel to the elevation index F on the oppofite fide, to which it ' is fixed. This index is numbered by a fcale of equal divifions with the altimeter and radius: at the end of the index is a nonius, by which the angles of eievation above, or of depreflion below, the horizon, meafured upon the femicircle of the inftrumeot, are determined to ev ry five minutes. There is alfo a groove in the radiu-, that ftides acrofs the axis by means of a ferew I, working bet-veen the chord and femicircle cf the inftiument 3 and this ferew is turned by the key O. [ 160 ] DEN earl to Upon the ftock M (fig. 2.) is a Aiding piece P, that al¬ ways a&s at right angles with the altimeter, by-meansof ^ a groove in the latter. Io the fhank of the Aiding piece is affixed a moveable limb which forms the fame angle with the altimeter as the bough forms with the body or trunk of the tree. This limb may be of any convenient length, divided into equal parts of the fame fcale with all the foregoing divifions. At the extremity of the fixed axis, on a centre, an index R, with telefcopic fights, woiks horizontally upon the moveable limb of the Aiding piece. Upon this hori¬ zontal index R may be fixed a fmall quadrant T, de- feribed with any convenient radius from the centre on which the index moves, and divided into 90 degrees, beginning at a right line drawn from the centre at right angles with the fiducial edge of the faid index 3 and upon the extremity of the axis is a nonius, where¬ by to determine the quantity of an angle upon the quadrant every five minutes. There are alfo two imall circular arches S, S, ferving to keep the fights in a parallel pofition, each containing an equal number of degrees. Upon thefe arches is meafured the angle, fubtending a fide equal to the difference of the alti¬ tudes of the obferved obje£ts above the plane of the horizon, and whofe bafe is the neareft diftance between the perpendiculars in which thefe objefts are fituated. The dendrometer is fitted to a theodolite, and. may be ufed either wdth or without it as occafion requires. The principal ufe of this inftrument is for meafuring the length and diameter of any tree., perpendicular or oblique, to an horizontal plane, or in any fituation of the plane on which it refts, or of any figure, whether regular or irregular, and alfo the length and diameter of the boughs, by mere infpeftion 3 and the . inventors of it have calculated tables, annexed to their account of the inftrument itfelf, by the help of which the quan¬ tity of timber in a tree is obtained without calculation, Dendro¬ meter. or the ufe of the Aiding rule. . The inftrument is rec¬ tified by fetting it in a perpendicular pofition, by means of the plummet, and ferewing it to the ftaff; then the altimeter is placed in the exadl pofition of .the tree, whether perpendicular, reclining, or inclining, and ferewed faff. If the tree ftands on level ground, the horizontal diftance from the tree to the axis of the in¬ ftrument is meafured with a tape-line, and the radius is moved with the key till that diftance be cut upon it by the infide of the diameter : but if the ground be Aanting, the diftance from the tree to the inftrument is meafured, and the elevation index is moved till the point of the tree from which the diftance was meafured is feen through the fights, and there ferewed faft 3 and the radius is moved backwards or forwards, with the key, till this diftance is cut upon the elevation index by the perpendicular line of the altimeter ; and the ho¬ rizontal line will be marked upon the radius by the infide of the diameter. In order to obtain the length of the tree, the elevation index is firft moved down¬ wards, till the bottom of the tree cut by the hori¬ zontal wires is obferved through, the fights, and the feet and inches marked by the index upon the aL*- meter below the point of fight or horizontal line are noted down : then the index is moved upwards till the part to which you would meafure, cut by the horizontal wires, is feen, and the feet and inches marked on the altimeter above the point of fight are noted : DEN '1rome- noted : tliefe t;vo quantities added together give the , 'r' esa£V length of the tree, which is inferted in a field- hook. I or «the girth of the tree, the circumference in that part where the horizontal diftance was taken, is meafured with the tape-line ; and a fixth part of this circumference is added to the diitance on the ra¬ dius, which was before cut by the infide of the diame¬ ter, becaufe the tape-line, in taking the diitance, can¬ not be applied to the centre of the body of the tree ; then the elevation index is lowered to that part of the tree, of which the diameter is to be taken, and fcrewed fait. Set the moveable limb of the Aiding piece quite Araight, and the edge of the horizontal index upon the firft divifion of it. Turn the whole infiru- ment about to the left hand till you fee through the lights the left fide of the tree cut exaftly by the perpendicular wires ; then the inftrument being fixed, move the lights only upon the Aiding piece, till you he the right fide of the tree cut alio by the perpendi¬ cular wires ; apd you will find the true diameter mark¬ ed by the horizontal index upon the Aiding piece, which is to be entered in a diftindl column of the field- book. For the boughs : let the diftance on the radius be now reduced to its former quantity, and the elevation index moved upwards till the bough is feen through the fights and fcrewed fall. Set the moveable part of the Aiding piece in a pofition parallel to the bough, and the edge of the horizontal index on the firft divi¬ fion of it. I urn the wrhole inftrument about till you fee through the fights the (hoot of the bough clofe to the trunk cut by the perpendicular wires ; then move the fights till you fee the other end of the bough cut by the faid wires, and note the feet and inches marked by the horizontal index on the moveable limb of the Aiding piece, which will give the true length of the bough to be inferted in the field-book. And the girth of the bough may be obtained by diredling the fights to that part of it whofe girth is defired ; then by moving the elevation index downwards till you fee the under fide of the bough cut by the horizontal wires,, and there noting the feet and inches marked by the fa id index on the altimeter ; after which, let the elevation index be moved upwards, till the upper fide of the bough cut by the horizontal wires is feen ; the feet and inches marked upon the altimeter are to be noted as before. The former quantity f«btra£ted from the latter will give the true diameter of the bough which is entered in the field-book. The true folidity both of the body of the tree and of the boughs may be found from .the diameter and lengths in tables calcu- lated for this purpofe. The dendrometer, fitted to a theodolite, may he applied to meafuring.the heights and diftances of ob¬ jects, acceftible or inacceftible, whether fituated in planes parallel or oblique to the plane in which the inftrument is placed. It may be alfo ufed for taking all angles, whether vertical, horizontal, or oblique in any pofition of the planes in which .they are formed : and thus for facilitating the pradical operations of en- gineermg, l.and-furveying, levelling, mining, &c. and tor performing the various cafes of plane trigonometry without calculation ; of which the inventors have fub- tomed to their account of this inftrument many ex¬ amples. J Vox. VII. Part I. [ i6j ] DEN Dendrometer, an inftrument for meafuring di- fiances hy a fingle obferVation, which has been propo- fed by Mr Pitt of Pendeford, near Wolverhampton, and of which the following is the defcription in the words of the author. “ The idea of an inftrument to meafure diftances by a fingle obfervation, has fometimes been difcufled, both in converfation and upon paper •, and, though the fubjeft has generally been treated with negleff, and.even with a kind of contempt, by found mathe¬ maticians, upon an idea of its extravagance and eccen¬ tricity, or upon a fuppofition of its being founded upon falie principles, yet I cannot but ftrongly recommend it to the attention of the ingenious mathematical in- rtrument maker, as an article perhaps capable of being brought to a higher degree of perfeiftion than has gene¬ rally been fuppofed. “ Fhe method of determining diftances by two ob- fervations, from either end of a bafe line, is well known to every one in the leaft degree converfant with plain trigonometry : that of determining fuch diftances by one obfervation has been lefs explained and under- ftood ; and to this I with to call the attention cf the ingenious, whofe local circumftances of fituation may enable them to inveftigate and improve the fubieft. “ 1 o determine diftances by one obfervation, two methods may be propofed, founded on different princi¬ ples j the one, on the fuppcfition of the obferver being in the centre, and the obje6I in the circumference, of a circle; the other, on the contrary fuppofition, of the obferver being in the circumference, and the objeft in the centre, “To determine the diftance of any objedl on the firft fuppofition, of the obferver being in the centre, the bulk or dimenfions of fuch objeft muft be known? either by meafure or eftimation, and the angle formed* by lines drawn to its extremities being taken, by an accurate inftrument, the diftance is eafily calculated ; and fuch calculations may be facilitated "by tables, or theorems adapted to that purpofe. For this method \ our prefent inftruments, with a nonius, and the whole very accurately divided, are fufficient ; the only im¬ provement wanting feems to be, the application of a micrometer to fuch inftruments, to enable the obferver to read his angle with more minute accuracy, by nf- certaining not only the degrees and parts of a degree, but alfo the minutes and parts of a minute. “ As, in this method, the bulk of inacceftible objefts can only be eftimated, the error in diftance will be ex- aftly in the proportion of the error in fuch eftimation ; little dependence can therefore be placed on diftances thus afcertained. For the purpofes of furveying, in¬ deed, a ftaff of known length may be held by an affift- ant; and the angle from the eye of the obferver to its two ends.being meafured by an accurate inftrument, with a micrometer fitted to afcertain minutes and parts of a minute, diftances may be thus determined with great accuracy ; the application of a micrometer to the theodolite, if it could be depended upon, for thus determining the minute parts of a degree, in fmall angles, is very much a defideratum with the praaical lurveyor. “ This method of meafuring diftances, though plain and fimple enough, I fhall juft beg leave to illuftrate by an example; fuppofe A, fig. 3. (Plate CLXVIII.) X the DEN [ 16 Dendrome- the place of the inftrument; BC, the afliftant’s flaff, ter’ with a perpendicular pin at D» to enable the affiftant to hold it in its right pofition j now, if the airgle BAG could, by the help of a micrometer, be afcertained to parts of a minute, the diftance from A to B, or to C, may be, with little trouble, calculated as follows. Suppofe the length of the itaff BG be too inches, or other parts j divide the number 343,500. by the mi¬ nutes contained in the angle A, the quotient will be the diftance AB, or AC, in the fame parts.. . . “ The number 343,500 becomes the dividend m this cafe, becaufe the arch of a circle fubtending an angle of 3435 minutes, or 570 15', is equal in length to the radius, and the objeft ftaff BC is fuppofed di¬ vided into 100 equal parts. “ Thus, fuppofe the angle A be i°, or oo , then, 6o)^4350o(=:5725 inches ~ diftance AB. “ Or, if the angle A be 6oVo> then 60.1 )343500( 5715-5 inches. “ Hence it appears, that an error of -5^5- of a minute, in the angle A, would caufe an error of 9 inches and a half in the diftance AB, or about Part 116 whole-, the accuracy therefore, of thus taking diftances, depends upon the accuracy wherewith angles can be afcertained j and the error in diftance will bear the fame proportion to the aftual diftance, as the error in taking the angle does to the adtual angle. “ But this method of ascertaining diftances cannot be applied to inacceflible objefts, and it is moreover fubieft to the inconvenience of an afliftant being ob¬ liged to go to the objeff whofe diftance u required, (an inconvenience almoft equal to the trouble of ac¬ tual admeafurement,) therefore the person of the fecond method propofed (if attainable) is pnncipa y to be defired 5 namely, that of conceiving the obler- vation made on the circumference of a circle, whole centre is in the objeft whofe diftance is to be afcertam- cd; and none of our inftruments now in ufe being a- dapted to this mode of obfervation, a new conftruttion of a mathematical inftrument is therefore propoled, the name intended for which is the Dendrometer. . “ This name is not now ufed for the firft time *• ^ was applied in the fame way by a gentleman who had, as I have been informed, turned his thoughts to this particular fubjeft *, but I do not find that he ever brought his inftrument into ufe, or explained its prin¬ ciples; nor do lunderftand that this principle has ever been applied, in pradlice, for the familiar purpofe of afcertaining terrefttial diftances in furveying, or other- wife*, though the fame principle has been fo generally, and fuccefsfully, applied, in determining the diftance of the heavenly bodies by means of their parallax. “ The following principles of conftru£lion are pro¬ pofed, which may perhaps be otherwife varied and im¬ proved. O, fig- 4- the ob3ea whofe dlftance 15 re* quired j ABCDE. the inftrument it: piano; BC, a te- lefcope, placed exaftly parallel to the fide AEj CE, an arch of a circle, whofe centre is at A, accurately divided from E, in degrees, &c.-, AB), an index, moveable on the centre A, with a nonius fcale at the end D, graduated to apply to the divifions of the arch J alfo with a telefcope, to enable the obferver to difcn- minate the objeft, or any particular part or fide there¬ of the more accurately. The whole fhould be mounted on three legs, in the manner of a plain table, or theo- 2 ] DEN dolite, and furniftied with fpirit-tubes to adjuft it to anDendrorae- horizontal pofition. The inftrument being placed in, * - fuch pofition, the telefcope BC muft be brought upon the obi eft O, or rather upon fome particular point or fide thereof", when, being there fattened, the index AD muft be moved, till its telefcope exaftly ftrikes the fame point of the objeft j then the divifions, on the arch ED, mark out the angle DAE; which will be exaftly equal to the angle BOA, as is demonftrated in the 15th and 29th propofitions of Euclid, Book!.; and the fide BA being already known, the diftance BO, or AO, may be eafily determined in two diffe¬ rent ways viz. firft, by fuppofing the triangle BO A an ifofceles triangle then multiply the fide BA by 24.2c as before, and divide the produft by the mi¬ nutes contained in the angle DAE = the angle BOA J the quotient will be the dittance BO = AO, very nearly or, fecondly, by fuppofing the triangle ABO right-angled at B, then, as the fine of the angle found DAE BOA is to the fide known BA, fo is the ra¬ dius to the fide AO, or fo is the fine of the angle BAO to the fide BO. To illuftrate this by an exam¬ ple, fuppofe the fide BA = 1 yard, the angle found DAE = BOA = o° 15', then, per firft method, i5)3435( —229 yards = the diftance BO, or AO. Or, by iecond method, As the fine of the angle found o° 15'— 7.6398160 Is to the fide BA = 1 yard = - 0.0000000 So is radius 90° o'= - - lo.coooooo To the log. of the fide AO = 229 yards = 2.360x840 Or, As to the fine of the angle found o° 15'= 7.6398160 Is to the fide BA = 1 yard = ' o.ocoocoo So is the fine of the angle BAO=89° 45'=9-9999959 To the log. of the fide BO =229 yards = 2.3601799 “ As the perfection of this inftrument depends to¬ tally upon its accuracy in taking fmall angles, which accuracy muft depend, for its minute divifions, upon its being fitted with a micrometer j and as the writer of this cannot doubt that the particular mode of doing this muft be familiar to the intelligent inftrument-ma- ker, he cannot but ftrongly recommend it to the at¬ tention of the ingenious of that profeffion, as an ob- ieft which, when perfefted, would be a real and con- fiderabie improvement in their art, and an ufeful in- ftrument to the praftkal furveyor. It* accuracy would alfo in fome meafure, depend upon the length of the line BA in the figure ; that line nught therefore be extended, by the inftrument being confliufled to fold rflide out to a greater length when in u e; upon wdftch principle, lonneBed with the application of a micrometer, an accurate and nfeful .nftrument might certainly be confttuaed. To adjuft fuch inftrument for ufe, let a flaff be held up at a diftance, in the nc; of fig. 1. exaaiy equal in length to the diftance Xh" two telefcopes, and .be index AD being brought exaftlv upon the fide AE, if the two telefcopes accu- rately fttike either end of the flaff, the inftrument .a properly adjufted. t{ Plate CPXVIIJ I . . DEISTDR OME TER DRAW BRIDGE j" 1 liK.. W-^=mm\jL DEN [ 163 ] DEN Dendrome- “ The conftruftion of a fimilar inftrument, on the principles of Hadley’s quadrant, for naval obfervations, Deneb w°uld alfo doubtlefs be an acceptable objeff in naviga- * tion, by enabling the manner to afcertain the diftances of (hips, capes, and other objefts, at a Angle obferva- tion ; and that, perhaps, with greater accuracy than can be done by any method now in ufe. “ For this purpofe, the following conftruftion is propofed : ABCDE, fig. 5. the inftrument in piano ; O, the objeft whofe diftance is required 5 at A, at C, at E, and at 3, are to be fixed fpeculums, properly framed and fitted, that at 3 having only its lower part quickfilvered, the upper part being left tranfparent, to view the objeft j the fpeculum at A being fixed ob¬ liquely, fo that a line A I, drawn perpendicular to its fmface, may bifedl the angle BAG in equal parts j that at C being perpendicular to the line C 2 ; thofe at E and 3 being perpendicular to the index E 3, and that at E being furnifhed with a fight; the arch DC to be divided from D, in the manner of Hadley’s quadrant j the movement of the index to be meafured, as before, by a micrometer } and, as the length of the line AE would tend to the perfe&ion of the inftrument, it may be conftrudfted to fold in the middle, on the line C 2, into lefs compafs, when not in ufej the inftrument may be adjufted for ufe by holding up a ftaff at a diftance, as before pfopofed, whofp length is exaflly equal to the line AE. “To make an obfervation by this inftrument, it being previoufly properly adjufted, the eye is to be applied at the fight in the fpeculum E, and the face turned toward the object 5 when the objeft, being re¬ ceived on the fpeculum A, is refledfed into that at C, and again into that at E, and that at 3 on the index ; the index being then moved, till the refledfed objedf, in the fpeculum at 3, exadtly coincides with the real objedf, in the tranfparent part of the glafs, the divi- fions on the arch D 3, fubdivided by the micrometer, will determine the angle DE 3 — the angle AOE ; from which the diftance O may be determined as be¬ fore. “ It is very probable that this arrangement may be improved, by thofe who are familiar with the beft conftrudtion of Hadley’s quadrant; which the writer of this profefles himfelf not to be, farther than its ge¬ neral principle. He has not the leaft doubt that ufe- ful pradtical inftruments may be conftrudled on the principles here deferibed ; and, upon this idea, can¬ not but recommend the fubjedl to the attention of thofe concerned in the manufadfure of fimilar inftru¬ ments.” Repertory of Arts, vol. i. DENDROPHORIA, in antiquity, the carrying of boughs or branches of trees •, a religious ceremony fo called, becapfe certain priefts called from thence dendrophori, tree-bearers, marched in proceflion, carry¬ ing the branches of trees in their hands in honour of lome god, as Bacchus, Cybele, Sylvanus, &c. The college of the dendrophori is often mentioned in an¬ cient marbles ; and we frequently fee in bafib relievos the bacchanals reprefented as men carrying little fhrubs or branches of trees. DENEB, an Arabic term fignifying tail, ufed by aftronomers to denote feveral fixed ftars. Thus, deneb e/eet, fignifies the bright ftar in the lion’s tail, Deneb etdigege, that in the fwan’s tail. DENHAM, Sjr John, an eminent Englifh poet, Denham the only fon of Sir John Denham, chief baron of the il exchequer in Ireland, and one of the lords commiffion- ,Denmart:' ers there, w-as born in Dublin in 1615 j but his father, ‘~JJ‘ V—*" in 1617, being made a baron of the exchequer in England, he received his education in that country. In his youth he followed gaming more than any thing elfe *, but, in 1641, publifhed a tragedy called the Sophy, which was much admired by the bed judges; and, in 1643, wr°te his famous poem called Cooper"1 s Dill, which Mr Dryden pronounces will ever be the ftandard of good writing for majefty of ftyle. Denham was fent ambafiador from Charles II. to the king of Poland; and at the Reftoration was made furveyor-general of his majefty’s buildings, and crea¬ ted knight of the Bath. On obtaining this poft, he is faid to have renounced his poetry for more important ftudies ; though he afterwards wrote a fine copy of yerfes on the death of Cowley. Pie died at his office in Whitehall in 1668 ; and his works have been often fince printed. DENIER, a fmall French copper coin, of which 12 make a fol. There are two kinds of deniers, the one tournois, the other parifois, whereof the latter was worth a fourth part more than the former. DENIZEN, in Law, an alien made a fubjeft by the king’s letters patent; otherwife called dk/wr/on, becaufc his legitimation proceeds ex donatione regis, “ from the king’s gift.” & denizen is in a kind of middle ftate between an alien and a natural-born fubjeft, and partakes of both of them. He may take lands by purchafe or devife which an alien may not ; but cannot take by inherit tance ; for his parent, through whom he muft claim being an alien, had no inheritable blood, and therefore could convey none to the fon : and, upon a like de- fen X203, and was fucceeded by Valdemar II. who proved a very great Ld warlike prince. Inizti, he founded the city .f Stralfund, oppofite to the ifte ol Rngen. e a‘ year his queen died in childbed 5 and in memory of her he built the caftle of Dromngho/m, that name rm- 6 porting the Queen'sdjland. In 1218, he undertook an Expedition expedition againft the Livonians, having r^elved qd'marn. a- vice that they, affifted by the Lithuanians, Muicovites, gainft the and other barbarous nations, had driven from their ha- Livonians, bitations all thofe in the neighbourhood who had em¬ braced Chriftianity, and taker, an oath ot allegiance to the crown of Denmark. Fitting out a powerful fleet, therefore, he immediately iet fail for that cou - try; but his troops were no fooner landed, than they were feized with a panic at the fight ot fuch a P^er' ful army of favages as were affembled to oppofe them. ValdemaiT. a great aionarch. Powef of Denmark in 1195- lui army 01 ^ - q r The king himfelf was difmayed at the unuiual fpettac e of a whole army clothed in {kins, and reiemblmg hearts more than human creatures. Encouraged, however, by the bifhops who attended him, he ventured an en¬ gagement, and overthrew the barbarians with mere- dible {laughter. This viftory was gamed near he fortrefs of Valdemar, which received its name on that ~ potent end flouriflung tile kingdom of Den-Hourillfins mark was at this time, appears from an eft.mate ot^^ the revenues of the tributary provinces, thole countries conquered by Valdemar, and the Handing forces of the whole kingdom. This account was copied by I onta- nus from Witfield, a writer of thofe days, who had it from a regifter kept by Vaklemar’s ftewarc. From the provinces were daily fent in 24 labs ot oats, 24 L of rye, and half that quantity ot wheat, 13 talents of cheefe and butter, and nine of honey 24 oxen, 30 ftieep, 200 hogs -, and 600 marks of coined money. This was the certain revenue : but to this was ad e near an equal fum from adventitious circumftances , fuch as fines, forfeitures, taxes on law-fuits and plea - ings with a variety of other contingencies 5 the whole amounting to upwards of 100,000 marks a day, or 23 7300C0I. per annum ; a fum in tnole days almoft incredible. With this revenue were kept for conttant fervice 1400 great and fmall ffiips for the king s u e, each of which at a medium carried 1 21 foldiers n a- bing the whole of the Handing forces, befides gam fons, confift of 169,400 fighting men Va]deraar In 1223, a very great misfortune befel Valdema , notwithftanding all his power. Henry earl of bwenn, otherwife called Henry Palatine, a Herman pm ving been deprived of part of his dom n J , taken pri- mar, furpriled and carried off the king h.mteU, and foncrJ ”ep him dole prifoner for three yearn. 1 he condl- tions on which he at laft obtained h,s liberty were very 9 hard. He was obliged to pay a prodigious fum d Relc.fcd o. naru. xy ^ s Swpnn. Hamburgh, condition of money in his dominions -, 'aVdTd^ed'each proviliT its proportion of Hupping, everyway equipped, a _ , , r„,«mnlv to fweat that he would maintain ready for adion. The whole force of Denmark, at and all his poliellions on ^ tain ot his t( and laftly, folemnly to fwear that he would im tones. DEN [ i Denmark, this compulfive contraft, and never take any meafures feated. it Civil war ' to punifh Henry or his affociates. This treaty was figned on the 25th of March 1226. Betides thefe territories which the Danifli monarch had been obhged to cede by treaty, many tributary princes took the opportunity of his captivity to re¬ cover their liberty j and among the reft, the inhabitants of Lubec revolted, and entered into alliance with Albert duke of Saxony againft Valdemar. The latter, ig however, was not of a dilpofition to fubmit tamely to thetreatks treatment* obtained a difpenfation froirTthe butisde^’ PoPe t0 break his engagements with Henry, and im¬ mediately entered fdolftem at the head of a numerous army. Here he was met by feveral German princes, at the head of a very numerous army 5 and a defperate engagement enfued. Valdemar at firft had the advan- tage ; but being wounded in the eye, his troops were at laft defeated with great flaughter. It doth not ap¬ pear that ever the king of Denmark was able to re¬ venge himfelf of his enemies, or to recover the domi¬ nions he had loft. So far from this, he was obliged, in 1228, to cede Lauenburg to the duke of Saxony, who had already feized on Ratzburg and Molna. Soon after this, his eldeft Ion Valdemar was accidentally kil¬ led as he was hunting, and his two other Tons married the daughters of his two greateft enemies. Abel, the third, fon, married the daughter of Adolphus duke of Holftein ; and Eric, the fecond, married the duke of Saxony’s daughter. Thefe misfortunes are fuppofed to have haftened his death, which happened in the month ol April 1 242. . the death of Valdemar, the kingdom was di- two fons h‘S between the Uvo y°ung prhices; and between them a war commenced the very next year. A peace was concluded the year following, and rvar renewed the year after : but how long it continued, we are not informed. In 1250, Eric paid a vifit to his brother Abel, intreating his mediation between him and the piinces Oi Holftein, with whom he tvas then at war. Abel received him, in appearance, with great kindnefs, and piomi.ed that his utmoft endeavours to procure a reconciliation ftiould not be wanting; but in the mean¬ time, laid a plan for having him murdered at fea : this was tnetted, and Abel became mafter of the whole kingdom. I ne new king did not long enjoy the foverergntv he had fo wickedly obtained. He was tormented by bis own confcience ; efpecially when he found amon^ his brother’s papers, one by wmich he was left heir to the whole kingdom on the death of Eric, and many kind expreftions with regard to himfelf. He was at laft killed in^ a battle with his own fubje£ts in 1252, on account of fome taxes he intended to impofe. * From this time to the year 1333, the kingdom of Denmark gradually declined. Ufurpers eftabliftied themfelves in different provinces ; W'hile the kings of Sweden did not fail to avail themfelves of the diffrac¬ ted ft ate of the Daniftr affairs. In 13315, died ChriE topher II. who poffeffed only the cities of Scanderburg in Jutland and Neoburg in Fionia, with fome few other inconfiderable places, of all the hereditary do¬ minions of Denmark. Halland, Holbec, Calemburg, and Samfoe, were held by Canute Porfius ; Schonen* Lyftie, and Bleking, by the king of Sweden, to whom they had been lately fold 3 John earl of Wagria had Kingdom divided among a number of petty ty¬ rants. 65 j DEN the jurifdiaions of Zealand, Falftre, Laaland, and Fe- Denmark- metin ; Geruard, of Jutland and Honia ; and Eaw’rence v -1 Junea of Langland and Arras. After the death of Ghnftopher, an interregnum of feyen years enfued.—The firft attempt for the fove- reignty was made by Otho, fecond fon to the late king, who laid a fcheme for driving Gerhard out of Jutland; but not being able to accomplifh it, he w>as taken pri¬ soner, and clofely confined by Gerhard. The king of Sweden next wrote to Pope Benedift XIII. bcfeech- ing his Holinefs to confirm to him the provinces of Schonen and others which he poffeffed ; and to allow him to fubdue the reft of the kingdom, which was now umrped and rendered miferable by a fet of petty princes, who knew not how to govern. To influence him the more powerfully, he alfo promifed to hold this kingdom of the Pope ; and to pay him the ulual tax collefted by the church. This requeft, however, was refufed. Valdemar of Slefwic, nephew to Ger¬ hard, tnen afpired to the fovereignty. He had for¬ merly been eledfed king ; but had" given over all thoughts of enjoying the fovereignty, on account of the luperior influence of Chriftopber; but now refumed his ambitious views at the inftigation of his uncle. Several of the nobility al!o calf their eyes on young Valdemar, Chnftopher’s fon, now at the emperor’s T couit. But while each of thefe princes were laying Diftrefled Ichemes to aggrandife themfelves, the unhappy Danes fGte of the. were diftreffed by exorbitant taxes, famine, and pefti-kinS‘lom' lence ; the two laft in confequence of the former. The peafants negle&ed to cultivate the lands, which they held on a very precarious tenure ; the confequence of this was poverty and an unwholefome diet ; and this, co-operating with the peculiar difpofition of the. air* produced a plague, which deilroyed more than half the inhabitants of the country. The poor dropped down dead on the ftreets with difeafe and hunger, and the gentry themfelves were reduced to a ftate of wretch- ednefs ; yet, though the whole of the kingdom was evidently on the verge of ruin, ambitious projects em¬ ployed the great, as if every thing had been in the molt profound tranquillity. In the mid ft of thefe grievous calamities, Gerhard fovereign of Jutland, propofed to his nephew Valdemar an exchange of territories, which he believed would piove favourable to the defigns of the latter on the crown. A treaty for this.purpofe was atlually drawn up and figned ; but the inhabitants, notwithrtanding their diftreffed fituation, fo highly refented their being dilpofed of like cattle from one mafter to another, that they refilled to pay the ufual taxes. Gerhard refolved to compel them ; and therefore led 10,000 men, whom he had levied in Germany, into the heart of the pio- vmce. Providence, however, now raifed up an enemy to this tyrant. One Nicholas Norevi, a man greatly Nichota, efteemed for h.s courage, public fpirit, and prudence, Norevi beheld with iorrow the condition to which Denmark c°vers the was reduced. He had long meditated a variety 0f hb.erty of pojetfs for its relief, and at laft imagined things were Jutland‘ in inch a fituation that the whole depended on his fingle arm. Young Valdemar, Chriftopher’s fon, had a num¬ ber or adherents in the kingdom ; his moft dangerous enemy was Gerhard ; and could he be removed, the Jutlanders would at leaft be free from an oppreffor, and might choofe Valdemar, or any other they thought proper,. Denmark. IS , , He is killed iS Margaret unites the crowns of Denmark, Sweden, and Nor¬ way. DEN [ 1 proper, for their fovereign. Collefting a My °f fen Viorfe, therefore, he marched in the night to R derthufen, where Gerhard had fixed hit head quarters! and hav'mg forced open the tyrant’s quarters, .mme- diately put him to death. He then fled with the ut- moft expedition; but was purfued and overtaken by a party of the enemy’s horfe, through which he forced his way and efcaped. Gerhard’s Tons hearing of his death, retired into Holftein, from whence ''"X Jad come ; leaving the army, compofed chiefly ot Hol- fleiners, to be cut in pieces by the enraged peafants, who fell upon them from every quarter. Still, however, the Holfteiners kept poffeffion of the citadels and fortified places, from whence Nicholas re¬ eved to diilodge them. He accordingly raifed a body of forces •, attacked and took Landen, a caftle fituated on the river Scheme: After which he laid fiepe to Albeg ; but the garrifon making an obftinate dln«,te turned the fie^e into a blockade, by which they were foon reduced to'great extremity. The go- ThisTtcrmYnVthm fo mirch'toThe rS of fo to- portant a place. They came up with Nicholas pft as the governor was ready to furrender, but were defeat¬ ed -^though Nicholas was unfortunately killed in the en5SCdnhaving thus regained its liberty, the reft of the kingdom followed its example. Zealand firft openly declared itfelf. Here Henry, Gerhard s fim, Maintained feveral garrifons •, and refolved to defend his poffeflions in fpite of all the power of the inhabi¬ tant For this purpofe he drew together an army , but, in the mean time, a tumult arofe among the pea¬ sants on account of a Danilh nobleman flam by he Holfteiners. By this the people were at laft ioirri 5ted, that falling upon the Holfteiners fw°rd m Wd, they killed c?oo of them, drove the reft out ol the ifland, and chofe Valdemar, Chriftopher s fon, for their ^Tbi'D'anes now refumed their courage; the lands were cultivated, the famine and peft.lence ceafed and the kingdom began to flout,At as fotmetly^ Mattem continued in a profperous way till 1387, garet mounted the throne. She raifed the kingdom to fts higheft pitch of glory, as partly by her addrefs, and partly by hereditary right, (he formed the union of Calma'- by which (lie was acknowledged foyereign of Sweden, Denmark, and Norway. She he, her dig- nitv with fuch firmnefs and courage, tha4lher"aS^ ly ftyled the Semir amis of the North Her fucc;^0 being deftitute of her great quahfications, the union of Calrnar fell to nothing : but Norway ftill continued annexed to Denmark. About the year I44?» the annexed f n to Chriftian count of Olden- buTfrom whoam the prefent royal family of Denmark [s defended-, and, in 1556, the Proteftant religion was eftabliftied in Denmark by that wife and politic P1 'ciuiftian'1 v' of Denmark, in 1629, ^ ^ft the the head of the Proteftant league formed agamft houfe ofluftria: but, though brave in his own per fon he was in danger of lofing his dominions j when U was fuccceded in that command by the famous Gu- 66 1 DEN ftavus Adolphus, king of Sweden. The DutchJa- vine obliged Chriftian, who died in 1648, to lower thegdutiesgof the Sound, his fon Frederic III. con fented to accept of an annuity of 150,000 florins tor the whole. The Dutch, after this, perfuaded him to declare war againft Charles Guftavus king of Sweden which had almoft coft him his crown m 1657. Charles ftormed the fortrefs of Fredericftadt; and m the fuc- ceeding winter, he marched h.s army over the ice to the ifland of Funen, where he furpnfed the Danilh troops, took Odenfee and Nyburg, and marched over the Great Belt to befiege Copenhagen itfelf. well, the Englifti ufurper, interpofed : and Tredenc de¬ fended his capital with great magnanimity till the 17 rvf T? ofrhild • bv which Frederic ceded the pro-Several pro- peace or Kolcnua , oy wuieu . -Vso rtf vwices ce- vinces of Halbnd, Bleking, and Scoma, the lfland ded to Swe- Bornholm, Balms, and Drontheim, in Norway, to the den> Swedes. Frederic fought to elude thofe fevere terms , but Charles took Cronenburg, and once more befieged Copenhagen bv fea and land. The fteaay intrepid con¬ duit of Frederic under thefe misfortunes endeared him to his fubjeas; and the citizens ot Copenhagen made an admirable defence, till a VheTr in the Baltic, and beat the Swedifli fleet. for¬ tune of war was now entirely changed m fav0UP ^re' deric, who {bowed on every occafion great abilities, both civil and military : and having forced Carles to raife the fiege of Copenhagen might ^ve carried war into Sweden, had not the Englifti fleet, unde. Montague appeared in the Baltic. This enabled Charlefto befiege Copenhagen a ^ ^ France and England offering their mediation, a peace was concluded in that capitalby which the ifland of Bornholm returned to the Danes*, but the ifland of Rugen, Bleking, Halland, and Schonen, rcmaine WI The 1660 affords us an example of a revolu-Remark- tion alMoft unequalled in the ThMutio^ that of a free people refignmg their liberty into * hichthe hands of their fovereign ; and of their own accord, and king;s without the lead compulfion, rendering him defpotic. lered abfo- This was occaftoned by the great charaaer which Fre-lute. deric had acquired by his prudent and vaha"t when Copenhagen was beheged by the king den •, and at that time he had alfo taken care to ingra¬ tiate himfelf with the commonalty, by nobility to allow them fome immunities which they did nM enjoy before allowing them alfo, by a fpecial edta .O Hto, -a eiqoy f privflegcs nobility. After the conclufion of the ;'aty " ke Sweden, a diet was fummoned at Copenhagen, to take into confideration the ftate of the kingdom, which was now very much exhaufted, both by reafon of the debts in which it was involved, and by the calamities of war. This diftreffed ftate of affairs was, by the co™m°nS’ ^ tributed to the nobility j who on the other hand, took no care to conciliate the affedhons of the inferior claf- Ms but rather increafed the difeontents by their arro¬ gance. They had even the imprudence to remonftrate againft the immunities above-mentioned, which had been granted by the king during the fiege. In confe- quence of this the deputies of the commons and clergy united againft them; and being joined by the citizen of Copenhagen, formed a very considerable party. On bringing forward in the affembly the fums neceffa y den [ , ■penmark- national exigencies, a general excife was propofed by the nobles on every article of confumpt $ and to which they themfelves were willing to fubmit, though, by an exprels law, their order wras to be exempted from all taxes. T his offer was accompanied with a re- monftrance to the king; in which they endeavoured, not only to reclaim many obfolete privileges, but to*add frelh immunities, and introduce many other regula¬ tions, all of them tending to diminilh the royal prero¬ gative, and check the riling influence of the commons and clergy. This propofal occafioned great difputes in the diet; and the two inferior orders’ infiffed that they would not admit of any tax which ffiould not be levied equally upon all ranks, without referve or reftric- tion. The nobles not only refufed to comply with this propofal, but even to be fubjeft to the tax for more than three years; pretending that all taxes whatever were infringements on their privileges. By way of cqmpenfation, however, they propofed new duties up¬ on leather and ftamped paper, and at laft offered to pay a poll-tax for their peafants. This exchange feemed at fir ft to be agreeable to the two inferior eftates ; but they fuddenly altered their mind, and demanded that the fiefs and domains, which the nobles had hitherto poffeffed exclufively, and at a very moderate rent, ihould be let to the higheft bidder. Such a propofal appeared to the nobles to be to the laft degree unreafonable. They faid it was an infraftion ot their deareft privileges; as, by the 46th article of the coronation oath taken by Frederic, the poffeflion pt the royal fiefs was guaranteed to their order; but in the heat of difpute, one of the chief fenators having imprudently thrown out fome reproachful expreftionl againft the commons, a general ferment enfued, and the affembly was broken up in confufion. This gave occafion to the internofition of - ■ - 6 j *>* wmuiion. inis gave occafion to the interpofition of the king’s friends; and an idea of rendering the crown hereditary, and enlar¬ ging the royal prerogative, began to be fuggefted as the proper method of humbling the nobility This was firft broached by the bifhop of Zealand, at whofe houfe a numerous meeting was held on the 6th of Oc tober 1660, where the fcheme was fully laid open and approved ; an aft for rendering the crown hereditary drawn uP>; and the beft method of publicly producing Jt taken into confideration. All this time the king feemed quite maftive, nor could he be nrevailed upon to take any part m an affair which fo nearly concerned nun. But this indolence was abundantly compenfated by the alertnefs and diligence of the queen; between whom and the heads of the party matters were foon concerted. On the morning of the 8th of Oftober therefore, the biftiop of Zealand having obtained the con lent and fignature of the ecclefiaftical deputies de l.vered it to Naufen, burgomafter of Copenhagen and ipeaker of the commons. The latter, in a moft per- iuafive fpeech, expatiated upon the wretched ftate of the kingdom, the oppreflive power of the nobles, and the virtues of the king; concluding with an exhorta¬ tion to the commons, to fubferibe the aft, as the only means ot laving their country. The exhortations of the fpeaker had fuch an effe£l: upon the affembly, that they fubferibed it without a fingic diffent; the nobles being all the while in perfeft lecurity, and entirely ignorant of the tranfaaion. Next day it was prefented to the king by the bifhop and '67 ] den Naulen ; and as they weie returning from the palace, they met the lenator who had already given offence to the commons. With him they had a violent al¬ tercation, and were threatened with imprifonment for p re fuming to approach the king without acquainting the order of nobles. This threat was now altogether nugatory. The nobles having got fome intelligence ot what was going forward, had juft afftmbled in order to confider of what was to be done, when the deputies ot the two other eftates entered, and informed them of their proceedings, and delivered to them the propofal tor rendering the crown hereditary. By this declara¬ tion the nobles were thrown into the utmoft confterna- tion ; but judging it improper to put a negative on the propolal. at prefent, they endeavoured to gain time and replied, that through they willingly gave their af- fc„. to .he declaration, yet that, as if „af a matter of great confcquence, it deferved the moft ferious dif- cuftion Naufen, however, replied, that the other eftates had already taken their refolution 4. that they would lofe no time in debate ; and that if the nobles would not concur with them, they would immediately repair to the palace by themfelves, where they had not Jhei^pfoffer11^ ^ ^ Sracioufly accept In the mean time the nobles had privately difpatch- cd a meffage to the king, intimating, that they were r render the crown hereditary to the male line ot his iffue, provided it was done with all the ufual for¬ malities. But this propofal did not prove agreeable to his majefty unlefs they would confirm the right of fuc- ceffion m the female line alfo. He added, however with great appearance of moderation, that he by no’ means wiflied to preferibe rules for their conduft • thev were to follow the dilates of their own judgment; but as for bis nart- he .1 • J ° ’ DenmadK. - uwu juugmenr ; out as for his part, he would owe every thing to their free confent. While the nobles were waiting for this an- wer, the other deputies, perceiving that they wiftied to keep the matter in fufpenfe, loft all patience, and repaired in folemn proceflion to the court ; where, be¬ ing admitted into the royal prefence, the matter was opened by the biftiop of Zealand. He addreffed his majefty on the refolution taken by the clergy and com¬ mons, offering in their name to render the crown he- mbtary, and to invert him with abfolute authority- adding that they were ready to facrifice their lives in he defence of an eftablifhment fo falutary to their coun¬ try. His majefty thanked them for their favourable intentions; but mentioned the concurrence of the nobles as a neceffary condition ; though he had no doubt of this when they fhould have time to accom- pany the dedaration with all the neceffary formalities - he affured them of his protedion, promifed a redrefs of all grievances and difmiffed them with an exhortation o continue their fittings, until they fhould have brought their defign to perfedion, and he could re! cave their voluntary fubmiffion with all due folemnity rb Un‘ePkarture ofrth<: commons from the place where hey had been conferring with the nobles, the latter had been fo diftraded and confufed, that they broke up without coming to any refolution, defignina how ever, to decide the matter finally at their meeting on the afternoon of the following day. But while ^hey were thus wavering and irrefolute, the court and the popular party took the neceffary meafures to force them t© D _ _T r 1 D E N E N L ■* rf rVarks of Sweden from his exile, lie This was effeaually done^by an °n ^eJC ^ war agalnft Denmark with a nloft .... , . ^n^th of that prince, wo '•^nmark. to a concurrence. x ms fo much nrfier to (hut the gates ; for by this tney wcj<^ difpirited, that they inftantly difpatched deputies to the "X’th" Ammons, and fubfeibe to all the conditions ef kth^'now twined bo, to ratify .be tranfaflion with all pfoper folemnfty. Accordingly, on the ..6th r obber the eftates annulled, in the molt lolemn manner ^tbe capitulation or charters figned by the tog on his acceffton to the throne ; abfolved hm, from all bi, engagements •, and cancelled all tbe bmuattons .m- nis engage • , ’Tbf. whole was concluded r/lr^emoTuSg Lmat tbe new «th »i«h g- ceremony t new form^of government was promulgated under th Royal Law of Denmark. , . r rhrlftlnn'V Frederic was fucceeded in:i67obyhis fon ChnftianV who ohhged the duke of Holbein Gottoip to renounce all the advantages he had gamed by the trea y °f child. He then recovered a number of plac 1 m o i u. . Vik aimv was defeated in u.c oio. uy Schonen j hue his XL of Sweden. This ^ “-e Cme0maftTof,tt duchy, had not the Engto and Putch fleets raifed tlje young king of Swede , Ch 1 m;ies of Co. than i6 y^^^totherlbw the duke of Hoi- penhagen^ bably WOUld have made himielf ma- ?em' f ConenhaS n had not his Danifli majefly agreed duke’s favour. himfelf to furnifh a body "of6troops, who were to be paid by t^conkd^rate^; and who afterwards did great Service ag petuai. Perprtuat Notwithflandi.-g th,s peace We « was jmpe^^ warGhh ly engaged m a wa- Athe S»ed«, ^ Holftein Sweden. was an exile at Bender, ne ;r Swedl0'd toTTky of stde! His7 troops, Bremen, and took t ^ted bv the Swedes at Ga- SlXlaidb^^UyoCAhenaUafl^ rariLmTnpd'fpnrg,Ls;e|;fnera,Co^ X aiming^'at the'lovereignty of all Scandinavra. Up- bittered fpint j but on the death of that prince, wl v.as killed at the fiege of Frederjcflial, rredenc dml net refufe the ofYer of his Britannic majefty s tried,ation between him and the crown of Sweden ; m confluence of which, a peace was concluded at Stockhnun, " - left him in poffeffion of the auchy of Slefw.ck. Tie- diic died in the year , 7.30, after hav.ng t^jxa before feen his capital reduced to allies by an acciden ,al fire His fo!, and fueceffor, Cbr.fuan Fredenc, made no other ufe of bis power, and the advantage. with which he mounted the throne, than >0 cultivat peace with all his neighbours, and to promote the «p- pinefs of all his Cubjccts, whom he eafed of many op- preffiva taxoa ^ ,he Pragpati.c Sane- tion,' Chrdlian fc«6poo men to the a(miar,ce of the cmneror during the difpute of the fuccefl.on to the crown of Poland. Though he was Pacific’ yet ie ^ iealous of his rights, efpecially over Tam, u , - obligedIbe Hamburghets ,0 call in the medm.on of PrufTia to abolifli their bank, to admit the c Demnatk as current, and to pay him a rnrUmn of fil- ver marks. He had, two years after, vj*. » I,o», difoute with his Bntanmc mayefty about the m loidibip of Steinhorft, which had been moitgaged to the latter by the duke of Holftein Lauenburg, and Sich Chriftian faid belonged .0 h.m. Spme blood r M 1 • • in which Chriitian, it is 2q was ipilt during i _ h It brought on, how-An advan- thought, never was in earneit. ^ oroug Brl.tageouS ever a treaty, in which he availed htmftlf of his B _ § ^kh predileaion for b,s Ge»» W -oTh krf ngS a year” o^condkion of keeping in 7SdX for tbe proteaion of Hanover : this wasf Dutch fttips for trading Soul his’ leave w Iceland : but the differ ence was made up by the -mediation of Sweden. _ Ghnttian naa fo greafa party in tha, kingdom, that 1 c Up Up tamnlal revive the union of Calmar, by ly thought he would re fuccelror lo his then Kiln ft Some tps for tha, putpole were bwtclnh y hatever Chriftian’s views might certainly take • b fru ft rated by the jealoufy no, bear^thrmgtoof Xl'^rlX/Xtaa'Iof beingke father of “ HU fon and fncceffor, Frederic V. had in I 743. maSdThe princefs Louifa, daughter ,0 h.s Brnanmc maieft, He 71. took "ok’onk.n, V happmels of nis people > -por ,t cent that of a mediator, in the German war. 1 or ■ t Pmmm' ther of Ms fucceffor, he married a daughter of the duke of Brunfwick Wolfonbuttel ^‘t his ^ ChUftiarVlT'X married the orincefs Carol™a MuT of England. But this alhance ptove^.a- z DEN [ 169 ] DEN Penmark. tremely unfortunate, which is generally afcribed to v ' the intrigues of the queen-dowager, mother-in-law to Intr^ues of^6 Pre^ent ^'nS* reprefented as ambitious, the dowa- artfui» and defigning ; and as one wrho wiflied to have ger, and fet afide the king himfelf in favour of her own fon Fre- misfortunes deric. On the arrival of the young queen, however, fire ot theyoung received her with much apparent affedfion, telling her qu^e i. the faults of her hulband, at the fame time promifing to affift her on all occafions in reclaiming him from his vicious couifes. Thus, under pretence of kindnefs and friendlhip, (lie fowed the feeds of diffenfion betwixt the royal pair, before the unfortunate princefs had the leaft fufpicion of her danger; and while the un¬ thinking queen revealed to the dowager all her fe- crets, the latter is faid to have placed fpies about the king to keep him conftantly engaged in riot and de¬ bauchery, to which he was at any time too much inclined. At laft it was contrived to throw a miftrefs in his w’ay, whom he was advifed to keep in his palace. —It was impoffible that any woman could pafs fuch a piece of conduft unnoticed $ however, in this affair, the queen-dowager behaved with her uiiial duplicity. In the abfence of the king, die pretended great refent- tnent againfl: him, and even advifed the queen not to live with him j but as foon as he returned, when his confort reproached him, though in a gentle manner, with his conduct, (he not only took his part, but in- lifted that it was prefumptuous in a queen of Den¬ mark to pretend to direft her hulband’s conduft. Not- withftanding this incendiary behaviour, the queen was in a fhort time reconciled to her hulhand, and lived on very good terms with him until fhe again excited the jealoufy of the dowager, by affirming to herfelf the direftion of that part of the public affairs which the dowager had been accuftomed to look upon as her own privilege. For fome time it feemed to be difficult For her to form any effe&ual plan of revenge, as the king had difplaced feveral of her friends wdro had for lome time had a ffiare in the adminiftration. Two new favourites, Brandt and Struenfee, had now appear¬ ed ; and as thefe paid great court to the queen, the dowager took occafion to infinuate, not only that the queen was harbouring improper defigns with regard to the government, but that ffie had an intrigue with Struenfee. The new minifters indeed behaved impru¬ dently, in attempting to make a reformation in feve¬ ral of the departments of the ftate at once, inftead of waiting patiently until an opportunity ffiould offer ; and in thefe precipitate fchemes they were certainly fupported by the queen. Thefe inftances of want of circumfpedion in the minifters were reprefented by the dowager and her party to be a fettled fcbeme to make an alteration in the government; and a defign was even fpoken of to fuperfede the king as being incapable of governing, to declare the queen regent during the minority of her fon, and to make Struenfee prime mi- nifter. T hus a very formidable oppofttion was formed againft Brandt and Stmenfee j and as the latter had made fome innovations in the military department as well as the civil, fome of the principal officers, who were the creatures of the dowager, reprefented him as defign¬ ing to overthrow the whole fyftem of government. When matters were brought to a proper bearing, it was at laft refolved to furprife the king in the middle Vol. VII. Part L , of the night, and force him inftantly to fign an order, Denmark, which was to be ready prepared, for committing the —"V— obnoxious perfons to feparate prifons, accufe them of high treafon in general, and particularly with a defign to dethrone or poifon the king. If this could not be properly authenticated, it was determined to fuborn witneffes to confirm the report of a criminal corre- fpondence between the queen and Count Struenfee. This defign was executed on the night of the 16th of January 1772, when a mafked ball was given at the court of Denmark. The queen, after having danced moft part of the night with Count Struenfee, retired to her chamber about two in the morning. About four the fame morning, Prince Frederic got up, and went with the queen-dowager to the king’s bed chamber, accompanied by General Eichftedt and Count Rantzau. Having ordered the king’s valet de chambre to awake him, they informed his majefty, that the queen, with Count Struenfee, his brother, and Brandt one of the new minifters, were at that moment bufy in drawing up an aft of renunciation of the crown, which they would immediately after compel him to fign; and therefore there was a neceffity for him to give an order for their arreftment. The king is faid to have hefitat- ed for fome time, and inclined to refufe this fcandalous requifition ; but at length, through importunity, and, according to fome accounts, being even threatened in¬ to compliance, he confented to what they required. Count Rantzau was difpatched at that untimely hour into the queen’s apartments, and immediately executed the orders of the king. The unfortunate princefs was conveyed in one of the king’s coaches to the caftle of Cronenburgh, together with the infant princefs, attend¬ ed by Lady Moftyn, and efcorted by a party of dra¬ goons. Struenfee and Bramdt were feized in their beds and imprifoned, as well as feveral other members of the new adminiftration, to the number of 18. The queen-dowager and her adherents feemed to affume the government entirely into their own hands, and a total change took place in the departments of adminiftration. The prince royal, fon of Queen Matilda, then in the fifth year of his age, was put under the care of a lady of quality who was appointed governefs, under the fuperintendency of the queen dowager, Struenfee and Brandt were put in irons, and very feverely treated : they underwent long and frequent examinations ; and Struenfee at laft confeffed that he had a criminal inter- courfe with the queen. Both their heads were ftruck Execution off on the 28th of April ; but many of their partifans of Struenfee were fet at liberty. The confeffion of Struenfee is by aiul ^andt, many, and indeed with no fmall degree of probability, fuppofed to have been extorted by fear of the torture, » and to have no foundation in truth ; but as no means were ufed by the court of Britain to clear up the queen’s charafter, the affair muft undoubtedly wear a fufpici- ous afpeft. At laft, however, his Britannic majefty interfered fo far as to fend a fmall fquadron of (hips to convey the unhappy princefs to Germany. Here the city of Zell was appointed for her refidence j and in this place ffie died of a malignant fever on the 10th of May 1775, aged 23 years and xo months. The inhuman treatment of this princefs did not long prove advantageous to the queen-dowager and her party:- A new revolution took place in April 1784, change i when the queen-dowager’s friends were removed, a the admini. Y new ftratioa. Denmark. • *4 , Divifion of the king¬ dom. 25 Language, religion, &c. 3.6 Covein ment. DEN [17 new council was formed under the aufpices of the prince royal, and no inftrument deemed authentic unlefs figg¬ ed by the king and counterfigned by the prince. Since that'time, the king, who from the beginning of his adminiftration fhowed a great degree, of incapacity, has been entirely laid afide from public bufinefs, and has no fhare in the government. The Danes en¬ gaged on the fide of Ruffia in her laft war with the Turks, the immediate opponent of Denmark being Sweden. . The kingdom of Denmark at prefent is divided into fix grand diftridls or provinces ; viz. 1. Denmark pro¬ perly fo called, comprehending the illands of Zealand, Funen, Langland, Laaland, Falflria, Mona, Samfoe, Arroe, Bornholm, Anhoult, Leffaw, and. that part of the continent called North Jutland. 2. 1 he duchy of Slefwick, or South Jutland. 3. The duchy of Hol- ftein. 4. The earldoms of Oldenburg and Delmenhorft. 5. The kingdom of Norway ; and, 6. Iceland, with the i(lands lying in the northern feas ; for a particular defcription of which fee thefe articles; The language of Denmark is a dialeft of the 1 eu* tonic, and bears a ftrong affinity to the No'rwegian tongue ; but is difagreeable to (Irangers, on account of the drawling tone with which it is pronounced. They have borrowed many words from the German , and indeed the High Dutch is ufed in common difcourfe by the court, the gentry, and the burghers. The bet¬ ter fort likewife underhand French, and fpeak it flu¬ ently. The Lutheran do&rine is univerfally embraced through all Denmark, Sweden, and Norway (o that there is not another feft in thefe kingdoms. Denmark is divided into fix diocefes, one in Zealand, one in Fu¬ nen, and four'in Jutland : but the bifhops are, proper¬ ly fpeaking, no other than fuperintendants, or prwn inter pares. They have no cathedrals, ecclefiaftical courts, or temporalities. Their bufinefs is to infpeft the doarine and morals of the inferior clergy. The re¬ venue of the bifliop of Copenhagen amounts to about sooo rixdollars •, and this is the richeft benefice in the kingdom. The clergy are wholly dependent on the government. They never intermeddle, and are never employed or confulted in civil affairs. They neverthe- Jefs have acquired great influence, and erefted a lort of fpiritual tyranny over the minds of the common people, by vdiom they are much revered. They are, generally fpeaking, men of exemplary lives, and feme erudition. Their churches are kept more clean, and better adorned, than thofe of England \ the people are great lovers of mufic, and their organifts commonly entertain the congregation for half an hour before and after fervice. The ftate of literature is very low in Denmark. There is, indeed, an univerfity at .Copen¬ hagen $ but meanly endowed, and very ill fupplied with matters. Tafte and the belles lettres are utterly un¬ known in this country, which yet has produced fome men of great eminence in mathematics and medicine j fuch as Tycho Brahe, Borrichius, and the Barthohnes. The conftitution of Denmark was heretofore of the flee Gothic original. The convention of the eftates, even including the reprefentatives of the boors or pea- fants, eleaed a king for his perfonal virtues, having flill a regard to the fon of their late monarch, whom, however, they made no fcruple of fetting afide, if they deemed him unworthy of the royal dignity. They o ] DEN enafted laws ; conferred the great offices of ftate j de- Denmark. bated all affairs relating to commerce, peace, war, and alliances 5 and occafionally gave their confent to the impofition of neceffary taxes. The king was no other than chief magiftrate, generaliffimo, and as it were prime minifter to his people. His bufinefs was to fee iuftice adminiftered impartially } to command the army in time of war } to encourage induftry, religion, arts, and fciences j and to watch over the interefts of his fubiedts. . , . In 1660, however, the conftitution was new model¬ led, as has been already related, and which was to the following purport. “ The hereditary kings of Den¬ mark and Norway fhould be in effedt, and ought to be efteemed by their fubjefts, the only fupreme head up¬ on earth •, they (hall be above all human laws, and ffiall acknowledge, in all ecclefiaftical and civil affairs, no higher power than God alone. The king ffiall enjoy the right of making and interpreting, the laws, of abrogating, adding to, and difpenfing with them. He may alfo annul all the laws which either he or his pre- deccffors ttiall have made, excepting this royal law, which mutt remain irrevocable, and be confidered as the fundamental lawT of the ftate. He has the power of declaring war, making peace, impofing taxes, and levying contributions of all forts, &c. &x. Then follow the regulations for the order of fuccef- fion. the regency in cafe of minority, the majority of the king, the maintenance of the royal family j and, after having enumerated all the poffible prerogatives of regal uncircumfcribed authority, as if fufficent had not yet been laid down, it is added in the 26th aiticle.. <( that we have hitherto faid of power and emi¬ nence, and fovereignty, and if there is any thing fur¬ ther which has not been exprefsly fpecified, ffiall all be comprifed in the following words: “ The king of Denmark and Norway ffiall be the hereditary monarch, and endued with the higheft authority •, infomuch, that all that can be faid and written to the advantage of a Chriftian, hereditary, and abfolute king, ffiall be extended under the moft favourable interpretation to the hereditary king and queen of Denmark and Nor¬ way,” &e. &c. 111 27 The laws of Denmark are fo concife, that, the whole Laws> &c<( body is contained in one quarto volume, written in the language of the country. Every man may plead his own caufe, without employing either ccunfel or attor¬ ney •, but there are a few advocates for the. benefit of thofe who cannot or will not fpeak in their own de¬ fence. The proceedings are fo fummary, that^a (uit may be carried through all the courts, and finally de¬ cided in 1 3 months. There are three courts in Den¬ mark, and an appeal lies from the inferior to the fupe- rior tribunal. The loweft of thefe is, in cities and towns, denominated the Byfoghds Court; and in the countrv, the Herredsfougds. Caufes may be appealed from this to the LanJIag, or general head court for the province *, but the final appeal lies to the court ot High right in Copenhagen, where.the king prefides in perfon, affifted by the prime nobility. The judges of the two other courts are appointed by his majefty’s letters patent, to fit and determine caufes durante bene placito. Thefe are puniffiable for any mifdemean- ours of which they may be guilty j and when conviaed of having paffed an unjuft fentence, they are condemned 0 -to DEN [ i Denmark, to make reparation to the injured party. Their falaries v~ are very inconfiderable, and paid out of the king’s trea- fury, from the fines of delinquents, befides a fmall gra¬ tuity from the plaintiff and defendant when fentence is paded. Such is the peculiar privilege enjoyed by the city of Copenhagen, that caufes appealed from the By- foglids court, inilead of palling through the provincial court, are tried by the burgomafter and common coun¬ cil ; from Whence they proceed immediately to the higheft court as the laft refource. Affairs relating to the revenue are determined in the rent-chamber of Denmark, which is analogous to our court of exche¬ quer. To another tribunal, compofed of fome mem¬ bers from this rent-chamber, from the admiralty, and college of commerce, merchants appeal for redrefs when their commodities are feized for non-payment of duties. All difputes relating to the fea are determined by the court of admiralty, conffituted of commiffioners appointed for thefe purpofes. The chancellary may be more properly termed a fecretary's office. It confifls of clerks, who write and ilfue all the king’s decrees and citations, tranfcribe papers, and according to the di- re&ions they receive, make draughts of treaties and alliances with other nations. The government of Den¬ mark is very commendable for the excellent police it maintains. Juftice is executed upon criminals writh great feverity j and fuch regulations are eftablifhed as effe&ually prevent thofe outrages that are daily com¬ mitted in other countries. No man prefumes to wag his tongue againft the government, far lefs to hatch fchemes of treafon. All the fubje&s are, or feem to be, attached to their fovereign by the ties of affeftion. Robbery on the highway, burglary, coining or clip¬ ping, are crimes feldom or never heard of in Den¬ mark. The capital crimes ufually committed are theft and manflaughter. Such offenders are beheaded very dexteroufly with one ftroke of a fword. The exe¬ cutioner, though infamous, is commonly rich ; be- caufe, befide the proper funftions of his office, he is em¬ ployed in other mean occupations, which few other perfons will undertake. He, by means of his under- ftrapper, called the prachcr, empties all the jakes, and removes from houfes, ftables, or ftreets, dead dogs, horfes, &c, which no other Dane would vouchfafe to 28 touch on any confideration whatever. The Danifh nobility and gentry are all included in the Danilh t!le term ; and formerly there were no diftinc- ^fubjedts. tions of title ; but within thefe 60 or 70 years fome few favourites have been dignified with the titles oicount and baron. Thefe, and thefe only, enjoy the privilege of difpofing of their eftates by will j though others may make particular difpofitions, provided they have fufficient intereft to procure the king’s approbation and lignature. The nobleffe of Denmark formerly lived at their own feats with great magnificence ; and at the conventions of eftates met the king with numerous and fuperb retinues; but fince he became abfolute, they are fo impoverifhed by exorbitant taxes, that they can hardly procure fubfiftence; but, for the moft part, live obfcurely in fome corner of their ruined coun¬ try palaces, unlefs they have intereft enough to pro¬ cure fome employment at court. They no longer in¬ herit the fpirit and virtues of their anceftors ; but are become fervile, indolent, oftentatious, extravagant, and oppreffive. 71 ] DEN Their general charafter is a ftrange compofition ofD enmark. pride and meannefs, infolence and poverty. If any gen- —- tleman can find a purchafer for his eftate, the king, by the Danifh laws, has a right to one-third of the pur- chafe-money ; but the lands are fo burdened with im- pofitions, that there would be no danger of an aliena¬ tion, even though this reftiiflion was not in force.-—* Nay, fome gentlemen in the ifland of Zealand have ac¬ tually offered to make a fiirrender to the king of large tra&s of very fertile land in the ifland of Zealand, if his majefty would be pleafed to accept of them in place of the impofitions laid on them. The reafon of this is, becaufe, by the law of Denmark, if any eftate is bur¬ dened beyond what it can bear, the owner muft make up the deficiency out of his other eftates, if he has any. Hence the king generally refufes fuch offers; and fome gentlemen have been tranfported with joy when they heard that his majefty had been “ gracioufly pleafed to accept their whole eftates.” This oppreflion of the nobles by the king produces in them a like difpofition to opprefs the commons ; and the confequence of all this is, that there is no part of the world where extravagance and diflipation reign to fuch a degree. The courtiers maintain fplendid equi¬ pages, wear fine clothes, drink a vaft quantity of Trench wine, and indulge themfelves with eating to excefs. Such as derive money from their employment, inftead of purchafing land in Denmark, remit their cafti to the banks of Hamburgh and Amfterdam. The merchants and burghers tread in the fteps of their fuperiors ; they fpend all their gains in luxury and pleafure, afraid of incurring the fufpicion of affluence, and being ftripped by taxation. The peafant, or boor, follows the fame example. No fooner has he earned a rix-dollar than he makes hafte to expend it in brandy, left it fflould fall into the hands of his oppreffive landlord. This lower clafs of people are as abfolute flaves as the negroes in the Weft Indies, and fubfift upon much harder fare. The value of eftates is not computed by the number of acres, but by the ftock of boors, who, like the timber, are reckoned a parcel of the freehold ; and nothing can be more wretched than the ftate of thefe boors ; they feed upon ftock-fifli, failed meats, and other coarfe diet; there is not the leaft piece of furniture of any value in their houfes, except feather-beds, of which there is great plenty in Denmark, and which are ufed not only as beds to lie on, but as blankets for covering. After the boor has toiled like a flave to raife the king’s taxes he muft pay the overplus of his toil to his needv land¬ lord. Should he improve his ground and repair his farm houfe, his cruel mafter will immediately tranfplaut him to a barren farm and a naked habitation, that he may let the improved ground to another tenant at a higher price. The peafants likewife fuftain a great deal, of damage and violence from the licentious foldiers that are quartered in their houfes. They are moreover obli¬ ged to furnifli horfes and waggons for the royal family and all their attendants, W’hen the king makes a progrefs through the country, or removes his refidence from one place to another. On fuch occafions the neigh¬ bouring boors are fummoned to affemble with their cattle and carriages, and not only to live at their own. expence, but to bear every fpecies of outrage from the meaneft lacquies of thofe who attend his majefty. The warlike Ipirit of the Danes no longer fubfifts; the com- Y ,2 mon DEN [ I72 3 DEN 49 Brefs, Sac Denmark. m0n people are mean-fpirited, fufpicious, and deceitful,, ' nor have they that talent for mechamcs, fo remarkable in fome northern nations. While the peafants are em- ployed in their labour without doors, the women are occupied at home in fpinning yarn for linen, which here made in great perfection. In Denmark all perfons of any rank above the vul¬ gar drefs in the French tafte, and aftea finery; the winter-drefs of the ladies is peculiar to the country, very neat, warm, and becoming. The common peo- ple^re likewife remarkably neat, and pride them- felves in different changes of linen. They are very little addled to jollity and diverfion- their whole amufements confift in running at the goofe on Shr v Tuefday, and in winter in being drawn in fledges up¬ on the ice. With refpea to marriage, the man and woman frequently cohabit together m contraCl long before the ceremony is performed-, the nobility and gentry pique themfelves on fumptuous burials and monuments for the dead-, the corpfe is very often kept in a vault, or in the chancel of a church, for feveral years, before an opportunity offers of celebra- ^The6 taverns in this country are poorly fupphed-, -and he who diets in them muft be contented eat ‘n a public room, unlefs he will condefcend to pay an ex¬ travagant price for a private apartment the metropo¬ lis is but indifferently furnifhed with game ; the wild ducks and plover are hardly eatable-, but the hares are good, and the markets fometimes produce tolerable roebuck-, their fea-fifh are not to be commended , but the rivers produce plenty of delicious carp, perch, an craw-filh -, the gardens of the gentry are well provided with melons, grapes, peaches, and all forts of greens and falads in perfeaion. . the troons The army of Denmark is compofed, I. ol the troops of Denmark and Holftein *, and a. of Norway. The forces of Denmark and Holftein are divided into regulars and national or militia. Thefe forces (the foot and horfe guards excepted, who are all regu¬ lars) are not feparated, as in our army, into diftindt regiments, but are formed m the following manner . Eefore the late augmentation, every regiment of in¬ fantry, when complete, confided of 26 officers and 1622y privates, divided into ten companies of fufileers and Jo of grenadiers. Of thefe 1632 privates, 480, who ar* chiefly foreigners enlifted m Germany, are regulars. The remaining 1152 afe the national mi- litfa or peafants who refide upon the eftates of their landholders, each eftate furniffiing a certain number m proportion Jo its value. Thefe national troops are occa- fionally exercifed in fmall corps upon Sundays and ho¬ lidays- and are embodied once every year foi about 1 7 afyTin their refpedV.ve diftriat. By a late add.t.cn o Jen men to each company, a regiment of infantry is increafed to 1778, including officers. The expence of each regiment, which Before amounted to 6°oo1- been raffed by the late augmentation to 8000I. The cavalry is upon the fame footing -, each regiment con¬ fiding of 17 officers, including ferjeants and corporals and C6? privates, divided into five fquadrons. _ Of thefe about 260 are regular, and the remainder national troons. The regiments of foot and horfe-guards are regulars; the former is compofed of 21 officers and 465 3° r Army of Denmark. men, in five companies; and the latter of 7 officers and De™™^ t ca men. in two fousdrons# 5 The forces of Norway are all national troops or militia excepting the two regiments of Sundenfield and Nordenfield j and as the peafants of that kingdom are free, the forces are levied in a different manner from thofe of Denmark. Norway is divided into a certain number of diftrias, each tvhereo furmte. a foldier. All the peafants are upon their birth, re- giftered for the militia; and the firft on the 1 ft up- plies the vacancy for the diftna to whlch ^ b^ngS* After having ferved from 10 to 14 years, they are ad¬ mitted among the invalids -, and when they have at¬ tained the feniority of that corps, receive their d.fm f. fion. Thefe troops are not continually under arms, but are only occafionally exercifed, like the national forces of Denmark. A fixed ilipend is affigned to the officers, nearly equal to that of the officers in the regularsT but thecommon foldiers do not receive any iay except when they are m aftual fcrvice, or perform- mg their annual manoeuvres. The Academy of Land Cadets, inftituted by Frederic IV. fnpphes the army with officers. According to this foundation 74 - dets are inftruaed in the military fciences at the ex pence of the king. The whole amount of the Damfli "Tom Si:: fi,r:;. the Danes have always excelled as a maritime people. In the earlier ages, then piracy was an honourable profeffion they were T race of plates, and iffued from the Baltic to the conquefts ol England and Normandy. And though, fince the improvement of navigation by the invention of the compafs, other nations have nfen to a greater degree of naval eminence, ftill, however, the Danes, asffiey inhabit a clufter of iflands, and poffefs a large A tradl of fea-coaft, are well verfed m maritime affaus and are certainly the moft numerous as well as the S^erfiparSXDtffiliy is fiarioned in the harbour of Copenhagen, which lies within the for¬ tifications-, the depth of water being only 20 feet, he ffiips have not their lower tier of guns on board, but take them in when they get out of port Befides large magazines, each veffel has a feparate ftorehoufe on§the water’s edge, oppofite to which ffie is moored when in harbour, and may by this means be mftantly equipped -, the number of regiftered feamen are near 40 000, and are divided into two claffes-, the firft com- nriffisthofe inhabiting the coafts, who are allowed to engage in the fervice of merchant-ffiips trading to any part of the world. Each receives 8s. annually from the crown as long as he fends a certificate of his be- the crown as | ^ tQ a recai in Cafe of war. Thelecond comprehends the fixed failors, who are companies*: .hey a.e^a.ioued a. CoP^hagen for the "S It Tt: re|vedsOC8s per month, bef.de a fufficieot quant.ty of ^ two years a coinpletc lull ox r0td eteS /ear bSes, flockings, (hoes, fod reap Sle^of them are lodged in barracks. When they fail, their pay is angmented to aos-^ I /J f Dali a fh’tfnrtitt.rr/ront Z.o/nJon \iX 3i Navy. 32 Revenue DEN [ i Denmark, month. The marine artillery confifls of 800 men, in Dennis. ^ four div;rionS- The whole navy confifts of 38 (hips of the line, in¬ cluding 9 of 50 guns and one of 44, and 20 frigates ; but if we except thofe which are condemned, and thofe which are allotted only for parade, we cannot eftimate that in 1779 the fleet confifted of more than 25 fhips of the line, and 15 frigates fit for fervice j a number, however, fully adequate to the fituation of Denmark : and if we include the excellence of the failors, it muft be efteemed as complete a navy as any in the north. The revenue of his Danifli majefty arifes from taxes laid on his own fubje&s, from the duties paid by fo¬ reigners, from his own eftate, crown lands, and con- fifcations. The taxes are altogether arbitrary, and therefore fluftuating j but they are always grievous to the fubjeft. They commonly confift of cuftoms or toll, for export and import j of excife upon the confump- tion of wine, fait, tobacco, and all kinds of provifions; of taxes upon marriages, paper, brewing, grinding, and the exercife of different profeflions ; of impofitions on land, poll-money, ground-rent for all houfes in Co¬ penhagen and elfewhere •, of money raifed for main¬ taining fortifications, and for a portion to the king’s daughter when flie happens to be married ; but this feldom exceeds 100,000 rix-dollars. One confiderable article in the revenue is the toll paid by foreign fhips that pafs through the Sound, or Ore Sound (the ftrait between Schonen and Zealand), into the Baltic. This was originally no other than a fmall contribution, which trading nations agreed to make for maintaining lights at certain places, to direft their courfe through the paflage in dark and ftormy weather. At the fame time thefe trading nations agreed, that every {hip fliould pafs this w’ay, and pay its fliare of the expence, rather than ufe the Great Belt, which is the other paflage, but un¬ provided with any fuch conveniency. In procefs of time'the Danes converted this voluntary contribution into an exorbitant toll, and even exafled arbitrary firms in proportion to the weaknefs of the nation whofe fhips they vifited. Thefe exadtions fometimes involved them in quarrels with their neighbours, and the toll was regulated in repeated treaties. DENNIS, John, the celebrated critic, was the fon of a reputable tradefman in London, and born in the year 1657. He received the firft branches of education at the great fchool in Harrow on the Hill, where he commenced acquaintance and intimacy with many young noblemen and gentlemen, who afterwards made confiderable figures in public affairs,, whereby he laid the. foundation of a very ftrong and extenfive intereft, which might, but for his own fault, have been of infi¬ nite ufe to him in future life. From Harrow7 he w7ent to Caius-college Cambridge ; where, after his proper itanding, he took the degree of bachelor of arts. When he quitted the univerfity, he made the tour of Eu¬ rope j in the courfe of which he conceived fuch a de- teftation for defpotifm, as confirmed him ftill more in taofe Whig principles which he had from his infancy imbibed. On his return to England he became early ac¬ quainted with Dryden, Wycherly, Congreve, and Southerne ; wdiofe converfation infpiring him with a paflion for poetry, and a contempt for every attainment that had not fomething of the lelles leltres, diverted 73 1 DEN him from the acquifition of any profitable art, or the exercife of any profeflion. This, to a man who had not an independent income, was undoubtedly a misfor¬ tune : how7ever his zeal for the Proteftant fucceflion having recommended him to the patronage of the duke of Marlborough, that nobleman procured him a place in the cuftoms worth tzol. per annum *, which he en¬ joyed for fome years, till from profufenefs and want of economy, he was reduced to the neceflity of difpofing of it to fatisfy feme very prefling demands. By the advice of Lord Halifax, however, he referved to him- felf, in the fale of it, an annuity for a term of years ; which term he outlived, and was, in the decline of his life, reduced to extreme neceflity. Mr Theo. Cibber relates an anecdote of him, wftffch we cannot avoid repeating, as it is not only highly cha- rafteriftic of the man whofe affairs we are now confi- dering, but alfo a ftriking and melancholy inftance, among thoufands, of the diftrefsful predicaments into which men of genius and literary abilities are perhaps apter than any others to plunge themfelves, by paying too flight an attention to the common concerns of life, and their own moft important interefts. “ After that he was worn out (fays that author) with age and po¬ verty, he refided wdthin the verge of the court, to pre¬ vent danger from his creditors. One Saturday night he happened to faunter to a public houfe, which in a ftiort time he difcovered to be without the verge. He was fitting in an open drinking-room, when a man of a fufpicious appearance happened to come in. There was fomething about thfe man which denoted to Mr Dennis that he w7as a bailiff. This ftruck him with a panic ; he w7as afraid his liberty was at an end ; he fat in the utmoft folicitude, but durft not offer to ftir left he fhould be feized upon. After an hour or two had paffed in this painful anxiety, at laft the clock ftruck twelve 5 when Mr Dennis, in an ecftafy, cried out, addreffing hitnfelf to the fufpe&ed perfon, “ Now, Sir, bailiff or no bailiff, I don’t care a farthing for you, you have no power now.” The man was afto- niffied at his behaviour j and when it was explained to him, w7as fo much affronted with the fufpicion, that had not Mr Dennis found his prote&ion in age, he would probably have fmarted for his miftaken opinion. A ftrong pi&ure of the effefts of fear and apprehen- fion, in a temper naturally fo timorous and jealous as Mr Dennis’s 5 of which the following is a ftill more whimfical inftance. In 1704 came out his favourite tragedy, “ Liberty Afferted in w'hich were fo many ftrokes on the French nation, that he thought they were never to be forgiven. He had worked himfelf into a perfuafion that the king of France would infill on his being delivered up, before he would confent to a peace y and lull of this idea of his own importance, when the congrefs was held at Utrecht, he is laid to have waited on his patron the duke of Marlborough, to defire that no fuch article might be ftipulated. The duke told him he had really no intereft then with the miniftry j but had made no fuch provifion for his owm fecurity, though he could not help thinking he had done the French as much injury as Mr Dennis himfelf. Another ftory relating to this affair is, that being at a gentleman’s houfe on the coaft of Suffex, and walking one day on the fea-lhore, he faw a Ihip failing, as he fancied, towards him j he inftantly fet out for London, Dennis. Denomina- Sd w'S ^^r0” coyed him down to his houfe, to furrender him up to tiop Denfity. the French* . Mr Dennis, partly through a natural peeviftmeis and petulance of temper, and partly perhaps for the fake of procuring the metpis of fubfiftence, was conti¬ nually engaged in a paper-war with his contemporaries, whom he ever treated with the utmoft fever,ty : and, though many of his obfervations were judicious, yet he ufually -conveyed them in language fo fcurrilous and abufive, as deftroyed their intended effe& *, and as his attacks were almoil always on perfons of-fupenor abi¬ lities to himfelf, viz. Addifon, Steele, and Pope, their replies ufually turned the popular, opinion fo greatly againft him, that, by irritating his tefty temper the more, it rendered him a perpetual torment to himielt; till at length, after a long life of viciffitudes, difappoint- ments, and turmoils, rendered wretched by tion, and hateful by malevolence, having outlived the reverfion of his eftate, and reduced to diftrels, from which his having been daily creating enemies nad lett him fcarcely any hopes of relief, he was compelled to what mull be the molt irkfome fituation that.can be conceived in human life, the receiving obligations from thofe whom he had been continually treating ill. In the very clofe of his days, a play was a£led for his benefit at the little theatre in the Hay-market, procu¬ red through the united interefts of Meffrs Thomion, Mallet, and Pope *, the laft of whom, tiotwithftandmg the grofs manner in which Mr Dennis had on ma^y occafions ufed him, and the long warfare that had lub- fifted between them, interefted himfelf very warmly for him ; and even wrote an occafional prologue to the play, which was fpoken by Mr Cibber. Not long after this, viz. on the 6th of January 1733, he died, being then in the 77th year of his, age. Mr Dennis certainly was poffeffed of much erudi¬ tion, and a confiderable lhare of genius. In profe he is far from a bad writer, where abufe.or perfonal icur- rility does not mingle itfelf with his language. In verfe, he is extremely unequal; his numbers being at fome times fpirited and harmonious, and his hibjects elevated and judicious-, and at others flat., harlh, and puerile.-—As a dramatic author, he certainly <3^65 not to be held in any confideration. It was juftly laid of him by a wit, that he was the moft complete m- ftru&or for a dramatic poet, fince he could teach him to diftinguilh good plays by his precepts, and bad ones by his examples. . , , , DENOMINATION (from denotnuio, ot de and.wo- men “ a name) a name impofed upon any thing, tiTually exprefling fome quality predominant therein. . DENOMINATOR, in Arithmetic, a term uled in fpeaking of fraaions. See Arithmetic, N.° 21. Denominator of a ratio, is the quotient anfing from the divifion of the antecedent by the confequent. 1 hus, 6 is the denominator of the ratio 30 to 5 *, became 30 divided by 5 gives 6. This is otherwife called the ex¬ ponent the ratio. DENSITY of Bodies, is that property diredtly oppofite to rarity, whereby they contain fuch a quan¬ tity of matter under fdch a bulk. Accordingly, a body is faid to have double or triple the denfity of another body, when their bulk being piC U1C Dsnsitt of the Air, is a property that has employ¬ ed the later philofophers, fince the difiyovery of the Torricellian experiment. It is demonflrated, that in the fame veffel, or even in veffels communicating with each other, at the fame diftance from the centre, the air has everywhere the fame denfity. The denfity of air, c^teru paribus m- creafes in proportion to the comprefling power. Hence the inferior air is denfer than the fuperior *, the denfity, however, of the lower air is not proportional to the weight of the atmofphere, on account of heat and cold, and other caufes perhaps, which make great alterations in denfity and rarity. However, from the elaftiaty ot the air, its denfity muft be always different at different heights from the earth’s furface *, for the lower parts being preffed by the weight of thofe above, will be Itenfity 11 . Dentifrice. oeing picucu uj r made to accede nearer to each other, and the more o as the weight of the incumbent air is greater. Hence the denfity of the air is greateft at the earth’s furface, and decreafes upwards in geometrical proportion to the altitudes taken in arithmetical progreffion. If the air be rendered denfer, the weight o. bodies in it is diminifhed ■, if rarer, increafed, becaufe bodies lofe a greater part of their weight m denfer than in rarer mediums. Hence, if the denfity of the air be fenfibly altered, bodies equally heavy in a rarer air, it their fpecific gravities be confiderably different will lofe their equilibrium in the denfer, and the fpecifically heavier body will preponderate. See Pneumatics. DENTALIUM, a fhell-fifh belonging to the order of vermes teftacea. See Conchology DENTARIA, tooth-wort, or Tooth-violet: A. genus of plants belonging to the tetradynamia clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 39th or¬ der, SiHquofte. See Botany Index. DENTATUS, Cuaius, a renowned diiinterelted Roman general, whofe virtues render him more me¬ morable than even his great military reputation, flou- riflied 272 years B. C. He was thrice coniul; he conquered the Samnites, Sabines, and Lucamans ; and gave each citizen 40 acres of land, allowing himielt no more. The ambaffadors of the Sammies making him a vifit, found him boiling turnips in a pipkin j upon which they offered him gold to come over to their intereft •, but he told them, his defign was not to grow rich, but to command thofe who were io. He defeated Pyrrhus near Tarentum, and received the ho¬ nour of a triumph. f , DENTELLA, in Botany : A genus ot plants be- longlnp to the pentandria clafi. See Botasv Index. DENTILES, or Dentils, in ArchteBure, an or¬ nament in corniches bearing fome refemblance to teet , particularly ufed in the Ionic and Corinthian oiders. See Architecture. „ , DENTIFRICE, in Medicine, a remedy mr the teeth. There are various kinds j generally made oi earthy fubftances finely pounded, and mixed with alum, or fome other faline fubftances: but theie are perni¬ cious on account of their wearing away the enamel of the teeth, but more efpecially by the luality with which thefe earthy fubftances are endowed. On this account, a portion of Peruvian bark finely pound- ed is now commonly added, which anfwers the double D E P [ , Dentifcal- purpofe of cleaning the teeth, and prefervlng them af- FA terwards from corruption. Dephieg r ^^^T'iSCALPRA, in Surgery, an inftrument for mation. louring yellow, livid, or black teeth ; to which being applied near the gums, it fcrapes off the foul morbid cruft. * ^NTITION, the breeding or cutting the teeth in children. See Medicine Index. DENUNCIATION, a folemn publication or pro¬ mulgation of any thing. . 411 veffels of enemies are lawful prizes, after denun¬ ciation or proclamation of war. The defign of the denunciation of excommunicated perfons is, that the fentence may be the more fully executed by the per- fon’s being more knowm. r Den uncut ion at the Horn, in Scots Law. See Law Index. DENYS THE little. See Dionysius. Dents, St, a famous town of France, in the de¬ partment of Pans. Here is an ancient and magnifi¬ cent church, in which were the tombs of many of the iretmh kings; and in the treafury, among other cu- riobties, the fwords of St Lewis and the Maid of Or¬ leans, and the fceptre of Charlemagne. The abbey of L-at tbe cart-wheel, cart, and horfes ; and in the third, the tree, is Deo dan- .t,0 be, g,ve,n to God»” that is, to the king, to be diftributed to the poor by his almoner, for expia¬ tion of this dreadful event ; though effefted by irra¬ tional, nay, fenfelefs and deadly creatures. movent ad m°rtem funt Deodanda ; hat moves to death, or kills him dead. Is Deodand, and forfeited. S “ b' 'lraitation of thi>' <" Exodus, LT r If ^ °X g°re a man or a woman with thC °X fha11 be ftoned to inno^nt ’’ 6 ^ 5 f° fhaI1 his owner be 'f5ys’ Deodand is to be fold, and the price diftnbuted to the poor, for the foul of the king his DEPHTFrMA^1 Pe°ple dtParted this f J HLEGMATION, is an operation by which tic fupcrabundan, „ater 0f a body ^ ,aken ^ ticated i! Depreca¬ tion. 75 ] D E P and it'S principally effeaed by evaporation or dillilla-DepMogif. ion. Dephlegmation is alfo called concentration par- ticularly when acids are the fubjeft. See Concen¬ tration. DEPHLOGISTICATED, in Chemiflry, any thing deprived of the phlogifton fuppofed to be contained in Dephlogist 1 catkd Air, is the fame with oxygen gas of modern chemiftry, and is an invifible elaftic uid, of fomewhat greater fpecific gravity than that of the common atmofphere, and capable of fupporting animal life and flame for a much longer time than the '/WcT ^ 7 brCathC' See0x¥GEN» Chemistry j Dtiri1LAJ°LRyMEDlCINES> thofe aPPlied in or¬ der to take off the hair : fuch are lime and orpiment known to be, but which ought to be ufed with great caution. 8 tn ‘m L4tin grammar> a ^rm applied to verbs which have a<3ive hgmfications, but paflive terminations or conjugations, and want one of their participles paflive. Dkfonent in tbe Law of Scotland, a perlon who makes a depofition. See Deposition. DEPOPULATION, the aft of diminifliing the number of people m any country, whether by war, difeafe, or political caufes. ^ * DEPOR1ATION, a fort of banifhment ufed by the Romans, whereby fome ifland or other place was allotted to a criminal for the place of his abode, with deaT^h111011 n0t t0 ftir °Ut °f the fame °n Pain of DEPOSIT, among civilians, fomething that is com¬ mitted to the cuftody of a perfon, to be kept without ret?rned again demand. DEPOSITARY, m Law, a perfon intruded as Keeper or guardian of a depofit. DEPOSITION, in Law, the teftimony given in court by a witnefs upon oath. Deposition is alfo ufed for the fequeflrating or depriving a perfon of his dignity and office. * his depofition only differs from abdication, in that the latter is fuppofed voluntary, and the a& of the diV nitary or officer himfelf; and the former of compul ion, being the aft of a fuperior power, whofe autho¬ rity extends thereto Some fay the depofition, and fome the abdication of King James II Depofition does not differ from deprivation : we cial 1^dc'fferentIy’ a deP°fcd or deprived biffiop, offi- Depofition differs from fufpenfion, in that it abfo- lutely and for ever ftnps or divefts a prieft, &c. of all dignity, office &c. whereas fufpenfion only prohibits, or reftrains, the exercile thereof. Depofition only differs from degradation, in that the latter is more formal, and attended with more urcumftances, than the former: but in effea and ftance tney are the fame; thofe additional circum* fiances being only matter of ffiow, firft let on foot out of zeal and indignation, and kept up by cuftom but -warranted by the laws or canons, ^ee D^gra- DEPRECATION, in Rhetoric, a figure whereby the orator invokes the aid and affiftance of fome one^ or D E P [ -r- s assist, sr Depth. l irTt CPRECATORY, or Dkprecativk, in TZieo/o- a term applied to die manner of performing fome ceremonies in the form of prayer. _ . , The form of abfolution is deprecative in the Greek church being conceived in thefe terms, M*y GoJ ,b- the vou: whereas it is in the declarative form in the Latiifchu.ch, and in fome of the reformed churches, 1 "nFPRESSION of the Pole. When a perfon fails or travels towards the equator, he is fold to deprefs the We • becaufe as many degrees as he approaches nearer , t. mrmv degrees will the pole be nearer the iwrizon. This phenomenon arifes from the fphe- or o/<*e So,,, is its diftance below the horizon ; and is meafored by an arc of a ver¬ tical circle, intercepted between the horizon and the Vifibh Horizon, or D>>e/tie Ho- rizon, denotes its finhing « e^e,b ting rffod ho,izontal plane ^ confeq-uenCe of which, t^t^-ft’objea is\y fo much too PRESSOR, or Deprimens, in Jnatomy,* name app^fd to feveral iufcles, becaufe they deprefs the parts ^DEPRIVATION, in the common law, the aft of bereaving divefting, or taking away a/p.ritual pro- bereavmg, -as when a bilhop, vicar, prebend, o^thTlike fs depofed or deprived of his pre^rment, ?or fome matter, or fault, in faa, or in law. See Da- P°Depriv*ation is of two kinds; 3 henofich, el ab offcio. Deprivation a benefmo is, when for fome great crime a minifter is wholly and for ever deprived of his living *0^ preferment ; which differs from fufpenfion, in that the latter is only temporary. . Deprivation ab officio is, when a mimfter is for ever deprived of his order*, which is the fame, m rea tv with what we otherwife call depofition and degra- J’ * \nd is ufually for fome heinous crime defervmg death,^and^is5performed by the bifoop in a foiemn man- ""dEPTFORD, a town of Kent in England, confi- deraMe for its fine docks and f“r '.’’^G^nwieh ftnrehoufes. It was anciently called Welt ^reenwien. ?, s d°^ded into Upper and Lower Deptford, and has two parifti churches. Here is an hofpital, ‘"c0^°r^ bv Henry VIII. called Trinity houfe of Dep.tord slrond The brethren of the Trinity Houfe hold their corporation "Vmote modern Rruaure “I ^ who have a handfome monthly allowumcm »;P'f“d fnnr m;ies eaft of London. E. Lon. 0. 4. N . i-at. 51-3U DEPTH, the meafure of any thing from the lur- ^MeoZZlfDeern, by .be Barometer, depends on the fame principles on which heights are roeafure y 76 1 D E R the fame inftrument. The menfuration of depths being chiefly u fti" mOretProefC,the0Uva ions the menfuration of heights, on account of the various kfodTlf vapours with which thefe fnbterraneous -gion are filled But for a particular account of theie dim culties, with the beft methods of obviating them, fee ■Rardmeter and IVIines. . . , dIptv of a Squadron, or Bat,chon is the num- ber of men in a file ; which in a fquadron is three, and in a battalion generally fix. See SquAORON, r'wefoy, the battalion was drawn up fix deep; the enemy’s horfe was drawn up five deep. DEPURATION, is the freeing of any Amd its heterogeneous matter or feculence. It is of three kinds * if Decantation; which is performed by lett ng the liquor to be depurated ftand for fome‘time m a pretty^deep veffel, till the grofs fediment has fallen to by pafling the fluid through cloth or porous paper. DEPURATORY tever, a name given by byden caufe*he fuppofod that pre¬ mised'b^propc1’ concoaion, for expulfion in a certain Le, either by a copious fweat or a freer perfpira- “deputation, a miffion of felefl Perf°’'5' °"J a company or body, to a prince or affembly, to 0fDEprUTY!'tpnearfon fent upon fome bufinefs by foEi5 Cp™ yU™ Afo one that exercifes an oflr.ee in ano¬ ther's right ; and the forfeiture or m.fdemeanour of f„c“ deputy (hall caufe the perfon whom he reprefeuts t0 DEPUTATUS, among the ancients, a name ap- £if:rSa^-«2; take care of the wounded m engagements, and y formerly pl^rwiere wUd beafts herded together fo called from the Saxon, deop, /era, unleis tne was near fome river. r Afi- ?n Ppvfia faid DERBEND, a ftrong town of Afia, in Pei , it are uic , r jt feated near the <-ai- pian'foa.'atthe foot of Mount Caucafus. E. Long. ^DERBv'ihfcapital of a county of the fame name • ? 1 J ’ It is thought to have received its name in England. It s th g ^ {qt deej. . and for being foimerly P more obable ;s> that the what makes this luPP f buchPcouchant in a park. arms of the ° been a ro;a, borough in the It is very ancient, hay g nrpfpnt it is a neat time of Edward the Confeffor At prefem ■ « _ town, very populous, and fends two membe D E R [ i Derby (lure l! ament. In digging for foundations of houfes, hu- D^relidb man ^one^ a monftr°us fize have fometimes been -i J-re>“C ‘ i found. I he trade confifts in wool, corn, malt, and ale, of which confiderable quantities are fent to Lon¬ don. Here aifo is that curious machine for throwing lilk, the model of which Sir Thomas Lombe, at the hazard of his life, brought from Italy. Before that time, the Englilh merchants ufed to purchafe thrown filks of the Italians for ready money. But by the help of this wonderful machine, one hand mill will twill: as much fdk as 50 people could do without it. It W’orks 73,726 yards of filk every time the w^ater-wheel goes round, which is thrice in a minute. The houfe in which it is contained is five or fix dories high, and half a quarter of a mile in length. When Sir Thomas’s patent expired in 1732, the parliament were fo fenfible of the value and importance of the machine, that they granted him a farther recompenfe of 14,000!. for the hazard and expence he had incurred in introducing and crediting it, upon condition he fhould allow an exadl model of it to be taken. This model is depofited in the d ower of London, in order to prevent fo curious and important an art from being loll. The town of Derby is watered by a river and a brook 5 the latter of W’hich has nine bridges over it, the former only one. Derby gives title of earl to the noble family of Stanley, being the fecond earldom in England. W. Long. 1. 45. N. Lat. 52. 57. DERBYSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on the call by Nottinghamfhire, and a part of Leicelter- fiiire, wLich lall bounds it alfo on the fouth. On the well it is bounded by StafFordfhire, and part of Che- fliire j and on the north by Yorklhire. It is near 40 miles in length from fouth to north ; about 30 in breadth on the north fide, but on the fouth no more than fix The air is pleafant and healthful, efpecially on the call fide ; but on the weft, about the Peak, it rs lharper and more fubjeft to wind and rain. The foil is very different in different parts of the country. In the call and fouth parts it is very fruitful in all kinds of grain 5 but in the weft, beyond the Derwent, it is barren and mountainous, producing nothing but a little oats. I here is, how:ever, plenty of grafs in the valleys, w-hich afford pallure to a great number of fheep. I his part of the county is called the fiom a Saxon word fignifymg “ an eminence.” Its mountains are very bleak, high, and barren ; but ex¬ tremely profitable to the inhabitants. They yield great quantities of the bell lead, antimony, iron, Icythe-ftones, grind-ftones, marble, alabaiier, a coarfe fort of cryftal, azure, fpar, and pit-coal. In thefe mountains are two remarkable caverns, named Pool's Hole, and Elden-Hole; for a defeription of which, fee thefe articles. DEREHAM, a town of Norfolk in England, fitu- ated in E. Long. 1. o. N. Lat. 52. 40. It is pretty laige, and the market is noted for woollen yarn. . DERELICT S (from de, and relirujuo, “ I leave”), in the civil law, are Inch goods as are wilfully throwm away, or relinquilhed by the owner. Derelict is alfo applied to fuch lands as the fea receding from leaves dry, and fit for cultivation. If they are left by a gradual recefs of the fea, they are adjudged to belong to the owner of the adjoining Ends; but when an ifland is formed in the fea, or a Vol. VII. Part I. 77 ] D E R large quantity of new land appears, fuch dereli£l lands Derham belong to the king. || DERHAM, Dr V illiam, a very celebrated ^ Engliftr philolopher and divine, born in 1657. In , - ^— 1682, he was prefented to the vicarage of Wargrave in Berklhire ; and in 1689, to the valuable redlory of Upmin(ter in Effex j which latter lying at a conveni¬ ent diftance from London, afforded him an opportu¬ nity of converfing and coirelponding with the greateft virtuofos of the nation. Applying himfelf there w ith great eagernefs to natural and experimental philofo- phy, he foon became a diftinguiftied member of the Royal Society, w'hofe Philofophical Tranfadlions con¬ tain a great variety of curious and valuable pieces, the fruits of his laudable induftry. In his younger years he publiftied his Artificial Clockmaker, which has been often printed: and in 1711, 1712, and 1714, he pleached thofe fermons at Boyle’s ledlure, which he afterwards digefted under the well known titles of Phyjico-Theology and Sl/lro-Theology, and enriched with vamable notes and copper-plates. The laft: thing he publifhed of bis own compofition was Chri/lo-Tbeo/ogy, a demonftration of the divine authority of the Chriftfan religion, being the fubftance of a fermon preached at Bath in 1729. This great good man, after (pending his life in the moft agreeable as well as improving ftu- dy of nature, died at Upminfler in 1735 : and be- fides inany other wmrks, left a valuable colleftion of cu- riofities,^ particularly fpecimens of birds and infedls of this ifiand.—It may be neceffary j’uft to obferve, that Dr Derham^ was very well Ikiiled in medical as well as in pbyiical knowledge ; and was conftantly a phyfician to the bodies as well as the fouls of his parifhioners. DERIVATION, in Medicine, is when a humour which cannot conveniently be evacuated at the part af¬ fected, is attracted from thence, and difeharged elfe- where ; thus a blifter is applied to the neck to draw aw'ay the humour from the eyes. n I)erivatioN, in Grammar, the affinity one w’ord has with another, by having been originally formed from it. See Derivative. DERI VAT IVE, in Grammar, a word which takes its origin from another word, called its primitive. Such is the word derivative itfelf, which takes its origin from the primitive rivus, a rivulet or chan¬ nel, out of which leffer rtreams are drawn ; and thus manhood, deity, lawyer, &c. are derived from man, deus, law, &c. DERMESTES, a genus of infe&s belonging to the order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index. DERNIER resort. See Resort. DEROGA I ION, an a£l contrary to a preceding one, and which annuls, deftroys, and revokes it, either in whole or in part. DEROGA 1 OR^ , a claufe importing derogation. A derogatory claufe in a teftament, is a certain fen- tence, cipher, m fecret charpdTer, which the teftator inferts in his will, and of which he -referves the know¬ ledge to himfelf alone, adding a condition, that no will he may make hereafter is to be reckoned valid, if this derogatory claufe is not inferted exprefsly and word for ward. It is a precaution invented by lawyers againft latter-wills extorted by violence, or obtained by fuggeftion. Z DERPS D E R [ Berp II. Dervis. DERP, a town of Livonia, and capital of a palati¬ nate of the fame name, with a bifhop’s fee and an uni- verfity. It is fubjeft to the Ruffians, and lies near t e river Ambeck. E. Long. 31. 55- N. Lat. 30. 40. DERTONA, Derton, or Dertbon, m Ancient Geography, a colony of the Cifpadana j called Ju m Augujla on infcriptions and coins-, midway between Genoa and Placentia, and fituated to the eaft of the Tanarus in Liguria. Now Tortona, a city of Milan. E. Long. 9. 12. N. Lat. 45- . , •_ 1 r DERTOSA, in Ancient Geography, the capital, ot the Hercaones, in Tarraconenfis, or the Hither Spam : a municipium and colony ; furnamed >//* Ilergavoma (Coins'). Dertofani, the people. Now Tortofa, m Catalonia, on the Ebro. E. Long. 15. N. Lat. 40. 45. DERVENTIO, in Ancient Geography, a river ot the Brigantes in Britain. Now the Darwent, in the eaft of Yorklhire, falling into the Oufe. Alfo a town of the Brigantes on the fame river. Now called Auldby, feven miles from York, to the north-eaft (Camden). DERVIS, or Dervich, a name given to a lort pt monks among the Turks, who lead a very auftere life and profels extreme poverty, though they are allowed to marry. The word is originally Perfian, * nifying a “ beggar,” or “ perfon who has nothing . and becaufe the religious, and particularly the follow¬ ers of Mevelava, profefs not to poffefs any thing, they call both the religious in general, and the Mevelavites in particular, Bervifes or Dervicbes. . The dervifes, called alfo Mevelavites, are a Maho¬ metan order of religious the chief or founder where¬ of was one Mevelava. They are now very numerous. Their chief monaftery is that near Cogna in Natolia, where the general makes his refidence, and where aft the affiemblies of the order are held the other houfes being all dependent on this, by a privilege granted to this monaftery under Ottoman I* . The dervifes affe£! a great deal ofmodefty, patience, humility, and charity. They always go bare-legged and open-breafted, and frequently burn themfelves with hot irons, to inure themfelves to patience. rh(T a " ways faft on Wednefdays, eating nothing on thofe days till after funfet. Tuefdays and Fridays they hold meetings, at which the fupenor of the houfe pre- fides. One of them plays all the while on a flute, and the reft dance, turning their bodies round and round with the greateft fwiftnefs imaginable. Long cuftom to this exercife from their youth has brought them to fuch a habitude, that it does not difcompofe them at all This praftice they obferve with great ftrictneis, in memory of Mevelava their patriarch’s turning mi- raculoufly round, as they pretend, for the fpace of four days, without any food or.refrefhment ; his companion Hamfa playing all the while on the flute *, after whic i he fell into an ecftafy, and therein received wonderful revelations for the eftablifhment of his order They believe the flute an inftrument confecrated by Jacob and the ffiepherds of the Old Teftament oecau e they fang the praifes of God upon them They profefs po¬ verty, chaftity, and obedience, and really obferve them while they remain dervifes : but it they choofe to go out and marry, they are always allowed. The generality of dervifes are mountebanks : iome apply themfelves to legerdemain, poftures, &c. to arau.e 78 ] D E S the people j others give in to forcery and magic: but all Dervu - .r 1 _ . _ arp lain to tne people j uiiicij v j 0 r * a + of them, contrary to Mahomet’s precept, are iaid .to drink wine, brandy, and other ftrong liquors, to give them the degree of gaiety their order requires. Befide their great faint Mevelava, there are particu¬ lar faints honoured in fome particular monafteries: as Kiderele, greatly revered in the monafteries of Egypt, and held by fome to be St George ; and by others, with more probability, the prophet Elias. The dervifes are great travellers ; and, under pre¬ tence of preaching, and propagating their faith, are continually paffing from one place to another:.on which account they have been frequently ufed as fpies. There are alfo dervifes in Perfia, called in that coun¬ try Abdals, q. h.fervants of God. They lead a. very penurious, auftere life, and preach the Alcoran m the ftreets coffee-houfes, and wherever they can meet with auditors. The Perfian dervifes retail little but fables to the people, and are in the utmoft contempt among the men of fenfe and letters. , r , There are in Egypt two or three kinds $ thole that are in convents, are in a manner of the religious or¬ der and live retired ; though there are of thele iome who travel and return again to their convents. Some take this charaaer, and yet live with their families, and exercife their trades *, of this kind are the dancing dervifes at Damafcus, who go once or twice a-week to a little uninhabited convent, and perform their extra¬ ordinary exercifes ; thefe alfo feem to be a good peo¬ ple • but there is a third fort of them who travel about the country, and beg, or rather oblige people to give, for whenever they found their horn fomethmg mult be given them. The people of thefe orders, m Egypt, wear an odagonal badge, of a greemffi white alabafter, at their girdles, and a high ftiff cap without any thing round it. ^ , • DESAGUILIERS, John Theophilus, who in¬ troduced the praftice of reading public lectures in expe¬ rimental philofophy in the metropolis, and who made feveral improvements in mechanics -, was the fon of the reverend John Defaguiliers, a French Proteftant refu¬ gee, and was born at Rochelle in 1683. His father brought him to England an infant; and at ^ proper age placed him at Chrift-Church College, Oxford ; where he fucceeded Dr Keil in reading leftores on experimental philofophy at Hart-Hall. The magni¬ ficent duke of Chandos made Dr Defaguibers his chaplain, and prefented him to the living ot Edgeware, near his feat at Cannons: and he was afterwards chap¬ lain to Frederic prince of Wales. He read, leftures with great fuccefs to the time of his death in 1749- He communicated many curious papers printed in the Philofophical Tranfaftions; publiffied a valuable Courje of Experimental Philofophy, in 2 vols 4to : and gave an edition of Gregorfs Elements of Catoptrics and Dioptrics, with an Appendix on refleamg telefcopes 8vo. He was a member of the Royal Society, and of feveral fo¬ reign academies. i u DESART a large extent of country entirely bar- ren, and producing nothing. In this fenfe forae arc Tandy defarts; as thole of Lop, Xamo, Arabia, and feveral others in Af.a i in Africa, thofe of Libya and Zara : others are (tony, as the defart of Pharan in A- rabia Petrea. tre D E S [ t Dcfart 'The DESARr, properly fo called, is that part of ■npiLnf -^rab‘a> Iduth of the Holy Land, where the children i 1. of Ifrael wandered forty vears. DESCANT, in Mujtc, the art of compofing in fe- veral parts. See Composition. Defcant is three-fold, viz. plain, figurative, and double. » Plain Descant is the ground-work and foundation of all muiical compofitions, confiding altogether in the orderly placing of many concords, anfwering to fimple counterpoint. See Counterpoint. Figurative or Florid Descant, is that part of an air of mufic wherein fome difcords are concerned, as well, though not fo much, as concords. This may be term¬ ed the ornamental and rhetorical part of mufic, in re¬ gard that there are introduced all the varieties of points, fyncopes, diverfities of meafures, and whatever is capable of adorning the compofition. Descant Double, is when the parts are fo contrived, that the treble, or any high part, may be made the bafs ; and, on the contrary, the bafs the treble. DESCARTES. See Cartes. DESCENDANT. The iffue of a common parent, m infinitum, are called his defcendants. See the article Descent. DESCENSION, in AJlronomy, is either right or •blique. Ri%ht Descension, is an arch of the equino£Hal, in¬ tercept d between the next equinoaial point and the interfeaion of the meridian, pairing through the centre of the objea, at its fetting, in a right fphere. Oblique Descension, an arch of the equinoaial, inter¬ cepted between the next equinoaial point and the horizon, paffing through the centre of the objea, at its letting, in an oblique fphere. DESCENT, in general, is the tendency of a body from a higher to a lower place ; thus all bodies, unlefs otherwife determined by a force fuperior to their gra¬ vity, defcenu towards the centre of the earth. See Gravity and Mechanics. Descent, or Hereditary Succejion, in Law, is the title whereby a man, on the death of his anceftor, ac¬ quires his eftate by right of reprefentation, as his heir at law. An heir, therefore, is he upon whom the law cafts the eftate immediately on the death of the anceftor: and an eftate fo defcending to the heir is in law called the inheritance. Defcent is either lineal or collateral. The former is that conveyed down in a right line from the grandfather to the father, and from the father to the fon, and from the fon to the grandfon. The litter is that fpringing out of the fide of the line or blood } as from a man to his brother, nephew or the like. The doctrine of defcents, or law of inheritances in fee-fimple, is a point of the higheft importance : (See the article Fee). All the rules relating to purchafes, wdiereby the legal courfe of defcents is broken and al¬ tered, perpetually refer to this fettled law of inheritance, as a datum or firft principle univerfally known, and upon which their fubfequent limitations are to work. Thus a gift in tail, or to a man and the heirs of his body, is a limitation that cannot be perfectly underftood with¬ out a previous knowledge of the law of defcents in fee- finiple. One may well perceive, that this is an eftate confined in its defcent to fuch heirs only of the donee 79 1 D E s as have fprung or ftiall fpring from his body: but who Defcent. thofe heirs are, whether all his children both male and v female, or the male only, and (among the males) whe¬ ther the eldeft, ybungeft, or other fon alone, or all the fons together, ihall be his heir ; this is a point that we muft refult back to the ftanding law of defcents in fee- fimple to be informed of. And as this depends not a little on the nature of kindred, and the feveral degrees of confanguimty, it will be neceffary to refer the reader to the article Con- sanguinity, where the true notion of this kindred or alliance in blood is particularly ftated. We ftiall here exhibit a feries of rules or canons of inheritance, with illuftrations, according to which, by the law of England, eftates are tranfmitted from the anceftor to the heir. i. “ Inheritances (hall lineally defcend to the ifiue of the perfon laft adually feifed in injinitum, but Ihall never lineally afcend. To underftand both this and the fubfequent rules, it muft be obferved, that by law no inheritance can veft, nor can any perfon be the aftual complete heir of ano¬ ther, till the anceftor is previoufiy dead. Nemo ejl ha¬ res viventis. Before that time, the perfon who is next in the line of fucceflion is called heir apparent, or heir prefumptive. Heirs apparent are fuch whole right of inheritance is indefeafible, provided they outlive the anceftor ; as the eldeft fon or his iffue, who muft, by the courfe of the common law, be heirs to the father whenever he happens to die. Heirs prefumptive are fuch, who, if the anceftor Ihould die immediately, would in the prefent circumftances of things be his heirs ; but whofe right of inheritance may be defeated by the con¬ tingency of fome nearer heir being born : as a brother or nephew, whofe prefumptive fucceffion may be de- ftroyed by the birth of a child $ or a daughter, whofe prefent hopes may be hereafter cut off by the birth of a fon. Nay, even if the eftate hath defcended, by the death of the owner, to fuch a brother, or nephew, or daughter ; in the former cafes, the eftate fliall be di¬ verted and taken away by the birth of a pofthumous child ; and, in the latter, it Ihall alfo be totally divert¬ ed by the birth of a pofthumous fon. We muft alfo remember, that no perfon can be pro¬ perly fuch an anceftor as that an inheritance in lands or tenements can be derived from him, unlefs he hath had aflual feifin of fuch lands, either by his own entry, or by the poffeffion ot his own or his anceftor’s leffee for years, or by receiving rent from a leffee of the freehold : or unlefs he hath what is equivalent to corporal feifin in hereditaments that are incorporal; fuch as the receipt of rent, a prefentation to the church in cafe of an advowfon, and the like. But he ftiall not be accounted an anceftor who hath had only a bare right or title to enter or be otherwife feifed. And therefore all the cafes which will be mentioned in the prefent article, are upon the fuppofition that the de- ceafed (whofe inheritance is now' claimed) was the laft perfon aftually feifed thereof. For the law requires this notoriety of poffeflion, as evidence that the ance- Comment, ftor had that property in himfelf, which is now to be tranfmitted to hL heir. Which notoriety hath fucceed- ed in-the place of the ancient feodal inveftiture, where¬ by, while feuds w'ere precarious, the vaffal on the de¬ fcent of lands was formerly admitted in the lord’s court Z 2 (as D E 5 ' [ Bcfcent fas is (Ml Me praaice in Scotland) ; and therefore re- ceived his feifin, in the nature of a renewal of hr, an- ceftor’s grant, in the pretence of the feodal peers . t 1 at length, when the right of fncceffion became rndefea- fible, “an entry on any part of the lands »lMm ‘he county (which if difputed was afterwards to be tried , „ oeersl, or other notorious poffedion, was ad- mhted asPequi»alent to the formal grant of feifin, and made the tenant capable of tranfmming his eftate by defcent. The feifin therefore of any perfon, thus u„- derftood, makes him the root or (lock from wtoch all future inheritance by right of blood mult be derived which is very briefly expreffed in this maxim, feifina ■^V^en "therefore a perfon dies fo feifed, the mherl- tacce firft goes to his ilfue : as if there be Geoffrey, John, and Matthew, grandhther, father, and fon ^nd fohn purchafes lands and dies; his fon Matthew ihall fucceed him as heir, and not the grandfather Geoffrey t to'*whom the land lhall never afcend, but lhall rather efeheat be admitted before the fe- m.,k ” Thus fons (hall be admitted before daughters ; or, as our male lawgivers have Yn'XbTnre- fanh’v exnreffed it, the worthreft of blood (hall be pre Lied As if John Stiles had two fons, Matthew and Gilbert, and Jo daughters, Margaret and Chariot e j a- r . firft Matthew, and (m cale or his dear “iltiffue) th^Gilbert U be admitted to the fucceflion in preference to both the daughter.. , ii Where there are two or more males in equal de- 3' ,V„. elded only (liall inherit; but the females al together.” As if a man hath two fons, Matthew and cflhert and two daughters, Margaret and Charlotte d dies ; Matthew his eldeft (on (hall alone fucceed « his edate, in excluf.on of Gilbert the fecond fon and both the daughters ; but if both the Tons die w,,h- ou ilfue before the father, the daughters Margaret and Charlotte (hall both inherit the edate as copal- Cen,erV. The lineal defeendants, m hfimm, of any uerlim deceafed, (hall reprefent their ancedor ; that l (hall dand in the fame place as. the perfon him elf would have done had he been living.” Thus the , hild grand-child, or great-grand-child (either male or female I of the eldell fon, fucceeds before the younger fori and fo In infinitum. And thefe reprefentat.ves |S, iake neither more nor lefs, but jud fo much as rteir principals would have done. As if there be two f|ftersP Margaret and Charlotte; and Margaret dies, S ’ fix daughters ; and then John SMes the lather of the8 two fiders dies without other ilTue , thefe (i dauVhteis fliall take among then, exaflly the fame as their mother Margaret would have d°ne’ living : that is, a moiety of the lands of John bilks in coparcenary : fo that, upon partition made if the land be divided into twelve parts, thereof Charlotte the furviving filter (hall have fix, and her fix nieces, the daughters of Margaret, one a-piece. rg “ On failure of lineal defeendants, or iffue of he nerion laft feil'ed, the inheritance lhall defeend to die blood of the firft purchaler ; fubjea to the three pre¬ ceding rules.” Thus, if Geoffrey Stiles purchafes hnl, and it defeends to John Stiles hrs fon and John dies feifed thereof without iffue ; whoever fucceed* i go 1 D E S this inheritance mu ft be of the blood of Geoffrey, the Defceet. firft purchaler of this family. The firft purchafer, perquijitor, is he who firft acquired the eftate to his fa¬ mily, whether the fame was transferred to hrni by Gle, or by gift, or by any other method, except only that 0t ^‘‘The collateral heir of the perfon laft feifed mull be bis next collateral kinfman of the whole blood. Firft he muft be his next collateral kinfman either perfonally or jure reprefentationis ; which proximity is reckoned^ according to the csnonical ^ “ e "hL fanguinity: See Consanguinity. Tbm^fore the brother being in the firft degree, he and his defeen - ants lhall exclude the uncle and his iffue, who is on y in the fecond.—Thus, if John Stiles dies without iffue his eftate lhall defeend to Francis his brother, who lineally delcended Irom Geoffrey Stiles, his next im¬ mediate ancellor or father. On failure of brethren or fillers and their iffue, it fhall defeend to the uncle o John Stiles, the lineal defendant of his grandfather George ; and fo on in wfimtim. But, fecondly, the heir need not be the neared kin^ man ablolutely, but only >6 ,h=‘.h' ““e be the neareft kinfman ol the whole blood , lor if there be a much nearer kinfman of the W/blood a diftan kinfman of the whole blood lhall be admitted, and the ether entirely excluded. A kinfman of the whole blood is he that is derived, not only from the fame anceftor, but from the fame couple of anceftors For as every man’s own blood is compounded of the bloods of his refpeftive anceftors, he only is properly of the whole or entire blood with another who hath (fo far as the diftance of degrees will permit) all the lame mgredients in the compofition of his blood that the other hat * Thus, the blood of John Stiles being compofed of thofe of Geoffrey Stiles bis father, and Lucy Baker his mo¬ ther, therefore his brother Francis, being descended from both the lame parents hath entireiy the fame blood with John Stiles; or he is ^ brother of the whole blood. But if, after the death of Geoff^y L - cy Baker the mother marries a fecord bulland, : Gay, and hath iffue by him : the blood of this iffue being compounded of the blood of Lucy Baker (it is true) on the one part, but that of Lewis Gay (inftead of Geoffrey Stiles) on the other part, it bath therefore only half the fame ingredients with that of John S > fo that he is only his brother of the half blood, and lor that reafon they (hall never inherit to ea'h L alfo, if the father has two fons, A and B, by difttre venters or wives; now thefe two brethren are not bre¬ thren of the whole blood, and therefore fhall never in¬ herit to each other, but the eftate lhall rather efeheat t the lord. Nay, even if the father dies, and his land defeend to his7 eldeft fon A, who enters thereon, and dies feifed without iffue ; Hill B ^11 not be he^o this eftate becaufe he is only of the half blood to A, the perfon laft feifed : bu. had A died fjf, B might have inherited ; not as heir t brother, but as heir to their common father, who was tHp oerfon Isift a6iu3lly fciicd* , . The rule .hen, together with its ! t0this Thatin etder to keep Me efta e o Joh^S.,^ Z'Cl muftPd“ndm.o';h=Tirueof th/neateft coupje of anceftors that have left defeendants behtnd themq Koto cjlxc; Defcent D E S [ , becaufe tlie defcendants of one anceftor only are not fo likely to be in the line of that purchaling anceftor as thofe who are-defcended from two. But here a difficulty arifes. In the fecond, third, fourth, and every fuperior degree, every man has many couples of anceftors, increafmg according to the diftances in a geometrical progreffion upwards, the de¬ fcendants of all which refpeftive couples are (repre- fentatively) related to him in the fame degree. Thus, m the fecond degree, the ilTue of George and Cecilia Stiles and of Andrew and Either Baker, the two grandlires and grandmothers of John Stiles, are each in the fame degree of propinquity 5 in the third degree, the refpeftive ifiues of Walter and Chriftian Stiles, of Luke and Frances Kempe, of Herbert and Hannah Baker, and of James and Emma Thorpe, are (upon the extinflion of the two inferior degrees) all e- quaily entitled to call themfelves the next kindred of the whole blood to John Stiles. To which therefore of thefe anceflors muft we firft refort, in order to find out defcendants to be preferably called to the inheri¬ tance > In anfwer to this, and to avoid the confufion and uncertainty that might arife between the feveral flocks wherein the purchafing anceftor may be fought for.— 7. The feventh and laft rule or canon is, “ That in collateral inheritances the male flocks lhall be prefer¬ red to the female (that is, kindred derived from the blood of the male anceftors {ball be admitted before thofe from the blood of the female j)—unlefs where the lands have in fa£I defcended from a female.— J bus the relations on the father’s fide are admitted in infinitum, before thole on the mother’s fide are admit¬ ted at all ; and the relations of the father’s father, be¬ fore thofe of the father’s mother j and fo on. For the original and progrefs of the above canons, the reaions upon which they are founded, and their agreement with the lawTs of other nations, the curious leader may confult Blackjlone1 s Commentaries, vol. ii. p. 208—237. We lhall conclude with exemplifying the rules them- .lelves by a fhort fketch of the manner in which w7e muft fearch for the heir of a perfon, as John Stiles, w'ho aies feifed of land which he acquired, and which theiefore he held as a feud of indefinite antiquity. See the Table of Dsscsnts on Plate CLXIX. ^ In the firft. place fucceeds the eldeft fon, Matthew otiles, or his iffue, (Ne 1.) :—If his line be extindl, «.hen Gilbert Stiles and the other fons refpe£lively, in order of birth, or their iffue, (N° 2.) in default of thefe, all the daughters together, Margaret and Char¬ lotte Stiles or their iffue, (N° 3.) On the failure of the defcendants of John Stiles himfelf, the ilfue of Geoffrey and Lucy Stiles, his parents, is called in ; viz. firft, Francis Stiles, the eldeft brother of the whole blood, or his iffue, (N° 4.) then Oliver Stiles, and the other whole brothers refpeftivelv, in order of birth, or their iffue, (N° 5.) then the fifters of the whole blood altogether, Bridget and Alice Stiles, or their iffue, (N° 6.).—In deleft of thefe, the iffue of George and Cecilia Stiles, his father’s parents ; refpeft being ftill had to their age and fex, (N° 7.) : then the iffue of Walter and Chriftian Stiles, the parents of his paternal grandfather, (N° 8.) then the iffue of Kjehard and . Anne Stiles, the parents of his paternal 81] D E S grandfather’s father, (N° 9.) and fo on in the pater¬ nal grandfather’s paternal line, or blood of Walter Stiles, in infinitum. In defeft of thefe the iffue of William and Jane Smith, the parents of his paternal grandfa¬ ther’s mother, (N° 10.) :—and fo on in the paternal grandfather’s maternal line, or blood of Chriftian Smith, in infinitum ; till both the immediate bloods of George Stiles, the paternal grandfather, are {pent.-— I hen we muft relort to the iflue of Luke and Frances Kempe, the parents of John Stiles’s paternal grandmo¬ ther, (N II.) :—then to the iffue of Thomas and Sa¬ rah Kempe, the parents of his paternal grandmother’s father, (N 12.) :—and fo on in the paternal grand¬ mother’s paternal line, or blood of Luke Kempe, in in¬ finitum. In default of which, we muft call in the iffue of Charles and Mary Holland, the parents of his pa¬ ternal grandmother’s mother, (N° 13.) : and fo on in the paternal grandmother’s maternal line, or blood of Frances Holland, in infinitum; till both the immediate bioods of Cecilia Kempe, the paternal grandmother, are alfo fpent.—Whereby the paternal blood of John Stiles entirely failing, recourfe muft then and not be¬ fore, be had to his maternal relations ; or the blood of the Bakeis, (N° 14, 15, 16.), Willis’s (N° 17.) Thorpe’s (N° 18. 19.), and White’s (N° 20.) ; in the fame regular fucceflive order as in the paternal line. The ftudent fttould bear in mind, that during this whole procefs, John Stiles is the perfon fuppofed to have been laft aftually feifed in the eftate. For if ever it comes to veil in any other perfon, as heir to John Stiles, a new order of fucceflion muft be obferved up¬ on the death of fuch heir; fince he, by his own feifin, now becomes himfelf an anceftor, oxfiipes, and mufl be put in the place of John Stiles. Fhe figures-there¬ fore denote the order in which the feveral claffes would fucceed to John Stiles, and not to each other; and be¬ fore we fearch for an heir in any of the higher figures, (as N° 8 ) we muft firft be affured that all the^ow’er claffes from (N° 1. to 7.) were extinft at John Stiles’s deceafe. Defcent; Descent, or Succefiion, in the Law of Scotland. See Law Index. Descent of the Crown. See Succession. Descent of Dignities. A dignity differs from com¬ mon inheritances, and goes not according to the rules of the common law : for it defeends to the half-blood; and there is no coparcenerlhip in it, but the eideft takes the whole. The dignity of peerage is perfonal, an¬ nexed to the blood ; and fo infeparable, that it cannot * be transferred to any perfon, or furrendered even to the crown ; it can move neither forward nor backward, but only downward to pofterity ; and nothing but cor¬ ruption of blood, as if the anceftor be attainted of trea- fon or felony, can hinder the defcent to the riehr heir. 6 Descent, in genealogy, the order or fucceffion of defcendants in a line or family; or their diftance from a common progenitor : Thus we fay, one defcent, two defeents, &c. Descent., in Heraldry, is ufed to exprefs the com¬ ing down of any thing from above ; as, a lion en def- cent is a lion with his head towards the bafe points, ami his heels towards one of the corners of the chief, as i£ he were leaping.down from fome high place. ° DESCHAMPS, D E S [ 182 1 D E S Befchamps DESCHAMPS, Francis, a French poet, boifi in ^ Champagne, was the author of a tragedy entitled Cato ■ > of Utica, and a hiifory of the French theatre. He died at Paris in 1747. DESCRIPTION, in literary compofition, is fuch a ftrdng and beautiful reprefentation of a thing, as gives the reader a diftinft view and fatisfaftory notion of it. See Narration and Defcription. DESEADA, or Desiderara, one of the Carib- bee iflands fubjeft to France, lying eaftward of Gua* daloupe. DESERT, or Desart. See Desart. DESERTER, in a military lenfe, a foldier who, by running away from his regiment or company, aban¬ dons the fervice. A deferter is, by the articles of war, punifhable by death ; which, after conviftion, is executed upon him at the head of the regiment he formerly belonged to, with his crime written on his bread. DESERTION, in Law. See Law Index. DESHABILLE, a French term, naturalized of late. It properly fignifies a night-gown, and other neceffaries, made ufe of in drefling or undreffing. Mr is not to be fpoken with, he is yet in his defha- bille, i. e. undreflfed, or in his night-gown. The word is compounded of the primitive de and s'habdler^ “ to drefs one’s felf.” DESHACHE', in Heraldry, is where a bead has its limbs feparated from its body, fo that they dill re¬ main on the efcutcheon, with only a fmall leparation from their natural places. DESIDERATUM, is ufed to fignify the defirable perfections in any art or fcience j thus, it is a dedde- ratum with the blackfmith, to render iron fufible by a gentle heat, and yet preferve it hard enough for ordi¬ nary ufes ; with the glafsmen and looking-glafs ma¬ ker, to render glafs malleable ; with the clock-maker, to bring pendulums to be ufeful where there are irre¬ gular motions, &c. DESIGN, in a general fenfe, the plan, order, re¬ prefentation, or condruftion of a building, book, paint¬ ing, &c. See Architecture, Painting, Poetry, Oratory, History. Design, in the manufactories, expreffes the figures wherewith the workman enriches his duff or filk, and which he copies after fome painter or eminent draughtfman, as in diaper, damalk, and other flowered iilk and tapedry, and the like. In undertaking of furh kinds of figured duffs, it is neceffary, fays Monf. Savary, that before the fird droke of the (buttle, the whole defign be reprefented on the threads of the warp, we do not mean in colours, but with an infinite number of little packthreads, which, being difpofed fo as to raife the threads of the warp, let the workmen fee, from time to time, what kind of filk is to be put in the eye of the (buttle for woof. This method of preparing the wmrk is called reading the defign, and reading the figure, which is performed in the following manner : A paper is provided, confi- derably broader than the duff, and of a length propor¬ tionate to wdiat is intended to be reprefented thereon. This they divide lengthwife by as many black lines as there are intended threads in the w'arp *, and crofs thefe lines by others drawn breadthwife, which, with the former, make little equal fquares ; on the paper thus I fquared, the draughtfman defigns his figures, and height- Defign. ens them with colours as he fees fit. When the defign “ is finilhed, a workman reads it, while another lays it on the fimblot. To read the defign, is to tell the perfon who ma¬ nages the loom the number of fquares or threads com- priled in the fpace he is reading, intimating at the fame time, whether it is ground or figure. To put what is read on the fimblot, is to faden little drings to the feveral packthreads, which are to raife the threads named : and this they continue to do till the whole defign is read. Every piece being compofed of feveral repetitions of the fame defign, when the w'hole defign is drawn, the drawer, to re-begin the defign afrefli, has nothing to do but to raife the little drings, wuth flip-knots, to the top of the fimblot, which he had let down to the bot¬ tom ; this he is to repeat as often as is neceffary till the wdiole be manufaClured. The ribbon-weavers have likewife a defign, but far more fimple than that now defcribed. It is drawn on paper with lines and fquares, reprefenting the threads of the warp and wmof. But indead of lines, whereof the figures of the former confid, thefe are condituted of points only, or dots, placed in certain of the little fquares formed by the interfeCHon of the lines. Thefe points mark the threads of the warp that are to be rai¬ led, and the fpaces left blank denote the threads that are to keep their fituation ; the red is managed as in the former. Design is alfo ufed, in Painting, for the fird idea of a large work, drawn roughly, and in little, with an intention to be executed and finilhed in large. In this fenfe, it is the fimple contour' or outlines of the figures intended to be reprefented, or the lines that terminate and circumfcribe them : fuch defign is fometimes drawn in crayons or ink, without any (ha- dows at all j fometimes it is hatched, that is, the (ha- dows are expreffed by fenfible outlines, ufually drawn acrofs each other with the pen, crayon, or graver. Sometimes, again, the fhadows are done with the cray¬ on rubbed fo as that there do not appear any lines'j at other times, the grains or flroke of the crayon ap¬ pear, as not being rubbed : fometimes the defign is walked, that is, the (hadowTs are done with a pencil in Indian ink, or fome other liquor $ and fometimes the defign is coloured, that is, colours are laid on much like thofe intended for the grand work. Design, in Mafic, is juftly defined by Rouffeau to be the invention and the conduct of the fubje f TTp fnpnt ferent After being twice examined, be we£s ieized fecuted with the utmoft ardour and fuccef,. He p ^ • delivering a lefture, carried away from almoit the whole of his time at the anatont.cal thea re^ he wa, del. ^ of the Loxem. and hofpitals; but by this clofe attendance his health his theatre, anu ^ ^ and ner- DefTault II DefuJtor. fuffered'greatly. He was ieized with a cacheaical dif- ea^e, which confined him to bed for a twelvemonth ; and he was indebted for his recovery to the vigour ot his conftitution, and the kind offices of a young friend who conftantly watched the progrefs of his difordei. His health being re-eftabhffied, neither his circum- ftances nor the aftivitv of his mind would permit him to indulge in repofe. He commenced teacher of ana- tomv hv the winter of 1766, and was foon attended by 300 pupils, a .great proportion of whom was offier than himfelf. But this fuccefs excited.the jealoufy of the eftabliffied teachers and profeffors, who exer’-ed a11 the influence of authority to filence him; and althoug he was patronifed and proteaed by fome furgeons of great eminence, the oppofition which he met wit would have obliged him to renounce public teaching, had he not been permitted to go on by the expedien of adopting the name of another as a fanaion. H.s reputation was now greatly extended ; but «‘11 ie de* clined private praftice, till he was eftabliffied in fome diflinguiffied public ftation. In the year 1776, he was admitted a member of the corporation of furgeons, and it would appear that his finances were at this time ex¬ tremely limited, from the circumftance of his being indulged by that body in paying his fees when t ihould be convenient for himfelf. He fucceffively I - led the honourable ftations in the corporation and aca¬ demy of furgery, and in the year 1782, he was ap¬ pointed furgeon-major to the hofpital De a^harf} Deffault was now regarded as one of the firft fur¬ geons of Paris. He fucceeded to the next vacancy at the Hotel Dieu ; and after the death of Moreau, al- moft the whole furgical department of that hofpital was intrufted to him. Here he inftituted a clinical frhool of .furgery, on a liberal and extenfive plan, which attrafted a great concourfe of ftudents, not on¬ ly from every part of France, but alfo from foreign countries. An audience compofed of- 600 Indents frequently met to hear his infiruaions, and moft of the furgeons ^of the French army derived their knowledge from his kaures. The furgical praaice of Deffault was always d.ftm- guiffied for its efficacy and fimphcity. Among the im¬ provements which he introduced into furgery may be mentioned bandages for the retention of Mured Kmbs the ufe of compreffions in promoting the cure of ulcers, the ufe of ligature in umbilical hernia of children, the extraaion of loofe cartilages m joints, the nfe of bougies in fchirrofities of the reaum and that of elaftic probes in contraaions of the uretina. He alfo introduced effentiaUmprovements m the con- ftruaion of various furgical inftruments. In the year I791* he pubjiffied a work entitled journal de Chirurgerie, the objea of which was to re¬ cord the moft interefting cafes which occurred in ns clinical fchool, with the remarks which be made upon them in the courfc of his kaures. The edating of this work was intrufted to his pupils. But m the midft of his valuable labours he became obnoxious to fome of the prevailing parties of that turbulent period, and 5n 1792 he was denounced to the popular ka.on m the cant language of the times, as an tgotf or 2 , boure. But in three days he was liberated and per¬ mitted to refume all bis funaions. When the khoo of health was eftabliffied, he was appointed clinical profeffor for external maladies; and it was through his means that the Eveche was converted into an holpital f0^egtLT£n«\vhich .ere e*MU..d in M.y 1705, made fo deep an impreffion on Ins mind, from the anptehenfion of a renewal of the horrors winch he had formerly experienced, that he was kized with a fever, accompanied with delirium; an t tis put an end to bis life on the ift of June, the fame year, at the age of U- He had attended the dauphin m the temple ; and from the circumftance of his death hav¬ ing happened but a ffiort time before that prince, an opinion was prevalent among the populace that he was poifoned, becaufe he refilled to do any thing againft the dauphin’s life. This ftory kerns to. have no foundation, but it affords a proof of theA0Pln,°rnrnh^ by the public of Deffault’s integrity. A penfion was fettled on his widow by the republic. and not emolument, had been always the objeft of his ambition; for he negkded many opportunities of ac¬ quiring wealth. Indifferent to all other pleasures and purfuifs, Deffault was lokly and paffionately attached to his profeffion. His temper was ardent, and fome- times rather violent; but his fentrments were always elevated and noble. The only work of wh'di he s to be confidered as the fok author, is entitled TraitS des Maladies chirurgicales, et des Operations qui leur conviennent* in 2 vols 8vo. . DESSAW, a city of Upper Saxony m Germany, fituated on the river Elbe, 60 miles north-weft of Dres¬ den, and fubjefl to the prince of Anhak Dtffaw. L DESSERT, or Desert, a fervice of fruits and fiveetmeats, ufually ferved up kft at table. . DESS1CCAT1VE, or Desiccative, in Fhar- macy, an epithet applied to fuch topical medicines as dry*up the humours flowing to a wound or ulcer. DESTINIES, in Mythology. See Farca.. DESTINY, among philofophers and divines. See ^DESTRUCTION, in general, an alteration of any thing from its natural ftate to one contrary to nature, whereby it is deemed the fame with Corruption. A chemical deftruaion, or corruption, is nothing but a refolution of the whole naturally mixt body into ltS DESUDATION, in Medicine, a profufe and inor¬ dinate fweat, fucceeded by an eruption of puftuks, called fudamina, or heat pimples. ^ner DESULTOR, in antiquity, a vaulter or leaper, who leading one horfe by the bridle, and ndmg ano¬ ther’, iumned from the back ot one to the other, as the curtlm was after they had run feveral courfes or heats This practice required great dexterity, eing p formed before the’ufe of either faddles or fttnups. The cuftom was praftifed in the army when necclliiy required it; bnt chiefly amongft the Ntimidiam, wh always carried with them two horfes at ^ “ purpofe, changing them as they ttred. The Greeks JJetach. . ni€nt II Detinue D E T [ , and R.omans borrowed the practice from them ; but only ufed it at races, games, &c. The Sarmatae were great mailers of this exercife, and the huffars have itill fome remains of it. DETACHMENT, in military affairs, a certain number of foldiers drawn out from feveral regiments or companies equally, to be employed as the general thinks proper, whether on an attack, at a fiege, or in parties to fcour the country. DETENTION (from detineo, “I detain”), the pof- feffion or holding of lands, or the like, from fome other claimant. The word is chiefly ufed in an ill feni'e, for an unjufl withholding, &c. DE 1 EN f S, in a clock, are thofe flops which, by being lifted up or let fall down, lock and unlock the clock in linking. DETRNT-Wbee/, or Hoofi-Whee/, in a clock, that wheel which ha$ a hoop almofl round it, wherein there is a vacancy, at which the clock locks. DETERGENTS, in Pharmacy, fuch medicines as are not only foftening and adhefive, but alfo, by a pe¬ culiar adlivity, conjoined with fuitable configuration of parts, are apt to abrade and carry along with them fuch particles as they lay hold on in their paffage. DETERIORAI ION, the impairing or rendering any thing worfe ; it is juft the reverfe of melioration? DETERMINATE problem, is that which has but one folution, or a certain limited number of folu- tions 5 in cpntradiftin&ion to an indeterminate problem, which admits of infinite folutions. Determinate SeHion, the name of atraft or general problem,^ written by the ancient geometrician Apollo¬ nius. None of this work has come down to us, ex¬ cepting fome extra&s and an account of it by Pappus, in the Preface to the 7th book of his Mathematical Colie6lions. Pie there fays that the general problem was, “ To cut an infinite right line in one point fo, that, of the fegments contained between the point of fedlion fought, and given points in the faid line, either the fquare on one of them, or the redangle contained by two of them, may have a given ratio? either to the re ft angle contained by one of them and a given line, or to the retftangle contained by two of them.” DEI ERMINAP ION, in mechanics, fignifies much the fame with the tendency or diredlion of a body in motion. S e Mechanics. . Determination, among fchool-divines, is an a£l of divine power, limiting the agency of fecond caufes, in every inflance, to what the Deity predeftinated con¬ cerning them. See Predestination. DET ERSIVES, the fame with Detergents. DETINUE, in Law, a writ or adlion that lies again ft one who has got goods or other things deli¬ vered to him to keep, and afterwards refufes to deliver them.—In this adlion, the thing detained is generally to be recovered, and not damages; but if'one can¬ not recover the thing itfelf, he fhall recover damages for the thing, and alfo for the detainer. Detinue lies or any thing certain and valuable, wherein one may have a property or right; a* for a horfe, cow, fheep, hens, dogs, jewels, plate, doth, bags of monev, farks of corn, &c. It muft be: laid fo certain, that the thing detained may be known and recovered : and therefore, for money out of a bag, or corn out of a hcp. yrrf J,ICS "ot ’ lor the money or corn cannot Vox.. VII. Part I. 85 ] D E U in this cafe be known from other money or corn ; fo Detanatioa that the party muft have an a&ion on the cafe, &c. II . Yet detinue may be brought for a piece of gold of the -Deiu’‘ui0n\ price of 22s. thought not for 22s. in money. '~ DETONATION, in Chemiftry, fignifies an explo- fion with nolle made by the fudden inflammation of fome combuftible body : fuch are the explofions of gunpowder, fulminating gold, and fulminating powder. See Chemistry Index. DE TRANCHE, in Heraldry, a line bend-wife, proceeding always from the dexter fide, but not from the very angle diagonally athwart the fnield. DE J I INGEN, a village of Germany, in the circle of the Upper Rhine, and in the territory of Hanau. Plere the Auflrians and the Britifh, in June 1743, were attacked by the French, who met with a repulfe; but as the allies were inferior in number, they could not make the advantage of it they might otherwife have done. E. Long. 8. 45. N. L^t. 50. 8. or Deuna, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Cornavii in Britain. Now Chefler, on the Dee. W. Long. 3. o. N. Lat. 53. 15. DEUCALEDONIUS oceanus, fuppofed to be derived from the Gaelic words Duah Gael, the nor¬ thern Highlanders: the fea on the north-weft of Scot¬ land. DEUCALION, king of Theffaly. The flood faid to have happened in his time (1500 B. C.), is fup¬ pofed to have been only an inundation of that coun¬ try, occafioned by heavy rains, and an earthquake that flopped the courfe of the river Peneus where it ufually difcharged itfelf into the lea. On thefe cir- cumftances the fable of Deucalion’s flood is founded. —According to this fable, he was the fon of Prome¬ theus. He governed his people with equity ; but the reft of mankind being extremely wicked, were de- flroyed by a flood, while Deucalion and Pyrrha his queen faved themfelves by afcending Mount Parnaffus. When the waters were decreafed, they went and con- fulted the oracle of I hemis, on the means by which the earth was to be re-peopled : when they were or¬ dered to veil their heads and faces, to unloofe their gir¬ dles, and throw behind their backs the bones of their great mother. At this advice Pyrrha was feized with horror; but Deucalion explained the myflery, by obfer- vmg, that their great mother muft mean the earth, and her bones :he ftones; when taking them up, thofe Deu- cahon threw over his head became men, and thofe - throw-n by Pyrrha, women. t Some have fuppofed that Deucalion, whom the Greeks have reprefented under a variety of charaHers, and concerning whom their poets have given many fa¬ bulous accounts, was the fame with the patriarch Noah; and that Deucalion’s flood in Theffaly, as well as that of Ogyges in Attica, and of Prometheus in Egypt, were the fame with that of Noah recorded in fcnpture. Diodorus Siculus exprefsly fays, that in the deluge which happened in the time of Deucalion almoft all flefh died. Apollodorus having mentioned Deucalion n-hx^cty-t, “ configned to an ark,” takes no¬ tice, upon his quitting it, of his offering up an imme¬ diate lacrifice, An “ to the God who delivered him.” As he was the father of mankind, the an¬ cients have given him great dignity and univerfal mo¬ narchy ; though fometimes he is reduced to a petty A a king B 4»-l »•*- “fc "t,,'8'”:;! 5t “ Zths&s z-lr~ dian, Lord Burleigh, to Trinity-college in Cambridge. He took the degree of mafter of arts m 1582, and loon after retired to his feat at Lampfie in South \\ ales. He did not however continue long in this retreat; tor we find him, in his feventeenth year, at the court _ot Queen Elizabeth, who immediately honoured him with fino-ular marks of her favour. Authors feem very unneceffarily perplexed to account for this young earl s gracious reception at the court of Elizabeth. The Deucalion king ot Theffaly. II native of Greece, and the fon of We Devereux. leanl) however, from their confufed hiitory, that ' the perfon reprefented was the firft of men through whom religious rites were renewed, cities built, and civil polity eflablilhed in the world } none of which circumftances are applicable to any king of Greece. Philo affures us, that the Grecians call the perfon Deucalion, but the Chaldeans ftyle him Noe, m whofe time there happened the great eruption of waters. Be Dea Sy- But as Lucian has given us the moft particular hiftory it. und that which comes nearett to the ria, vol. ii. of the deluge p. 8Sa. ot tne oeiugc, and "that which comes neareft to the account given by Mofes; and as he was » native of Samofata, a city of Commagene upon the Euphrates, a part of the world where memorials of the. deluge were particularly preferved, and where an obvious re¬ ference to that hiftory may be obferved in the rites and worlhip of the country, we {hall.give the following extraft of what he fays on the fubjeft. Having de- fcribed Noah under the name of Deucalion, he lays, that the prefent race of mankind are different from thofe who firft exifted-, for thofe of the antediluvian world were all deftroyed. The prefent world is peo¬ pled from the fons of Deucalion •, having increafed to fo great a number from one perfon. In refpeft to the former brood, they were men of violence, and lawlels in their dealings. They regarded not oaths, nor ob¬ ferved the rites of hofpitality, nor fliowed mercy to thofe who fued for it. On this account they were doomed to deftruaion •, and for this purpofe there was a mighty eruption of waters from the earth, attended with heavy Ihowers from above 5. fo that the rivers fwelled, and the fea overflowed, till the whole earth was covered with a flood, and all flelh drowned. Deu¬ calion alone was preferved, to repeople the world. I his mercy was fhown to him on account of his juftice and piety His prefervation was effe&ed in this manner j he put all his family, both his fons and their wives, into a vaft ark which he had provided,, and he went into it himfelf. At the fame time animals ot every fpecies, boars, horfes, lions, ferpents whatever lived upon the face of the earth, followed him by pairs : all which he received into the ark, and experienced no evil from them ; for there prevailed a. wonderful har¬ mony throughout by the immediate influence of the Deity Thus were they wafted with him as long as the flood endured. After this he proceeds to mention, that upon the difappearing of the waters Deucalion went forth from the ark, and raifed an altar to God. Dr Bryant produces a variety of monuments that bear an obvious reference to the deluge m the Gentile hiftory, befides this account of Deucalion, and his food. Analyfis of Ancient Mythology, vol. 11. p. 193 ~D5EVENSHRING. See Devonshering. DEVENTER, a large, ftrong, trading, and po¬ pulous town of the United Provinces, in Overyffel, with an univerfity. It is furrounded with ftrong walls, flanked with feveral towers, and with ditches full o water. It is feated on the river Iffel, 55 miles eaft of Amfterdam, and 42 weft of Bentheim. E. Long. 5. 8. N. Lat. 52. 18. , f tt/t a, r DEVEREUX, Robert, earl of Effex, the ot Walter Devereux, Vifcount Hereford, was born at Ne- therwood in HerefordOfirc, in the year 1567. He gracious reception in. tut ~ _ reafons are obvious-, he was her relation, the fon of one of her moft faithful fervants, the fon-in-law oi her fa¬ vourite Leicefter, and a very handfome and accom- pliftied youth. Towards the end of the following vear, l?8c, he attended the earl of Leicefter to Hol¬ land 5 and gave fignal proofs of his perfonal courage during the campaign of 1586, particularly at the batt e of Zutphen, where the gallant Sidney was mortally wounded. On this occafion the earl of Leicefter con¬ ferred on him the honour of knight banneret. In the year 1587, Leicefter being appointed lord fteward of the houfehold, Effex fucceeded him in the honourable poft of mafter of the horfe ; and the year following, when the queen affembled an army at iil- bury to oppofe the Spanilh invafion, Effex was made general of the horfe. From this time he was confidered as the happy favourite of the queen. And if there was any mfrk yet wanting to fix the people s opinion in that refpeft, it was ftiown by the queen s conferring on him the honour of the garter.. i We need not wonder that fo quick an elevation, and to fo great a height, fliould affeft fo young a man as the earl of Effex ; who {bowed from henceforwards a very high fpirit, and often behaved petulantly enough to the queen herfelf, who yet did not love to be con¬ trolled by her fubjefts. His eagerneL about this time to difpute her favour with Sir Charles Blunt, afterwards Lord Mountjoy and earl of Devonfture coft him fome blood j for Sir Charles, thinking himfelf affronted by the earl, challenged him, and after a fliort difpute wounded him in the knee. The queen, fo far from being difpleafed with it, is faid to have fworn a good round oath, that it was fit fomebody fliould take him down, otherwife there would be no ruling him. How¬ ever, fhe reconciled the rivals ; who, to their honour, continued good friends as long as they lived. The gallant Effex, however, was not fo e^ely c P' tivated with his fituation as to become infenfible to the allurements of military glory. In 1589, Sir Jo 1 Norris and Sir Francis Drake having failed on an ex¬ pedition againft Spain, our young favourite without the permiflion or knowledge of his royal «i.ftrefs, fol¬ lowed the fleet ; which he joined as they were failing towards Liftion, and afted with great refolution m the repulfe of the Spaniih garrifon of that city. w-rote him a very fevere letter on the occafion, but ihe Tat afe Ms return, foon appealed Vet rt was not long before he again incurred her difpleafure, by mar¬ rying the widow of Sir Philip Sidney In l59L ^ was lent to France with the command of 4000 men to the afiiftance of Henry IV. In 1596, he was joined wi* the lord high admiral Howard m the eommand of the famous expedition againft Cadiz, the fu«els which is univcrfally known. In t;97 he wax ap- DEV f i • pointed ittafter of the ordnance j and the fame year r commanded another expedition againft Spain, called the IJland voyage^ the particulars of which are alfo well known. Soon after his return, he was created earl marlhal of England j and on the death of the great Lord Burleigh, in IJ9S, eledted chancellor of the univerlity of Cam¬ bridge. I his is reckoned one of the iaft inftances of this great man’s felicity, who was now advanced too high to fit at eafe ; and thofe who longed for his ho¬ nours and employments, very clofely applied them- felves to bring about his fall. The firft great Ihock he received in regard to the queen’s favour, arofe from a warm difpute between her majefty and himfelf, about the choice of fome fit and able perfon to fuperintend the affairs of Ireland. The affair is related by Cam¬ den ; who tells us, that nobody was prefent but the lord admiral, Sir Robert Cecil fecretary, and Winde- bank clerk of the leal. The queen looked upon Sir William Knolls, uncle to Effex, as the molt proper perfon for that charge: Effex contended, that Sir George Carew was a much fitter man for it. When the queen could not be perfuaded to approve his choice, he fo far forgot himfelf and his duty, as to turn his back upon her in a contemptuous manner 5 which in- folence her majefty not being able to bear, gave him a box on the ear, and bid him go and be hanged. Effex, like a blockead, put his hand to his fword, and fwore revenge. Where was his gallantry on this occafion ? Could a ftroke from an angry woman tinge the honour of a gallant foldier ? This violent ftorm, however, foon fubfided $ and they were again reconciled, at leaft ap¬ parently. The total reduction of Ireland being brought upon the tapis foon after, the earl was pitched upon as the only man from whom it could be expetted. This was an artful contrivance of his enemies, who hoped by this means to ruin him. Nor were their expectations dif- appointed. He declined this fatal preferment as long as he could: but perceiving that he Ihould have no quiet at home, he accepted ; and his commiffion for lord lieutenant palled the great feal on the 12th of March 1598, His enemies now began to infinuate that he had fought this command, for the fake of greater things which he then was meditating; but there is a letter of his to the queen, preferved in the Harleian collections, which {hows, that he was fo far from entering upon it with alacrity, that he looked upon it rather as a banilhment, and a place affigned him lor a retreat from his fovereign’s difpleafure, than a potent government bellowed upon him by her favour. “ To the %ueen. “ From a mind delighting in forrow j from fpirits “ wafted with paflion ; from a heart torn in pieces “ with care, grief, and travail ; from a man that hateth himfelf and all things elfe that keep him alive j * what fervice can your majefty expeCt, fince any fer- vice pall deferves no more than baniftiment and pro- “ feription to the curfedeft of all illands > It is your reoels pride and fuccellion muft give me leave to ranfom myfelf out of this hateful prifon, out of my “ Joshed body 5 which if it happen fo, your majefty “ ^all have no caufe to miflike the faftuon of my death, fince the courfe of my life could never pleafe you. 1 DEV “ Happy he could finifh forth his fate, DeVerea*. “ In fome unhaunted defert moft obfeure y—*. “ From all fociety, from love and hate 41 Of wordly folk j then fiiould he lleep fecure. “ Then wake again, and yield God ever praife, “ Content with hips and haws, and brambleberryj “ In contemplation paffing out his days, “ And change of holy thoughts to make him merry. “ W ho when he dies, his tomb may be a bufti “ Where harmlefs robin dwells with gentle thrufti. “ Your majefty’s exiled fervant, “ Robert Essex.’4 T he earl met with nothing in Ireland but ill fuc- cefs and croffes : in the midft of which, an army was fuddenly raifed in England, under the command of the earl of Nottingham 5 nobody well knowing why, but in reality from the fuggeftions of the earl’s enemies to the queen, that he rather meditated an invafion on his native country, than the reduction of the Irifti rebels. This and other confiderations made him refolve to quit his poft, and come over to England j which he accord- ingly did without leave. He burft into her majelty’s bed-chamber as ihe was riling, and ftie received him with a mixture of tendernefs and feverity : but (he foon after thought fit to deprive him of all his employ¬ ments, except that of mafter of the horfe. He was committed to the cuftody of the lord-keeper, with whom he continued fix months. No fooner had he re¬ gained his liberty, than he was guilty of many extra¬ vagancies j to which he was inftigated by knaves and fools, but perhaps more powerfully by his own pallions. He firft determined to obtain an audience of the queen by force. He refufed to attend the council when fum- moned.. When the queen fent the lord-keeper, the lord chief-juftice, and two others, to know his grievan¬ ces, he confined them j and then marched with his friends into the city, in expeftation that the people would rife in his favour •, but in that he was difap- pointed. He was at laft befieged, and taken in his houfe in Effex-ftreet j committed to the tow'er ; tried by his peers, condemned, and executed. Thus did this brave man, this favourite of the queen, this idol of the people, fall a facrifice to his want of that difiimu- lation, that cunning, that court-policy, by which his enemies were enabled to effeCl his ruin. He was a po¬ lite fcholar, and a generous friend to literature. To thofe who have not taken the trouble to confult and compare the feveral authors who have related the ftory of this unfortunate earl, it muft appear wonder¬ ful, if, as hath been fuggefted, he was really beloved by Queen Elizabeth, that {he fliould confent to his exe¬ cution. Now that fire had conceived a tender palTioa for him, is proved beyond a doubt by Mr Walpole in his very entertaining and inftruftive Catalogue of Noble Authors :—“ I am aware (fays that author) that it is become a mode to treat the queen’s paflion for him as a romance. Voltaire laughs at it $ and obferves, that when her ftruggle about him muft have be m the great- eft (the time of his death), fhe was fixty-fight.—Had he been fixty-eight, it is probable flie wpuld not have been in love with him.”—“ Whenever Effex a&ed a fit of ficknefs, not a day palled without the queen’s fend¬ ing often to fee him j and once went fo far as to fit A a z long DEV [ lone by bitn, and order bis broths and things. It is re¬ corded by a diligent obferver of that court, that in one of his Tick moods, he took the liberty of going up to the queen in his night-gown. In the height of tnele fietful fooleries, there was a mafic at h>lack Fryais on the marriage of Lord Herbert and Mrs Ruffel. Eight lady mafkers chofe eight more to dance the meafures. Mrs Litton, who led them, went to the queen, and wooed her to dance. Her majefty afked what die was ? Jffettion, die faid. AffeBton ! laid the queen ; AffeBion is falfe. Were not theie the murmurs of a heart ill at eafe ? Yet her majedy rofe, and danced. She was then dxty-eight. Sure it was as natural for her to be in love.” Mr Walpole farther obferves, that her court and contemporaries had an uniform opinion of her paflion for EiVex, and quotes feveral inilances from a letter written by Sir Francis Bacon to the early m which, among other things, he advifes him to confult her tade in his very apparel and gedures, and to give way to any other inclination die may have._ Sir Francis advi- fed the queen herfelf, knowing her inclination, to keep the earl about her for fociety. What Henry FV . o France thought of the queen’s affection for Lffex, is evident ftom what he faid to her ambaffador—' fa maiefle ne laifferoit jamais fon coufin d'Etfex eloigner de [on cotill' n.'n—After his confinement, on hearing he was ill, die lent him word, with tears in her eyes, that if die might with her honour, die would viht him. “ If (fays Mr Walpole) thefe indances are proble¬ matic, are the following fo ? In one of the curious letters of Rowland White, he fays, the queen hath oj late ufed the fair Mrs Bridges with words and blows oj anrer. In a fubfequent letter, he fays, the earl is again fallen in love with his fairejl B. It cannot choofe but come to the queen's ear, and then he is undone. —B.ffex himfelf fays, that her fond parting with him when he fet out for Ireland, pierced his very foul. Probably the reader has now very little doubt as to Queen Elizabeth’s affea.on for the unfortunate Effex; W in proportion to our belief of the exidence of the affection, her motives for confenting to his execution become more inexplicable. Queen Elizabeth had a very high opinion of her beauty and perfonal attrac¬ tions, and probably expend more entire adoration than the earl’s paffion for variety would differ him to pay. Towards the latter end of her life, die was cer- tainly an objeft of difgud. He had too much honed fimplicity in his nature to feign a paffion which he did not feel. She fooliddy gave credit, to the dories of his ambitious projefts incompatible, with her fafety i and was informed that he had once inadvertently faid, that /he strew old and cankered, and that her mind was be¬ come as crooked as her carcafe. If this be true where is the woman that would not facrifice fuch a lover to her refentment ? ' . , . It is faid, however, that, concerning his execution, It IS laia, Iiuwcvci, ; n her maiedy was irrefolute to the lad, and fent orders to countermand -it : but, confidering his obdinacy in re- fufing to aft her pardon, afterwards directed that he diould die. It is reported that the queen, in t.,e height of her paffion for the earl of Effex, had given him a ring, ordering him to keep it, and that whatever crime he fhould commit, die would pardon him when he ffiould return that pledge. The earl, upon his con- l88 ] X, „ v demnation, applied to Admiral Howard’s lady, his re¬ lation, defiring her, by a perfon whom (he could trud, to return it into the queen’s own hands j but her hul- band, who was one of the earl’s greated enemies, and to whom (he had imprudently told the circumdance, would not fuffer her to acquit herfelf of the commiffion ; fo that the queen confented to the earl’s death, being ■full of indignation againd fo proud and haughty a Ipi- rit, who chofe rather to die than implore her mercy. Some time after, the admiral’s lady fell fick, and being near her death, die fent word to the queen that die had fomething of great confequence to communicate before die died. The queen came to her bedfide, and having ordered all her attendants to withdraw, the lady re¬ turned, but too late, the ring, defiring to be excu.e.d that die did not return it fooner : on which, it is faid, the queen immediately retired, overwhelmed with SnThe earl of Effex died in the thirty-fourth year of his age j leaving by his lady one fon and two daugh- ters. . _ „ DEVICE, among painters. See Devise. DEVIL (Diabolus), an evil angel, one of thole ce- ledial fpirits cad down from heaven for pretending to equal himfelf with God. The Ethiopians paint the devil white, to be even with the Europeans who paint There is no mention of the word devil u\ the Old Tedament, but only of the word Satan and Belial: nor do we meet with it in any heathen authors, in the fen e it is taken among Chridians, that is, as a creature re¬ volted from God. Their theology went no farther than to evil genii or daemons. . . Some of the American idolaters have a notion of two collateral independent beings, one of whom is good and the other evil : which lad they imagine has the direaion and fuperintendence of this eaith, for which reafon they chiedy worffiip him *, ^bence thole that give us an account of the religion of theie favages F out, »i.h feme impropriety, that they worlh.p the devil. The Chaldeans, in like manner beheved both a good principle and an evil one ; which laft they imagined was an enemy to mankind. Ifaiah, fpeaking, according to lome commentator , of the fall of the devil, calls him Lucifer, from . former elevation and date of glory : but others explain this paffage of Ifaiah in reference to the king of Ba¬ bylon, who had been precipitated front bis throne and glory. The Arabians call Lucifer, Ebhs ; which fome think is only a diminutive or corruption of the word ^Deni on the Neck, a. tormenting engine made of iron, draitening and wincing the neck o a rnaiff ^ his legs together, in a horrible manner- fo that the more he dirreth in it, the draiter it preffeth him J for- merlv in ufe among the perfecuting papiits. DEVINCTION (DevwBio), m antiquity . r> • r nr mrsntation to ga Device 11. Devife. was ufed to fignify a love charm or incantation to gain the affe&ion of a perfon beloved. , . , , r . 1, was done by tying knots; and ts thus defcr.bcd by Virgil in his eighth Eclogue : HeBe tribus nodis terms, Amarylh, colores : NeBe, Amarylli, tnodo j et Veneris, die, vincula neBj DEV [ *89 ] DEV Devife Sculpture, any emblem ufed to reprefent a certain fa- 11 mily, perfon, aftron, or quality ; with a fuitable motto, 1 cvo^_^c; applied in a figurative fenfe. See Motto. 7'he efience of a device confills in a metaphorical fi- militude between the things reprefenting and repre- fented : thus, a young nobleman, of great courage and ambition, is faid to have borne for his devife, in a late caroufal at the court of France, a rocket mounted in the air, with this motto in Italian, li poco duripurche vi'inal'ziexpreffing, that he preferred a (hort life, provided he might thereby attain to glory and emi¬ nence. The Italians have reduced the making of devifes in¬ to an art, fome of the principal laws of which are thefe : 1. That there be nothing extravagant or monftrous in the figures. 2. That figures be never joined which have no relation or affinity with one another ; except¬ ing fome whimfical unions effablilhed in ancient fables, which cuftom has authorifed. 3. That the human body be never ufed. 4. The fewer figures the better. 5. The motto ffiould be every way fuitable. Devise, in Law, the aft whereby a perfonbequeathes his lands or tenements to another by his laid will or tedament. DEUNX, in Roman antiquity, 11 ounces, or 4T of the Libra. DEVOLVED, fomething acquired by right of de¬ volution. Such a right is devolved to the crown : fuch an eftate devolved on M by the death of N The word is alfo nfed for a right, acquired by a fu- perior, of conferring a benefice, when the inferior and ordinary collator has neglefteffito confer, or has con¬ ferred it on an unqualified perfon. If a patron neglefts to prefent to a benefice in fix months, the prefentation lapfes or devolves upon the bifliop, from thence to the primate, and from thence to the king. DEVOLUTION, in Law, a right acquired by fuc- ceffion from one to another. DeVONSHERING, a term ufed by the farmers to exprefs the burning of land by way of manure : the method is to cut off the turf about four inches thick, and burn.it in heaps, and then fpread the allies upon the land. The name is probably derived from its having been earlieft pr ftifed'in Devonffiire. DEVONSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on the fouth by the Engliffi channel, on the north by the Briftol channel, on the eaft by Somerfetlhire, and on the well by Cornwall. It is about 69 miles long and 66 broad. The foil is various ; in the weftern parts of the county it is coarfe and mooriffi, bad for ffieep, but proper for black cattle. In the northern parts, the dry foil and downs are well adapted to Iheep, ■With numerous flocks of which they are well covered. Tolerable crops of corn are alfo produced there when the land is well manured. The foil of the reft of the country is rich and fertile both in corn and pafture, yielding alfo in fame places plenty of marie for ma¬ nuring it. In other places they pare off and burn the furface, making ufe of the afhes as a manure. Dr Campbell ftyles it a rich and pleafant country ; as in different parts it abounds with all forts of grain, pro¬ duces abundance of fruit, has mines of lead, iron, and filver, in which it formerly exceeded Cornwall, though now it is greatly inferior. On the coaft alfo they have Devotion; herring and pilchard fitheries. Devonffiire fends two v V members to parliament, and gives title of duke to the noble family of Cavendilh. DEVOTION, (Devotid), a fincere ardent worffiip of the Deity. Devotion, as defined by Jurieu, is a foftening and yielding of the heart, .with an internal confolation, which the fouls of believers feel in the praftice or ex- ercife of piety. By devotion is alfo underftood certain religious praftices, which a perfon makes it a rule to difeharge regularly ; and with reafon, if the exaftitude be founded on folid piety, otherwife it is vanity or fu- perftition. 1 hat devotion is vain and trifling, which would accommodate itfelf both to God and to the world. Lrevoux. The charafter of devotion has frequently fuffered from the forbidding air which has been thrown over it, by the narrownefs of bigotry on one hand, or the gloom of fuperftition on the other. When freer and more cheerful minds have not had occafion to fee it accompanied with thofe feelings of delight and bene¬ volence which naturally attend it, they are apt to be prejudiced againft piety at large, by miftaking this un¬ gracious appearance for its genuine form. Nor has the rant of vulgar enthufiafts contributed a little to beget or {Lengthen the fame averfion, in perfons of a cool and fpeculative temper ; who have happened to meet with fuch images and phrafes among religionifls of a certain ftrain, as ill fuit the rational, pure, and fpiritual nature of true devotion. It may likewife be remarked on the other fide, that people of tafte and fenfibility have not feldom been difgufted with the in- fipid ftyle too often employed on fuch fubjefts, by thofe who poffefs neither, or who purpofely avoid every thing of that kind, from an aim at fimplicity mifun- derftood, or perhaps from a fear of being thought too warm, in an age of fafliionable indifference and falfe refinement. Wherever the vital and unadulterated fpirit of Chri- ftian devotion prevails, its immediate objeft will be to pleafe Him whom we were made to pleafe, by adoring his perfeftions ; by admiring his works and ways j by entertaining with reverence and complacence the va¬ rious intimations of his pleafure, efpecially thofe con¬ tained in holy writ ; by acknowledging our abfo- lute dependence, and infinite obligations ; by conftf- fing and lamenting the diforders of our nature and the tranfgreffions of our lives ; by imploring his grace and mercy through Jefus Chrift $ by interceding for our brethren of mankind ; by praying for the propa¬ gation and embellifliment of truth, righteoufnefs, and peace on earth in fine, by longing for a more entire conformity to the will of God, and breathing after the everlafting enjoyment of his friendftiip. The effefts of fuch a fpirit habitually cheriflied, and feelingly ex- preffed before him, with conceptions more or lefs en¬ larged and elevated, in language more or lefs empha- tical and accurate, fententious or diffufe, muft furely be important and happy. Among thefe effefts may be reckoned, a profound humility in the fight of God, a high veneration for his prefence and attributes, an ardent zeal for his worfhip and honour, an affefticnate faith in the Saviour of the world, a conflant imitation of his divine example, a diffufive tharity for men of ail denominations, - D E fDevotion, denominations, a generous _ Deutero- for of virtue and fociety, a total refignation to canonical.^ prov-ldence> an increafing efteem for the gofpel^with -clearer and firmer hopes of that immortal life which it has brought to light. Devotion, among the Romans, was a kind of ia- .crifice or ceremony, whereby they confecrated them- felves to the fervice of fome perfon. The ancients had a notion, that the life of one might be ranfomed by the death of another ; whence thofe devotions became frequent for the lives of the emperors. Devotion to any particular perfon was unknown among the Ro¬ mans till the time of Auguftus. The very day after the title of Auguftus had been conferred upon O&a- vius, Pacuvius, a tribune of the people, publicly de¬ clared, that he would devote himfelf to Auguftus, and obey him at the expence of his life (as wTas the pradlice among barbarous nations), if he was commanded. His example was immediately followed by all the reft ; till at length it became an eftablifhed cuftom never to go to falute the emperor, wuthout declaring that they were devoted to him.—Before this, the prafticc of the Ro¬ mans was that of devoting themfelves to their country. See Decius. DEUTEROCANONICAL, in the fchool theo- logyt an appellation given to certain books of holy Scripture, which were added to the canon after the reft •, either by reafon they were not wrote till after the compilation of the canon, or by reafon of lome difpute as to their canonicity. The word is Greek, being compounded of ^ivn^^fecond^ and KxrcitKtf, cano- The Jews, it is certain, acknowledged feveral books in their canon, which were put there latex than the They fay, that under Efdras, a great aflembly ■my II Dew. v [ 190 1 DEW and unwearied felf-denial are in Daniel, the hymn, of the three children J the Deuterono prayer of Azariah J the hiftones of Sulannah, 01 Hel and the Dragon ; the laft chaper of St Mark ; the bloody fweat, and the appearance of the angel, related in St Luke, chap. xxii.; and thejiiftory of the adulte¬ rous womandn St John, chap. viii. DEUTERONOMY, one of the facred books of the Old Teftament j being the laft of thefe written by Mofesj (See Pentateuch). The word is Greek, compounded of cst/Txgij, fecond% and law. Deuteronomy was written in the 40th year after the delivery from Egypt, in the country of the Moabites, beyond Jordan ; Mofes being then in the 120th year of his age. It contains, in Hebrew, 11 paraches, though only 10 in the edition of the rabbins at Venice j 20 chapters, and 955 vcrks* 1° Greek, Latin, and other verfions, it contains 34 chapters. The laft is not of Mofes. Some fay it was added by Jolhua immediately after Mofes’s death 5 which is the moft probable opinion. Others will have it added by Efdras. . . DEUTEROPOTMI, in Grecian antiquity, a de- fignation given to fuch of the Athenians as had been thought dead, and, after the celebration of the fu¬ neral rites, unexpeftedly recovered. It was unlaw¬ ful for the deuteropotmi to enter into the temple of the Eumenides, or to be admitted to the holy rites, till after they were purified, by being let through the lap of a woman’s gown, that they might feem to be new born. ,. . , DEUTEROSIS, the Greek name by which the Jews called their Mifchnah, or fecond law. See Mi- SCNAH. . DEUTZIA, a genus of plants belonging to the de- candria clafs. See Botan* Index. DEW, a denfe, moift vapour, found on the earth low the horizon. . . . It hath been difputed whether the dew is formed from the vapours afcending from the earth during the nicdit-time, or from the defcent of fuch as have been already raifed through the day. The moft remarkable experiments (adduced in favour of the firrt hypothefis are thofe of Dr Dufay of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris. that if the dew reft. They fay, that under Eldras, a _ ment. And they agree that they put books therein which had not been fo before the Babylonifti captivi¬ ty j fuch are thofe of Daniel, Ezekiel, Haggai, t>~c. and thofe of Efdras, and Nehemiah. And the Romifh church has fince added [others to the canon, that were not, and could not be, in the canon of the Jews, by reafon fome of them were not compofed till after. Such is the book of Ecclefiafti- cus, with feveral of the apocryphal books, as the IMac- cabees, Wifdom, &c. Others were added ftill later, by reafon their canonicity had not been yet examined •, and till fuch examen and judgment they might be fet afide at pleafure.—But fince that church has pronoun¬ ced as to the canonicity of thefe books, there is no more room now for her members to doubt of them, than there was for the Jews to doubt of thofe of the canon of Efdras. And the deuterocanonical books are wTith them as canonical as the protocanonical; the only difference between them confifting in this, that the canonicity of the one was not generally known, exa¬ mined, and fettled, fo foon as that of the others. The deuterocanonical books in the modern canon, are the book of Efther, either the whole,, or at leaft the feven laft chapters thereof; the Epiftle to the Hebrews that of James; and that of Jude 5 the fe¬ cond of St Peter j the fecond and third of St John ; and the Revelation. Ths deuterocanonical parts of books, a. . ....... He fuppofed, abended, it muft wet a body placed low down fooner than one placed in a higher fituation j and, if a num¬ ber of bodies were placed in this manner, the lower- moft would be wetted firft *, and the reft in like manner, gradually up to the top. To determine this, he placed two ladders againft one another, meeting at their tops, fpreading wide afunder at the bottom, and fo tall as to reach 32 feet high. To the feveral fteps of thefe he faftened large fquares of glafs like the panes of windows, placing them in fuch a manner that they ihould not overftiade one another. On the trial it appeared exaftly as Dr Dufay had apprehended. The lower furface of the loweft piece of glafs was firft wetted, then the upper, then the lower furface of the pane next above it; and fo on, till all the pieces were wetted to the top. hr™'0 it appeared plain to him, that the dew confifted of the vapours afcending from the earth during t e n*£ " thne ; which, being condenfed bv the ^Wn^of^e V I DEW [ 191 ] DEW Bew. atmofphere, are prevented from being diflipated as in ^ the day-time by the fun’s heat. He afterwards tried a fimilar experiment with pieces of cloth inftead of panes of glafs, and the refult was quite conformable to his expectations. He weighed all the pieces of cloth next morning, in order to know what quantity of water each had imbibed, and found thofe that had been placed lowermoft confiderably heavier than fuch as had been placed at the topj though he owns that this experiment did not fucceed fo perfectly as the former. M. Mufchenbroek, who embraced the contrary opi¬ nion, thought he had invalidated all Dr Dufay’s proofs, by repeating his experiments, with the fame fuccefs, on a plane covered with Iheet-lead. But to this Dr Dufay replied, that there was no occafion for fuppo- fing the vapour to rife through the lead, nor from that very fpot ; but that as it arofe from the adjoining open ground, the continual fluctuation of the air could not but fpread it abroad, and carry it thither in its afcent. But though this experiment of M.^Mufchenbroek’s is not fufficient to overthrow thofe of Dr Dufay, it mull ftill remain dubious whether the dew rifes or falls. One thing which feems to favour the hypothefis of its defcent is, that in cloudy weather there is little or no dew to be obferved. From this M. de Luc brings an argument in favour of the hypothefis juft nowr men- PbU. accounts ^or it in the following manner : vol.lxiii. When there are no clouds in the air, the heat of the part 2. inferior air and that which rifes from the earth difii- pates itfelf into the fuperior regions j and then the va¬ pours which are difperfed throughout the air condenfe, and fall down in dew : But, when the clouds continue, they feparate the inferior from the fuperior part of the atmofphere, and thus prevent the diflipation of the heat, by w'hich means the vapours remain fufpended. When the Iky grows cloudy, fome hours after funfet, although the heat has been fenfibly diminifhed, it is again increafed 5 becaufe continuing to rife out of the earth, it is accumulated in the inferior air. But nei¬ ther can this be reckoned a pofitive proof of the de¬ fcent of the dew ; fince we may as well fuppofe the heat of the atmofphere to be great enough to diflipate it in its afcent, as to keep it fufpended after its afcent through the day. On the other hand, its being found in greater quan¬ tities on bodies placed low down than on fuch as are high up, is no proof of the defcent of the dew ; becaufe the fame thing is obferved of rain. A body placed low down receives more rain than one placed in an elevated fituation ; and yet the rain certainly defcends from the atmofphere. The reafon why the dew appears firft on the lower parts of bodies may be, that, in the evening, the lower part of the atmofphere is firft cooled, and confequently moft difpofed to part with its vapours. It is alfo certain, that part of the water contained in the air may be condenfed at any time on the fides of a glafs, by means of cold, fo as to run down its fides in fmall drops like dew. It feems therefore, that this fubjeft is not fufficiently determined by fuch experi¬ ments as have yet been made j nor indeed does it ap¬ pear eafy to make fuch experiments as ftiall be perfect¬ ly decifive on the matter. Several fubftances expofed to the fame dew receive and charge themfelves wifh it in a very different man¬ ner ; fome more, others lefs, and fome even not at all. The drops feem to make a fort of choice of what bo¬ dies they lhall affix themfelves to ; glafs and cryftals are thofe to which they adhere in the moft ready man¬ ner, and in the largeft quantity j but metals of all kinds never receive them at all, nor do the drops ever adhere to them. The reafon of this is, probably, becaufe me¬ tals promote evaporation more than glafs does. Thus, if a piece of metal and a piece of glafs are both made equally moift, the former will be found to dry in much lefs time than the latter. Hence it would feem, that there is between metals and water fome kind of re- pulfion j and this may be fufficient to keep off the very fmall quantity that falls in dew j for whatever tends to make water evaporate after it is aCtually in contaCl with any fubftance, alfo tends to keep the water from ever coming into contadf with it. On this fubjeft feveral curious particulars are mentioned by Dr Per- cival relative to the attraClion and repulfion between dew and glafs or metalline veffels. The experiments were made by M. du Fay, who, in order to determine with certainty whether the difference between vitrified fubftances and metals was the fame in all cafes, fet a china faucer in the middle of a filver plate, and on one fide, adjoining to it, was placed a china plate, with a filver diffi very much refembling the faucer in the middle. In this experiment the china faucer was co¬ vered with dew, but the plate, though extending four inches round it, was not moiftened in the leaft. The china plate alfo had become quite moift, while the filver veffel in the middle had not received the Ifnalleft drop- M. du Fay next endeavoured to afeertain whether a china faucer fet upon a plate of metal, as already deferi- bed, did not receive more dew than it would have done if expofed alone. To accomplifti this defign, he took two wratch cryftals of equal dimenfions, and placed the one upon a plate of filver, the other upon a plate of china, each with its concavity uppermoft. That which was upon the filver plate he furrounded with a ferrel of the fame metal, well poliflred, that no watery par¬ ticles might attach themfelves to the convex furface of the glafs. In this fituation he expofed the cryftals for ffveral days fucceffively, and always found five or fix times more dew in that which was on the china plate than on the other placed on the filver. The repulfion between the dew and filver is further confirmed by^he following experiment of M. du Fay, with regard to the cryftal on the filver plate. He informs us, that the fmall quantity of dew on the fide near the centre, w7as in minute drops; and that round the border there was a fpace of five or fix lines perfectly dry 5 towards which the drops regularly decreafed in magnitude, as if the filver ferrel had driven away the dew from that part of the glafs which was contiguous to it. Thefe experi¬ ments were repeated thirty times with invariable fuc¬ cefs. M. du Fay’s experiments have received a re¬ markable confirmation, from fome lately made by Dr Watfon, now biflrop of Llnndaff, with a view7 to de¬ termine the quantity of vapour that afeends from a given furface of earth. “ By means of a little bees¬ wax {fays he), I faftened a half-crown very near, but not quite contiguous, to the fide of the glafs; and, fetting the glafs wdth its mouth downward on the grafs, it prefently became covered with yapour, except that part of it which was next the half-crown. Not only the. DEW [i? -Dew. the half-crown itfelf was free from vapour, but it had '-"■‘v'*—-' hindered any from fettling on the glafs which was near it ; for there was a little ring of glafs furrounding the half-crown, to the diftance of a quarter of an inch, which was quite dry, as well as that part of the glafs which was immediately under the half-crown 5 it feem- ed as if the filver had repelled the rvater to that dif¬ tance. A large red wafer had the fame effeft as the half-crown j it was neither wetted itfelf, nor was the ring of glals contiguous to it wetted. A circle of white paper produced the fame effeft, fo did feveral other fubftances, which it would be too tedious to enu¬ merate.” . . Subdances of a very different kind from the uiual dew are faid to have fometimes fallen from the atmo- fphere. In the Phil. Tranf. we are told, that in the year 1695 there fell in Ireland, in the provinces of Lcinder and Munder, for a confiderable part of the winter and fpring, a fatty fubdance refembling butter, indead of the common dew. It was of a clammy tex¬ ture, and dark-yellow colour •, and was, from its great refemblance, generally called dew-butter by the country people. It alw'ays fell in the night, and chiefly in the moorifli low grounds j and was found hanging on the tops of the grafs, and on the thatch of the houfes of the poor people. It was feldom obferved to fall twice in the fame place ; and ufually, wherever it fell, it lay a fortnight upon the ground before it changed colour 5 but after that it gradually dried up, and. became black. The cattle fed in the fields where it. lay as well as in others, and received no harm by it. It fell in pieces of the bignefs of one’s finger-end *, but they wTere difperfed fcatteringly about, and it had an offenfive fmell like a church-yard. There were in the fame places very {linking fogs during the winter, and feme people fuppofed this no other than a fedi- ment from the fog. It would not keep veiy long, but never bred worms. May Dev wdiitens linen and wax j the dew of au¬ tumn is converted into a white froft. Out of dew pu- trified by the fun, arife divers infefts, which change a- pace from one fpecies into another-, what remains is converted into a fine white fait, with.angles like t.hofe of faltpetre, after a number of evaporations, calcinations, and fixations. . There is a fpirit drawn from May-dew, which has wonderful virtues attributed to it. The method of col- le£Iing and preparing it, is deferibed by Hanneman, . phyfician at Kiel. It is to be gathered in clean linen -cloths ; expofed to the fun in clofe vials; then diftilled, and the fpirit thrown upon the caput mortuum this is to be repeated till the earth unite with the fpirit, and become liquid which happens about the feventh or eighth cohobation or diftillation. By fuch means you gain a very ted, odoriferous fpirit. Stolterfoht, a phy¬ fician of Lubec, thinks May-dew may be gathered in glafs-plates, efpecially in Bill weather, and before fun- rife. And Etmuller is of the fame fentiment. It might likewife be collefted with a glafs. funnel, expofed to the air having a crooked neck to bring the dew into a vial in a chamber. See Phil. Tranf. N° 3. Hofiman, and others. It is apparently from the preparation of this dew, that the brothers' o*7 the Rofy-Crofs took their denomination. See Rosicrucians. De-jt-Bow, in country affairs, a diftemper in cattle, 2 2 ] DEW being a fwelling in the body, as much as the Ikin can hold, fo that fome beafts are in danger of buifting. This diftemper proceeds from the greedinefs of a beaft to feed, when put into a rank pafture, but commonly when the grafs is full of water. In this cafe the beaft ftrould be ftirred up and down, and made to purge well but the proper cure is bleeding in the tail -, then take a grated nutmeg, with an egg, and breaking the top of the {hell, put out fo much of the white as you may have room to flip the nutmeg into the fhell mix them together, and then let fhell and all be put down the beaft’s throat ", that done, walk him up and down, and he will foon mend. Dev Worm. See Lumbricus, Helminthology Index. DEWAN, in the Mogul government, is the re¬ ceiver-general and civil governor of the province. In private affairs the fame word fignifies a fteward. DEWANNY, the revenue department of a pro¬ vince. DE WIT, John, the famous penfionary, was bom in 1625, at Dort ; where he profecuted his ftudies fo diligently, that, at the age of 23, he pubhflied Ele¬ ment a Curvarum Linearum, one of the profoundeft books in mathematics at that time. After taking his degrees, and travelling, he, in 1650, became penfionary of Dort, and diftinguifhed himfelf very early in the management of public affairs. He oppofed with all his power the war between the Englifti and the Dutch -, and when the event juftified his predidlions, he was unanimoully chofen penfionary of Holland. In this capacity he laboured to procure a peace with Cromwell ; in which peace a fecret article was introduced by one fide or other, for the exclufion of the houfe of Orange. In the war with England after the king’s reftoration, when it was thought expedient, on Opdam’s defeat and death, that fome of their own deputies ftiould com¬ mand the fleet, he was one of the three put in commit- fion 5 and wrote an accurate relation of all that hap- pened during the expedition he was engaged in, for which, at his return, he received the folemn thanks of the States General. In 1667, he eftabliftied the per¬ petual edift for aboliftiing the office of Stadtholder, to fix the liberty of the republic, as it was hoped, on a firm bafis; which produced feditions and tumults, that reftored the office, on pretence that the De Wits were enemies to the houfe of Orange, and plundered the ftate. The penfionary begged difmiffion from his poll ; which was granted, with thanks for his faithful fervices* But the invafion of the French, and the internal ivi- fions among the Hollanders themfelves, fpread every¬ where terror and confufion \ which the Orange party heightened to ruin the De Wits. Cornelius, the pen- fronary’s brother, was imprifoned and condemned to exile -, and a report being raifed that he would be re feued, the mob armed, and furrounded the priIon where the two brothers then were together, dragged them out, barbaroufly murdered them, hung the bodies on the callows, and cut them to pieces, which many of them even broiled and ate with favage fury. Such was the end of one of the greateft geniufes of his age; of whom Sir William Temple, who was well acquainted with him, writes with the greateft efteem and admiration. He obferves, that when he was at the head of the go¬ vernment, he differed nothing in his manner of Jiving Dew- Wortn II De Wit. D I A [ , Sextans from an ordinary citizen. His office, for the fiift ten J3iabolus ^ears’ brought him in little more than 300I. and in the t. ^ , latter part of his life, not above yool. per annum. He refufed a gift of io,oool. from the ttates-general, be- caufe he thought it a bad precedent in the govern¬ ment. Vv ith great reafon, therefore, Sir William 'i emple, fpeaking of his death, obferves, “ He was a perfon that deferred another fate, and a better return irom his country, after 18 years fpent in their mini- ftry, without any care of his entertainments or eafe, nnd httle of his fortune. A man of unwearied indu- ilry, inflexible conftancy, found, clear, and deep un¬ derfunding, and untainted integrity; fo that whenever he was blinded, it was by the paffion he had for that v\hich he efteemed the good and intereft of the ftate. This teftimony is juftly due to him from all that were well acquainted with him ; and is the more willingly paid, fince there can be as little intereft to flatter, as honour to reproach, the dead.” Befides the works already mentioned, he wrote a book containing thole maxims of government upon which he a£ied ; which will be a never-fading monu¬ ment to his immortal memory. A franflation of it from the original Dutch, entitled, The true interejl and political maxims of the republic of Holland, has been printed in London ; to the laft edition of which, in 1746, are prefixed hiftorical memoirs of the illuftrious brothers Cornelius and John de Witt, by John Camp¬ bell, Efq. 1 DE.XIANS, in Roman antiquity, ten ounces, or 4° of their libia. See Libra. DEXT ER, in Heraldry, an appellation given to whatever belongs to the right fide of a ftiield or coat 01 arms : thus we fay, bend-dexter, dexter point &c DEX PROCHERE, or destrochere, in Herald- ry, is applied to the right arm painted in a ftn'eld, lometimes naked, fometimes clothed, or adorned with a bracelet ; and fometimes armed, or holding fome move- able or member ufed in the arms. ^ DE\ , the title of the fovereign of Algiers, under tne protection of the grand fignior. A prince under this title was appointed by the fultan, at the requeft oftheTurkifh loldiers, in the year 1710. The term dey in the Turkifh language, fignifies an uncle by the mother’s fide ; and the reafon of the denomination is this : that the Turkilh military confider the grand fig¬ nior as their father ; the republic as their mother, by w-hich they are nouriftred and maintained; and thedey as the brother of the republic, and confequently the uncle of all who are under his dominion. Befides the age, experience, and valour, which are neceffary qua- lihcations of a perfon to be eleded, he muft alfo be a native Turk, and have made the voyage to Mecca. He has no guards or confiderable retinue. He prefides at the divan, and is moft diftinguilhed by the refpeift and iubmiffion which are paid him. DIABETES, in Phy/ic, a preternatural difeharge ot urine, which has changed its properties, and exceeds llqUlds drank- See Ivl£D*CiNE Index, DIABQLUS. See Detil. Ind!lAS0LVS Marinus% See Ra,a> Ichthyology . DlAB0LV$ Metallorum, a title given by chemifts to jupiter or tin : becaufe, when incorporated with other Vcl. VH. Part I. 93 ] D I A metals, it renders them incapable of reduiflion, or at Diacauilic leaf! very difficult to undergo that operation. li DIACAUST1C curve, a Ipecies of the cauflic Diserefis~. curves formed by refraCiu n. ' " DIACHYLON, in Pharmacy, an emollient dige- ftive plafter, compoled of mucilages or vifeid juices drawn from certain plants. See Pharmacy. DI AC ODIUM, in Pharmacy, a lyrup prepared from poppy heads. It is alfo called the fyrupus de me- conio. See Pharmacy. DIACOUS I ICS, called alfo diaphonics, the con- fideration of the properties of refraded found, as it pafles through different mediums. The word is form¬ ed from the Greek out, per, “ through,” which inti¬ mates a paffage ; and “ I hear,” q. d. the confi- deration of the paffage of the founds we hear. See A- coustics. DIACRII, in antiquity, was the name of a party or fadion at Athens.—d'hat city, we read, was divid¬ ed into two parties : the one favourers of an oligarchy, who would only have a few perfons employed in the government ; the other confifted of fuch as were for a democratical or popular government, wherein the whole people fiiould have a fhare. The firft were called dia- cru, and the latterpediaci; the latter inhabiting the lower, and the former the axgav, or upper quarter or part of the city.— I he law^s of Solon imported, that Pinftiatus fhould be chief of the diacrii ; though the fcholiaft on Ariftophanes’s comedy The Wafps, af¬ firms, that Pandion diftributed the quarter of the 'dia¬ crii among his fons, and put Lycus at their head. DIADELPHIA (£hia PW, print¬ ed iu xbSo ; Gaupennius, in his Gnornomca Mechamca; Bion, in his Ufe of Mathematical Ifruments ; the late ingenious Mr Fergufon, in his MeclDclures, Mr Emmerfon, in Vis Dialling i and Mr . Jones, in his In/lrurnenCal Dialling. , , . , s A Dial, accurately defined, is a plane, upon which lines are defcribed in fuch a manner, that the lhadow of a wire, or of the upper edge of another plane, erect¬ ed perpendicularly on the former, may Ihow the true time of the day. , . , . . r. 1 The edge of the plane by which the time of the day is found, is called the/f/e of the dial which muft be parallel to the earth’s axis and the line on which the faid plane is erefted, is called the/^/e. The angle included between the fubllile and ftile, is called the elevation or height of the file. Thofe dials whofe planes are parallel to the plane o the horizon, are called horizontal dials: and thole dials whofe planes are perpendicular to the plane of the horizon, are called vertical or ereEl dials. Thole ereft dials, whofe planes direaiy front the north or fouth, are called diretf north ox fouth dials ; and all other ereft dials are called declmers, becau e their planes are turned away from_the north or fouth. Thofe dials whofe planes are neither parallel nor per¬ pendicular to the plane of the horizon, are called in¬ clining or reclining dials, according as ^eir planes make acute or obtufe angles wuth the horizon , and if their planes are alfo turned a fide from facing the fou or north, they are called declining-inclining ox dechnwg- TeC’Yhe 1 nterfettion of the plane of the dial, with that of the meridian, palling through the fide is called the meridian of the dial, or the hour-line oj All. Thofe meridians, whofe planes pafs through the ftile, and make angles of 15, 3°» 45* 6°’ 7.*’and U degrees with the meridian of the place (which marks the hour-line of XII.) are called hour-circles; and their interfecfions with the plane of the dial are called ^TntTdeclining dbk the fubftile make, an angle „;,h the hour-line of XII. and this angle is called the dijlance of the fub/lile from the meridian. The declining plane’s difference of Ipngitude, is an, terminating in the poles P and />, the fhadow of the axis would fall upon every particular meridian and hour, when the fun came to the plane of the oppofite meridian and would confequently firow the time at London, and at all other places on the meridian of London. S , If this fphere was cut through the middle by a lolid Horizontal plane ABCD, in the rational horizon of London, onedial. half of the axis EP would be above the plane, and the other half below if, and if ftraight lines were drawn from the centre of the plane to thole points where its circumference is cut by the hour-circles of the fphere, thofe lines would be the hour-lines of a horizonta dial for London: for the fhadow of the axis would fall upon each particular hour-line of the dial, when it fell upon the like hour-circle of the fphere. _ If the plane which cuts the fphere be upright, as Fig. z. AECG, touching the given place (London) at b, and direaiy facing the meridian of London, it will then become the plane of an ereft dirt.a foutlu dial . and if right lines be drawn from its centre E to thofe points of it°s circumference where the hour-circles of the fphere g cut jt thefe will be the hour-lines of a vertical or direa Vertical fouth-dial for London, to which the hours.are to be jet La . as in the figure (contrary to thofe on a horizontal dial), and the lower half E/> of the axis will call a fhadow on the hour of the day in this dial, at the fame time that it would fall upon the like hour-circle of the iphere, if the dial plane was not in the way. If the plane (Hill facing the meridian) be made to incline or recline, any given number of degrees the hour-circles of the fphere will fil l cut the edge of the plane in thofe points to which the hour lines, muft be drawn ftraight from the centre ; and the axis of the fphere will calf a fhadow on thefe lines at the relpeclive 7 hour,. The like will Ml hold, if the plane be made Inchmn?, to decline by any given number of degrees from and dedhl_ meridian towards the eaft or weft : provided the. dech-ing dials. nation be lefs than 90 degrees, or the reclmation be lei's than the co-latitude of the place : and the axis of the fphere will be a gnomon or ftile, for. the dial, it cannot be a gnomon, when the declination js quite 00 degrees, nor when the rechnation is equal to the co-latitude ; becaufe in thefe two cafes, the axis has no elevation above the plane of the dial. And thus it appears, that the plane of every dial re- prefents the plane of fome great circle upon the earth, the and the gnomon of the earth’s, axis, whether it be a !97 DIAL fraall wire as in the above figures, or the edge of a thin plate, as in the common horizontal dials. The whole earth, as to its bulk, is but a point, if compared to its diftance from the fun ; and therefore, if a fmall fphere of glafs be placed upon any part of the earth’s furface, fo that its axis be parallel to the axis of the earth, and the fphere have fuch lines upon it, and fuch planes within it, as *above defcribed j it will (how the hours of the day as truly as if it were placed at the earth’s centre, and the' Ihell of the earth were as tranfparent as glafs. But becaufe it is impcffible to have a hollow fphere of glafs perfedlly true, blown round a folid plane j or if it was, vve could not get at the plane within the glafs Fig. x. 2. to *n any given pofition j we make ufe of a wire- fphere to explain the principles of dialling, by joining 24 femicircles together at the poles, and putting a s thin flat plate of brafs within it. Dialling by A common globe of 12 inches diameter has gene- the com- rally 24 meridian femicircles drawn upon it. If fuch moiyierre. a globe be elevated to the latitude of any given place, ia & u e- and turned about until one of thefe meridians cut the horizon in the north point, where the hour of XII is fuppofed to be marked, the reft of the meridians will cut the horizon at the refpedlive dillances of all the other hours from XII. Then if thefe points of diftance be marked on the horizon, and the globe be taken out of the horizon, and a flat board or plate be put into its place, even with the furface of the horizon ; and if flraight lines be drawn from the centre of the board to thole points of diflance on the horizon which were cut by the 24 meridian femicircles; thefe lines will be the hour lines of a horizontal dial for that latitude, the edge of whofe gnomon muft be in the very fame fitua- tion that the axis of the globe was, before it was taken out of the horizon ; that is, the gnomon muft make an angle with the plane of the dial, equal to the latitude of the place for which the dial is made. If the pole of the globe be elevated to the co-lati¬ tude of the given place, and any meridian be brought to the north point of the horizon, the reft of the me¬ ridians wall cut the horizon in the refpeftive diftances of all the hours from XII, for a diredl fouth dial, whofe gnomon muft be an angle with the plane of the dial, equal to the co-latitude of the place ; and the hours muft be fet the contrary way on this dial to what they are on the horizontal. But if your globe have more than 24 meridian femi¬ circles upon it, you muft take the following method 9 for making horizontal aud. fouth dials. To con- Elevate the pole to the latitude of your place, and ftruift a ho-turn the globe until any particular meridian (fuppofe dial1*3* ^le comes to the north point of the hotizon, and the oppofite meridian will cut the horizon in the fouth. Then fet the hour-index to the uppermoft XII on its circle *, which done, turn the globe weft- ward until 15 degrees of the equator pafs under the brazen meridian, and then the hour index will be at / (for the fun moves 15 degrees every hour), and the firft meridian will cut the horizon in the number of degrees from the north point that I is diftant from XII. Turn on until other 15 degrees of the equa¬ tor pafs under the brazen meridian, and the hour in¬ dex will then be at II, and the firft meridian wdll cut the horizon in the number of degrees that // is di- LING. ftant from XII: and fo by making 15 degrees of the equator pafs under the brazen meridian for every hour, the firft meridian of the globe wdll cut the ho¬ rizon in the diftances of all the hours from XII to VI, which is juft 90 degrees ; and then you need go no farther, for the diftances of XI, X, IX, VIII VII, and VI, in the forenoon, are the fame from XII as the diftances of /, II, III, IV, V* and VI, in the afternoon : and thefe hour-lines continued through the centre, will give the oppofite hour-lines on the other half of the dial. Thus, to make a horizontal dial for the latitude of London, wdiich is 514 degrees north, elevate the north pole of the globe 514. degrees above the north point of the horizon and then turn the globe, until the firft meridian (which is that of London on the Englifh ter- re ft rial globe) cuts the north point of the horizon, and fet the hour-index to All at noon. Then turning the globe weftward until the index points fucceffively to /, II, III, IV, V, and VI, in the afternoon, or until 15, 30, 45. 60, 75, and 90 degrees of the equator pafs under the brazen meridian, you will find that the firft metidian of the globe cuts the hori¬ zon in the following number of degrees from the north towards the eaft, viz. iif, 24^, 38A, 534, 7i-/T, and 90 ; which are the refpedive diftances of the above hours from XII upon the plane of the horizon. 'Eo transfer tbefe, and the reft of the hours, to aFig. 3v horizontal plane, draw the parallel right lines a c and d b, upon the plane, as far from each other as is equal to the intended thicknefs of the gnomon or ftile of the dial, and the fpace included between them wrill be the meridian or twelve o’clock line on the dial. Crofs this meridian at right angles with the fix'o’clock line g h, and fetting one foot of your compafles in the in- terfedlion a, as a centre, defcribe the quadrant g e with any convenient radius or opening of the compaf- fes : then, fetting one foot in the interfedfion b, as a centre, with the fame radius defcribe the quadranti/'^, and divide each quadrant into 90 equal parts or de¬ grees, as in the figure. Becaufe the hour-lines are lefs diftant from each other about noon, than in any other part of the dial, it is beft to have the centres of thele quadrants at a little di¬ ftance from the centre of the dial plane, on the fide op¬ pofite to XII, in order to enlarge the hour-diftances thereabouts, under the fame angles on the plane. Thus the centre of the plane is at C, but the centres of the quadrants are at a and b. Lay a ruler over the point b (and keeping it there for the centre of all the afternoon hours in the quadrant fh) draw the hour-line of I through 11 f- degrees in the quadrant; the hour-line of II, through 244 degrees ; ' of///, through 38rrT degrees; ////, through 534; and V, through : and becaufe the fun rifes about Fig. 3. four in the morning, on the longeft days at London, continue the hour-lines of ////and Fin the afternoon through the centre b to the oppofite fide of the dial. This done, lay the ruler to the centre a of the quadrant eg ; and through the like divifions or degrees of that quadrant, viz. Ilf, 244, 5^4. and 7iTV, draw the forenoon hour-lines of A/, X, IX, VIII, and F//; and becaufe the fun fets not before eight in the even¬ ing on the longeft days, continue the hour lines of VII and VIII in the forenoon, through the centre a, to 198 DIAL VII and VIII in the afternoon j and all the hour-lines will be finilhed on this dial ; to which the hours may¬ be fet, as in the figure. Lallly, through 514- degrees of either quadrant, and from its centre, draw the right line ag for the hypo- thenufe or axis of the gnomon (i g i } and ^rom gi fall the perpendicular g iy upon the meridian line a iy and there will be a triangle made, whofe fides are a g, g i, and in. If a plate fimilar to this triangle be made as thick a-s the diftance between the lines a c and b d, and fet upright between them, touching at a and b, its hypothenufe ag will be parallel to the axis of the world, when the dial is truly fet j and will caft a lhadow on the hour of the day. N. B. The trouble of dividing the two quadrants mav be faved if you have a fcale with a line of chords upon it (as reprefented in the plate) 5 for if you ex¬ tend the compaffes from o to 60 degrees of the line of chords, and with that extent, as a radius, defcribe the two quadrants upon their refpe£tive centres, the above diftances may be taken writh the compaffes upon the lines, and fet off upon the quadrants. Fig. 4. To male an ere El direct fouth dial. Elevate the pole ro to the co-latitude of your place, and proceed in ad An ere& refpg&s as above taught for the horizontal dial, from jouth dial, jn the morning to VI in the afternoon } only the hours mud be reverfed as in the figure ; and the hypothenufe ag of the gnomon agfy mut! make an angle with the dial-plane equal to the co-latitude of the place. As the fun can Ihine no longer on this dial than from fix in the morning until fix in the even¬ ing, there is no occafion for having any more than 12 hours upon it. To male an ereEl dialy declining from the fouth to- ?i;nin.r wards the eaf or wejl. Elevate the pole to the latitude dial. ° of your place, and fcrew the quadrant of altitude to the zenith. Then, if your dial declines towards the eaft (which we (hall fuppofe it to do at prefent), count in the horizon the degrees of declination, from the eaft point towards the north, and bring the lower end of the quadrant to that degree of declination at which the reckoning ends. This done, bring any particular me¬ ridian of your globe (as fuppofe the firfl meridian) di- re£tly under the graduated edge of the upper ^part of the brazen meridian, and fet the hour to XII at noon. Then, keeping the quadrant of altitude at the degree of declination in the horizon, turn the globe eaftward on its axis, and obferve the degrees cut by the firfl: meridian in the quadrant of altitude (counted from toe zenith) as the hour-index comes to XI, X, IX, &c. in the forenoon, or as 15, 30, 45, &c. degrees of the equator pafs under the brazen meridian at thefe hours refpe&ively •, and the degrees then cut in the quadrant by the firft: meridian, are the refpe&ive diftances of the forenoon hours from \II on the plane of the dial.—- Then, for the afternoon hours, turn the quadrant of altitude round the zenith, until it comes to the degree in the horizon oppofite to that where it -was placed be¬ fore ; namely, as far from the weft point of the hori¬ zon towards the fouth, as it was fet at firft from the eaft point towards the north •, and turn the globe weft- ward on its axis, until the firft meridian comes to the ’brazen meridian again, and the hour-index to XII \ then, continue to turn the globe weftward ; and as the index points to the afternoon hours /, //, III, &c. or I LING. as 15, 30, 45, &c. degrees of the equator pafs under the brazen meridian, the firft meridian will cut the quadrant of altitude in the refpedlive number of degrees from the zenith that each of thefe hours is from Xll on the dial.—-And note, that when the firft meridian goes off the quadrant at the horizon in the afternoon, the hour-index Ihows the time when the fun will come upon this dial, and w hen it goes off the quadrant in the afternoon, the index will point to the time when the fun goes off the dial. Having thus found all the hour-diftances from XII, lay them down upon yonr dial-plane, either by dividing a femicircle into two quadrants of 90 degrees each (be¬ ginning at the hour-line of XII), or by the line of chords, as above dire&ed. In all declining dials, the line on which the ftile or gnomon (lands (commonly called thefubjlile-line) makes an angle with the twelve o’clock line, and falls among the forenoon hour-lines, if the dial declines towards- the eaft j and among the afternoon hour-lines, when the dial declines towards the weft ; that is, to the left hand from the twelve o’clock line in the former cafe, and to the right hand from it in the latter. To find the diftance of the fubftile from the twelve o’clock line ; if your dial declines from the fouth to¬ ward the eaft, count the degrees of that declination in the horizon from the eaft point towards the north, and bring the lower end of the quadrant of altitude to that degree of declination where the reckoning ends : then turn the globe until the firft meridian cuts the horizon in the like number of degrees, counted from the fouth point towards the eaft 5 and the quadrant and firft me¬ ridian will then crofs one another at right angles; and the number of degrees of the quadrant, which are in¬ tercepted between the firft meridian and the zenith, is equal to the diftance of the fubftile line from the twelve o’clock line ; and the number of degrees of the firft meridian, which are intercepted between the quadrant and the north pole, is equal to the elevation of the ftile above the plane of the dial. If the dial declines weftward from the fouth, count that declination from the eaft point of the horizon to¬ wards the fouth, and bring the quadrant of altitude to the degree in the horizon at which the reckoning ends *, both for finding the forenoon hours and diflance of the fubftile from the meridian: and for the afternoon hours, bring the quadrant to the oppofite degree in the hori¬ zon, namely, as far from the weft towards the north, and then proceed in all refpefts as above. Thus we have finifhed our declining dial j and in fo doing we made four dials, viz. I. A north dial, declining eaftward by the fame number of degrees. 2. A north dial, declining the fame number weft. 3. A fouth dial, declining eaft. And, 4. A fouth dial, declining weft. Only, placing the proper number of hours, and the ftile or gnomon refpeftively, upon each plane. For (as above-men¬ tioned) in the fouth-weft plane, the fubftilar-line falls among the afternoon hours •, and in the fouth-eaft, of the fame declination, among the forenoon hours, at equal diftances from XII. And fo all the morning hours on the weft decliner will be like the afternoon hours on the eaft dccliner : the fouth-eaft decliner will pro¬ duce the north-weft decliner •, and the fouth-weft de¬ cliner the north-eaft decliner, by only extending the hour-lines *99 12 An eafy method for oonftrudb. ing of dials. He- s- DIAL hour-lines, ftile and fubftile, quite through the centre : the axis of the ftile (or edge that cads the fhadow on the hour of the day) being in all dials whatever paral¬ lel to the axis of the world, and confequently pointing towards the north pole of the heaven in north latitudes, and towards the fouth pole in fouth latitudes. But becaufe every one who would like to make a dial, may perhaps not be provided with a globe to affifl him, and may probably not underfland the method of doing it by logarithmic calculation *, we fliall fhow how to perform it by the plain dialing lines, or fcale of la¬ titudes and hours (as reprefented on the Plate), and which may be had on fcales commonly fold by the mathematical-inftrument-makers. This is the eafieft of all mechanical methods, and by much the beft, when the lines are truly divided : and not only the half-hours and quarters may be laid down by all of them, but every fifth minute by moft, and every fingle minute by thofe where the line of hours is a foot in length. Having drawn your double meridian line o £, c d, on the plane intended for a horizontal dial, and crof- fed it at right angles by the fix o’clock line f e (as in fig. 3.), take the latitude of your place with the com- paffes, in the icale of latitudes, and fet that extent from c to e, and from u to f, on the fix o’clock line: then, taking the whole fix hours between the points of the compafles in the fcale of hours, with that ex¬ tent fet one foot in the point c, and let the other foot fall where it will upon the meridian line c d, as at d. Do the fame from f to b, and draw the right lines e d and fb, each of which will be equal in length to the whole fcale of hours. This done, fetting one foot of the compafles in the beginning of the fcale at XII, and extending the other to each hour of the fcale, lay off thefe extents from d to e for the afternoon hours, and from b to f tor thofe of the forenoon : this will divide the lines de and bf\x\ the fame manner as the hour- fcale is divided at 1, 2, 3, 4, and 6 ; on which the quarters may alfo be laid down, if required. Then, laying a ruler on the point c, draw the firll five hours in the afternoon, from that point, through the dots at the numeral figures, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, on the line de; and continue the lines of //// and Vthrough the centre c to the other fide of the dial, for the like hours of the morning : which done, lay the ruler on the point a, and draw the laft five hours in the forenoon through the dots, 5, 4, 3, 2, I, on the liney'Z'; continuing the hour- lines of VII and VIII through the centre a to the other fide of the dial, for the like hours of the evening ; and fet the hours to their refpeftive lines, as in the fi¬ gure. Laftly, make the gnomon the fame way as taught above for the horizontal dial, and the whole will be finilhed. To make an ereft fouth dial; take the co-latitude of your place from the fcale of latitudes, and then pro¬ ceed in all refpedls for the hour-line as in the hori¬ zontal dial j only reverfing the hours, as in fig. 4. and making the angle of the ftile’s height equal to the co¬ latitude. But, left the young diallift fhould have neither globe nor wooden fcale, we lhall now fhow him how he may make a dial without any of thefe helps. Only, if he Las not a Hue of chords, he muft divide a quadrant in- L I N G. to 90 equal parts or degrees for taking the proper angle of the ftile’s elevation ; which is eafily done. With any opening of the compaffes, as Z L, de-Fig-S- fcribe the two femicircles LF k and LQJ, upon the centres Z and z, where the fix o’clock line croffes the double meridian line, and divide each femicircle into unequal parts, beginning at L (though, ftriftly fpeak- t, ing, only the quadrants from L to the fix o’clock line Horizontal need be divided) 5 then conneft the divifions which dial, are equidiftant from L, by the parallel lines KM, IN, HO, GP, and FQ^ Draw VZ for the hypothenufe of the ftile, making the angle VZE equal to the lati¬ tude of your place ; and continue the line VZ to R. Draw the line Rr parallel to the fix o’clock line ; and fet off the diftance a K from Z to Y, the diftance b I from Z to X, c H from Z to W, d G from Z to T, and e F from Z to S. Then draw the lines Sr, T /, W vj, X x, and Yy, each parallel to R r. Set off the diftance y Y from <7 to 11, and from fto\\ the diftance x X from b to 10, and from ^ to 2 ; to W from c to 9, and from to 3 5 /T from d to 8, and from i to 4 ; s S from e to 7, and from n to 5. Then laying a ruler to the centre Z, draw the forenoon hour-lines through the points 11, 10, 9, 8, 7 5 and laying it to the centre %, draw the afternoon lines through the points 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 ; containing the forenoon lines of VII and VIII through the centre Z,-to the oppofite fide of the dial, for the like afternoon hours j and the afternoon lines //// and V through the centre z, to the op¬ pofite fide, for the like morning hours. Set the hours to thefe lines as in the figure, and then ereft the ftile or gnomon, and the horizontal dial will be finiftied. To conftruft a fouth dial, draw the line VZ, making an angle with the meridian ZL equal to the co-latitude of your place j and proceed in all refpe&s as in the above horizontal dial for the fame latitude, reverfing the hours as in fig. 4. and making the elevation of the gnomon equal to the co-latitude. Perhaps it may not be unacceptable to explain the method of conllrufting the dialling lines, and fome others *, wrhich is as follows : ^ With any opening of the compaffes, as EA, ac-Dialling cording to the intended length of the fcale, defcribe ^nes> ^ov’'r, the circle ADCB, and crofs it at right angles by the * diameters CEA and DEB. Divide the quadrant AB 7* firft into 9 equal parts, and then each part into 10 } fo fliall the quadrant be divided into qd equal parts or degrees. Draw the right line AFB for the chord of this quadrant; and fetting one foot of the compaffes in the point A, extend the other to the feveral divi¬ fions of the quadrant, and transfer thefe divifions to the line AFB by the arcs 10, 10, 20, 20, &c. and this will be a line of chords, divided into 90 unequal parts ; which, if transferred from the line back again to the quadrant, will divide it equally. It is plain by the figure that the diftance from A to 60 in the line of chords, is juft equal to AE, the radius of the circle from which that line is made j for if the arc 60, 60, be continued, of which A is the centre, it goes exadlly through the centre E of the arc AB. And therefore, in laying down any number of de¬ grees on a circle, by the line of chords, you muft firft open the compaffes fo as to take in juft 60 degrees upon loo D I A L L I N ’ G. upon that line as from A to 60: and then, with that extent, as a radius, defcribe a circle, which will be exaftly of the fame fize with that from w-hich the line was divided: which done, fet one foot of the compalfes in the beginning of the chord line, as at A, and ex¬ tend the other to the number of degrees you wrant ■ - upon the line} which extent, applied to the circle, will include the like number of degrees upon it. Divide the quadrant CD into 90 equal parts, and from each point of divifion draw' right lines, as 1 h /, &c. to the line CE, all perpendicular to that line, and parallel to DE, which wall divide EC into a line of lines : and although thefe are feldom put among the dialling lines on a‘ fcale, yet they aflift in drawing the line of latitudes. For if a ruler be laid upon the point D, and over eachdivifion in the line of lines, it will di¬ vide the quadrant CB into 90 unequal parts, as Btf, BZ>, &c. Ihown by the right lines 10/7, 20b, 30c, &c. drawn along the edge'of the ruler. If the right line BC be drawn, fubtending this quadrant, and the near- eft diftances B this quadrant into fix equal parts, as I, 2, 3* &c> ar|d through thefe points of divifion draw right lines from the centre E to the line rs, which will divide it at the points where the fix hours are to be placed, as in the figure. If every fixth part of the quadrant be fubdi- vided into four equal parts, right lines drawn from the centre through thefe points of diviiion, and continued Fig 8. to the line r s, will divide each hour upon it into quar- 15 ters" r 1 1 A dial on a jn we have the reprefentation of a portable 'CarcL dial, which may be eafily drawn on a card, and carried in a pocket-book. The lines ad, a b, and b c of the gnomon, muft be cut quite through the card ; and as the end a b of the gnomon is raifed occafionally^ above the plane of the dial, it turns upon the uncut line c d as on a hinge. 1 he dotted line AB muft be flit quite through the card, and the thread C muft be put through the flit, and have a knot tied behind, to keep it from being eafily drawn out. On the other end of this thread is a final 1 plummet D, and on the middle of it a Imall bead for ftiowing the hour of the day. To reftify this dial, fet the thread in the flit right againft the day of the month, and ftretch the thread from the day of the month over the angular point where the curve lines meet at XII) then Ihift the bead to that point on the thread, and the dial will be redli- fied. To find the hour of the day, raife the gnomon (no matter how much or how7 little) and hold the edge of the dial next the gnomon towards the fun, fo as the uppermoft edge of the ftiadow of the gnomon may juft cover the Jhadow line ; and the bead then playing freely on the face of the dial, by the weight of the plummet, will ftiow the time of the day among the hour-lines, as it is forenoon or afternoon. Jo find the time of fun-rifmg and fetting, move the 2 thread among the hour-lines, until it either covers fome one of them,°or lies parallel betwixt any two 5 and then it will cut the time of fun-rifing among the forenoon hours, and of fun-fetting among the afternoon hours, for that day of the year to which the thread is fet in the fcale of months. To find the fun’s declination, ftretch the thread from the day of the month over the angular point at XI1, and it will cut the fun’s declination, as it is noith or fouth, for that day, in the proper fcale. To find on what days the lun enters the figns, when the bead, as above redlified, moves' along any of the curve-lines which have th6 figns of the zodiac marked upon them, the fun enters thofe figns on the days pointed out by the thread in the fcale of months. The conftru&ion of this dial is very eafy, efpecially if the reader compares it all along with fig. 9. Elate CLXXII as he reads the following explanation of that figure. Draw the occult line AB (fig* 9*) Para e to t“e Plate top of the card, and crofs it at right angles with the fix CLXXIL t o’clock line ECD j then upon C, as a centre, with the radius CA, defcribe the femicircle AEL, and divide it into 12 equal parts (beginning at A), as A r, A.s, &c. and from thefe points of divifion draw the hour-lines r, s, t, u, v, E, w, and v, all parallel to the fix o’clock line EC. If each part of the femicircle be fubdivided into four equal parts, they will give the half-hour-lines and quarters, as in fig. 2. Draw the tight line ASD 0, making the angle SAB equal to the latitude of your place. Upon the centre A defcribe the arch RST, and fet off upon it the arcs SR and ST, each equal to 23-r degrees, for the fun’s greateft declination 5 and divide them into 234-eflual Par^s» as 'n 2- ^ hrough the interfeftion D of the lines ECD and AD 0, draw the right line FDG at right angles to AD 0. Lay a ruler to the points A and R, and draw the line ARE through 23-5- degrees of fouth declination in the aic SR ; and then laying the ruler to the points A and f, draw the line ATG through 23! degrees of noiuh de¬ clination in the arc ST : fo fliall the lines ARE and ATG cut the line FDG in the proper lengths for the fcale of months. Upon the centre D, with the radius DF, defcribe the femicircle F 0 G j which divide into fix equal parts, Ym, m n, n 0, &c. and from thefe points of divifion draw the right lines m h, n i, ft b, and q e, each parallel to 0 D. Then fetting one foot of the compoffes in the point F, extend the other to A, and defcribe the arc AZH for the tropic of >j> : with the fame extent, fetting one foot in G, deicribe the arc AEOfor the tropic of S5- Next fetting one foot in the point h, and extending the other to A, defcribe thepig. secern* arc ACI for the beginnings of the figns see and } ; -u with and with the fame extent, fetting one foot in the point hS- • /, defcribe the arc AN for the beginnings of the figns U and Jl. Set one foot in the point i, and having extended the other to A, defcribe the arc AK for the beginnings of the figns X and tip ; and with the fame extent, fet one foot in by and deicrioe the arc AM for the beginnings of the figns 8 anc^ ^ ^en one foot in the point D, and extending the other to A, defcribe the curve AL for the beginnings of qr and and the figns will be finifhed. This done, lay a ruler from the point A over the fun’s declination in the aich RST; and where the ruler cuts the line FDG, make marks: 201 DIAL marks : and place the days of the months right againft theie marks, in the manner ihown by fig. 2. Laftly, draw the fliadow line PQ^, parallel to the occult line AB ; make the gnomon, and fet the hours to their relpeftive lines, as in fig. 2. and the dial will be fi- nilhed. Univerfal There are feveral kinds of dials called vniverfal, be- dials. caufe they ferve for all latitudes. One, of Mr Pardie’s conttruftion, was formerly confidered as the bell. It Plate confifts of three principal parts j the firft whereof is CLXXII. ca|ieci tlje horizontal plane, A fig. 10. becaufe in pradlice it muft be parallel to the horizon. In this plane is fixed an upright pin, which enters into the edge of the fecond part BD, called the meridional plane ; which is made of two pieces, the loweft whereof B is called the quadrant, becaufe it contains a quarter of a circle, divided into 90 degrees ; and it is only into this part, near B, that the pin enters. The other piece is a femicircle D adjufted to the quadrant, and turn¬ ing in it by a groove, for raifing or depreffing the dia¬ meter EF of the femicircle, which diameter is called the axis of the injlrument. The third piece is a circle G, divided on both fides into 34 equal parts, which are the hours. This circle is put upon the meridional plane fo that the axis EF may be perpendicular to the circle, and the point C be the common centre of the circle, femicircle, and quadrant. The ftraight edge of the femicircle is chamfered on both fides to a (harp edge, which paffes through the centre of the circle. Gn one fide of the chamfered part, the fitft fix months of the year are laid down, according to the fun’s de- -clination for their refpe&ive days, and on the other fide the laft fix months. And againft the days on which the fun enters the figns, there are ftraight lines drawn upon the femicircle, with the characters of the figns marked upon them. There is a black line drawn along the middle of the upright edge of the quadrant, over which hangs a thread H, with its plummet I, for level¬ ling the inftrument. N. B. From the 23d of September to the 20th of March, the upper furface of the circle muft touch both the centre C of the femicircle, and the line of (where the circle touches) comes to the latitude of your place in the quadrant : then turn the whole meridional plane BD, with its circle G, upon the horizontal plane A, until the edge of the (hadow of the circle fall precifely on the day of the month in the femicircle ; and then the meridional plane will be due north and fouth, the axis EF will be parallel to the axis of the world and will caft a ftiadow upon the true time of the day among the hours on the circle. N. B. As, when the inftrument is thus rectified, the quadrant and femicircle are in the plane of the meri¬ dian, fo the circle is then in the plane of the equinoc¬ tial. Therefore, as the fun is above the equinoifial in fummer (in northern latitudes), and below it in winter ; the axis of the femicircle will caft a ftiadow on the Vet. VII. Part I. LING. hour of the day, on the upper furface of the circle, from the 20th of March till the 23d of September 5 and from the 23d of September to the 20th of March, the hour of the day will be determined by the ftiadow of the femicircle upon the lower lurface of the circle. In the former cafe, the fhadow of the circle falls upon the day of the month, on the lower part of the dia¬ meter of the femicircle } and in the latter cafe, on the upper part. The method of laying down the months and figns upon the femicircle is as follows: Draw the right line ACB, fig. 11. equal to the diameter of the femicircle ADB, and crofs it in the middle at right angles with the line ECD, equal in length to ADB ; then EC will be the radius of the circle FCG, which is the fame as that of the femicircle. Upon E, as a centre, defcribe the circle FCG, on which fet off the arcs C h and C i, eachequal to 234 degrees, and divide them accordingly into that number for the fun’s declination. Then lay¬ ing the edge of a ruler over the centre E, and alfo over the fun’s declination for every fifth day of each month (as in the card-dial), mark the points on the diameter AB of the (emicircle from a to g, which are cut by the ruler j and there place the days of the months accord¬ ingly, anfwering to the fun’s declination. This done, fetting one foot of the compaffes in C, and extending the other to a ox g, defcribe the femicircle a b c d ef g; which divide into fix equal parts, and through the points of divifion draw right lines parallel to CD, for the be¬ ginning of the fines (of which one half are on one fide of the femicircle, and the other half on the other), and fet the charadters of the fines to their proper lines, as in the figure. An univerfal dial, of a very ingenious conftrudfion, 11 has lately been invented by Mr G. Wright of London. byn^T'v q"' The hour-circle or arch E (fig. 19.), and latitude arch Wright. ’ C, are the portions of two meridian circles; one Plate fixed, and the other moveable. The hour or dial-plate CLXXIII. SEN at top is fixed to the arch C, and has an index that moves with the hour-circle E j therefore the con- ftruftion of this dial is perfedtly fimilar to the conftruc- tion of the meridians and hour-circle upon a common globe. The peculiar problems to be performed by this inftrument are, 1. To find the latitude of any place. 2. The latitude of the place being known, to find the time by the fun and fiars. 3. To find the fun orfiar's azimuth and altitude. Previous to ufe, this inftrument fhould be in a well- adjufted (fate : to perform which, you try the levels of the horizontal plates A a, by firft turning the fcrew’S BBBB till the bubbles of air on the glafs tubes of the fpirit-levels (which levels are at right angles to each other) are central or in the middle, and remain fo when you turn the upper plate A half round its cen¬ tre j but if they ftrould not keep fo, there are fmall fcrews at the end of each level, which admit of being turned one way or the other as may be requifite, till they are fo. The plates A a being thus made horizon¬ tal, fet the latitude arch or meridian C fteadily between the two grooved fides that hold it (one of which is feen at D) by the ferew behind. On this fide D is divided the nonius or vernier, correfponding with the divifions on the latitude arch C, and which may be fubdivided into 5 minutes of a degree, and even lefs if required The latitude arch C is to be fo placed in D, that the C c pole pole M may be in a vertical pofition j which is done by making 90° on the arch at bottom coincide with the o of the nonius. The arch is then fixed by the tighten¬ ing fcrew at the back of U. Hang a filken plumb- line on the hook at G j which line is to coincide with a mark at the bottom of the latitude arch at H, all the while you move the upper plate A round its centre. If it does not fo, there are four fcrews to regulate this adjuftment, two of which pafs through the bafe I into the plate A ; the other two fcrews faften the nonius piece D together j which when unfcrewed a thread or two, the nonius piece may be eafily moved to the right or left of 90° as may be found requifite. Prob. I. To find the latitude of the place. Faften the latitude and hour circles together, by placing the pm K into the holes; Aide the nonius piece E on the hour- circle to the fun’s declination for the given day : the fun’s declination you may know in the ephemeris by White, or other almanacks, for every day in the year. The nonius piece E muft be fet on that portion of the hour-circle marked NX) or SI), according as the fun has north or fouth declination. About 20 minutes or a quarter of an hour before noon, obfervc the fun s lhadow or fpot that paffes through the hole at the axis O, and gently move the latitude arch C down in its groove at D, till you obferve the fpot exaftly fall on the crofs line on the centre of the nonius piece at L ; and by the falling of this fpot, fo long as you obferve the fun to increafe in altitude, you deprefs the arch C : but at the inftant of its ftationary appearance the fpot will appear to go no lower j then fix the arch by the fcrew at the back of D, and the degrees thereby cut by the nonius on the arch will- be the latitude of the place required : if great exa&nefs is wanted, al¬ lowance flmuld be made for the refraaion of the at- mofphere, taken from fome nautical or aftronomical treatife. . - , Prob. 2. The latitude of the place being given, to find the time by the fun orfiars. From an ephemeris, as be¬ fore, you find the fun’s declination for the day north or fouth, and fet the nonius piece E on the arch accord¬ ingly. Set the latitude arch C, by the nonius at D, to the latitude of the place j and place the magnifying e-lafs at M, by which you will very correftly fet the index carrying a nonius to the upper XII at S. out the pin K, flacken the horizontal fcrew N, and gently move, either to the right or left as you fee ne- ceffary, the hour-circle E, at the fame time with the other hand moving the horizontal plate A round its axis to the right and left, till the latitude arch C fall into the meridian ; which you will know by the fun’s fpot falling exa&ly in the centre of the nonius piece, or where the lines interfeft each other. The time may be now read off exaftly to a minute by the no¬ nius on the dial-plate at top, and which will be the time required. The horizontal line drawn on the no¬ nius piece L, not feen in the figure, being the paral¬ lel of declination, or path that the fun-dial makes, it therefore can fall on the centre of that line at no other time but when the latitude arch C is in the meridian, or due north and fouth. Hence the hour- circle, on moving round with the pole, muft give the true time on the dial-plate at top. There is a hole to the right, and crofs hairs to the left, of the centre axis hole O, where the fun’s rays pafs through j whence the fun’s fhadow or fpot will alfo appear on the right and left of the centre on the nonius piece L, the holes of which are occafionally ufed as fights to ob¬ ferve through. If the fun’s rays are too weak for a fha¬ dow, a dark glafs to fcreen the eye is occafionally placed over the hole. The moft proper time to find a true meridian is three or four hours before or after noon j and take the difference of the fun’s declination from noon at the time you obferve. If it be the morning, the difference is that and the preceding day , if afternoon, that and the following day ; and the me¬ ridian being once found exaff, the hour-circle E is to be brought into this meridian, a fixed place made for the dial, and an objeft to obferve by it alfo fixed for it at a great diftance. T he fights LO muft at all timet, be diredted againft this fixed objedf, to place the dial truly in the meridian, proper for obferving the planets, moon, or bright ftars, by night. Prob. 3. To find the fun's azimuth and altitude. The latitude arch C being in the meridian, bring the pole M into the zenith, by fetting the latitude arch to 90°. Faften the hour-circle E in the meridian by putting in the pin K j fix the horizontal plates by the fcrew N j and fet the index of the dial-plate to A/7, which is the fouth point : Now take out the pm K, and gent¬ ly move the hour-circle E ; leaving the latitude arch fixed, till the fun’s rays or fpot paffing through the centre hole in the axis O fall on the centre line of the hour-circle E, made for that purpofe. I he azimuth in time may be then read off on the dial-plate at top by the magnifying glafs. This time may be converted into degrees, by allowing at the rate of 15 f°r every hour. By Aiding the nonius piece E, fo that the fpot (hall fall on the crofs line thereon, the altitude may be taken at the fame time if it does not exceed 45 degrees. Or the altitude may be taken more uni- verfally, by fixing the nonius piece E to the O on the divifions, and Aiding down the latitude-arch in fuch a manner in the groove at D, till the fpot falls exaftly on the centre of the nonius E. The degrees and mi¬ nutes then Aiown by the nonius at H, taken from 9®» will be the altitude required. By looking through the fight-holes LO, the altitude of the moon, planets, and flars, may be eafily taken. Upon this principle it is fomewhat adapted for levelling alfo ; by lowering the nonius piece E, equal altitudes of the fun may be had , and by raifing it higher, equal depreftions. More completely to anfwer the purpofes of a good theodolite, of levelling, and the performance of pro¬ blems in prattical aftronomy, trigonometry, &c. the horizontal plate D is divided into 360°, and an oppo- fite nonius on the upper plate A, fubdividing the de¬ grees into 3 or more minutes. A telefcope and fpint- level applies on the latitude arch at HG by two fcrews, making the latitude arch a vertical arch j and the whole is adapted to triangular ftaffs with parallel plates, fimilar to thofe ufed with the beft theodolites. jg A dial more univerfal for the performance of pro-Anequi- blems than the above, though in fome particulars not notfial dial fo convenient and accurate, has been invented by fome^™1* inftrument-makers. It confifts of the common equato¬ rial circles reduced to a portable fize, and inftead of a telefcope carries a plain fight. Its principal parts con- Plate fift of the fight-piece OP, fig. 20. moveable over the CLXXIIL declination’s femicircle D. It has a nonius Q^ to the fexpicircle. DIAL femicircle. A dark glafs to Ikreen the eye applies oc- Cafionally over either of the holes at O ; thefe holes on the inner fide of the piece are interfered by crofs lines, as feen in the figure below 5 and to the fight P two pieces are fcrewed, the lower having a imall hole for the fun’s rays or fhadow, and the upper two crofs hairs or wires. The declination circle or arch D is divided into two, 90° each ; and is fixed perpendicularly on a circle with a chamfered edge, containing a nonius divifion that fub- divides into Angle minutes the under equatorial circle MN, which in all cafes reprefents the equator, and is divided into twice 1 2 hours, and each hour into five minutes. At right angles below this equatorial circle is fixed the femicircle of altitude AB, divided into two quadrants of 900 each. This arch ferves principally to meafure angles of altitude and depreffion ; and it moves centrally on an upright pillar fixed in the horizontal circle E.F. This circle EF is divided into four qua¬ drants of 90° each, and againft it there is fixed a fmall nonius plate at N. The horizontal circle may be turn¬ ed round its centre or axis; and two fpirit levels LL are fixed on it at right angles to one another. We have not room to detail the great variety of aftronomical and trigonometrical problems that may be folved by this general inftrument, which is defcribed in Jones’s “ Inftrumental Dialling.” One example con- nefted with our prefent purpofe may here fuffice, viz. *ToJind the time when the latitude it given. Suppofing the inftrument to be well adjufted by the dire&ions here¬ after given : The meridian of the place ftrould be firft obtained to place the inftrument in, which is fettled by a diftant mark, or particular cavities to receive the fcrews at IGH, made in the bafe it ftands on. The meridian is beft found by equal altitudes of the fun. In order to take thefe, you fet the middle mark of the nonius on the declination arch D at o, and fix it by the fcrew behind •, then fet the horary or hour circle to XII. The circle EF being next made horizontal, you direft the fights to the fun, by moving the horizontal circle EF and altitude femicircle AB: the degrees and minutes marked by the nonius on the latter will be the altitude required. To take equal altitudes, you obferve the fun’s altitude in the morning two or three hours be¬ fore noon by the femicircle AB: leave the inftrument in the fame fituation perfe&ly unaltered till the afternoon, when, by moving the horizontal circle EF, only find the direftion of the fight or the fun’s fpot to be juft the fame, which will be an equal altitude with the morning. The place of the horizontal circle EF againft the nonius at each time of obfervation is to be •carefully noted; and the middle degree or part between each will be the place where the femicircle AB, and fight OP, will ftand or coincide with, when dire&ed to the fouth or north, according to the fun’s fituation north or fouth at noon at the place of obfervation. Set the index, or fight-piece OP, very accurately to this middle point, by direfting the fight to fome di- ftam objeft ; or againft it, let one be placed up ; this object will be the meridian mark, and will always ferye at any future time. To find the time, the me¬ ridian being thus previoufty known by equal altitudes of the fun (or ftar), and determined by the meridian mark made at a diftance, or by the cavities in the bafe to fet the fcrew in : Place the equatorial accordingly. LING. and level the horizontal circle EF by the fpirit-leveis thereon. Set the femicircle AB to the latitude of the place, and the index of the fights OP to the declina¬ tion of the fun, found by the ephemeris, as before di- refted. Turn the femicircle D till the fight-holes are accurately direfted to the fun, when the nonius on the hour-circle MN will (how the time. It may eafily be known when the fun’s rays are direft through, by the fpot falling on the lower interfe&ors of the marks acrofs the hole at O. See the figure S adjoining. T he adjuftments of this equatorial dial are to be made from the following trials, ift, To adjuft the levels LL on EF : Place the o of any of the divi- fions on EF to the middle mark or ftroke on the nonius at N; bring the air-bubbles in the levels in the centres of each cafe, by turning the feveral fcrews at IGH : this being exactly done, turn the circle EF two 90° or half round : if the bubble of air then re¬ mains in the centre, they are right, and properly ad- jufted for ufe ; but if they are not, you make them fo by turning the neceflary fcrews placed for that purpofe at the ends of the level-cafes by means of a turn-fcrew, until you bring them to that fixed pofition, that they will return when the plate EF is turned half round. 2dly, To adjuft the line of fight OP: Set the no¬ nius to o on the declination arch D, the nonius on the hour-circle to VI, and the nonius on the femicircle AB to 90*. Dire6I to fome part of the horizon where there may be a variety of fixed objefts. Level the horizontal circle EF by the levels LL, and obferve any objeft that may appear on the centre of the crofs wires. Reverfe the femicircle AB, viz. fo that the oppofite 90° of it be applied to the nonius, obferving particularly that the other nonii preferve their fitua* tion. If then the remote objeft formerly viewed ftili continues in the centre of the crofs wdres, the line of fight OP is truly adjufted ; but if not, unfcrew the two fcrews of the frame carrying the crofs wires, and move the frame till the interfedlion appears againft another or new objeft, which is half way between the firft and that which the wires were againft on the re- verfion. Return the femicircle AB to its former po¬ fition : when, if the interfeftion of the wires be found to be againft the half-way objeft, or that to which they were laft divided, the line of fight is adjufted ; if not, the operation of obferving the interval of the two ob- jefts, and applying half way, mult be repeated. It is neceftary to obferve, that one of the wires fliould be in the plane of the declination circle, and the other wire at right angles ; the frame containing the wires is made to Ihift for that purpofe. The hcle at P which forms the fun’s fpot is alfo to be adjufted by directing the fight to the fun, that the centre of the lhadow of the crofs hairs may fall ex- a£tly on the upper hole ; the lower frame with the hole is then to be moved till the fpot falls exadlly on the lower fight hole, Laftly, it is generally necefiary to find the correc¬ tion always to be applied to the obfervations by the femicircle of altitude AB. Set the nonius to o on the declination arch D, and the nonius to XII on the equator or hour circle: Turn the fight to any fixed and diftinft objeft, by moving the arch AB and circle EP only: Note the degree and minute of the angle of altitude or depreftion : Reverfe the declination ftmi- C c 2 circle 204 dial circle by placing the nonius on the hour-circle to the oppofite XII: Direft the fight to the fame objeft again as before. If the altitude or depreflion now gi¬ ven be the fame as was obferved in the former pofition, no correftion is wanted; but if not the fame, half the difference of the two angles is the correaion to be ad¬ ded to all obfervations or reifications made with that quadrant by which the leaft angle was taken, or to be fubtrafted from all obfervations made with the other quadrant. Thefe feveral adjuftments are ablolutely neceffary previous to the ufe of the inftrument; and when once well done, will keep fo, with care, a conh- Univerfal The Univerfal or AJlrommical EquinoBial Ring-Dial, Ring-dial. js an inftrument of an old conftruaion, that al[° ferve® Flg- aI’ 22,to find the hour of the day in any latitude of the earth Opiate (fee fig. 21.). It confifis of two flat rings or circles, CLXXIII. ufually from 4 to 12 inches diameter, and of a mode¬ rate thicknefs; the outward ring AE reprefenting the meridian of the place it is ufed at, contains two di- vifions of 90° each oppofite to one another, ferving to let the Aiding piece H, and ring G (by which the dial is ufually fufpended), be placed on one fide from the equator to the north pole, and on the other fide to the fouth, according to the latitude of the place. The inner ring B reprefents the equator, and turns diame¬ trically within the outer by means of two pivots m- ferted in each end of the ring at the hour XI . Acrofs the two circles is ferewed to the meridian a thin pierced plate or bridge, with a curfor C, that Aides along the middle of the bridge : this curfor has a fmall hole for the fun to Anne through. The middle of this bridge is conceived as the axis of the world, and its extremities as the poles : on the one fide are delineated the 12 figns of the zodiac, and lome- times oppofite the degrees of the fun s declination ; and on the other fide the days of the month through¬ out the year.' On the other fide of the outer ring A are the divifions of 90°, or a quadrant of altitude . It ferves, by the placing of a common pin P in the hole h (fee fig. 2 2.), to take the fun s altitude or height, and from which the latitude or the place piay eafily be of the Dial. Place the line a in the middle of the Aiding piece H over the degree of latitude of the place. Suppofe, for example, 5^ for Lond°n » the line which croffes the hole of the curfor C to the day of the month or the degree of the_ fign. Open the inflrument till the two rings be at right angles to each other, and fufpend it by the ring G; that the axis of the dial reprefented by the middle of the bridge be parallel to the axis of the earth viz. the north pole to the north, and vice verfa. I hen turn the flat fi e of the bridge towards the fun, fo that his rays paffing through the fmall hole in the curfor may fall exaftly in a line drawn through the middle of the concave fur- face of the inner ring or hour-circle^ the bright fpot by which (hows the hour of the day in the fa id con¬ cave furface of the dial. Xote, The hour XII cannot be fliown by this dial, becaufe the outer ring being then in the plane of the meridian, excludes the fun s rays from the inner; nor can this dial flrow the hour ,when the fun is in the equinoaial, becaufe his rays then falling parallel to the plane of tne inner circle or equinoaial) are excluded by it. ao Its ufe. LING. Do take the altitude of the fun by this dial, and with the declination thereby to find the latitude of the place. Place a common pin P in the hole h projeaing m the fide of the meridian where the quadiant of altitude is ; then bring the centre mark of the Aiding piece H to the o or middle of the two divifions of latitude on the other fide, and turn the pin towards the iun till it cuts a fhadow over the degree of the quadrant of alti¬ tude ; then what degree the ftiadow cuts is the altitude. Thus, in fig. 22. the ftiadow h g appears to cut 35 , the altitude of the fun. . . r The fun’s declination is found by moving the curlor in the Aiding piece till the mark acrofs the hole ftands juft againft the day of the month; then by turn.ng to the other fide of the bridge, the mark will Hand againlt the fun’s declination. , - , , ur In order to find the latitude of the place, oblerve that the latitude and the declination be the fame, viz. both north or fouth ; fubtraft the declination from the meridian or greateft daily altitude of the fun, and the remainder is the complement of the latitude, which fubtraded from 90°, leaves the latitude. Example. Deg. Min. The meridian altitude may be 57 The fun’s declination for the day 19 to 38 3° Complement of latitude The latitude 90 51 3° But if the latitude and decimation be contrary, add them together, and the fum is the complement of the latitude. This dial is fometimes mounted on a ftand,. with a compafs, two fpirit levels, and adjuftmg ferews, &c &c. (fee fig. 23.), by which it is rendered more ufeful and convenient for finding the fun’s azimuth, altitudes, variation of the needle, decimations of planes, & A„&W/ D.V Mr Eergufon. It is moveable on a joint C, to I vating i^o any given latitude on the quadrant C . 90 as it ftands upon the horizontal board A. arms of the crofs ftand at right angles to the “lddle P"rt’ and the top of it from to «, is of equal length with either of the arms near mk. See fig. 24. This dial is reaified by fetting the middle line r« to the latitude of the place on the q«ad"nt; the A level and the point N northward by the needle , LrL pLc of the croft will be paralle to the- plane of the equator. Then, from 7/1 o’clock ,n the morning till FI, the upper edge £ / of the arm *0 will caft a ftiadow on the time of the day on the fide If the arm cm: from VI till IX, the lower edge , of the arm io will caft a ftiadow on the hours on the fide on From IX in the morning to A// at noon, the edge * b of the top part * « will caft a ftiadow on the hours on. the arm « ef; from XII to ^ ™ th noon, the edge c d ot the top part ^1r1;.caftrjf1!adf0,W on the hours on the arm klm; from III to VI m the evening the edge g h will caft a ftiadow on the hours on«begp..t and from r/tiU JX, fhe (badowof DIAL the edge ef will (how the time on the top part a n. The breadth of each part, a b, ef, &c. muft be fo great, as never to let the fhadow fall quite without the part or arm on which the hours are marked, when the fun is at his greateft declination from the equator. To determine the breadth of the fides of the arms which contain the hours, fo as to be in juft propor¬ tion to their length; make an angle ABC (fig. 25.) of 23- degrees, wrhich is equal to the fun’s greateft de¬ clination ; and fuppofe the length of each arm, from the fide of the long middle part, and alfo the length of the top part above the arms, to be equal to B d. Then, as the edges of the ftiadow, from each of the arms, will be parallel to B e, making an angle of 234- degrees with the fide B of the arm, W'hen the fun’s declination is 234*, it is plain, that if the length of the arm be B d, the leaf! breadth that it can have, to keep the edge B ^ of the fhadow egd from going off the fide of the arm d e before it comes to the end of it e d> muft be equal to e*/ or d'B. But in order to keep the ftiadow within the quarter divifions of the hours, when it comes near the end of the arm, the breadth of it ftiould be ftill greater, fo as to be almoft doubled, on account of the diftance between the tips of the arms. The hours may be placed on the arms, by laying down the crofs abed (fig. 26.) on a ftieet of paper; and with a black lead pencil held clofe to it, drawing its fhape and fize on the paper. Then take the length a e in the compaffes, and with one foot in the corner a, deferibe with the other the quadrant e f Divide this arc into fix equal parts, and through the points of divifion draw light lines ag, ah, &c. continuing three of them to the arm c e, which are all that can fall upon it; and they will meet the arm in thofe points through which the lines that divide the hours from each other, as in fig. 24. are to be drawn right acrofs it. Divide each, arm, for the three hours contained in it, in the fame manner; and fet the hours to their pro¬ per places, on the fides of the arms, as they are mark¬ ed in fig. 33. Each of the hour fpaces fhould be di¬ vided into four equal parts, for the half hours and quarters, in the quadrant e f; and right lines fliould be drawn through thefe divifion-marks in the quadrant, to the arms of the crofs, in order to determine the places thereon where the fubdivifions of the hours muft. be marked. This is a very fimple kind of univerfal dial ; it is eafily made, and has a pretty uncommon appearance in ■xi a garden. Eafy me- Fig. 27. is called an Univerfal Mechanical Dial, as thod of by its equinoctial circle an eafy method is had of de- diarby^he a on ar>y kind of plane. For example : univerfal Suppofe a dial is required on an horizontal plane. If mechanical the plane be immoveable, as ABCD, (fig. 27.) find dial. a meridian line as GF ; or if moveable, aflume the meridian at pleafure : then by means of the triangle EKF, w’hofe bafe is applied on the meridian line, raife the equinoCtial dial H till the index GI becomes parallel to the axis of the earth, (which is fo, if the angle KEF be equal to the elevation of the pole), and the 12 o’clock line on the dial hand over the me¬ ridian line of the plane or the bafe of the triangle. If then, in the night time or a darkened place, a lighted candle be fucceftively applied to the axis GI, fo as the LING, 205 ftiadow of the index or ftile GI falls upon one houf- line after another, the fame lhadow will mark out the feveral hour-lines on the plane ABCD. Noting the points therefore on the ftiadow, draw lines through them to G; then an index being fixed on G, according to the angle IGF, its ftiadovv will point out the feveral hours by the light of the fun. If a dial were required on a vertical plane, having raifed the equinoctial circle as direCted, puih forward the index GI till the tip thereof I touch the plane. If the plane be inclined to the horizon, the elevation of the pole ftrould be found on the fame ; and the angle of the triangle KEF fhould be made equal thereto. Mr Fergufon deferibes a method of making three Dials on dials on three different planes, fo that they may allJhow threepl31163 the time of the day by one gnomon. On the fiat board Sn0*’ ABC, (fig. 28.) delcribe an horizontal dial, with its gnomon FGH, the edge of the ftiadow of which (hows the time of the day. To this horizontal board join the upright board EDC, touching the edge GH of the gnomon ; then making the top of the gnomon at G the centre of the vertical fouth dial, deferibe it on the board EDC. Befides, on a circular plate IK de¬ feribe an equinodlial dial, and, by a {lit c d in the X// o’clock line from the edge to the centre, put it on the gnomon EG as far as the flit will admit. The fame gnomon will fhow the fame hour on each of thefe dials. Xn Univerfal Dial, Jhowing the hours of the day by ^ate a terrefrial globe, and by the Jhadows of feveral gno- mans, at the fame time : together with all the places of Ig the earth which are then enlightened by the fun ; and thofe to which the fun is then rifing, or on the meridian, or fetting. This dial is made of a thick fquare piece of wood, or hollow metal. The fides are cut into femicircular hollows, in which the hours are placed; the ftile of each hollow coming out from the bottom thereof, as far as the ends of the hollows projeCt. The corners are cut out into angles ; in the infides of which the hours are alfo marked; and the edge of the end of each fide of the angle ferves as a ftile for calling a lhadow on the hours marked on the other fide. In the middle of the uppermoft fide, or plane, there is an equinoCtial dial ; in the centre whereof an upright wire is fixed, for calling a fhadow on the hours of that dial, and fupporting a imall terrellrial globe on its top. The whole dial Hands on a pillar, in the middle of a round horizontal board, in which there is a compafs and magnetic needle, for placing the meridian ftile to¬ ward the fouth. 1 he pillar has a joint with a quadrant upon it, divided into 90 degrees (fuppofed to be hid from fight under the dial in the figure) for fetting it to the latitude of any given place. The equator of the globe is divided into 24 equal parts, and the hours are laid down upon it at thefe parts. I he time of the day may be known by thefe hours, when the fun Urines upon the globe. To reClify and ufe this dial, fet it bn a level table,, or foie of a window, where the fun Ihines, placing the meridian ftile due fouth, by means of the needle; which will be, when the needle points as far from the north fleur-de-lis towards the weft, as it declines weftward, at your place. Then bend the pillar in the joint, till the; I black 20$ dial black line on the pillar comes to the latitude of your place in the quadrant. The machine beinS thus reaified, the plane of its dial part will be parallel to the equator, the wire or axis that fupports the globe •will be parallel to the earth’s axis, and the north pole of the globe will point toward the north pole of the heavens. The fame hour will then be fliown in feveral of the hollows, by the ends of the fhadows of their rcfpeftive ftiles •, the axis of the globe will call a Ihadow on the fame hour of the day, in the equinoaial dial, in the centre of which it is placed, from the aoth of March to the 23d of September : and if the meridian of your place on the globe be fet even with the meridian ftile, all the parts of the globe that the fun fhines upon will anfwer to thofe places of the real earth which are then enlightened by the fun. The places where the fliade is iuft coming upon the globe anfwer to all thofe places of the earth to which the fun is then fetting ^ as the places where it is going off, and the light coming on, anfwer to all the places of the earth where the iun is then rifing. And laftly, if the hour of VI be marked on the equator in the meridian of your place (as it is marked on the meridian of London in the figure), the divifion of the light and (hade on the globe will Ihow the time of the day. , r , The northern ftile of the dial (oppofite to the louth- ern or meridian one) is hid from the fight m the fi¬ gure, by the axis of the globe. The hours in the hollow to which that ftile belongs are alfo fuppoled to be hid by the oblique view of the figure 5 but they are the fame as the hours in the front hollow. Thole alfo in the right and left hand femicircular hollows are moftly hid from fight; and fo alfo are all thofe on the ftdes next the eye of the four acute angles. The conftru&ion of this dial is as follows : On a thick fquare piece of wood, or metal, diaw t e CLXXII. lines * c and £ fig. X 7* far from each other as you intend for the thicknefs of the ^ abed; and in the fame manner draw the like thicknefs of the other three cfg hiklm, and nopy, all ftanding outright as from the centre. . _ With any convenient opening of the compaiies, as a A, (fo as to have proper ftrength of fluff when K1 is equal to a A), fet one foot on c as a centre, and with the other foot deferibe the quadrantal arc A c. 1 hen, without altering the compaffes, fet one foot on 6 as a centre, and with the other foot defenbe the quadrant d B. All the other quadrants in the figure mult be deferibed in the fame manner, and with the fame open- ing of the compaffes, on their centres ef 1 k, and n 0 ; and each quadrant divided into fix equal parts, for as many hours, as in the figure 5 each of which parts muft be fubdivided into 4, for the half hours and ^ Annual diftances from each corner, draw the right lines I/> and K/>, I ^ and M 7 N r and O r, Pr and Q r • to form the four angular hollows lx, L 7 M, Nr O, and P r making the diftances between the tins of thefe hollows, as I K, L M, N O, and PQ^ ea'ch equal to the radius of the quadrants •, and leaving fufficient room within the angular points p q r and j, for the equino&ial in the middle. To divide the infide of thefe angles properly for the hour fpaces thereon, take the following method : LING. Set one foot of the compaffes in the point I as a centre, and open the other to K j and with that open¬ ing deferibe the arc K/; then, without altering the compaffes, fet one foot in K, and with the other foot deferibe the arc I /. Divide each of thefe arcs, from I and K to their interfedlion at t, into four equal parts j and from their centres I and K, through the points of divifion, draw the right lines I 3, I 4, l5» f I 7 » and K 2, K r, K 12, K 11 ; and they will meet the frdes Kp and Ip of the angle Ip K where the hours thereon muft be placed. And thefe hour ipaces rn the arcs muft be fubdivided into four equal parts, for the half hours and quarters. Do the like for the other three angles, and draw the dotted lines, and fet the hours in the infides where thofe lines meet them, as in the figure 5 and the like hour-lines will be parallel to each other in all the quadrants and in all the angles. Mark points for all thefe hours on the upper fide ; and cut out all the angular hollows and the quadrantal ones quite through the places where their four gno- mons murt ftand ; and lay down the hours on their infides (as in fig. 18.), and fet in their gnomons, which muft be as broad as the dial is thick •, and this breadth and thicknefs muft be large enough to keep the fhadows of the gnomons from ever falling quite out at the fides of the hollows, even when the fun’s declination is at the greateft.. _ Laftly, draw the equinoftial dial at the middle, all the hours of which are equidiftant from each other } and the dial will be finifhed. As the fun goes round, the broad end of the fhadow of the ftile acb d will fhow the hours in the quadrant A c from funrife till VI in the morning : the ftradow from the end M will fhow the hours on the fide L q from Vto IX in the morning ; the fhadow of the ftile e/g h in the quadrant D^ (in the long days) will ihow the hours from funrife till VI in the morning •, and the fhadow of the end N will fhow the morning hours on the fide O r from III to VII. , Tuft as the fhadow of the northern ftile abed goes off the quadrant Ac, the fhadow of the fouthern ftile i k l m begins to fal^ within the quadrant r /, at VI in the morning j and fhows the time, m that quadrant, from VI till XII at noon ; and from noon till VI in the evening in the quadrant m L. And the fhadow of the end O fhows the time from XI in the forenoon till III in the afternoon, on the fide r N; as the fhadow on the end P fhows the time from IX in the morning till I o’clock in the afternoon, on the fide Qj. - . At noon, when the fhadow of the eaftern flue ejg ■> goes off the quadrant hC (in which it fnowed the time from VI in the morning till noon, as it did in the qua- drant g D from funrife till VI in the morning), the fhadow of the weftern ftile « opq begins to enter the quadrant H/>, and fhows the hours thereon irorn AJI at noon till VI in the evening ; and after that till iun- fet, in the quadrant q G, and the end CLcafts a iaadow on the fide P s from V in the evening till IX at night, if the fun be not fet before that time. _ The fhadow of the end I fhows the time on the fide K p from III till VII in the afternoon ; and the fhadow of the ftile abed fhows the time from VI m the evening till the fun fets. . r The fhadow of the upright central wire, that iup- ports DIAL ports the globe at top, (hows the time rff the day, in the middle or equino&ial dial, all the fummer half-year, when the fun is on the north fide of the equator. Having ftiown how to make fun-dials by the aflift- ance of a good globe, or of a dialling fcale, we lhall now proceed to the method of conftrudling dials arithmeti¬ cally j which will be more agreeable to thofe who have learned the elements of trigonometry, becaufe globes and fcales can never be fo accurate as the logarithms in finding the angular diftance of the hours. Yet as a globe may be found exa£t enough for fome other re- quifites in dialling, we (hall take it occafionally. The conftru&ion of fun -dials on all planes whatever may be included in one general rule ; intelligible, if that of a horizontal dial for any given latitude be well underflood. For there is no plane, however obliquely fituated with refpeft to any give place, but what is parallel to the horizon of fome other place ; and there¬ fore, if we can find that other place by a problem on the terreftrial globe, or by a trigonometrical calculation, and conftrufl a horizontal dial for it, that dial applied to the plane where it is to ferve will be a true dial for that place. Thus, an ereft diredt fouth dial in degrees north latitude, would be a horizontal dial on the fame meridian, 90 degrees fouthward of 5 de¬ grees of north latitude. But if the upright plane declines from facing the fouth at the given place, it would flill be a horizontal plane 90 degrees from that place, but for a different longitude, which would alter the rec¬ koning of the hours accordingly. Case I. 1. Let us fuppofe that an upright plane at London declines 36 degrees weftward from facing the fouth, and that it is required to find a place on the globe to whofe horizon the faid plane is parallel ; and alfo the difference of longitude between London and that place. Re6lify the globe to the latitude of London, and bring London to the zenith under the brafs meridian 5 then that point of the globe which lies in the horizon at the given degree of declination (counted weftward from the fouth point of the horizon) is the place at which the above-mentioned plane would be horizontal. --Now, to find the latitude and longitude of that place keep your eye upon the place, and turn the globe eaft- ward until it comes under the graduated edge of the brafs meridian; then the degree of the brafs meridian that ftands diredlly over the place in its latitude 5 and the number of degrees in the equator, which are intercepted between the meridian of London and the brafs meridian, is the place’s difference of longi¬ tude. 8 Thus, as the latitude of London is 51^ degrees north, and the declination of the place is 36 degrees weft j elevate the north pole 5 It degrees above the ho¬ rizon, and turn the globe until London comes to the zenith, or under the graduated edge of the meridian ; then count 36 degrees on the horizon weftward from the fouth point, and make a mark on that place of the globe over which the reckoning ends, and bringing the mark under the graduated edge of the brafs meridian, it will be found, to be under 30^ degrees in fouth lati¬ tude ; keeping it there, count in the equator the num¬ ber of degrees between the meridian of London and the LING. brazen meridian (which now becomes the meridian of the required place), and you will find it to be 42^. Therefore an upright plane at London, declining 36 degrees weftward from the foutb, would be a horizon¬ tal plane at that place, whofe latitude is 30^ degrees fouth of the equator, and longitude 42^ degrees weft of the meridian of London. Which difference of longitude being converted into time, is 2 hours 51 minutes. The vertical dial declining w’eftward 36 degrees at London, is therefore to be drawn in all refpefts as a horizontal dial for fouth latitude 30^ degrees ; fave on¬ ly that the reckoning on the hours is to anticipate the reckoning on the horizontal dial by 2 hours 51 minutes; for fo much fooner will the fun come to the meridian of London, than to the meridian of any place whofe longitude is 42^ degrees weft from Lon¬ don. 2. But to be more exaft than the globe will fhow us, we fliall ufe a little trigonometry. Let NESW (fig. 12.) be the horizon of London, whofe zenith is Z, and P the north pole of the fphere j and .let Z/j be the pofition of a vertical plane at Z, de¬ clining weftward from S (the fouth) by an angle of 36 degrees ; on which plane an ereft dial for London at Z is to be deferibed. Make the femidiameter ZD per¬ pendicular to Z. h ; and it will cut the horizon in D 36 degrees weft of the fouth S. Then a plane, in the’ tangent FID, touching the fphere in D, will be paral¬ lel to the plane Zh ; and the axis of the fphere will be equally inclined to both thefe planes. Let WQE be the equinodlial, whofe elevation above the horizon of Z (London) is 38^ degrees ; and PRD be the meridian of the place D, cutting the equinodlial m R. Then it is evident, that the arc RD is the lati¬ tude of the place D (where the plane Zh would be horizontal) and the arc RQJs the difference of longi¬ tude of the planes Zh and DH. In the fpherical triangle WDR, the arc WD is gi¬ ven, for it is the complement of the plane’s declina¬ tion from S to fouth ; which complement is 540 (viz. 9°°—36°) j the angle at R, in which the meridian of the place D cuts the equator, is a right angle 5 and the angle RWD meafures the elevation of the equinoc¬ tial above the horizon of Z, namely 384 degrees. Say therefore, As radius is to the co-fine of the plane’s de¬ cimation from the fouth, fo is the co fine of the lati¬ tude of Z to the fine of RD the latitude of D j which is of a different denomination from the latitude of Zv becaufe Z and D are on different fides of the equa¬ tor. ^ 20J As radius To co-fine 36° o'rrRQ^ So co-fine 510 30'rzQZ 10.00000 9.90796 9-794I5 To fine 30° I4'=DR (9.70211) = the latitude of D, whofe horizon is parallel to the vertical plane Zh at Z. N. B. When radius is made the firft term, it may be omitted 5 and then by fubtradling it mentally from the fum of the other two, the operation will be ftiort- ened. Thus, in the prefent cafe, To Plate CLXXIi 20S D I A L L I N G. To the logarithmic fine of WR " * 54° 0' 9 9°79^ Add the logarithmic fine of RD 38 30 9.79415 Their fum—radius ■ “ 9.70211 gives the fame folution as above. And we (hall keep to this method in the following part of this article. To find the difference of longitude of the places 1) and Z fay, As radius is to the co-fine of 38^ degrees, the height of the equinoftial at Z, fo is the co-tangent of 36 degrees, the plane’s declination, to the co-tan¬ gent of the difference of longitudes. Thus, To the logarithmic fine of t 510 3°' 9-89^54 Add the logarithmic tang, of § 54 o' 1°-t3874 Their fum—radius . . . 10.03228 is the neareft tangent of 47° 8'=WR : which is the eo-tangent of 52'=RQ., the difference of longt- tude fought. Which difference, being reduced to time, is 2 hours minutes. . , . , , o. And thus having found the exaft latitude and longitude of the place D, to whofe horizon the verti¬ cal®,lane at Z is parallel, we fhall proceed >° 'he “T ftruction of a horizontal dial for the place D, w latitude is 48'’ 14' fouth ; but anticipating the time at D by 2 hours 51 minutes (neglefting the 4 minute in praaice), becaufe D is fo far weftward m long^de from the meridian of London j and_ this will be a true vertical dial at London, declining weftward 36 dt Aflfume any right line CSL (fig-*3-) for tlie ,'"bftlle of the dial, and make the angle KCP equal to the a- titude of the place (viz. 30° 14'), to whofe hqruon the plane of the dial is parallel j then CR1 will be the axis of the ftile, or edge that cafts the ^adow °n the hours of the day, in the dia . .j. the contingent line EQ>_ cutting the fubftilar line at tight angles in K ; and from K make KR perpendicu- lar to the axis CRP. Then KG (=KR) being made radius, that is, equal to the chord of 60 or tangent of 45° on a good feaor, take 42° 52' (the difference of longitude of the places Z and D) from the tangents, and having fet it from K to M, draw CM for the hour-line of XII. Take KN, equal to the tangent of an angle lefs by 15 degrees than KM; that is, the tangent of 27° ^ : and through the point N draw CN for th" bom-line of /. The tsugen, of ,z» jz' (wh-ch i, 1?° lefs than 270 fet off the fame way, will give a point between K and N, through which the hour-line of II is to be drawn. I he^angent of 2 8 (the difference between 450 and 52 52 )_ placed the other fide of CL, will determine the point through which the hour-line of ///is to be drawn : to which 2° 8\ if the tangent of 150 be added, it will make , 8' 5 and this fet off from K towards Qon the line EO> will give the point for the hour-line or IV; and fn of the reft. The forenoon hour-lines are drawn the fame way, by the continual addition of the tangents I5< 30°; 450, &c. to 420 52' (= the tangents of KM) for the hours of XI, X, IX, &c. as far as ne- ceffary ; that is, until there be five hours on each fide of the fubftile. The fixth hour, accounted from that hour or part of the hour on which the fubftile fails, will be always in a line perpendicular to the iubitile, and drawn through the centre C. ( Yrr 4 In all erea dials, CM, the hour-line of XII, i* perpendicular to the horizon of the place for which the dial is to ferve •, for that line is the mterfeaion of a vertical plane with the plane of the meridian of the place, both which are perpendicular to the plane of the horizon: and any line HO or ho, perpend.cular to CM will be a horizontal line on the plane ot the dial, along which line the hours may be numbered ; and CM being fet perpendicular to the horizon, the dial will have its true pofition. . , , , r If the plane of the dial had declined by an equal angle towards the eaft, its defcription would have dif¬ fered only in this, that the hour-line of A// wou d have fallen on the other fide of the fubftile CL, and the line HO would have a fubcontrary pofition to what it has in this figure. . . 6. Andthefe two dials, with the upper points of their ftiles turned toward the north pole, will ferve for other two planes parallel to them ; the one decbnmg from the north toward the eaft, and the other from the north toward the weft, by the fame quantity of angle. The like holds true of all dials in general, whatever be their declination and obliquity of their planes to the ^CaseII 7 If the plane of the dial not only de¬ clines, but" alfo reclines, or inclines Suppofe its de¬ clination from fronting the foutb S (fig. I4-) be ^ to the arc SD on the horizon •, and its recimation be equal to the arc D ^ of the vertical circle DZ then it is plain, that if the quadrant of altitude Z JD on the globe cuts the point D in the horizon the re- clination is counted upon the quadrant from D to d. the interfeaion of the hour circle PR with the equi- noftial WQE, will determine R d, the latitude of the place V, whofe horizon is parallel to the given^ane Zb at Z •, and RQjvill be the difference m longitude of the places at d and Z. . , r Trigonometrically thus: Let a great circle pafs through the three points, W, d, E ; and m the tn- angle^WD right angled at D, tlie ^ ^ an are given •, and thence the angle DW is found, and fo is fhe bypothenufe W d. Again the d.fFerence or the fum, of DW d and DWR, the elevation of the equinoaial above the horizon of Z, ^/WR •, and the hypothenufe of the tnang was juft now found j whence the fides R^ ^d WR are found, the former being the latitude of the place d, and the latter the complement of RCb the difference of longitude fought. 7 Kp re0 r6r north- Thus, if the latitude of the place Zbe 52 10 north, the declination SD of the plane Z "oul8 ^ horizontal at i!) be 36', and the ^Imafon ^ > j or equal to the arc V J; the fouth latitude of the place that is, the arc Rrf, w,l. be .J 9 1 anddi^e . The co-line of 36.0, ot of RQ, t The co-fme of 5..30, or of QZ. t The co-fme of 38.30, ot of WPR* § Tbe co-tangent of 36.0, or oi i) W . DIAL diffei'enfc-e of the longitude, 36° 2'. From thefe data, therefore, let the dial (fig. 15.) be defcribed, as in the iormer example. S. There are feveral other things re'quifite in the prablice of dialling ; the chief of which (hall be given in the form of arithmetical rules, fimple and eaiy to thole who have learned the elements of trigonometry, lor in practical arts of this kind, arithmetic Ihould be tiled as far as it can go j and fcales never trulted to, except in the final conltruction, where they are abfo- lutely neceffary in laying down the calculated hour- difiances on the plane of the dial. Rule I. To find the angles which the hour-lines on any dial make with the fubjlile. To the logarithmic fine of the given latitude, or of. the fiile’s elevation above the plane of the dial, add the logarithmic tangent of tire hour (*) diftance from the meridian, or from the (f) fubftile •, and the lum minus radius will be the loga¬ rithmic tangent of the angle fought. For KC (fig. 13.) is to KM in the ratio compound¬ ed of the ratio of KC to KG (z=KR) and of KG to KM ; which making CK the radius io,ooocoo, or 10,0000, or 10, or 1, are the ratio of 10,000000, or of 10,0000, or of 10, or of 1, to KG X KM. Thus, in a horizontal dial, for latitude 510 30', to find the angular difiance of XI in the forenoon, or I in the afternoon, from XII. To the logarithmic fine of 510 30' 9-893 54 ^ Add the logarithmic tang, of 510 o' 9.42805 The fum—radius is - - 9.32159=^6 logarithmic tangent of 110 50', or of the angle which the hour-line of XI or I makes with the hour of XII. And by computing in this manner, with the fine of the latitude, and the tangents of 30, 45, 60, and 750, for the hours of //, ///, I III, ana V in the afternoon j or of A, IX, VIII, and VII in the forenoon j you will find their angular diftances from XII to be 240 iS', 38° 3'* 53° 35'> and 7 10 6'; which are all that there is occafion to compute for.—And thefe diftances may be let off from XII by a line of chords ; or rather, by taking 1000 from a fcale of equal parts, and fetting that extent as a radius from C to XII; and then, ta¬ king 209 of the fame parts (which are the natural tangent of ii°50/), and fetting them from XII to A/ and /, on the line h 0, which is perpendicular to C XII; and fo for the reft of the hour hues, which, in the table of natural tangents, agairft the above dif¬ tances. are 451, 782, 1355, and 2920, of fuch equal parts from XII, as the radius C XII contains looo. And laftly, fet off 1257 (the natural tangent of ci° Vol. VII. Part I. 6 a ling. 30') for the angle of the ftile’s height, which is equal to the latitude of the place. Rule II. The latitude of the place, the fun's declina¬ tion, and his hour dijlnnce from the meridian, being ri¬ ven, to fad (1.) his altitude, (2.) his a%imuth. (1 ) Let d (fig. 14) be the fun’s plao , and L in tlre afternoon i and IX X, V111, VII, in the afternoon. ’ , [t\ In j!1, horizontal dials, and ered north or fouth dials, the fubftile and meridian are the fame ; but in all declining dials the fubfhle line makes an angle with the meridian. (|) I i which cafe the radius CK is fuppofed to be divided into 10,0000 equal parts. - Here we confider the radius as unity, and not 10,0000 : but which, inftead of the index q, we have —r ?s above j which is of no farther ufe than making the work a little ealiere 210 DIAL And, to log. H=tog. fin. ff 15° o' 1.41300 ,, flog. /=log. fin. tt 38° °' *-794i4 ada Llog- ^=log- fin- §§ 7°° 0' I-9730° Their fum 1.18014 gives H / V, the like com¬ mon lines CD, CE, CF, &c. and at thefe hours the (hadow of the point R will be found in thofe lines re- fpeftively. Find the fun’» altitudes above the plane of the dial at thefe hours 5 and with their co-tangents S may be had by the following method.^ M ke a round hole, almod a quarter of an inch dia¬ meter, in a thin plate ot metal $ and fix the plate in the top of a fouth window, in fuch a manner that it may recline from the zenith at an angle equal to the colati¬ tude of your place, as nearly as yo.u can guefs: for then the plate will face the fun direftly at noon on the equi- noftial days. Let the fun dune freely through the hole into the room and hang a plumb line to the ceil¬ ing of the room, at lead five or fix feet from the win¬ dow, in fuch a place as that the fun’s rays, tranfmit- ted through the hole, may fall upon the line when it is noon by the clock ; and having marked the laid place on the ceiling, take away the line. Having adjuded a Hiding bar to a dove tail groove, in a piece of wood about .1 8 inches long, and fixed- a hook into the middle of the bar, nail the wood to the above-mentioned place on the ceiling, parallel ^to the iide of the room in which the window is •, the groove and the bar being towards the floor : I hen hang the plumb-line upon the hook in the bar, the weight or plummet reaching almod to the floor •, and the whole will be prepared for further and proper ad- judment. This done, find the true folar time by either of the two lad methods, and thereby regulate your clock. Then, at the moment of next noon by the clock, when’the fun (hines, move the Hiding bar in the groove, until the thadow of the plumb-line bifedls the image of the fun (made by his rays tranfmitted through the hol< ) on the floor, wall, or on a white fereen placed on the north fide of the line ; the plummet or weight at the end of the line hanging freely in a pail of w7ater placed below7 it on the floor.—But becaufe this may not be quite correct for the fird time, on account that the plummet will not fettle immediately, even in water j it may be farther corrected cn the following days, by the above method, with the fun and clock } and fo brought to a very great exadtnefs. LING. A. B. The rays tranfmitted through the hole will calt but a faint image of the fun, even on a white fereen, unlefs the room be fo darkened that no fun- (hinc may be allowed to enter but what comes through the final 1 hole in the plate. And always, for fome time before the obfervation is made, the plummet ought to be immerfed in a jar of water, where it may hang freely j by which means the line will ioon be¬ come deady, which otberwrie would be apt to continue fwinging. Dejcripticn of two New Injlruments for facilitating the prachce of Dialling. I. Ihe Dialling Seclor, contrived by the late Mr Benjamin Martin, is an inltrument by which dials are drawn in a more eafy, expeditious, and accurate man¬ ner. The principal lines on it are the line of latitudes and the line of hours (Fig. 32,) They are found on mod of the common plane icales and feffors 5 but in a manner that greatly confines and diminifties their ufe ; for fird, they are of a fxed length ; and feconcily, too jmalllo'C any degree of accuracy. But in this new feiior, the line oj latitudes is laid down, as it is called, feBor-wfe, vrz. one line of latitudes upon each leg of the lector, beginning in the centre ot the joint, and diverging to the end (as upon other feftors), where the extremes of the two lines at qc* and 90 nearly one inch apart, and their length ll£ inches: which length admits of great exabtnefs ; for at the 70th de¬ gree of latitude, the divifions are to quarters of a de¬ gree or I 5 minutes. Ti his accuracy of the divifions ad- mits^of a peculiar advantage, namely, that it inay be equally communicated to any length from I to 23 inches, by taking the parallel didances (fee fig. 33.), viz. from 10 to 10, 20 to 20, 30 to 30, and fo on, as is done in like cafes on the lines of fines, tangents, &c. Hence its univerfal uie for drawing dials or any propoied fLe. The line of hours for this end is adapted and placed contiguous to it on the iedlor, and of a fize large enough for the very minutes to be diflii £! on the part where they are fmalled, w7hich is on each fide of the hour of III. From the conflrudlion of the line- of hours before jfhowm, the divifions on each fide of the hour 111 at e the fame to each end, fo that the hour-line properly is only a double line of three hours. Hence a line of 3 hou.s anfwers all the purpofes of a line of 6. by taking the double extent of 3, which is the reafon why upon the fedlor the line of hours extends only to 4L To make ufe of the line of latitude and line of hours on the feftor : As fingle i’cales only, they will be found more -accurate than thofe placed on the common Icales and fe&ors, in which the hours are dually dbdivided, but into 5 minutes, and the line 01 latitudes into whole degrees. But it is Ihown above how- much mose ac¬ curately thefe lines are divided on the dialling feed or. As an example of great exaftnefs with which hori¬ zontal and other dials may be drawn by it, on account of this new ft floral dif'pofition of thefe feales, and how all the advantages of their great length are preferved in any Itffer length of the VI o’clock line :. c t A D I A . [2 , Dialogue. who W been willing to bring perfons to difeourfe together, who lived in different ages, without fuch in- confiftency, have wrote dialogues of the dead. Lucian has made himfelf moft remarkable in this way. As to the number of perfons in a dialogue, they may be more or lefs ; fo many as can conveniently carry on a con- verfation without diforder or confufion may be ad¬ mitted. Some of Cicero’s dialogues have only two, others three or more, and thofe concerning an orator feven. And it is convenient they Ihould all, in fome re- fpefts, be perfons of different charafters and abilities : which contributes both to the variety and beauty of the difeourfe, like the different attitudes of figures in a pifture. Thus, in Cicero’s dialogues laft mentioned, Craffus excelled in art, Antony principally for the force of his genius, Catullus for the purity of his llyle, Sce- vola for his {kill in the law, Caffar for wit and humourj and though Sulpitius and Cotta, who were young men, were both excellent orators, yet they differed in their manner. But there Ihould be always one chief perfon, who is to have the main part of the converfation ; like’ the hero in an epic poem or a tragedy, who excels the reft in aftion ; or the principal figure in a pidlure, which is moft confpicuous. In Plato’s dialogues, this* is Socrates j and Craffus in thofe of Cicero above- mentioned. It is ufual likewife, in the introduction, to acquaint us with the occafion of the difeoutfe. Indeed this is not always mentioned j as in Cicero’s dialogue of the parts of oratory, where the fon begins immediately with defiring his father to inftruct him in the art. Bwt it is generally taken notice of, and moft commonly reprefented as accidental. The reafon of which may be, that fuch difeourfes appear moft natural j and may likewife afford fome kind of apology for the writer in managing his different charaders, fince the greateft men may be fuppofed not always to fpeak with the utmoft: exaftnefs in an accidental converfation. Thus Cicero, in his dialogues concerning an orator, makes Craffus occafionally fall upon the fubjed of oratory, to divert the company from the melancholy thoughts of what they had been difeourfing of before, with relation to the public diforders, and the dangers which threatened their country. But the introdudion ought not to be too long and tedious. Mr Addifon complains of this fault in fome authors of this kind. “ For though (as he fays) fome of the fineft treatifes of the moft polite Latin and Greek writers are in dia- logue, as many very valuable pieces of French, Italian, and Englilh, appear in the fame drefs j yet in fome of them there is fo much time taken up in ceremony, that, before they enter on their fubjed, the dialogue is half over.” 2. We come now to the body of the difeourfe, in which fome things relating to the perfons, and others to the fubjed, are proper to be remarked. And as to the perfonst the principal thing to be at¬ tended to is to keep up a juftnefs of charader through the whole. And the diftind charaders ought to be lo perfedly obferved, that from the very words them- ielves, lt may be always known who is the fpeaker. I his makes dialogue more difficult than Angle deferip- tion, by reafon of the number and variety of charaders which are to be drawn at the fame time, and each of them managed with the greateft propriety. The prin- 15 1 DIA cipal fpeaker Ihould appear to be a perfon of great Dialogue* fenfe and wifdom, and beft acquainted with the fub- ' *~mmJ jed. No queftion ought to be alked him, or objedion llarted to what he fays, but what he fhould fairly an- fwer. And what is faid by the reft Ihould principally tend to promote his difeourfe, and carry it through in the moft artful and agreeable manner. When the argu¬ ment is attended with difficulties, one other perfon or more may be introduced, of equal reputation, or near it, but of different fentiments, to oppofe him, and main¬ tain the contrary fide of the queftion. This gives op¬ portunity for a thorough examination of the point on both fides, and anfwering all objedions. But if the combatants are not pretty equally matched, and ma¬ ilers of the fubjed, they will treat it but fuperficially. And through the whole debate there ought not to bs the leaf! wrangling, peevilhnefs, or obftinacy ; nothing but the appearance of good humour and good breeding, the gentleman and the friend, wuth areadinefs to fubmit to convidion and the force of truth, as the evidence Ihall appear on one fide or the other. In Cicero, thefe two charaders are Craffus and Antony. And from them Mr Addifon feems to have taken his Philander and Cynthio, in his Dialogues upon the ufefulnefs of ancient medals, which are formed pretty much on Cicero’s plan. When younger perfons are prefent, or fuch who are not equally acquainted with the fubjed, they Ihould be rather upon the enquiry than difpute : And the queftions they alk Ihould be neither too long nor too frequent, that they may not too much interrupt the debate, or appear over talkative before wifer and more experienced perfons. Sulpitius and Cotta fuftain this charader in Cicero, and Eugenios in Mr Addifon. And it is very convenient there Ihould be one perfon of a witty and jocofe humour, to enliven the difeourfe at proper feafons, and make it the more entertaining, efpecially when the dialogue is drawn out to any con- fiderable length. Casfar has this part in Cicero. And in Mr Addifon, Cynthio is a perfon of this turn, and oppofes Philander in a merry way. Mr Addifon’s fub. jed admitted of this : but the ferioufnefs and gravity of Cicero’s argument required a different fpeaker for the jocofe part. Many perfons ought not to fpeak im¬ mediately after one another. Horace’s rule for plays is: To crowd the ftage is odious and abfurd. Let no fourth ador ftrive to fpeak a word. Though Scaliger and others think a fourth perfon may fometimes be permitted to fpeak in the fame feene with¬ out confufion. However, if this is not commonly to be allowed upon the ftage, where the adors are prefent, and may be diftinguilhed by their voice and habit 5 much lefs in a dialogue, where you have only their names to diftinguilh them. With regard to the fubjett, all the arguments ffiould appear probable at leaft, and nothing be advanced which may feem w’eak or trivial. There ought alfo to be an union in dialogue, that the difeourfe may not ramble, but keep up to the main defign. Indeed, ftiort and pleafant digreffions are fometimes allowable for the eafe and entertainment of the reader. But every thing fhould be fo managed, that he may ftill be able to carry on the thread of the difeourfe in his mind, and keep the main argument in view, till the whole is fi- niftied. The writers of dialogue have not confined I their Dialogue 11 . JDiamafti- D I A [ 2,6 1 tlieir aifcourfes to any certain fpace of time j but ei¬ ther concluded them with the day, or broke oft when their fpeakers have been tired, and reaflumed them , again the next day. Thus Cicero allows two days for his three dialogues concerning an orator ; but Mr Ad- difbn extends his to three days, allowing a day for each Nov has the fame method always been obierved in compcfing dialogues. For Lmetimes the writer by wav of narrative, relates a difcourie which palled between other perfons. Such are the dialogues of Ci¬ cero and Mr Addifon laft mentioned, and many oti.ers both of the ancients and moderns. But, at other times, the fpeakers are introduced in perfon, as talking to each other. This, as Cicero obferves, prevents the frequent repetition of thofe words, he /aid, and he replied •, and by placing the hearer, as it were, in the converfation, gives him a more lively reprefentation ot the difcourfe, which makes it the move aMing. And therefore Cicero, who wrote his dialogue of old age in this manner, in which Cato, who was then in years, largely recounts the fatisfa&ion of life which may be enjoyed in old age, tells his friend Atticus, he was himfelf fo affeaed with that diicourfe, that when he -reviewed it fometimes, he fancied they were not his ow-n words, but Cato’s. There are feme other dialogues of Cicero, written in the fame way ; as that Offnendjhip and Of the parts of the Oratory. And both Plato and Lucian generally chofe this method. Dialogue, in dramatic compofuion. See Poetry, chap. ii. 22. 23. DIALTHALA, in Pharmacy, an unguent much ufed as a refolvent; fo called from Althea, ormarfh- mallows, which is the principal ingredient in it. DIALYSIS, in Grammar, a mark or chara&er, con¬ fiding of two points, ", placed over two vowels of a word, in order to feparate them, becaufe othervvife they ■would make them a diphthong, as Mofalc, &cc. DIAMASTIGOSIS, a feftival at Sparta in honour of Diana Orthia, which received that name tcv from whipping, becaufe boys were whipped before the altar of the goddefs. 1 hefe boys, called -Bomonicae, were originally free born Spartans, but in the more delicate ages they were of mean birth, and generally of a flavifh origin. This operation was per¬ formed by an officer in a fevere and unfeeling manner ; and that no compaffion fficuld be railed, the pneft flood near the altar with a fmall light flatue of the god¬ defs, which fuddenly became heavy and infupportable if the laffi of the whip was more lenient or Itfs rigo¬ rous. The parents of the children attended the folem- nity, and exhorted them-not to commit any thing either bv fear or groans, that might be unworthy of Laconian education. Thefe flagellations were fo fevere, that the blood guffied in profufe torrents, and many expired under the laffi of the whip, without uttering a groan, or betraying any marks of fear. Such a death was reckoned" very honourable ; and the corpfe was buried with much folemnity with a garland of flowers on its head. The origin of this feflival is unknown. Some fuppofe that Lycurgus firft inftituted it to inure the youth of Lacedemon to bear labour and fatigue, and render them infenfible to pain and wounds. Others maintain, that it is a mitigation of an oracle, which ordered that human blood ffiould be ffied on Diana’s jdtar;. and according to their opinion, Otefles Aril in- D I A * troduced that barbarous cuftom, after he had brought the flatue of Diana Taurica into Greece. 1 here is another tradition which mentions, that Paufanias, as he was offering up prayers and facrifices to the gods, before he engaged with Mardonius, was fuddenly at¬ tacked by a number of Lydians, who diifurbed tne fa* orifice, and were at laft repelled with ftaves and ftones, the only weapons with which the Lacedemonians were provided at that moment. In commemoration of this, therefore, that whipping of boys was inftituted at Spar¬ ta, and after that the Lydian proceffion, . DIAMETER, in Geometry, a right line palling through the centre of a circle, and terminated at each fide by the circumference thereof. See Geo- METRY • DIAMOND, the moft highly valued of precious ftones. The fineft diamonds are perfeftly tranfparent and colourlefs, of a regular form, and entirely free from flaws and veins. They have been diftinguifhed by la¬ pidaries into oriental and occidtntal. But tlrtfe terms are not expreflive of the country from which they are brought, but merely of their qualities and value, the oriental being reckoned the fineft and hardeft, and the occidental of inferior value. See Chemistry and Mineralogy Index. Cornifh Diamond, a name given by many to the rock cryflals found in the mines of tin in Cornwall. 1 hefe cryftals are ufually bright and clear, and are found moft frequently in the form of an hexangular cd- lumn terminated at each end by an hexangular pyra- mie/0rzr, is ufed to exprefs the hefitation or uncertainty of the fpeaker. We have an example in Homer, where Ulydes, go¬ ing to relate his fufferings to Alcinous, begins thus; T< TTgWTW Tl S’ tTTitlx, n djvwtiov XCCT&^lt'CrJ ? ^uid primum, quid deinde, quidpojlremo alloquar? This figure is mod naturally placed in the exordium or introduction to a difcouvfe. See Doubting. E e 2 DIARBECK, D I A [ DIx\RttFXK, or Diakbekr, an extenfive pro¬ vince of Eaftern Afiatic Turkey *, comprehending m its lateft extent, Diarbehr, properly fo called, lerack or Cha/ctea, and Curdijlan, which were the ancient coun¬ tries of Mefopotamia, Chaldea, and Affyna, with Ly- bvlon. It is called Diarbeck, Diarbeker, or Diarbekr as fignifying the “ duke’s country,” from the word dbyar “ a duke”, and bekr, “ country.” It extends along the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates from north north- weft to fouth-eaft, that is, from Mount Taurus, which divides it from Turcomania on the north, to the inmoft recefs of the Perfian gulf on the louth, about 600 miles ; and from eaft to weft, that is, from Perfia on the eaft to Syria and Arabia Delerta on the weft, in fome places 200, and in otheis about 300 miles, but in the fouthern or lower parts not above 150. As extending alfo from the 30th to the 38th degree of latitude, it lies under part of the fifth and hxtli cli¬ mates, whole longeft day is about 14 hours and a halt and fo in proportion, and confequently enjoys a good temuerature of air, as well as, in the greater part of it, a rich and fertile foil. There are indeed, as in all hot countries, fome large deferts in it, which produce no fuftenance for men or cattle, nor have any inhabitants. Being a cor.tiderable frontier towards the kingdom of Perfia, it is very well guarded and fortified ; but as for thofe many cities once fo renowned for their greatnefs and opulence, they are at prefent almoft dwindled into heaps of ruins. Bagdad, Mouffal, Caramed, and a few more, indeed continue to be populous and wealthy, but the reft can fcarce be called by any other name than that of forry places. The rivers Euphrates and Tigris have almoft their whole courfe through this Diarbeck 'Proper is bounded on the north by 1 urco- mania, on the weft by Syria, on the fouth by part of Arabia Deferta and Irack Proper, and on the' eaft by Curdiltan. It was named by Mofes Padan-/train; the latter being the general name of Syria ; and the former fignifying fruitfu/, a proper epithet for this country, which is really fo to a very high degree, e- fpecially on the northern fide, where it yields corn, wine, oil, fruits, and all neceffaries of life in great abun¬ dance. Formerly it was the refidence of many famed patriarchs, yet was overrun with the groffeft idolatry, not only in the time of Abraham’s coming out of it, and Jacob’s fojourning in it, but like wife during the time it continued under the dominion of the Affynans, Babylonians, Medes, Perfians, and Romans. It re¬ ceived indeed the light of the gofpel foon after our Saviour’s afcenfion, from St Thaddaeus, who is laid to have been fent thither by St Thomas, at the requtft of A-bgarus king of Edeffa. This account, together with that monarch’s letter to Jefus Chnft, we have from Eufebius, who took it from the archives or that city • and the whole had pafied current and uncon- tradifted for many ages, till our more enlightened mo¬ derns found reafons to condemn it ; but whether right or wrong, it plainly appears that Chriftianity flounfh- ed here in a moft eminent manner, till its purity was fullied about the beginning of the fixth century by the h refy of the Jacobites, whofe patriarch ftill re- fides here, with a jurifdi«5fion over all that feft in the Turkifh dominions. Diarbeck Proper is a beglerbegate, under which 220 ] ^ ^ ^ . are reckoned twelve fangiacs ; and the principal towns Diarbekif^ in it are, Diarbekir or Caramed, Rika, Moufful, Or-^ v fa or Edeffa, Elbir, Nifibis, Gezir Merdin, Zibin, Ur of the Chaldees, Amad, and Carafara ; but all now of little note excepting Diarbekir and Moufful. Diarbekir, the capital of the above diftria, is fi- tuated in a delightful plain, on the banks and near the head of the Tigris, about 155 miles or 15 cara¬ van days journey north-eaft from Aleppo, in latitude 27° 3c', eaft longitude 40° 50'. The bridge of 10 arches over the laid river is faid to have been built by the order of Alexander the Great. It is one of the richeft and moft mercantile cities in all Afiatic Poe* key ; and is well fortified, being encompaffed with a double wall, the outermoft of which is flanked, with 72 towers, faid tohave been raifed in memory of our Saviour’s 72 difciples. It has feveral ftately piazzas or market¬ places, well ftored with all kinds of rich merchandife, and 1 2 magnificent mofques, faid to have been formerly Chriftian churches. Its chief manufafture is the dret- fing, tanning, and dying of goats fkins, commonly called Turkey leather, of which the vent is almoft in- credible in many parts of Europe and Afia : befides this, there is another of dyed fine linen and cotton cloths, which are nearly in the fame requeft. The waters of the Tigris are reckoned extraordinary for thofe two branches of trade, and give red leather a finer grain and colour than any other._ I here is a good number of large and convenient inns on both fides of the river, for the caravans that go to and from Perfia ; and on the road near the town is a chapel with a cupola, where Job is faid to lie buried.. This place is much frequented by pilgrims of all nations and re¬ ligions, and a Turkifh hermit has a cell clofe to it.- The fair fex, who, in moft other parts of the Turkith empire, are kept quite immured, and confidered as mere Haves, enjoy here an extraordinary liberty, and are commonly Teen on the public walks of the city m company with the Chriftian women, and hve in great friendfhip and familiarity with them. I he fame is faid of the men, who are polite, affable and courteous, and very different from what they affeft to.be, espe¬ cially the Turks, in other cities of this empire. 1 he city is under the government of a baftra, who has great power and very large dominions.. He has commonly a body of 20,000 horfe under him, .or repelling the frequent incurfions of the Curdes and Tartars, wha always go on horfeback to rob the caravans I he ad¬ jacent territory is very rich and beautiful j the bread wine and flefh are excellent j the fruits exquifite, and the pigeons better and larger than any in Europe. . Mr Ives, who paffed through this city in 1758, in¬ forms us, that “ about two years ago it was very po¬ pulous, its inhabitants amounting to. 4CO,COO fouls ? but in the laft year 300,000 died , either by cold or famine. The Chriftians refidmg in the city before this calamity were reckoned to amount to 26,000, of whom 20,000 died. This account we haa from one of the French miflionanes, a Capuchin, who alfo faid, that before the famine the city contained 60,000 fight¬ ing men, but that now they are not able to mufter 10,000. He affures us, that the hou.fes and l.reets, nay the very mofques, were, filled with dead ; that everv part of the city exhibited a dreadful image cf death 3 and that the furviving inhabitants m* only D I A [2 Biarrhcea greedily devoured all kinds of hearts, brutes, and rep- ^.11^ ^ tiles, but alfo were obliged to feed on human bodies. '.Yet, in the midft of this fcene of horror, the grandees of the city had every thing in plenty ; for they had taken care to monopolize vaft quantities of corn, which they fold out to the other inhabitants at moft extra¬ vagant prices, and thereby acquired for themfelves im- menfe fortunes. Corn rofe from two piaftres a mea- fure to 50, 60, and even 70, in the fpace of fix months, The father added, that the very fevere winter of 1756, and the locults in 1757, were the caufes of this dread¬ ful vifitation : for by rcafon of the former, there wTere but few acres of land fown with corn ; and by the lat¬ ter, the fmall crop they had was in a great meafure deftroyed. He fpoke of the feverity of that winter in terms alvnoft incredible : that it was common to fee the people fall down dead in the ftreets j that he himfelf once on quitting a warm room, and going into the open air, fell down motionlefs 5 and that his brother, in attempting to afliit him, met with the fame fate.” This account of the effnrts of cold in the city of Di- arbekir, which lies only in about 38° north, feems at firft very furprifing ; but confidering that the place ftands on a riling ground in the midft of an extenfive plain, and that the high Curdiftan mountains lie to the fouth and eaft of it, and the Armenian or Turco- xnanian to the north, whofe heads are always covered with fnow, and even now in July fupply the city with ice ; it will not appear at all improbable, that in a very fevere winter, fuch as that was in 1756, the inhabi¬ tants of this city fhould fo feverely feel the efiefts of it. Befides, fuel muft have been extremely fcarce, efpecially among the poorer fort, as nothing of this kind is produced but upon the mountains, and thefe lie at fuch a dillance that the price of it mult thereby be preatly enhanced. DIARRHCEA, or Looseness, in Medicine, is a frequent and copious evacuation of liquid excrement by ftool. See Medicine Index. DIARTHROSIS, in Anatomy, a kind of articula¬ tion or junilure of the bones; which being pretty lax affords room for a manifeft motion. The word comes from 5i,as, and juncture, afjemblage. It is oppof- ed tofynarthrojis, wherein the articulation is fo clofe that there is no fenfible motion at all. See ^natomy, N° 2. DIARY, a term fometimes ufed for a journal or day¬ book, containing an account of every day’s proceedings. Thus we fay, diaries of the weather, &c. Diary Fever, is a fever of one day. See Ephe¬ mera. DIASCHISM, among muficians, denotes the differ¬ ence between the comma and enharmonic diefis, com¬ monly called the lejfer comma. DIASCORDIUM, in Pharmacy, a celebrated compofition, fo called from fcordium, one of its ingredi¬ ents. See Pharmacy. - r DIASTOLE, among phyficians, fignifies the dila¬ tation of the heart, auricles, and arteries ; and Hands oppoftd to the systole, or contraftion of the fame parts. See Anatomy Index. Diastole, in Grammar, a figure in profody where¬ by a iyllable naturally rtrort is made long. Such is the firft fyllable of Pnamtdes in the following verfe of Virgil: 2! ] DIG Atque hie Priamides ! nihil 6 tibi, amice, r el ilium. Dlafyrnras II DIASYRMUS, in Rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole.PichonJril;. being an exaggeration of home low, ridiculous thinp-. DIATESSARON, among ancient muficians, n concord or harmonical interval, compofed of a greater tone, a lefs tone, and one greater femitone ; its pro¬ portion in numbers is as 4 : 3. DIATONICK in Mufc, (compounded of two Greek words, viz. the prepoiition fignifying a tran- fition from one thing to another, and the lubftantive Tovaj, importing a given degree of tenfion or mufical note), is indifferently applied to a fcale or gammut, to intervals of a certain kind, or to a fpecies of mufic, whether in melody or harmony, compofed of thefe in¬ tervals. Thus we fay the diatonick feries, a diatonick interval, diatonick melody or harmony. As the diato¬ nick fcale forms the fyftem of diatonick mufic, and confifts of diatonick intervals, it will be neceffaty, for undeiHanding the former, that we rtiould explain the latter. See Interval. DIATRAGACANTH, in Pharmacy, a name ap¬ plied to certain powders, ol which gum trugacanth is the chief ingredient. DIBBLE, or Dibber, a fimple but ufeful inftru- ment in gardening, ufed for planting out all forts of young plants, &c. DIBBLING wheat. See Agricultup.e Index. DIBIO, or Div.o, in Ancient Geography, the Divio- nenfc Cafrum. and tne Divionum of the lower age ; a town of the Lingones, in Gallia Belgica : Dibionenfes the people. Now' Dijon the capital of Burgundy. E. Long. 5. 5. N. Lat. 47. 15. DICE, among gamefters, certain cubical pieces of bone or ivory, marked with dots on each of their faces, from one to fix, according to the number of faces. Sharpers have feveral ways of falfifying dice. 1. By flicking a hog’s bnftle in them, fo as to make them run high or low as they pleafe. 2. By drilling and loading them with quickfilver ; which cheat is found out by holding them gently by two diagonal corners : for if falfe, the heavy fides will turn always down. 3. By filing and rounding them. But all thefe ways fall far fhort of the art of the dice-makers ; fome of whom are fo dexterous this way, that your fharping gamefter xvill give any money for them. Dice formerly paid 5s. every pair imported, with an additional duty of 4s. (hVo-L for every 20s. value upon oath ; but are now prohibited to be imported. DieAE, ARCH US, a fcholar of Ariflotle, compof¬ ed a great number of books which were much efteem- ed. Cicero and his friend Pomponius Atticus valued him highly. He wrote a book to prove, that men fuffer more mifehief from one another than from all evils befide. And the work he compoftd concerning, the republic of Lacedemon was extremely honoured, and read every year before the youth in the affembly of the tphori. Geography wTas one of his principal ftudies, on which fcience there is a fragment of a trea- tife of his ftill extant, and preferved among the Vcteris geographice feriptores minores. DlCHONDRA, a genus of plants belonging to the pent mdria cEfs ; and in the natural method ranking, under the order Campanacet. See Botany Index. DICHOTOMOUS, € DIG [ *2: DICHOTOMOUS, in Botany. See Botany Index. DICHOTOMY, a term ufed by aftronomers for that phafis or appearance of the moon, wherein {he is bife£ted, or fhows juft half her difk. In this fituation the moon is faid to be in a quadrate afpe&, or to be in her quadrature. DICKER, in old writers., denotes the. quantity of ten hides of {kins whereof 20 made a laft s alfo IO pair of gloves, ten bars of iron, and the like, are fometimes exprefled by the term dicier. DICKINSON, Edmund, a celebrated Englilh phy- lician and chemift, born in 1624. He ftudied and took his degrees at Merton college, Oxford $ and in 161J5 publilhed there his Delphi Phcenicixantes &c. a moft learned piece, in which he attempted to prove, that the Greeks borrowed the ftory of the Pythian Apollo, and all that rendered the oracle at Delphos famous, from the Holy Scriptures, and the book of Joftiua in particular : a work that procured him great reputation both at home and abroad. Pie pra&ifed phyfic firft at Oxford j but removing to London in 1684, his good fortune in recovering the earl of Ar¬ lington from a dangerous ficknefe, procured his promo¬ tion to be phyfician in ordinary to Charles II. and to his houfehold. As that prince underftood and loved chemiftry, DrDickinfongrew into great favour at court, and was continued in his appointments under James II. After the abdication of his unfortunate mafter, being then in years, and afBi&ed with the ftone, he retired from praftice, and died in I7°7* He publilhed many other things, particularly Phyjica ve¬ ins et vera, &c. containing a fyftem of philofophy, chiefly framed on principles collefled from the Mofaic hi ftory. DICTAMNUS, white dittany, or Fraxinella: A genus of plants belonging to the decandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 26th order, Multifilique. See Botany Index. DICTATOR, a magiftrate at Rome invefted with regal authority. This officer was firft chofen during the Roman wars againft the Latins. The confuls be¬ ing unable to raife forces for the defence of the ftate, becaufe the plebeians refufed to inlift if they were not difeharged of all the debts they had contracted with the patricians, the fenate found it neceflary to eleCt a new magiftrate with abfolute and uncontroulable power to take care of the ftate. The dictator remained in office for fix months, after which he was again eleCted if the affairs of the ftate feemed to be defperate; but if tranquillity was re-eftabliffied, he generally laid down his power before the time was expired. He knew no fuperior in the republic, and even the laws were fub- jeCted to him. He was called dictator, becaufe diftus, named by the conful, or quoniarn diElis ejus parehat po pulus, becaufe the people implicitly obeyed his com¬ mand. He was named by the conful in the night viva voce, unA his eleCtion was confirmed by the au¬ gurs. As his power was abfolute, he could proclaim war, levy forces, conduCt them againft an enemy, and dilband them at his pleafure. He punilhed as he pleafed, and from his decifion there lay no appeal, at leaft till latter times. He was preceded by 24 hCtors with the fafeet ; during his adminiftration, all other officers, ex¬ cept the tribunes of the people, were fufpended, and 1 S ] DIG he was the mafter of the republic. But amidfl all this Di 3. As form refpe&s only the external appearance of bodies, without regard to their internal qua¬ lities, it is, by a figure of fpeech, employed in contrail to thefe qualities, to denote empty Ihow without^ effential qualities. In this fenfe it is’ often taken when applied to religious ceremonies, &c. ’ 4. As form L employed to denote the external ap¬ pearance of bodies ; fo, in a figurative fenfe, it is applied toreafoning, denoting the particular mode or manner in which this is conduced j as, the form of a fy/logifm, &c. 5. In the fame manner it is employed to denote the particular mode of procedure eftablilhed in courts of law j as, the forms of law, religion, &c. 6. Form is fometimes, although improperly, ufed to denote the different circumftances of the fame body as, water in a fluid or a folidform. But as tms phrafe regards the internal qualities rather J DIG than the external figure, it is improper j and ought Didlionar? to be, water in a fluid or a folidfate. L——v—— 7- But when bodies of different kinds are compared with one another, this term may be employed to denote other circumftances than lhape or figure : for we may fay, a juice exfuding from a tree in toe form of wax or refin ; although, in this cafe, the confiftence, colour, &c. and not the exter¬ nal arrangement of parts, conftitutes the refem- blance. 8. From the regular appearance of a number of per- ions arranged in one long feat, fuch perfons fo arranged are fometimes called a/cm ; as, a form offiudents, &c. And, 9. By an eafy tranfition, the feat itfelf has alfo ac¬ quired that name. GREAT, adj. A relative word, denoting large- nefs of quantity, number, &c. ferving to aug¬ ment the value of thofe terms with which it is combined, and oppofed to fmall or little. The principal circumftances in which this word can be employed are the following : I* When merely ^animate obje&s are confidered with regard to quantity, great is with propriety employed, to denote that the quantity is confi- derable ; as, a great mountain, great houfe, and it is here contrafted with fmall. When great is thus employed, we have no other word that is exaftly fynonymous. 2. When ^animate objeas are confidered with re¬ gard to their extent, this term is fometimes em¬ ployed, although with lefs propriety ; as, a great plain, a great field, &c. And in this fenfe it is nearly fynonymous with large ; and they were of¬ ten ufed indiferiminately, but with fome differ¬ ence of meaning; for, as large is a term chiefly' employed to denote extent of fuperficies, and as great more particularly regards the quantity o£ matter 5 therefore, when large is applied to any object which is not merely fuperficial, it denotes that it is the extent of furface that is there meant to be confidered, without regard to the other di- menfions: whereas when the term great is em¬ ployed, it has reference to the whole contents. If, therefore, we fay, a large houfe, or a large river, we exprefs that the houfe, the river, have a furface of great extent, without having any ne- ceffary connexion with the fize in other refpeas. But if we lay, a great houfe, or a great river, it at once denotes that they have not only a large furface, but are alfo of great fize in every re- fpeft. } 3. Great, when applied to the human fpecies, never denotes the fize or largenefs of body, but is ap¬ plied folely to the qualities of the mind. Thus, when we fay that Socrates was a great man, we do not mean that he was a man of great fize, but that he was a man who excelled in the endow¬ ments of the mind. The terms which denote largenefs of fize in the human body, are big, bulh huge, &c. 4. Great is fometimes applied to the human fpecies as denoting high rank. In this cafe it is oftener uled in the plural number than otherwife. Thus we fay Amply the great, meaning the whole body of Dictionary. / DIC t 224 of men in high ftation, as oppofed to mMn. It flioald feldom be employed in this fenie, as^ it tends to confound dignity of rank with elevation of mind. c. As this is a general term of augmentation, it may be joined with all nouns which denote quantity, duality, number, excellence, or clefecls ; or fuch as imply praife, blame, anger, contempt, or any other affiaion of the mind. . r ,. 6. It is employed to denote every ftep of afcending or defeending confanguinity j as great-grandfather, vreat-grandfon, &c. HIGH. adj. Exalted in a perpendicular diretbon at a ditlance from the furface of the earth. p- pofed to low. , . I. High is a term altogether indefinite, and is em- ' ployed to exprefs the degree of elevation of any inanimate body. Thus, we fay a high mountain, a high houfe, Jleeple, tower, pillar, &c. Nor is there any other word that can here be confidered as fynonymous j lofty being employed only to de¬ note a very eminent degree of elevation. 2 To exprefs the perpendicular elevation ot vege- tables either high or tall may be employed, as being in this cafe nearly fynonymous. We may therefore fay, a high or tall tree, * high ox tall maH &c. but with this difference between theie two’expreffions, that tall can be more properly applied to thofe that are much elevated and of fmall dimenfions; and high, to fuch as are more bulky, and of greater fize. o. The perpendicular height of man can never be ^ expreffed by the word high ; W/ being here the proper expreflion. And although high jsfometimes -ufed to exprefs the height of other animals, yet it feems to be an improper expreffion. bee 1 all. 4. Hi?h, when applied to the human fpecies, al- ways refers to the mind j and denotes haughtinejs, flatelinefs, pride, &c. and, when combined with the expreflions of any energy of the mind, it de¬ notes that in a higher degree. In this fenfe, it is oppofed to meannefs, abjedlnefs, and humility. As this is an indefinite term, tend.ng to denote any thing that is elevated above us, it may be com¬ bined with almoft every noun which admits of this elevation. And as objefts high above us are al¬ ways out of our reach, it is in a metaphonca fenfe ufed to denote any thing that feems to be above the ordinary condition of mankind j or thole qualities or endowments of mind that are not ea- fily acquired : ™,.dignity ox elevation offentiment; dignity of rank ; acutenefs in reafomng on difficult fubjeBs ; pride, haughtinefs, orx any other quality which feems beyond the ordinary level of man¬ kind ; dearnefs of price, &c. 6 In the fame manner we apply this term to time *, ' which having a metaphorical refemblance to a ri¬ ver flowing on with an unceafing current through all fucceflive ages, any thing of remote antiquity is denoted by the term high, n Likewife thofe degrees of latitudes far removed from the line, where the pole becomes more ele- 8.'And to fome particular crimes, as being at- 1 D I C tended with peculiar degrees of guilt; as, high Dictionary, TALL. adj. Somethipg elevated to a confiderable degree in a perpendicular direftion. Oppofed to low. r , j This term is chiefly employed to exprels the height of man and other animals •, and is applied to denote the height of the body only, without having any reference to the mind. When ap¬ plied to man, no other word can be fubftituted in its dead : when applied to other animals, h'gh is fometimes confidered as nearly fynonymous. See High. 2. It is likewife employed to denote the perpendicu¬ lar height of vegetables ; and in this cafe, it is nearly fynonymous with high. See High. 7. It can in no cafe be employed to exprefs the height of merely inanimate objefts } as we can ne¬ ver fay a tall Jleeple, tower, or pillar, but a high /leeple, &c. For the diflinaions in thefe cales, fee High. . , ,.n LONG, adj. A relative term, denoting the dittance between the extremes of any body, which ex¬ tended more in one of its geometrical dimenfions than-another. Oppofed toyZwV. _ # X. This term may be applied to all inanimate ob- jeds, of whatever kind, whofe dimenfions in one way'exceed the other, and when not in an ered pofture, whatever be the other circumflances at¬ tending them *, whether it relates to fuperficies alone, or to folid bodies; whether thefe be bound¬ ed or open, ftraight or crooked, flexible or rigid, or in any other circumflances whatever : thus we fay, along or (hart line, a long ox Jhort ridge, freet, ditch, rope, chain, faff, &c. _ But it to be ob- ferved, that although long is m the 'enle only oppofed to Jhort; yet as it express the ex- tenfion of matter in one of its geometrical pro¬ portions, it is often contrafted by thofe words which exprefs the other proportions when we mean only to deferibe the feveral proportions: as a table long and broad. And as thele feveral dimenfions are expreffed by different words, ac¬ cording to the various forms, modifications, and circumftances, in which bodies are found, there¬ fore it is in this fenfe contrafted by a great di- verfity of terms : as, a long and broad or wide, nar¬ row or (lrait,freet or lane ; a long and thick, or fmall rope, chain, faff. For the diftinflions m thefe cafes, fee Broad, Wide, &c. 2. Obiefts neceffarily fixed in an ered pofition can _ never have this term applied to them ; and there¬ fore we cannot fay a long, but a high, tower or ffeeple. And for the fame reafon, while trees are growing and fixed in an ered pofition, we cannot apply this term to them; but wdieii they are fell¬ ed and laid upon the ground, it is quite proper and neceffary. Thus, we do not fay a long, but a tall or high tree, while it is growing ; but we fay a long, not a tall log of wood: and n> the lame manner we fay « tall maf, when it is fixed in the {Lip ; hot along maf, while it lies upon the beach. See Tall and High. .. 3. Thofe vegetables which are of a tender phant^a- 2 Oiiftionary. DIG f 225 ] tare, or fo weak as not to be able to retain a fixt 2. portion, being confidered as of a middle nature between ereft and proftrate bodies, admit of ei¬ ther of the terms long^ tally or high ; as, a long or tall rufh or willow wand, or a long, tall, or high Jlalk of corn. See High and Tall. 4. The parts of vegetables, when confidered as di- fHn£t from the whole, even when growing and ereft, aflame the term long: for we do not fay a tall, but a long, fhoot oj a tree ; and a tree with a long Jlem, in preference to a tree with a high Jlem. 5. For the fame reafon, a ftaff, and pole, even when fixed in a perpendicular dire&ion, aflume the word long, in preference to tall or high. 6. With regard to animals, the general rule is ap¬ plied, without any exceptions : tall, and not longy being employed to denote the height of the hu¬ man body, when in an eredl pofture ; and long, and not tall, to denote its length when in an in¬ cumbent fituation. Long, applied to all other animals which do not walk ereft, always denotes their greateft length in a horizontal pofition from head to tail. 7. In a figurative fenfe, it denotes, with regard to time, any thing at a great diftance from us. 8. As alfo, any thing that takes up much time be¬ fore it is finifhed ; as, a long difcourfe, aprotraid¬ ed note in mujic, &c. BROAD, adj. The diftance between the two near- eft Tides of any body, w'hofe geometrical dimen- fions are larger in one diredtion than in another 5 and has a reference to fuperficies only, and never to the folid contents. Oppofed to narrow. 1. Broad, in the ftrifteft acceptation, is applied to denote thofe bodies only whofe fides are altoge¬ ther open and unconfined ; as, a broad table, a broad wheel, &c. and in thefe cafes it is invaria¬ bly contrafted by the word narrow; nor is there any other word which in thefe cafes can be con¬ fidered as fynonymous with it, or ufed in its ftead. 2. When any objeft is in fome fort bounded on the fides, although not quite clofed up, as a road, ftreet, ditch, 8cc. either broad or wide may be employed, but with fome difference of fignifica- tion ; broad being moft properly ufed for thofe that are more open, and wide for thofe which are more confined : nor can this term be ever applied to fuch objects as are clofe bounded all around, as a houfe, a church, &c. wide being here employ¬ ed. for the more accurate diftin&ions in thefe cafes, fee the article Wide. WIDE. adj. A term employed to denote relative extent in certain circumftances. Oppofed to nar¬ row and Jlrait. t. This term is in its proper fenfe applied only to denote the fpace contained wdthin any body clofed all round on every fide 5 as a hotifo, gate, &c.t and differs from broad in this, that it never re¬ lates to the fuperficies of folid objefts, but is em¬ ployed to exprefs the capacioufnefs of any body which containeth vacant fpace ; nor can capaci¬ oufnefs in this fenfe be exprefled by any other word but wide. Vol. VII. Part I. D I C As many bodies may be confidered either with Didlionary. refpeft to the capacioufnefs or fuperficial ex- ^ ^ tent j in all thefe cafes, either the term broad or wide may be ufed j as, a broad or wideJlreet or ditch, &c. but with a greater or lefs degree of propriety, according to the circumftances of the objeft, or the idea we wifli to convey. In a ftreet where the houfes are low and the boundaries open, or in a ditch of fmall depth and large fuper¬ ficies, as this largenefs of fuperficies bears the principal proportion, broad would be more pro¬ per j but if the houfes are of great height, or the ditch of great depth, and capacioufnefs is the prin¬ cipal property that aflFee want to contrail wood of one quali¬ ty or country with that of another, it admits of a plural : for we fay, white woods are in general fof ter than red; or Wejl Indian woods are in ge¬ neral of greater fpecific gravity than the European woods : But unltfs where the colour, or tome quality which diftinguilhes it from growing wood, is mentioned, this plural ought as much as poffi- ble to be avoided, as it always fuggefts an idea of growing wood. 3. Wood likewife denotes a number of trees growing near one another j being nearly fynonymous with forejl: See Forest. In this fenfe it always ad¬ mits of a plural; as, Ee woods and wilds whofe fohtary gloom, &c. A dictionary cannot be reckoned complete without explaining obfodete words j and if the terms of the le- veral provincial dialeCts were likewife given, it would be of great utility : nor would this take much time $ becaufe a number of thefe words needs no other expla¬ nation than to mark along with them the words which had come in their place, when there happened to be one perfedly fynonymous; and ip thofe cafes where D I C Diaionary. the fame Idea could not be expreffcd in modern lan- guage without a periphrafis, it would be of ufe to ex¬ plain them diftindUy ; fo that, when a writer found htmfelf at a lofs for a term, and obliged to fearch for One beyond the bounds of out own language, he might take one of thefe, when he found that it w’as expreffive and energetic, in preference to another drawn from a foreign language. This would at lead have one good effeft : it would make our language more fixed' and ftable 5 not to fay more accurate and precife, than by borrowing from foreign languages. The following ex- amples may ferve to give fortie idea of the manner of treating this part of the work. MOE, or Mo. adj. _ An obfolete term ftill employed in the Scotch dialedf, and by them pronounced mae ; denoting a greater number, and nearly fy- nonymous with more : but it differs in this refpeft, that in the Scotch dialed!, mae and mair (Eng- lifh more), are each employed in their diftindl fphere,. without encroaching upon one afiother j tnae being employed to denote number, but never quantity or quality j and mair, to denote quanti¬ ty and quality, but never number: thus they fay rnae, not mair, apples, men, &c» and they fay mair, not mae, cloth, earth, courage, &c. See Mair! Both of thefe terms are (upplied by the word yiore; which in the Englifh language is applied indifcriminately to denote quantity, quality, and number. See More. TH/R. pron. Obfolete ; ftill employed in the Scotch dialed!; the plural of this; and contradted to thefe, in the fame manner as that is to this. As there is no word In the Enghfh language equi¬ valent to this, we thus ihow the manner in which it is employed. In the Englifh language we fay, thatJlone or houfe, pointing at one at a diftance! is larger or more commodious than this Jlone or this houfe, which is fuppofed to be at hand. In the fame manner, in the Scotch dialed!, they fay, thefe (or, as it is pronounced, thae} ft ones are whiter than thirflones; denoting, that the former are at a drftance, and the latter at hand. And, in the fame manner, it is invariably applied to denote any prefent objed! in the plural manner, as op- pofed to thefe: as thefe or thir apples, as at hand, or at a diftance ; thefe, or thir trees, &c. ; but never in the fingular number, as it is always this or that tree, houfe, &c. As the Englifti language is fo exceedingly irregular in the pronunciation, the fame letter in the fame fitua- tion often affuming founds totally different in different words, it is impoffible to ellablifti any general rules, on this fubjedt, w7hich do not admit of many exceptions ; therefore, a didlionary is the beft means of afeertaining and pointing out the proper pronunciations of words. For, if the writer firft pointed out all the different founds that the fame letter could ever be made to ex- prefs, and aftigned to every particular found which each letter could be made to affume, a particular mark, Which w7as appropriated to denote that particular found of the letter w henever it occurred j by placing thefe particular marks above the letters in the didlionary, the found of each letter would be pointed out in all cafes with the utmoft certainty. It would be impof- r 227 1 D I D fible for Us to illuftrate this by examples, without firlt T)itftiotiary afeertaining all the founds of each letter; wdiich would . il . lead us into a dilcuffion too long for this place. Didadtic.^ We (hall only further obferve, That, befides having V ^ the accented fyllable of every w7ord properly diftlnguifli- ed in a didlionary to affift in the pronunciation, the Englilh language requires another effential improve¬ ment, Vi2. the ufe of accents to diftmguifli the mean¬ ing of words and phrafes : which, although, it is not fo properly confined to a lexicographer, yet it is not quite without his Iphere. Thus the woid as admits of two very different founds, as well as different fignifica- tions ; as in this example, “ Cicero was nearly as elo¬ quent as Demofthenesin which the firft as is pro¬ nounced afs, and the lall is pronounced az. Now7, it often happens, that, in reading, the particular way in which it ought to be underftood is not pointed out by the. context, till after the w7ord itfelf is pronounced, which has an equal chance at leaf! of being pronoun¬ ced wrong ; whereas, if it were always accented when employed in the one fenfe, and not in the other, it rvould free the reader from this perplexity. There are other cafes in which the ufe of proper accents in writ¬ ing w7ould be of grfcat confequence ; as at the begin¬ ning of a fentence, when it w7as put as a queftion, or ufed ironically, &cc. the want of which every one muft have obferved. But as this does not fo properly be¬ long to the lexicographer as the grammarian, We {ball here take no further notice of it. The above examples, we hope, will be fufficient to give the reader fome idea of the plan that we would propofe ; and enable him to determine, whether or not a didlionary, executed upon this plan, would convev to his mind a more perfedl knowledge of the Englifti language, than thofe didlionaries that have been hi¬ therto publiftied. I hefe examples were given rather with a view to Ihow the manner in which a W'ork of this kind might be conduaed, than as perfedl and unexceptionable explanations of the feveral articles there enumerated ; and therefore we did not think it neceffary to produce any authorities, although we are fenfible that they would be requifite in fuch a work. DICTYMNIA, or Dictynnia, in Mythology, were feafts celebrated at Lacedaemon and in Crete, in honour of Diana Didlymnia or Didlynnia, or of a nymph taken for her, who, having plunged her- felf into the fea, to efcape the paflion of Minos, was caught in a fifherman’s net or £iktv6p, whence the name, DICTYS cretensis, a very ancient hiftorian, whb ferving under Idomeneus king of Crete in the Trojan war, wrote the hiftory of that expedition in nine books ; and Fzetzes tells us, that Homer formed his Iliad up¬ on the plan of that hiftory. It is however maintained^ that the Latin hiftory of Didlys which we have at pre¬ fent is fpurious. DIDACTIC, in the fchools, fignifies the manner of fpeaking or writing, adapted to teach or explain the nature of things. The word is formed from the Greek eit^xn-xM, doceo, “ I teach.” There are many words which are only ufed in the di- dadlic and dogmatic way : and there are many works, ancient and modern, both in profe and verfe, written I1 f 2 after Didapper DID [ 32 after tills method : fuch are the Georgies jof Virgil, Lucretius’s poem De Rerum Natura, and Pope’s F.f- Diderot. pa s on Criticifm and on Man, &c. &c. ' DIDAPPER. See Colymbus, Ornithology ItmIgx • DIDELPHIS, or Opossum, a genus of quadrupeds belonging to the order of ferae. See Mammalia Index. DIDEROT, Denys, an eminent French writer, was the fon of a cutler, and born at Langres in the year 1713. He received his education among the Tefuits, and being deftined for the church by pne of his uncles who had a canonry to beftow upon him, he had received the tonfure. But he difeovered fo little inclination for the ecclefiaftical profeflion, that his fa¬ ther fent him to Paris to profecute his ftudies, and af¬ terwards placed him with an attorney. It foon appear¬ ed, however, that he was more attached to different de¬ partments of literature and fcience, than difpoied to fubmit to the drudgeries of the profeffion to which his father had deftined him and having thus neglected his bufinefs, his allowance was withheld, which obliged him to make provifion for himfelf. I he ftudies to which Diderot devoted his attention were extremely various. Phyfics, geometry, metaphyfics, moral philofophy, and belles lettres, were at different times the obi efts of his purfuit. He even indulged m poetry and works of invention •, but attached himfelf cruel y to more ferious ftudies. He poffeffed a ready flow^nd great animation of language in converfation ; and theie qualities, with a decifive tone and manner, procured for him partizans and proteftors. . One of the firft of his publications was a tranflation of “ Stanyan’s Hiftory of Greece.” In the year 1745 he publifhed “ Principles of Moral Philofophy,” izmo, a work by which he obtained fome reputation. But the year following, when he publifhed a piece entitled Pen fees Philofophiques, he acquired confiderable ce¬ lebrity. This work was highly commended by the partizans of the new philofophy, among whom he had now enlifted himfelf, and became one of its moft zealous du- ciples. The fame work was afterwards reprinted un¬ der the title of Etrennes aux E/prits Forts. It was greatly read, and it is fuppofed contributed much to the diffufion of thofe free opinions which had now be¬ come fo prevalent in France. Soon after this period, in conjunftion with his friend D’Alembert, the plan of the vaft undertaking, thtDiaionnaire Encyclopedique> was laid. The profeffed objeft of this work was to become a magazine for every branch of human know¬ ledge •, but at the fame time, it has been alleged that it was alfo intended by the authors and editors as^ the oreat engine by means of which the eftablifhed opinions, whether of a religious or political nature, which they fuppofed had their origin in fraud and fuperftition, Ihould be fubverted. The province of this work which was entrufted to Diderot was the defeription of Arts and Trades, {Arts et Metiers). But, befides, he contributed many other articles in various departments of fcience. His writings in the Diftionary have been confidered as extremely verbofe and diffufe 5 and in all of them he is too fond of metaphyfical fubtleties and the pompous parade of fcientific language. The firft edition of the Diftionary was completed between the years^ 175^ and 1767 ; and although Diderot was occupied in this laborious undertaking for a period of nearly 20 years, 8 1 DID the recompenfe which he obtained is faid to have been extremely fmall. During this time he compofed various other works. Among thefe he publiftied “ A letter on the Blind, for the ufe of thofe who fee.” This work made a good deal of noife, and in confequence of fome of the lenti- ments which it contained had given offence to the go¬ vernment, for which the author was kept^ in confine¬ ment for fix months at Vincennes. This piece was foon followed by another, entitled 41 A letter on the Deaf and Dumb, for the ufe of thofe who hear and fpeak,” 2 vols. izmo, 1751. “ The Sixth Senfe,” pub¬ liftied in 1752 } “ Thoughts on the interpretation of Nature,” 1754 “ The Code of Nature,” i755vare milar works, and may be ranked in the fame clafs. His moral charafter was confiderably affefted by the publi¬ cation of Bijoux Indifcrets, 2 vols izmo j which is a colleftion of licentious tales 5 for this indeed he made fome kind of compenfation, when he publiftied two profe comedies, Le Fds Nature/, 1757 > and Pere de Fanuile, 1758 » which are not only intereftmg as dramatic pieces, but exhibit a pure and coireft mo¬ rality. The latter is confidered as one of the beft co¬ medies of the fentimental kind which has appeared on the French ftage. It has indeed received univerfal admiration. He publiftied afterwards a pamphlet, “ On Public Education,” which contains undoubtedly fome ufeful hints ; but at the fame time it propofes many things which are imprafticable. Fo the lift of his works now mentioned we may add, il An Eulogy on Richardfon,” which is full of warmth and enthufiafm > and “ An Effay on the Life and Writings of Seneca the Philofopher.” This was his laft work, and was pub¬ liftied in 1779. Among fome obfervations on this work by the Monthly Reviewers, the author of it is thus charafterized : “ The works of M. Diderot, fajs the writer, have long fince difgufted the modeft vota¬ ries of true philofophy, by the tone of arrogance and felf-fufficiency, and the froth and fumes of a declama¬ tory eloquence, that form their effential and diftmftive charafter.” “ It contains, it is farther added, like the other writings of that author, a glaring mixture of good and bad •, of biilliant thoughts and obfeure reafonmgs; of fentences that dart from the imagination with the energy of lightning, and cloudy periods of metaphy¬ fical rhetoric, that convey either no ideas, or falfe Diderot. one». , inf The charafter of Diderot fuffered confiderably irom fome defamatory attacks which he made on his former friend Rouffeau, who had quarrelled with the French philofophers and had feparated himfelf from their fchool. From the “ Confeffions” of the Genevan philofopher, it would appear that they expefted feme anecdotes which would not have been much to their honour. In one of his letters Rouffeau thus fpeaks of Diderot. His words are remarkable, as they are equally applicable to his own charafter. “ Although born with a good heart and an open difpofition, he had an unfortunate propenfity to mifinterpret the words and actions ot his friends; and the moft ingenuous explanations only lup- plied his fubtle imagination with new interpretations againft them.” Diderot was married and had a family J and although he poffeffed fome irritability of temper, he was a kind hufband and a tender parent. At the con- clufion of the Diftionary, the ftate of h1S DID [2 Diderot, dered it neceflary for him to difpofe of his library. It was Dld0, , purchafed by the emprefs of Ruffia, who, with the king of Pruflia, was at that time the great encoiirager and pro¬ moter of literature and literary men. Thefe fovereigns were alfo confidered as difciples of the French fchool. The price which Diderot received for his library was 50,000 livres 5 and he was to have the ufe of it during his life. Some of his biographers, with what truth we pretend not to fay, have not hefitated to charge him with difpofing of it a fecond time ; and when fome per- fon commiffioned by the emprefs wifhed to fee it,/the philofopher declined the vifit by excufes till he had time to fill it with books borrowed from bookfellers. The examination, it is obvious, mutt have been extreme¬ ly fuperficial, otherwdfe the truth w’ould have been at once deteded. Diderot had been admitted a member of the Academy of Sciences at Berlin. He died fud- denly, as he rofe from table, on July 31ft, 1784. His literary and philofophical works have been colle&ed and publifhed in 6 vols, 8vo. DIDO, called alfo Elisa, a daughter of Belus king of Tyre, who marfied Sichaeus or Sicharbas her uncle, who was prieft of Hercules. Pygmalion, who fucceeded to the throne of Tyre after Belus, murdered Sichaeus to get poffeflion of the immenfe riches which he had •, and Dido, difconfolate for the lofs of her hufband, whom (he tenderly loved, and by whom ttie was equally efteemed, fet fail in queft of a fettlement with a number of Tyrians, to whom the cruelty of the tyrant became odious. According to fome accounts, ihe threw7 into the fea the riches of her hulband which Pygmalion fo greedily defired, and by that artifice compelled the (hips to fly udth her that had come by order of the tyrant to obtain the riches of Sichmus. During her voyage, Dido vifited the coaft of Cyprus ; where flie carried away 50 women who proftituted themfelves on the fea-lhore, and gave them as wives to her Tyrian followers. A ftorm drove her fleet on the African coaft, and (he bought of the inhabitants as much land as could be covered by a bull’s hide cut in¬ to thongs. Upon this piece of land Ihe built a cita¬ del called Byrfa ; and the increafe of population, and the rifing commerce among her fubjefts, foon obliged her to enlarge her city and the boundaries of her do¬ minions. Her beauty as wHl as the fame of her en- terprife, gained her many admirers ; and her fubjefts wilhed to compel her to marry larbas king of Maurita¬ nia, who threatened them with a dreadful war. Dido begged three months to give her decifive anfwer : and during that time Ihe eredled a funeral pile, as if wifh- ing by a folemn facrifice to appeafe the manes of Si¬ chaeus, to whom ftie had promifed eternal fidelity. When all was prepared, fhe ftabbed herfelf on the pile in prefence of her people; and by this uncommon ac¬ tion obtained the name of Dido, “ valiant woman,” inftead of Elifa. According to Virgil and Ovid, the death of Dido w7as caufed by the fudden departure of ./Eneas; of whom flie was deeply enamoured, and whom (lie could not obtain as a huiband. This poeti¬ cal fi&ion reprefents iEneas as living in the age of Di¬ do, and introduces an anachronifm of near 300 years. Dido left Phoenicia 247 years after the Trojan war or the age of ^Eneas, that is, about 953 years before Chrift. I his chronological error proceeds not from the igno- 29 ] DIE ranee of the poets, but it is fupported by the authority/ Didus of Horace. |j Diemen’s jdut famam feqnere> aut Jibi convcnientia finge. land. While Virgil deferibes, in a beautiful epifode, the def- peratfe love of Dido, and the fubmiflion of iEneas to the will of the gods, he at the fame time gives an ex- ' planation of the hatred wEich exifted between the re¬ publics of Rome and Carthage ; and informs his reader, that their mutual enmity originated in their very firft foundation, and was apparently kindled by a more re¬ mote caufe than the jealoufy and rivallhip of two flou- riftiing empires. Dido after her death was honoured as a deity by her fubjedfs. DIDUS, or Dodo, a genus of birds belonging to the order of gallinae. See Ornithology Index. DIDYMUS of Alexandria, an ecclefiaftical writer of the fourth century ; who, though he is faid to have loft his eyes at five years of age, when he had fcarcely learned to read, yet applied fo earneftly to ftudy, that he attained all the philofophic arts in a high degree, and was thought worthy to fill the chair in the famous divinity fchool at Alexandria. He was the author of a great number of works: but all we have now remain¬ ing are, a Latin tranflation of his book upon the Holy Spirit, in the works of St Jerome, who was the tranf- lator ; ftiort ftridlures on the Canonical Epiftles; and a book againft the Manichees. DIDYNAMIA, (from ^<5, twice, and dvvxpis,power), the name of the 14th clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual method, confifting of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, which have four ftamina or male organs, two of which are long and two ftiort. See Botany Index. DIEMEN’S land, formerly fuppofed to be the fouthern coaft or point of New Holland, but now found to be an ifland, as it is feparated from New Hol¬ land by Bafs’s ftrait, which was difeovered by Mr Bafs and Lieutenant Flinders in the end of the year 1798. The northern coaft is in S. Lat. 40* 55", and between 146° 45' and 148° 15' E. Long. This coaft was dif¬ eovered in November 1642, by Tafman, who gave it the name of Van Diemen's Land. Captain Furneaux touched at it in March 1773, and the country has fince been further explored by other navigators. Here J is a very fafe road, named by Captain Cook Adven¬ ture Bay. Two other harbours or bays were difeo¬ vered or explored by Meffrs Bafs and Flinders, viz. Port Dalrymple and Frederick Henry bay, and two con- fiderable rivers, wEich have been called Port Dalrymple and Derwent rivers. The parts adjoining to Adventure bay are moftly hilly, and form an entire foreft of tall trees, rendered almoft impaffable by brakes of fern, ftirubs, &c. The foil on the flat land, and on the lower part of the hills, is fandy, or confifts of a yellowilh earth, and in fome parts of a reddifh clay; but further up the hills it is of a gray rough caft. The foreft trees are all of one kind, generally quite ftraight, and bearing clufters of fmall white flowers. The principal plants obferved were wood-forrel, milk-wort, cudweed, bell¬ flower, gladiolus, famphire, and feveral kinds of fern. The only quadruped feen diftindly was a fpecies of opoffum, about twice the fize of a large rat. The kanga¬ roo, found farther northward in New Holland, may alfo be fuppofed to inhabit here, as fome of the inhabitants had ‘Diemen’s land, Diemer- broek. D I E had pieces of the Ikin of that animal. The principal forts of birds in the woods are brown hawks or eagles, crows, large pigeons, yelluwifh paroquets, and a fpe- cies which was called motacilla cyanea^ from the beauti¬ ful azure colour of its head and neck. On the fliore were feveral gules, black oyiler-catchers or fea-pies, and plovers of a ftone colour. In the woods were feen fome blackilh fnakes of a pretty large fize *, and a fpe- cies of lizard fifteen inches long and fix round, beauti¬ fully clouded with yellow and black. Among a varie¬ ty of fifh caught, were fome large rays, nurfes, leather- jackets, bream, foies, flounders, gurnards, and ele¬ phant fifh. Upon the rocks are mufcles and other fhell-fifh, and upon the beach were found fome pretty Medufa’s heads. The moft troublefome infers met with wrere the mofchettoes ; and a large black ant, the bite of which infli&s extreme pain. The inhabitants feemed mild and cheerful, with little of that wild appearance which favages in general have. They are almofl totally devoid of perfonal adlivity or genius, and are nearly upon a par with the wretched natives of Terra del Fuego. They difplay, however, fome contrivance in their method of cutting their arms and bodies in lines of different diredlions, raifed above the furface of the fkin. Their indifference for prefents offered them, their general inattention and want of curiofity, were very remarkable, and teftified no acutenefs of underffanding. Their complexion is a dull black, which they fometimes heighten by fmut- ting their bodies, as was fuppofed from their leaving a mark behind on any clean fubflance. 1 heir hair is perfeftly woolly, and is clotted with greafe and red ochre like that of the Hottentots. Their nofes are broad and full, and the lowrer part of the face projedis confiderably. Their eyes are of a moderate fize j and though they are not very quick or piercing, they give the countenance a frank, cheerful, and pleafing caft. Their teeth are not very white nor w-ell fet, and their mouths are wide ; they wear their beards long and clotted with paint. They are upon the whole w^ell proportioned, though their belly is rather protuberant. Their favourite attitude is to Hand with one fide for¬ ward, and one hand grafping acrofs the back the op- pofite arm, which on this occafion hangs down by the fide that projecls. Near the Ihore in the bay were obferved fome wretch¬ ed conftruftions of fticks covered with bark ; but thefe feemed to have been only temporary, and they had converted many of tbeir largeft trees into more com¬ fortable and commodious habitations. The trunks of thefe were hollowed out to the height of fix or feven feet by means of fire. That they fometimes dwell in them was manifeft from their hearths in the middle made of clay, round which four or five perfons might fit. Thefe places of (belter are rendered durable by their leaving one fide of the tree found, fo that it con¬ tinues growing wfith great luxuriance. D1EMERBROEK, Isbrand, a learned profeffor of phyfic and anatomy at Utrecht, was born at Mont- fort, in Holland, in 1609, where he acquired great re¬ putation by his ledfures and his praftice } and died at Utrecht in 1674. He wrote a treatife on the plague, w'hich is efteemed } and feveral learned works in ana¬ tomy and medicine, which were printed at Utrecht in .1685 in folio. 230 ] DIE DIEPPE, a handfome fea-port town of France, in Upper Normandy, in the territory of Caux j with a good harbour, an old caftle, and two handfome moles. The parifti church of St James is an elegant (Irudfure ; and there is a tower from which, in fine wreather, the coall of England may be feen. The principal trade confifts in herrings, whitings, mackerel, ivory, toys, and laces. It was bombarded by the Englifir in 1694, and it is not now fo confiderable as it was formerly. It is feated at the mouth of the river Argues, in E. Long. 1. 9. N. L. 49. 55. , j . DIES marc Hi.*, was the day of congrels or meet¬ ing of the Englifh and Scots, annually appointed to be held on the marches or borders, in order to adjuff all differences between them. DIESIS, in Mujic, is the divifion of a tone lefs than a femitone j or an interval confiding of a lefs or im- perfeft femitone. Diefis is the fmalleft and fofted change or inflexion of the voice imaginable ; it is called z faint, expreffed thus X, by a St Andrew’s crofs or faltier. DIESPITER, in antiquity, a name given to Ju¬ piter j and fignifying diet pater, “ father of the day.” St Auguflin derives the name from dies, “ day,” and partus, “ produflion, bringing forth it being Jupiter that brings forth the day. Of which fentiment were Servius and Macrobius; the former adding, that in the language of the Ofci they called him Lucencius, as Diefpiter in Latin. DIET, in Medicine, according to fome, compre¬ hends the whole regimen or rule of life with regard to the fix non-naturals ; air, meats, and drinks, deep and watching, motion and red, padions of the mind, reten¬ tions and excretions. Others redrain the term of diet to what regards eating and drinking, or folid aliments and drinks. See Food. The natural conditution of the body of man is fuch, that it can eafily bear fome changes and irregularities without much injury. Had it been otherwiie, we diould be almod condantly put out of order by every dight caufe. This advantage ariles from thole won¬ derful communications of the inward parts, whereby, when one part is affe&ed, another comes immediately to its relief. Thus, when the body is too full, nature caufes eva¬ cuations through fome of the outletsand lor this rea- fon it is, that difeafes from inanition are generally more dangerous than from repletion ; becaufe we can more expeditioufly diminidi than increafe the juices ot the body. Upon the (ame account, alfo, though temperance be beneficial to all men, the ancient phyficians advifed perfons in good health, and their own mailers, Jo in¬ dulge a little now and then, by eating and drinking more plentifully than ufual. But, of tne two, intem¬ perance in drinking is fafer than in eating \ and if a per (bn has committed excels in the latter, cold water drank upon a full domach will help digedion ; to which it will be of fervice to add lemon jucice, or elixir of vi¬ triol. If he has eaten high-leaioned things, rich fauces, &c. then let him fit up for fome little time, and after¬ wards (leep. But if a man happen to be obliged to fad, he ought to avoid all laborious work, brom fa- tiety it is not proper to pats direcfly to (harp hunger, nor from hunger to fatiety j neither will it be fine to indulge abfolute red immediately aiter exceflive labour. D I E Diet . II Dietr:?h nor (uddenly to fall to hard work after long idlenefs. In a word, therefore, all changes in the way of living _ (hould be made by degrees. The fofter and milder kinds of aliment are proper for children, and for youth the ftronger. Old people ought to leffen the quantity of their food, and increafe that of their drink ; but yet fame allowance is to be made for eullom, efpecially in the colder climates like ours; for as in thefe the appetite is keener, fo is the digeftion better performed. Mead’s Monita et Prce- cepta. Diet Drinks, a form in Pbyjic, including all the medicated wines, ales, and wheys, ufed in chronic cafes. They require a courfe or continuation to anfwer any intention of moment. Diet of Appearance, in Scots Law, the day to which a defender is cited to appear in court; and every other day to which the court (hall afterwards adjourn the confideration of the queftion. Diet, or Dyet, in matters of policy, is ufed for the general affembly of the dates or circles of the empire of Germany and of Poland, to deliberate and concert meafures proper to be taken for the good of the public. The general diet of the empire is ufually held at Ratilbon. It confifts of the emperor, the nine ele&ors, and the ecclefiaftical princes ; viz. the archbilhops, bilhops, abbots, and abbelfes j the fecular princes, who are dukes, marquifes, counts, vifeounts, or ba¬ rons j and the reprefentatives of the imperial cities It meets on the emperor’s fummons, and any of the princes may fend their deputies thither in their dead. The diet makes laws, raifes taxes, determines diflfer- ences between the feveral princes and dates, and can relieve the fubje&s from the oppreflions of their fove- reigns. 1 he diet of Poland, or the affembly of the dates, confided of the fenate and deputies, or reprefentative of every palatinate or county and city ; and ufually met every two years, and oftener upon extraordinary occa- fions, if fummoned by the king, or, in his abfence, by tlie archbifhop of Gncfna. The general diet of Po¬ land fat but fix weeks, and often broke up in a tu¬ mult much fooner 5 for one diffenting voice prevented their palling any law's, or coming to any refolutions, on what was propofed to them from the throne. Switzer¬ land has alfo a general diet, w'hich is ufually held every year at Baden, and reprefents the whole Helvetic bo¬ dy j it feldom lads longer than a month. Befides this general diet, there are diets of the Protedant can¬ tons, and diets of the Catholic ones j the fird affemble at Araw, and are convoked by the canton of Zurich ; the fecond at Lucern, convoked by the canton of that name. DIETETIC, denotes fomething belonging to diet but particularly that part of phyfic which treats of this’ fubjeft. See Diet, Food, and Drink. DIETRICH, or Dietricy, Christian William Ernest, a modern artid, who was born at Weimar m 1712. He refided chiefly at Drefden, where he was profeffor of the Academy of Arts. He was a painter of very extenfive abilities, and fucceeded both in hidory and landfcape. We have by him a great number of fmall fubjefls, to the amount of 150 or more, which he engraved from his own compofitions, 1 23* 1 D I F in the dyle (fays Bafan) of Odade, of Laireffe, and of Salvator Rofa. Sixty of thefe etchings are exceeding¬ ly rare. 6 DIETS, a town in the circle of the Upper Rhine in Germany, fituated on the river Lohn, 20 miles north of Mentz, and fubjeft to the houfe of Naffau-Orange. E. Long. 7. 40. N. Lat. 50. 28. DIEU ET MON droit, i. e. God and my right, the motto of the royal arms of England, fird afl'umed by King Richard I. to intimate that he did not hold his empire in vaffalage of any mortal. It was afterwards taken up by Edward III. and was continued wdthout interruption to the time of the late King William, who ufed the motto Je main tien- dray, though the former was dill retained upon the great feal. After him Queen Anne ufed the motto Semper eadam, which had been before ufed by Queen Elizabeth 5 but ever fince Queen Anne, Dieu et mon droit continues to be the royal motto. UIEF, is the name of an indrument of mufic among the Arabs, ferving chiefly to beat time to the voice] it is a hoop, fometimes with pieces of brafs fixed to it to make a jinging, over which a piece of parchment is didended. It is beat wdth the fingers, and is the true tympanum of the ancients. DIFFARRE AT ION, among the Romans, a ce¬ remony whereby the divorce of their priefls was folemnized. The word comes from the prepolition chs \ which is ufed, in compofition, for divijion or fe- paration ; and farreatio, a ceremony wdth wheat, of far “ wheat.” J * Diffarreation was properly the diffolving of marriages contracted by confarreation ; which were thofe of the pontifices or prieds. Fedus fays, it was performed with a wdieaten cake. Vigenere will have confarrea¬ tion and diffarreation to be the fame thing. DIFFERENCE, in Mathematics, is the remainder, when one number or quantity is fubtraCted from an¬ other. Difference, in Logic, an effential attribute, be- longing to fome Ipecies, and not found in the genus • being the idea that defines the fpecies. Thus body and fpirit are the two fpecies of fubdance, which in 'their ideas include fomething more than is included in the idea of fubdance. In body, for inltance, is found im¬ penetrability and extenfion j. in fpirit a powrer of think¬ ing and reafoning : fo that the difference of body is impenetrable extenfion, and the difference of fpirit is cogitation. Difference, in Heraldry, a term given to a certain figure added to coats of arms, ferving to didinguiflr one family from another; and to fiiow how diftant younger branches are from the elder or principal branch. r DIFFERENTIAL, {Diffcrentiale,) in the higher geometry, an infinitely fmall quantity, or a particle of quantity fo fmall as to be lefs than any aflignable one. It is called a differential, ox differential quantity, becaufe frequently confidered as the difference of two quanti¬ ties ; and, as fuch, is the foundation of the differential calculus; Sir Ifaac Newton, and the Englilh, call it a moment, as being confidered as the momentary increafe of quantity. See Fluxions. DirrzREKTiAL Equation, is an equation involving or containing differential quantities; as the equation * 3 Pdx Diets I! Differential Equation. I DIF [23 Differential (ixdx-\-aydx-\-axdy—Q. Some mathematici- Method. ans> as Stuling, &c. have alfo applied the term dir- V,^_v ' ferential equation in another fenfe, to certain equations defining the nature of feries. Differential Method, a method of finding quanti¬ ties by means of their lucceffive differences. This method is of very general ufe and application, but efpecially in the conftruftion of tables, and the fummation of feries, &c. It was firft ufed, and the rules of it laid down, by Briggs, in his Conflruaion of Logarithms and other Numbers, much the fame as they were afterwards taught by Cotes, in his ConJIruc- tio Tabularum per Differential. The method was next treated in another foim by Newton in the 5th Lemma of the 3d book of his Tnn- cipia, and in his Methodus Dtfferentwhs, publifhed by Tones in 1711, with the other trafls of Newton. This author here treats it as a method of deferibing a curve of the parabolic kind, through any given number of points. He diffinguilhes two cafes of this problem •, the firft, when the ordinates drawn from the given points to any line given in pofition, are at equal di- ftances from one another ; and the fecond, when theie ordinates are not at equal diftances. He has given a lo- lution of both cafes, at firft without demonftration, which was afterwards fupplied by himfelf and others . fee his Methodus Diferentialis above mentioned *, and Stirling’s Explanation of the Newtonian Differential Method, in the Phil. Tranf. N° 362. ; Cotes, Z)e thodo Differcntiali Newtoniana, publiftied with his har- tnonia Menfurarutn Herman’s Phoronomia ; and Le Seur and jacquier, in their Commentary on Newton s Principiaf It may be obferved, that the methods there demonftrated by fome of thefe authors extend to the defeription of any algebraic curve through a given number of points, which Newton, writing to Leibnitz, mentions as a problem of the greateft ufe. . By this method, fome terms of a feries being given, and conceived as placed at given intervals, any inter¬ mediate term may be found nearly •,. which therefore gives a method for interpolation. Briggs’s Anth. Log. ubi fupra ; Newton, Method. Differ, 5. ; Stirling, Methodus Dfferentialis. Thus alfo may any curvilinear figure be Iquared nearly, having fome few of its ordinates. Newton, ibid. prop. 6.; Cotes De Method. Differ.; Simpfon s Mathematical Differt. p. 115- And thus may mathe¬ matical tables be conUrufted by interpolation : Briggs, ibid. Cotes Canonotechma. The fucceffive differences of the ordinates of para¬ bolic curves, becoming ultimately equal, and the in^er‘ mediate ordinate required, being determined by theie differences of the ordinates, is the reafon for the name Differential Method. _ rr., n. r r To be a little more particular.—The firft cafe ot Newton’s problem amounts to this : A feries of num- bers, placed at equal intervals, being given, to find any intermediate number of that feries, when its inter¬ val or diftance from the firft term of the feries is given. Subtract each term of the feries from the next fol¬ lowing term, and call the remainders firft differences, then fubtraft in like manner each of thefe differences from the next following one, calling theff remainders *d differences j again, fubtraft each 2d difference from 1 D I F the next following, for the 3d differences j and fo on : D^r^ial then if A be the tft term of the feries, , 1 d1 the firft of the ift differences, d" the firft of the 2d differences, d"' the firft of the 3d differences, and if x be the interval or diftance between the firfl: term ot the feries and any term fought, T, that is, let the number of terms from A to T, both included, be =*-{-1 ; then will the term fought, T, be= d'", &c. A-j- —d'-j- + - ‘ 1 ' 1 2 '12 j Hence, if the differences of any order become equal* that is, if any of the diffs. d", d"’, &c. become == o, the above feries w7ill give a finite expreffion foi T the term fought j it being evident, that the feries muft ter¬ minate when any of the differences or 5' l" '2066 g£C. • Take out the log. tangents to feveral minutes and feconds, and take their firffi and fecond differences, as below : 5' o" 5 1 5 2 5 3 Tang. 7'i626964 7.1641417 7-1655821 7-1670I78 d' H453 14404 14357 Here A=7-i64i4i7 ; * = toVs # — ,4404; and the mean 2d difference d” — — 48. Hence A - - - - 7-1641417 xd' - - - » 2977 .x x I 4 -d" is 7-i644398 Theref. the tang, of 5f i,; 12 24 Hence may be deduced a method of finding the fums of the terms of fuch a feries, calling its terms A, B C D &c For, conceive a new feries having its lit term = o,‘its 2d = A, its 3d = A+B, its 4th = A+B+C, its 5th = A 4- B + C -f- D, and -0 on , them it is plain that affigning one term of this finding the fum of all the terms A, B, U H, 6cc. Now fince thefe terms are the differences of the fums, o A A+B, A + B+C, &c. ; and asfomeofthe mf- ferences J A, bT C, &c. are = o by fuppofitu n ; it follows that fome of the differences of the fums will be = o X x X and fince in the feries A-Py^-d--'”-^ &c by which a term w7as affigned, A reprefented the ill term; d> the iff of the .ft differences, and ^ the interval between the firft term and the laft ; we are jo write o inftead of A, A mftead of d, d inilead of U DIG [ 233 ] DIG Bifferential d" Inftead of d"', &c. alfo inftead of.r; which Method being done, the feries expreffing the Turns will be 0_) /i_j ^ d", &c. Or, Digby. .r -f-1 x-\-ix x-\-ixx — J- . — d 4- . I I 2 I 2 3 if the real number of terms of the lines be called %, that is, if sr=A?-f-1, or x—%—I, the Turn of the feries -i z—2 will . . ,2; z—1 „ z z- be A z -1—. -d 4—. 12 1 1 2 -d", &c. See De Moivre’s Do6f. of Chances, p. 59, 60 ; or his Mifcel. Analyt. p. 153. *, or Simpfon’s ElTays, p. 95. For ex. To find the fum of fix terms of the feries of fquares 1-}-4-}-9-f-x 6-i-25-f-36, of the natural num¬ bers. Terms, cj HJ' dw 4 9 16 25 Here A—I, t/'—3, d!'—2, d!", &c. = o, and z=r6 ; therefore the fum is 6-|-x.4-3-f- r-T-T'2—^+45 + 40 “91 the fum required, viz. of t 16-4-25-1-36. A variety of examples may be feen in the places above cited, or in Stirling’s Methodus Differentialis, &c. As to the differential method, it may be obferved, that though Newton and fome others have treated it as a method of defcribing an algebraic, curve, at leaft of the parabolic kind, through any number of given points ; yet the confideration of curves is not at all ef- fential to it, though it may help the imagination. The defcription of a parabolic curve through given points, is the fame problem as the finding of quantities from their given differences, which may always be done by algebra, by the refolution of Ample equations. Hut¬ ton's Math. Diff. DIFFORM, Dfformis, (hom formay “ a fhape”), is a wmrd ufed in oppofition to uniform ; and fignifies, that there is no regularity in the form or appearance of a thing. The botanifts ufe it as a diftinclion of the flowers of feveral fpecies of plants. DIFFUSE, an epithet applied to fuch writings as are wrote in a prolix manner. Among hillorians, Sal- luff is reckoned fententious, and Livy diffufe. - Thus alfo among the orators, Demofthenes is clpfe and con- cife •, Cicero, on the other hand, is diffufe. DIFFUSION, the difperfion of the fubtile effluvia of bodies into a kind of atraofphere all round them. Thus the light d'ffufed by the rays of the fun, iffues all round from that amazing body of fire. DIGASTRICUS, in Anatomy, a mufcle of the lower jaw, called alfo Biventer. See Anatomy, Ta¬ ble of the Mufcles. DIGBY, Sir K enelm, an Engliffi philofopher, was born at Gothurff in Buckinghamfhire in 1603, and became very illuftrious for his virtue and learning. He was defcended of an ancient family. His great¬ grandfather, accompanied by fix of his brothers, fought valiantly at Bofworth field on the fide of Henry VII. againrt the ufurper Richard III. His father, Sir Everard Digby, was engaged in the gunpowder plot againft King James I. and for that, crime was beheaded ; but his fon was reftored to his eftate. King Charles I. made him gentleman of the bedchamber, commiffioner Vol. VII. Part I. of the navy, and governor of the Trinity houfe. He Bigby, granted him letters of reprifal againff the Venetians, bv D'geft- virtue of which he took feveral prizes wnth a fmall flret under his command. He fought the Venetians near ‘he port of Scanderoon, and bravely made his way through them with his booty. He was a great lover of learning, and tranflated feveral authors into Englifh 5 and his “ Treatife of the Nature of Bodies and the Immorta¬ lity of the Soul,” difcovers great penetration and ex- tenfive knowledge. He applied to chemiftry ; and found out feveral ufeful medicines, which he gave freely away to people of all forts, efpecially to the poor. He diffingrufhed himfelf particularly by his fvmpathetic powder for the cure of wounds at a diltance ; his dif- courfe concerning which made a great noife for a while. He had conferences with Des Cartes about the nature of the foul. In the beginning of the civil wars, he exerted him¬ felf very vigoroufly in the king’s caufe ; but he was afterwards imprifoned by the parliament’s order, in Winchefter-houfe, and had leave to depart thence in 1643. He afterwards compounded for his eftate, but was ordered to leave the nation ; when he went to France, and was fent on two embaffies to Pope Inno¬ cent X. from the queen, widow to Charles I. whofe chancellor he then was. On the reftoration of Charles II. he returned to London j where he died in 1665, aged 60. This eminent perfon, on account of his early talents, and great proficiency in learning, was compared to the celebrated Picus de Mirandola, who was one of the wonders of human nature. His knowdedge, though various and extenfive, appeared to be greater than it really was ; as he had all the powers of elocution and addrefs to recommend it. He knew how to fhine in a circle of ladies or philofophers ; and was as much attended to when he fpoke on the moft trivial fubjefls, as when he converfed on the moft important. It is faid that one of the princes of Italy, who had no child, wras defirous that his princefs Ihould bring him a fon by Sw Kenelm, whom he efteemed a juft model of perfeflion. DIGEST, [D'gefum), a collerfh'on of the Roman laws, ranged and digefted under proper titles, by order of the emperor Jufliniah. That prince gave his chancellor Tribonianus a com- miffion for this purpofe ; who, in confequence thereof, chole fixteen jurifconfulti, or lawyers, to work upon the fame. Thefe, accordingly, took out the beft and fim-ft decifions from the ttvo thoufand volumes of the ancient jurifconfulti, and reduced them all into one body ; which was publilhed in the year 533, under the name of the Digejl. lo this the emperor gave the force of a law, by a letter at the head of the work, which ferves it as a preface. The Digeft makes the firft part of the Roman law, and the firft volume of the corpus or body of the civil lawg contained in fifty books. It was tranflated into Greek under the fame emperor, and called Pandetta. See Pandects. Cujas fays, that Digcf is a common name for all books difpofed in a good order and economy ; and hence it is that Tertullian calls the Gofpel of St Luke a Digeft. Hence alfo abridgments of the common law^ are G g denominated D I G [ 234 1 D I G J3igeftion denominated of the numerous cafes, aiguments II readings, pleadings, &c. difperfed in the year books, and other reports and books of law, reduced under '~m' ^ proper heads or common places. The firft was that of Statham, which comes as low as Henry VI. That of Fitzherbert was publiihed in 1516; Brooks in 1573, of which Hughes’s publilhed in 1663, is a fe- quel. Rolls, Danvers, and Nelfon, have alfo publiflied Digefts or abridgments of this kind, including the cafes of later days ; to which may be added the New Abridgment, Viner’s Abridgment, &c. # DIGESTION, in the animal economy, is the dil- folution of the aliments into fuch minute parts .as are fit to enter the ladfeal velfels, and circulate with the mafs of blood. See Anatomy Index. Digestion, in Chemifiry, is an operation which con- fids in expofing bodies to a gentle heat, in proper vef- fels, and during a certain time. This operation is very ufeful to favour the aftion of certain fubdances upon each other; as, for example, of well calcined, dry, fixed alkali upon reftified fpirit of wine. When theie two fubdances are digeded together in a matrafs, with a gentle fand-bath heat, the fpirit of wine acquires a vellow-reddifh colour, and an alkaline quality. The fpirit would not fo well acquire thefe qualities by a ftronger and (hotter heat. DIGESTIVE, in Medicine, fuch remedies as flrengthen and increafe the tone of the.domach, and adid in the digedion of foods. To this clafs belong all domachics and drengtheners or corroborants. Digestive, in Surgery, denotes a fort of unguent, plader, or the like, that ripens and prepares the matter of wounds, &c. for fuppuration. DIGGES, Leonard, an eminent mathematician in the 16th century, was defcended from an an¬ cient family, and born at Digges-court. in the paridi of Barham in Kent ; but in what year is not known. He was educated for fome time at Oxford, where he laid a good foundation of learning. Retiring from thence, he profecuted his dudies, and became an excellent ma¬ thematician, a (kilful architea, and an expert furveyor of land, &c. He compofed feveral books: as, 1. TecTo- nicum : briefly diewing the exaa Meafuring, and fpeedy\ Reckoning of all manner of Lands, Squares, I imber, Stones, Steeples, &c. I 556, qto. Augmented and pub- 1 idled again by his fon Thomas Digges, m 1592 ; and alfo reprinted in 1647—2. A Geometrical Praaical Treatife, named Pantometna, in three books. 1 his he left in manufcript ; but after his death, his fon fupplied fuch parts of it as were obfcure and. imperfea, and pub- ]idled it in 1591, folio; fubjoimng, “ A Difcourfe Geometrical of the five regular and Platonic bodies, containing fundry theoretical and practical .propofitions, arifing by mutual conference of thefe folids, Inlcrip- tion, Circumfcription, and Fransformation.” 3. Prog- nodication Everlading of right good effea : or Choice Rules to fudge the Weather by the Sun, Moon, and Stars, &c. in 4to. 1555, >556. ar'd I5<>4 : correaed and augmented by his fon, with divers general tables, and many compendious rules, in qto, 1592. He died a- bout the year 1574. Digges, Thomas, only fon of Leonard Digges, after a liberal education from his tendered years went and dudied for fome time at Oxford ; and by the im¬ provements he made there, and the fubfequent mdruc- tions of his learned father, became one of the bed ma¬ thematicians of his age. When Queen Elizabeth fent fome forces to adid the opprefftd inhabitants of the Netherlands, Mr Digges was appointed muder-mader general of them ; by which he became well {killed in military affairs ; as his writings afterward diewed. He died in 1595. Mr Digges, befide revifing, corre&ing, and enlarg¬ ing fome pieces of his father’s already mentioned, wrote and publidied the following learned works himfelf: viz. 1. Alee five Scale Mathematics; or Mathematical Wings or Ladders, 1573, 410 : A book which contains feve¬ ral demondrations for finding the parallaxes of any co¬ met, or other celedial body, with a correftion of the errors in the ufe of the ladius adronomicus.—2. An Arithmetical Military Treatife, containing fo much of Arithmetic as is neceffaiy towards military difciplinp, 1579, 410.—3. A Geometrical Treatife, named Stratio- ticos, requifite for the perfeaion of Soldiers, 1579, qto. This was begun by his father, but finidied by himfelf. They were both reprinted together in 1590, with feve¬ ral additions and amendments, under this title : ‘ An Arithmetical Warlike Treatife, named Stratioticos, com- pendioudy teaching the fcience of Numbers, as well in Fra&ions as Integers, and fo much of the Rules and Equations Algebraical, and art of Numbers. Codical, as are requifite for the profedion of a fouldier. To¬ gether with the Moderne militaire difeipline, offices, lawes, and orders in every well-governed campe and armie, inviolably to be obferved.” At the end of this work there are two pieces ; the fird, “ A briefe and true report of the proceedings of the earle of Leyceder, for the reliefe of the town of Sluce, from his arrival at Vlidiing, about the end of June 1587, untill the furren- drie thereof 26 Julii next enfuing. Whereby it (hall plainlie appear, his excellencie was not in any fault for the Ioffe of that towne the fecond, “ A briefe dif¬ courfe what orders were bed for repulfing of foraine forces, if at any time they fhould invade us by fea in Kent or elfewhere.”—4. A perfeft Defcription of the Celedial Orbs, according to the mod ancient do&rine of the Pythagoreans, &c. This was placed at the end of his father’s “ Prognodication Everlading, &c.” printed in 1592, 4t0,—5* humble Motive for Affo- ciation to maintain the religion edablidied, 1601, 8vo. To which is added, his Letter to the fame purpofe to the archbidiops and biffiops of England. 6. England.s Defence : or, A Treatife concerning Invafion. This is a traft of the fame nature with that printed at the end of his Stratioticos, and called, A briefe Difcourfe, &c. It was written in 1399’ n0^ Puhhdied till X686 —7. A Letter printed before Dr John Dee’s Parallaticer Commentationis praxcofque nucleus quidem, 1573, 410.—Befide thefe, and his AW* Corpora, he left feveral mathematical treatifes ready for the prefs ; which, by reafon of lawfuits and other avocations, he was hindered from publifiiing. DIGGING, among miners, is appropriated to the operation of freeing any kind of ore from the bed or dr a turn in which it lies, where every droke of their tools turns to account : in contradidindlion to °' penings made in fearch of fuch ore, which are called hatches, oxefay-hatches; and the operation itfelf, tracing of mines, or hatching. , , , , r When a bed of ore is difeovered, the beele-men, io called Digges, Digging. "v D I G caUed from the inftrument they ufe, which is a kind of pickaxe, free the ore from the foflils around it; and the (hovel-men throw it up from one fhamble to another, till it reaches the mouth of the hatch. In fome mines, to lave the expence as well as fatigue of the (hovel-men, they raife the ore by means of a winder and two buckets, one of which goes up as the other comes down. DIGIT, in AJIronomy^ the twelfth part of the dia¬ meter of the fun or moon, ufed to exprefs the quan¬ tity of an eclipfe. Thus an eclipfe is faid to be of fix digits, when fix of thefe parts are hid. Digits, or Monades*, in Arithmetic, fignify any in¬ teger under _ io ; as i, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, and by means of which all numbers are exprefied. Digit is alfo a meafure taken from the breadth of the finger. It is properly three fourths of an inch, and contains the meafure of four barley corns laid breadth- wile. DIGITALIS, fox-glove : A genus of plants, be- longing to the didynamia clafs; and in the natural me¬ thod ranking under the 28th order, Luridce. See Bo¬ tany Index. 4 Fox-glove has been employed in cafes of ha;moptyfis, of phthifis, and of mania, with apparent good effedls: but its ufe in thefe difeafes is much lefs common than in dropfy. It (hould be adminiftered with great cau¬ tion. See Medicine, and Materia Medica Index. ^ DIGITATED, among botaniils. See Botany Index. DIGLYPH, in ArchiteRure, a kind of imperfect triglyph, confole, or the like ; wuth two channels or engravings, either circular or angular. DIGNE, an epifcopal town in the department of the Lower Alps, formerly Provence, in France, famous for the baths that are near it. It is feated on a river called Bleone, 30 miles S. by W. of Embrun, in E. Long. 6. 12. N. Lat. 44. 10. DIGNITARY, in the canon law, a perfon who holds a dignity, that is, a benefice which gives him fome pre-eminence over mere pnefts and canons. Such is a bhnop, dean, archdeacon, prebendary, &c. DIGNITY, as applied to the titles of noblemen, fignifies honour and authority. And dignity may be divided into fuperior and inferior; as the titles of duke, earl, baron, &c. are the higheft names of dignity ; and thofe of baronet, knight, ferjeant at law, &c. the low- eft. Nobility only can give fo high a name of dignity as to fupply the want of a furname in legal proceed¬ ings ; and as the omifiion of a name of dignity may be pleaded in abatement of a writ, &c. fo it may be where a peer who has more than one name of dignity, is not named by the moft noble. No temporal dignity of any foreign nation can give a man a higher title here than that of esquire. Dignity, in the human charaaer, the oppofite of Meannefs. Man is endued with a sense of the worth and ex¬ cellence of his nature : he deems it more perfea than that of the other beings around him ; and he perceives that the perfeaion of his nature confifts in virtue, par- ticukriy in virtues of the higheft rank. To exprefs that (enfe, the term dignity is appropriated. Further, to behave with dignity, and to refrain from all mean actions, is felt to be, not a virtue only, but a duty: t 235 1 D I G it is a duty every man owes to himfelf. By a£Iing in Dignity, that manner, he attrails love and efteem : by afting meanly, or below himfelf, he is difapproved and con¬ temned. This fenfe of the dignity of human nature reaches even our pleafures and amufements. If they enlarge the mind by railing grand or elevated emotions, or if they humanize the mind by exercifing our fympathy, they are approved as fuited to the dignity of our na¬ ture: if they contraft the mind by fixing it on trivial ob- jedts, they are contemned as not fuited to the dignity of our nature. Hence, in general, every occupation, whether of ufe or amufement, that correfponds to the dignity of man, is termed tnanly; and every occupa¬ tion below his nature, is termed childijh. To thofe who ftudy human nature, there is a point which has always appeared intricate; How comes it that generofity and courage are more efteemed, and beftow more dignity, than good nature, or even juf* tice ; though the latter contribute more than the for¬ mer to private as well as to public happinefs ? This queftion, bluntly propofed, might puzzle even a phi- lofopher; but, by means of the foregoing obferva- tions, will eafily be folved. Human virtues, like o- ther objedls, obtain a rank in our eftimation, not from their utility, which is a fubjecl of refledlion, but from the direft impreflion they make on us. Juftice and good nature are a fort of negative virtues, that fcarce make any impreflion but when they are tranf- grelied : courage and generofity, on the contrary, pro¬ ducing elevated emotions, enliven the great fen(e of a man’s dignity, both in himfelf and in others ; and for that reafon, courage and generofity are in higher regard than the other virtues mentioned : w^e deferibe them as grand and elevated, as of greater dignity, and more praifeworthy. This leads us to examine more dire&ly emotions and paflions with refpeft to the prefent fubjeft : and it will not be difficult to form a fcale of them, beginning with the meaneft, and afeending gradually to thofe of the higheft rank and dignity. Pleafure felt as at the or¬ gan of fenfe, named corporeal pleafure, is perceived to be low ; and when indulged to excefs, is perceived al¬ fo to be mean ; for that reafon, perfonsof any delicacy diflemble the pleafure they take in eating and drink- ing. 1 he pleafures of the eye and ear, having no or¬ ganic feeling, and being free from any fenfe of mean¬ nefs, are indulged without any ffiame : they even rife to a certain degree of dignity when their objefts are grand or elevated. The fame is the cafe of the fym~ pathetic paflions : a virtuous perfon behaving with for¬ titude and dignity under cruel misfortunes, makes a capital figure; and the fympathizing fpeclator feels in himfelf the fame dignity. Sympathetic diftrefs at the fame time never is mean : on the contrary, it is agree¬ able to the nature of a focial being, and has general approbation. The rank that love pofl'effes in the fcale depends in a great meafure on its obje&s : it poffeffes a low1' place when founded on external properties mere¬ ly ; and is mean when beftcw'ed on a perfon of inferior rank without any extraordinary qualification: but when founded on the more elevated internal properties, it aflumes a confiderable degree of di-gnity. The fame is the cafe of friendffiip. When gratitude is warm, it animates the mind ; but it (carce rifes to dignity. G g 2 Joy DIG [ 236 Dignity. Joy beftows dignity when it proceeds from an elevated u"—^ caufe. ^ ^ If we can depend upon induftion, dignity is not a property of any difagreeable paffion : one is llight, an¬ other fevete j one depreffes the mind, another animates it: but there is no elevation, far lefs dignity, in any of them. Revenge, in particular, though it indame and fwell the mind, is not accompanied with dignity, not even with elevation : it is not however felt as mean or grovelling, unlefs when it takes indireft meafures for^gratification. Shame and remorfe, though they fink the fpirits, are not mean. Pride, a difagreeable paffion, bellows no dignity in the eye of a fpeftator. Vanity always appears mean ; and extremely fo where founded, as commonly happens, on trivial qualifica¬ tions. . We proceed to the pleafures of the underftandmg, which poffefs a high rank in point of dignity. Of this every one will be fenfible, when he confiders the im¬ portant truths that have been laid open by fcience ; filch as general theorems, and the general laws that govern the material and moral worlds. The pleafures of the underlfanding are fuited to man as a rational and contemplative being, and they tend not a little to en¬ noble bis nature ; even to the Deity he ftretchetb his contemplations, which, in the diicovery of infinite power, wifdom, and benevolence, afford delight or toe moft exalted kind. Hence it appears, that the fine arts, ftudied as a rational fcience, afford entertainment of great dignity ) fuperior far to what they afford as a fubjeft of tafte merely. . But contemplation, however in itfe.r valuable, is chiefly refpeaed as fubfervient to aftion ; for man is intended to be more an abfive than a contemplative being. Pie accordingly {bows more dignity in adtion than in contemplation: generofity, magnanimity, he- roifin, raife his charafter to the higheft pitch : thefe bed exprefs the dignity of his nature, and advance him nearer to divinity than any other of his attri¬ butes. t . re Having endeavoured to affign the efficient caule ot dignity and meannefs, by unfolding the principle on which they are founded, we proceed to explain the fi¬ nal caufe of the dignity or meannefs beflow'ed upon the leveral particulars above mentioned, beginning with corporeal pleafures. Thefe, as far as ufeful, are, like iuflice, fenced with fufficient fandfions to prevent their being negledted : hunger and thirft are painful fenfa- tions ; and we are incited to animal love by a vigorous propenfity : were’corporeal pleafures dignified over and above with a place in a high clafs, they would infal¬ libly overturn the balance of the mind, by outweigh¬ ing the focial affedlions. This is a fatisfadlory final caufe for refufing to thefe pleafures any degree of dig¬ nity : and the final caufe is not lefs evident of their meannefs when they are indulged to excefs. The more refined pleafures of external fenfe, conveyed by the eye and the ear from natural objedts and from the fine arts, deferve a high place in our efteem, becaufe of their lingular and extenfive utility : in fome cales they rife to a confiderable dignity ; and the veiy low- eft pleafures of the kind are never efteemed mean or grovelling. The pleafure arifing from wit, humour, ridicule, or from wffiat is {imply ludicrous, is ufeful, by relaxing the mind after the fatigue of more manly ] D I I occupations : but the mind, when it furrenders itfelf Dignity to pleafure of that kind, lofes its vigour, and finks D'). gradually into iloth, 1 he place this pleafure occupies ^ m in point of dignity is adjufted to thefe vierts : to make it ufeful as a relaxation, it is not branded with mean¬ nefs ; to prevent its ufurpation, it is removed from that place but a fingle degree : no man values himfelf for that pleafure, even during gratification 5 and _ if it have engroffed more of his time than is requmte for relaxation, he looks back with iome degree of fhame. . In point of dignity, the focial emotions rile above the felfifh, and much above thofe of the eje and ear j man is by his nature a focial being ; and to qualify him for fociety, it is wifely contrived that he ftiould value himlelf more for being focial than {elfifh. The excellency of man is chiefly difcernihle in the great improvements he is fufceptible ol in fociety . thefe, by perfeverance, may be carried on progrefhve- ly, above any affignable limits } and even ab ft ratting from revelation, "there is great probability that the progrefs begun here will be completed in fome future ftate. Now, as all valuable improvements proceed from the exercife of our rational faculties, the Author of our nature, in order to excite us to a due ufe of thefe faculties, bath affigned a high rank to the plea¬ fures of the underftanding : their utility, with retpett to this life as well as a future, entitles them to that rank. But as aflion is the aim of all our improvements, virtuous aftions juftly poffefs the higheft of all the ranks. Thele, we find, are by nature diftnbuted in¬ to different claffes, and the firft in point of dignity al- figned to aftions that appear not the firft in point of ufe : generofity, for example, in the fenfe of mankind is more refpedied than iuftice, though the latter is un¬ doubtedly more effential to fociety 5 and magnanimity, heroifm, undaunted courage, rife ftiU higher in our efteem 5 the reafon of w’hich is explained above. Dignity, in Oratory, is one of the three parts of general elocution } and confifts in the right ufe of tropes and figures. See Oratory, N° 48. . DIGRESSION, in Oratory, is defined by Oumti- lian, agreeably to the etymology of the word, to be a going off from the fubjeft we are upon to fome dif¬ ferent thing, which, however, may be of fervice to it. See Oratory, N° 37* . . x DIGYN1A, (from twice, and a woman), the name of an order or fecondary dmfion in each of the firft 13 claffes, except the 9th, in Linnaeus siexual method ; confifting of plants,, which to the claffic cha- rafter, whatever it is, add the circumftance of having two ftyles or female organs. . DH, the divinities of the ancient inhabitants of the earth, were very numerous. Every objea which caut- ed terror, infpired gratitude, or beftowed affluence, received the tribute of veneration. Man faw a lupe- rior agent in the liars, the elements, or the trees ; and fuppofed that the waters which communicated fertility to his fields and poffeffions, were under the influence and direftion of fome invifible power inclined to favour and to benefit mankind. Thus arofe a tram of divini¬ ties which imagination arrayed m different forms, and armed with different powers. 1 hey were endowed with undeiHanding,, and were, aftuated by the D I J [ 237 ] D I L paffions which daily afflift the human race ; and thofe children of fuperftition were appealed or provoked as the imperfedt being which gave them birth. Their wrath was mitigated by facrifices and incenfe, and fometimes human vidlims bled to expiate a crime which fuperliition alone fuppofed to exilf. The fun, from his powerful influence and animating nature, firfl: attradled the notice and claimed the adoration of the uncivilized inhabitants of the earth. The moon alfo was honoured with facrifices and addrefi'ed in prayers j and after immortality had been liberally beftowed on all the heavenly bodies, mankind clafled among their deities the brute creation, and the cat and the fow fhared equally with Jupiter himfelf, the father of gods and men, the devout veneration of their votaries. This immenfe number of deities has been divided into dif¬ ferent claffes according to the will and pleafure of the mythologifls. The Romans, generally fpeaking, rec¬ koned two clafles of the gods, the dti majorum gen¬ tium, or dit coifente?, and the dii minorum gentium. The fo rmer were 12 in number, fix males and fix fe¬ males. \Vid. Consentes.J In the clafs of the latter were ranked all the gods which were wTorflupped in different parts of the earth. Befides thefe there were lome called dii feledli, fometimes clafled with the 12 greater gods ; thefe were Janus, Saturn, the Genius, the Moon, Pluto, and Bacchus. There were alio fome called demigods, that is, who deferved immortality by the greatnefs of their exploits, and for their uncom¬ mon fervices to mankind. Among thefe were Priapus, Vert umnus, Hercules, and thofe whofe parents were fome of the immortal gods. Befides thefe, all the paf- fions and the moral virtues were reckoned as powerful deities, and temples were raifed to a goddefs of con¬ cord, peace, &c. According to the authority of He- fiod, there were no lefs than 30,000 gods that inhabit¬ ed the earth, and were guardians of men, all lubfer- vient to the power of Jupiter. To thefe, fucceeding ages have added an almofl equal number ; and indeed they were fo numerous, and their funftions fo various, that we find temples eredled, and f?crifices offered, to unknown gods. It is obfervable, that all the gods of the ancients have lived upon earth as mere mortals ; and even Jupiter, who was the ruler of heaven, is re- prefented by the mythologifts as a helplefs child ; and we are acquainted with all the particulars that attend¬ ed the birth and education of Juno. In procefs of time, not only good and virtuous men, who had been the patrons of learning and the fupporters of liberty, but alio thieves and pirates, were admitted among the gods, and the Roman fenate courteoufly granted im¬ mortality to the moft cruel and abandoned of their em¬ perors. DIJAMBUS, in Poetry, the foot of a Latin verfe of four fyllables ; it is compounded of two iambics, as fevent as. DI JON, an ancient, and very confiderable town of France; formerly capital of Burgundy, and of the Di- jonois ; now the epifcopal town of the department of Cote d’Or. Before the revolution it had a parliament, a mint, an univerfity, academy of fciences, an abbey, and a citadel. Moft part of the churches and public ftruclures are very beautiful, and in one of the fquares there was an equeftrian ftatue of Louis XIV. It is feated in a very pleafant plaitij between two fmall ri¬ vers, which produces excellent wine. It contains Dike 20,000 inhabitants. E. Long. j. 7. N. Lat. 47. 19. II . DIKE, a ditch or drain, made for the paffage of waters.— I he word feems formed from the verb to dii?; though others choofe to derive it from the Dutch, diik, a dam, fea-bank, or wall. Dike, or Dyke, alio denotes a work of ftone, tim¬ ber or falcines, raifed to oppofe the entrance or paf¬ fage of the waters of the fea, a river, lake, or the like. — I he word comes from the Flemifh dyk, or ditk, a heap of earth to bound or ftem the water. Junius and Menage take the Ilemifh to have borrowed their word from the Greek wall. Guichard derives it from the Hebrew dflghah. Thefe dikes are ufually elevations of earth, with hurdles of flakes, Hones, and other matters. I he dike of Rochelle is made with veffels faftened to the bottom. I he dikes of Holland are frequently broke through, and drown large trails of land. DILAPIDATION, in Law, a wafteful deft roving or letting buildings, efpecially parfonage houses, &c. run to decay, for want of neceflary reparation. If the clergy negleft to repair the houfes belonging to their benefices, the bifliop may fequefter the profits thereof for that purpofe. And in thefe cafes, a profecutiou may be brought, either in the ipiritual court or at com¬ mon law, againlt the incumbent himitlf, or againft his executor or adminiftrator. DILA1 A LION, in Phyjics, a motion of the parts of any body, by which it is fo expanded as to occupy a greater Ipace. his expanfive motion depends upon the elaftic power of the body; whence it appears that dilatation is different from rarefaction, this laft being produced by means of heat. DILAI A ! ORES, in Anatomy, a name given to feveral mulcles in the human body. See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles. DILATOR A7- pleas, in Law, are fuch as are put in merely for delay ; and there may be a demurrer to a dilatory plea, or the defendant {hall be ordered to plead better, &c. The truth of dilatory pleas is to be made out by affidavit of the fad, &c. by flat. 4 and 5 Anne. See Plea. DILATRIS, a genus of plants, belonging to the tri- andria clafs. See Botany Index. DILEMMA, in Logie, an argument equally con- clufive by contrary fuppofitions. See Logic. DILIGENCE, in Scots Law, lignifies either that care and attention which parties are bound to give, in implementing certain contracls or trufts, and which va¬ ries according to the nature of the contraCI ; or it fignifies certain forms of law, whereby the creditor endeavours to operate his payment, either by affeCIing the perfon or eftate of the debior. See Law Index. DILL. See Anethum, Botany /We.*. DILLEMBURG, a town of Germany, in Wet- teravia, and capital of a county of the fame name. It is fubjeCI to a prince of the houfe of Naffau, and is fituated in E. Long. 8. 24. N. Lat. 50. 45. DILLENGLN, a town of Germany, in the circle of Suabia, with a univerfity, and where the bifhop of Augfburg refides. It is feated near the Danube, in E. Long. 10. 20. N. Lat. 48. 30. DILLEN1A, a genus of plants belonging to the polyandria clafs. See Botany Index. DILUTE, Dilute II , Dimldale. DIM [2 To dilute a body is to render it li- * See Ar- cbiteBure, N038. DILUTE. quid *, or, if it were liquid before, to render it more 10 by the addition of a thinner thereto. Thefe things thus added are called diluents, or dilators. DIM ACHE, (from ^5, double, and paw, I in antiquity, a kind of horfemen firft initituted by A- lexander. Their armour was lighter than that of the infantry, and at the fame time heavier than that ufed by horfemen, fo that they could a£t as horfe or foot as occafion required. DIMENSION, in Geometry, is either length, breadth, or thicknefs; hence, a line hath one dimen- fion, Viz. length a fuperficies twTo, viz. length and bre idth j and a body, or folid, has three, viz. length, breadth, and thicknefs. DIMINUTION, in ArchiteBure, a contra&ion of the upper part of a column, by which its diameter is made lefs than that of the lower part *. Diminution, in Mafic, is the abating lomething or the full value or quantity of any note. DIMINUTIVE, in Grammar, a word formed from fome other, to foften or diminifh the force of it, or to fignify a thing is little in its kind. Ehus, cellule is a diminutive of cell, globule of globe, hillock of hill. DIMISSORY letters, (liter & DimiJJbria'), in the canon law, a letter given by a bilhop to a candidate for holy orders, having a title in his diocefe, diretfed to fome other bilhop, and giving leave for the bearer to be ordained by him. When a perfon produces letters of ordination or tonfure, conferred bv any other than his otvn diocefan, he mud at the fame time produce the letters dimiflbry given by his own bilhop, on pain of nullity. Letters dimiffory cannot be given by the chapter, fede vacante; this being deemed an aft of voluntary jurifdiftion which ought to be referved to the fuc- ceffor. DIMCERITiE, a name given to the Apolhnanlts, who at firft held, that the Word only affumed a human body, without taking a reafonable foul like ours ; but being at length convinced by formal texts of Scripture, they allowed, that he did affume a foul, but without underftanding ; the Word fupplying the want of that faculty. From this way of feparating the underftand¬ ing from the foul, they became denominated dimeentes, q. d. dividers, feparators, of 'bict, and I divide.. DIMSDALE, Thomas, Baron, greatly diftinguilh- cd for his praftice of inoculation for the fmall-pox, was the fon of a furgeon and apothecary at Theydon Gernon in Effex, and was born in the year 1712. His family belonged to the lociety of Quakers ; and. his grandfather accompanied William Penn to America ; but foon after returned and fettled in his native village. Thomas wras brought up to his profeffion firft under his father, and afterwards he became a pupil in St 1 homas Hofpital, London. He commenced his praftice at Hertford about 1734. and married the only daughter of Nathanael Brafi'ey, ofRoxford, near that town, an eminent banker in London, and reprefentative of Hert¬ ford in four fucceflive parliaments. She.died in 1744, and left no children. To relieve his mind under this lofs, he voluntarily offered his afliftance to the phyfi- cians and furgeons in the army under the duke of Cumberland, and continued with it till after the fur- render of Carlifle to the king’s forces, when he recei- 38 ] DIN ved the duke’s thanks, and returned to Hertford. Lv Dimfrlale, 1746 he married Anne lies, a relation of his firft wife, Jma", and by her fortune, and that which he acquired by the death of the widow of Sir John Dimfdale of Hertford, he retired from praftice j but, his family becoming numerous, and feven of his ten children being living, he refumed it, and took the degree of doftor of me¬ dicine, in 1761* Having fully fatisfied himielf about the new method of treating perfons under inoculation for the fmall-pox, he publiftied his treatife on it in 1776, which was foon circulated all over the continent, and tranflated into all its languages, not omitting the Ruffian. He concludes with faying that, “although the whole procefs may have fome ffiare in the fuccefs, it, in my opinion, confifts chiefly in the method of in¬ oculating with recent fluid matter, and the manage¬ ment of the patients at the time of eruption.” This proof of his profeffional knowledge occafioned his be¬ ing invited to inoculate the emprefs Catherine and her fon, in 1768, of which he gives a particular account in hisTrafts on Inoculation, 1781. His reward for this was an appointment of aftual counfellor of ftate 3i*d phyfician to her imperial majefty, with an annuity ot 500I. the rank of a baron of the Ruffian empire, to be borne by his eldeft lawful defeendant in fucceffion, and a black wing of the Ruffian eagle in a gold ihield in the middle of his arms, with the cuftomary helmet, adorned with the baron’s coronet, over the ffiield ; to receive immediately io,oool. and 2000I. for travelling charges, miniature piftures of the emprefs and her fon, and the fame title to his fon, to whom the grand duke gave a gold fnuff-box, richly fet with diamonds. The baron inoculated numbers of people at Mofcow; and, refifting the emprefs’s invitation to refide. as her phyfi¬ cian in Ruffia, he and his fon were admitted to a pri¬ vate audience of Frederic II. king of Pruflia, at Sans Souci, and thence returned to England. In 1779* loft his fecond wife, who left him feven children.. He afterwards married Elizabeth daughter of \\ illi.am Dimfdale, of Biffiops-Stortford, who furvived him. He was elefted reprefentative of the bc»ough of Hert¬ ford in 1780; and declined all praftice, except for the relief of the poor. He went to Ruffia once more, in 1781, to inoculate the late emperor and his brother Conftantine, fons of the grand duke •, and, as he paf- fed through Bruffels, the late emperor, Jofeph, recei¬ ved him in private, and wrote in his prefence a letter, which he was to convey to the emprefs of Ruffia. In 1700, his fon, Baron Nathanael, w’as elefted lor the borough of Hertford, on his refignation and retirement to Bath, for feveral winters; but at laft he fixed alto¬ gether at Hertford, and died, aged 89, Dec. 30, 1800, after an illnefs of about three weeks. About 17 years before his death he felt the fight of one eye declining, having before loft that of the other, but recovered both by the operation of the cataraft, by Wenzel. . DINDYMA, -orum, (Virgil,) from Dindymus, -1; a mountain allotted by many to Phrygia. Strabo has twro mountains of this name ; one in Myfia near Cy- zicus; the other in Gallograecia near Peffinus ; and none in Phrygia. Ptolemy extends this ridge from the borders of Troas, through Phrygia, to Gallogrye- cia : though therefore there were two mountains called Dindymus in particular, both facred to the mother ot the gods, and none of them in Phrygia Major ;^yet Diocefe. DIO [ 239 Dingwal there might be feveral hills and eminences in it, on which this goddefs was worfhipped, and therefore 1 called Dmdyma in general. Hence Cybele is furnamed Dindymane, (Horace). DINGWAL, a royal borough of Scotland in the (hire of Rofs, feated on the frith of Cromarty, 15 miles weft of the town of Cromarty. Near it runs the river Conel, famous for producing pearls. W. Long. 4. iy. N. Lat. 57. 45. Dingwal was a Scotch barony in the petfon of the duke of Ormond in right of his lady, but forfeited in 1715. DINNER, the meal taken about the middle of the day.—The word is derived from the French difrter, which Du Cange derives from the barbarous Latin difnare. Henry Stephens derives it from the Greek StiTntHV; and will have it wrote dipner. Menage dedu¬ ces it from the Italian deftnare, “ to dine” 5 and that from the Latin dejinere, “ to leave off work.” It is generally agreed to be the moft falutary to make a plentiful dinner, and to eat fparingly at fupper. This is the general praftice among us. The French, however, in imitation of the ancient Romans, defer their good cheer to the evening; and Bernardinus Pa- ternus, an eminent Italian phyfician, maintains it to be the moft wholefome method, in a treatife exprefsly on the fubjeft. _ The grand Tartar emperor of China, after he has dined, makes publication by his heralds, that he gives leave for all the other kings and potentates of the earth to go to dinner; as if they waited for his leave. DINOCRATES, a celebrated architeft of Mace¬ donia who rebuilt the temple of Ephefus, when burnt by Eroftratus, with much more magnificence than be¬ fore. Vitruvius informs us that Dinocrates propofed to Alexander the Great to convert Mount Athos into the figure of a man, whofe left hand Ihould contain a walled city, and all the rivers of the mount flow into his right, and from thence into the fea ! He alfo con¬ ceived a fcheme for building the dome of the temple of Arfinoe at Alexandria, of loadftone ; that fhould by its attraction uphold her iron image in the centre, fuf- pended in the air ! ProjeCts which at leaft (bowed a vaft extent of imagination. DIO CHRYSOSTOM, that is, Golden Mouth, a cele¬ brated orator and philofopher of Greece, in the firft century, was born at Prufa in Bithynia. He attempted to perfuade Vefpafian to quit the empire ; was hated by Domitian.; but acquired the efteem of Trajan. This laft prince took pleafure in converfing with him, and made him ride with him in his triumphal chariot. There are (till extant 80 of Dio’s orations, and fome other of his works ; the beft edition of which is that of Hermand Samuel Raimarus, in J750, in folio. DIOCESE, or Diocess, the circuit or extent of the jurifdiftion of a Bishop. The word is formed from the Greek ^toiKna-tf, government, adminijlration ; formed of which the ancient gloffaries render admini/lro, moderor, ordino: hence 'bioix-wa; tyk voteas, the adminijlration or government of a city. Diocese is alfo ufed in ancient authors, &c. for the province of a metropolitan. Diocxfis, (dieiKqcn;), was originally a civil govern¬ ment, or prefecture, compofed of divers provinces. The firft divifion of the empire into diocefes is ordi¬ narily afcribed to Conftantjne; who diftributed the DIO ■whole Roman date into four, viz. the diocefe of Italy, Diocleia-, the diocefe of Illyria, that of the Eaft, and that of D^clefia- Africa. And yet long before Conllantine, Strabo, , n”s‘ . who wrote under Tiberius, takes notice, lib. xiii. p. v~" 432. that the Romans had divided Afia into diocefes ; and complains of the confufion fuch a divifion occafion- ed in geography, Afia being no longer divided by peo¬ ple, but by diocefes, each whereof had a tribunal or court, where juftice was adminiftered. Conftantine then was only the inftitutor of thofe large diocefes, which comprehended feveral inetropoles and govern- ments ; the former diocefes only comprehending one jurifdiCfion or diftriCt, or the country that had refort to one judge, as appears from this paffage in Strabo, and (before Strabo) from Cicero himfelf, lib. iii. epf. adfamil. 9. and lib. xiii. ep. 67. I hus, at firft a province included divers diocefes : and afterwards a diocefe came to comprife divers pro¬ vinces.^ In after times the Roman empire became di¬ vided into 13 diocefes or prefectures; though, in¬ cluding Rome, and the fuburbicary regions, there W’ere 14. Thefe 14 diocefes comprehended 120 pro¬ vinces each province had a proconful, who redded in the capital or metropolis ; and each diocefe of the em¬ pire had a conful, who refided in the principal city of the diftriCL On this civil conftitution the ecclefiaftical one was afterwards regulated: each diocefe had an ecclefiafti¬ cal vicar or primate, vrho judged finally of all the concerns of the church within his territory. At prefent there is fome further alteration: for dio¬ cefe does not now fignify an affemblage of divers pro¬ vinces; but is limited to a fingle province under a me¬ tropolitan, or more commonly to the fingle jurifdic- tion of a bifliop. Gul. Brito affirms diocefe to be properly the terri¬ tory and extent of a baptifmal or parochial church ; whence divers authors ufe the word to fignify a Ample parifli. See Parish. DIOCLEIA, (AioxAs/ss), in antiquity, a folemnity kept in the fpring at Megara, in memory of the Athe¬ nian hero, who died in the defence of the youth he loved. DIOCLESIANUS, Caius Valerius Juvivs, a celebrated Roman emperor, born of an obfcure family in Dalmatia in 245. He was firft a common foldier, and by merit and iuccefs he gradually role to the office of a general; and at the death of Numerian in 284 he was invefted with imperial power. In this high ftation he rewarded the virtues and fidelity of Maximian, who had (hared with him all the fubordinate offices in the army, by making him his colleague on the throne. He created two fubordinate emperors, Conftantius and Ga- lerius, whom he called Caefars, whilft he claimed for himfelf and his colleague the fuperior title of Auguftus. Dioclefian has been celebrated for his military virtues; and though he w’as naturally unpoliffied by education mid ftudy, yet he was the friend and patron of learn- ing and true genius. He was bold and relolute, adive and diligent, and w'ell acquainted with the arts, which will endear ffovereign to his people, and make him re- fpedable even in the eyes of his enemies. His cruelty however, againft the followers of Chriftianity, has been defervedly branded with infamy. After he had reign¬ ed 22 years in the greateft profperity, he publicly ab¬ dicated D I O [ 24® ] D I O Dicdati II _ "Dioecia. dicatcd the crown at Nicomedia in 305, and retired to a private ftation at Salona. Maximian his colleague followed his example, but not from voluntary choice ; and when he feme time after endeavoured to rouie the ambition of Dioclefian, and perfuade him to reaffume the imperial purple, he received for anfwer, that Uio- clefian took now more delight in cultivating bis little garden than he formerly enjoyed in a palace, when his power was extended over allthe earth. He lived nine years after bis abdication in the greateft fecunty and enjoyment at Salona, and died in 314, m the 68th year of his age. Dioclefian is the firft fovereign who voluntarily refigned his power. His bloody pei ecu- tion of the Chriftians forms a chronological era, called the era of Dioclefan, or of the martyrs. It was *0* a long time in ufe in theological writings, and is Hill fol¬ lowed by the Copts and Abyflinians. It commenced Auguft 29. 284. , , r r DIODATI, John, a famous miniiler, and protei- for of theology at Geneva, was born at Lucca in 1579, and died at Geneva in 1652. He is diftinguilhed by tranflations, I. Of the Bible into Italian, with notes, Geneva, 1607, 410. The belt edition at Geneva in 1641, folio. This is faid to be more a paraphrale than a tranflation, and the notes rather divine_ meditations than critical refleftions. 2. Of the Bible into Trench, Geneva, 1644. 3. Of Father Paul’s Hitlory of the Council of Trent into Trench. DIODIA, a genus of plants belonging to the te- trandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking un¬ der the 47th order, Stellatce. See Botany //^r. DIODON, or sun-fish, a genus ot filhes belong¬ ing to the order of amphibia nantes. See Ichthyo¬ logy Index. j o- 7 DIODORUS, an hiftorian, furnamed Siculus be- caufe he was born at Argyra in Sicily. He wrote a hiftory of Egypt, Perfia, Syria, Media, Greece, Rome, and Carthage and it is faid that he vifited all the places of which he has made mention in his hiltoiy. It was the labour of 30 years. He is, however, too credulous in fome of his narrations-, and often wanders far from the truth. He often dwells Urn long upon fabulous reports and trilling incidents-, while events ot the greateft importance to hiftory are treated with bre¬ vity, and fometimes paffed over in filence. He ive in the age of Julius Caefar and Auguftus.; and fpent much time at Rome to procure information, and au¬ thenticate his hiftorical narrations. This important work, which he compofed in Greek, contained 40 books, of which there are only 15 remaining. 1 he flyle is clear and neat, and very fuitable to hiftory. The belt edition is that of Amfterdam, 1743, m 2 vols folio. . , 1 r DICECIA, (from $ fports and pleafure. DIONYSIAN period. See Chronology, N°3i. DIONYSIUS I. from a private lecretary became general and tyrant of Syracufe and all Sicily. He was likewife a poet ; and having, by bribes, gained the tragedy prize at Athens, he indulged himfelf fo im¬ moderately at table from excefs of joy, that he died of the debauch, 386 B. C. but fome authors relate that he wTas poifoned by his phyficians. Dionysius II. (his fon and fucceffor) was a great¬ er tyrant than his father j his fubjefts were obliged to apply to the Corinthians for fuccour *, and Timoleon their general having conquered the tyrant, he fled to Athens, where he was obliged to keep a fchool for fubfiftence. He died 343 B. C. Dionysius Hahcarnaffenjis, a celebrated hiftori- an, and one of the moft judicious critics of antiquity, was born at Halicarnaffus ; and went to Rome after the battle of Adlium, where he ftaid 22 years under the reign of Auguftus. He there compofed in Greek his Hiftory of the Roman Antiquities, in 20 books, of which the firft 11 only are now remaining. There are alfo ftill extant feveral of his critical works. The beft edition of the works of this author is that of Oxford, in 1704, in Greek and Latin, by Dr Hud- fon. Dionysius, a learned geographer, to whom is at¬ tributed a Periegefis, or Survey of the Earth, in Greek - verfe. Some fuppofe that he lived in the time of Au¬ guftus } but Scaliger and Saumafius place him under the reign of Severus, or Marcus Aurelius. He wrote many other works, but his Periegefis is the only one we have remaining j the beft and moft ufeful edition of which is that improved with notes and illuftrations by Hill. Dionysius Areopagita, was born at Athens, and educated there. He went afterwards to Heliopolis in Egypt ; where, if we may believe fome writers of his life, he faw that wonderful eclipfe which happened at our Saviour’s paffion, and was urged by fome extraor¬ dinary impulfe to cry out, Aut Deus patitur, out cunt patiente dolet ; “ either God himfelf luffers, or condoles with him who does.” At his return to Athens he was eletted into the court of Areopagus, from whence he derived his name of Areopagite. About the year 50 he embraced Chriftianity •, and, as fome fay, was ap¬ pointed firft bifhop ot Athens by St Paul. Of his converfion we have an account in the 17th chapter of the Ads of the Apoftles.—He is fuppofed to have fuf- fered martydom ; but whether under Domitian, Tra¬ jan, or Adrian, is not certain. We have nothing re¬ maining under his name, but what there is the greateft reafon to believe fpurious. Dionysius the Lefjer, a Scythian, became abbot of a monaftery at Rome *, he was the firft who com¬ puted time from the birth of Dionyfius to Chrift, and fixed that great event, according to' the vulgar era. He was alfo a learned canon law writer, and died about the year 540. DIOPHANTINE problems, in Mathematics, cer¬ tain queftions relating to fquare and cube numbers, and right-angled triangles, &c. the nature of which was # D I O Bloplran- t;ne. [ 243 1 D I O was determined by Diophantus, a mathematician of Alexandria, who is believed to have lived about the third century. We have his works, which were pub- lilhed with notes at Paris, in 1621, by Bachet de Me- ziriac ; and another edition in 1670, with obfervations on every queflion by M. Fermat. In thefe queftions it is endeavoured to find commen- furable numbers to anfwer indeterminate problems; which bring out an infinite number of incommenfur- able quantities. For examples, it is propofed to find a right-angled triangle, whofe fides, x, y, ss, are ex- preffed by commenlurable numbers ; it is knowm that x*z being the fuppofed hypothenufe. But it is poffible to afiume x and fo, that z will be in- commenfurable $ for if xm, and y—2, The art of refolving fuch problems confifts in fo managing .he unknown quantity or quantities in fuch a manner, that the fquare or higher power may vanilh out of the equation, and then by means of the unknown quantity in its firft dimenfion, the equation may be re- folved without having recourfe to incomtnenfurables j e. gr. let it be fuppofed to find x,y, 2;, the fides of a right-angled triangle, fuch as will give .v*-f-y1—2s1. Suppofe then x*-\-yx—xlixu-^-n1out of then af* which equation a;* vanifhes, and x — ^ U— 2U fuming and u equal to any numbers at pleafure, the fides of the triangle will bej,--—-—, and the hypothe- nufe x-j-u =- : ify=3, and u~i, then*^ — 4, and .Y-f-tt—5. It is evident that this problem admits Dioplian- of an infinite number of folutions. tuS’ For the refolution of fuch kind of problems, fee Saunderfon’s Algebra, vol. ii. book 6. DIOPHANTUS, a celebrated mathematician of Alexandria, has been reputed to be the inventor of algebra •, at leaft his is the earlieft work extant on that fcience. It is not certain when Diophantus lived. Some have placed him before Chrift, and fome after, in the reigns of Nero and the Antonines: but all with equal uncertainty. It feems he is the fame Diophan¬ tus who wrote the Canon Aftronomicus, which Suidas fays was commented on by the celebrated Hypatia, daughter of Theon of Alexandria. His reputation mufl: have been very high among the ancients, fince they ranked him with Pythagoras and Euclid in ma¬ thematical learning. Bachet, in his notes upon the 5th book De Arithmeticis, has collected, from Diophantus’s epitaph in the Anthologia, the following circumltances of his life ; namely, that he was married when he was 33 years old, and had a ion born five years after ; that this fon died when he was 42 years of age, and that his father did not furvive him above four years ; from which it appears, that Diophantus was 84 years old when he died. DIOPTER, or Dioptra, the fame with the index or alhidade of an aftrolabe, or other fuch inftrument, Dioptra was an inftrument invented by Hipparchus, which ferved for feveralufes *, as, to level water-coUrfesj to take the height of towers, or places at a diftance 5 to determine the places, magnitudes, and diftances of the planets, See. Dioptra. DIOPTRICS, ^PHAT part of Optics which treats of the laws of refra&ion, and the effefts which the refra&ion of light has in vifion. The word is originally Greek, formed of 'but, per, “ through,” and a/Popxi, I fee. As this and the other branches of Optics are fully treated under the colleftive name, we {hall here, 1. Juft give a fummary of the general principles of the branch, in a few plain aphorifms, with fome preliminary defi¬ nitions ; and, 2. Prefent our readers with a fet of en¬ tertaining experiments illuftrative of, or dependent up¬ on, thofe principles. DEFINITIONS. f.^latev 1 • When a ray of light pafling out of one medium (XXXV. jnto another Gf a different denfity, is turned from that ftraight line in which it would otherwife proceed into one of a different diredlion, it is faid to be refrafted. Thus the rays AB, AC, &c. (fig. 1.) by paffing out of air into the glafs BGC, are turned from their na¬ tural courfe into that of BF, CF, &.c. and are there¬ fore faid to be refrafted by the lens BGC. 2.. Any fpherical transparent glafs, that converges or diverges the rays of light as they pafs through it, is called a lens. 3. Of lenfes there are five forts: 1. A plane or Angle convex lens, which is plane on one fide and^con- vex on the other 5 as AZ, fig. 3. 2. A double convex lens, as B. 3. A plano-concave lens, that is, plane on one fide and concave on the other, as C. 4. A double concave, as D. And, 5. A menifeus, w7hich is convex on one fide and concave on the other, as E. 4. The point C, (fig. 2.) round which the fpheriral furface of a lens, as AZ, is deferibed, is called its cen¬ tre ; the line XY, drawn from that centre perpendicu¬ lar to its two furfaces, is the axis ; and the point V, to which the axis is drawn, is the vertex of that lens. 5. When the rays of light that pafs through a finale or double convex lens are brought into their fmalleft compafs, that point is the focus of the lens. 6. In optical inftruments, that lens which is next the objeft is called the objeSl glafs ; and that next the eye, the eye glafs. 7. The diftance between the line AB, (fig. 3.) and the perpendicular EF, is called the angle of incidence ; and the diftance between the line BD and the perpen¬ dicular EF, is called the ang/e of refraBion. APHORISMS. t. A ray of light paffing obliquely out of one me¬ dium into another that is denfer, will be refra&cd to¬ ward the perpendicular 5 as the ray AB, by paffmg out of air into glafs, is refra&ed into BF, inclined H h 2 to 244 DIOPTRICS. to the perpendicular AF. On the contrary, a ray pa and^the ball, oblea I'be reprefented 'without^ny lens, though by no means fo «'«, or with fuCM''WhenT’fun is direftly oppofite to the hole, the lens will itfelf be fufficient: or by means of the mir- ror on the outfide of the window, as in Experiment VI. the lens will anfwer the purpo e a any 1 images will be clearly reprefented, and fufficicntly fo to delineate them by a black lead pencil or crayon. In- llead of the glafs CD, or fometimes underneath it, is often placed a double convex lens of a focus fomewhat Ihorter than the length of the box: this alteration con- fiderably brightens the appearance of the images, and renders them as vivid as the objefts themfelves, though not quite fo accurate in their contours or outlines as by the preceding method. Another kind of portable camera obfcura is, where the images are formed upon white paper, and the fe- yeral parts of the camera fold up out of a box Ihaped like a book or cheft. 1 his way of the images being formed on paper is a much preferable one to the pre¬ ceding method, and admits of their being traced on the paper with the utmoft readinefs. This°inftrument, as open out of its cafe and ready for ufe, is reprefent¬ ed in fig. 9. The front and fides fold up to the height of about two feet from the cafe EFG, by means of hinges placed at PH, &c. The head of A BCD, about five inches fquare and high, containing the mirror L and the convex lens beneath it, fits on at CD, and the inner fquare tube of it is moved up and down by rack- work and a pinion NM. This motion ferves to adjuft the convex lens d to its proper focal diftance from the white paper placed within fide at the bottom of the box EFG, fo that the images may be formed with the greateft pofiible diftindtnefs. In tracing thefe ima¬ ges the face is applied clofe to the hole in the front at K, and the hand in the fleeve in the front at the bot- bom of FG. When the fides and front are unhooked and folded down, they all lie clofe in the box EFG, and the lid O folds down as a top on them clofe, and’ the box remains then the fize of a common folio book, and is covered with calf leather and lettered on the back in perfect imitation of one. . diagonal pofition of a plane mirror the cu¬ rious opera glafs is conftru&ed, by which any perfon may be viewed in a theatre or oublic company, and vet know nothing of it. It confifts only in placing a con¬ cave glafs near the plane mirror, in the end of a Ihort round tube, and a convex glafs in a hole in the fide of the tube. Then holding the end of the tube with the glafs to the eye, all obje&s next to the hole in the fide wiU be refleaed fo as to appear in a diiecft line forward, or m a pofition at right angles to the perfon’s fituation who is looked at. Plane glaffes inftead of a concave and convex may be ufed 3 but in this cafe there will be no magnitude of the objed, but it will appear brighter. *t is called by opticians the diagonal opera glafs. X. The Mag ic Lantern. This very remarkable machine, which is now known over all the world, caufed great afloniihment at its ori- gin. It is ftill beheld with pleafing admiration ; and the fpe&ator very frequently contents himfelf with wondering at its effeds, without endeavouring to in- veibgate their caufe. The invention of this ingenious illufion is attributed to the celebrated P. Kircher, who has pubhfiled on various fciences, works equally learn¬ ed, curious, and entertaining. Its defign is to repre- -ent at large, on a cloth or board, placed in the dark the images of fmall objeds, painted with tranfoarent colours on plates of glafs. DIOPTRICS. The conftrudion is as follows : Let ABCD (fig. 10.) be the fide of a tin box, eight inches high, eight inches long, and ten broad (or any other fimilar dimenfions), the top of which mull have a funnel, with a cover as reprefented in fig. 11.; which at the fame time it gives a pafiage to the fmoke, prevents the light from coming out of the box. In the middle of the bottom of the box muft be placed a low tin lamp E, which is to be moveable. It fiiould have three or four lights, that muft be at the height of the centre of the glalfes in the tubes N and O. In the largeft of thefe tubes muft be placed a glafs femiglobular lens N, about four inches diameter; and in the fmaller one a double convex lens o, about 2^ inches diameter, and fix inches focus, the length of the tubes holding them about 44- inches each • the.inner tube containing the fmall lens o muft be a Aiding one, in order to adjuft it at a proper diftance from the painted Aiders, fo that the objeds thereon may be diftindly reprefented on the cloth or white vyall. A Ait or opening between the glafs N and the front fide BGDH of the box rouft be made large enough to admit the Aiders to be paffed through 'fas in fig II.) The clearnefs of the light, and the’ob¬ jeds upon the cloth will depend much upon the light of the lamp 3 it will therefore be proved belt, to place inftead of the common lamp E, a kind of the new or Argand’s patent lamp, which will be found confider- ably to improve the effed of the lantern by its fuperior ftrength of light. From the conftrudion of this lantern it is evident that when the glafs Aiders, with the painted figures are placed in the groove or Ait in the lantern fo^ that purpofe, and the room darkened, a quantity of light from the lamp at E will be colleded by the lens N, and refraded upon the cloth placed oppofite, and that by moving the Aiding tube containing the {mail lens o gradually in or out as occafion may require this lens will form images of the figures on the Aiders* in their diftind colours and proportions, with the ap pearance of life itfelf, and of any fize from fix inches to feven feet, according to the diftance of the lantern from the cloth. The lantern, with one of the Iliders icady for ufe, is clearly xeprefented in fig. 11. JBy the aid of the new patent lamp aforementioned, confider- able ufetul improvements are made to the lantern. Mr Jones, optician, of Holborn, has contrived an apparatus to be applied to it, that converts it into a microfcope by night 3 and it fhows all the variety of tranfparent and many of the opaque objeds magnified upon a cloth or fkreen oppofite, fimilar to the figures above mentioned, but not in fo large a degree 5 about one or obtained d'aiJ>Cter IS the Utm°ft that can at Pre^nt be Method of painting the Glaffes for the Lantern. Draw on a paper the fubjed you defire to paint, and fix it at each end to the glafs. Provide a varnifh with Which you have mixed feme black paint 3 and with a fine pencil draw on the other fide of the glafs, with very light touches, the defign drawn on the paper. If you are defirous of making the painting as perfed as poflible, you fhould draw feme of the outlines in their proper colours provided they are the ftrongeft tints of ie e co ours t at are ufed. When the outlines are }> you colour the figures with their proper tints or 1 degradations. .248 D I O P T degradations. Tranfparent colours are mod proper for this purpofe, fuch as carmine, lake, Pruffian blue, ver- digrife, &c. and thefe mult be tempered with a ftrong white varnifh, to prevent their peeling off. ^ollare then to (hade them with black mixed with the lame varnilh, or with biffre, as you find convenient. may alfo leave ftrong lights in fome parts without any colours, in order to produce a more linking ef- feft. Ohferve, in particular, not to ule more than four or five colours, luch as blue, red, green, am •yellow. You Ihould employ, however, a great va¬ riety of tints, to give your painting a more natura air • without which they will reprefent vulgar ob- jefts, which are by no means the more pleafing be- ^'when"the lamp in this lantern is lighted and, by drawing out the tube to a proper length, figures painted on the glafs appear bright and well define the fpe&ator cannot fail of being highly entertained by the fucctflion of natural or grotelque figures that are painted on the glaffes. This piece of optics may vbc rendered much more amufing, and at the fame ime more marvellous, by preparing figures to ^ ^ ent natural motions may be given (e), _ > one mav perform according to his own tafte, either by movements in the figures themfelves or by paint¬ ing the fubjea on two glaffes, and palling them a the fame time through the groove, as will be ken in the next experiment. XI. To reprefent a Tempefi by the Magic Lantern. Provide two plates of glafs, whofe frames are fo thin that they may both pafs freely through the flit or groove of the common magre lanterns at the fame ^On one of thefe glaffes you are to paint the ap¬ pearance of the ka, from the Ihghteft agitation to {he moll violent commotion. Reprekntmg from A to B (fig. 12.') a calm-, from B to C a fmall ac¬ tion, with fome clouds ; and fo on to F G, which ihould exhibit a furious ftotm. Obkrve, that thek reprekntations are not to be dillina, but run into each other, that they may form a natural gradation ; rernem- ber alfo, that great part of the efka depends on . perfe&ion of the painting, and the p,aurefque appear-- anC0„1hehot&6 you are .0 pain, veffels of differ- cnt forms and dimenfions, and in different direftrons;, together with the appearance of clouds in the tempe ^You^e then to pafs the glafs flowly through the groove ; and when you come to that part where the dorm begins, you are to move the glafs gently up and down, which will give it the appearance of a ka that begins to be agitated 5 and fo increak the motton ull you come to the height of the ftorm At ^ lame [ime vou are to introduce the other plafs with the Hups, and moving that in like manner, you will have a natu¬ ral representation of the ka, and of flops m a calm and in a ftorm. As you draw the glafles llowly back, RIGS. the tempell will kem to fubfide, the fk> grow clcui, and the Ihips glide gently over the waves.—By means of two glaffes difpofed in this manner you llke- wife reprefent a battle, or lea fight, and numberlefs other fubiefb, that every one wil contrive according to his own tafte. They may alfo be made to reprefent fome remarkable or ludicrous aftion between different perfons, and many other amukments that a lively ima¬ gination will eafily fuggeft. XII. The Nebulous Magic Lantern. The light of the magic lantern, and the colour ot images, may not only be painted on a cloth, but alfo refle&ed by a cloud of fmoke. Provide a box of wood or pafteboard (fig. H-) 0 about four feet high, and of feven or eight >nches Iquare at bottom, but diminiftung as it alcends fo that 1 s a- perture at top is but fix inches long, and haU an ' c vvide At the bottom of this box there mull be a door that {huts quite clofe, by which you are to place m the box a chafing-dilh with hot coals, on which s to be thrown incenfe, whok fmoke goes out in a cloud at the top of the box. It is on this cloud that you are to throw the light that comes out of the lantern, and which you bring into a fmaller compafs by drawing out the'moveable tube. The common figures w,11 here f-rve It is remarkable in this reprekntation, that the motion of the fmoke does not at all change the figures ; which appear fo confpicuous, that the Ipeftator thmks he can grafp them with his hand. m,el In this experiment feme of the rays faffing through the fmoke, the reprekntation will be much lets vivid §than on the cloth and if care be not taken to reduce the light to its fmalleft focus, it will be ftill more imperfeft. XIII. To produce the Appearance of a Phantom upon a Pedefal placed on the middle of a Laile. Enclok a common fmall magic lantern in a box A BCD (fie. !?•) '1S krge enough to contain alio an he«ned mirlor M, which muff be moveable that ,t may refleft the cone of light thrown on it by the lan¬ tern in fuch a manner that it may pafs out at the aper- ture’made in the top of the box. There ffould be a flap with hinges to cover the opening, that the infide of t ie C rn^not be feen when the experiment rs malemg This aperture Ihould Hkewife be oval, and of a fee adapted to the cone of light that is to pafs through it. ' There muft be holes made in that par t of the bo which is over the lantern, to let out the fmoke : and over that part muft be placed a chafing diftr “f an ob- W figure and large enough to hold feveral lighted coafs This chafing difh may be enebfed in a painted Z box of about a foot high, and with an aperture at top fomething like fig. It fhoold ftand f°ur (hor(? feet to give room for the Imoke of the lamp to pals T,gere muft alfo be a glafs that will afeeud and defeend at pleafure In a vertical groove u/>. I o glafs let ,bePre be fixed a cord, that, going over a puU ley c, paffes out of the box at the fide CD, by which • C m,M r V Fffavsof MM^thenbroek, different methods of performing all thefe (e) There arc in the Phtlofophical Effays ot & . t di®cuit to execute, various movements, by fome mechanical contrivances that are not d.tbc DIOPTRICS. t’ne glafs maybe dfawn up, and will defeend by its own weight. On this glafs may be painted a fpeftre, or any other more pleafing figure. Obferve, that the fi¬ gures mud be contrafted in drawing, as the cloud of fmoke does not cut the cone of light at right angles, and therefore the figures will appear longer than they do on the glafs. After you have lighted the lamp in the lantern, and put the mirror in a proper direction, you place the box or pedeftal ABCD on a table 5 and putting the cha¬ fing dilh in it, throw fome incenfe in powder on the coals. You then open a trap door, and let down the glafs flowly; and, .when you perceive the fmoke dimi- nifli, you draw up the glafs, that the figure may dif- appear, and fhut the trap-door. This appearance will occafion no Imall furprife, as the fpedlre will feem to rife gradually out of the pededal, and on drawing up the glafs will difappear in an inftant. Obferve, that when you exhibit this experiment, you muft put out all the lights in the room } and the box (hould be pla¬ ced on a high table, that the fpe61ators may not perceive the aperture by which the light comes out. Though we have mentioned a fmall magic lantern, yet the whole apparatus may be fo enlarged, that the phantom may appear of a formidable fize. XIV. The Magic Theatre. By making fome few additions to the magic lantern with the fquare tube, ufed in Experiment X. various fcenes, characters, and decorations of a theatre, may be reprefented in a lively manner. In this experiment it is quite neceffary to make the lantern much larger than common, that the objeCts painted on the glaffes, being of a larger fize, may be reprefented with greater precifion, and confequently their feveral characters more ftrongly marked. Let there be made a wooden box ABCD, a foot and a half long, 15 inches high, and 10 wide. Let it be placed on a Hand EF, that muft go round it, and by which it may be fixed with two fcrews to a table. Place over it a tin cover, as in the common lantern. Make an opening in its ;w:> narroweft fides ; in one of which place the tube H, and in the other the tube I : let each of them be fix inches wide, and five inches high : in each of thefe tubes place another that is moveable, in order to bring the glaffes, or concave mirror, that are contained in them, to a proper di- ftance. In the middle of the bottom of this box place a tin lamp M; which muft be moveable in a groove, that it may be placed at a proper diftance with regard to the glaffes and mirror : this lamp {hould have five or fix lights, each of them about an inch long. At the beginning of the tube H, toward the part N, make an opening of an inch wide, which muft crofs it late¬ rally : another of three quarters of an inch, that muft crofs it vertically, and be nearer the box than the firftj and a third of half an inch, that muft be before the firft. The opening made laterally muft have three or four grooves, the fecond two, and the third one : that different fubjefls of figures and decorations may be Vol. VII. Part I. palled, either fidewife, afcending or defcendt’ng, fo that the fcenes of a theatre may be the more exaftly imitated (f). Enclofe thefe grooves between two con¬ vex re&angular glaffes, of fix inches long, and five inches high, and of about 20 inches focus ; one of which muft be placed at O, and the other toward P. Have another tube Q^of about a foot long, which muft enter that marked H ; and at its outward extre¬ mity place a lens of about 15 inches focus. There murt alfo be a third tube R, four inches long, into which that marked I is to enter : to the exterior end of this adjuft a concave mirror, whofe focus muft be at feven or eight inches from its refiedling furface. The magic lantern being thus adjufted, nothing more is neceffary than to provide glaffes, painted with fuch fubjefls as you would reprefent, according to the grooves they are to enter. The lamp is then to be lighted j and placing a glafs in one of the grooves, you draw out the moveable tubes till the obje<5l paints itfelf on a cloth to the moft advantage : by which you determine the diftance of the lantern and the fize of the image. You then make a hole in the partition of that fize, and fix in it a plate of clear glafs, over which you pafte a very thin paper, which muft be varnilhed, that it may be as tranfparent as poffible. On this paper are to be exhibited the images of all thofe objefts, that by paffing fucceflively through the grooves, are to reprefent a theatric entertain¬ ment. The exhibition will be very agreeable ; becaufe the magic lantern being concealed behind the parti¬ tion, the caufe of the illufion cannot by any means be difeovered. In order to {how more clearly in what manner a, fub- je£t of this fort {hould be painted, and the glaffes dif- pofed, we will here make choice of the fiege of Troy for a theatric fubjecl ; in which will be found all the incidents neceffary to the exhibition of any other fub* je£t whatever.—In the firft ad the theatre may repre¬ fent, on one fide, the ramparts of Troy ; toward the back part, the Grecian camp ; and at a farther diftance, the fea, and the ifie of Tenedos. We will fuppofe the time to be that when the Greeks feigned to raife the fiege j and embarked, leaving behind them the wood¬ en horfe, in which were contained the Grecian foldiers. —On a glafs, therefore, of the fame width with the aperture made in the fide AC of the box, you are to paint a deep blue curtain, lightly charged with or¬ naments, quite tranfparent. This glafs is to be pla¬ ced in the firft vertical groove ; fo that by letting it gently down, its image may appear to rife in the fame manner as the curtain of a theatre. All the glaffes that are to afeend or defeend muft be bordered with thin pieces of wood, and fo exaftly fill the grooves, that they may not Hide down of themfelves.—You muft have feveral glaffes of a proper fize to pafs through the horizontal grooves, and of different lengths ac¬ cording to the extent of the fubjeft. You may paint on the firft, the walls of Troy. On the fecond, the Grecian camp. On the third, the fea, the ifie of Te¬ nedos, and a ferene fky. On the fourth, the Grecian I i troops 249 ^ ^ecor3tions, the clouds and the palaces of the gods fiiould defeend ; caves and infernal palaces should atcend j earthly palaces, gardens, &.c, enter at the fides. dioptrics. troops by detached figures. On the fifth, other troops, difpofed in battalions, and placed at a diftance. On the fixth, divers veffels, which as the glafs advances in the groove diminilh in fize. On the feventh, the wooden horfe and Sinon. On the eighth, Trojan men and women. Thefe glaffes being properly painted, you place in the horizontal grooves the firft, fecond, third, and fourth. Then draw up the curtain, by letting down the glafs on which it is painted, and draw away gently the fourth glafs, and after that the fecond ; then ad¬ vance very gently the fifth that reprefents the em- barkment, and pafs it quite through. Next pafs, the oppofite way, the fixth, which reprefents the Giecian fleet. The obje&s painted bn the fourth, fifth, and fixth, quite difappearing, you are to advance the ieventh, on which is painted the wooden horfe ; and at the fame time the eighth, where the Trojans will appear to draw the horfe into the city. The curtain is then to be let down, that you may withdraw the fcenes of the firft aft, and place in the grooves thofe that are to compofe the fecond.—In the fecond aft may be reprefented the interior part of the city of Troy : on one fide may be feen the wooden horfe, and in the back part the temple of Pallas. The glaffes for this aft may be painted in the following manner. On the firft may be palaces and houfes, reprefenting the infide of a city. On the fe¬ cond, the temple of Pallas in the centre,-with a clear night and the moon. In the front may be feen the wooden horfe, that the I rojans have placed near the temple of Pallas. On the third, a troop of Greeks, with Sinon at their head, who are going to open the gates of the city to the Grecians. On the fourth, dif- ferent troops of armed Greeks; painted on a long glafs, to afford variety. On the fifth, feveral troops of Tro¬ jans. On the fixth, various appearances of fire and fmoke, fo difpofed, that this glafs being drawn up above the others, the objedls painted on the firft glafs may appear in a conflagration. Before you draw up the curtain, you ftiould place the firft and fecond glaffes. You then pafs the whole third glafs flowly ; a little after, the fourth, on which are painted the different bodies of armed Greeks ; and at the fame time, from the oppofite fide, the fixth glafs, that reprefents the Trojan troops; obferving to move them flowly both in advancing and retreating, to imi¬ tate a combat (g). 1 hen draw up, by degrees, the fixth, on which are painted the fire, flame, and fmoke, fo that the palaces and houfes painted on the firft glafs may appear to take fire gradually, and at laft; prefent a general conflagration. After having reprefented thefe incidents with the greateft attention, you let fall the curtain to prepare for the third aft. In this may be reprefented the infide of Priam’s palace ; where is feen an altar, round which feveral Trojan princeffes appear, who have fled thither for fafety. On the firft glafs may be painted the palace. On the fecond, a view of the back part of the palace, with the altar. On the third, Priam with feveral Trojan men and women. On the fourth, Pyrrhus and a troop of Greeks. On the fifth, the fame aftors, with the palace in flames. On the fixth, a conflagration.—The two firft glaffes which are to be drawn up, ftiould be placed before you raife the curtain. Then pafs the third ; next advance the fourth ; which being drawn up, difcovers on the fifth the palace in flames ; then drawing up the fixth, let down the firft, that the palace may appear entirely de- ftroyed by the conflagration. The fourth aft may reprefent the environs of Troy, with a diftant profpeft of the fea. The firft and third glaffes of the firft aft may be here ufed ; to which may be added a third, reprefenting iEneas bearing his fa¬ ther Anchifes, followed by his fon lulus and fome Trojans. With this glafs may be reprefented the flight of the Trojans and the embarkment of iEneas ; with another glafs, on which are painted certain veflels.— To this aft the following fcenes may be added : The cave of iEolus ; the back part of the cave ; iEolus ; the winds ; Juno in her chariot. The fifth aft fhould reprefent the open fea, with the fleet of iEneas lailing for Italy. On the firft glafs muft be painted the fea, as in the eleventh experiment, or elfe the waves ftiould be imitated by another glafs under the firft. On the fecond, the Trojan fleet. On the third, Neptune in his car. On the fourth, the pa¬ lace of Jupiter. On the fifth, the infide of the palace ; the gods affembled in council, with Venus obtaining leave of Jupiter for iEneas to land in Italy.—After having placed the firft glafs, that reprefents a calm fea, the curtain is raifed, and the fecond feene is advanced, which contains the Trojan fleet. The firft is then brought forward, to reprefent a violent tempeft : then raifing the third glafs, Neptune appears, who com¬ mands the waves to be ftill, which is done by making the tempeft fubfide by degrees. The fleet then ad¬ vances, and paffes over the whole theatre: prefently after the fourth and fifth fcenes defeend, that repre¬ fent Olympus, and finifti the exhibition. Note, We muft here repeat, that if you would re¬ prefent a fubjeft of this fort to advantage, it is quite neceffary that the glaffes be well painted ; and thofe that are to be in front ftiould be in ftronger and more opaque colours, that the images of thofe behind may not appear mixed with them, which will be the cafe if they are all equally tranfparent. The glaffes ftiould alfo be of different lengths ; that fome being placed be¬ fore the others are drawn away, their extremities may not be perceived. The larger thefe fubjefts are reprefented, the better effeft they will have : the front of the theatre ftiould appear to be about three feet wide ; and if fome parts of the figures were moveable, it would ftill add to the variety of the entertainment. ' DIOSCOREA, (g) He that moves the glaffes, feeing the effeft they produce, is the better able to render the reprefentation as natural as poflible. ^ ^ o [25 Diofcorea DIOSCOREA, a genus of plants belonging to the Diofpolites. flafsj an^ ln the natural method ranking under y^1 order, Sarmcntacece* See Botany Index. 1 he only remarkable and ufeful fpecies is the bulbi- fera or yam. I he roots of it are eaten by the inhabi¬ tants of both the Indies 5 and are particularly ferviceable jn the Weft India illands, where they make the greateft part of the negroes food. The plant is fuppofed to have been brought from the Eaft to the Weft Indies j for it has never been obferved to grow wild in any part of A- merica j but in the ifland of Ceylon, and on the coaft of Malabar, it grows in the woods, and there are in thofe places a great variety of forts. It is propagated by cutting the root in pieces, oblerving to preferve an eye in each, as is pra&ifed in planting potatoes. One plant will produce three or four large roots. The fkin of thefe roots is pretty thick, rough, unequal, covered with many ftringy fibres or filaments, and of a violet colour approaching to black. The infide is white, and ol the confiftence of red beet. It refembles the pota¬ to in its meahnefs, but is of a clofer texture. When lavv, the yams are vifcous and clammy ; rvhen roafted or boiled, they afford very nourifhing food; and are of¬ ten preferred to bread by the inhabitants of the Weft Indies, on account of their lightnefs and facility of di- geftion. When firft dug out of the ground, the roots are placed m the fun to dry ; afterwhich they are ei¬ ther put into fand, dry garrets, or calks; where, if kept trom moifture, they may be preferved whole years, without being fpoiled or diminilhed in their goodnefs. 1 he root commonly weighs two or three pounds : though fome yams have been found upwards of 20 pounds weight. DIOSCORIDES, a phyfician of Cilicia, who lived as fome fuppofe, in the age of Nero. He was origi¬ nal y a foloier ; but afterwards he applied himfelf to ftudy, and wrote a book upon medicinal herbs. DIOSCURIA ; from Aioj, Jupiter, and infants), in antiquity, a feftival in honour ofthe AiorKovtc or Caftor and Pollux, who were reputed to be the Ions of Jupiter. It was obferved by the Cyre- neans, but more efpecinlly by the Spartans, whofe country was honoured by the birth of thefe heroes. 1 he lolemnity was full of mirth, being a time wherein they lhared plentifully of the gifts of Bacchus, and diverted themfelves with fports, of which wreftling matches always made a part. & DIOSMA, African spirjea, a genus of plants be- longing to the pentandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬ thod ranking with thofe of which the order is doubtful. See Botany Index. DIOSPOLIS, in Ancient Geography, a city of the Delta, or Lower Egypt ; to the fouth of the Bufiri- tic branch, before it divides into two.—Another of Bithyma, in the territory of Heraclea A third called Magna, denoting Thebae of the Higher Egypt! T~A fourth, Diofpolu Parva, the metropolis of the Aomos Diofpolites of the Higher Egypt A fifth Dtofpolis, of Samaria, the fame with Lydda. A fixth Diofpolis, the ancient name of Laodicea of Phrygia on the Lycus. 6 ’ ,rlD1IOSPOLIrES nomos, (Ptolemy,) a divifion of i hebais or the Higher Egypt, to diftinguifii it from another of the Lower Egypt or the Delta ; to the I 3 DIP fouth of the Nomos Thinites, on the weft fide of Diofpyro* the Nile. jj DIOSPYROS, the Indian date plum : A genus P E"sma“ of plants belonging to the polygamia clafs ; and in the - natural method ranking under the 18th order, Bicor- nes. See Botany Index. DIPHTHONG, in Grammar, a double vowel, or the mixture of two vowels pronounced together, fo as to make one fyllable. The Latins pronounced the two vowels in their diph- thongs ae or ae, oe or ce, much as we do ; only that the one was heard much weaker than the other, though the divifion was made with all the delicacy imaginable. Diphthongs, with regard to the eyes, are diftinguiftied from thofe with regard to the ears : in the former ei¬ ther the particular found of each vowel is heard in the pronunciation ; or the found of one of them is drown¬ ed ; or laftly, a new found, different from either, re- fults from both : the firft of thefe only are real diph¬ thongs, as being fuch both to the eye and ear. Diph¬ thongs with regard to the ear are either formed of two vowels meeting in the fame fyllable, or whofe founds are feverally heard ; or of three vowels in the fame fyllable, which only afford two founds in the pro nunciation. Englifh diphthongs, with regard to the eye and ear, are ai, ait, ea, ee, ei, 00, ou. Improper Englifh diph! thongs, with regard to the eye only, are aa, ea, eo, eu, ie, ei, oe, ue, m. DIPLOE, in Anatomy, the foft meditullium, or medullary fubftance which lies between the two la¬ minae of the bones of the cranium. See Anatomy Index. DIPLOMA. See Diplomatics. In a peculiar fenfe, it is ufed for an inftrument or li- cenfe given by colleges, focieties, &c. to a clergyman to exercife the minifterial funaion, or to a phyfician to pracftife the profeflion, &c. after paffing examination, or admitting him to a degree. DIPLOMA I ICS, the fcience of diplomas, or of Blefjleld's ancient literary monuments, public documents, &c. It £lements' does not however, nor can it, abfolutely extend its re- fearches to antiquity ; but is chiefly confined to the middle age, and the firft centuries of modern times. For though the ancients were accuftomed to reduce their contrafts and treaties into writing ; yet they cra¬ ved them on tables, or covered them over with wax, or brafs, copper, ftone, or wood, &c. And all that’ in the firft ages were not traced on brafs or marble, has perifhed by the length of time, and the number of de- ftruftive events. 1. The word diploma lignifies properly a letter or epiftle, that is folded in the middle, and that is not open. But, in more modern times, the title has been given to all ancient epiftles, letters, literary monu¬ ments, and public documents, and to all thofe pieces of writing which the ancients called Syngraphia Chirogra- pha, Codtcilh, &c. In the middle age, and in the di¬ plomas themfelyes, thefe writings are called Litters Pracepla, Placita CharU indicuht, Sagilla, and BulU • as alfo Panchart a, Pantochartce, Trattoria, Defcriptiones, &c._ The originals of thefe pieces are named Exam- plana, or Autographa, Charta authentica, Originalia. &c. and the copies, Apographa, Copta, Particula, and fo ^ * 2 forth. DIP [ 2J Diploma- forth. The colUSions that have been made of them, tics- are called Chartaria and Chartuha. 1 he place where thefe papers and documents were kept, the ancients named Scrinia, Tabulanum, or JEranum, words that were derived from the tables of brals, and, according to the Greek idiom, Archeium or Archkum. 2. In order to underftand the nature of theie ancient papers, diplomas, and manufcripts, and to diftinguiflr The authentic from the counterfeit, it is neceffary to know that the paper of the ancients came from Egypt, and was formed of thin leaves or membranes, taken from the branches of a tree named Papyrus, or Bib/um JEgyptiacum, and which were pafted one over the other with the dime of the Nile, and were preffed and po- lilhed with a pumice done. This paper was very Icarce •, and it was of various qualities, forms, and prices, which they diftinguifhed by the names of charta bieratica, lu- ria, augujla, atnphitheatrica, faitica, tanirica, emporetica. They cut this paper into fquare leaves, which they pafted one to the other, in order to make rolls of them : from whence an entire book was called volumen, from volvendo \ and the leaves of which it confided, pagirue. Sometimes, alfo, they pafted the leaves all together bv one of their extremities, as is now prac- tifed in binding *, by this method they formed the back of a book, and thefe the learned called, codices. 1 hey rolled the volume round a flick, which they n^med Umbilicus ; and the two ends that came out beyond the paper, cornua. The title, wrote on parchment, in purple charafters, was joined to the laft Iheet, and ferved it as a cover. They made ufe of all forts of ftrinas or ribbands, and even fometimes of locks, to clofe3the book ; and fometimes alfo it was put into a cafe But there is not now to be found, in any library or cabinet whatever, any one of thefe volumes. We have been affured, however, by a traveller, that he had feen feveral of them in the ruins of Herculaneum j but fo damaged, the paper fo ftiff and brittle, by the length of time, that it was impoflible to unrol them, and con- fequently to make any ufe of them \ for on the firft touch they fell into fhatters. . _ 2. Wc are ignorant of the precife time when our modern paper was invented *, and when they began to make ufe of pens in writing, inftead of the ftalks of reeds. The ink that the ancients ufed, was not made of vitriol and galls, like the modern, but of foot. Some- times alfo they wrote with red ink made of vermilion j or in letters of gold, on purple or violet parchment. It is not difficult for thole who apply themfelves to. this ftudy, to diftinguilh the parchment of. the ancients from that of the moderns, as well as their ^kand va¬ rious exterior charadlers : but that which beft diftm- guilhes the original from the counterfeit is, the writing or charafter itfelf; which is fo diftinaiy different from one century to another, that we may tell with certain¬ ty, within about 40 or 50 years, when any diploma was written. There are two works which furnilh the cleareft lights on this matter, and which may ferve as fure guides in the judgments we may have occafion to make on what are called ancient diplomas. . I he one is the celebrated treatife on the Diplomatic, by . Mabillon ; and the other, the firft volume-of the Chro- nicon Gotvicenfe. We there find fpecimens of all the chara&ers, the flourifhes!, and different methods of writ¬ ing, of every age. For thefe matters, there foie, we 2 1 DIP muft refer our readers to thofe authors; and fhall here Diploma, only add, that, . _ . , r i—-y—— 4. All the diplomas are wrote in Latin, and conle- quently the letters and charafters have a refemblance to each other : but there are certain ftrokes of the pen which diftinguilh not only the ages, but alfo the differ¬ ent nations-, as the writings of the Lombards, French, Saxons &c. The letters in the diplomas are alfo ufually longer,’ and not .fo ftrong as thofe of manufcripts. There has been alfo introduced a kind of court hand, of a very difproportionate length, and the letters of which are called Exiles litters crifps, ac protraBiones. The firft line of the diploma, the fignature of the lo- vereign, that of the chancellor, notary, &.c. are umally wrote in this chara&er. f * c. The fignature of a diploma confifts either oi the fign of the crofs, or of a monogram or cipher, com- pofed of the letters of the names of thofe who lub- feribed it. The initial letters of the name, and fome¬ times alfo the titles, were placed about this crofs. By degrees the cuftom changed, and they invented other marks j as, for example, the fign of Charlemagne was thus : K- V L They fometimes added alfo the dates and epoch of the fignature, the feafts of the church, the days of the kalendar, and other like matters. The fucceffive cor¬ ruption of the Latin language, the ftyle and ortho¬ graphy of each age, as well as their different titles and forms j the abbreviations, accentuation,, and punctua¬ tion, and the various methods of writing the dipn- thongs -, all thefe matters united, form fo many cha- rafters and marks by which the authenticity ol a di¬ ploma is to be known. . c 6. The feal annexed to a diplorfia was anciently ol white wax, and artfully imprinted on the parchment itfelf. It was afterwards pendant from the paper, and enclofed in a box or cafe, which they called bulla. There are fome alfo that are ftamped on metal, and even on pure gold. When a diploma bears all the charafters that are requifite to the time and. place where it is fuppofed to be written, its authenticity is not to be doubted : but at the lame time we cannot examine them too fcrupuloufly, feeing that the monks and priefts of former ages have been very adroit in making of counterfeits ; and the more, as they en- ioved the confidence of princes and ftatelmen, and were even fometimes in poffeffion of their rings or icciis 7.’ With regard to manuferipts that were wrote be¬ fore the invention of printing, it is neceflary (1.) to know their nature, their effential qualities,, and matter j (2. j to be able to read them freely, and without error ; (2 ) to judge of their antiquity by thofe characters which we have juft mentioned with regard to the di¬ plomas -, and (4.) to render them of ufe m the fcien- ces As there are fcarce any of the ancient codes now- remaining (fee par. 2.), wrote on the Egyptian paper or on wood, ivory, &c. we have only to confider thofe that are written on parchment or vellum {membraneoP), and fuch as are wrote on our paper {chartaceos). iht i DIP [ 253 I DIP Diploma- former of tliefe are in moil efteem. With regard to tlcs the character, thefe codes are written either in fquare Dipping anc^ capital letters, or in half fquare, or round and fmall - t ^ ‘ letters. Thofe of the firft kind are the mod ancient. There are no intervals between the words, no letters different from the others at the beginning of any word, no points, nor any other diftinfHon. The codes which are wrote in letters that are half fquare, refemble thofe we have in Gothic chara&ers, as well for the age as the form of the letters. Such as are wrote in round let¬ ters are not fo ancient as the former, and do not go higher than the ninth or tenth century. Thefe have fpaces between the words, and fome punffuation. They are likewife not fo well wrote as the preceding, and are frequently disfigured with comments. The codes are divided, according to the country, into Lombard, Italian, Gaulic, Franco-Gaulic, Saxon, Anglo-Saxon, &c. 8. In the ancient Greek books, they frequently ter¬ minated the periods of a difcourfe, inflead of all other divifion, by lines •, and thefe divifions were called, in Latin, verfus, from vertcndo : for which reafon thefe lines are Hill more properly named verfus than linece. At the end of a work, they put down the number of verfes of which it confided, that the copies might be more eafily collated : and it is in this fenfe we are to underftand Trebonius, w'hen he fays, that the Pandedls contain 150,000 pane verfuum. Thefe codes were like- wife vel probce vel deterioris not a, more or lefs perfedf, not only with regard to the calligraphy or beauty of the character, but to the corredlion of the text alfo. 9. It is likewife neceflary to obferve, in ancient codes, the abbreviations, as they have been ufed in dif¬ ferent centuries. Thus, for example, A. C. D. figni- fies Aulus Caius Decimus ; Ap. Cn. Appius Cneius j Aug. Imp. Auguftus Imperator. The charafters that are called notce, are fuch as are not to be found in the alphabet ; but which, notwithftanding, fignify certain words. All thefe matters are explained in a copious manner by Voflius, and in the Chronicon Gotvicenfe. Laftly, The learned divide all the ancient codes into codices minus raros, rariores, edit os, et anecdotos. The critical art is here indifpenfably neceffary : its re- fearches, moreover, have no bounds ; and the more, as the ufe of it augments every day, by the difcoveries that are made in languages, and by the increafe of erudition. DIPONDIUS, in the fcripture language, is ufed by St Luke to fignify a certain coin which was of very little value. Our tranflation of the palfage is, “ Are not two fparrows fold for two farthings ?” In St Mat¬ thew, who relates the fame thing, we read, “ Are not two fparrows fold for a farthing ?” The Greek reads ajfanon inftead of as. Now ajfarion, as fome fay, was worth half an as, that is to fay, four French deniers and |-th ; and, according to others, two deniers and xVths. Dipondws leems rather to fignify half an as. Calmet, Diftion. Bibl. Luke xii. 6. Matt. x. 29. Dr Arbuthnot differs in opinion from the author laft quoted. He fays, that this coin was at firft libra- lis, or of a pound weight j and even when diminifhed, it retained the name of libella. So that dipondius de¬ notes two alfes. DIPPING, among miners, fignifies the interrup¬ tion or breaking oft the veins of ore $ an accident that gives them a great deal of trouble before they can dif- Dipping cover the ore again. A great deal of the (kill of the , miners confifts in the underftanding this dipping of the veins, and knowing how to manage in it. In Corn¬ wall they have this general rule to guide them in this refpeft : moft of their tin-loads, which run from call to weft, conftantly dip towards the north. Sometimes they underlie ; that is, they flope down towards the north three feet in height perpendicular. This muft carefully be obferved by the miners, that they may exadtly know where to make their air-fliafts w'hen oc- cafion requires 5 yet, in the higher mountains of Dart- maer, there are fome confiderable loads, which run north and fouth 5 thefe always underlie toward the eafL Four or five loads may run nearly parallel to each other in the fame hill ; and yet, which is rare, they may meet all together in one hatch, as it were a knot, which well tins the place, and fo feparate again, and keep their former diftances. Dipping Needle, an inftrument ufed for obferving the quantity of inclination towards the earth, affumed by any needle or other body after it has acquired the magnetic virtue. This was firft obferved by one Ro¬ bert Norman, an Englifhman, and maker of compafles for mariners, in the end of the 16th century 5 who finding that he was always obliged to counterbalance that end which turns to the north by a bit of wTax or fuch other fubftance, though the balance had been ever fo exadl before, publiftied an account of his dif- > covery as a matter of importance. The fubjeft was inftantly attended to j and inftruments w^ere not only contrived for afcertaining the quantity of the dip, but various fpeculations formed concerning the caufe of fuch a furprifing phenomenon. The general phenomena of the dipping needle are : that about the equatorial parts of the earth it remains in a horizontal pofition, but deprefles one end as we recede from thefe 5 the north end if we go towards the north, and the fouth end if we proceed towards the fouth pole. The farther north or fouth that we go, the inclination becomes the greater 3 but there is no place of the globe hitherto difcovered where it points diredftly downwards, though it is fuppofed that it would do fo in fome part very near the pole. Its inclination is likewife found to vary very confiderably at different times in different places of the earth, and by fome changes of fituation, in fuch a manner as muft appear at firft fight very unaccountable. Of all thofe who have attempted the inveftigation of this obfcure fubjeft, none have been more fuccefsful than M. Ca- vallo, who in his Treatife on Magnetifm has given particular attention to all the phenomena, and ac¬ counted for them upon plain and rational principles,, in the following manner : The dip of the magnetical needle in general may be underftood from the following eafy experiment :— Lay an oblong magnet horizontally upon a table, and over it fufpend another fmaller magnet (a fewing needle to which the magnetic virtue has been communicated will anfwer the purpofe), in fuch a manner as to re¬ main in a horizontal pofition when not difturbed by another magnet. Now, if this laft fmall magnet or fewing needle, fufpended by the middle, be brought juft over the middle of the large one, it will turn itfelf in fuch a manner that the fouth pole of the fmall mag- l net Dipping Needle. DIP [ 254 ] DIP net will point towards the north pole of the large one; and if at an equal diftance from both, will remain in a horizontal pofition. But if we move it nearer to one of the poles than the other, it will readily be un- derftood that the correfponding end of the needle will be attra&ed by the pole to which it approaches, and of confequence inclined downwards; the contrary end being proportionably elevated. It is likewife evident, that this inclination will be greater or lefs according to the diftance at which the fmall magnet is placed from the pole of the large one ; the attraftion of the neareft pole having always the greateft effeft upon it. And it is equally plain, that when brought direftly over one of the poles of the large magnet, it will turn its own contrary one direftly towards it, and thus lie exa£Hy in the axis of the large one. The application of this experiment to the pheno¬ mena of the dipping needle is obvious, as nothing more is requifite for folving the whole myftery than to fuppofe the earth itfelf to be the large magnet, and the magnetic needle or any other magnetic body the fmall magnet in the experiment: for admitting that the north pole’ of the earth poffeffes a fouth magnetifm, and that the oppofite pole is poffeffed of a north magnetical polarity ; it appears, and the theory is confirmed by experiment, that when a magnet is fufpended properly in the equatorial parts of the wTorld, it mult remain in a horizontal pofition ; but when removed nearer to one of the poles, it muft incline one of its extremities, viz. that which is poffeffed of the contrary magnetic polarity ; and that this inclination muft increafe in proportion as the magnet or magnetic needle recedes from the equator of the earth; and, laftly, when brought exaftly upon either of the poles of the earth, it muft Hand perpendicular to the ground, or in the fame di- reftion with the axis of the earth. The only difficulty in this explanation arifes from the attributing a fouth magnetifm to the north pole of the earth : but by this our author means only that its magnetifm is contrary to that end of the magnetic needle wThich turns towfards it ; and in the fame man¬ ner it muft be underftood, that the fouth pole of the earth has a north magnetic polarity. If the extremities of the axis of the earth, or the poles about which it performs its diurnal revolution, coincided with its magnetic poles, or even if the mag¬ netic poles were always at a certain diftance from them, the inclination of the needle would be always the fame at equal diftances from the equator, and might be very ufeful for determining the latitudes. But it would feem, that thefe poles are perpetually fhifting their place, fince both the inclination and horizontal direc¬ tion of the needle are continually varying even in the fame place ; fo that its quantity of inclination cannot be exaftly calculated. Two general remarks may be made upon this fubjeft. 1. That the inclination of the needle does not alter regularly in going from north to fouth, or from fouth to north, in any meridian.— 2. That its alteration in the fame place, and at differ¬ ent times, is but fmall. Thus, in London, about the year 1 576, the dip was 710 50' below the horizon, and in 1775 it flood at 72° 3' j the alteration in near 200 vears fcarce amounting to three quarters of a degree, which may be attributed to the errors of the inftru- roents ; as thefe were at firft exceedingly erroneous, I and even yet are far from being arrived at tion. The general method of conftru&ing dipping needles j};ptyCha is, to pafs an axis quite through the needle itfelf, and 1 ^ ■ f to let the extremities of the axis reft upon two fupports, like the beam of a pair of feales, that the needle may move vertically round ; and hence, when placed in the magnetic meridian, it will naturally affume that poli- tion which is called the magnetic line, viz. the two ends nearly north and fouth, and one of them inclined con- fiderably to the horizon. The degrees of the inclina¬ tion are ftiown upon a graduated circle ; and when the inftrument is made ufe of at land it has a ftand, but at fea a ring is neceftary to fufpend it. When furnifh- ed with a ftand, it has alfo a fpirit-level; and the ftand ha? three ferews, by which the whole is adjufted in fuch a manner as to let the centre of motion in the needle, and the mark of 90° on the lower part of the divided circle, be exaflly in the fame line perpendicu¬ lar to the horizon. The greateft imperfe&ions attending this inftrument are the balancing of the needle itfelf, and the difficul¬ ty of knowing whether, after being made magnetic, it be properly balanced or not. The inaccuracy here in¬ deed can be but very fmall, as arifing only from duft or moifture. The method recommended by Mr Ca- vallo to obviate thefe inconveniences, is firft to obferve the dip of the needle ; then to reverfe its magnetifm by the application of magnets, fo that the end of it which before was elevated above the horizon may now be below it; and, laftly, to obferve its dip again ; for a mean of the two obfervations will be pretty near the truth, though the needle may not be perfefUy balan¬ ced. See Magnetism and Mjgneticjl Needle. DIPSACUS, teazel : A genus of plants belong¬ ing to the tetrandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 48th order, Jggregata. See Bo¬ tany Index. DIPSAS, a fort of ferpent, the bite of which pro¬ duces fuch a thirft as proves mortal : whence its name dipfas, which fignifies thirfty. In Latin it is called Jitu/a, “ a pail.” Mofes fpeaks of it in Deut. viii. 15. DIPTERA (from ^ Index. DIRIBITORES, among the Romans, officers ap¬ pointed to diftribute tablets to the people at the co- mitia. See Comitia. DIRIGENT, or Directrix, a term in geometry, fignifying the line of motion, along which the deferib- ent line or furface is carried in the genefis of any plane or folid figure. DIS, an infeparable article prefixed to divers words; the effedl whereof is either to give them a fignification contrary to what the fimple words have, as difoblige, difobey, &c. ; or to fignify a feparation, detachment^ &c. as difpojing, dijiribulitig. Dis, a town of Norfolk, feated on the river Wave- nay, on the fide of a hill. It is a neat flourifliing town, with one large church, a Prefbyterian and a Quaker meeting. It has about 600 good houfes ; the ftreets are well paved, pretty wide, and always clean. At the weft end of the town is a large meer or lake ; but fo muddy, that the inhabitants can make no other ufe cf it but in catching of eels. In the towTn are carried on manufaftories of failcloth, hofe, and the making of flays. E. Long. 1. 16. N. Lat. 52. 25. Dis, a god of the Gauls, the lame as Pluto the god of hell. The inhabitants of Gaul fuppofed themfelves defeended from that deity. DISA, a genus of plants belonging to the gynan- dria clafs. See Botany Index. DISABILITY, in Law, is wffien a man is difabled, or made incapable to inherit any lands, or take that benefit which otherwife he might have done : and this may happen four ways ; by the ad of an anceftor, or of the party himfelf, by the a& of God, or of the law. x. Difability by the a from whence it appears certain, that the pleafure produced in us by harmony refults from the more or lefs exad and frequent coincidence D I S [ 257 1 D I S DifconJ. or vibration ; though the reafon why this coincidence Hiould give pleafure, more than any other modifica¬ tion or combination of founds, appears to us infcru- table. The agreeable effedts of diilbnance in harmony, are no objedlion to this theory ; finpe it is allowed, that the fenfations excited by difcord are not in them- felves immediately and neceflarily pleafing, but only pleafe by auricular deception. The ear is furprifed with the (hock it receives, without being able to ima¬ gine how it (hould have happened $ and in proportion as it is har(h and grating, we feel the pleafure of re¬ turning harmony enhanced, and the difappointment of being artfully and infenfibly extricated more agree¬ able. The name of diffonance is given fometimes to the in¬ terval, and fometimes to each of the two founds which form it. But though two founds equally form a dif¬ fonance between themfelves, the name is mod frequent¬ ly given to that found in particular which is mod ex¬ traneous to the chord. The number of poflible difibnances is indefinite ; but as in mufic we exclude all intervals which are not found in the fydem received, the number of diflbnances is reduced to a very few : befides, in praftice, we can only feledl from thofe few fuch as are agreeable to the fpecies, and the mode in which we compofe ; and from this lad number wTe mud exclude fuch as cannot be ufed confidently with the rules prefcribed. But what are thefe rules ? Have they any foundation in nature, or are they merely arbitrary ? This is what Roufleau, whom in this article we have followed or abandoned as his obfervations appeared ufeful or frivolous, propofes to invedigate as its principal obje£h But where does his fcrutiny terminate ? Not in the abolition of the rules prefcribed. Thefe have dill fub- fided, and will dill fubfid, while the frame of man, and the nature of mufic, remain what they are. If then the rules be permanent and univerfal, the principle upon which they are founded may be latent or ambi¬ guous ; but the rules themfelves can never be purely arbitrary. How elfe could it happen, that Rameau, D’Alembert, and Rouffeau, (hould admit the force and effedf of thefe rules, whild each of thofe maders exerts his whole genius to give a diderent account of their caufe and origin ? Roufleau himfelf, as we have feen in a former article, inculcates the necedity of diflbnances for the completion of harmony ; (fee Chord). Now, if this be true, the eafied methods of introducing and difiniding thefe difcords mud be the mod eligible, and of confequence the rules for ufing them mud be eda- blilhed. It is not then upon the fubfidence or demo¬ lition of any particular theory that they depend. Should we attend to the particular objeddions which may be urged againd any fydem whatever •, wdaere is the theory which will be found proof againd the efforts of fcep- ticifm ? After all, the objeftions of Rouffeau againd Rameau’s theory, as applied by D’Alembert to the origin of confonances, (fee Music, art. 94, 95, 69, "97* 98, 99-)» appear to be much more frivolous than the analogies from which he pretends this origin to be ■deduced. It appears from D’Alembert’s expofition of this theory, that, if not for all, it affords a folution tor the mod material and effential phenomena in har¬ mony 5 which is fufficient for its edablifnment, till an¬ other can be found, which gives a rational and confid- Vol, VII. Part I. ent account of the whole : a difcovery which has not Difcoui yet been made. But, whild we acknowledge the fu- M . tility of Rouffeau’s objections againd D’Alembert’s . explication of diffonances, w’e mud at the fame time admire the ingenuity with which he has deduced them from principles purely mechanical, without departing from the fydem of M. Rameau. This mechanical ex¬ plication will be found in his Mufical Didtionary, un¬ der the article Diffbnance. Di scord (the goddefs of), in Pagan theology. She is repreiented by Aridides with fiery eyes, a pale countenance, livid lips, and wearing a dagger in her bofom. It was (he who at the marriage of Peleus and Thetis threw in the golden apple, whereon was written “ To the faired which occafioned a contention be¬ tween the goddeffes Juno, Minerva, and Venus ; each pretending a title to the apple. She was likewife call¬ ed Ate and Eris. DISCOVERY, in dramatic poetry, a manner of unravelling a plot or fable in tragedies, comedies, and romances ; wherein, by fome unforefeen accident, a difcovery is made of the name, fortune, quality, &c- of a principal perfon, which were before unknown. See Catastrophe. DISCOUNT, in commerce, a term among traders, merchants and bankers. It is ufed by the two former on occafion of their buying commodities on the ufual time of credit, with a condition that the feller (hall al¬ low the buyer a certain difcount at the rate of fo much per cent, per annum, for the time for which the credit is generally given, upon condition that the buyer pays ready money for fuch commodities, indead of taking the time of credit. Traders and merchants alfo fre¬ quently taking promiffory notes for moneys due payable to them or order at a certain time, and fometimes ha¬ ving occafion for money before the time is elapfed, procure thefe notes to be difcounted by bankers before the time of payment. Bills of exchange are alfo dif¬ counted by bankers j and in this confids one article of the profits of banking. See Bank. DISCRETE, or disjunct, PROPORTION, is when the ratio of twm or more pairs of numbers or quantities is the fame, but there is not the fame proportion be¬ tween all the four numbers. Thus, if the numbers 3 : 6 :: 8 : 16 be confidered, the ratio between 3 : 6 is the fame as that between 8 : 16, and therefore the numbers are proportional: bmt it is only difcretely or disjun£tly, for 3 is not to 6 as 6 to 8 j that is, the proportion is broken off between 8 and 3, and is not continued as in the following continual proportionals, 3 t 6 :: 12 : 24. Discrete Quantity, is fuch as is not continued and joined together. Such, for indance, is any number. DISCRETION j prudence, or knowledge to govern one’s felf. There are many more (billing qualities in the mind of man, but there is none fo ufeful as difcretion 5 it is this indeed that gives a value to all the red, which fets them at work in their proper times and places ; and turns them to the advantage of the perfon who is pof- feffed of them. Without it learning is pedantry, and wit impertinence ; virtue itfelf looks like weaknefs j the bed parts only qualify a man to be more fprightly in errors, and aftive to his own prejudice. Nor does difcretion only make a man mader of his XC k own DifiHaclaf tic cryftal D 1 S [ Difcreiion oU’n parts, but of other men’s. The difcreet man finds " out the talents of thofe he converles with, and knows how to apply them to proper ufes. Accordingly, it we look into particular communities and divifions of men, we may obferve that it is the difcreet man, not the witty, nor the learned, nor the brave, who guides the converfation, and gives meafures to the fociety. A man with great talents, but void of dilcretion, is like Poly¬ phemus in the fable, ftrong and blind, endued with an irrefiltible force, which for want of fight is ot no ufe to him. Though a man has all other perfe&ions, and w ants difcretion, he will be of no great confeqoence in the world ; but if he has this fingle talent in perfe&ion, and but a common ihare of others, he may do what he pleafes in his particular ftation of life. It is proper, however, to dilfinguilh between d[fcre- tion and cunning, the latter being the accoroplilhment only of little, mean, ungenerous minds. Ddcretion points out the nobleit ends to us, and purfues the moft proper and laudable methods of attaining them } cun¬ ning has only private felfifii aims, and flicks at nothing which mav make them fucceed. Difcretion has large and extended views, and, like a well-formed eye, com¬ mands a whole horizon : cunning is a kind of fhort- fightednels, that difcovers the minuteil objefts which are near at hand, but is not able to dilcern things at a diftance. Difcretion, the more it is difcovereri, gives the greater authority to the perfon who poffeffeS it : cunning, when it is once detefled, loles its force, and makes a man incapable of bringing about even thofe events which he might have done, had he paffed only for a plain man. Difcretion is the perfection of rea- fon, and a guide to us in all the duties of life j cun¬ ning is a kind of intiina, that only looks cut after our immediate intereft and welfare. Dilcretion is only found in men of ftrong fenfe and good underftanding . cunning is often to be met with in brutes themfelves, and in perfons who are but the feweft removes from them. In Ihort, cunning is only the mimic of difcre¬ tion, and may pafs upon weak men, in the fame man¬ ner as vivacity is often miitaken for wit, and gra\ity for wifdom. DISCUS, in antiquity. See Disc. Discus, in Botany, the middle part of a radiated compound flower, generally confifting of fmall florets, with a hollow regular petal. It is commonly fur- rounded by large, plain, or flat, tongue-fitaped petals, in the circumference or margin ; as in daily, ground¬ sel, and leopards-bane *, fometimes the circumference is naked, as in cotton-weed and feme fpecies of coltl- foot. Discus Fotii, the furface of the leaf. DISCUSSION, in matters of literature, figmfies the clear treating or handling of any particular point, or problem, fo as to fbake off the difficulties with which it is embarrafled : thus we {?uj, fuch a point was . well difcujjed, when it was well treated of and cleared UP*DISCUTIENTS, in Medicine, are fuch remedies, as, by their fubtility, diffolve a ffagnating or coagu¬ lated fluid, and diffipate the fame without an external folution of continuity. DISDIACLASTIC crystal, m hatural Hiflory, a name given, by Bartbolire and fome others, to a mineral fubflance, more ufually called, from the place See Ml- Difdiapa- fon, Difeafe. 258 1 D I S whence it was firft brought, Iceland cryjlai. NERALOGY Index. DISDIAPASON, or Bisdiapason, in Mufic, a compound concord, deferibed by F. Parran, in the quadruple ratio of 4 : 1» or ^ • 2- _ Disdiapason Diapente, a concord in a fextuple ratio °f 1 : 6. j j Disdiapason Semi-Diapente, a compound concord in the proportion of 16 : 3. ' . Disdiapason Ditone, a compound confonance m the proportion of 10 : 2. Disdiapason Semi-Ditone, a compound concord in the proportion of 24: 5. . DISEASE, has been varioufly defined by phyli- cians, almoft every founder of a new fyifem having given a definition of difeafe, differing in fome refpeas from his predeceffors. For a particular account of thefe definitions, fee Medicine. Of all animals, man is iubjta to the moft difeafes ; and of men, the fludious and fpeculatiye are moft ex- poied thereto. Other animals have their difeafes ; but they are in fmaller number: nor are plants without them} though their maladies fcarce exceed half a fcore. The ancients deified their difeafes. Some difeafes only im¬ pair the ufe of the part immediately sfreaed } as the ophthalmia, gout, &c. Others detfroy it entirely ; as the gutta ferena, palfy, &c. Some aftea the whole body } as the fever, apoplexy, epilepfy, 6cc. Others onlv impair a part } as the afthma, colic, dropfy, 6tc. Some only affea the body } as the gout : others dt- fturb the mind } as melancholy, delirium, &C. Daft¬ ly, others affea both the body and mind } as the mama, phrenfy, &c. . , . r , The colder the country, in general, the fewer ard the lefs violent are the dileafes. Scheffer tells us th,.t the Laplanders know' no iuch thing as the plague, or fevers of the burning kind, nor are fubjea to half the diftempers we are. They are rebuff and ftrong, and live to 80, 90, and many of them to more than loo years} and at this great age they are not feeble and decrepid as with us } but a man of 90 is able to work or travel as well as a man of 60 with us. I hey are fubieft, however, to fome difeaies more than other na¬ tions } thus they have often diftempers of the eyes,, which is owfing to their living in fmoke, 01 being blind¬ ed by the fnow. Pleurifies and inflammations ot the lungs are alto very frequent among them ; and the fmall-pox often rages with great violence. I hey have one general remedy againft thefe and all other internal difeaies : this is the root of that fort of mofs, as Schef¬ fer expreffes it, which they call jertb. They make a decoftion of this root in the whey of rem-oeer milk, and dunk very large dofes of it warm, to keep up a breathing fweat ; if they cannot get this, they ule the flalks of angelica boiled in the fame manner : they have not lo great an opinion of this as of the other remedy : but the keeping in a fweat, and drinking plentifully of diluting liquors, may go a great way in the cure of their difeafes, whether either the one or the other of the drugs have any virtue or not. They cute pleun- fies by this method in a very few days} and get to well through the fmallpox with it, that very few die Dt lt’ It has been always obfervtd, that people of particu¬ lar places were peculiarly fubjea to particular difeafes. D I S Difeafe. wliicli are owing to their manner of living, or to the "7 sir and effluvia of the earth and waters. Huffman has made fome curious obfervations on difeafes of this kind. He obferves, that fwellings of the throat have always been common to the inhabitants of mountainous coun¬ tries : and the old Roman authors fay, Who wonders at a fwelled throat in the Alps ? The people of Swiffer- land, Carimhia, Stitia, the Hartz foreft, Tranfylvania, and the inhabitants of Cronftadt, he obferves, are all lubjeft to this difeafe from the fame caufe. The French are peculiarly troubled with fevers, with worms, and with hydroceles and farcoceles; and all thefe diforders feem to be owing originally to their eat¬ ing very large quantities of chefnuts. The people of our own nation are peculiarly affiifted with hoarfeneffes, catarrhs, coughs, dyfenteries, confumptions, and the fcurvy ; and the women with the fluor albus or whites ; and children with a difeafe Icarce known elfewhere, which we call the rickets. In different parts of Italy different difeafes reign. At Naples the venereal difeafe is more common than in any other part of the world. At Venice, people are peculiarly fubjedl to the bleeding piles. At Rome, tertian agues and lethargic diftem- pers are mod common. In Tufcany the epilepfy or falling dcknefs. And in Apulia they are molt fubjeft to burning fevers, pleurifies, and to that fort of mad- nefs which is attributed to the bite of the tarantula, and which, it is faid, is only to be cured by mufic. In Spain apoplexies are common, as alfo melancholy, hypochondriacal complaints, and bleeding piles. The Dutch are peculiarly fubjedl to the fcurvy, and to the done in the kidneys. Denmark, Norway, Sweden, Pomerania, and Livonia, are all terribly aifflifled with the fcurvy : and it is remarkable, that in Denmark, Sweden, and Norway, fevers are very common ; but hi Iceland, Lapland, and Finland, there is fcarce ever inch a difeafe met with } though peripneumonies are very common in -thefe places, as alfo difeafes of the eyes and violent pains of the head. The Ruffians and Tartars are afflidfed with ulcers, made by the cold, of the nature of wfflat we call chilblains, but greatly worfe ; and in Poland and Lithuania there reigns a peculiar difeafe called the plua polonica, fo terribly painful and offenfive, that fcarce any thing can be thought of worfe. The people of Hungary are very fubjeft to the gout and rheumatifm : they are more infefted alfo with lice and fleas than any other people in the rvorld, and they have a peculiar difeafe which they call cremor. The Germans, in different parts of the empire, are fubjeft to different reigning difeafes. In Weflpbalia, they .are peculiarly troubled with peripneumonies and the itch. In Silefia, Franconia, Auflria, and other places thereabout, they are very liable to fevers of the burning kind, to bleedings at the nofe, and other hie- raorrhages ; and to the gout, inflammations, and con¬ fumptions. In Mifnia they have purple fevers j and the children are peculiarly infefted with worms. In Greece, Pvlacedonia, and I brace, there are very few dueafes; but what they have are principally burning fevers and frenzies. At Conftantinople the plague always rages •, and in the Weft Indian ifiands, malig¬ nant fevers, and the moft terrible colics. Thefe dif¬ eafes are called endemic. IdisRASRs of Horfes. See Farriery. -Dj&sases of Dogs. See Dogs. [ 259 1 D i s Diseases of Plants. See Agriculture Difeafesof DISEMBOGUE. When a ihip paffes out of the Plants mouth of fume great gulf or bay, they call it difem- n-f 11 . boguing. They fay alfo of a river,'that at fuch a place, ‘‘"l ■ or after it has run fo many leagues, it difembogues it- felf into the fea. DISFRANCHIZING, umong civilians, fignifies the depriving a perfon of the rights and privileges of a free citizen or fubje£L DISGUISE, a counterfeit*habit. Perfons doing unlawful afts in difguife are by our ftatutes fometimes fubjefted to great penalties, and even declared felons. Thus, by an aft commonly called the black aEl, per¬ fons appearing difguifed and armed in a foreft or grounds enclofed, or hunting deer, or robbing a war¬ ren or a fifti-pond, are declared felons. DISH, in mining, is a trough made of wood, about 28 inches long, four inches deep, and fixjnches wide \ by which all miners meafure their ore. If any be ta¬ ken felling their ore, not firft meafuring it by the bar- mafter’s difh, and paying the king’s duty, the feller forfeits his ore, and the buyer forfeits for every fuch offence ^.os. to the lord of the field or farmer. DISJUNCTIVE, fomething that feparates or dif- joms. Thus, or, neither, &c. which in connefting a difeourfe, yet feparate the parts of it, are called dif- junfflve cotjuntlions. DISK. See Disc. DISLOCA7 ION, the putting a bone out of joint by fome violence, ufually called by the phyficians luxa¬ tion. DISMISSION of a Bill, in Chancery. If the plain- tiff does not attend on the day fixed for the hearing, his bill is difmiffed with cofts. It may be'alfo difmifs- ed for .want of profecution, which is in the nature of a non fuit at law, if he fuffers three terms to elapfe with¬ out moving forward in the caufe. DISMOUNTING, in the military art, the aft of unhorfing. Thus, to difmount the cavalry, the dra¬ goons, or the like, is to make them alight. To dif¬ mount the cannon, is to break their carriages, wheels, and axletiees, fo as render them unfit for fervice. Horfes are alfo difmounted when they are rendered un¬ fit for fervice. DISPARAGEMENT, in Law, is ufed for the matching an heir, &c. in marriage, below his or her de¬ gree or condition, or againft the rules of decency. The word is a compound of the privative particle dis, and por, “equal.” DISPART, in Gunnery, is the fetting a mark upon the muzzle ring, or thereabouts, of a piece of ordnance, fo that a fight line taken upon the top of the bafe rin^ againft the touch-hole, by the mark let on or near the muzzle, may be parallel to the axis of the concave cy¬ linder, The common way of doing this, is to take the two diameters of the bafe ring, and of the place where the diipart is to (land, and divide the difference be¬ tween them into two equal parts, one of which will be the length of the difpart which is fet on the gun with wax or pitch, or faftened there with a piece of twine or marlin. By means of an inftrument .it may be done with all poffible nicety. DISPATCH, a letter on fome affair of ftate, or other bufinefs of importance, fent with care and expe¬ dition, by a courier exprefs. The bufinefs of dif. -K k 2 patches D I S [ 260 ] D I S nifpanper patches lies on the fecretaries of Hate and their clerks. 11 The king gives dire&ions to his minifters abroad y Difperfion jifpatches. The word is alfo ufed for the packet or of Mankind. ^ containlng fucll letters. The French during the “ reign of Louis XIV. had a confeil des depeches, coun¬ cil of difpatches,” held in the king’s prefence, at which the dauphin, the duke of Orleans, the chancellor, and four fecretaries of ftate, affifted. . DISPAUPER. Aperfon fuiting in forma pauperis, is faid to be difpaupered, if, before the fmt is ei)de » he has any lands or other eftate fallen to him, or it he has any thing to make him lofe his privilege. See the article Formj Pauperis. DISPENSARY, or Dispensatory, denotes a book containing the method of preparing the var'olJ.s kinds of medicines ufed in pharmacy. Such are thofe of Bauderon, Quercetan, Zwelfer, Charas, Bates, 1 e- fue, Salmon, Lemery, Quincy, &c‘ ^ pu" moft efteemed, befide the London and Edinburgh Phar¬ macopoeias, is the Edinburgh New Difpenfatory, being an improvement upon that of Dr Lewis s. Dispensary, or Difpenfatory, is likewife a maga¬ zine or office for felling medicines at pnme coft to the poor. The College of Phyficians maintain three ot Ihefe in London-, one at the college itfel in Warw.ck- lane j another in St Peter’s alley, Cornh.l ; and a third in St Martin’s lane. Difpenfanes have alfo been efta- bliffied in feveral of the principal towns in Scotland and England j particularly in Edinburgh, Dundee, and Kelfo as alfo at Newcaftle upon I yne. DISPENSATION, in Law, the granting a licenle of doing feme certain aaion that otherwife is not per- m DISPERSION, in general, fignffies the fcattenng or diffipating femething. Hence Dispersion, in Optics, the fame with the divergen¬ cy of the rays of light. . . . f J Point of Dispersion, in Dioptrics, the point from which refradled rays begin to diverge, where their re¬ fraction renders them divergent. , , „ of Inflammation, in Malum' ^i Sur- (try, is the removing the inflammation, and retloring the inflamed part to its natural ftate. ' . , Dispersion of Mankind, in the hiftory of the world, was occafioned by the confufion of tongues, and took place in confequence of the overthrow of Babel at the birth of Peleg 5 whence he derived his name . and appears by the account given of Ins anceftors, Gen. chap. xi. fo—16. to have happened m the 101ft year after the flood according to the Hebrew chronology, and by the Samaritan computation m the 401ft. H - ever, various difficulties have been feggefted by chro- nologers concerning the true era of this event S r John Marfham and others, in order to reconcile t Hebrew and Egyptian chronologies ™,n^m * perfion of mankind before the birth of Peleg. Others unable to find numbers fufficient for the plantation of colonies in the fpace of 101 years, according to the Hebrew computation, fix the difperfion towards the end of Peleg’s life, thus following the computation of the Jews. Petavius affigns the 153d year after the flood-, Cumberland the 180th-, and Ufher though he generally refers it to the time of Peleg s birth, m one place affigns the 131ft afor flood for tblS eVent' sj I Mr Shuckford feppofes the difperfion to hJVC b^ofMankinl gradual, and to have commenced with the feparation of feme companies at the birth of Peleg, and to have been completed 31 years after. According to the cal¬ culation of Petavius, the number of inhabitants on the earth at the birth of Peleg amounted to 32,768: Cum¬ berland makes them 30,000-, Mr Mede ftates them at 7000 men, befides women and children: and Mr Whif- ton, who fuppofes that mankind now double them- felves in 400 years, and that they doubled themfelves between the deluge and the time of David m 60 years at a medium, when their lives were fix or feven times as long as they have been fince, by his computation produces about 2389 -, a number much too inconfider- able for the purpofes of feparating and feyming diftintt nations. This difficulty induced Mr Whifton to rejeft the Hebrew and to adopt the Samaritan chronology, as many others have done; which, by allowing an in¬ terval of 401 years between the flood and the birth of Peleg, furniffies, by the laft-mentioned mode of com¬ putation, more than 240,000 perfons. A . F As to the manner of the difperfion of the poftenty of Noah from the plain of Shinar, it was undoubtedly condufted with the utmoft regularity and orde.r* * V® facred hiftorian informs us, that they were divided in their lands; every one according to his tongue, ac¬ cording to his family, and according to his nation, Gen x. c, 20, 31.; and thus, as Mr Mede obferves, they were ranged according to their nations, and every nation was ranged by their families; fe that each na tion had a feparate lot, and each family in every na¬ tion The following abftraft will ferve to give a ge¬ neral idea of their refpeftive fettlements : Japhet Noah’s eldeft fen, had feven fens; viz. ^omer’.’t!h°li® defcendants inhabited thole parts of Afia which lie upon the TEgean fea and Hellefpont northward, con- taming Phrygia, Pontus, Bithyma, and a great part of Gratia.’gThe Galatians, according to Jofephus, were called Comercei; and the Cimmeru, according to Herodotus, occupied this traft of country , an rom thefe Gomerians, Cimmerii, or Celts, Mr Camden de¬ rives our ancient Britons, who ftiH retain the name Cvmro or Cymru. Magog, the fecond fen of Japhet wis probably the father of the Scythians on the eaft and north-eaft of the Euxine fea. Madai_ planted Media, though Mr Mede affigns Macedonia to his ftiare Javan was the father of the Grecians about. Ionia, wffiofe country lies along upon the Bdedlterr^* nean fea; the radicals of Javan and Ionia being the fame dv. To Tubal and Meffiech belonged Cappadocia and the country which lies on the borders of the Eux¬ ine fea; and from them, migrating over Caucafus, it is fuppofed the Ruffians and Mufeovites are de- feendedf1 And Tiras occupied Thrace. The fens of Shem were five: Elam, whofe country lay between the Medes and WaSrau l^E a- Gentile writers Eiymats ; and Jofephus calls the E a mites the founders of the Perfians : Afliur who was driven out of Shinar by Nimrod, afterwards fettled in Aflyria, and there built Nineveh, and other cities Arnhaxad who gave name to the country which Pto¬ lemy calls'Arraphacitis, a province of Affyria, thoug Jofephus makes him the father of the Chaldees Lod who inhabited and gave name to the country of Lydia D I S [ 261 ] D I S Difperlion about tbe river Maeander, remarkable for its windings, ot Mankind jn ^fia Minor: and Aram, the father of the Syrians. Difpondee. Ham’ tlie youngeft fon of Noah, had four fons ; viz. . Cufh, whofe pofterity fpread into the feveral parts of A- rabia over the borders of the land of Edom, into Arabia Felix, up to Midian and Egypt-, Mizraim, the father of them who inhabited Egypt and other parts of A- frici Phut, to whom Bochart affigns the remaining part of Africa, from the lake of I'ritonides to the At¬ lantic ocean, called Libya : and Canaan, to whom be¬ longed the land of Canaan, whence the Phenicians de¬ rived their origin. Dr Bryant has advanced a new hypothefis on this fubjedt, and fupported it with his ufual acutenefs and learning. He maintains, that the difperfion as well as the confufion of tongues was local, and limited to the inhabitants of the province of Babel; that the fe- paration and diftribution recorded to have taken place in the days of Pcleg, Gen. x. 25, 31, 32, which was the refult of divine appointment, occafioned a general mi¬ gration ; and that all the families among the fons of men were concerned in it. The houfe of Shem, from which the Mefliah was to fpring, was particularly regarded in this diftribution : the portion of his children was near the place of feparation ; they in general had Afia to their lot $ as Japhet had Europe, and Ham the large continent of Africa. But the ions of Chus would not fubmit to the divine difpenfation : they went off under the conduit of Nimrod, and feem to have been for a long time in a roving ftate. However, at laft they ar¬ rived at the plains of Shinar-, and having ejedted Alhur and his fons, who were placed there by divine appoint¬ ment, feized his dominions, and laid there the foun¬ dation of a great monarchy. But afterwards fearing left they ihould be divided and fcattered abroad, they built the tower of Babel as a land-mark to which they might repair ; and probably to anfwer the purpofes of an idolatrous temple, or high altar, dedicated to the hoft of heaven, from which they were never long to be abient. They only, viz. the fons of Chus or the Cuthites, and their affociates from other families, who had been guilty of rebellion againft divine authority, and of wicked ambition and tyranny, were puniftied with the judgment of confounded fpeech through a failure in labial utterance, and of the difperfion record- * ed in Gen. x. 8, 9. : in confequence of which they were fcattered abroad from this city and tower, with¬ out any certain place of deftination. The Cuthites invaded Egypt or the land of Mizraim in its infant ttate, feized the whole country, and held it for fome ages in fubje&ion 5 and they extended likewife to the Indies and Ganges, and ftill farther into China and Japan. From them the province of Cuftiam or Goftien in Egypt derived its name. Here they obtained the appellation of roya/fhepherds; and when they were by force driven out of the country, after having been in pof- feflion of it for 260 or 280 years, the land which they had been obliged to rput was given to the Ifraelites, who were alfo denominated JJjepherds, but ftiould not be confounded with the former or the antecedent inha¬ bitants of Goftien. DISPLAYED, in Heraldry, is underftood of the pofition of an eagle, or any other bird, when it is ere ^ of Dr Boerhaave ; and much more does the following, namely, that almoft all metallic folutions produce fome degree of fenfible heat. In fome metals this is very confiderable; but the greateft heat producible by an aqueous folution of any fubftance is by diflolving quick¬ lime in the nitrous acid. The heat here greatly ex¬ ceeds that of boiling water. In fome diflblutions of inflammable matters by a mixture of the vitriolic and nitrous acids, the heat is fo great, that the whole mix¬ ture takes fire almoft inrtantaneoufly- Hence the Boer- haavians think they have fufficient grounds to conclude, that fire alone is the agent by which all diflblutions are performed. Thefe appearances have alfo been explained on the principles of attraction ; and it has been faid, that the heat, &c. were owing to nothing but the violent aCHon of the particles of the acid and metal upon each o- ther (a). DISSONANCE, in Mujic. See Discord. DISSYLLABLE, among grammarians, a word confifting only of two fyllables : fuch are nature, fcience, &c. DISTAFF, an inftrument about which flax is tied in order to be fpun. DISTANCE, in general, an interval between two things, either with regard to time or place. See Me¬ taphysics. ytccejjibh Distances, in Geometry, are fuch as may be mealured by the chain. See Geometry. InacceJJible Distances, are fuch as cannot be mea- fured by the chain, &.c. by reafon of fome river, or the like, &c. which obftru£Is our paffing from one obje£h to another. See Geometry. Distance, in AJlronomy. The diftance of the fun, planets, and comets, is found only from their parallax, as it cannot be found either by eclipfes or their differ¬ ent phafes : for from the theory of the motions of the earth and planets we know', at any time, the propor¬ tion of the diftances of the fun and planets from us j and the horizontal parallaxes are in a reciprocal pro¬ portion to thefe diftances. See Astronomy. DISTAS I E properly fignifies an averfion or dif- like to certain foods; and may be either conftitutional, or owung to fome diforder of the ftomach. DISTEMPER, among Pbyjicians, the fame with Disease. Distemper, in Paintbig, a term ufed for the work¬ ing up of colours with fomething befides writer or oil. If the colours are prepared with water, that kind of painting is called limning ; and if with oil, it is called painting in oil, and Amply painting. If the colours are mixed with fize, whites of eggs, or any fuch proper glutinous or unfluous matter, and not with oil, then they fay it is done in dijlemper. DISTENSION, in general, fignifies the ftretching or extending a thing to its full length or breadth. DISTICH, (a) We have retained thefe obfervations, as an inftance of the fpeculations and opinions concerning thefe fub- je<5Is before the difeovery of the prefent theory of Chemiftry with regard to the oxidation of metals and the de¬ compofition of water. Diftich D I S [ 264 1 DISTICH, a couplet of verfes making a complete foundation for adopt D I S ig fuch theories. {tillers and redlifiers. Spirits per¬ fectly fla- vourlefs, how ob • tained. 11 fenfe. Thus hexameter and pentameter verfes are Diftillation di<-po{ed jn diftichs. There are excellent morals in v Cato’s diftichs. DISTICHIASIS, in Surgery, a difeafe of the eye¬ lids, when under the ordinary eyelalhes there grows another extraordinary row of hair, which frequently eradicates the former, and, pricking the membrane of the eye, excites pain, and brings on a defluxion. It is cured by pulling out the fecond row of hairs with nip¬ pers, and cauterizing the pores out of which they iffued. DISTILLATION. For the principles of this pro- cefs, fee Chemistry Index, The objects of diftillation, confidered as a trade di- ftinft from the other branches of chemiftry, are chiefly fpirituous liquors, and thofe waters impregnated with the effential oil of plants, commonly called/m//* di- Difference Jhlkd waters. The diftilling compoond [pints and wa- between di-ters is reckoned a different branch of bufinefs, and they who deal in that way are commonly called reftifiers. This difference, however, though it exifts among com¬ mercial people, is not at all founded in the nature of the thing *, compound fpirits being made, and fimple fpirits being re&ified, by the very fame operations by which they are at firft diftilled, or with at leaft very trifling operations. The great objeft with every diftiller ought to be, to procure a fpirit perfe&ly flavourlefs, or at leaf! as well freed from any particular flavour as may be ^ and in this country the procuring of fuch a fpirit is no eafy matter. The only materials for diftillation that have been ufed in large quantity, are malt and molaffes or treacle. Both of thefe, efpecially the firft, abound with an oily matter, which, rifing along with the (pint, com¬ municates a difagreeable flavour to it, and from which it can fcarce be freed afterwards by any means what¬ ever. Some experiments have been made upon carrots, as a fubjeft for the diftillers; but thefe are not as yet Sufficiently decifive; nor is it probable, that a fpirit drawn from carrots would be at all devoid of flavour, more than one drawn from malt.— To diflipate the ef¬ fential oil which gives the difagreeable flavour to malt Spirits, it has been propofed to infpifiate the wort into a rob, or thin extraft like a fyrup *, afterw’ards to thin it with water, and ferment it in the ufual manner. This certainly promifes great luccefs •, there is no fubjeft wre know of that is poffeffed of any kind of effential oil, but •what will pait with it by diftillation or by long boil¬ ing. The infpiflating of the wort, however, does not feem to be either neceffary or fafe to be attempted ; for, in this cafe, there is great danger of its contrafting an empyreuma, which could never be remedied. The quantity left by evaporation, therefore, might be occa¬ sionally added, with an equal certainty of diflipating the obnoxious oil. Whether the yield of fpirit would be as great in this cafe as in the other, is a queftion that can bv no means be difeuffed wnthout further^ ex- 3 periments. According to a theory adopted by fome Effential diftiller<; namely, that effential oils are convertible into ardent fpirits; and that the more oily any fubjea is, ISvMtibl. the greater quantity of fpmt is obtainable f.om it; the intofpint. praftice of diffipating the oil before rermentation mult certainly be a lofs. But we are too little acquainted with the compofition of vinous Spirits, to have any juft 1 ‘ I Befides, it is Diffillation. certain, that the quantity of ardent fpirit producible v ’ from any fubftance, malt for inftance, very greatly ex¬ ceeds the quantity of effential oil which can by any means be obtained from the fame •, nor do we find that thofe fubftances, which abound moft in effential oil, yield the greateft quantity of fpirits. So far from this, fine fugar, which contains little or no effential oil, yields a great deal of ardent fpirit. 4 Previous to the operation of diftilling, thofe of Directions brewing and fermentation are neceffary 5 but as trefe ^rrinenta ordered V IS [ 270 ] D I S a particular fort of jumps inftead fcription often become beautiful and agreeable^ Thus, IMrrf*. D Diftrefs. ordered her to wear _ r * ■" 'v " 1 0f {fays, and had a pad of a proper fize applied : but this was foon negle£led ; and the confequence was, that in a little time the back bone became more and more crooked, and at length bent itfelf fldewife in two con¬ trary direaions, fo as to reprefent the figure of the Roman S ; and the lady, ftill refufing to take the pro¬ per meafures, loft a fourth part of her height j and continued for the remainder of her life, not only crooked from right to left and from left to right, but fo oddly folded together, that the firft of the falfe ribs on one fide approached very near the creft of the os ilium on that fide, and the vifcera of the lower belly became ftrangely puflied out of theft regular places to the oppofite fide } and the ftomach itfelf was fo ftrong- ly compreffed, that whatever flie fwallowed feemed to her to fall into two feparate cavities. DISTRESS, in its ordinary acceptation, denotes calamity, mifery, or painful fuffering. The Contemplation of Distress, a fource of pleafure. On this fubje& we have a very pleafing and ingenious effay by Dr Barnes, in the Memoirs of the Literary # Vol. i. and Philofophical Society of Manchefter *, It is in- p. 144. Sc-c. troduced with the follow ing motto : Suave mari magno, turbantibus cequoi a ventiSy E terra altenus magnum fpeBare penclum. Non quia vexan quenquam cjl jucunda voluptas ; Sed quibus ipfe mails care as, quia cernere fuave efi. Lucretius. «( The pleafure here deferibed by the poet, and of which he has mentioned fo ftriking and appofite an in- ftance, may perhaps at firft feem of fo Angular and a- ftoniftiing a nature, that fome may be difpoied to doubt of its exiftence. But that it does exift, in the cale here referred to, and in many others of a fimilar kind, is an undoubted faft ; and it may not appear an ufe- lefs or difagreeable entertainment, to trace its lource in the human bread, together with the final caufe for which it was implanted there by our benevolent Creator. . , “ Shall I, it may be faid, feel complacency in be¬ holding a feene in wdrich many of my fellow-creatures are agonizing with terror, whilft I can neither dimi- niftr their danger, nor, by my fympathy, divide their anguifti ? At the fight of another’s woe, does not my bofom naturally feel pain ? Do I not fhai-e in his fenfa- tions. ? And is not this ftrong and exqmfite ienhbihty intended by my Maker to urge me on to aftive and immediate affiftance ? Thefe fenfations are indeed at¬ tended wfith a noble pleafure, when I can, by friendly attention, or by benevolent communication, foothe the iorrows of the poor mourner, fnatch him from impend¬ ing danger, or fupplv his preffing wants. But in ge¬ neral, where my fympathy is of no avail to the wretch¬ ed fufferer, I fly from the fpedacle of his mifery, un¬ able or unwilling to endure a pain which is not allayed by the fweet fatisfaftion of doing good.’’ It will be neceffary, in anfwer to thefe objections, m the firft place to prove the reality _ of the feeling, the caufe of which, in the human conftitution, we here at¬ tempt to explore. . r Mr Addifon, in his beautiful papers on the Pleaiures of the Imagination, has obferved, “ that objeCts or feenes, which, when real, give difguft or pain, in de¬ even a dunghill may, by the charms of poetic imagery, excite plealure and entertainment. Scenes of this na¬ ture, dignified by apt and ftriking defeription, we re¬ gard with fomething of the fame feelings with which we look upon a dead monfter. - Informe cadaver Protrahitur : ncqueunt explen corda tuendo 1 erribilcs oculos, vultum, villofaque fetis PeBora femiferiy atque extinBos faucibus ignes. Virgil. “ This (he obferves) is more particularly the cafe, where the defeription raifes a ferment in the mind and works with violence upon the paftions. One would wonder (adds he) how it comes to pafs, that paflions, which are very unpleafant at all other times, are very agreeable when excited by proper defeription j fuch as terror, dejeftion, grief, &c. This pleafure arifes from the refleftion we make upon ouxfelves, whilft reading it, that we are not in danger from them. When ne read of wounds, death, Sec. our plealure does not rife fo properly from the grief which thefe melancholy de- feriptions give us, as from the fecret comparifon we make of ourfelves with thofe who fuffer. We ftiould not feel the fame kind of pleafure, if we aaually faw a perfon lying under the tortures that we meet with in a defeription.” _ And yet, upon the principle afligned by this amiable writer, we might feel the fame, or even higher plea¬ fure, from the aftual view of diftrefs, than from any defeription ; becaufe the comparifon of ourfelves with the fufferer would be more vivid, and confequently the feeling more intenfe. We would onlyobferve, that the caufe which he aftigns for this pleafure is the very lame with that afligned by Lucretius in our motto. Mr Addifon applies it to the defeription ; the poet, to the adual contemplation of affeaing feenes. In both the pleafure is fuppofed to originate in felfifhnefs. But wherever the focial paflions are deeply interefted, as they are here fuppofed to be, from the pathetic de¬ feription, or the ftill more pathetic furvey, of the fuf- ferings of another, the fympathetic feelings will of themfelves, at once, and previoufly to all refle£!ion, become a fource of agreeable and tender emotions. They will thus dignify and enhance the fatisfadhon, if any fuch be felt, arifing merely from the confideration of our own perfonal fecurity. And the more entirely we enter into the feene, by lofing all ideas of its being either paft or fabulous, the more perfedlly v.e forget ourfelves, and are ablorbed in the feeling, the more exquifite is the fenfation. _ But as our fubfequent fpeculations will chiefly turn upon the pleafure derived from real feenes. of calamity, and not from thofe which are imaginary, it may be ex- pedted that we produce inftances in proof that Inch pleafure is felt by perfons very different in their tafte and mental cultivation. < , We (hall net mention the horrid Joy with wmich the favage feafts his eye upon the agonies and contortions of his expiring prifoner—expiring in all the pains which artificial cruelty can inflia ! Nor will we recur to the almoft equally favage fons of ancient Rome, when the maiefty of the Roman people could rufh, with eager- nefs and tranfport, to behold hundreds of gladiators r contending D I S Diftrefs. contending in fatal conflift, and probably more than '"V—half the number extended, weltering in blood and writh¬ ing in agony, upon the plain. Nor will we mention the Spanifli bull featts ; nor the fervent acclamations of an Englilh mob around their fellow creatures, w-hen engaged in furious battle, in which it is poflible that fome of the combatants may receive a mortal blow', and be hurried in this awful flate to the bar of his Judge. Let us furvey the multitudes which, in every part of the kingdom, always attend an execution. It may perhaps be faid, that in all places the vulgar have little of the fenlibility and tendernefs of more poliflied bofoms. But, in the laft mentioned inflance, an exe¬ cution, there is no exultation in the bufferings of the poor criminal. He is regarded by every eye with the moft melting compaffion. The whole affembly fym- pathizes with him in his unhappy fituation. An awful ftillnefs prevails at the dreadful moment. Many are w:rung wTith unutterable fenfations 3 and prayer and fxlence declare, more loudly than any language could, the intereft they feel in his diftrefs. Should a reprieve come to refcue him from death, how great is the ge¬ neral triumph and congratulation ! And probably in in this multitude you wall find not the mere vulgar herd alone, but the man of fuperior knowledge and of more refined fenfibility ; W'ho, led by fome ftrong prin¬ ciple, which we wifh to explain, feels a pleafure great¬ er than all the pain, great and exquifite as one ftiould imagine it to be, from fuch a fpeftacle. The man who condemns many of the fcenes w'e have already mentioned as barbarous and (hocking, wmuld probably run with the greateft eagernefs to fome high cliff, overhanging the ocean, to fee it fwelled into a tempeft, though a poor veffel, or even a fieet of veffels, W'ere to appear as one part of the dreadful fcenery, now lifted to the heavens on the foaming furge, now plunged deep into the fathomlefs abyfs, and now daftv- ed upon the rocks, where they are in a moment ftii- vered into fragments, and, with all their mariners, en¬ tombed in the wave. Or, to vary the queftion a lit¬ tle 3 Who would not be forward to (land fafe, on the top of fome mountain, or towrer, adjoining to a field of battle, in which twm armies meet in defperate conflict, though probably thoufands may foon lie before him proftrate on the ground, and the whole field prefent the moft horrid fcenes of carnage and defolation ? That in all thefe cafes pleafure predominates in the compounded feeling,- is plain from hence, becaufe you continue to furvey the fcene 3 whereas w’hen pain be¬ came the ftronger fenfation, you would certainly re¬ tire. Cultivation may indeed have produced fome minuter differences in the tafte and feelings of different minds. Thofe whofe fenfibilities have not been refined by edu¬ cation or fcience, may feel the pleafure in a more grofs and brutal form. But do not the moft poliflied natures feel a fimilar, a kindred pleafure, in the deep wrought diftreffes of the well imagined fcene ? Here the endea¬ vour is, to introduce whatever is dreadful or pathetic, whatever can harrow up the feelings or extort the tear. And the deeper and more tragical the fcene becomes, the more it agitates the feveral pafiions of terror, grief, or pity—the more intenfely it delights, even the moft poliflied minds. They feem to enjoy the various and vivid emotions of contending paflions. They love to D r s have the tear trembling in the eye, and to feel the Diftrefs. whole foul wrapt in thrilling fenfations. For that mo- ' ment they feem to forget the fiftion ; and afterwards commend that exhibition moft, in which they mod en¬ tirely loft fight of the author, and of their own fitua¬ tion, and nere alive to all the unutterable vibrations of ftrong or melting fenfibility. Taking it then for granted, that in the contempla¬ tion of many icenes of diftrefs, both imaginary and real, a gratification is felt, let us endeavour to account for it, by mentioning fome of thofe principles^ woven / into the web of human nature, by its benevolent Crea¬ tor, on which that gratification depends. Dr Akenfide, with his accuftomed ftrength and bril¬ liancy of colouring, deferibes and accounts for it in the following manner : Behold the ways Of heaven’s eternal deftiny to man ! For ever juft, benevolent, and wife ! That Virtue’s awful fteps, howe’er purfued’ By vexing fortune, and intrufive pain, Should never be divided from her chafte, Her fair attendant, Pleafure. Need I urge Thy tardy thought through all the various round Of this exiftence, that thy foftening foul At length may learn, what energy the hand Of Virtue mingles in the bitter tide Of Paflion, fwelling with diftrefs and pain. To mitigate the (harp, with gracious drops Of cordial Pleafure. Afk the faithful youth Why the cold urn of her, whom long he lov’d, So often fills his arm ? So often draws His lonely footfteps, at the filent hour, To pay the mournful tribute of his tears ? O ! he will tell thee, that the wealth of worlds Should ne’er feduce his bofom to forego That facred hour, when dealing from the noife Of care and envy, fweet remembrance foothes, With Virtue’s kindeft looks, his aching bread, And turns his tears to rapture. Aik the crowd, Which flies impatient from the village-walk To climb the neighb’ring cliffs, when far below The cruel winds have hurl’d upon the coaft Some helplefs bark : whilft facred Pity melts The general eye, or Terror’s icy hand Smites their diftorted limbs, or horrent hair. While every mother clofer to her bread Catches her child 3 and, pointing where the waves Foam through the (battered veffel, fhrieks aloudj As one poor wretch, that fpreads his piteous arms For fuccour, fwallowed by the roaring furge, As now another, dafti’d againft the rock, Drops lifelefs dowm. O deemed thou indeed No kind endearment here, by nature given, To mutual terror, and compaflion’s tears ? No fweetly melting foftnefs, which attrafts O’er all that edge of pain, the facial powers, To this their proper aftion and their end ?” The poet purfues the fentiment in the fame animated imagery, deferibing the ftrong, but pleafurable, fen¬ fations which the foul feels, in reading the fufferings of heroes who nobly died in the caufe of liberty and" their country ; “ When ( 271 ] Dill refs. D I S [ : “ When the pious band Of youths, who fought for freedom, and their fires, Lie fide by fide in gore.” Or, in the ftrong movements of indignation and re¬ venge againfi the tyrant, who invades that libertv, and enflaves their country. —“ When the patriot’s tear Starts from thine eye, and thy extended arm In fancy hurls the thunderbolt of Jove, To fire the impious wreath on Philip’s brow, Or dalh O&avius from his trophied car •, Say Does the facred foul repine to tafte Thy big diftrefs ? Or, would’ft thou then exchange Thofe heart-ennobling forrows for the lot Of him, who fits amid the gaudy herd Of mute barbarians, bending to his nod, And bears aloft his gold-invefted front, And fays within himfelf, “ I am a king, And wherefore fhould the clamorous voice of woe Intrude upon mine ear ?” The fentiment of this charming and moral poet is, that fympathetic feelings are virtuous, and therefore pleafant. And from the whole, he deduces this im¬ portant conclufion •, that every virtuous emotion mull be agreeable, and that this is the fanaion and the re¬ ward of virtue. The thought is amiable *, the con¬ clufion noble : but Hill the folution appears to us to be imperfea. . We have already faid, that the pleafure anfing from the contemplation of diftrefsful feenes is a compound¬ ed feeling, arifing from feveral diftina fources in the human bread. The kind and degree of the fenfation mud depend upon the various blendings of the feveral ingredients which enter into the compofition. The caufe adigned by Mr Addifon, the fenfe of our own fecurity, may be fuppofed to have fome diare in the mafs of feelings. That of Dr Akenfide may be allow¬ ed to have a dill larger proportion. Let us attempt to trace fome of the red. . There are few principles in human nature or more general and important infiuence than that of fympa- thy A late ingenious writer, led by the faduonable idea of fimplifying all the fprings of human nature into one fource, has in his beautiful Theory of Moral Sentiments, endeavoured to analyze a very large num¬ ber of the feelings of the heart into fympathetic vibra¬ tion. Though it appears to us mod probable, that the human mind, like the human body, pofieffes vari¬ ous, and didirnd fprings of a£hon and of happinefs, yet he has diown, in an amazing diverfity of indances, the operation and importance of this principle of human nature. Let us apply it to our prefent lubjeft. We naturally fympathizc with the padions or others. But if the padions they appear to feel be not thofe of mere didrefs alone-, if, amidd the feenes of calamity, they difplay fortitude, generofity, and forgivenefs ; if “ rifing fuperior to the cloud of ills which covers them,” they nobly dand firm, colLdled, and patient 5 here a dill higher fouvee of pleafure opens upon us, from complacence, admiration, and that unutterable fympathy which the heart feels with virtuous and heroic minds. By the operation of this principle, we place our- ftlves in their fituation; we feel, as it were, fome diare of 72 ] D I S that confcious integrity and peace which they mud en- Dittrefs; py. Hence, as before obferved, the pleafure will vary, both as to its nature and degree, according to the feene and charafters before us. I he diock ot con¬ tending armies in the field,—the ocean wrought to temped, and covered with the wreck of (battered vei- fels,—and a worthy family filently, yet nobly, bearing up againd a multitude of furrounding miiows, will ex¬ cite very different emotions, becaufe the component parts of the pleafurable fenfation confid of very dil- ferent materials. They all excite admiration } but ad¬ miration, how diverfified, both as to its degree and its caufe ! Thefe feveral ingredients may doubtlefs be fo blended together^ that the pleafure diall make but a very finall part of the mixed fenfation. T he more agreeable tints may bear little proportion to the terri- fying red or the gloomy black. In many of the indances which have been mention¬ ed, the pleafure mud arife chiedy, if not folely, from the circumdances or accompanyments of the feene. The fublime feelings excited by the view of an agi¬ tated ocean, relieve and foften thofe occafioned by the diipwreck. And the awe excited by the prefence of thoufands of men, afling as if with one foul, and dif- playing magnanimity and firmnefs in the mod fo- lemn trial, tempers thofe fenfationS of horror and of pain which would arife from the field of battle. The gratification we are attempting to account for depends alfo, in a very confiderable degree, upon a principle of human nature, implanted in it for the wifed ends; the exercife which it gives to the mind, by roufing it to energy and feeling. Nothing is fo infupportable, as that languor and ennui, for the full exprefiion of which our language does not afford a term. How agreeable it is, to have the foul called forth to exertion and fenfibility, let the gameder wit- nefs, who, unable to endure the laditude and fame- nefs of unanimated luxury, runs with eagernefs^ to the place where probably await him all the irritation and agony of tumultuous padions. Again ; it is a law of our nature, that oppofite paf- fions, when felt in fuccedion, and, above all, when felt at the fame moment, heighten and increafe each other. Eafe fucceeding pain, certainty after fufpenfe, frienddiip after averfion, are unfpeakably (Longer than if they had not been thus contraded. In this confinfl of feelings, the mind rifes from padive to aftive energy. It is roufed to intenfe fenfation 5 and it enjoys that pe¬ culiar, exquifite, and complex feeling, m which, as in many articles of our table, the acid and the fweet, the pleafurable and painful, pungencies are fo happily mixed together, as to render the united fenfation amazingly more drong and delightful. We have not yet mentioned the principle of cuno- fity, that bufy and active power, which appears fo early, continues almod unimpaired fo long, and to which, for the wifed ends, is annexed fo great a fenle of enjoyment. To this principle, rather than to a love of cruelty, would we aferibe that pleafure which children fometimes feem to feel from torturing flies and leffer animals. They have not yet formed an idea of the pain they inflia. It is, indeed, of unfpeakable confequence, that this praaice be checked as foon and as effeaually as pofiible, becaufe it is fo important, that they learn to conned the ideas of pleafure and pa^ D I S [ 273 ] D I T Biftrefs, pain with the motions and a&ions of the animal crea- Diftnbu- tion> And to this principle may we alfo refer no tlon' fmall (hare of that pleafure in the contemplation of dillrefsful fcenes, the fprings of which, in the human heart, we are now endeavouring to open. To curiofity, then—to fympathy—to mental exer¬ tion—-to the idea of our own fecurity—and to the ftrong feelings occafioned by viewing the adlions and paffions of mankind in interefting fituations, do we afcribe that gratification which the mind feels from the furvey of many fcenes of forrow. We have called it a pleafure ; but it will approach towards, or recede from, pleafure, according to the nature and proportion of the ingredients of which the fenfation is compof- ed. In fome cafes, pain will predominate. In others, there will be exquifite enjoyment. The final caufe of this conftitution of the human mind is probably, that by means of this ftrong fenfa¬ tion, the foul may be preferved in continual and vigo¬ rous motion—that its feelings may be kept lively and tender—that it may learn to praflife the virtues it ad¬ mires—and to aftift thofe to w'hom its fympathy can reach—and that it may thus be led, by thefe focial exercifes of the heart, to foften with compaflion—to expand with benevolence—and generoufly to aflift in every cafe in wdiich afliftance can be given. An end this fufficient, “ To affert eternal Providence, And juftify the ways of God to man.” Distress, in Law, the feizing or diftraining any thing for rent in arrear, or other duty unperformed. The effe£l of this diftrefs is to compel the party ei¬ ther to replevy the things diftrained, and conteft the taking, in an a£tion of trefpafs againft the diftrainer j or rather to oblige him to compound and pay the debt or duty for which he was fo diftrained. There are likewufe compulfory dillreffes in a&ions, to caufe a perfon appear in court; of which kind there is a diftrefs perfonal of one’s moveable goods, and the profits of his lands, for contempt in not appearing after fummons : there is likewife diftrefs real, of a perfon’s immoveable goods. In thefe cafes none (hall be di¬ ftrained to anfwer for any thing touching their free¬ holds, but by the king’s writ. Diftrefs may be either finite or infinite. Finite di¬ ftrefs is that which is limited by law, in regard to the number of times it lhall be made, in order to bring the party to a trial of the a&ion. Infinite diftrefs is that which is without any limitation, being made till the perfon appears: it is farther applied to jurors that do not appear ; as, upon a certificate of aflize, the procefs is venire facias, habeas corpora, and diftrefs infinite. It is alfo divided into grand diftrefs and ordinary diftrefs ; of thefe the former extends to all the goods and chattels that the party has within the county. A perfon, of common right, may diftrain for rents and all manner of fervices; and where a rent is referved on a gift in tail, leafe for life, or years, &c. though there be no claufe of diftrefs in the grant or leafe, lb as that he has the reverfion ; but on a feoffment made in fee, a diftrefs may not be taken, unlefs it be exprefsly re¬ ferved in the deed. DIS IRIBUTION, ina general fenfe, the aft of VII. Part I. dividing a thing into feveral parts, in order to the dif- Diftribu- pofing each in its proper place. tl°n Distribution, in ArchileElure, the dividing and pitch- difpofing the feveral parts and pieces which compofe a Water, building, as the plan direfts. See Architecture. ——y— Distribution, in Rhetoric, a kind of defcription, whereby an orderly divifion and enumeration is made of the principal qualities of the fubjeft. David fup- plies us with an example of this kind, when in the heat of his indignation againft finners, he gives a defcription of their iniquity: “ Their throat is an open fepulchre ; they flatter with their tongues ; the poifon of afps is under their lips ; their mouth is full of curfing and lies; and their feet are fwift to flied blood.” Distribution, in Printing, the taking a form afunder, leparating the letters, and difpofing them in the cafes again, each in its proper cell. See Print¬ ing. DISTRICT, in Geography, a part of a province, diftinguiftied by peculiar magiftrates, or certain privi¬ leges ; in which fenfe it is fynonymous with hundred. See Hundred. DISTRINGAS, in Law, a writ commanding the ftieriff, or other officer, that he diftrain a perfon for debt to the king, &c. or for his appearance at a cer¬ tain day. DistrinGjSS Juratores, a writ direftedto the ftieriff, whereby he is commanded to diftrain upon a jury to appear, and to return iffues on their lands, &c. for non- appearance. This writ of diftringas juratores iffues for the ftieriff to have their bodies in court, &c. at the re¬ turn of the writ. DITCH, a common fence or enclofure in marfhes, or other wet land where there are no hedges. They al¬ low thefe ditches fix feet wide againft highways that are broad ; and againft commons, five feet. But the common ditches about enclofures, dug at the bottom of the bank on which the quick is raifed, are three feet wide at the top, one at the bottom, and two feet deep. By this means each fide has a flope, which is of great advantage ; for where this is neglefted, and the ditches dug perpendicular, the fides are always waftiing down : befides, in a narrow-bottomed ditch, if cattle get down into it, they cannot ftand to turn themfelves to crop the quick : but where the ditch is four feet wide, it ftiould be two and a half deep : and where it is five wide, it ffi mid be three deep ; and fo in proportion. Dncii-Water is often ufed as an objeft for the mi- crolcope, and feldom fails to afford a great variety of animalcules. This water very often appears of a yel- lowifti, greeniffi, or reddifti colour; and this is wholly owing to the multitudes of animals of thofe colours wffiich inhabit it. Thefe animals are ufually of the ffirimp kind : and Swammerdam, who very accurately examined them, has called them, from the figure of their horns, pulex aquaticus arborefcens. They copu¬ late in May or June; and are often fo numerous at that feafon, that the whole body of the water they are found in, is feen to be of a red, green, or yellowifli colour, according to the colours of their bodies. The green thin feum alfo, fo frequently feen on the furface of Handing waters in fummer, is no other than a multi¬ tude of fmall animalcules of this or fome of the other kinds. Dunghill water is not lefs full of animals than M m that Ditcli I! Ditton. D I T [ 274 ] . D I tliat of ditches; and is often found fo thronged with the new mathematical fchool animalcules, that it feems altogether alive: it is then fo , very much crowded with the!e creatures, that it muit be diluted with clear water before they can be dihindtly viewed. There are ufually in this fluid a fort of eels which are extremely a£live; and befldes thele and many other of the common inhabitants of fluids, there is one fpecies found 111 this which feems peculiar to it . the middle part of them is dark and befet with hairs, but the ends are tranfparent; their tails are tapering, with a long fprig at the-extremity, and their motion is flow and waddling. See Animalcule. Ditch, in Fortification, called fofs and moat, a trench dug round the rampart or wall of a foitified place, between the fcarp and counterfcarp. See For¬ tification. DITHYRAMBUS, in ancient poetry, a hymn m honour of Bacchus, full of tranfport and poetical rage. This poetry owes its birth to Greece, and to the tr'anfports of wine ; and yet art is not quite exploded, but delicately applied to guide and reftrain the dithy- rambic impetuofity, which is indulged only in pleafing flights. Horace and Ariftotle tell us, that the an¬ cients gave the name of dithyirambus to thofe verfes wherein none of the common rules or meafures were obferved. As we have now no remains of the dithy- rambus of the ancients, we cannot fay exaflly what their meafure was. DITONE, in Mufic, an interval comprehending two tones. The proportion of the founds that form the ditone is 4 : 5, and that of the femitone is 5 : 6. _ DITRIHEDRIA, in Mineralogy, fpars with twice three Tides, or fix planes; being formed of two trigonal pyramids joined bafe to bafe, without any intermediate column. . , The fpecies of ditrihedria are diflinguiflied by the different figures of thefe pyramids. DITTANDER. See Lepidium, Botany Index. DITTANY. See Dictamnus, Botany Index. DITTO, in books of accounts, ufually written D°, fignifies the afore-mentioned. The word is corrupted from the Italian detto, “ the faid as in our law-phrafe, “ the faid premifes,” meaning the fame as W’ere afore¬ mentioned. DITTON, Humphry, an eminent mathematician, v was born at Salifbury, May 29. 1675. Being an on¬ ly fon, and his father obferving in him an extraordi¬ nary good capacity, determined to cultivate it with a good education. For this purpofe he placed him m a reputable private academy; upon quitting of which he, at the defire of his father, though agajnft Ms own incli¬ nation, engaged in the profefiion of divinity, and began to exercife his funftion at Tunbridge in the county of Kent, where he continued to preach fome years ; during wnich time he married a lady of that place. . But a weak conftitution, and tne death of his father, induced Mr Ditton to quit that profeffion. And at the perfuafion of Dr Harris and Mr Whifton, both eminent mathematicians, he engaged in the ftudy of mathematics ; a fcience to which he had always a ftrong inclination. In the profecution of this fcience, be was much encouraged by the fuccefs and applaufe ie“ ceived : being gixatly efteemed by the chief proftnors of it, and particularly by Sir Ifaac Newton, by whofe intereft and recommendation he was clefted mafler of in Chrift’s Hofpital •, < Pitton. where he continued till his death, which happened in ',r~" 1715, in the 40th year of his age, much regretted by the philofophical world, who expedled many ufeful and ingenious difeoveries from his afliduity, learning, and penetrating genius. Mr Ditton publifhed feveral mathematical and other trafts, as below.—1. Of the Tangents of Curves, &c. Phil. Tranf. vol. xxiii. . 2. A Treatife on Spherical Catoptrics, pubhflied m the Philof. Tranf. for 1705 ; from whence it was co¬ pied and reprinted in the ABa Fruditorum t?0?* al,c^ alfo in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. . 3. General Laws of Nature and Motion ; 8yo, 1705. Wolfius mentions this work, and fays that it illufirates and renders eafy the writings of Galileo, Huygens, and the Principia of Newton. a^° no1;‘ce° ..X La Roche, in the Metnoires de Literature, vol. vm. page 46. . . i £ n. 4. An Inftitution of Fluxions, containing the hilt Principles, Operations, and Applications, of that admi¬ rable Method, as invented by Sir Ifaac Newton, 8vo, 1706. This work, with additions and alterations, was again publilhed by Mr John Clarke, in the year 1726. r Xn 1709 he publifhed the Synopjis Algehraica of John Alexander, with many additions and corre&ions. 6. His Treatife on Perfpedlive was publifhed in 1712. In this work he explained the principles of that art mathematically; and befides teaching the methods then generally praftifed, gave the firft hints of the new method afterwards enlarged upon and improved by Dr Brook Taylor ; and which was publifhed m the yea7r. I^f-jH, Mr Ditton publifhed feveral pieces both theological and mathematical ; particularly his Dif- courfe on the Refurreflion of Jefus Chrift ; and The New Law of Fluids, or a Difcourfe concerning the Afcent of Liquids, in exa£l Geometrical Figures, be¬ tween two nearly contiguous Surfaces. To this was annexed a traa, to demonftrate the impoffibihty ot thinking or perception being the refult of any combi¬ nation of the parts of matter and motion : a iubjett much agitated about that time. To this work aiio was added an advertifement from him and Mr Whifton, concerning a method for difeovering the longitude, * which it feems they had publifhed about half a year before. This attempt probably coft our author his life ; for although it w^as approved and countenanced by Sir Ifaae Newton, before it was prefented to the Board of Longitude, and the method has been lucceis- fully put in praftice, in finding the longitude between Paris and Vienna ; yet that board then determined againft it : fo that the difappointment, together with fome public ridicule (particularly in a poem written by Dean Swift), affe&ed his health fo that he died the enfuing year, 1715. . In an account of Mr Ditton, prefixed to the German tranflation of his Difcourfe on the Refurreftion, it is Lid that he had publifhed, in his own name only, ano¬ ther method for finding the longitude ; but which Mr Whifton denied. However, Raphael Levi, a learned Jew, who had ftudied under Leibnitz, informed the German editor, that he well knew that Ditton and Leibnitz had correfponded upon the fubjeft; and that Dival II . Diverli fying. D I V [2 Ditton had fent to Leibnitz a delineation of a machine he had invented for that purpofe ; which rvas a piece of mechanifm conftrudled with many wheels like a clock, and which Leibnitz highly approved of for land ufe j but doubted whether it would anfv/er on (hip-board, on account of the motion of the (hip. DIVAL, in Heraldry, the herb nightfhade, ufed by fuch as blazon by flowers and herbs, inftead of colours and metals, for fable or black. DIVALIA, in antiquity, a feaft held among the ancient Romans, on the 2ifl day of December, in ho¬ nour of the goddefs Angerona 5 whence it is alfo call¬ ed Angeronalia.—On the day of this feaft, the pontifi- ces performed facnfice in the temple of Voluptia, or the goddefs of joy and pleafure ; who, fome fay, wTas the fame with Angerona, and fuppofed to drive away all the forrovvs and chagrins of life. DIVAN, a council chamber or court of juflice among the eaftern nations, particularly the Turks.— The word is Arabic, and llgnifies the fame with sofa in the Turkifli dialed:. There are two forts of divans ; that of the grand fignior, called the council of /late, which confifts of (even of the principal officers of the empire j and that of the grand vizir, compofed of fix other vizirs or counfellors of date, the chancellor, and fecretaries of date, for the didribution ofjudice. The Word is alfo ufed for a hall in the private houfes of the orientals. The cudom of China does not allow the receiving of vifits in the inner parts of the houfe, but only at the entry, in a divan contrived on purpofe for ceremonies. Travellers relate winders of the filence and expedi¬ tion of the divans of the ead. DirAN-Beghi, the fuperintendant of judice in Perfia, whofe place is the lad of the fix miniders of the fecond rank, who are all under the athemadauler or fird mi- nider. To this tribunal of the divan-beghi lie appeals from fentences palled by the governors. He has a fixed dipend of 50,000 crowns for adminidering judice. All the ferjeants, ufliprs, &c. of the court are in his fervice. He takes cognizance of the criminal caufes of the chams, governors, and other great lords of Per¬ fia, when accufed of any fault. There are divan-beghis not only at court and in the capital, but alfo in the provinces and other cities of the empire. The Alcoran is the foie rule of his adminidration of judice, which alfo he interprets at pleafure. He takes no cognizance of civil caufes ; but all differences arifing between the officers of the king’s houfehold and between foreign miniders are determined by him. DIVANDUROW, the name of feven iflands which lie a league north of the( Maldives, and 24 from the coad of Malabar, almofl oppofite to Cananor. DIVER. See Colymbus, Ornithology Index. DIVERGENT, or Diverging Lincs, in Geome¬ try, are thofe which condantly recede from each other. Divergent Rays, in Optics, are thofe which, going from a point of the vifible objedl, are difperfed, and continually depart one from another, in proportion as they are removed from the objedl: in which fenfe it is oppofed to convergent. See Optics. DIVERSIFYING, in Rhetoric, is of infinite fer¬ vice to the orator j it is an accomplifliment effential to his charadler, and may fitly be called the fubjedt of all 0 I v Voflius lays down fix w‘ays of Diverficn 75 1 his tropes and figures. diverfifying a fubjedl. 1. By enlarging on what was . . briefly mentioned before. 2. By a concife ennmern- j:>!vni^tlon’i tion of what had been infided on at length. 5. By adding fomething new to w’hat is repeated. 4. By re¬ peating only the principal heads of what had been faid. 5. By tranfpofing the words and periods. 6. By imi¬ tating them. DIVERSION, in military affairs, is wffien an ene¬ my is attacked in one place where they are weak and unprovided, in order to draw off their forces from ano¬ ther place where they have made or intend to make an irruption. Thus the Romans had no other way in their power of driving Hannibal out of Italy, but by making a diverfion in attacking Carthage. DIVESTING, properly fignifies undrefiing, or dripping off one’s garment; in contradiflin&ion from inveding. In law, it is ufed for the aft of furrendering or re- linquiflnng one’s effects. By a contract of donation or fale, the donor or feller is faid to be diffeifed and diveded of his property in fuch a commodity, and the donee or purchafer becomes inveffed therewith. See Investiture. A demife is a general divediture which the fathers and mothers make of all their effects in favour of their children. DIVIDEND, in Arithemctic, the number propofed to be divided into equal parts. See Arithmetic, N° 14. Dividend of Stocks, is a (hare or proportion of the intered of docks ere&ed on the public funds, as the South fea, &c. divided among and paid to the adven¬ turers half yearly. DIVINATION, the knowledge of things obfcure or future, which cannot be attained by any natural means. It rvas a received opinion among the heathens, that the gods w'ere wont to converfe familiarly with fome men, whom they endowed with extraordinary powers, and admitted to the knowledge of their councils and defigns. Plato, Aridotle, Plutarch, Cicero, and others, divide divination into two forts or fpccies, viz. natural and artificial. The former was fo called, becaufe not attained by any rules or precepts of art, but infufed or infpired in¬ to the diviner, without his taking any further care about it than to purify and prepare himfelf for the re¬ ception of the divine afflatus. Of this kind were all thofe who delivered oracles, and foretold future events by infpiration, without obferving external figns or ac¬ cidents. The fecond fpecies of divination was called artificial, becaufe it was not obtained by immediate infpiration, but proceeded upon certain experiments and obferva- tions arbitrarily inftituted, and moftly fuperftitious. Of this fort there were various kinds, as by facrifices, en¬ trails, flame, cakes, flour, wine, water, birds, lots, ver- fes, omens, &c. In holy Scripture We find mention madd"of nine dif¬ ferent kinds of divination. The firft performed by the infpeflion of planets, ftars, and clouds: it is fuppofed to be the praflifers of this whom Mofes calls iTiim meo- nen, of pH anan, “ cloud,” Deuter. chap, xviii. ver. 10. 2. Thofe tvhom the prophet calls in the fame place Mm2 s/nso D I V [ 276 ] D I V / r U V V, Vulgate and generality of The cabala fignifies, in like manner the knowledge of Dn^nat^ Divination. menachefeh, which the Vulgate and g y e the moon as the celeftlal boaies v ' "v interpreters render 3- ^ and their influences; and in this fenfe it is the fame place are called mecafcbeph, which the Septuagrn c ""^oWy, or makes a part of it. and Vulgate tranflate “ a man given to ill praftrces.” with judicial altrology, or ^ ^ , v __ T\/r^r^o the* lamp rnanter 4. Such '"authors whom Moles in the fame chapter, ver. 1 I. calls *iinrr hhober. 5. Thofe who confult the fpirits called Python ; or, as Mofes, expreffes it in the fame book, W “ thofe who afk queftions ot Py- then ” 6. Witches or magicians, whom Moles calls 'Din' 'judeoni. 7. Thofe who confult the dead, necro¬ mancers. 8. The prophet Hofea, chap. iv. yer. 12. mentions fuch as confult Haves, sbpn bi^ j which kind of divination may be called rhabdomancy. 9. The lalt kind of divination mentioned in Scripture is hepataj- copy, or the confideration of the liver. . Divination of all kinds was neceffanly made an oc¬ cult fcience, which naturally remained m the hands ot the priefts and priefteffes, the magi, the loothfayers, the augurs, the vifionaries, the priefts of the oracles, the falfe prophets, and other like profellors till the time of the coming of Jefus Chnft. fhe light of the pofpel, it is true, has diflipated much of this darknefs; but it is more difficult, than is commonly conceived, to eradicate from the human mind a deep-rooted u- perftition, even though the truth be fet in the ftrongeft light, efpecially when the error has been believed al- moft from the origin of the world : fo we ftill find ex- ifting among us the remains of this Pagan fuperftition, in the following chimeras, which enthufiaftic and de- figning men have formed into arts and fciences ; thoug it muft be owned, to the honour of the 18th century, that the pure doftrines of Chriftiamty, and the ipint of philofophy, which become every day^more dit- fufed, equally concur in bamflung thefe vnionary opi¬ nions The vogue for thefe pretended fciences and arts, moreover, is paft, and they can no longer be named without exciting ridicule in all fenfible people. By relating them here, therefore, and drawing them from their obfeurity, we only mean to ftiow their futility, and to mark thofe rocks agamft which the human mind, without the affiftance of a pilot, might ^Fo/the attaining of thefe fupernatural qualifications, there are ftill exifting in the world the remains ot, I. Adrolovy : a conjeftural fcience which teaches to iudge of the eftefts and influences of the ftars j and to predict future events by the fituation of the planets and their different afpefts. It is divided into natu¬ ral ajlrohgy, ox meteorology ; which is confined to t e foretelling of natural effeas, as the winds, ram hail, and fnow, frofts and tempefts. In this confifts one branch of the art of almanack-makers; and by merely confronting thefe predations in the kalendar with the weather each day produces, every man of fenfe will fee what regard is to be paid to this part of aftrology. The other part, which is called ajlrology, is ftill far more illufive and ralh than the former: and having been at firft the wonderful art of vifionanes, it after¬ wards became that of impoftors •, a very common fate with all thofe chimerical fciences, of which we Ihai here fpeak. This art pretends to teach the method ot predicting all forts of events that ftiall happen upon The earth, as well fuch as relate to the public as to pri¬ vate perfons •, and that by the fame mfpeaion of the ftars and planets and their different conffellations. 2. Horofcopy, which may alfo be confidered as a part of aftrology, is the art by which they draw a figure, or celeftial fcheme, containing the 12 houfes, wherein they mark the difpofition of the heavens at a certain moment; for example, that at which a man is born, m order to foretel his fortune, or the incidents of his life. In a word, it is the difpofition of the ftars and planets at the moment of any perfon’s birth. But as there cannot be any probable or poflible relation between the conftellations and the human race, all the principles they lay down, and the prophecies they draw from them, are chimerical, falfe, abfurd, and a criminal im- pofition on mankind. 3 The art of augury confifted, among the ancient Romans, in obferving the flight, the finging and eat¬ ing of birds, efpecially fuch as were held facred. bee A^Tfle equally deceitful art of harufpicy confifted, on the contrary, in the infpeaion of the bowels of ani¬ mals, but principally of viftims j and from thence pre¬ dicting grand incidents relative to the republic, and the good or bad events of its enterprifes. . 5. Aeromancy was the art of divining by the air. This vain fcience has alfo come to us from the Pagans*, but is rejeded by reafon as well as Chriftiamty, as talle and abfurd. . , , , . r 6 Pyromancy is a divination made by the inipec- tion of *a flame, either by obferving to which fide it turns, or by throwing into it fome combuftible matter, or a bladder filled with wane, or any thing elfe from which they imagined they were able to prediCt.^ 7. Hydromancy is the fuppofed art of divining by water. The Perfians, according to Varro, invented itj Pythagoras and Numa Pompilius made ufe of it ; and we ftill admire the like wonderful prognofticators. 8. Geomancy was a divination made by obferving of cracks or clefts in the earth. It was alfo performeu by points made on paper, or any other fubftance, at a venture ; and they judged of future events from the figures that refulted from thence. 1 his was certain¬ ly very ridiculous j but it is nothing lefs lo to pre¬ tend to predift future events by the infpeChon of the grounds of a difli of tea or coffee, or by cards, and many other like matters.—Thus have defigning men made ufe of the four elements to deceive their credu¬ lous brethren. q. Chiromancy is the art which teaches to know, by infpeCting the hand, not only the inclinations of a man, but his future deftiny alfo. The fo°ls °r importors who praftife this art pretend that the dif¬ ferent parts or the lines of the hand have a 1 elation to the internal parts of the body, as fome to the heart, others to the liver, fpleen, &c. On this falfe fup- pofition, and on many others equally extravagant, the principles of chiromancy are founded : and o* which, however, feveral authors, as ^obert Flu^ ^ Englilhman, Artemidorus, M. de la Chambre, John of Indagina, and many others, have written large trea- tlfTo. PhyfjQgnomy, or phyfiognomancy, is a fcience that pretends to teach the nature, the '^"dbg. / D I V [ 277 ] D I V Divine, underftandlng, and the inclinations of men, by the In- ^lving* fpeftion of their countenances, and is therefore very little lefs frivolous than chiromancy ; though Ariftotle, and a number of learned men after him, have written exprefs treatifes concerning it. DIVINE, fomething relating to God. The word is alfo ufed, figuratively, for any thing that is excellent, extraordinary, and that feems to go beyond the power of nature and the capacity of mankind. In which fenfe, the compafs, telefcope, clocks, &c. are faid to be divine inventions : Plato is called the divine author, the divine Plato ; and the fame appellation is given to Seneca : Hippocrates is called, “ the divine old man,” divinus fenex, &c. DIVING, the art or afl; of defcending under water to cdnfiderable depths, and abiding there a competent time. The ufes of diving are very confiderable, particular¬ ly in the fifiling for pearls, corals, Iponges, &c. See PEARL-Fij'lnng, See. There have been various methods propofed, and ma¬ chines contrived, to render the bufinefs of diving more fafe and eafy. The great point is to furnifh the diver with frefh air 5 without which, he mull either make a Ihort flay or perifli. Thofe who dive for fponges in the Mediterranean, help themfefves by carrying down fponges dipt in oil in their mouths. But confidering the fmall quantity of air that can be contained in the pores of a fponge, and how much that little will be contrafted by the preflure of the incumbent watter, fuch a fupply cannot long fubfill the diver. For it is found by experiment, that a gallon of air included in a bladder, and by a pipe reciprocally infpired and expired by the lungs, becomes unfit for refpiration in little more than one minute of time. For though its elafticity be but little altered in palling the lungs, yet it lofes its vivifying fpirit, and is rendered effete. In effeft, a naked diver, Dr Halley affures us, with¬ out a fponge, cannot remain above a couple of mi¬ nutes enclofed in water, nor much longer with one, without fulfocating; nor, without long praftice, near fo long j ordinary perfons beginning to ftifle in about half a minute. Befides, if the depth be confider¬ able, the preffure of the water on the veffels makes the eyes blood-fhotten, and frequently occafions a (pitting of blood. Hence, where there has been occafion to continue long at the bottom, fome have contrived double flexible pipes, to circulate air down into a cavity, enclofing the diver as with armour, both to furnifh air and to bear off the preffure of the water, and give leave to his breaft to dilate upon infpiration j the frefh air being forced down one of the pipes with bellows, and returning by the other of them, not unlike to an arte¬ ry and vein. But this method is impracticable when the depth furpaffes three fathoms j the rvater embracing the bare limbs fo clofely as to obftruft the circulation of the blood in them ; and withal prefling fo ftrongly on all the junftures where the armour is made tight with lea¬ ther, that, if there be the leaf! defedt in any of them, the water rufhes in, and inftantly fills the whole engine, to the great danger of the diver’s life. It is certain, however, that people, by being accu- ftomed to the wrater from their infancy, will at length Diving, be enabled, not only to flay much longer under water v~‘"“ than the time above mentioned, but put on a kind of amphibious nature, fo that they feem to have the ufe of all their faculties as well when their bodies are im- merfed in water as when they are on dry land. Moll favage nations are remarkable for this. According to the accounts of our late voyagers, the inhabitants of the South fea iflands are fuch expert divers, that when a nail or any piece of iron was thrown overboard, they would inftantly jump into the fea after it, and never failed to recover it, notwithftanding the quick defeent of the metal. Even among civilized nations, many per¬ fons have been found capable of continuing an incre¬ dible length of time below w'ater. The moft remark¬ able inftance of this kind is the famous Sicilian diver Nicolo Pefce. The authenticity of the account, in¬ deed, depends entirely on the authority of F. Kircher. He aflures us, that he had it from the archives of the kings of Sicily : but, notwithftanding this aiTertion, the whole hath fo much of the marvellous in it, that we believe there are few who will not look upon it to have been exaggerated. “ In the times of Frederic king of Sicily (fays Kircher), there lived a celebrated diver, w'hofe name was Nicholas, and who, from his amazing fldll in fwimming, and his perfeverance under water, wras furnamed the JiJh. This man had from his infancy been ufed to the fea } and earned his fcanty fubfiftence by diving for corals and oyfters, which he fold to the villagers on Ihore. His long acquaintance with the fea, at laft, brought it to be almoft his natu¬ ral element. He was frequently known to fpend five days in the midft of the waves, without any other pro- vifions than the fiftr which he caught there and ate rawT. He often fwam over from Sicily into Calabria, a tempeftuous and dangerous pafiage, carrying letters from the king. He was frequently known to fwim among the ^gulfs of the Lipari iflands, noway appre- henfive of danger. “ Some mariners out at fea, one day obferved fome¬ thing at fome diftance from them, which they regard¬ ed as a fea monfter ; but upon its approach it was knowm to be Nicholas, whom they took into their fiiip. When they afked him whither he was going in fo ftor- my and rough a fea, and at fuch a diftance from land, he Ihow'ed them a packet of letters, which he was car¬ rying to one of the towms of Italy, exaftly done up in a leather bag, in fuch a manner as that they could not be wetted by the fea. He kept them thus com¬ pany for fome time in their voyage, converfing, and alking queftious j and after eating a hearty-meal with them, he took his leave, and, jumping into the fea, pur- fued his voyage alone. “ In order to aid thefe powers of enduring in the deep, nature feemed to have aflifted him in a very ex¬ traordinary manner: for the fpaces between his fingers and toes were webbed, as in a goofej and his cheft be¬ came fo very capacious, that he could take in, at one infpiration, as much breath as would ferve him for a whole day. “ The account of fo extraordinary a perfon did not fail to reach the king himfelf ; who commanded Ni¬ cholas to be brought before him. It was no eafy mat¬ ter to find Nicholas, who generally fpent his time in the folitudes of the deep ; but, at laft, after much 1- fearching, D I V [ 278 ] D I V T)ivmg. fearching, lie was found, and brought before his ma- ' jefty. The curiofity of this monarch had been long ex¬ cited by the accounts he had heard of the bottom of the gulf of Charybdis •, he now therefore conceived, that it would be a proper opportunity to have more certain information. Pie therefore commanded our poor diver to examine the bottom of this dreadful whirlpool ; and as an incitement to his obedience, he ordered a golden cup to be Hung into it. Nicholas was not infenfible of the danger to which he was expoled •, dangers bed known only to himfelf; and therefore he prefumed to remonflrate: but the hopes ot the revrard, the defire of plealing the king, and the pleafure of {bowing his {kill, at laft prevailed. He inftantly jump¬ ed into the gulf, and was as inftantly fwallowed up in its bofom. He continued for three quarters of an hour below ; during which time the king and his at¬ tendants remained on ftiore, anxious for his fate j but he at laft appeared, holding the cup in triumph in one hand, and making his way good among the waves with the other. It may be fuppofed he was received with applaufe when he came on Chore : the cup was made the reward of his adventure ; the king ordered him to be taken proper care of; and, as he was fomewhat fa¬ tigued and debilitated by his labour, after a hearty meal he was put to bed, and permitted to relrelh him¬ felf by deeping. “ When his fpirits were thus reftored, he was again brought to fatisfy the king’s curiofity with a narrative of the wonders he had feen ; and his account was to the following effeft. He would never, he faid, have obeyed the king’s commands, had he been apprifed of half the dangers that were before him. There were four things, he faid, which rendered the gulf dread¬ ful, not only to men, but to fifties theml'elves. I. The force of the water burfting up from the bottom, which required great ftrength to refift. 2. The abruptnefs of the rocks that on every fide threatened deftruc- tion. 3. The force of the whirlpool daftiing againft thofe rocks. And, 4. The number and magnitude of the polypous fifti, fome of which appeared as large as a man j and which everywhere flicking againft the rocks, ptojefled their fibrous arms to_ entangle him. Being afked how he was able fo readily to find the cup that had been thrown in, he replied, that it happened to be flung by the waves into the. cavity of a rock againft which he himfelf was urged in . his de- feent. This account, however, did not fatisfy the king’s curiofity. Being requefted to venture once more into the gulf for further difeoveries, he at firft refufed: but the king, defirous of having the moft exaft information poffible of all things to be found in the gulf, repeated his folicitations) and, to give them ftill greater weight, produced a larger cup than the former, and added alfo a purfe of gold. Upon thefe confiderations the unfortunate diver once again plunged into the whirlpool, and was never heard of more.” . , r To obviate the inconvemencies of diving to thole who have not the extraordinary powers of the diver above mentioned, different inftruments have been con¬ trived. The chief of thefe is the diving-bell; which is moft conveniently made in form of a truncated cone, the fmaller bafe being clofed, and the larger open. It is to be poifed with lead 5 and fo fufpended, that 1 the veffel may fink full of air, with its open bafis down- Diving. ^ ward, and as near as may be in a fituation parallel to' v—' the horizon, fo as to clofe with the furface of the wa¬ ter all at once. Under this covercle the diver fitting, finks down with the included air to the depth defired : and if the cavity of the veffel contain a tun of water, a Angle man may remain a full hour, without much inconve¬ nience, at five or fix fathoms deep. But the lower you go, ftill the included air contrafis itfelf accord¬ ing to the weight of the water which comprefles it: fo that at 33 feet deep the bell becomes hall full of wa¬ ter, the preffure of the incumbent water being then equal to that of the atmofphere j and at all other depths the fpace occupied by the compreffed air in the upper part of the bell will be to the under part of its capacity filled with water, as 33 ':0 of the water in the bell below the common.furfa.ee thereof. And this condenfed air being taken in with the breath foon infinuates itfelf into all the cavities of the body, and has no ill effea, provided the bell be permitted to delcend lo {lowly as to allow time for that purpofe. One inconvenience that attends it, is found in the ears, within which there are cavities which open only outwards, and that by pores fo fmall as not to give admiflion even to the air itfelf, unlels they be dilated and diftended by a confiderable force. Hence, on the firft defeent of the bell, a preffure begins to be felt on the ear-, which, by degrees, grows painful, till the force overcoming the obftacle, what conftrin- ges thefe pores yields to the preflure, and letting fome condenfed air (lip in, prefently eafe enfues. The bell defeending lower, the pain is renewed, and again ealed in the fame manner. But the greateft inconvenience of this engine is, that the water entering it, contra&s the bulk of air into a fmall compafs, it foon heats and becomes unfit for refpirationj io that there is a neceili- ty for its being drawn up and renewed. “ The invention of this bell, (fays Profeffor Beck-Hijl. of mann), is generally affigned to the 16th century;-fo™*- and 1 am of opinion that it was little known before that period. We read, however, that in the time of Ariftotle divers ufed a kind of kettle, to enable thepi to continue longer under the water ; but the man¬ ner in which it was employed is not clearly deferi- bed. The oldeft information which we have of the ufe of the diving-bell in Europe, is that of John Taifnier, who was born in Hainault in 1509, had a place at court under Charles V. whom he attended on his voyage to Africa. He relates in what man¬ ner he faw at Toledo, in the prefence of the emperor and feveral thouland fpeftators, tw?o Greeks let them- felves down under water, in a large inverted kettle, with a burning light, and rife up again without being wet. It appears that this art w-ns then new to the emperor and the Spaniards, and that the Greeks were caufed to make the experiment in order to prove the poffibility of it.” . , , ^ “ When the Englifh, in 1588, difperfed the Spanrih fleet, called the Invincible Armada, part of the Ihips went to the bottom, near the Ifle o{ Mull, on the. weft- ern coaft of Scotland and feme of thefc, according to the account of the Spanifti prifoners, contained great riches. This information excited, from time to time, the avarice of fpeculators, and gave rile to feveral at¬ tempts D I V { s tempts to procure part of the loft treafure. In the “ year 1665, a perfon was fo fortunate as to bring up fome cannon, which, however, were not fufficient to defray the expences. Of thefe attempts, and the kind of diving-bell ufed in them, the reader will find an ac¬ count in a work printed at Rotterdam in 1669, and entitled G. Sinclan Ars nova et mngna gravitatis ct le- vitatis. In the year 1680, William Phipps, a native of America, formed a projeft for fearching and unload¬ ing a rich Spanifli flop funk on the coaft of Hifpaniola ; and reprefented his plan in fuch a plaufible manner, that King Charles II. gave him a fliip, and furniflied him with every thing neceffary for the undertaking. He fet fail in the year 1683; but being unfuccefsful, re¬ turned again in great poverty, though with a firm con- vj&ion of the poffibility of his fcheme. By a fubfcrip- tion promoted chiefly by the duke of Albemarle, the fon of the celebrated Monk, Phipps was enabled, in 1687, to try his fortune once more, having previoufly engaged to divide the profit according to the twenty flrares of which the fubfeription confifted. At firft all his labour proved fruitlefs; but at laft, when his pa- tience was almoft entirely exhaufted, he was fo lucky as to bring up, from the depth of fix or feven fathoms, fo much treafure that he returned to England with the value of two hundred thoufand pounds fterling. Of this fum he himfelf got about fixteen, others fay twen¬ ty thoufand, and the duke ninety thoufand pounds. After he came back, fome perfons endeavoured to per- fuade the king to feize both the fliip and the cargo, under a pretence that Phipps, when he folicited for his majefty’s permiflion, had not given accurate information refpeifting the bufinefs. But the king anfwered, with much greatnefs of mind, that he knew Phipps to be an honeft man, and that he and his friends fliould fliare the whole among them had he returned with double the Value. His majefty even conferred upon him the ho¬ nour of knighthood, to fhow how much he was fatisfied with his conduff. We know not the conftrudlion of Phipps’s apparatus: but of the old figures of a diving- machine, that which approaches neareft to the diving- bell is in a book on fortification by Lorini; who de- feribes a fquare box bound round with iron, which is furnithed with windows, and has a ftool affixed to it for the diver. This ingenious contrivance appears, how¬ ever, to be older than that Italian; at leait he does not pretend to be the inventor of it. “ In the year 1617, Francis Kefsler gave a defeription of his water-arraour, intended alfo for diving, but which cannot really be ufed for that purpofe. In the year 1671, W itfen taught, in a better manner than any of his predecefibrs, the conftrudftion end ufe of the di¬ ving-bell ; but he is much miftaken when he fays that it was invented at Amfterdam. In 1679 appeared, lor the firft time, Borelli’s well known work de motu animal turn', in which he not only deferibed the diving- bell, but alfb propofed another, the impra&icability of which was ffewn by James Bernouilli. When oturm publiflied his Collegium curiofurn in 1678, he propofed fome hints for the improvement of this ma¬ chine, on which remarks were made in the Journal des Sgavans.” To obviate the difficulties of the diving-bell, Dr Hal¬ ley, contrived fome further apparatus, W'hereby not on¬ ly to recruit and rcfrelh the air from time to time, but 79 1 - d 1 v alfo to keep the water wholly out of it at any depth. Diving, The manner in which this was effe&ed, he relates in ' ^— the following w'ords ; “ The bell I made ufe of was of wood, containing about 60 cubic feet in its concavity ; and was of the form of a truncated cone, whofe diameter at the top was three feet, and at the bottom five. This I coated with lead fo heavy that it would fink empty; and I diftri- buted the weight fo about its bottom, that it would go down in a perpendicular dire&ion, and no other. In the top I fixed a ftrong but clear glafs, as a window, to let in the light from above ; and likewife a cock to let out the hot air that had been breathed : and below, about a yard under the bell, I placed a ftage which hung by three ropes, each of which was charged with about one hundred weight to keep it Ready. This machine I fufpended from the mail of a fliip by a fprit, which was fufficient]y fecured by flays to the mart head* and was direbted by braces to carry it overboard clear of the fliip’s fide, and to bring it again within board as occafion required. “ I o fupply air to this bell when under water, I caufed a couple of barrels of about 36 gallons each to be cafed with lead, fo as to fink empty ; each of them having a bung-hole in its loweft parts to let in the wa¬ ter, as the air in them condenfed on their defeent; and to let it out again when they were drawn up full from below. And to a hole in the uppermoft part of thefe barrels, I fixed a leathern trunk or hofe well liquored with bees wax and oil, and long enough to fall below the bung-hole, being kept down by a weight append¬ ed : fo that the air in the upper part of the barrels could not efcape, unlefs the lower ends of thefe hofe were firft lifted up. The air-barrels being thus prepared, I fitted them with tackle proper to make them rife and fall alternate¬ ly, after the manner of two buckets in a well; which \Vtts done with fo much eafe, that two men, with lefs than half their ftrength, could perform all the labour re¬ quired ; and in their defeent they were direfled by lines faftened to the under edge of the bell, the which palled through rings on both fides the leathern hofe in each barrel ; lo that, Hiding down by thefe lines, they came readily to the hand of a man who flood on the ftage on purpofe to receive them, and to take up the ends of the hofe into the bell. Through thefe hofe, as foon as their ends came above the furface of the water in the barrels, ail the air that was included m the upper parts of them was blown with great force into the bell: whilft the water entered at the bung-holes below, and filled them ; and as foon as the air of one barrel had been thus received, upon a fignal given, that was drawn up, and at the fame time the other defeended ; and by an alternate fucceffion, furniflied air fo quick, and in fo great plenty, that I myfelf have been one of five who have been together at the bottom in nine or ten fathom water, for above an hour and a half at a time, without any fort of ill confequence ; and I might have continued there as long as I pleafed, for any thing that appeared to the contrary. Befides, the whole cavity of the bell was kept entirely free from water, fo that I fat on a bench which was diametrically placed near the bottom, wholly dreffed, with all my clothes on. I only obferved, that it w-as neceflary to be let down gradually at firft, as about 12 feet at a time; and then D I V I Diving, then to flop and drive out the air that entered, —y-i- receiving three or four barrels of frelh ^ before I defcendecl further. But, being arrived at the depth defigned, I then let out as much of the hot air that had^been breathed, as each barrel would replenifti with cool, by means of the cock at the t°P °f the bell •, through whofe aperture, though very fmall the air would ruih with fo much violence, as to make the furface of the fea boil, and to cover it with a white foam, notwithftanding the weight of the water °V<‘ Thus I found that I could do any thing that re¬ quired to be done juft under us 5 and that, by taking the ftage, I could, for a fpace as wide as the cir¬ cuit of the' bell, lay the bottom of tbe fea fo far dry as not to be overihoes thereon. And, by the glais window, fo much light was tranfmitted, that when the fea was clear, and efpecially when the fun ^one» ^ could fee perfeaiy well to write or read *, mucb m°re to fallen or lay hold on any thing under 11s that was to be taken up. And, by the return of the air-barrels, I often fent up orders written with an iron pen, on fmall plates of lead, direaing how to move us from - place to place as occafion required. At other times when the water was troubled and thick, . would be as dark as night below, but m fuch cafes I have been able to keep a candle burning in the bell as long as I pleafed, notwithftanding the great expence of fir neceffary to maintain flame.—By an additional contrivance, I have found it not impraaicable, for a diver to go out of an engine to a good diftance from it, the afr being conveyed to him with a continued ftream, by fmall flexible pipes ; which pipes may ler e as a clue,' to direft him back again when he would re- ^Plate^LXXVI. fig. I. fhows Dr Halley’s diving- bell with“ diversg« work. DBLKR1MP repre- fents the body of the bell. D the gUs wh.ch ferves window. B, the cock for letting ou^the £ 280 ] D I V by it is colder, and consequently more fit Jor refpitation. Diving. as a winaow. , r r* ^ ^ which has been breathed. LM the feats. » ™ the air-barrels. P, H, two of the divers. I, another diver at a diftance from the bell, and breathing through the flexible tube K—This diver is fuppofed to have a head-piece of lead, made to fit quit dole about his ihoulders •, this head-piece was capable of containing as much-air as would fupply him for a minute or two When he had occafion for more air, he turned a cock at F by which means a communication was opened with the air in the bell, and thus he could receive a new lup- ^^fThTinventiotr of this diving machine there has been one contrived by Mr Triewald, I. R. &. and military archited to the king of Sweden, which for fingle perfon, is in fome refpeas thought to be more eligible than Dr Halley’s, and is conftruaed as_ fo - lows: AB is the bell, which is funk by lead weights DD hung to its bottom. This bell is of copper and tinned all over in the infide, which is illuminated y three ftrong convex lenfes, G, G, G, with coPPer ^ H H H, to defend them. The iron ring or plate E femes’the diver to Hand on when he is at work and is fufpended at fuch a diftance from the bottom of the bell bv the chains F, F, F, that when the diver ftands upright, his head is juft above the water in the bell, where the air is much better than higher up, becaufe It is comer, aim * , But as the diver muft always be within the bell, and his head of courfe in the upper part, the inventor has contrived, that' even there, when he has breathed the hot air as well as he can, be may, by means of a Ipi- ral copper tube, b c, placed clofe to the infide of the bell, draw the cooler and frelher air from the lower- moft parts *, for which purpofe, a flexible leather tube* about two feet long, is fixed to the upper end of the copper tube at b ; and to the other end of this tube is fixed an ivory mouth-piece, by which the diver draws The greateft improvement, however, which the di¬ ving bell ever received, or probably can rec^ive» ™aS from the late Mr Spalding of Edinburgh. A feamn of his improved diving-bell is reprefented m tig. 3. This conftruftion is defigned to remedy iome incon¬ veniences of Dr Halley’s which are very evident, and of very dangerous tendency. I hefe are, % Dr Halley’s conftru£lion, the finking or raifing ot the bell depends entirely on the people who are at the furtace of the water-, and as the bell even when in the water has a very confiderable weight, the raifing it not only Requires a great deal of labour, but there >S a poffiM.ty of’the rope breaking by which it is raifed, and thus every perlon in the bell would inev.tably penfli. 2-As there are, in many places of the fea, rocks winch he at a confiderable depth, the figure of which cannot poflibly be perceived from above, there is danger t bat fome of their ragged prominences may catch hold of one of the edges of the bell in its delcent, anu thus overfet it before any fignal can be given to thofe above, which would infallibly be attended with deflruaion of the people in the bell j and as it muft always be unknown, before trial, what kind of a bottom the fea has in any place, it is plain, that without fome contrivance to obviate this laft dange , the defeent in Dr Halley’s diving-bell is not at all Cl1 How thefe inconveniencies are remedied by Mr Spal¬ ding’s new conftruftion will be eafily underftood from thegfollowing defeription.—ABCD reprefents auc¬ tion of the bell, which is made of wood ; are lr0" hooks, by means of which it is fufpended by ropes Q B F e, and QA E fU, and QS, as expreffedm thTfiffure • c. cy are iron hooks, to which are appended lead weights, that keep the mouth of the bell a ways parallel to the furface of the water, whether the ma¬ chine taken altogether is lighter or heavier than an equal bulk of water. By thefe weights alone, how¬ ever the bell would not fink ; another is therefore added, reprefented at L and which can be raifed or lowered at pleafure, by means of a rope Paflln| 0Ver t e pulley fl, and faftened to one of the ftdes of the bell at M 7As the bell defeends, this weight, called by Mr Spalding the balance-weight, hangs down able way below the mouth of the bell. In cale the edge of the bell is catched by any obftacle, the balance- weight is immediately lowered down lo that it may reft g the bottom. By this means the bell is 1’gktened. lb that all danger of overfetting is removed, Ior ben]g lighter, without the balance-weight, than an equal bulk of water, it is evident that the bell vni! rife, as well s the length of the rope, affixed to the ^ ^ce-weight Will allow it. This weight, therefore, will krveasa D I V [ 281 ] D I V Diving, kind of anchor to keep the bell at any particular depth -“■V'—•* which the divers may think neceffary ; or by pulling it quite up, the del'cent may be continued to the very bottom. By another very ingenious contrivance, Mr Spald¬ ing rendered it poflible for the divers to raife the bell, with all the weights appended to it, even to the fur- face, or to flop at any particular depth, as they think proper; and thus they could Hill be fafe, even though the rope defigned for pulling up the bell was broke. For this purpofe the bell is divided into two cavities, both of which are made as tight as poflible. Juit above the fecond bottom EF, are fmall flits in the fides of the bell; through which the water entering as the bell defcends, difplaces the air originally contained in this cavity, which flies out at the upper orifice of the cock GH. When this is done, the divers turn the handle G, which flops the cock ; fo that if any more air was to get into the cavity AEFD, it could not longer be difcharged through the orifice H as before. When this cavity is full of water, the bell finks •, but, when a confiderable quantity of air is admitted, it rifes. If, therefore, the divers have a mind to raife themfelves, they turn the fmall cock g, by which a communication is made between the upper and under cavities of the bell. The confequence of this is, that a quantity of air immediately enters the upper cavity, forces out a quantity of the water contained in it, and thus renders the bell lighter by the whole weight of the water which is difplaced. Thus, if a certain quan¬ tity of air is admitted into the upper cavity, the bell will defcend very flowly ; if a greater quantity, it will neither afcend nor defcend, but remain flationary ; and if a larger quantity of air is ftill admitted, it will arife to the top. It is to be obferved, however, that the air which is thus let out into the upper cavity muft be immediately replaced from the air-barrel 5 and the air is to be let out very flowly, or the bell will rife to the top with fo great velocity that the divers will be in danger of being fliaken out of their feats. But, by following thefe direftions, every poflible accident may be prevented, and people may defcend to great depths without the leaft apprehenfion of danger. The bell alfo becomes fo eafily manageable in the water, that it may be conduced from one place to another by a fmall boat with the greateft eafe, and with perfeft fafety to thofe who are in it. Inftead of wooden feats ufed by Dr Halley, Mr Spalding made ufe of ropes fufpended by hooks bbb; and on thefe ropes the divers may fit without any in¬ convenience. I and K are twTo windows made of thick ftrong glafs, for admitting light to the divers. N re- prefents an air-cafk with its tackle, and OCP the flex¬ ible pipe through which the air is admitted to the bell. In the afcent and defcent of this calk the pipe is kept down by a fmall weight appended, as in Dr Halley’s machine. R is a fmall cock by which the hot air is difcharged as often as it becomes troublefome. Fig. 4. is a reprefentation of the whole diving apparatus, which it is hoped wdll be readily underftood without any fur¬ ther explanation. Two air-barrels are reprefented in this figure ; but Mr Spalding was of opinion, that one capable of containing 30 gallons is fufficient for an or¬ dinary machine. Vol. VII. Part I. We are told of another method put in pra£lice by Divmg- a gentleman of Devonfhire. He has contrived a large bladder cafe of ftrong leather, perfeflly water-proof, which... J*.,.. may hold about half a hoglhead of air. This is fo m ^1 ‘tyf contrived, that, when he (huts himfelf up in this cafe, he may walk at the bottom of the fea, and go into any part of a wrecked veflel, and deliver out the goods.— This method, we are told, he has praffifed for many years, and has thus acquired a large fortune. It would be a confiderable improvement on this machine to condenfe the air in it as much as poflible before the diver defcended ; as he would thus be furniflied with an atmofphere endued with elafticity fufficient to refift: the weight of the water, which otherwife would fqueeze his cafe into much lefs room than it originally took up. The condenfed air alfo would ferve for refpiration a much longer time than that which is in its ordinary ftate. DiriNG-B/adder, a machine invented by Borelli, and by him preferred, though without any good rea- fon, to the diving-bell. It is a globular veflel of brafs or copper, about two feet in diameter, which contains the diver’s head. It is fixed to a goat’s-lkin habit ex¬ actly fitted to his perfon. Within the veflel are pipes j by means of which a circulation of air is contrived \ and the perfon carries an air-pump by his fide by which he can make himfelf heavier or lighter as fifties do, by contrafling or dilating their air-bladder. By this means he thought all the objeflions to which other diving machines are liable w^ere entirely obviated, and particularly that of want of air ; the air which had been breathed, being, as he imagined, deprived of its noxious qualities by circulating through the pipes. Thefe advantages, however, it is evident, are only ima¬ ginary. The diver’s limbs, being defended from the preffure of the water only by a goat’s Ikin, would in¬ fallibly be crufhed, if he defcended to any confiderable depth ; and from the difcoveries now made by Dr Prieftley and others, it is abundantly evident, that air, which is once rendered foul by breathing, cannot in any degree be reftored by circulation through pipes. Concerning the ufe of copper machines in general, Mr Spalding favoured us with the following curious ob- fervation, namely, That when a perfon has breathed in them a few minutes, he feels in his mouth a very difagreeable brafly tafte, which continues all the time he remains in the veflel; fo that, on this account, copper feems by no means an eligible material. This tafle moft probably arifes from the aflion of the al- kalefcent effluvia of the body upon the copper ; for volatile alkali is a ftrong diflblvent of this metal : but how thefe effluvia volatilize the copper in fuch a man¬ ner as to make the tafte of it fenfible in the mouth, it is not eafv to fay. DIVINI TY, properly fignifies the nature, quality, and effence of God. Divinity is alfo ufed in the fame fenfe with theo- logy. DIVISIBILITY, that property by which the par¬ ticles of matter in all bodies are capable of a feparadon or difunion from each other. The Peripatetics and Cartefians hold divifibility to be an affeftion of all matter. The Epicureans, again, allow it to agree to every phyfical continuum j but N n they D I V [ Bivifibllity. tliey deny that this affeftion agrees to all bodies, for the primary corpufcles or atoms they maintain to be perfedtly infecable and indiviflble. < . As it is evident that body' is extended, fo it is no lefs evident that it is divifible •, for fince no. two par¬ ticles of matter can exift in the fame place, it follows, that they are really diftin£t from each other j which is all that is meant by being divifible. In this fenfe the leait conceivable particle mull ftill be divilible, lince it will confift of parts which will be really diftinft. . To illuftrate this by a familiar inftance. Let the lead ima¬ ginable piece of matter be conceived lying on a fmooth plain furface, it is evident the furface will not touch it everywhere ; thofe parts, therefore, which it does not touch may be fuppofed feparable from the others, and fo on as far as we pleafe •, and this is all that is meant when we lay matter is infinitely divifible. The infinite divifibility of mathematical quantity is demonftrated thus geometrically. Suppofe the line AC perpendicular to BF •, and another, as GH, at a fmall diftance from it, alfo perpendicular to the lame line ; with the centres CCC, &c. delcribe circles cut¬ ting the line GH in the points e e 1 confiderable of which is, that fome parts of the divid- ' ing inftruments are always flruck off, and mixed with the matter to be divided. This may greatly affedl the operations. For inftance, inftruments of iron and cop¬ per furnifh metallic colouring particles, and copper is very prejudicial to health. Porphyry is coloured by a reddifh brown matter, which injures the colour of cryftal glaffes, enamels, and porcelains made with mat¬ ters ground upon this ftone. Thefe matters therefore muft be cleanfed after their porphyrization, or elie no inftruments capable of injuring the intended operations ought to be employed. Thus, for the preparation of all medicines to be taken internally, no copper inftru- ments, as mortars, peftles, &c. ought to be ufed •, thofe made of iron are preferable : and, inftead of porphyries, mortars, grinding ftones and millftones made of hard and white ftones, ought to be employed for fubftances which are to enter into the compolition of enamels, cryftal glafs, and porcelain, the whitenefs of which is a moft neceffary quality. Division, in Algebra. See Algebra. Division, in Arithmetic. See Arithmetic, N° 11. Divisions of an Army, in the military art, the feveral brigades and fquadrons into which it is can¬ toned. Divisions of a Battalion, are the feveral platoons in¬ to which it is divided in marching or firing, each of which is commanded by an officer. Division, in fea affairs, a fele£l number of ftiips in a fleet or fquadron of men of war, diftinguiftied by a particular flag or pendant, and ufually commanded by a general officer. A fquadron is commonly ranged into three divifions, the commanding officer of which is always ftationed in the centre. When a fleet confifts 0/ 60 fail of the line, that is, of fhips having at leaft 60 cannon each, the admiral divides it into three fquadrons, each of which has its divifions and commanding officers. Each fquadron has its proper colours, according to the rank of the admiral who commands it, and every divifion its proper mail. Thus the white flag denotes the firft divifion of France ; the white and blue the fecond ; and the third is charadlerized by the blue. In Britain, the firft ad¬ miral, or the admiral of the fleet, difplays the union flag at the main-top-maft head ; next follows the w hite flag with St George’s crofs j and afterwards the blue. The private (hips carry pendants of the fame colour wfith their refpedlive fquadrons at the mail of their particular divifions ; fo that the laft (hip in the divifion of the blue fquadron carries a blue pendant at her mizen-top-maft head. DIVISOR, in Arithmetic. See Arithmetic, N° II. DIUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of Chalci- dice in Macedonia, near Mount Athos. Alfo a pro¬ montory of Crete, on the north fide of the illand.—A third Dium, a promontory of Euboea ; or a town of that name in Euboea, near the promontory Cenaeum, on the north-weft fide of the ifland, called alfo Dia.—• A fourth Dium in Pieria of Macedonia, on the weft fide of the Sinus Thermaicus. Strabo and Livy place it on the borders of Pieria to the fouth, at the foot of Mount Olympus towards Theffaly. That it was a fplendid city, appears from Polybius; who relates, that Divodu- its gymnafium and walls were overthrown by the Alto- lians. From which overthrow, however, it again reco-1 vered, Alexander adding new fplendour to it, by thebrafs ftatues call by Lyfippus, and eredled there in memory of the flain at the Granicus : an ornament which was continued down to the time of the Romans } who made it a colony, called Dienjis.—A. fifth Dium beyond Jor¬ dan, near Pella in the Piraea. DIVODURUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Mediomatrici, in Gallia Belgica $ fituated on the Mofelle, on the fpot where now Metz Hands : now a city of Lorrain. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat. 49. 16. DIVORCE, a breach or diffolution of the bond of marriage. See Marriage, and Law Index. Divorce is of two kinds: the one, a vinculo matri¬ monii, which alone is properly divorce; the other, a menfa et thoro, “ a feparation from bed and board.” The woman divorced a vinculo matrimonii receives all again that ffie brought wuth her : the other has a fuitable feparate maintenance allowed her out of her hufband’s effedts. The firft only happens through fome effential impediment, as confanguinity or affinity within the degrees forbidden, pre-contraft, impotency, adultery, &c. of which impediments the canon law allows 14, comprehended in thefe verfes : Error, conditio, votum, cognatio, crimen, Cultus, difpantas, vis, ordo, hgamen, honejlas, Sifts a finis, Ji forte coire nequibis, Si par ochi et duplicis deft prafentia tefis, Raptave ft mulier, nec parti reddita tut a. Divorce is a fpiritual judgment, and therefore is paf- fed in the fpiritual court. Under the old law, the wm- man divorced was to have of her hufband a writing, as St Jerome and fofephus teftify, to this effedl : Ipro- mife, that hereafter I will lay no claim to thee; which was called a bill of divorce. Divorce was allowed of in great latitude both among the Pagans and JewTs. At Rome, barrennefs, age, difeafe, madnefs, and baniffiment, were the ordinary caufes of divorce. Spurius Carvilius, between 500 and 600 years after the building of Rome, under the con- fulffiip of M. Attilius, and P. Valerius, was the firft; who put away his wife becaufe ffie was barren j though Plutarch, in his Roman Queftions, maintains, that Do- mitian w’as the firft who permitted divorce. Juftinian afterwards added impotence, a vow of chaftity, and the profeffion of a monaftic life, as valid reafons of di¬ vorce. The Roman lawyers diftinguiffi between repudiurfi and divortium ; making the former to be the breaking of a contraft or efpoufal, and the latter feparation af¬ ter matrimony. Romulus enabled a fevere law, which fuffered not a wife to leave her huffiand, but gave the man the liberty of turning oft’ his wife, either upon poifoning her children, counterfeiting his private keys, or for the crime of adultery ; but if the huffiand on any other occafion put her away, he ordered one moiety of his eftate for the wufe, and the other to the goddefs Ceres: befides an atonement to the gods of the earth. However, in later times, the women as well as the men might fue a divorce. The common way of divorcing was by fending a bill to the woman, containing the rea¬ fons of feparation, and the tender of all her goods which N n 2 ffie t> I V f 284 1 D I V Divorce, {he brought with her : and this was called repudium 1 v ' mittere; or elfe it was performed in her prefence, and before feven witneffes, and accompanied with the for- ’ malities of tearing the writings, refunding the portion,^ taking away the "keys, and turning the woman out of doors. The Grecian laws concerning divorces were differ¬ ent : The Cretans allowed divorce to any man that was afraid of having too many children. The Spartans feldom divorced their wives j and it was extremely fcandalous for a woman to depart from her huihand. The Athenians allowed divorce on very fmall grounds, by a bill, containing the reaibn of the divorce, and ap¬ proved, if the party appealed, by the chief magilfrate ; and women alfo were allowed to leave their hufbands en juft occafions. Perfons divorcing their wives were obliged to return their portions ; otherwife, the Athe¬ nian0 laws obliged them to pay nine oboli a month for alimony. The terms exprefling the feparation of men and women from each other were differentthe men were fa id xTroTrs/ATriiv or c&7ro\t'Jiw> to diftnifs their wives ; but wives, otTroXuiruv, to leave their hujhands. Faley'sMo- The ]aw 0f Mofes (Mr Paley obferves), for rea- talTm fr f™5 of local expediency, permitted the Jewilh hufhand n 27s to Put awaf his wife ’ but whether for every caufe’ or f7‘3’ for what caufe, appears to have been controverted a- mongft the interpreters of thofe times. Chrift, the precepts of whofe religion were calculated for more general ufe and obfervation, revokes this permiffion, as given to the Jews * for their hardnefs of heart, and promulges a law wdnch was thenceforward to confine divorces to the fingle caufe of adultery in the wife : « Whofoever lhall put away his wife, except it be for fornication, and fhall marry another, committeth adul¬ tery } and whofo marrieth her which is put away, doth commit adultery,’ Mat. xix. 9. Inferior caufes may juftify the feparation ofhufband and wife, although they will not authorize fuch a dif- folution of the marriage contraft as would leave either at liberty to marry again : for it is that liberty in which the danger and mifchief of divorces principally confift. The law of this country, in conformity to our Saviour’s injunction, confines the diffolution of the marriage contrad to the fingle cafe of adultery in the wife \ and a divorce even in that cafe can only be brought about by the operation of an aft of parlia¬ ment, founded upon a previous fentence in the fpiritual court, and a verdift againft the adulterer at common law : which proceedings taken together compofe as com¬ plete an inveftigation of the complaint as a caufe can re¬ ceive. It has lately been propofed to the legiilature to annex a claufe to thefe afts, reftrainmg the offending party from marrying wfith the companion of her crime, who by the courfe of proceeding is always known and convifted : for there is reafon to fear, that adulterous connexions are often formed with the profpeft of bring¬ ing them to this conclufion ; at leaf!, w7hen the feducer has once captivated the affeftion of a married woman, he may avail himfelf of this tempting argument to fub- due her fcruples, and complete his viftory j and the le- giflature, as the bufinefs is managed at prefent, aflifls by its interpofition the criminal defign of the offenders, and confers a privilege where it ought to inflift a pu« nifhment. The propofal deferved an experiment; but fomething more penal, it is apprehended, will be found Divorce neceflary to check the progrefs of this alarming depra¬ vity. Whether a law might not be framed, direfting the fortune of the adultcrefs to defend as in cafe of her na¬ tural death ; referving, however, a certain proportion of the produce of it, by way of annuity, for her fubfiftence (fuch annuity in no cafe to exceed a certain fum) ; and alfo fo far fufpending the eftate in the hands of the heir, as to preferve the inheritance to any children fire might bear to a fecond marriage, in cafe there was none to fucceed in the place of their mother by the firft : whe¬ ther fuch a law wmuld not render female virtue in higher life lefs vincible, as well as the feducers of that virtue lefs urgent in their fuit, I would recommend to the de¬ liberation of thofe who are willing to attempt the re¬ formation of this important but moft incorrigible clafs of the community. A paffion for fplendour, for expen- five amufements and diftinftions, is commonly found in that defcription of w'omen who w ould become the fubjefts of fuch a law, not lefs inordinate than their other appetites. A feverity of the kind propofed ap¬ plies immediately to that paffion. And there is no room for any complaint of injuftice, fince the provi- fions above Hated, with others which might be con¬ trived, confine the punifhment, fo far as it is pofiible, to the perfon of the offender ; fuffering the eftate to remain to the heir, or within the family of the an- ceftor from whom it came, or to attend the appoint¬ ments of his will. “ Sentences of the ecclefiaftical courts, which releafe the parties a vinculo matrimonii, by reafon of impuberty, frigidity, confanguinity within the prohibited degrees, prior marriage, or want of the requifite confent of pa¬ rents or guardians, are not diflblutions of the marriage contraft, but judicial declarations that there never was any marriage , fuch impediment fubfifting c(t the time as rendered the celebration of the marriage rite a mere nullity. And the rite itfelf contains an exception of thefe impediments. The man and woman to be mar¬ ried are charged, “ if they know any impediment why they may not be lawfully joined together, to confels it and affured, “ that fo many as are coupled to¬ gether, otherwile than God’s w’ord doth allow, are not joined together by God, neither is their matrimony lawful 5” all which is intended by way of folemn no¬ tice to the parties, that the vow they are about to make will bind their confciences and authorize their cohabi¬ tation only upon the fuppofition that no legal impedi¬ ment exift.” . DIURETICS (from by, and vpy, urine J, medi¬ cines which provoke a diicharge by unne. Such is water drank plentifully , w’hite wine drank in a morning j alkaline falts of all kinds ; fea falt,.fal gemmae, nitre, borax, alum, tartar, fal ammoniac, whey, four milk, lemon juice, &c. Aqueous liquors are generally diuretic, efpecially if mixed with fait, and drank cold. Fermented liquors are the leaft diu¬ retic of all ; and the lefs fo, as they are the fatter. Sharp thin four wines, Rhenifh, &c. as alio acid fpirits of vinegar, fait, fulphur, alum, vitriol, &c. afparagus, bitter almonds, fmallage, eryngium, eupatcrium, iafla- fras, &c. are all diuretics. DIURNAL, in Jfronomy, fomething relating to¬ day in oppofition to no&urnal, which regards the night. DIVUS, Ditfa, in antiquity, appellations given to me a DOB [ 285 1 DOC men and women who had been deified, or placed in the number of the gods. See Deification, &c. Hence it is, that on medals ftruck for the confecra- tion of an emperor or emprefs, they give them the title of divus or diva : for example, DIVUS JULIUS. DIVO ANTONINO PIO. DIVO PIO.‘ D1VO CLAUDIO. DIVA FAUSTINA AUG. &c. DIZZINESS, in Medicine. See Vertigo. DO, in Mujic, a note of the Italian fcale, corre- fponding to ut of the common gammut. See Music. DOBSON, William, an eminent Englifh portrait and hiftory painter, born at London in 1610. He ferved an apprenticefhip with one Peck, a ilationer and pidure-dealer ; and owed his improvement to the copying fome piftures of Titian and Van Dyck, whofe manner he always retained. He had farther obliga¬ tions to the latter of thefe artifts ; for it is faid, that a pi&ure of his painting being expofed at a {hop on Snow hill, Van Dyck palling by was {truck with it exceedingly ; and inquiring after the author, found him at work in a poor garret. Van Dyck had the gene- rofity to equip him in a manner fuitable to his merit. He prefented him to King Charles I. who took him un¬ der his protection, kept him with him at Oxford all the time his majefty continued in that city, and not only fat to him feveral times for his picture, but caufed the prince of Wales, Prince Rupert, and molt of the lords of his court, to do fo too. Mr Dodfon, how¬ ever, being fomewhat loofe and irregular in his way of life, was far from improving the many opportunities he had of making his fortune ; and died very poor in 1647. at his houfe in St Martin’s Lane. DOBUNI, or Boduni 5 an ancient people of Bri¬ tain, who pofleffed the territory which now forms the counties of Oxford and Gloucelter. Both the names of this Britiilr nation feem to have been derived from the low lituation of a great part of the country which they inhabited : for both Duvn and Bodun fignify “ profound” or “ low,” in the ancient language of Gaul and Britain. The Dobuni are not mentioned among the Britilh nations who refilled the Romans under Julius Csefar, which was probably owing to the diflance of their country from the fcene of a£tion ; ami before the next invafion under Claudius, they had been fo much oppreflfed by their ambitious neighbours the Cattivellauni, that they fubmitted with pleafure to the Romans, in order to be delivered from that oppretlion. Cogidunus, who was at that time (as his name im¬ ports) prince of the Dobuni, recommended himfelf fo effe&ually to the favour of the emperor Claudius, by his ready fubmiffion, and other means, that he was not only continued in the government of his own territo¬ ries, but had fome other Bates put under his authority. I his prince lived fo long, and remained fo Beady a friend and ally to the Romans, that his fubje&s, be¬ ing habituated to their obedience in his time, never revolted, nor Bood in need of many forts or forces to keep them in fubjeSion. This is certainly the reafon that we meet with fo few Roman towns and Bations in the country anciently inhabited by the Dobuni. The Durocornovium of Antoninus, and the Corinium of Ptolemy, are believed by antiquaries to have been the fame place, the capital of the Dobuni, and fituated at CirenceBer in Glouceflerfiiire, where there are many marks of a Roman flation. Clevum or Glevum, in the thirteenth iter of Antoninus, Bood where the city of Boretas Gloucefler now Bands ; and Abone, in the fourteenth 11 iter, was probably fituated at Avinton on the Severn, y^, The country of the Dobuni was comprehended in the . . .. ' *_ Roman province Britannia Prima. DOCETJE (from dutcew, to appear), in ecclefiafii- cal hiflory, the followers of Julius Caflianus, one of the Valentinian fe6l, towards the clofe of the fecond cen- tuiy, who revived a notion that had been adopted by a branch of the GnoBics, againfl whom St John, Ig¬ natius, and Polycarp, had afferted the truth of the in¬ carnation. They believed and taught, as their name imports, that the aflions and fufferings of Jtfus Chrilt were not in reality, but only in appearance. DOCIMASIA, in Greek antiquity, a probation of the magiBrates and perfons employed in public bufi- nefs at Athens. It was performed publicly in the fo¬ rum, where they were obliged to give account of themfelves and their paB life before certain judges. Among feveral queflions propofed to them, we find the following : Whether they had been dutiful to their pa¬ rents, had ferved in the wars, and had a competent eflate ? DOCIMASTIC art, a name gi ven to the art of eflaying by operations in fmall, the nature and quan¬ tity of metallic or other matters which may be obtain¬ ed from mineral or other compound bodies. See Re¬ fining and Metallurgy. DOCIMENUM marmor, a name given by the ancients to a fpecies of marble of a bright and clear white, much ufed in large and fumptuous buildings, fuch as temples and the like. It had its name from- Docimenos, a city of Phrygia, afterwards called Synaia; near which it was dug, and from whence it was fent to Rome. It was accounted little inferior to the Pa¬ rian in colour, but not capable of fo elegant a polifli ; whence it was lefs ufed by the flatuaries, or in other fmaller works. The emperor Adrian is faid to have ufed this marble in building the temple of Jupiter ; . and many others of the great works of the Romans are of it. DOCK, in Botany. See Rumex, Botany /We.r. Dock, in the manege, is ufed for a large cafe of leather, as long as the dock of a horfe’s tail, which ferves it for a cover. The French call the dock troujfequeue. It is made fafl by Braps to the crupper, and has leathern thongs that pafs between his thighs, and along his Banks to the faddle flraps,_in order to keep the tail tight, and to hinder it from whilking, about. Dock, in maritime affairs, a fort of broad and deep trench formed on the fide of a harbour, or on the banks of a river ; and commodioufly fitted either to build Blips or receive them to be repaired and breamed therein. Thefe forts of docks have generally flrong flood-gates to prevent the flux of the tide from enter¬ ing the dock while the Blip is under repaii There are likewife docks of another kind, called wet docks, where a Blip can only be cleaned during the recefs of the tide, or in the interval between the time when the tide left her dry aground, and the period when it a- gain reaches her by the return of the flood. Docks of the latter kind are not furniflied with the ufual flood¬ gates. Docz-Yards, certain magazines containing all forts-' o£ f DOC :»oftor. of naval ftores and timber for {hip-building 1 * land, the royal dock-yards are at Chatham, Portfmourh, Plymouth, Deptford, Woolwich, and Sheernefs* His majefty’s {hips and veffels of war are generally moored at thefe ports during the time of peace j and fuch as want repairing are taken into the uocks, examined, and refitted for fervicc. The principal dock-yards are governed by a com- miffioner, refident at the port ; who fuperintends all the mufters of the officers, artificers, and labourers, em¬ ployed in the dock yard and ordinary. He alfo con- trouls their payments therein ; examines their accounts; contrafts, and draw bills on the navy office to fupply the deficiency of {lores *, and, finally, regulates what¬ ever belongs to the dock-yard, maintaining due order in the refpe&ive offices. Thefe yards are generally fupplied from the northern crowns with hemp, pitch, tar, rofin, canvas, oak plank, and feveral other fpecies. With regard to the mails, particularly thofe of the largeil fize, they are ufually imported from New England. DOCTOR, a perfon who has paffed all the degrees of a faculty, and is empowered to teach or praftife the • fame : thus we fay, doftor in divinity, dodor in phy- fic, dodlor of laws. The eftablilhment of the doBorate, fuch as now in ufe among us, is ordinarily attributed to Irnerius, who himfelf drew up the formulary. The firft ceremony of this kind was performed at Bologna, in the perfon of Bulgarus, who began to profefs the Roman law, and on that occafion wasfolemnly promoted to the doc- torax, i. e. inftalled juris utnufque dofter. But the cu- ftom was foon transferred from the faculty of law to that of theology *, the firft inftance whereof was given in the univerfity of Paris, where Peter Lombard and Gilbert de la Portree, the two chief divines ot thole days, were created doftors in theology,/rfme theologus do Bores. Spelman takes the title of do£lor not to have com¬ menced till after the publication of Lombard’s len- tences, about the year 1140; and affirms, that iuch as explained that work to their fcholars were the firft that had the appellation of doftors. Others go much his/her, and hold Bede to have been the firft doftor at Cambridge, and John de Beverley at Oxford which latter died in the year 7 21. But Spelman will not al¬ low doftor to have been the name of any title or de¬ gree in England till the reign of King John, about the To pafs doftor in divinity at Oxford, it is neceffary the candidate have been four years bachelor of divinity. For doftor of laws, he muft have been feven years in the univerfity to commence bachelor of law ; five years after which he may be admitted doftor of laws. O- therwife, in three years after taking the degree of matter of arts, he may take the degree of bachelor m law ; and in four years more, that of LL. D. which fame method and time are likewife required to pals the degree of doftor in phyfic. r j n. * j* At Cambridge, to take the degree of doftor in di¬ vinity it is required the candidate have been {even years bachelor of divinity. Though in feveral of the colleges the taking of the bachelor of divinity s degtxe is difpenfed with, and they may go out per faltum. lo commence doftor in laws, the candidate mull have r 286 1 D O D In Eng- been five years bachelor of law, or feven years matter JJ0]§, a man) ; the name of the eleventh clafs in Linnaeus’s fexual fyftem, confiftihg of plants with hermaphrodite flowers, that according to the title, have twelve ftami- na or male organs. This clafs however, is not limited with refpefl to the number of ftamina. Many genera have fixteen, eighteen, and even nineteen ftamina j the efTential character feems to be, that, in the clafs in que- ftion, the ftamina, however numerous, are inferted into the receptacle ; whereas in the next clafs, icofandria, which is as little determined in point of number as the prefent, they are attached to the infide of the calyx or flower-cup. The orders in this clafs, which are fix, are founded upon the number of the ftyles, or female organs. A- farabacca, mangoftan, ftorax, purple loofeftrife, wild Syrian rue, and purflain, have only one ftyle } agrimony and heliocarpus have two j burning thorny plant, and baftard rocket, three 5 ghnus, five j i/licium, eight 5 and houfe leek, twelve. DODECAS, a genus of plants belonging to the do- decandria clafs. See Botany Index. DODECATHEON, a genus of plants belonging to the pentandria clafs; and in the natural method ranking under the 21ft order, Precice. See Botany Index. DODO. See Didus, Ornithology Index. DODONA, a town of Thefprotia in Epirus, or (according to others) in Theffaly. T here was in its neighbourhood a celebrated oracle of Jupiter. 1 he towm and temple of the god were fiift built by Deu¬ calion, after the univerfal deluge. It was fuppofed to be the moft ancient oracle of all Greece *, and accord¬ ing to the traditions of the Egyptians mentioned by Herodotus, it was founded by a dove. I w'o black doves, as he relates, took their flight from the city of Thebes in &gypt ; one of which flew to the temple of Jupiter Ammon, and the other to Dodona, where with a human voice they acquainted the inhabitants of the country that Jupiter had confecrated the ground, which in future w7ould give oracles. I he extenfive grove which furrounded Jupiter’s temple was endowred w’ith the gift of prophecy ; and oracles wrere frequent¬ ly delivered by the facred oaks and the doves which in¬ habited the place. This fabulous tradition of the ora¬ cular power of the doves is explained by Herodotus, who obferves that fome Phenicians carried away two priefteffes from Egypt, one of which went to fix her refidence at Dodona, where the oracle was eftabliflied. It may farther be obferved, that the fable might have been founded upon the double meaning of the word which fignifies doves in moft parts of Greece, while in the dialed! of the Epirots it implies old wo¬ men. In ancient times the oracles were delivered by the murmuring of a neighbouring fountain •, but the cuftom was afterwards changed. Large kettles wrere fufpended in the air near a brazen ftatue, which held a lalh in its hand. When the wind blew ftrong, the ftatue D O D [ 28I ■©odona ftatue was agitated and (truck againlt one of the ket- jl ties, which communicated the motion to all the reft, )o' ' . and raifed that clattering and difcordant din, which continued for a while., and from which the artifice of the priefts drew the predictions. Some fuppofe that the noife was occalioned by the {baking of the leaves and boughs of an old oak, which the fuperftition of the people frequently confulted, and from which they pretended to receive oracles. It may be obfeived, with more probability, that the oracles were delivered by the priefts, who, by artfully concealing tbemfelves behind the oaks, gave occaflon to the fuperftitious multitude to believe that the trees were endowed wuth the power of prophecy. As the fhip Argo was built with fome of the oaks of the foreft of Dodona, there w'ere fome beams which gave oracles to the Ar¬ gonauts, and warned them againft the approach of calamity. Within the foreft of Dodona there was a ftream and a fountain of cool water w7hich had the power of lighting a torch as foon as it touched it. This fountain was totally dry at noon day, and was re- ftored to its full courfe at midnight, from which time till the following noon it began to decreafe, and at the ufual hour was again deprived of its waters. The oracles of Dodona were generally delivered by wTomen. DODONAiA, a genus of plants belonging to the oCIandria clafs. See Botany Index. DODONIAN, (Dodonaus,') in antiquity, an epithet -given to Jupiter, becaufe he was w'orfhipped in a temple built in the foreft of Dodona, where was the moft fa¬ mous, and (it is faid) the moft ancient, oracle of all Greece. See Dodon^. DODON1DES, the priefteffes who gave oracles in the temple of Jupiter in Dodona. According to fome traditions the temple was originally inhabited by feven daughters of Atlas, who nurfed Bacchus. Their names were Ambrofia, Eudora, Pafithoe, Pytho, Plexaure, Coronis, Tythe or Tyche. In the latter ages the ora¬ cles were always delivered by three old women ; which cuftom was firft eftablifhed when Jupiter enjoyed the company of Dione, whom he permitted to receive di¬ vine honour in his temple at Dodona. T he Boeotians were the only people of Greece who received their ora¬ cles at Dodona from men, for reafons which Strabo, 1. 9. fully explains. DODRANS, in antiquity, three-fourths of the as. See the article As. DODSLEY, Robert, an eminent bookfeller, and ingenious writer, born at Mansfield in Nottingham- fhire, in the year 1703. He was not indebted to education for his literary fame, being originally a li¬ very fervant •, but his natural genius, and early paflion for reading, foon elevated him to a fuperior ftation. He wrote an elegant little fatirical farce called Toy- fbup, which was a6Ied with applaufe in 1735» an^ which recommended him to the patronage of Mr Pope. The following year he produced the King and Miller of Mansfield. The profits of thefe two farces enabled him to commence bookfeller, and his own merit pro¬ cured him eminence in that profefiion. He wrote fome other dramatic pieces, and publifhed a colleftion of his works in one vol. 8vo, under the modeft title of Trifles 5 which was followed by Public Virtue, a poem in 4to. JMr Dodfley was the author of the Economy of Hu- ; ] DOG man Life, a work which acquired confiderable cele- Dodwtll- brity j but for this, it is fuppofed to have been in- ^ debted to the miftaken opinion which long prevailed . of its being the produ&ion of Lord Cherfterfield. DODWELL, Henry, a very learned controverfial writer, born at Dublin, but of Englifli extra&ion, in 1641. He wrote an incredible number of tradls : but his fervices w'ere fo little acknowledged, that Bifhop Burnet and others accufe him of doing more hurt than good to the caufe of Chriftianity, by his indifcreet love of paradoxes and novelties, and thus expofing himfelf to the feoffs of unbelievers. His pamphlet on the im¬ mortality of the foul gave rife to the well-known con- troverfy between Mr Collins and Dr Clark on that fub- jeft. He died in 1711. DOESBURG, a town of the United Provinces, in the county of Zutphen and province of Guelderland. It is fmall, but well peopled, and very ftrong both by art and nature, having the river Yffel on one fide, and a morafs on the other, and is only to be approached by a narrow neck of land. E. Long. 5. 55. N. Lat. 52, 3. DOG, in Zoology, an animal remarkable for its natural docility, fidelity, and affe&ion for his matter; which qualities mankind are careful to improve for their own advantage. Thefe ufeful creatures guard our houfes, gardens, and cattle, with fpirit and vigilance. By their help we are enabled to take not only beafts, but birds; and to purfue game both over land and through the waters. In fome northern countries, they ferve to draw fledges, and are alfo employed to carry burdens. In feveral parts of Africa, China, and by the Weft Indian negroes, dogs are eaten, and account¬ ed excellent food. Nay, we have the teftimony of Mr Forfler, that dogs flefh, in tafte, exaftly refembles mut¬ ton*. They were alfo ufed as food by the Romans, and long before them by the Greeks, as we learn from * See Amen feveral treatifes of Hippocrates. In the prefent times, r/Va N° 90-. their {kins, dreffed with the hair on, are ufed in muffs, made into a kind of bufkins for perfons in the gout, and for other purpofes. Prepared in another way, they are ufed for ladies gloves, and the linings of mafks, be¬ ing thought to make the fkin peculiarly wdrite and fmooth. The French import many of thefe fkins from Scotland, under a fmall duty. Here, when tanned, they ferve for upper leathers for neat pumps. Dogs fkins dreffed are exported under a fmall, and imported under a high duty. The French import from Denmark large quantities of dogs hair, both white and black. The laft is efteemed the beft, and is worked up in the black lift of a particular kind of woollen cloth ; but is not ufed, as many have fuppofed, in making of hats, being entirely unfit for this purpofe. With regard to the qualities of dogs, thofe bred in the ifland of Britain are juftly reckoned fuperior to the dogs bred in any other country. The fwiftnefs of the greyhound is amazing ; as are alfo the fteadinefs and perfeverance of other hounds and beagles; the boldnefs of terriers in unearthing foxes, &c. ; the fagacity of pointers and fetting dogs, who are taught a language by figns as intelligible to fportfmen as fpeech ; and the invincible fpirit of a bull-dog, which can be quelled only by death.—All the nations in Europe not only do juftice to the fuperior qualities of the Britifh dogs, but adopt our terms and names, and thankfully receive the creatures 2 DOG [2 creatures as prefents.—It is remarkable, however, that almoft every kind of Britifh dogs degenerates in foreign s countries ; nor is it poffible to prevent this degeneracy by any art whatever. For the natural hiftory of the dog, fee Canis, Mam¬ malia Index. Choojmg of Dogs.—In order to choofe a dog and bitch for good whelps, take care that the bitch come of a generous kind, be well proportioned, having large ribs and flanks } and like wife that the dog be of a good breed and young, for a young dog and an old bitch breed excellent whelps. The befl time for hounds nitches, or bratches, to be lined in, are the months of January, February, and March. The bitch (hould be ufed to a kennel, that file may like it after her whelping, and (he ought to be kept warm. Let the wheips be weaned after two months old 5 and though it be fome difficulty to choofe a whelp under the dam that will prove the beff of tha litter, yet fome approve that which is lad, and account him to be the beff. Others remove the whelps from the kennel, and lay them feverally and apart one from the other ; then they watch which of them the bitch fii'fl takes and carries into her kennel again, and that they fuppofe to be the bed. Others again imagine that which weighs lead when it fucks to be the bed: this is certain, that the lighter whelp will prove the fwifter. As loon as the bitch has littered, it is proper to choofe them you intend to preferve, and drown the led : keep the black, brown, or of one colour ; for the fpotted are not much to be edeemed, though of hounds the fpotted are to be valued. Hounds for chafe are to be chofen by their colours. The white, with black ears, and a black fpot at the fet- ting on of the tail, are the mod principal to compofe a kennel of, and of good fcent and condition. The black hound, or the black tanned, or the all liver-coloured or all white : the true talbots are the befl; of the dronger line j the grizzled, w’hether mixed or unmixed, fo they be diag-haired, are the bed verminers, and a couple of thefe are proper for a kennel.—In fhort, take thefe marks of a good hound : That his head be a middle proportion, rather long than round ; his nodrils wide, his ears large, his back bowed ; his fillet great, his haunches large, thighs well trufled, ham drait, tail big near the reins, the red flender ; the leg big, the foie of the foot dry, and in the form of that of a fox, with large claws. Keeping Dogs in Health.—As pointers and fpaniels, when good of their kinds and well broken, are very valuable to a fportfman, it is worth while to take fome care to preferve them in health. This very much de¬ pends on their diet and lodging : frequent cleaning their kennels, and giving them frefii draw to lie on, is very necedary; or, in dimmer time, deal fhavings, or fand, indead of draw, will check the breeding of fleas. If you rub your dog with chalk, and brufli and comb him once or twice a-week, he will thrive much the better ; the chalk will clear his fkin from all greafinefs, and he will be the lefs liable to be mangy. A dog is of a very hot nature : he fliould therefore never be without clean water by him, that he may drink when he is thirdy. In regard to their food, carrion is by no means proper for them \ it mud hurt their fenfe of duelling, on which the excellence Vox. VII. Part I. 89 ] DOG of thele dogs greatly depends. Barley meal, the drofs of wheat dour, or both mixed together, with broth or fkimmed milk, is very proper food. For change, a ‘Jf,, fmall quantity of greaves from which the tallow is^"’ preffed by the chandlers, mixed with flour, or fheep’s feet well baked or boiled, are a very good diet : and when you indulge them wdth fledi, it fiiould always be boiled. In the feafon of hunting your dogs, it is pioper to feed them in the evening before, and give them nothing in the morning you intend to take them out except a little milk. If you flop for your own re- fiediment in the day, you fliould alfo refredi your dogs wuth a little bread and milk. It has been already ob- feryed that dogs are of a hot conflitution 5 the greated relief to them in the dimmer is twitch-grafs, or dog- grafs, which is the fame thing. You fliould therefore plant fome of it in a place wdiere you can turn them into every morning : they will feed freely on it to be cured of the ficknefs they are fubjeft to, and cured of any extraordinary heat of blood : but unlefs the grafs be of this fort, it will have no effecf. Difeafes of Dogs.— 1. Bites and Stings. If dogs are bitten by any venomous creatures, as fnakes, ad¬ ders, &c. fqueeze out the blood, and wadi the place with fait and urine; then lay a plader to it made of calamint, pounded in a mortar, with turpentine and yellow wax, till it come to a falve. If you give your dog fome of the juice of calamint to drink in milk, it wull be good ; or ajr ounce of treacle diffolved in fome fweet wine. 2. Mange.—Dogs are fubjefl to the mange from being fed too high, and alkwed no exercife or an op¬ portunity of refrelhing themfelves with dog-grafs ; or by being ftarved at home, which will caufe ’them to eat the vileft fluff abroad, fuch as carrion, or even hu¬ man excrement : or by want of water, and femetimes by not being kept clean in their kennel, or by founder¬ ing and melting in their greafe. Either of thefe will heat the blood to a great degree, which will have a tendency to make them mangy. The cure may be ef- fefted by giving ftone brimftone powdered fine, either m milk or mixed up with butter, and rubbing them well every day for a week with an ointment made of fome of the brimflane and pork lard, to which add a fmall quantity of oil of turpentine. Or, boil four ounces of quickfilver in two quarts of water to half the quantity ; bathe them every day with this w^ater, and let them have fome of it to lick till the cure is perfect¬ ed. Or, a fmall quantity of trooper’s ointment rubbed on the parts on its firft appearance will cure it. It will alfo free loufy puppies from their lice. Or, take turn ounces of euphorbium ; flour of fulphur, Flan¬ ders oil of bays, and foft foap, each four ounces. Anoint and rub your dog with it every other day ; give him w^arm milk, and no water. The cure will be performed in about a week. Fhe following receipt is alfo faid to be efficacious. Take two handfuls of wild creffes, and as much elecampane, and alfo of the leaves and roots of roerb and forrel, and two pounds of the roots of fodrels: boil all thefe well together in lye and vinegar; ftrain the deco&ion, and put into it two pounds of gray foap, and when it is melted, rub the dog with it four or five days fucceflively, and it will cure him. 3. Poifqn.—If you fufpeft your dog to be poifoned O 0 with DOG [ 290 ] DOG Bog. Sportfman' Ditt. with nux vomica (the poifon ufually employed ^7 t^ie warreners, which caufes convulfive fits and loon kills), the moft effe&ual remedy, if immediately applied, is to give him a good deal of common fait} to admini- fler which, you may open his mouth, and put a flick acrofs to prevent the (hutting it, whilft you cram his throat full of fait, at the fame t.me holding Ins mouth upwards ; and it will diffolve fo that a luth- cient quantity will be fwallowed to purge and vomit him. When his ftomach is fufficiently cleared by a free paffage obtained by ftool, give him lome warm broth frequently, to prevent his expiring from faint- nefs ; and he will recover. ' 4. Worms.—Dogs are very frequently troubled with worms; but more particularly whilft they are young. Any thing bitter is fo naufeous to thefe worms, that they are very often voided by taking two or three purges of aloes > or (which is the, fame thing) Scots pills, four or five being a dofe for a large dog : this ts to be repeated two or three times in a week, it this do not fucceed, you may give him an ounce of powder of tin mixed up with butter, in three dofes ; which lei- dom fails to cure. Or, of the herb favin, dried and rubbed to powder, give about as much as will lie on a (hilling for a dofe > which will entirely deftroy worms and their feed. , , c. Sore Feet.—A pointer ought not to be hunted oftener than two or three days in a week •, and unleis you take care of his feet, and give him good lodging as well as proper food, he will not be able to perform that through the feafon. You ftiould therefore, after a hard day’s hunting, wafh his feet with warm water and fait : and when dry, walh them with warm broth, or beer and butter, which will heal their forenefs, and pre¬ vent a fettled ftiffhefs from fixing. 6. Strains, Blows, or fmall Wounds. -If your dog has received any little wounds by forcing through hedges, or gets any lamenefs from a blow or wrain j bathe the wound or grieved part with fait and cold vinegar rfor warming it only evaporates the fine fpirit) •, and when dry, if a wound, you may pour in it a little friar’s balfam, which will perform the cure fooner than any method hitherto experienced. 7. Coughs and Colds.-—Dogs are very fubjeft te a cough, with an extraordinary choking, wftnch is thought to arife generally from a cold or fome inward diforder ; and probably it is often occafioned by then- eating of fidi bones, to guard againft it, order your Servants to throw all fuch filh bones where the dogs cannot get at them. But if the diforder be from a cold, let bleeding be repeated in fmall quantities, if necenary 5 but if it be what is called the dijlempcr in dogs, and they appear to be very low in fpirits, the bleeding is better omitted. Let meat broth, or milk broth warmed, be the principal part of his diet, ufing at the fame time the following medicine. Take flour of lulphur, cold drawn linfeed oil, and faltpetre, of each an ounce j divide it into four dofes, giving him one dofe every other day, and let him have plenty of clean draw to lie on j or one fpoonful of honey daily. Doa-Madnefs.—Of this there are no lefs than feven forts common among dogs. The chief caufes are, high ^ceding, want of exercife, fulnefs of blood, and coftive- nefs. As for the two firft, you mull obferve when when they reft; and let them be neither too fat nor ^ p°g- , too lean but, of the two, rather fat than lean 5 by s - which means they will not only be prelerved from madnefs but alfo from the mange and fcab *, which difeafes they will be fubject to for want of air, water, or exercife : but if you have but the knowledge to keep them in an even temper, they may live long, and continue found. As for water, they Ihould be left to their own pleafure ; but for exercife and diet, it muft be ordered according to diferetion, obferving a me¬ dium. Give them once a-week, efpecially in the heat of the year, five or fix fpoonfuls of falad oil, which will cleanfe them : at other times, the quantity of a hazel nut of mithridate is an excellent thing to pre¬ vent difeafes. It is alfo very good to bleed them under the tongue, and behind the ears. The fymptoms of madnefs are many and eafily dit- cerned. When any dog feparates himfelf contrary to his former ufe, becomes melancholy or droops his head, forbears eating, and as he runs fnatches at every thing; if he often looks upwards, and his ftern at his fetting on be a little ere&, and the reft hanging down ; if his eyes be red, his breath ftrong, his voice hoarfe, and he drivels and foams at the mouth ; you may be affured he has this diftemper. The feven forts of madnefs are as follows ; ot which the two firft are incurable. 1. The hot burning mad¬ nefs. 2. The running madnefs. The animals labour¬ ing under thefe are peculiarly dangerous; for all things they bite and draw blood from will have the fame dif¬ temper ; and they generally feize on all they meet with, but chiefly on dogs. Their pain is fo great it foon kills them. The five curable madneffes are, 3. Sleeping Madnefs, fo called from the dog’s great drowfinefs, and almoft continual fleeping. This is caufed by the little worms that breed in the mouth of the fto¬ mach, from corrupt humours, vapours, and fumes which afeend to the head ; for cure of w-hich, take fix ounces of the juice of wormwood, two ounces of the powder of hartftiorn burnt, and two drachms of agaric ;, mix all thefe together in a little white wine, and give it the dog to drink in a drenching horn. 4 Dumb Madnefs, lies alfo in the blood, and caules the dog not to feed, but to hold his mouth always wide open, frequently putting his feet to his mouth, as if he had a bone in his throat; to cure this, take the juice of black hellebore, the juice oifpatula putrida, and of rue, of each four ounces; ftrain them well, and put thereto two drachms of unprepared fcammony, and being mix¬ ed well together, put it down the dog’s throat with a drenching horn, keeping his head up for fome time, left he caft it out again ; then bleed him in the mouth, by cutting two or three veins in his gums. _ # It is faid, that about eight drachms of the juice of an herb called hartjhorn, or dog's tooth, being given to the dog, cures all forts of madnefs. r , , , r. Lank Madnefs, is fo called by reafon of the dog s leannefs and pining away. For cure give them a puige as before direfted, and alfo bleed them ; but lome lay there is no cure for it. , , , 6. Rheumatic or favenng madnefs, occahons the dog s head to fwell, his eyes to look yellow, and he will be always Havering and drivelling at the mouth. To cure which, take four ounces of the powder of the roots of you hunt them, that they ftiould be better fed than polipody of the oak, fix ounces of the juice of fennel r r ' roots, DOG [ 2Qi ] DOG Bog. roots, with the like quantity of the roots of mifletjpe, and four ounces of the juice of ivy 5 boil all the£e jto- gether in white wine, and give it to the dog as hot as he can take it, in a drenching horn. 7. Falling madnefs, is fo termed becaufe it lies in the dog’s head, and makes him reel as he goes, and to fall down. For the cure, take four ounces of the juice of briony, and the fame quantity of the juice of peony, with four drachms of ftavefacre pulverized ; mix thefe together, and give it the dog in a drenching horn ; alfo let him blood in the ears, and in the two veins that come down his flioulders $ and indeed bleeding is ne- celfary for all forts of madnefs in dogs. When a dog happens to be bit by a mad one, there is nothing better than their licking the place with their own tongues, if they can reach it ; if not, then let it be waihed with butter and vinegar, made lukewarm, and let it afterwards be anointed with Venice turpentine $ but, above all, take the juice of the ftalks of ftrong to¬ bacco boiled in water, and bathe the place therewith ; alfo wa(h him in fea water, or water artificially made fait j give him likewife a little mithridate inwardly in two or three fpoonfuls of fack j and fo keep him apart ; and if you find him after fome time ftill to droop, the beft way is to hang him. Some have afferted their having cured feveral crea¬ tures that have been bit by mad dogs, with only giving them the middle yellow bark of buckthorn ; which muft be boiled in ale for a horfe or cow, and in milk for a dog; but that it muft be boiled till it is as bitter as you can take it. As to the preventive of worming dogs, fee Worm¬ ing. Doa-Days. See Canicula. Doa-Fifh. See Squalus, Ichthyology Index. Doas-Bane. See Apocynum, Botany Index. Doa-Wood Hree. See Piscidia, Botany Index. DOGE, the chief magiftrate in the republics of Ve¬ nice and Genoa. The word properly fignifies duke, being formed from the Latin dux ; as dogate, and dogado, from duca~ tus, “ duchy.” The dogate, or office and dignity of doge, is elec¬ tive $ at Venice the doge is eledled for life 3 at Genoa, only for twTo years. He is addreffed under the title of Serenity, which among the Venetians is fuperior to that of highnefs. The doge is the chief of the council, and the mouth of the republic; yet the Venetians do not go into mourning at his death, as not being their fovereign, but only their firft minifter. In effedl, the doge of Ve¬ nice is no more than the phantom or ftiadow of the majefty of a prince ; all the authority being referved to the republic. Pie only lends his name to the fe- nate 3 the power is diffufed throughout the whole bo¬ dy, though the anfwers be all made in the name of the doge. If he gives any anfwers on his own account, they muft be very cautioufly expreffed, and in general terms, otherwile he is fure to meet with a reprimand. So that it is abfolutely neceffary he be of an eafy and pliable difpofition. Anciently the doges were fovereigns 3 but things are much altered 3 and at prefent, all the prerogatives referved to the quality of doge, are thefe which fol¬ low : He gives audience to ambafladors 5 but does not give them any anfwer from himfelf, in matters of any inoport^nce 3 only he is allowed to anfwer according to his own pleafure, to the compliments they make to the fignory ; fuch anfwers being of no confequence. The doge, as being firft magiftrate, is head of all the councils 3 and the credentials which tfb fenate fur- nilhes its minifters in foreign courts, are written in his name 3 and yet he does not fign them 3 but a fecretary of ftate figns them, and feals them with the arms of the republic. The ambaffadors diredt their defpatches to the doge 3 and yet he may not open them but in pre¬ fence of the counfellors. The money is ftruck in the doge’s name, but not with his ftamp or arms. All the magiftrates rife, and falute the doge when he comes into council 3 and the doge rifes to none but foreign ambafi'adors. The doge nominates to all the benefices in the church of St Mark 3 he is prote&or of the monaftery delle Virgine; and beftows certain petty offices of ulhers of the houfehold, called Commanders of the Pa" lace. His family is not under the jurifdidtion of the matter of the ceremonies ; and his children may have ftaff officers, and gondoliers in livery. His grandeur, at the fame time, is tempered with a variety of circumftances, which render it burden- fome. He may not go out of Venice without leave of the council 3 and if he does go out, he is liable to receive affronts, without being entitled to demand fa- tisfadlion 3 and, if any diforder ffiould happen where he wTas, it belongs not to him, but to the podefta, as being invefted with the public authority, to compofe it. The children and brothers of the doge are excluded from all the chief offices of ftate. They may not re¬ ceive any benefice from the court of Rome 3 but are allowed to accept of the cardinalate, as being no be¬ nefice, nor including any jurifdidlion. The doge may not divert himfelf of his dignity, for his eafe 3 and af* ter his death, his conduct is examined by three in- quifitors, and five corre&ors, who lift it with gre|t feverity. DOGGER, a Dutch fiffiing veffel navigated in the German ocean. It is generally employed in the her¬ ring fiffiery ; being equipped with two marts, viz. a main-maft and a mizen-maft, and fomewhat refembling a ketch. See the Plates at the article Ship. DOGGERS, in the Engliffi alum works, a name given by the workmen to a fort of ftone found in the fame mines with the true alum rock, and containing fome alum, though not near fo much as the right kind. The county of York, which abounds greatly with the true alum rock, affords alfo a very confiderable quantity of thefe doggers 3 and in fome places they approach fo much to the nature of the true rock, that they are wrought to advantage. DOGMA, a principal maxim, tenet, or fettled opi¬ nion, particularly with regard to matters of faith and philofophy. DOGMATICAL, fomething belonging to a doc¬ trine or opinion. A dogmatical philofopher is one who afferts things pofitivelyj in oppofition to a fceptic, who doubts of every thing. DOGMATISTS, a feft of ancient phyficians, of O o 2 w’hich DOM [ Dolce II Dom. which Hippocrates was the firft author. Th called logici, “ logicians,” from their ufing the rules of logic in fubjefts of their profedion, I hey laid down definitions and divifions } reducing difeafes to certain genera, and thofe genera to fpecies, and furnilhing re¬ medies for them all; fuppofing principles, drawing con- clufions, and applying thofe principles and conclufions to particular difeafes under confideration •, in which fenfe, the dogmatifts Hand contradillinguhhed from em¬ pirics and methodifts. They rejeft all medicinal vir¬ tues, that they think not reducible to manifeft quali¬ ties ; but Galen hath long ago obferved of fuch men, that they muft either deny plain matter of faft, or af- fign but very poor reafons and caufes of many eftecls they pretend to explain. DOLCE, Carlo, or Carlino, a celebrated hi- flory and portrait painter, was born at Florence in 1616, and was the difciple of Vignali. This great mailer was particularly fond of reprefenting pious iub- jefls, though he fometimes painted portraits ; and his works are eafily diilinguifhed by the peculiar delicacy with which he perfefled all his compofitions, by a pleafing tint of colour, and by a judicious manage¬ ment of the chiaro feuro. His performance was re- markablv flow ; and it is reported that his brain was fatally affected by feeing Luca Jordana defpatch more bufinefs in four or five hours than he could have done in as many months. He died in 1686. DOLE, in the Saxon and Britiih tongue, fignified a part or portion, moil commonly of a meadow, where feveral perfons have fhares. It alfo {till fignifies a dif- tribution or dealing of alms, or a liberal gift made by a great man to tbe people. Dole, in Scots Law, fignifies a malevolent intention. It is effential in every crime, that it be committed in¬ tentionally, or by an aft of the will: hence the tule, Crimen dolo contrahitur. DOLICHOS, a genus of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs, and in tbe natural method ranking un¬ der the 32d order Papilionacece. See Botany Index. DOLLAR, or Daller, a filver coin nearly of the value of the Spaniih piece of eight, or French crown. Dollars are coined in different parts of Germany and Holland •, and have their diminutions, as femi- dollars, quarter-dollars, &c. See Money Table. . They are not all of the fame finenefs or weight. The Dutch dollars are the molt frequent. In the Levant they are called a/laim, from the impreflion of a lion thereon. DOLPHIN. See Delphinus, Cetology Index. Dolphin of the Maf, a peculiar kind of wreath, formed of plaited cordage, to be fattened occafionally round the mafts, as a fupport to the puddening, whole ufe is to fuftain the weight of the fore and main yards in cafe the rigging or chains by which thofe yards are fufpended (hould be Ihot away in the time of battle ; a circumftance which might render their fails ufelefs at a feafon when their afliftance is extremely necellary. See the article Puddening. . DOM, or Don, a title of honour invented and chiefly ufed by the Spaniards, fignifying> or lord. This title, it feems, was fiitt given to Pelayo, m the beginning of the eighth century. In Portugal no per- 2Q2 ] D O M y are alfo fon can affume the title of don without the pernnffion of the king, fince it is looked upon as a mark of hon- DcIi,Jfd In "France it is fometimes ufed among' ' Dom our and nobility. In France it is fometimes uled among ^ the religious. It is an abridgement of domnus, from dominus. Dom and Som, in old charters, fignifies full property and jurifdiftion. DOMAIN, the inheritance, eftate, or poffeflion of any one. See Demesne. DOMAT, John, a celebrated French lawyer, born in 1625, who oblerving the confufed ftate of the laws, digefted them in 4 vols 410, under the title of The Civil Laws in their natural order : for which underta¬ king, Louis XIV. fettled on him a penfion of 2000 livres. Dcmat was intimate with the famous Pafcal, who left him his private papers at his death : he him- felf died in 1696. DOME, in Mrchite&vre, a fpherical roof, or a roof of a fpherical form, raifed over the middle of a build¬ ing, as a church, hall, pavilion, vellibule, ftaircafe, Sec. by way of crowning. Dome, in Chemiflry, the upper part of furnaces, particularly portable ones. It has the figure of a hol¬ low hemifphere or fmall dome. Its ufe is to form a fpace in the upper part of the furnace, the air of which is continually expelled by the fire : hence the current of air is confiderably increafed, which is obliged to en¬ ter byThe afli-hole, and to pafs through the fire, to fupply the place of the air driven from the dome. The form of this piece renders it proper to refleft or reverberate a part of the flame upon the matters which are in the furnace, which has occahoned this kind of furnace to be called a reverberating one. See Furnace. Dome, or Doom, fignifies judgment, fentence, or de¬ cree. The homagers oath in the black book of Here¬ ford ends thus: “ So help me God at his holy dome, and bv mv trowthe.” DOMENICH1NO, a famous Italian painter, born of a good family at Bologna in 1581. He was at firft a difciple of Calvart the Fleming, but foon quitted his fchool for that of the Caraccis. He always applied himfelf to his wmik with much ftudy and thoughtful- nefs■ and never offered to touch his pencil but when he found a proper kind of enthufiafm upon him. His great {kill in archite&ure alfo procured him the ap¬ pointment of chief architeft of the apcftolical palace from Pope Gregory XV. •, nor was he wdthout a theo¬ retical knowledge in mufic. He died in ibq1* DOMESDAY, or Doomsday Book, a moft an¬ cient record, made in the time of W illiam I. furnamed the Conqueror, and containing a furvey of all the lands of England. It confifts of two volumes, a greater and a lefs. ' The firft is a large folio, written on 382 double pages of vellum, in a fmall but plain charader; each page having a double column. Some of the capital letters and principal paffages are touched with red ink ; and fome have ftrokes of red ink run acrofs them, as ft fcratched out. This volume contains the defcription or 31 counties. The other volume is in quarto, written upon 450 double pages of vellum, but in a Angle co¬ lumn, and in a large but very fair charaaer. It con¬ tains the counties of Effex, Norfolk, Suffolk, part of the county of Rutland, included in that of Northampr DOM [ 293 ] DOM Bomefday ton, and part of Lancafhire in the counties of York * v and Chefter. This work, according to the red book in the ex¬ chequer, was begun by order of William the Con¬ queror, with the advice of his parliament, in the year of our Lord 1080, and completed in the year 1086. The reafon given for taking this furvey, as affigned by feveral ancient records and hiilorians, was, that every man (hould be fatisfied with his owTn right, and not ufurp with impunity what belonged to another. But, befides this, it is faid by others, that now all thofe who poflefled landed eifates became vaflals to the king, and paid him fo much money by way of fee or ho¬ mage in proportion to the lands they held. This ap¬ pears very probable, as there was at that time extant a general furvey of the whole kingdom, made by order of King Alfred. For the execution of the furvey recorded in domef- day book, commiffioners w’ere fent into every county and fibre ; and juries fummoned in each hundred, out of all orders of freemen, from barons down to the low- eft farmers. Thefe commiflioners were to be informed by the inhabitants, upon oath, of the name of each manor, and that of its owner ; alfo by whom it was held in the time of Edward the Confellbr; the number of hides j the quantity of wood, of palture, and of meadow land •, how many ploughs were in the demefne, and how many in the tenanted part of it; how many mills 5 how many fiih-ponds or filheries belonged to it ; with the value of the whole together in the time of King Edward, as well as when granted by King Wil¬ liam, and at the time of this furvey 5 alfo whether it was capable of improvement or of being advanced in its value j they were likewife dire&ed to return the te- .nants of every degree, the quantity of lands then and formerly held by each of them, what was the number of vill ams or Haves, and alfo the number and kinds of their cattle and live Hock. Thefe inquifitions being firft methodized in the county, w'ere afterwards fent up to the king’s exchequer. This furvey, at the time it was made, gave great offence to the people j and occafioned a jealoufy that it was intended for fome new imppfition. But notwith- ftanding all the precaution taken by the conqueror to have this furvey faithfully and impartially executed, it appears from indifputable authority, that a falfe return was given in by fome of the commSifioners: and that, as it is faid, out of a pious motive. This was parti¬ cularly the cafe with the abbey of Croyland in Lincoln- flbre, the poffeHions of w’hich were greatly underrated both with regard-to quantity and value. Perhaps more of thefe pious frauds were difcovered, as it is faid Ralph Flambard, roinifter to William Rufus, propofed the making a frefh and more vigorous inquifition j but this was never executed. Notwithftanding this proof of its falfehood in fome inftances, wdrich mull throw a fufpicion on all others, ..the authority of domefday book was never permitted to be called in queftion ; and always, when it hath been neceffary to diftinguidr whether lands were held in an¬ cient demefne, or in any other manner, recourfe was had to domefday book, and to that only, to determine the doubt. From this definitive authority, from which, as from the fentence pronounced at domefday, or the day of judgment, there could be no appeal, the name DomefcTay, of the book is faid to have been derived. But Stowe afligns another reafon for this appellation j namely, that domefday book is a corruption of domus Dei book; a title given it becaufe heretofore depofited in the king’s treafury, in a place of the church of Weftminfter or Wincherter, called domus Dei. From the great care for¬ merly taken for the prefervation of this furvey, we may learn the eftimation in which its importance was held. The dialogue de Scaccariis fays, “ Liber ille (domd- bay) Jig ill 1 regis conies ejl mdividuus in thefauro.^ Un¬ til lately it has been kept under three different locks and keys; one in cuffody of the treafurer, and the others in that of the two chamberlains of the exchequer. It is now depofited in the chapterhoufe at Weftminfter, where it may be confulted on paying to the proper of¬ ficers a fee of 6s. 8d. for a fearch, and fourpence per line for a tranfeript. Befides the two volumes above-mentioned, there is alfo a third made by order of the fame king ; and wrhich differs from the others in form more than matter. There is alfo a fourth called domejday., which is kept in the exchequer; which, though a very large volume, is only an abridgement of the others. In the remem¬ brancers office in the exchequer is kept a fifth book, likewife called domefday, which is the fame with the fourth book already mentioned. King Alfred had a roll which he called domefday; and the domefday book made by William the Conqueror referred to the time of Edward the Confeffor, as that of King Alfred did to the time of Ethelred. The fourth book of domef¬ day having many pidftures and gilt letters in the begin¬ ning relating to the time of King Edward the Con¬ feffor, this had led fome into a falfe opinion that domefday book was compofed in the reign of King Edward. DOMESTIC, any man who afts under another, ferving to compofe his family; in which he lives, or is fuppofed to live, as a chaplain, fecretary, &.c. Some¬ times domeftic is applied to the wife and children; but very feldom to fervants, fuch as footmen, lacquies, porters, &c. Domestic, adj. is fometimes oppofed to foreign.- Thus “ domejlic occurrences” fignify thofe events which happen in our own country, in contradiftin&ion to thole of which we receive intelligence from abroad. In its more ufual acceptation, the term implies fome- thing peculiar to home or houfehold. Thus we fpeak of domefic happinefs or pleafures : meaning the pleafures enjoyed in the bofom of one’s family ; in oppofition to thofe found in the buftle of public life, or delufively fought in the haunts of dilfipation. The folace of domeftic enjoyments has been coveted by the wifeft and greateft of men. Senators and heroes have ftiut out the acclamations of an applauding world, to enjoy the prattling of their little ones, and to par¬ take the endearments of family converfation. They knew that even their beft friends, in the common inter- courfe of life,, were in fome degree adluated by intereft- ed motives in difplaying their affeftion ; that many of their followers applauded them in hopes of reward; and that the giddy multitude, however zealous, were not always judicious in their approbation. But the at¬ tentions paid them at their fire fide, the fmiles which exhilarated^ DOM [ 294 1 Domrft.c. exhilarated their own table, were the genuine refult of the indulgence. iCnox s BJfays, No 4c. undilTembled love. To purfue the obfervations of an elegant eilayiit : “ The nurfery has often alleviated the fatigues of the bar and the fenate-houfe. Nothing contributes more to raife the gently pleafing emotions, than the view of infant innocence, enjoying the raptures of a game at play. All the fentiments of uncontrouled nature diiplay themfelves to the view, and furnilh matter for agreeable reflexion to the mind of the philofophical obfeyver. To partake with children in their little pleafures, is by no means unmanly. It is one of the pureft fources of mirth. It has an influence in amending the heart, -which neceffarily takes a tinaure from the company that furrounds us. Innocence as well as guilt is com¬ municated and increafed by the contagion of example. And the great Author of evangelical philofophy has taught us to emulate the fimplicity of the infantine age. He feems indeed himfelf to have been delighted with young children, and found in them, what he in vam fought among thofe who judged themfelves their fupe- riors, unpolluted purity of heart. . “ Among the great variety of piftures which the vivid imagination of Homer has difplayed throughout the Iliad, there is not one more pleafing than the fa¬ mily piece, which reprefents the parting interview be¬ tween Hedlor and Andromache. It deeply mterefts the heart, while it delights the imagination. The hero ceafes to be terrible, that he may become amiable. We admire him while he (lands completely armed in the field of battle ; but we love him more while he is taking off his helmet, that he may not frighten his little boy wnth its nodding plumes. . We are refreihed with the tender feene of domeftic love, while all around breathes rage and difeord. We are pleated to fee the arm, which is (hortly to deal death and de- llru&ion among an hoft of foes, employed in caremiig an infant fon with the embraces of paternal love A profeffed critic would attribute the pleafing effedt en¬ tirely to contraft ; but the heart has declared pre- vioufly to the inquiries of criticifm, that it is chiefly derived from the fatisfaftion which we naturally take in beholding great charafters engaged in tender and amiable employments. . r “ But after all that is faid of the purity and the lo- Udity of domeftic pleafures, they unfortunately appear to a great part of mankind, infipid, unmanly, and ca¬ pable of fatisfying none but the weak, the fpmtleis, the inexperienced, and the effeminate. The pretend¬ ers to wit and modern philofophy are often found to renounce the received opinions of prudential conduct \ and, while they affedt a fuperior liberality, to regulate their lives by the moft felfifti principles. Whatever ap¬ pears to have little tendency to promote perfonal plea- fure and advantage, they leave to be performed by thofe fimple individuals, who are dull enough, as they fay, to purfue the journey of life by the ftraight road of common fenfe. It is true, they will allow, that the world muft be repleniftied by a perpetual fucceLion; and it is no lefs true, than an offspring, once introdu¬ ced into the world, requires all the care of painful at¬ tention. But let the talk be referyed for meaner fpmts. If the paflions can be gratified without the painful con- fequences of fupporting a family, they eagerly feize DOM uuc u.uu^w^. But the toil of education they leave DomdHc. to thofe whom they deem fools enough to. take a plea- - fure in it. There will always be a fufheient number, fay they, whofe folly will lead them, for the fake of a filly paflion called virtuous love, to engage m a life of perpetual anxiety. The fool’s paradife, they add with derifion, will never be deferted. “ Prefumptuous as are all fuch pretenders to newly invented fyftems of life and condud, it is not to be fuppofed they will think themfelves fupenor to fucero. Yet Cicero, with all his liberality of mind, felt the tendernefs of conjugal and paternal attachment, and acknowledged that, at one time, he received no atil- faftion in any company but that of his wife, his little daughter, and, to ufe his own epithet, his honied young Cicero. The great Sir Thomas More, whom nobody will fufpea of narrownefs of mind, who by a very Angular treatife evinced that he was capable ot thinking and of choofing for himfelf, has left it on re¬ cord that he devoted a great (hare of his time, from the united motives of duty and delight, to the amu e- ment of his children. , , “ It will be objeaed by thofe who pretend, to have formed their ideas of life from aftnal obfervation, that domeftic happinefs, however pleafing in defcription, like manv a poetic dream, is but an alluring piflure, defign- ed by a good heart, and painted in glowing colours by a lively fancy. The conftant company, they urge, even of thofe we love, occafions an infipidity. . Inu- pidity grows into difguft. Difguft, long continued, fours the temper. Peeviftmefs is the natural confe- quence. The domettic circle becomes the feene or dii- pute. Mutual antipathy is ingenious in devifing mu¬ tual torment. Sullen filence or malignant remarks fill up every hour, till the arrival of a ftranger caufes a tem¬ porary reftraint, and excites that good humour which ought to be difplayed among thofe whom the bonds ot affe&ion and blood have already united. “ Experience, indeed, proves that thefe remarks are fometimes verified. But that there is much domeftic mifery is no argument that there is no domeftic hap¬ pinefs, or that the evil may not be removed. Natural flupidity, natural ill temper, acquired ill habits, want of education, illiberal manners, and a neglect ot the common rules of diferetion, will render every fpecres of intercourfe difagreeable. When thofe are united by connubial ties who were feparated by natural and inhe¬ rent diverfity, no wonder if that degree of happinefs which can only refult from a proper union, is unknown. In the forced alliance, which the poet of Venufium mentions, of the ferpent with the dove, of the tyger with the lamb, there can be no love. When we expa¬ tiate on the happinefs of the domeftic group, we pre- fuppofe that all who compofe it are onginauy aflimi- lated by affe&ion, and are ftill kept m union by di- erect friendlhip. Where this is not the cafe the cen- fure muft fall on the difeordant difpofition of the par¬ ties, and not on the effential nature of family inter- courfe “ To form, under the direftion of prudence, and by the impulfe of virtuous love, an early conjugal attach¬ ment, is one of the beft fecurities of virtue as well as the moft probable means of happinefs. The duties, which are powerfully called forth by .he Canons of X DOM Domicile hufband and father, are of that tender kind which in Domin'1 nt ^P*res gooc^ne^s and humanity. He who beholds a wo- . man whom he loves, and a helplefs infant, looking up to him for fupport, will not eafily be induced to in¬ dulge in unbecoming extravagance, or devote himfelf to indolence. He who has a rifing family to intro¬ duce into a vicious world, will be cautious of fetting a bad example, the contagion of which, when it pro¬ ceeds from parental authority, mull be irrefitlibly ma¬ lignant. Thus many who, in their individual and un- connefted Hate, would probably have fpent a life not only ufelefs to others, but profligate and carelefs in it- felf, have become valuable members of the commu¬ nity, and have arrived at a degree of moral improve¬ ment, to which they would not otherwife have at¬ tained. “ The contempt in which domeflic pleafures have in modern times been held, is a mark of profligacy. It is alfo a proof of a prevailing ignorance of real enjoy¬ ment. It argues a defe£l in talle and judgment as well as in morals. I1 or the general voice of the expe¬ rienced has in all ages declared, that the trueft happi- nefs is to be found at home.” DOMICILE, in Scots Law, is the dwelling place where a perfon lives with an intention to remain. DOMIFYING, in AJlrology, the dividing or dif- tributing the heavens into 12 houfes, in order to erefl a theme, or horofcope, by means of fix great circles, called circles of pofition. There are various ways of domifying: that of Regio¬ montanus, which is the moft common, makes the circles of pofition pafs through the interfeftions of the meri¬ dian and the horizon : others make them pafs through the poles of the zodiac. DOMINANT (from the Latin word dominari “ to rule or govern”), among muficians, is ufed either as an adjeilive or fubftantive-, but thefe different accepta¬ tions are far from being indifcriminate. In both fenfes it is explained by Rouffeau as folloivs : The dominant or fenfible chord is that which is prac- tifed upon the dominant of the tone, and which intro¬ duces a perfect cadence. Every perfect major chord becomes a dominant chord, as foon as the feventh mi¬ nor is added to it. Dominant {Jubjld). Of the three notes elfential to the tone, it is that which is a fifth from the tonick. The tonick and the dominant fix the tone : in it they are each of them the fundamental found of a particular chord ; whereas the mediant, which conftitutes the mode, has no chord peculiar to itfelf, and only makes a part of the chord of the tonic. Mr Rameau gives the name of dominant in general to every note which carries a chord of the feventh, and diftinguilhes that which carries the fenfible chord by the name of a tonick dominant; but, on account of the length of the word, this addition to the name has not been adopted by artifts : they continue fimply to call that note a dominant which is a fifth from the tonick j and they do not call the other notes which carry a chord of the. feventh dominant, but fundamentals; which is fufficient to render their meaning plain, and prevents confufion. A dominant, in that fpecies of church mufic which is called plain-chant, is that note which is moft frequently repeated or beaten, in whatever degree it may be from t 29j ] DOM the tonick. In this fpecies of mufic there are dominants Dornina- and tonicks, but no mediant. turn DOMINATION, or Dominion, in Theology, the n 0 . fourth order of angels or bleffed fpirits in the hierarchy, 0m‘nlCa, reckoning from the feraphim. See Angel. DOMINGO, or St Domingo, the capital of the ifland of Hifpaniola in the Weft Indies, is feated in that part, belonging to the Spaniards on the fouth fide of the ifland, and has a commodious harbour. The town is built in the Spanifh manner, with a great fquare in the middle of it ; about which are the cathedral and other public buildings. From this fquare run the prin¬ cipal llreets, in a direfl line, they being croffed by others at right angles, fo that the form of the town is almoft fquare. The country on the north and eaft fide is pleafant and fruitful; and there is a large navigable river on the weft, with the ocean on the fouth. It is the fee of an archbifhop, an ancient royal audience, and the feat of the governor. It has feveral fine churches and monafteries ; and is fo well fortified, that a fleet and army fent by Oliver Cromwell in 1654 could not take it. The inhabitants are Spaniards, Negroes, Mu- lattoes, Meitices, and Albatraces ; of whom about a fixth part may be Spaniards. It had formerly about 2000 houfes, but it is much declined of late years. - 1 he river on which it is feated is called 0%ama. W. Lon. 69. 30. N. Lat. 18. 25. DOMINIC de Gusman, founder of the Domini¬ can order of monks, was born at Calaroga in Old Ca- ftile, 1170. He preached with great fury againft the Albigenles, when Pope Innocent III. made a croifade againft that unhappy people; and was inquifitor in Languedoc, where he founded his order, and got it confirmed by the Lateran council in 1215. He died at Bologna in 1221, and was afterwards canonized. The Dominican order has produced many illuftrious men. See Dominicans. DOMINICA, one of the Caribbee iflands, in the Weft Indies, about 39 miles long and 13 broad, fituat- ed between 6i° and 62° W\ Long, and between ij° and i6° of N. Lat. This ifland formerly belonged to the French, but was ceded to Britain by the treaty in 1763. It is very advantageous to the latter, as being fituated between the French iflands of Guadaloupe ami Martinico, fo that it is equally alaiming to both ; and its fafe and commodious roads enable the Britilh pri¬ vateers to intercept, without rifle, the navigation of France in her colonies, whenever a war happens be¬ tween the two nations. This ifland was reduced, in the year 1778, by the French., under the marquis de Bouille, governor of Maitinico. At that time the ifland, though very well fortified, had been unaccountably negledled by the Bri.tifh government, in fuch a manner as to be almoft entirely deftitute of a garrifon. I he French com¬ mander therefore, who made a defeent with 2000 men, found only 100 regular forces and a few companies of militia to oppofe him. All refiftance therefore be¬ ing vain, the only thing the garrifon could do wras to procure as favourable terms of capitulation as poflible. Thefe were granted with fuch readinefs as did great honour to the chara&er of this officer ; the inhabitants experiencing no kind of change except that of tranf- ferring their obedience from Britain to France, being left unmolefted in the enjoyment of all their rights both DOM t 2 Dominical, botl, civil and religious. The capitulation was fttiSly Domini- 0bferved by the marquis 5 no plunder or irregularity can?- being allowed, and a pecuniary gratification being dii- 'uibuted among the foldiers and volunteers who ac- companied him in the expedition. An hundred and fixrv-four pieces of excellent cannon, and twenty-four brafs mortars, befides a large quantity of military ftoves were found in the place •, infomuch that the French therafelves expreffcd their lurpnfe at finding fo few hands to make ufe of them. The marquis, however, took care to fupply this defea, by leaving a garnion of 1 ?co of the belt men be bad with him. It was re- ftored to Britain at the conclufion of the peace in J Dominica, one of the Marquesas iflands m ^DOMINICAL letter, popularly called Sunday^ Letter, one of the feven letters A B C D E F G, u e in almanacks, ephemerides &c. to denote the Sunday throughout the year. See Chronology, 3 • ^-ord is formed from dominie a or domuncus dies, Lord s The dominical letters were introduced m the kalen- dnr by the primitive Chriftians in lieu of the nundinal letters in the Roman Wiendar. Dosus.ciL, in church hiftory. The council of Auxerre, held in 578, decrees, that women communi¬ cate with their dominical. Some authors contend, that this dominical was a linen cloth, wherein they rece.ved the fpecles ; as not being allowed to receive them the bare hand. Others will have it a kind of veil, herewith they covered the head The moft proba¬ ble account is, that it was a fort ofl.nen cloth or hand- kerchief wherein they received and preferved the eu- charifl in times of perfection, to be taken on occ at home. This appears to have been the cafe by the praftice of the firft Chriftians, and by Tertullian’s bock DOMINICANS, an order of religious called m fume places Jacobins; and in others, Predicants or ^Thf Dominicans take their name from their founder Dominic de Guzman, a Spamfti gentleman, born in 1170, at Calaroga in Old Caftile. He was i a non and archdeacon of Offuna j and afterwards preached with great zeal and vehemence againft the Albigen e in Languedoc, where he laid the firft foundation of his order. It was approved of in 1215 by Innocent I . and confirmed in 1216 by a bull of Hononus HE un¬ der the title of St Augujlin ; to which Dominic added feveral auftere -precepts and obfervances, obliging the brethren to take a vow of abfofute poverty and to • abandon entirely all their revenues and poMons and alfo the title of Preaching Friars, becaufe public in- ftru&ion was the main end of their inftitution. The firft convent was founded at I houloufe by the hiftiop thereof and Simon de Montfort. [wo years afterwards they had another at Pans, near the blftiop s houfe; and fmr.e time after a third in the rue St Jacques. (St James’s ftreet), whence the denomination °f UiTbefoie his death, Dominic fent Gilbert de Fref- „ey, with twelve of b-thren .nt„ Fngland, w le^e nev. with twelve tn luc ? /-v°r j • Xhly founded their firft monaftery at Oxford m the year 1221, and foon after another at London. In 06 1 DOM the year 1276 the mayor and aldermen of the city of London gave them two whole ftreets by the river ^ Thames, where they erefted a very commodious con- Domir,;s. vent, whence that place is ftill called Black Fnat -f, t fom the name by which the Dominicans were called 1,1 StDominic, at fitft, only took the habit of the re¬ gular canons •, that is, a black caffock and rochet: but this he quitted in 1219, for that which they now wear, which it is pretended was ^ownbyt( bleffed Virgin herfelf to the beatified Renaud d Or- k This order is diffufed throughout the whole known world. It has forty-five provinces under the general, who refides at Rome •, and 12 particular congregations or reforms, governed by vicars general. ^ They reckon three popes of this order, above fixty cardinals, feveral patriarchs, a hundred and fifty arch- bithops, and about eight hundred bifhops ; befide ma¬ tters of the facred palace, whofe office has been con- ftantly difeharged by a religious ot this order exc fince'St Dominic, who held it under Honorius III. I2Of all the monaftic orders, none enjoyed a higher degree of power and authority than the Dominican friars, whofe credit was great, and their influence un - verfal. But the meafures they ufed in order to main¬ tain and extend their authority were Perfidious and cruel, that their influence began to dtclme towards the beginning of the flxteenth century. 1 be tragic Itory of Jetzerf conducted at Bern in r5°9. f « an uninterefting difpute between them ami ^ eifeans relating to the mmaculate conception, will rettect indelible infamy on this order. See an account of it in Burnet’s Travels through France, Italy, Germany, and Switzerland, p. 31. or Moftreim s Eccl' H ' ’ iii p. 294. 8vo. They were indeed perpetually em¬ ployed in ftigmatizing with the opprobrious name of herefy numbers of learned and pious men j in encroach- ing upon the rights and properties of others. to aug- ment their poffeffions •, and m laying the moft iniqui¬ tous fnares and ftratagems for the deftruftion of them adverfaries. They were the principal counfellors, by wtfe inftigation a'nd advice Leo X. -s dete.mined o the public condemnation of Luther. The papal iee never had more aftive and ufeful abettors than this or¬ der, and that of the Jefuits. _ nnnoflte The dogmata of the Dominicans are ufually oppofite ^ to thofe of the FrsricifcBns# 11 j * There are alfo nuns or fillers of this order, called in fome places Precching Stjlert. Thefe are even more ancient than the friars ; St Dominic having founded a fociety of religious maids at Promlles tome years before the inftitution of his order of men , viz. in 12There is alfo a third order of Dominicans, both for ^DOMINION, iDo.ininm) in the civil law, fig- nifies the power to ufe or difpofe of a thing as we PlDf0M.m0H, or Domination. See DoM.HiT.ON- DOMINIS, Mark Antony de, archbiftiop of opa- latro in Dalmatia at the dole of the 15th and begin¬ ning of the 16th centuries, was a man whofe Acklene in religion proved his ruin. His preferment, inftead DON [2 Dominium of attaching him to the church of Rome, rendered Don. k'.m to it. Becoming acquainted with our 1— • Bifhop Bedell, while chaplain to Sir Henry Wotton ambaffador from James I. at Venice, he communicated his books De Republica Ecclejiajiica to him 5 which were afterwards publilhed at London, with Bedell’s correc¬ tions. He came to England with Bedell; where he was received with great refpeft, and preached and wrote againft the Romifh religion. He is faid to have had a principal hand in publilhing Father Paul’s Hi/lory of the Council of Trent, at London, which was infcribed to James in 1619. But on the promotion of Pope Gregory XIV. who had been his fchoolfellow and old acquaintance, he was deluded by Gondomar the Spa- nilh ambaffador into the hopes of procuring a cardi¬ nal’s hat, by which he fancied he (hould prove an in- flrument of great reformation to the church. Accord¬ ingly he returned to Rome in 1622, recanted his er¬ rors, and was at firft well received : but he afterwards wrote letters to England, repenting his recantation ; which being intercepted, he was imprifoned by Pope Urban VIII. and died in 1625. He was alfo the author of the firft philofophical explanation of the rain¬ bow, which before his time was regarded as a prodigy. DOMINIUM eminens, in Scots law, that power which the ftate or fovereign has over private property, and by which the proprietor may be compelled to fell it for an adequate price where public utility requires. See Law Index. Dominium Dire&um, in Scots Law, the right which a fuperior retains in his lands, notwithftanding the feu¬ dal grant to his vaflal. See Law Index. Dominium Utile, in Scots Law, the right which the vaffal acquires in the lands by the feudal grant from his fuperior. See Law Index. DOMINUS, in ancient times, a title prefixed to a name, ufually to denote the perfon either a knight or a clergyman. See Vies Dominus. The title was fometimes alfo given to a gentleman not dubbed ; efpecially if he were lord of a manor. See Dom, Gentleman, and Sire. In Holland the title dominus is ftill retained, to di- ftinguifh a minifter of the reformed church. DOMI * IAN, the Roman emperor, fon to Vefpafian, was the laft of the 12 Casfars. See (Hiforyof) Rome. DON, or Tanais, a river of Ruflia, which takes its rife from the fmall lake of St John, near Tula, in the government of Mofcow, and palling through part of the province of Voronetz, a fmall portion of the Ukraina-Slobodlkaia, and the whole province of Azof, divides itfelf near Tcherkalk into three ftreams, and falls in thefe feparate branches into the fea of Azof. This river has fo many windings, is in many parts fo lhallow, and abounds with fuch numerous fhoals, as to be fcarcely navigable, excepting in the fpring, upon the melting of the fnows j and its mouth is alfo fo choked up with fand, that only flat-bottomed veffels, excepting in the lame feafon, can pafs into the fea of Azof. 1 he banks of the Don, and the rivulets which fall into it, are clothed with large trafls of foreft, whofe timber is floated down the ftream to St Demetri and Roll of, where the fiigates for the fea of Azof are chiefly conftrufled. The navigation of the Don, Mr Coxe obferves, may polhbly hereafter be rendered high¬ ly valuable, by conveying to the Black fea the iron of Siberia, the Chinefe goods, and the Perfian raerchan- •>*. VII. Part I. 97] DON dife : which latter commodities, as well as the pro¬ ducts of India, formerly found their w’ay into Europe through this fame channel. Don is alfo the name of a river in Scotland, noticed under the article Aberdeen ; the Old Town being ii- tuated near its mouth. See Aberdeen. Don Martin dc Mayorca, the name given by the Spaniards to a duller of illands in the South fea, which were difeovered in 1781 by Don F. k. Maurelle. According to thedefeription given of thefe illands, they abound with tropical fruits and roots, are in a toletable ftate of cultivation, and the inhabitants have made feme progrefs in civilization. Their government, manners, and drefs, referable in moft points thofe of the natives of the other South fea illands. In thieving, whether in difpofition or dexterity, they feemed inferior to none. In one of thefe illauds Don Maurelle found a good harbour, which he places in 18. 36. S. Lat. and in 177. 48. W. Long. DONARIA, among the ancients, in its primary fignification, was taken for the places where the obla¬ tions offered to the gods were kept ; but afterwards was ufed to denote the offerings themfelves 5 and lome- times, though improperly, the temples. DONATIA, a genus of plants belonging to the triandria clafs. See Botany Index. DONATION, (Donatio) , an a£t or contraC! where¬ by a man transfers to another either the property or the ufe of the whole or a part of his effeCls as a free gift. A donation, to be valid and complete, fuppofes a capacity both in the donor and the donee j and requires confent, acceptance, and delivery ; and by the French law regiftry alfo. Donation Mortis Caufa, in Law, a difpofition of pro¬ perty made by a perfon in his laft ficknefs, who appre¬ hending his diffolution near, delivers, or caufes to be delivered to another, the poffeflion of any perfonal goods, to keep in cafe of his deceafe. If the donor dies, this gift needs not the confent of his executor; but it fhall not prevail againft creditors ; and it is ac¬ companied with this implied truft, that, if the donor lives, the property fhall revert to himfelf, being only given in profpedl of death, or mortis cavfa. This me¬ thod of donation feems to have been conveyed to us from the civillawyers, who borrow’ed it from the Greeks. DONATISTS, ancient fchifmatics in Africa, fo denominated from their leader Donatus. This fe£I arofe in the year 311, when, in the room of Menfurius, who died in that year on his return to Rome, Ciecilian was eledled bilhop of Carthage, and confecrated by the African bilhops alone, without the concurrence of thofe of Numidia. The people refufed to acknowledge him, and fet up Majorinus in oppofi- tion ; who, accordingly, was ordained by Donatus bifhop of Cafae Nigras. The Donatifts were con¬ demned, in a council held at Rome, two years after their feparation ; and afterwards in another at Arles, the year following ; and again at Milan, before Con- ftantine the Great, in 316, who deprived them of their churches, fent their feditipus bifhops into ba- nifhment, and even punifhed fome of them with death. Their caufe was efpoufed by another Donatus, called great, the principal bifhop of that fed!, w ho, with numbers of his follow ers, w'as exiled by order of Con- ftans. Many of them were punifhed with great feve- rity. See Ciucvmcelliones. However, after the P P acceflion Don II . Donathfs.. DON t 2 Donatifts acceffion of Julian to the throne in 362, were II. permitted to return, and reftored to their former lx- Donative. ■ r' s. fpveral ednfls againlt them , G to return, aiiu ^ • n. v berty. Gratian publiftied feveral edtas againft them *, and in 377 deprived them of their churches, and pro Whited all their aflTemblies. But notwithftanding the feverities they fuffered, it appears that they had a very confiderable number of churches towards the clofe o this century ; but at this time they began to decline, on account of a fchifm among themfelve^ occafioned by the eleftion of two bilhops, m the room of Pa¬ rian, the fucceffor of Donatus •, one party Primian, and were called Prtmwmjs, and ^ ximian, and were called Maximamfts. Their decline was alfo precipitated by the zealous oppofition of Auguftine, and by the violent meafures which were purfued againft them, by order of ^ emperor Hono- rius, at the felicitation of two councils held at Car thage •, the one in 404, and the other in 411. Many of them were fined, the biftiops were bamfhed, and fome put to death. This fea revived and multiphed under the proteaion of the Vandals, who invaded A- frica in 427, and took poffeffion of this province J but it funk again under new feverities, when their empire was overturned in <34. Neverthelefs, they remained in a feparate body till the clofe of this century, when Gregory, the Roman pontiff, ufed various methods fo fupp effing them 5 his zeal fucceeded and there are few traced to be found of the Donatifts after this period. They were diftinguiihed by other appella- Lis ; as Circumcelliones, Montenfes or Mountaineers, Cumpites, Rupites, &c. They held three councils, or con- ciliabules; one at Cirta in Numidia, and two at Carthage. The errors of the Donatifts, befides their fchifm, were I That baptifm conferred out of the church, That is, out of their feft, was null 5 and accordingly they rebaptifed thofe who joined their party from other churches, and re-ordained their mmifters 2. That theirs was the only true, pure, and holy church, al the reft of the churches they held as proftitute and a en. Donatus feems likewife to have given into the doftrine of the Arians, vvith whom he was cloWy allied; and accordingly, St Epiphamus, 1 heodoret, and fome others, accufed the Donatifts of Ananifm ; and it is probable that the charge was well founded» becaufe they were patronized by the Vandals who held that doarine. But St Auguftine, Ep. 185. to Count Boniface, & Haer. 69. affirms, that the Donatifts, in this point, kept clear of the errors of their leader. DONATIVE, (Donativutn), aprefent made by any nerfon ; called 2.M0 gratuity- . , • r u* P The Romans made large donatives to their foldier . Julia Pia, wife of the emperor Severus, is called on certain medals mater cajlrorum, becaufe of the care fhe took of the foldiery, by interpofmg for the augmenta¬ tion of their donatives, &c. ij;_rv . Donative was properly a gift made to the foldi«7 , as congiatium was that made to the people Salma- fius on his notes to Lampndius, in his Life of H - liogabalus, mentioning a donative that emperor gave of three pieces of gold per head, obferves, that this was the common and legitimate rate of a donative. Cafaubon, in his notes on the Life of Pertinax y a- nitolinus, obferves, that Pertinax made a promife of Loo denarii to each foldier; which amounts to up¬ wards of 97 pounds fterling. The fame author writes that the legal donative was 20,000 denarii; and that 08 1 DON ^ it was not cuftomary to give lefs, efpecially to the pr*- Donative torian foldiers ; that the centurions had double, and the tribunes, &c. more in proportion. . ' Donative, in the canon law, a benefice given, and collated to a perfon, by the founder or patron - with, out either prefentation, mftitution, or induftion by the ^irchapels founded by laymen be not approved by the diocefan, and, as it is called, they are not accounted proper benefices, neither can they be conferred by the bifhop, but remain to jbe pious difpofition of the founders ; fo that the founders, and their heirs, may give fuch chapels without the biftiop. Gwin obferves, that the king might of ancient time found a free chapel, and exempt it from the jurisdic¬ tion of the diocefan; fo may he, by liters patent, give liberty to a common perfon to found fuch a cha¬ pel and make it donative, not prefentable ; and the chaplain or beneficiary, fhall be depnvable by the founder or his heir, and not by the biftiop. And this feems to be the original of donatives in Eng an . Donatives are within the ftatute agamft if they have cure of fouls, wtth.n that agamft plural.- tIs If the patron of a donative doth not nominate a clerk, there can be no lapfe thereof, unlefs it be fpecially provided for in the foundation; but the 1- (Top mav compel him to do it by fpmuial cenfures Buf if h be augmented by Queen A""' s « will lapfe like other prefentative livings. I Geo. I. Hat. - can. 10. The ordinary cannot vifit a donative, and therefore it is free from procuration, and the incum¬ bent is exempted from attendance at vifitations. All bifhopnes in ancienttimes were donative by the king Again, where a bilhop has the g,f, o a be- nS, it if properly called a doncuve, becaufe he can- ""dOnItORY?!!: Scots Low, that perfon to whom theming beftows his right to any forfeiture that has fal DONAT US,W a fchifmatic biftiop of Carthage, founder of the fea of Donatists. His powers fwore by him, and honoured him like a god. He died abIDoNATOS, JElius, a famous grammarian lived at Rome in 354 He was one of St Jerome’s matters; and composed commentaries on Terence and Virgil, which '"dONAWERT, a ftrong town of Germany, in the circle of Bavaria, on the frontiers of Swabia. It has been taken and retaken feveral times in the wars of Germany ; and was formerly an imperial city, but at prefent L fubjeft to the duke of Bavaria. E. Long. 10DONAX,ata gtnM of Ihells belonging to the bi- "dONCASTER, a market town of Yotkftnre, 37 miles fouth of York. It has been long noted for the DON IN E, J narents were of the Romiftv religion,7'andCeufedrtheir utmoft effoA'0 to it; but his early examination of the conttov ^y ^ ] Doria. DOR [ 299 Donne tween the church of Rome and the Proteftants, at laft fo natural to a failor determined him to adhere to the latter. He travelled into Italy and Spain ; where he made many ufeful ob- fervations, and learned their languages to perfe&ion. Soon after his return to England, Sir Thomas Eger- ton, keeper of the great feal, appointed him his fecre- tary ; in which poll he continued five years. He mar- rying privately Anne the daughter of Sir George Moore then chancellor of the garter, and niece to the lord keeper’s lady; was difmifled from his place, and thrown into prifon. But he was reconciled to Sir George by the good offices of Sir Francis Wolley. In 1612, he accompanied Sir Robert Drury to Paris. During this time, many of the nobility folicited the king for fome fecular employment for him. But his majefty, who took pleafure in his converfation, had en¬ gaged him in writing his Pfeuclo Martyr, printed at London in 1610 ; and was fo highly pleafed with that work, that in 1614 he prevailed with him to en¬ ter into holy orders; appointed him one of his chap¬ lains, and procured him the degree of dodlor of di¬ vinity from the univerfity of Oxford. In 1619, he attended the earl of Doncafter in his embaffy into Germany. In 1621, he was made dean of St Paul’s; and the vicarage of St Dunftan in the Well, in Lon¬ don, foon after fell to him ; the advowfon of it having been given to him long before by Richard earl of Dor- fet. By thefe and other preferments, he was enabled to be charitable to the poor, kind to his friends, and to make good provilion for his children. He wrrote, befides the above, 1. Devotions upon emergent occa- fions. 2. The ancient Hiltory of the Septuagint, tranflated from the Greek of Arilleus, quarto. 3. Three volumes of fermons, folio. 4. A confiderable number of poems : and other works. His writings fliow him to be a man of incomparable wit and learning ; but his greatell excellence was fatire. He had a prodigi¬ ous richnefs of fancy, but his thoughts were much de- bafed by his verfification. He was, however, highly celebrated by all the great men of that age. DONOR, in Law, the perfon who gives lands or tenements to another in tail, &c.; as he to whom fuch lands, &c. are given, is the donee. DOOMSDAY book. See Domesday Book. DOOR, in ArchiteBure. See Architecture, N° 76. DOR, the Englilh name of the common black beetle. Some apply it alfo to the dully beetle, that flies about hedges in the evening. See Scarabaeus, Entomo¬ logy Index. DORADO, in AJlronomy, a fouthern conllellation, not vifible in our latitude j it is alfo called xiphias. The liars of this conllellation, in Sharp’s Catalogue, are fix. DORCHESTER, the capital of Dorfetlhire, fitu- ated on the river Frome, on a Roman road, eight miles north of Weymouth. W. Long. 2. 45. N. Lat. 50.40. It gives the title of marquis to the noble family of Pierpoint, duke of Kingllon ; fends two members to parliament ; and is a town of great antiquity. DOREE, or John Dor.ee. See Zeus, Ichthyo¬ logy Index. DORIA, A ndrew, a gallant Genoefe fea officer, born in 1466. He entered into the fervice of Francis I. of France ; but preferved that fpirit of independence DOR and a republican. When the French attempted to render Savona, long the ob- je£l of jealoufy of Genoa, its rival in trade, Doiia remonllrated againll the meafure in a high tone; which bold aflion, reprefented by the malice of his courtiers in the moll odious light, irritated Francis to that de¬ gree, that he ordered his admiral Barbefieux to fail to Genoa, then in the hands of the French troops, to ar- rell Doria, and to leize his galleys. This ralh order Doria got timely hints of; retired with all his galleys to a place of fafety ; and, while his relentment was thus raifed, he doled with the offers of the emperor Charles V. returned his commiflion with the collar of St Michael to Francis, and hoilled the Imperial colours. To deliver his country, weary alike of the French and Imperial yoke, from the dominion of foreigners, was now Doria’s highell ambition ; and the favourable mo¬ ment offered. Genoa was affli£led with the pellilence, the French garrilon was greatly reduced and ill paid, and the inhabitants were fufficiently difpofed to fecond his view's. He failed to the harbour with 13 galleys, landed 500 men, and made himfelf mailer of the gates and the palace with very little refiltance. The French governor with his feeble garrifon retired to the citadel, but was quickly forced to capitulate; when the people ran together, and levelled the citadel with the ground. It was now in Doria’s power to have rendered him¬ felf the fovereign of his country ; but, with a mag¬ nanimity of which there are few examples, he affembled the people in the court before the palace, difclaimed all pre-eminence, and recommended to them to fettle that form of government they chofe to ellablilh. The people, animated by his fpirit, forgot their factions, and fixed that form of government wffiich has fubfifted ever lince with little variation. This event happened in 1521. Doria lived to a great age, rcfpedled and beloved as a private citizen ; and is ftill celebrated in Genoa by the moft honourable of all appellations, “ The father of his country, and the reftorer of its liberty.” DORIC, in general, any thing belonging to the Dorians, an ancient people of Greece, inhabiting near Mount Parnaffus. See Doris. Doric, in Architecture, is the fecond of the five orders; being that between the Tufcan and lori’c. It is ufually placed upon the Attic bafe, though original¬ ly it had no bafe. See Architecture, N* 43. At its firft invention it was more Ample than at pre- fent; and when in after times it was more adorned and enriched, the appellation Doric was reftrained to this richer manner, and the primitive Ample manner was called by a new name, the Tufcan order, which was chiefly ufed in temples ; as the former, being more light and delicate, was for porticoes and theatres. The tradition is, that Dorus, king of Achaia, having firfl built a temple of this order at Argos, w'hich he dedicated to Juno, occafioned it to be called Doric ,• though others derive its name from its being invented or ufed by the Dorians. The moderns, on account of its folidity, ufe it in large ftrong buildings ; as in the gates of cities and ci¬ tadels, the outfide of churches, and other maffy works, where delicacy of ornament w?ould be unfuitable. The gate of Burlington houfe in Piccadilly is of the Doric order. Dona, Doric. P p 2 The DOR [ 3°° 3 DOR Doric. The mod confiderabl eancient monuments of th,sol¬ der, are the theatre of Marcellos at Rome, where,n the capital, the height of the fnze, and its projeame, are much fmaller than in the modern architecture^, and the Parthenion, or temple of Minerva, at A*11'''5- in which the (hurt and maffy columns bear upon the pavement without a bafe ; and the cap, al is a fimnlp torus, with its cinaure, and a fquare, plain, and fohd Dorirtj, Doris. abacus. t Doric Cvmatium. See Cyma. Doric DialeB, one of the five diakas, or manners of fpeaking, which obtained among the Greeks. It was firft ufed by the Lacedemonians, and parti- cularly thofe of Argos •, thence it paffed into Epirus Libya, Sicily, the iflands of Rhodes, and Crete, this dialea, Archimedes and Theocritus wrote, who were both of Syracufe ; as likewife Pindar. In ftrianefs, however, we (hould rather define _D - ric, the manner of fpeaking peculiar to the Dorians after their recefs near Parnaffus and Afopus^ a which afterwards came to obtain among the Lacede monians, &c. Some even diftinguifti between the La¬ cedemonian and Doric •, but, m reality, they were the fame • fetting afide a few particularities in the languag of the Lacedemonians •, as is (hown by Rulandus m his excellent treatife De Lingua Graca ejufque Dwlec- "VefideV'the authors already meurioued to have writ¬ ten in the Doric dialea, we might add Archytas of Tarentum, Bion, Callinus, Simonides, Bacchylides, Cypfelas, Aleman, and Sophron. . Moft of the medals of the cities of Grsecia Magna, and Sicily favour of the Doric dialeft in their infcnp- tfonf witnefs, AMBPAK^TAN, AITOAAnNIATAN, aXEFONTAN, AXTFITAN, HPAXAEftTAN, NlfiN. ©EFMITAN, KAYAONIATAN, KOniATAN, TAYFOMENITAN, &C. Which (hows the countries wherein the Doric dialea was ufed. . The general rules of this dialea are thus given by the Port Royalifts. D\ Hrx grand, J'> do e! l'x/ah h Dore. D'ufaitm-, d\, »i el d’axvfmt encore. Op i de IHnfini: et pour lefinguher Se fert au feminin du nombre planer. But they are much better explained in the fourth book of Rulandus j where he even notes the minuter differ¬ ences of the dialeas of Sicily Crete, 1 arentum, Rhodes, Lacedaemon, Laconia, Macedonia, and Thef- ialThe a abounds everywhere in the Doric •, but this dialea bears fo near a conformity to the iEolic, manv reckon them but one* . . Doric Mode, in Mufic, the firft of the authentic jnodes of the ancients. Its charaaer is to be fevere, tempered with gravity and joy ; and is proper upon religious occafions, as alfo to be ufed in war. It bc- oins Djajohre. Plato admires the mufic of the Doric mode, and judges it proper to preferve good manners as being mafeuhne j and on this account al¬ lows it in his commonwealth. The ancients had like- wife their fubdoric or hypodonc mode, which was one of the plagal modes. Its charaaer was to be very grave and Solemn; it begins with rt, a fourth lower than the doric. DORING, or Daring, among fportfmen, a term ufed to exprefs a method of taking larks, by means of a chip-net and a looking-glafs. For this fport there rirtift be provided four flicks very ftraight and light, . about the bignefs of a pike •, two of thefe are to be four feet nine inches long, and all notched at the edges or the ends. At one end of each of thefe flicks there is to be fattened another of about a foot long on one : fide ; and on the other fide a fmall wooden peg about three inches long. Then four or more flicks are to be prepared, each of one foot length •, and each of thefe muft have a cord of nine feet long fattened to it at the end. Every one fhould have a buckle for the com¬ modious fattening on to the refpeaive flicks when the net is to be fpread.—A cord muft alio be provided, which muft have two branches. The one muft have nine feet and a half, and the other ten ^eet long, with a buckle at the end of each ; the reft, or body of the cord, muft be 24 yards long. AH thefe cords, as we the long ones as thofe about the flicks, muft be well twifted and of the bignefs of one’s little finger. The next thing to be provided is a ftaft of four feet long, pointed at one end, and with a ball of wood at the other for the carrying thefe conveniences in a lack or wallet. There ftiould alfo be carried, on this occafion, a fpade to level the ground where there may be any little irregularities j and two fmall rods, each 18 inches long, and having a fmall rod fixed with a pack¬ thread at the larger end of the other. To thefe are to be tied fome pack-thread loops, which are to fallen in the legs of fome larks : and there are to be reels to thefe, that the birds may fly a little way up and down. When all this is done, the lookmg-glals is to be pre¬ pared in the following manner : Take a piece ol wood about an inch and a half thick, and cut it m form of a bow, fo that there may be about nine inches fpace be¬ tween the two ends *, and let it have its full thicknefs at the bottom, that it may receive into it a lalie piece , in the five corners of which there are to be fet in five pieces of looking-glafs. Thefe are fo fixed that they may dart their light upwards j and the whole machine is to be fupported on a moveable pin, with the end of a long line fixed to it, and made in the manner of the children’s plaything of an apple and a plumbftone ; fo that the other end of the cord _ being carried through a hedge, the barely pulling it may fet the whole machine of the glaffes a turning. Tbis aiJd the other contrivances are to be placed in the middle be¬ tween the two nets. The larks fixed to the place and termed calls, and the glittering of the looking-g affes as they twirl round in the fun, invite the other larks down ; and the cord that communicates with the nets, and goes through the hedge, gives the perfon behind an opportunity of pulling up the nets, fo as to meet over the whole, and take every thing that is between them. The places where this fort of fportmg fucceeds heft are open fields remote from any trees and hedges except one by way of (belter for. the fportfman : and the wind fiiould always be either in the front or back , for if it blows fidewife, it prevents the playing ot the lietDORIS, a country of Greece, between Phocis, Theffaly, and Acarnania. It received its name from Dorus the fon of Deucalion, who made a fettlement there. It was called Tetrapohs from the four ciUes^of DOR [ 3°i J DOR Pindus or Dryopis, Erineum, Cytiniam, and Borium, which it contained. To thefe four Tome add Lilaenm and Carphia, and therefore call it Hexapo/is. The name of Doris has been common to many parts of Greece. The Dorians in the age of Deucalion inha¬ bited Phthiotis, which they exchanged for Hiftiseotis, in the age of Dorus. From thence they were driven by the Cadmeans, and came to fettle near the town of Pindus. From thence they palled into Dryopis, and afterwards into Peloportnefus. Hercules having re- eftablilhed iEgimius king of Phthiotis or Doris, who had been driven from his country by the Lapithae, the grateful king appointed Hyllus the fon of his patron to be his fucceffor, and the Heraclidas marched from that part of the country to go to recover Peloponne- fus. The Dorians fent many colonies into different places, which bore the fame name as their native coun¬ try. The moft famous of thefe is in Alia Minor, of which Halicarnaflus was once the capital. This part of Alia Minor was called Hexapohs, and afterwards Pentapolis. Doris, a genus of animals, belonging to the order of vermes mollufca. See Helminthology Index. DORMANT, in Heraldry, is ufed for the pofture of a lion, or any other beaft, lying along in a fleeping attitude with the head on the fore paws : by which it is dilfinguilhed from the couchant, where, though the beaft is Wing, yet he holds up his head. ^ DORMER, in ArchiteBure, fignifies a window made in the roof df a houfe, or above the entablature, being raifed upon the rafters. DORMITORY, a gallery in convents or religious houfes, divided into feveral cells, in which the religious fleep or lodge. DORMOUSE. See Mus and Sciurus, Mam¬ malia Index. DORONICUM, leopard’s bane; a genus of plants belonging to the fyngenefia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 49th order, Compo- Jltce. See Botany Index. DORSAL, an appellation given to whatever be¬ longs to the back. See Dorsum. DORSET, Thomas Sackville, Lord Buckhurft. See Sackville. Dorset, Charles Sackville, earl of. See Sack- tille. DORSETSHIRE, a county of England, bounded on the fouth by the Englifti channel, on the north by Somerfetlhire and Wiltftiire, on the eaft by Hamplhire, and on the weft by Devonfhire and fome part of So- merfetlhire. It is between 40 and 50 miles long from eaft to weft, and 34 broad from fouth to north, and contains 34 hundreds, 22 market towns, and 248 pa- rifties. This county enjoys a mild, pleafant, and whole- fome air, and a deep, rich, and fertile foil, finely diver- fified. Towards the north it is level, under the high lands that divide it from Somerfetfhire, where there are fine arable grounds that will yield large crops of different kinds of grain. But on the fouth, from the borders of Hampfhire by the fea coaft, for an extent of almoft 20 miles in length, and in fome places four or five in breadth, is a heathy common, which renders this county lefs populous than it otherwife would be. From eaft to weft runs a ridge of hills called the Downs, .abounding with fweet and fhort herbage, which nou- rifties a vaft number of fheep equally efteemed for their Dorfiferom fiefh and fleece. The country is alfo very plentifully QUn watered ; and in all refpedls fo well fuited both for , pleafure and profit, that it wms diftinguiftied by the Romans above all others. They had more ftations and fummer camps in Dorfetfliire than in any other coun¬ ty. That the Saxons had the fame regard for it, is evident from the number of palaces they had in it, the ftately minfters they built, and the^ exprefs direftions they gave that their bodies ftiould be interred in thofe monuments of their piety. This county yields many and very valuable commodities. The quarries in Pur- beck and Portland fupply ftones of different qualities, fuited to various ufes, and in prodigious quantities, to¬ gether wuth fome very rich and beautiful marble. The beft tobacco-pipe clay in England is alfo found in this county. Madder, hemp, and flax, alfo thrive in many places, grain of all forts, &c. DORSIFEROUS plants, among botanifts, fuch as are of the capillary kind, without ftalks, and which bear their feeds on the back fide of their leaves. DORSTENIA, contrayerva ; a genus of plants belonging to the tetrandria clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the 53d order, Scabridx, See Botany Index. DORSUM, the Back, in Anatomy, comprehends all the pofterior part of the trunk of the body from the neck to the buttocks. See Anatomy Index. DORT, or Dordrecht, a city of Holland, which holds the firft rank in the affembly of the ftates. It is feated in a fmall ifland formed by the rivers Meufe, Merue, Rhine, and Linghe. The Meufe, on which it ftands, gives it a good harbour, and feparates it from the iflands of Iffelmonde and Ablas. It is divided from Beyerland by a canal. The harbour is very commo¬ dious for the merchandifes wrhich come dow-n the Rhine and the Meufe, which keep it in a flouriftiing condition. Its ftrength confifts in being furrounded with w’ater; Its walls are old, and defended by round tow^ers. It is very rich, and well built with brick, and had formerly the exclufive right of coining money. It is at prefent the ftaple town for wines, particularly Rhenilh. It w>as detached from the main land in 1421, on the 17th of November, by a flood occafioned by the breaking down of the dike, which overwhelmed 70 villages, and about 100,000 perfons. However, by- time and the induftry of the inhabitants, a great part of the land is recovered. It has two principal canals, namely, the New and Old Haven, by which heavy loaded veffels may enter into the city. Over the Old Haven is a large bridge well built with brick. Dort was almoft reduced to allies in the year 1457 ; there being then confumed 2000 houfes, with the halls, hofpital, and church of Notre Dame : but they are now well provided with fire engines and watchmen to prevent the like difafter. This city is famous for the meeting of the clergy called the Synod of Dort, in which the Calvinifts obtained a fentence again!! the Arminians, who were called the Remonjlrants. The difpute between the contending parties occafioned ftrange diforders, Ikirmilhes and murders, in moft of the principal cities. Thofe minillers who would not fubfcribe to the decree of the fynod were banilhed, of whom there were above 100. E. Long. 4. 36. N. Lat. 5r* 39- DOS [ Z02 ] Dort Synod of Doit, a national fynod, fummoned by au- lifhed by I hotius. tl thority of the ftates general, the provinces of Holland, po lithe-it:5 Utrecht, and Overyffel excepted, and held at Dort in 1618. The mofl eminent divines of the United Pro¬ vinces, and deputies from the churches of England, Scotland, Switzerland, Bremen, Heffia, and the Pa¬ latinate, affembled on this occalion, in order to decide the controverfy between the Gomarifts or Calvinifls and Arminians } the latter of whom were declared corrupters of the true religion. But the authority of this fynod was far from being univerfally acknowledged either in Holland or in England. The provinces of Friedand, Zealand, Utrecht, Guelderland, and Gro¬ ningen, could not be perfuaded to adopt their deci- lions j and they were oppofed by the authority of Archbilhop Laud and King James I. in England. The reformed churches in France, though at firft difpofed to give a favourable reception to the decifions of this fa¬ mous fynod, in procefs of time efpouied doftrines very different from thofe of the Gomarifts •, and the churches of Brandenburgh and Bremen would not fuffer their doftors to be tied down to the opinions and tenets of the Dutch divines. The liberty of private judgment with refpeft to the doctrines of predeftinatjon and grace, which the fpirit that prevailed among the di¬ vines of Dort feemed fo much adapted to difcourage and fupprefs, acquired new7 vigour in confequence of the arbitrary proceedings of this affembly. DORTMUND, a rich, populous, and imperial city of Germany, in the circle of Weftphalia. It is pretty large, but not well built. Formerly it was one of the Hanfe towns. Its territory alfo was formerly a. coun¬ ty, and had lords of its owm ; but fince 1504, it hath been poffeffed entirely by the city. DORYPHORI (from fyvjpear, and / W), an appellation given to the life-guard men of the Ro¬ man emperors. They w’ere held in fuch high eftima- tion, as frequently to have the command of armies con¬ ferred on them.—It was ufual alio for chief command¬ ers to have their doryphori or life guard to attend them. DOSE, in Pharmacy, &c. the quantity of a medi¬ cine to be taken at one time. T he word is formed from the Greek Ssfij, w7hich fignifies gift, or a thing given ; from ittiupu, do, “ I give.” DOSITHEANS, {Dofithei), an ancient feft a- mong the Samaritans in the firft century of the Chri- ftian era. Mention is made in Origen, Epiphanius, Jerome, and divers other Greek and Latin fathers, of one Do- fitheus, the chief of a fa£lion among the Samaritans j but the learned are not at all agreed as to the time wherein he lived. St Jerome, in his dialogue againft the Luciferians, places him before our Saviour ; where¬ in he is followed by Drufius, wrho in his anfwer to Serrarius places him about the time of Sennacherib king of Affyria. But Scaliger will have himjrofterior to our Saviour’s time : And in effeft Origen intimates him to have been contemporary with the apoftles j where he obferves, that he endeavoured to perfuade the Samaritans that he was the Meffiah foretold by Mofes. He had many followers } and his feft was ftill fub- fifting at Alexandria in the time of the patriarch Eu- logius, as appears from a decree of that patriarch pub- D O U v In that decree, Eulogius accufesDofitheans Dofitheus of injurioufly treating the ancient patriarchs Do^ajr> and prophets, and attributing to himfelf the fpirit of .. —y—j prophecy. He makes him contemporary with Simon Magus •, and accufes him of corrupting the Pentateuch in divers places, and of compofing feveral books direft- ly contrary to the law7 of God. Archbifhop Ulher takes Dofitheus to be the author of all the changes made in the Samaritan Pentateuch, which he argues from the authority of Eulogius. But all we can juftly gather from the teftimony of Eulogius is, that Dofitheus corrupted the Samaritan copies fince ufed by that fe£t j but that corruption did not pafs into all the copies of the Samaritan Pentateuch now in ufe among us, which vary but little from the Jewilh Pentateuch : And in this fenfe we are to underftand that paffage in a Samaritan chronicle, where it is faid that Doufis, i. e. Dofitheus, altered feveral things in the law of Mofes. The author of that chronicle, who was a Samaritan by religion, adds, that their high- prieft fent feveral Samaritans to feize Doufis and his corrupted copy of the Pentateuch. Epiphanius takes Dofitheus to have been a Jew7 by birth, and to have abandoned the Jewifti party for that of the Samaritans. He imagines him likewife to have been the author of the left of the Sadducees . Which feems inconfiftent writh his being later than our Savi¬ our ; and yet the Jefuit Serrarius agrees to make Dofi¬ theus the mafter of Sadoc, from whom the Sadducees are derived. Tertullian, making mention of the fame Dofitheus, obferves, that he was the firft wEo dared to rejeft the authority of the prophets by denying their infpiration. But he charges that as a crime peculiar to that feflary, w'hich in reality is common to the whole fe£l, who have never allow7ed any but the five books of Mofes for divine. DOSSER, a fort of bafket to be carried on the fiioulders of men. It is ufed in carrying the overplus earth from one part of a fortification to another where it is wanted. There are hkewiie fmall carts and wheel¬ barrows for the fame ufe. DOSSIL, in Surgery, is lint made into a cylindric form, or refembling the (hape of dates or olive ftones. Dofiils are fometimes fecured by a thread tied round their middle. DOTTEREL. See Charadrius, Ornitholo¬ gy Index. DOU, or Douw, Gerard. See Douw. DOUAY, or Doway, a large and ftrong city of the French Netherlands, fituated in E. Long. 3. O. N. Eat. 50. 25. It is fituated on the river Scarpe, in a very fertile and pleafant country. The town is large and populous, and exceedingly well fortified. ^ ou enter it by fix gates, and the ftreets from each of thefe gates lead to the market-place. Here is a^ venerable old town-houfe, adorned with the ftatues of the cans of Flanders, in which the magiftrates affemble, and are renew’ed every thirteen months. Here alfo are held feveral country courts for the dependencies of Douay, which contain about 30 villages. I lie parliament of Douay was at firft only a fupreme council, eftabliftied at Tournay in 1668, and ere&ed into a parliament in 1686. But Tournay being taken by the allies in 1709, the parliament was removed to Cambray j and upon Double. D O U [ 3°3 1 D O U the yielding of Tournay to the Auftrians by the treaty of Utrecht, the parliament was removed to Douay, where it ftill continues. This city was eredled into an univcrlity like that of Louvain by Philip II. becaufe of its being in the middle of fo many great cities, and Louvain at fo great a diftance, that the children on that fide of the country were generally fent for their education into France. Before the French revolution it contained 14 colleges, all governed and fettled af¬ ter the manner of thofe at Louvain 5 and the fchools of philofophy, canon and civil law, and phyfic, were difpofed alfo after the fame manner. There was a confiderable feminary here of Englifb Roman Catholics, founded by Philip II. of Spain about the year 1560. There were alfo a great number of convents } and amongftthe reft two Fmglifh, one of Francifcan friars, the other of Benedidtine monks. Douay was taken from the Spaniards by the French king in perfon in 1667, after a fhort refiftance. That prince made it very ftrong, and built a fort about a cannon fhot be¬ low it upon the Scarpe, with fluices, by which the ad¬ jacent country could be drowned. The allies laid fiege to it in 1710, under the command of the duke of Marlborough 5 and after a vigorous defence, the town and Fort Scarpe furrendered upon honourable terms. It was retaken by the French in 1712, after the fufpenfion of arms between Great Britain and France. DOUBLE j two of a fort, one correfponding to the other. Double Children, Double Cats, Double Pears, &c. Inftances of thefe are frequent in the Philofoph. Tranf. and elfewhere. See Monster.. Sir John Floyer, in the fame Tranfatfions, giving an account of a double turkey, furnifties fome refledtions on the produdlion of double animals in general. Two tur¬ keys, he relates, were taken out of an egg of the com¬ mon fize, when the reft were all hatched, wdfich grew together by the flefti of the breaft-bone, but in all other parts were diftindl. They feemed lefs than the ordinary fize, as wanting bulk, nutriment, and room for their growth ; which latter, too, was apparently the occafion of their cohefion. For, having two di- ftindt cavities in their bodies, and two hearts, they muft have arifen from two cicatriculas •, and, confe- quently, the egg had two yolks ; which is no uncom¬ mon accident. He mentions a dried double chicken in his pofleffion, which, though it had four legs, four ivings, &c. had but one cavity in the body, one heart, and one head •, and, confequently, was produced from one cicatricula. So, Paraeus mentions a double infant, with only one heart: in which cafe, the original or ftamen of the in¬ fant was one, and the veffels regular ; only, the nerves and arteries towards the extremities dividing into more branches than ordinary, produced double parts. The fame is the cafe in the double flowers of plants, occafioned by the richnefs of the foil. So it is in the eggs of quadrupeds, &c. There are, therefore, two reafons of duplicity in em¬ bryos : 1. The conjoining or connexion of two perfect animals ; and 2. An extraordinary divifion and ramifi¬ cation of the original veffels, nerves, arteries, &c. Double Employment, in Muflc, a name given by M. Rameau to the two different manners in which the chord of the fub-dominant may be regarded and treated, Double, viz. as the fundamental chord of the fixth fuperadded, or as the chord of the great fixth, inverted from a fun¬ damental chord of the feventh. In reality, the chords carry exa6tly the fame notes, are figured in the fame manner, are employed upon the fame chord of the tone, in fuch a manner, that frequently we cannot dif- cern which of the two chords the author employs, but by the afliftance of the fubfequent chord, which re- folves it, and which is different in thefe different cafes. To make this diftin£lion, we muft confider the dia¬ tonic progrefs of the two notes which form the fifth and the fixth, and which, conftituting between them the interval of a lecond, muft one or the other confti- tute the diffonance of the chord. Now this progrefs is determined by the motion of the bafs. Of thefe two notes, then, if the fuperior be the diffonance, it will rife by one gradation into the fubfequent chord, the lower note will keep its place, and the higher note will be a fuperadded fixth. If the lowrer be the diffo¬ nance, it will defcend into the fubfequent chord, the higher will remain in its place, and the chord will be that of the great fixth. See the two cafes of the double employment in Rouffeau’s Mufical Didlionary, Plate D, fig. 1 2. With refpeft to the compofer, the ufe which he may make of the double employment, is to confider the chord in its different points of view, that from thence he may know how to make his entrance to it, and his exit from it 5 fo that having arrived, for inftance, at the chord of the fuperadded fixth, he may refolve it as a chord of the great fixth, and reciprocally. M. D’Alembert has ftiown, that one of the chief ufes of the double employment is, that we be able to carry the diatonic fucceffion of the gamut even to an odfave, without changing the mode, at leaft whilft we rife ; for in defcending we muft change it. Of this gamut and its fundamental bafs, an example will be found in Rouf¬ feau’s Mufical Di£fionary, Plate D, fig. 13. It is evi¬ dent, according to the lyftem of M. Rameau, that all the harmonic fucceffions which refult from it, are in the fame tone : for, in ftriftnefs, no other chords are there employed but three, that of the tonic, that of the dominant, and that of the fub-dominant 5 as this laft, in the double employment, conftitutes the ieventh from the fecond note, which is employed upon the fixth. With refpeft to what M. D’Alembert adds in his Elements of Mufic, p. 80. and which he repeats in the Encyclopedic, article Double emplai, viz. that the chord of the feventh re fa la ut, though we fliould even regard it only as inverfion of fa, la, ut, re, can¬ not be followed by the chord ut mi fol ut; “ I can¬ not (fays Rouffeau) be of his opinion in this point. “ The proof which he gives for it is, that the diffo¬ nance ut of the firft chord cannot be refolved in the fecond ; and this is true, fince it remains in its place : but in this chord of the feventh re fa la ut, inverted from this chord of the fuperadded fixth, fa la ut re, it is not the ut, but the re, which is the diffonance j which, of confequence, ought to be refolved in afcending upon mi, as it really does in the fubfequent chord ; fo that this procedure in the bafs itfelf is forced, which, from re, cannot without an error return to ut, but ought to afcend to mi, in order to refolve the diffonance. “ M. Double I! DonH'pt. D O U [ 304 “ M. D’Alembert afterwards (henvs, that this chord re fa la ut, when preceded and followed by D o U ^ _ that of 1 the tonic, cannot be authorized by the double employ¬ ment, and this is likewife very true •, becaufe this chord, though figured with a 7, is not treated as a chord of the feventh, neither when we make our en¬ trance to it, nor our exit from it *, or at lead that it is not neceffary to treat it as fuch, but Amply as an inver- fion of the fuperadded fixth, of which the diflbnance is the bafs : in which cafe we ought by no means to for¬ get, that this diffonance is never prepared. Thus, though in fuch a tranfition the double employment is not in queftion, though the chord of the feventh be no more than apparent, and impoffible to be refolved by the rules, this does not hinder the tranfition from be¬ ing proper and regular, as I have juft proved to theo- rifts. I (hall immediately prove to pradical artifts, by an inftance of this tranfition : which certainly will not be condemned by any one of them, nor juftified by any other fundamental bafs except my own. (See the Mufical Di&ionary, Plate D, fig. 14.)- “ I acknowledge, that this inverfion of the chord of the fixth fuperadded, which transfers the diffonance to the bafs, has been cenfured by M. Rameau. This au¬ thor, taking for a fundamental chord the chord of the feventh, which refults from it, rather chofe to make the fundamental bafs defeend diatonically, and refolve one feventh by another, than to unfold this feventh by inverfion. I had diflipated this error, and many others, in fome papers which long ago had paffed into the hands of M. D’Alembert, when he was compo- fing his Elements of Mufic ; fo that it is not his fenti- ment which I attack, but my own opinion which I de¬ fend.” For what remains, the double employment cannot be ufed with too much referve, and the greateft mafters are the moft temperate in putting it in praftice. Double Fichy, or Fiche, in Heraldry, the denomi¬ nation of a crofs, when the extremity has two points ; in contradiftinaion to fiche, where the extremity is iharoened away to one point. Double OBave, in Mufic, an interval compofed of fifteen notes in diatonic progreffion 5 and which, for that reafon, is called a fifteenth. “ It is (fays Rouf- feau) an interval compofed of two oaaves, called by the Greeks difdiapafon. ' It deferves, however, to be remarked, that in inter¬ vals lefs diftant and compounded, as in the third, the fifth, thefimple oBave, &c. the lowed and higheft ex¬ tremes are included in the number from whence the in¬ terval takes its name. But, in the double oBave, when termed a fifteenth, the fimple number of which it is compofed gives the name. This is by no means ana¬ logical, and may occafion fome confufion. We Ihould rather choofe, therefore, to run any hazard which might occur from uniformly including all the terms of which the component intervals confift, and call the double oftave a fixteenth, according to the general ana- logy. See Interval. DOUBLET, among lapidaries, implies a counter¬ feit (tone compofed of two pieces of cryftal, and fome- times glafs foftened, together with proper colours be¬ tween them ; fo that they make the fame appearance to the eye as if the whole fubftance of the cryftal had been tinged with thefe colours. The impra&icability of imparting tinges to the bo- Doublet ^ dy of cryftals, while in their proper and natural date, * and the foftnefs of glafs, which renders ornaments made of it greatly inferior in wear to cryftal, gave in¬ ducements to the introdudlion of colouring the lurtace of cryftal wrought in a proper form, in fuch a manner, that the furfaces of two pieces fo coloured being laid together, the effeft might appear the fame as if the whole fubftance of the cryftal had been coloured. The cryftals, and fometimes white tranfparent glafs fo treated, were called doublets ; and at one time prevail¬ ed greatly in ufe, on account of the advantages, with refpeft to wear, fuch doublets had, when made of cry¬ ftal, over glafs, and the brightnefs of thecolours which could with certainty be given to counterfeit (tones this way, when coloured glals could not be procured, or at lead not without a much greater expence. Doublets have not indeed the property which the others have, of bearing to be fet tranfpardnt, as is frequently required in drops of ear-rings and other ornaments : but when mounted in rings, or ufed in fuch manner that the fides ot the pieces, where the joint is made, cannot be in- fpefted, they have, when formed of cryftal, the title to a preference to the coloured glafs} and the art of ma¬ naging them is therefore, in fome degree, of the fame importance with that of preparing glals for the coun¬ terfeiting gems } and is therefore properly an appen¬ dage to it, as being entirely fubfervient to the fame in¬ tention. The manner of making doublets is as fol¬ lows: . Let the cryftal or glafs be firft cut by the lapidaries in the manner of a brilliant, except that, in this cafe, the figure muft be compofed from two feparate ftones, or parts of ftones, formed in the manner of the upper and under parts of a brilliant, if it was divided in a horizontal diredion, a little lower than the middle. After the two plates of the intended (tone are thus cut, and fitted fo exaftly that no divifion can appear when they are laid together, the upper part muft be polilhed ready for fet ting •, and then the colour muft be put be¬ twixt the two plates by this method. “ Take of Ve¬ nice or Cyprus turpentine two fcruples; and add to it one fcruple of the grains of maftich chofen perfeaiy pure, free from foulnefs, and previoufty powdered. Melt them together in a fmall filver or brafs fpoon ladle, or other veffel, and put to them gradually any of the coloured fubftances mentioned below, being firft well powdered j ftirring them together as the colour is put in, that they may be thoroughly commixed. Warm then the doublets to the fame degree of heat as the melted mixture j and paint the upper furface of the lower part, and put the upper one inft. ntly upon it, preffing them to each other, but taking care that they may be conjoined in the moft perfedlly even manner. When the cement or paint is quite cold and fet, the re¬ dundant part of it, which has been preffed out of the joint of the two pieces, (liould be gently feraped off the fide, till there be no appearance of any colour on the outfide of the doublets: and they Ihould then be fkilfully fet ; obferving to carry the mounting over the joint, that the upper piece may be well fecured from feparating from the under one. The colour of the ruby may be beft imitated, by mixing a fourth part of carmine with fome of the fineft ctimfon lake that can be procured. I he D O U [ 305 1 D O V doublet The fapphire may be counterfeited with very bright Pruflian blue, mixed with a little of the above-men- 7)..)ii,)Iing.^ jjone(j crimfun lak.e< to give it a cart of the purple. The Prudian blue drould not be very deep coloured, or but little of it fliould be ufed : for otherwife, it will give a black {hade that will be injurious to the luftre of the doublets. The emerald may be well counterfeited with diftilled verdigrife, to which is added a little pow7dered aloes. But the mixture (hould not be ftrongly heated, or kept long over the fire after the verdigrile is added : for the colour is to be foon impaired by it. The refemblance of the garnet may be made with dra¬ gon’s blood ; which, if it cannot be procured of fuffi- cient brightnefs, may be helped by a very fmall quan¬ tity of carmine. The amethyd may be imitated with the mixture of fome Pruflian blue with the crimfon lake j but the pro¬ portions can only be regulated, by dire&ion, as differ¬ ent parcels of the lake and Pruflian blue vary extreme¬ ly in the degree of ftrength of the colour. The yellow topazes may be counterfeited by mixing the powdered aloes with a little dragon’s blood, or by good Spaniflr anotto : but the colour mufl: be very fpa- ringly ufed, or the tinge will be too flrong for the ap¬ pearance of that Hone. The chryfolite, hyacinth, vinegar garnet, aigue ma¬ rine, and other fuch weaker or more diluted colours, may be formed in the fame manner, by leffening the proportions of the colours, or by compounding them together correfpondently to the hue of the {tone to be imitated ; to which end it is proper to have an original Itone, or an exafl imitation of one, at hand when the mixture is made, in order to the more certain adapting the colours to the effedf defired : and when thefe pre¬ cautions are taken, and the operation well conducted, it is practicable to bring the doublets to fo near a re¬ femblance of the true {tones, that even the beft judges cannot diflinguifli them, when well fet, without a pe¬ culiar manner of infpeCtion. There is, however, an eafy method of diftinguifliing doublets, which is only to behold them betwixt the eye and light, in fuch a pofition, that the light may pafs through the upper part and corners of the {tone j when it will eafily be perceived that there is no colour in the body of the {tone. DOUBLETS, a game on dice within tables j the men, which are only 15, being placed thus : Upon the lice, cinque, and quatre points, there {land three men a-piece j and upon the trey, duce, and ace, only two. Pie that throws higheft hath the benefit of throwing firft, and what he throws he lays down, and fo doth the other : w'hat the one throws, and hath not, the other lays down for him, but on his own account j and thus they do till all the men are down, and then they bear. He that is down firft, bears firft; and will doubt- lefs win the game, if the other throws not doublets to overtake h;m : which he is fure to do, fince he advan¬ ces or bears as many as the doublets make, viz. eight for twTo fours. DOUBLING, in the military art, is the putting two ranks or files of foldiers into one. Thus, when the word of command is, double your ranks, the fecond, fourth, and fixth ranks march into the firft, third, and filth, fo that the fix ranks are reduced to three, and Vol. VII. Part I. the intervals between the ranks become double what Doubling they were before. il Doubling, among hunters, who fay that a hare doubles, when flue keeps in plain fields, and winds \ r' ' about to deceive the hounds. Doubling, in the manege, a term applied to a horfe, who is laid to double his reins, when he leaps feveral times together, to throw his rider; thus it is faid,/ta rammgue doubles his reins, and makes fsontlevis. Doubling, in Navigation, the art of failing round, or pafling beyond, a cape or promontory, fo as that the cape or point of land feparates the fhip from her former fituation, or lies between her and any diftant obferver. Dovkling Upon, in Naval Taflics, the ad of enclo- fing any part of a hoftile fleet between two fires, or of cannonading it on both fides. It is ufually performed by the van or rear of that fleet which is fuperior in number, taking the advantage of the w7ind, or of its fituation and circumftances, and tacking or veering round the van or rear of the ene¬ my, who will thereby be expofed to great danger, and can fcarcely avoid being thrown into a general con- fufion. DOUBLON, or Dubloon, a Spanifli and Portu- guefe coin, being the double of a Pistole. DOUBLING, the aft of withholding our affent from any propofition, on fufpicion that we are not tho¬ roughly apprifed of the merits thereof, or from not be¬ ing able peremptorily to decide between the reafons for and againft it. Doubting is diftinguiflied by the fchoolmen into two kinds, dubitatio Jlerilis, and dubitatio ejficax. The for¬ mer is that where no determination enfues: in this manner the Sceptics and Academics doubt, who with¬ hold their affent from every thing. See Sceptics, Stic. The latter is followed by judgment, which diftin- guiflies truth from falfehood : fuch is the doubting of the Peripatetics and Cartefians. The laft in particular are perpetually inculcating the deceitfulnefs of our fenfes, and tell us that we are to doubt of every one of their reports, till they have been examined and con¬ firmed by reafon. On the other hand, the Epicureans teach, that our fenfes always tell truth ; and that, if you go ever fo little from them, you come within the province of doubting. See Cartesians, Epicure¬ ans, &c. Doubting, in Rhetoric, a figure wherein the ora¬ tor appears fome time fluftuating, and undetermined what to do or fay. Tacitus furnifhes us with an in- ftance of doubting, almoft to a degree of diftraftion, in thofe words of Tiberius written to the fenate : -^uid fcribam, P. S. aut quomodo fcribam, out quid omnino non fcribam hoc tempore, dii me deaque pejus perdant quam penre quotidie fentio, ft fcio. DOUCETS, or Doulcets, among fportfmen, de¬ note the teftes of a deer or flag. DOUCINE, in ArchiteBure, a moulding concave above and convex below, ferving commonly as a cy- matium to a delicate corniche. It is likewife called GULA. DOVE. See Col umba, Ornithology Index. DorE-Tailing, in carpentry, is the manner of faft- ening boards together by letting one piecQ into ano- Qjl ther T9 over. D O V [ 306 ther in the form of the tail of a dove.. .The dove-tail is the ftrongeft of the afferablages or jointings ; becaule the tenon, or piece of wood w'hichis put into the other, goes widening to the extreme, fo that it. cannot be drawn out again, by reafon the extreme or tip is bigger than the hole. . _ . , DOVER, a borough and port town ^ot England, in the county of Kent, fituated in E. Long. .0. 25 N. Lat. 51. 10. It fends two members to parliament ftyled barons of the Cinque ports, whereof Dover is the chief. Dover gave the title of duke in the Queenf- berry family, but extinft : now a revived barony in the York family. . , By the Romans this town was named Dukns, and by the Saxons Dofra, probably from the Britifh word Dour, which fignifies water. The convenience ot its fituation drew the attention of the Roman governors, who ruled here while they poffeffed this part of the iOand •, and there ftill remain indubitable teftimomes of their care and refpeft for this important place, lor the defence of the town, the Romans, or, according to fome, Arviragus, a Britifh king, their confederate by cutting out walls with infinite labour in the iohd rock, conftrufted a ftony fortrefs ; and, as Us vener¬ able remains ftill prove, erefted alfo a lighthoufe for the benefit of navigation. The Saxons, Danes, and Normans, had a very high opinion of this place j and when the barons invited over the young prince, after¬ wards Louis VIII. of France, his father Phil.p Au- guftus conceived a bad opinion of the expedition, be- caufe the caftle and port of Dover were held for King John, though a great part of the kingdom had fubmit- ted to Louis. In its moft flourifhing ftate, the for¬ trefs was impregnable, and the town a very opulent emporium. It had 21 w'ards,. each of which furmih- cd a (hip for the public fervice, 10 gates, 7 panih- churches, many religious houfes, hofpitals, and other public edifices. The decay of the town was brought on by that of the harbour. To recover this, Hen¬ ry VIII. fpent no lefs than 63,000b in conftruCtmg piers •, and 5000b in building a caftle between this and Folkftone, called Sanfate, where the (hore was flat, and the landing eafy. Notwithftanding all this expence, however, it was again choked up. in the rei'Tn of Queen Elizabeth, by whom it was again clear- ed0at a vaft expence, fo that ihips of fome hundred tons could enter it. Since that time it has again de¬ clined, notwithftanding of many efforts for its relief, and great afliftance from time to time given by par¬ liament for this purpofe. As the haven however, is ftill capable of receiving veffels ofimall burden, and as the packets to France and. Flanders are fla- tioned here in time of peace, it is ftill a place .of confequence, and the people are aftive and mduftn- ^DoStraits, thenarrow channel between Dover and Calais, which feparates our ifland from the oppofite con¬ tinent. Britain is fuppofed by many to have been once peninfulated, the prefent ftraits occupying the ftte of the ffthmus which joined it to Gaul. No certain caufe Hays Mr Pennant*) can be given for the mighty con- wbich tore us from this continent.-, whether it voV'In’ was rent by an earthquake, or whether it was worn P' U' through by the continual dafhing of the waters, no Py¬ thagoras isil-ft to folve the Fortune locorutnt ] D O V Vidi ego, quod fuerat quondam folidijjima tellus Effe /return. But it is moft probable, that the great philofopher al¬ luded to the partial deftrudlion of the /Itiantica infula, mentioned by Plato as a diftant tradition in his days. It wTas effefted by an earthquake and a deluge, which might have rent afunderthe narrow ifthmus inqueftion, Dover. and left Britain, large as it feems at prefent, the mere w'reck of its original fize. T he Scilly ifles, the He¬ brides, Orkneys, Shetlands, and perhaps the Feroe ifiands, may poflibly be no more than fragments of the once far-extended region. I have no quarrel about the word ijland. The little ifthmus, compared to the whole, might have been a jumflion never attended to in the li¬ mited navigations of very early times. rI he peninfula had never been wholly explored, and it paffed with the ancients for a genuine ifland. The correfponde.ncy of ftrata on part of the oppofite fliores of Britain and France, leaves no room to doubt but that they wTere once united. The chalky cliffs of Blancnez between Calais and Boulogne, and thofe to the weftwatd of Do¬ ver, exactly tally : the laft are vaft and continued; the former fhort, and the termination of the immenfe bed. Between Boulogne and Folkftone (about fix miles from the latter) is another memorial of the jundtion of the two countries; a narrow' fubmarine hill, called the Rip¬ raps, about a quarter of a mile broad, and ten miles long, extending eaftwards towards the Goodwin fands. Its materials are boulderftones, adventitious to many ftrata. The depth of water on it, in very low ebbs during fpring tides, is only fourteen feet. The fifhermen from Folkftone have often touched it with a fifteen feet oar ; fo that it is juftly the dread of navigators. Many a tall {hip has periftied on it, and funk inftantly into twenty- one fathoms water. In July 1782, the Belleide o. fixty-four guns (truck, and lay on it during three hours; but, by ftarting her beer and water, got clear oft. “ Thefe celebrated ftraits are only twenty-one miles wide in the narroweft part, from the pier at Dover to that at Calais is twenty-four. It is conjeaured, that their breadth leffens, and that they are two miles narrower' than they were in ancient times. An accu¬ rate obferver of fifty years remarks to me, that the m- creafed height of water, from a decrease of breadth has been apparent even in that fpace. 'I he depth ot the channel at a medium in higheft fpring tides is about twenty-five fathoms. The bottom either coaiie fand or rugged fears, which have for ages unknown re¬ fitted the attrition of the currents. From the ftraits both eaftward and weftward is a gradualincreafe ofdepth through the channel to a hundred fathoms, till found¬ ings are totally loft or unattended to. The fpring tides in the ftraits rife on an average twenty-four feet, the neap tides fifteen. The tide flows from the German fea, paffes the ftraits, and meets, with a great rippling, the weftern tide from the ocean between Fairleigh near Haftings and Boulogne ; a proof that, if the feparation of the land was effeaed by the feas, it muft have been bv the overpowering weight of thofe of the north. ' Dover, a town of Delaware in North America. It is the chief town of the county of Kent in the Dela¬ ware ftate, and is the feat of government. It (lands on Jones’s creek, a few miles from the Delaware river, and confifts of about 100 houfes, principally of brick. Four {fleets hiterfeft each other at right angles, in the centre D O U Douglas, centre of the town, whofe mcklencies form a fpacious v parade, on the eaft fide of which is an elegant ftate- houfe of brick. The town has a lively appearance, and drives on a confiderable trade with Philadelphia. Wheat is the principal article of export. The landing is five or fix miles from the town of Dover. DOUGLAS, Lord. See {Hijlory of) Scot¬ land. iiouGLAs, Gavin, billiop of Dunkeld in Scotland, was tiie third fon of Archibald earl of Angus, and born in the year 1474. Where he was educated, is not known ; but it is certain that he ftudied theology : a ftudy, however, which did not eftrange him from the mufes ; for he employed himfelf at intervals in tranf- lating into beautiful verfe the poem of Ovid de Remcdio Amoris. The advantages of foreign travel, and the converfation of the moft learned men in France and Germany, to whom his merit procured the readieft ac- cefs, completed his education. With his fuperior re¬ commendations and worth it was impoflible he could remain unnoticed. His firfl preferment was to be pro- voft of the collegiate church of St Giles in Edinburgh j a place at that time of great dignity and revenue. In the year 1514, the queen mother, then regent of Scot¬ land, appointed Douglas abbot of Aberbrothock, and foon after archbilhop of St Andrew’s j but the queen’s power not being fufficient to eftablilh him in the pof- fetTion of that dignity, he relinquilhed his claim in fa¬ vour of his competitor Foreman, who was fupported by the pope. In 1515, he was by the queen appoint¬ ed bifhop of Dunkeld ; and that appointment wras foon after confirmed by his holinefs Leo X. Neverthelefs it was fome time before he could obtain peaceable pof- feffion of his fee. The duke of Albany, who in this year was declared regent, oppofed him becaufe he w'as fupported by the queen ; and, in order to deprive him of his bilhopric, accufed him of a&ing contrary to law in receiving bulls from Rome. On this accufation he was committed to the calfle of Edinburgh, where he continued in confinement above a year; but the re¬ gent and the queen being at laft reconciled, he obtain¬ ed his liberty, and was confecrated bifhop of Dunkeld. In 1517, he attended the duke of Albany to France j but returned foon after to Scotland. In 1521, the difputes between the earls of Arran and Angus having thrown the kingdom into violent commotion, our pre¬ late retired to England, where he became intimately acquainted with Polydore Virgil the hiftorian. He died in London of the plague in 1522 ; and was bu¬ ried in the Savoy. He wrote, 1. The palace of Ho¬ nour: a moft ingenious poem under the fimilitude of a vifion ; in which he paints the vanity and inconftancy of all worldly glory. It abounds wdth incidents, and a very rich vein of poetry. The palace of happinefs, in the pifture of Cebes, feems to be the groundwork of it. 2. Aurea Narratwnes : a performance now loft; in which, it is faid, he explained, in a moft agreeable manner, the mythology of the poetical fictions of the ancients. 3. Comceduv aliquot facrae: None of which are now to be found. 4. Thirteen Bukes of Eneades, of the famofe poet Virgil, tranflatet out of Latin verfes into Scottifli metre, every buke having its particular prologe. Imprinted at London 1553, in 410; and reprinted at Edinburgh 1710, in folio. The laft is the moft efteemed of all bus works. He undertook it D O U at the defire of Lord Henry Sinclair, a munificent pa- Douglas, Iron of arts in thofe times : and he completed it in 18 Douw- months ; a circumftance which his admirers are too v fond of repeating to his advantage. David Hume of Godfcroft, an author of uncommon merit, and an ad¬ mirable judge of poetry, gives the following teftimony in his favour. “ He wrote (fays he) in his native tongue divers things; but his chiefeft work is his tranfiation of Virgil, yet extant, in verle : in which he ties himfelf fo ftridtly as is poflible ; and yet it is fo well expreffed, that whofoever will eflay to do the like will find it a hard piece of work to go through with it. In his prologues before every book, where he hath his liberty, he Ihoweth a natural and ample vein of poe¬ try, fo pure, pleafant, and judicious, that I believe there is none that hath written before or fince but cometh Ihort of him.” It has been Lid, that he compiled an hiftorical treatife De Rebus Scoticis ; but no remain of it hath defcended to the prefent times. Douglas, the principal town of the ille of Man, and which has lately increafed both in trade and build¬ ings. The harbour, for Ihips of a tolerable burden, is the fafeft in the ifland, and is much improved by a fine mole that has been built. It is feated on the eaftern fide. W. Long. 4. 25. N. Lat. 54. 7. DOUW, Gerhard, a celebrated painter, was born at Leyden in 1613 ; and received his firft inftru£Hons in drawing and defign from Bartholomew Dolendo an engraver, and alfo from Peter Kouwhoorn a painter on glafs ; but at the age of fifteen he became a difciple of Rembrandt. In that famous fchool he continued for three years ; and then found himfelf qualified to ftudy nature, the moft unerring direftor. From Rembrandt he learned the true principles of colouring, and obtained a complete knowledge of the chiaro-fcuro ; but to that knowledge he added a deli¬ cacy of pencil, and a patience in working up his co¬ lours to the higheft degree of neatnefs, fuperior to any other mafter. He therefore was more pleafed with thofe pidlures of Rembrandt which were painted in his youth than thofe by which he was diftinguifhed in his more advanced age ; becaufe the firft feemed fi- nifhed with more care and attention, the latter with more boldnefs, freedom, and negligence, which wjas quite oppofite to the tafte of Douw. But although his manner appears fo different from that of his ma¬ fter, yet it was to Rembrandt alone that he owed all that excellence in colouring by which he triumphed over all the artifts of his own country. His pictures are ufually of a fmall fize, with figures fo exquifitely touched, fo tranfparent, fo wonderfully delicate, as to excite aftoniftiment as well as pleafure. He defigned every objeft after nature, and with an ex- atftnefs fo lingular, that each objedl appears as perfeiT as nature itfelf, in refpeft to colour, freftinefs, and force. His general manner of painting portraits, w^as by the aid of a concave mirror, and fometimes by looking at the objedt through a frame with many exafi fquares of fine lilk. But the latter cuftom is difufed, as the eye of a good artift feems a more competent rule, though the ufe of the former is ftill pradlifed by painters in miniature. It is almoft incredible what vaft fums have been given and are given at this day for the piiftures of Douw, even in his own country ; as alfo in Italy and every (^q 2 polite [ 3°7 1 DOW [ 3°8 1 DOW Douw polite part of Europe : for he was exceedingly curious it in finithing them, and patiently affiduous beyond ex- Dowager. ample- Qf that patience Sandrart gives a ftrong proof y——. ^ circumifance which he mentions relative to this artift. He fays, that having once, in company with Bamboccio, vifited Gerhard Douw, they could not forbear to admire the prodigious neatnels of a picture which he was then painting, in which they took par¬ ticular notice of a broom •, and exprefling their tur- prife at the exctflive neatnefs of the finiflnng that mi¬ nute objeft, Douw told them he fhould fpend three days more in working on that broom before he fhould account it entirely complete. In a family pitture ot Mrs Spiering, the fame author obferves, that the lady fat five davs for the finifhing one of her hands that leaned on an arm chair. For that realon not many would fit to him for their portraits ; and he therefore indulged himfelf moftly in works of fancy, in which lie could introduce objeas of ttill life, and employ as much time on them as fuited his own inclination. _ Hou- braken teftifies, that his great patron Mr Spiering al¬ lowed him a thoufand guilders a year, and paid befide whatever be demanded for bis pidures, and purchafed feme of them for their weight in filver *, but Sandrart with more probability, allures us, that the thouland guilders a-year were paid to Gerhard, on no other con- fideration 'than that the artift flrould give his bene ac¬ tor the option of every piaurehe painted, for which he was immediately to receive the utmoft of his demand. This great mailer died in 1674, aged 61. Douw appears inconteftably to be the moft wonder¬ ful in his finifhing of all the Flemifti mafters. Every thing that came from his pencil is precious, and his colouring hath exaftly the true and the lovely tints of nature ; nor do his colours appear tortured, nor is their vigour lefl'ened by his patient pencil; for whatever pains he may have taken, there is no look of labour or ftift- nefs; and his pidures are remarkable, not only for re¬ taining their original luftre, but for having the fame beautiful efifed at a proper diftance as they have when brought to the neareft view. , _ , , „ At Turin are feveral pidures by Gerhard Douw, wonderfully beautiful; efpecially one, of a_ dodor at¬ tending a fick woman, and furveying an urinal. 1 he execution of that painting 'is aftomfh.ngly fine, and although the fhadows appear a little too dark, .e whole has an inexpreflihle effed. In the gallery at Florence there is a night-piece by candle light, which is exqnifitely finithed ; and in the fame apartment, a mountebank attended by a number of figures, which it teems impofiible either fuflficiently to commend or to ^DOULEIA, (AovXu*.), amongthe Athenians, a kind of puniftiment by which the criminal was reduced into the condition of a Have. It was never injhd- ed upon any but the fojourners w&peedjer- ^To DOUSE, in fea language, is to lower fuddenly, or flacken ; and it is applied to a fail m a fquall of wind, an extended hawfer, &c. DOWAGER, Dotifca (q. d. or that has a jointure), a title, or t • l ^oc flnlcpc. f Dowaget the widows of princes, dukes, high rank only. widow endowed, addition, applied to earls, and perfons of Queen DorrAGER, is the widow of the king, and as fuch enjoys moft of the privileges belonging to her as Do^n> queen confort : but it is not high treafon to violate her ( v chaftity or confpire her death, becaufe the fucceihon is not endangered thereby ; but no man can marry her without fpecial licetife from the king, on pain of for¬ feiting his lands and goods. See Queen. DOWER, (Dotarium, Doarium, or Dos), a portion of lands or tenements which a widow enjoys for terI1'j of life from her hniband, in cafe ftiefurvives him ; and which, at her death, deicends to their children. But fire muft have been the wife of the party at the time of his deceafe ; or not divorced a vinculo matrimonii: nor, if (he has eloped from her hufoand, and lives with an adulterer, (hall (he be entitled to dower unlefs her hulband be voluntarily reconciled to her. The widows of traitors are alfo barred of their dower by 5 and 6 Edw VI. cap. II. but not the widows ot felons. An alien’eannot be endowed, unlefs (he be queen confort. And if a woman levies a fine with her hufband, orjif a common recovery he had with the hofband and wife of the hulhand’s lands, (he is barred of her dower. A widow, clear of thefe impediments, is by law entitled to be endowed of all lands and tenements, of which her hufband was ieifed in fee-fimple or lee-tail at any time during the coverture ; and of which any ifiue flie might have had might by poflibihty have been heir. See Jointure. , . , . r DOWN, a county of Ireland m the province of Ulfter ; bounded on the eaft and fouth by St George s channel; on the weft by the county of Armagh ; and on the north by the county of Antrim. It lies oppo- fite to the ifle of Man, Cumberland and Weftmor- land ; and the north part of it fronts the Mull ot Gal¬ loway in Scotland, and is about 44 miles from it.—. It is about 44 miles in length and 30 m breadth. It fends 14 members to parliament, two for the county, and 12 for the following boroughs, Down-PaUick, Newry, Newtown, Killeleagh, Bangor, and HiiUbo- This county is rough and full of hills, and yet the air is temperate and healthy. The foil naturally pro¬ duces wood, unlefs conftantly kept open and ploughed , and the low grounds degenerate into bogs ^ mo(s, where the drains are neglected. But by the mduftry of the inhabitants it produces good, crops of corn, particularly oats ; and, where marl is found, barley. This laft is exported from killogh to Dublin. Tee ftaple commodity of this county is the linen manu- fda Drac. Dracaena II Dracona- rius. D R A [ 310 1 D R A feen him ; for happy indeed is that village in which there is not a houfe execrated as the lurking place of this tremendous drac. DRACAENA, dragon-tree; a genus of plants belonging to the hexandria clafs. See Botany Index. DRACHM, a Grecian coin, of the vame of ieven pence three farthings. Drachm is alfo a weight uled by our phyficians; containing juft fixty grains three fcruples, or the eighth part of an ounce. DRACO, a celebrated lawgiver of Athens. When he exercifed the office of archon, he made a code of laws for the ufe of his citizens, which, on account of their feverity, were faid to be written in letters of blood. By them idlenefs was puniftied with as much feverity as murder, and death was denounced againft: the one as well as the other. Such a code of rigorous law’s gave occafion to a certain Athenian to alk of the legiflator, why he was fo fevere in his punifhments ? and Draco gave for anfwer, that as the fmalleft tranfgref- fion had appeared to him deferving death, he could not find any puniffunent more rigorous for more atrocious crimes. Thefe laws were at firft enforced, but they were often negle£ted on account of their extreme feve¬ rity ; and Solon totally aboliftied them, except that one which puniihed a murderer with death. The po¬ pularity of Draco was uncommon, but the gratitude of his admirers proved fatal to him. When once he appeared on the theatre, he was received with repeated applaufe ; and the people, according to the cuftom of the Athenians, (bowed their refpeft to their lawgiver by throwing garments upon him. This was done in fuch profufion, that Draco was foon hid under them, and fmothered by the too great veneration of his citi¬ zens. He lived about 624 years before the Chriftian era. Draco, the Dragon, a genus of reptiles belonging to the clafs of amphibia. See Erpetology Index. Draco Vclans, in Meteorology, a fiery exhalation, frequent in marftiy and cold countries. It is moft common in fummer ; and though princi¬ pally feen playing near the banks of rivers, or in boggy places, yet fometimes mounts up to a confiderable height in the air, to the no fmall terror of the amazed beholders ; its appearance being that of an oblong, fometimes roundifh, fiery body, with a long tail. It is entirely harmlefs, frequently (licking to the hands and clothes of people without injuring them in the lead. Draco, in Jljlronomy, a conftellation of the northern hemifphere ; whofe liars, according to Ptolemy, are 81 ; according to Tycho, 32 ; according to Hevelius, 40; according to Bayer, 33; and according to Mr Flamfteed, 80. See Astronomy, N° 406. DRACOCEPHALUM, dragon’s head; a genus of plants belonging to the didynamia clafs. See Bo¬ tany Index. DRACONARIUS, in antiquity, dragon-bearer. Several nations, as the Perfians, Parthians, Scythians, &.c. bore dragons on their ftandards ; whence the lland- ards themfelves were called dracones, “ dragons.” The Romans borrowed the fame cuftom from the Parthians ; or, as Cafaubon has it, from the Daci; or, as Codin, from the Afiyrians. The Roman dracones were figures of dragons paint¬ ed in red on their flags, as appears from Ammianus Dragon. Marcellinus : but among le Pevfians and Parthians Dracontic they were like the Roman r agle, figures in full relievo; fo that the Romans weret requently deceived, and took them for real dragons. The foldier who bore the dragon or (landard was ca’l d by the Romans draconarius ; and by the Greeks ^ocixovcteiei; and ; for the emperors carried thecuitom with them .0 C mftantinople. DRACONTIC month, the time of the revolution * of the moon from her alcending node, called caput dra- corns, to her return thither. DRACONTIUM, dragons; a genus of plants belonging to the gynandria ciafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the firft order, Palmce. See Botany Index. DRACUNCULI, in Medicine, fmall long worms which breed in the mufcular parts of the arms and legs, called Guinea worms. The common way of getting out thefe worms is by the point of a needle ; and to prevent their forming there again, the ufual cuftom is to wa(h the parts with wine or vinegar, with alum, nitre, or common fait, or with a ftrong lixivium of oak allies, and afterwards anointing them with an oint¬ ment of the common kind ufed for fcorbutic. eruptions, with a fmall mixture of quickfilver. DRACUNCULUS. See Arum, Botany Index. DRAFF, a name given in fome places to the wa(h given to hogs, and the grains given to cows. DRAG, in building. A door is faid to drag when in opening or (hutting it hangs or grates upon the floor. Drag, in fea language, is a machine confiding of a (harp, fquare, iron ring, encircled with a net, and commonly ufed to take the wheel off from the plat¬ form or bottom of the decks. DRAGOMAN, or Drogman, a term of general ufe through the eaft for an interpreter, whofe office is to facilitate commerce between the orientals and occi¬ dentals. Thefe are kept by the ambaffadors of Chri¬ ftian nations refiding at the Porte for this purpofe. The word is formed from the Arabic targeman or targiman, of the verb taragem, “ he has interpreted.” From dragoman the Italians formed dragomano and, with a nearer relation to its Arabic etymology, turci- manno ; whence the French and our trucheman, as well as dragoman and drogman. DRAGON, in Ajlronomy. See Draco. Dragon's Head and Tail [caput et cauda draconis), are the nodes of the planets ; or the two points where¬ in the ecliptic is interfered by the orbits of the planets, and particularly that of the moon ; making with it angles of five degrees and eighteen minutes. One of thefe points looks northward; the moon beginning then to have northward latitude, and the other fouth- ward, where fne commences fouth. Thus her deviation from the ecliptic feems (according to the fancy of fome) to make a figure like to that of a dragon, whofe belly is where (lie has the greateft latitude ; the inter- feHion reprefenting the head and tail, from which re- femblance the denomination arifes. But note, that thefe points abide not always in one place, but have a motion of their own in the zodiac, and retrograde-wife, 3 minutes 11 feconds per day ; completing their circle in 18 years 225 days; fo that the Dragon || Dragonnee. D R A . . . t 3 the moon can be but twice in the ecliptic during her monthly period, but at all other times flie will have a latitude or declination from the ecliptic. It is about thefe points of interfeftion that all eclip- fes happen. They are ufually denoted by thefe cha- rafters dragon’s head, and TS dragon’s tail. Dragon, in Zoology. See Draco. Dragon's Blood, a gummi-refinous fubdance brought from the Eart Ind R A is where the upper half refembles a lion, the other half Dragoon, going off like the hinder part of a dragon. The fame Diagoon- may be faid of any other bead as well as a lion. ■ ' ' DRAGOON, in military affairs, a mufqueteer mounted on horfeback, who fometimes fights or marches on foot, as occafion requires. Menage derives the word dragoon from the Latin draconarius, which in Vegetius is ufed to fignify foldier. But it is more probably derived from the German tra- gen or dragen, which fignifies/o cwry ; as being infan¬ try carried on horfeback. Dragoons are divided into brigades as the cavalry ; and each regiment into troops ; each troop having a captain, lieutenant, cornet, quarter-mader, two fer- jeants, three corporals, and two drums. Some regi¬ ments have hautboys. They are very ufeful on any expedition that requires defpatch ; for they can keep pace with the cavalry, and do the duty of infantry ; they encamp generally on the wings of the army, or at the paffes leading to the camp : and fometimes they are brought to cover the general’s quarters: they march in the front and rear of the army. The fird regiment of dragoons raifed in England was in 1681, and called the regiment of dragoons of North Britain. In battle or attacks they generally fight fword in hand after the fird fire. Their aims are, a fword, firelock, and bayonet. In the French fervice, when the dragoons march on foot, their offi¬ cers bear the pike and the ferjeants the halbert, neither of wffiich are ufed in the Englidi fervice. DRAGOONING, one of the methods ufed by Papids for converting refraftory heretics, and bring¬ ing them within the pale of the true church. The following method of dragooning the French Protedants, after the revocation of the edift of Nantz, under Louis XIV. is taken from a French piece, trandated in 1686. The troopers, foldiers, and dragoons, w?ent into the Protedants houfes, wdiere they marred and defaced their houfehold duff, broke their looking glaffes, and other utenfils and ornaments, let their wine run about their cellars, and threw7 about their corn and fpoiled it. And as to thofe things which they could not de- droy in this manner, fuch as furniture of beds, linen, wearing apparel, plate, &c. they carried them to the market place, and fold them to the Jefuits and other Roman Catholics. By thefe means the Protedants in Montauban alone were, in four or five days, dripped of above a million of money. But this was not the word. They turned the dining rooms of gentlemen into dables for their horfes $ and treated the owners of the houfes wrhere they quartered with the highed indigni¬ ty and cruelty, ladling them about from one to ano¬ ther, day and night, without intermiffion, not fuffering them to eat or drink 5 and w7hen they began to fink under the fatigue and pains they had undergone, they laid them on a bed, and when they thought them fomewhat recovered, made them rife, and repented the fame tortures. When they faw the blood and fweat run down their faces and other parts of their bodies, they duiced them w7ith water, and putting over their heads kettle drums, turned upfide down, they made a continual din upon them till thefe unhappy crea¬ tures M their fenfes. When one party of tbefe tor- 2 mentors t D R A [ 31 mentors were weary, they were relieved by another, who pra&ifed the fame cruelties with trefh vigour. At Negreplifle, a town near Montauban, they hung up Ifaac Favin, a Protcftant citizen of that place, by his armpits, and tormented him a whole night by pinching and tearing off his flefli with pin¬ cers. They made a great fire round a boy of about 3 2 vears old, who with his hands and eyes lifted up to heaven cried out “My God, help me!” And when they found the youth refolved to die rather than re¬ nounce his religion, they fnatched him from the fire juft as he was on the point of being burnt. In feveral places the foldiers applied red hot irons to the hands and feet of men and breafts of women. At Nantz they hung up feveral women and maids by their feet, and others by their armpits, and thus ex- pofed them to public view ftark naked. They bound to polls mothers that gave fuck, and let their fuck¬ ing infants lie languifhing in their fight for feveral days and nights, crying, mourning, and gafping for life. Some they bound before a great fire, and being half roafted, let them go : a punilhment worfe than death. Amidft a thoufand hideous cries and a thou- fand blafphemies, they hung up men and women by the hair, and fome by their feet, on hooks in chim¬ neys, and fmoked them with wifps of wet hay till they were fuffocated. They tied lome under the arms with ropes, and plunged them again, and again into wells; they bound others like criminals, put them to the torture, and with a funnel filled them with wine till the fumes of it took away their reafon, when they made them fay, they confented to be Catho¬ lics. They ftripped them naked, and after a thou¬ fand indignities, ftuck them with pins and needles from head to foot. They cut and flalhed them with knives •, and fometimes with red hot pincers took ‘hold of them by the nofe and other parts of the body, and dragged them about the rooms till they made them promife to be Catholics, or till the cries of thefe miferable wretches, calling upon God for help, forced them to let them go. They beat them with ftaves, and thus bruifed, and with broken bones, dragged them to church, where their forced prefence, was taken for an abjuration. In fome places they tied fathers and hufbands to their bed-pofts, and before their eyes ravilhed their wives and daughters with impunity. They blew up men and women with bellows till they burft them. If any to efcape thefe barbarities endea¬ voured to fave themfelves by flight, they purfued them into the fields and woods, where they (hot at them like wild beafts, and prohibited them from departing the kingdom (a cruelty never pra&ifed by Nero or Dioclefian) upon pain of confifcation of effe61s, the galleys, the lafli, and perpetual imprifonment 5 info- much that the prifons of the fea-port towns were crammed with men, women, and children, who endea¬ voured to fave themfelves by flight from their dread¬ ful perfecution. With thefe fcenes of defolation and horror, the Popifli clergy feafted their eyes, and made them only a matter of laughter and fport. Though my heart aches (fays the writer of the piece from which we are tranfcribing) whilft I am relating thefe barbcrities, yet for a perpetual memorial of the infernal cruelty praftifed by thefe monfters I beg the reader’s patience to lay before him two other in- 2 2 ] D R A fiances, which, if he hath a heart like tnine, he will r)r.aS°on* not be* able to read without watering thefe Iheets with his tears. . “ The firft is of a young woman, who being brought before the council, upon refufing to abjure her re¬ ligion, wras ordered to prifon. There they ftraved her head, finged off the hair from other parts of her body ; and having ftripped her ftark naked, led her through the ftreets of the city, where many a blow was given her, and ftones flung at her j then they itt her up to the neck in a tub full of water, where, after {he had been for a while, they took her out, and put on her a fliift dipt in wine, which, as it dried and ftuck to her fore and bruifed body, they fn.atched off again, and then had another ready dipped in wine to clap on her. This they repeated fix times, thereby making her body exceeding raw and iore. W hen all thefe cruelties could not {hake her conftancy, they faftened her by bet feet in a kind of gibbet, and let her hang in that pofture, with her head downward, till flue expired. “ The other is of a man in whofe home were quar¬ tered fome of thefe miffionary dragoons. One day, having drank plentifully of his wine, and broken tneii glaffes at every health, they filled the floor with the fragments, and by often walking over them reduced them to very fmall pieces. , This done, in the infolence of their mirth, they reiolved on a dance, and told their Proteftant hoft that he muff be one of their com¬ pany j but as he would not be of their religion he muft dance quite barefoot; and thus barefoot they drove him about the room, treading on the ftiarp points of the broken glaffes. When he was no longer able to ftand, they laid him on a bed, and, in a ftiort time, ftripped him ftark naked, and rolled him from one end of the room to the other, till every part of his body was full of the fragments of glafs. After this they dragged him to his bed, and having fent for a furgeon, obliged him to cut out the pieces of g^a ^ with his inftruments, thereby putting him to the moft exquifite and horrible pains that can poflibly be con¬ ceived. . , “ Thefe, fellow Proteftants, were the methods ufed by the moft Chriftian king’s apoftolic dragoons to convert bis heretical fubjedts to the Roman Catho¬ lic faith ! Thefe, and many other of the like nature, were the torments to which Louis XIV. delivered them over to bring them to his own church . and as Poperv is unchangeably the fame, thefe .are the tor¬ tures prepared for you, if ever that religion fliould be permitted to become fettled amongft you •, the con- fideration of which made Luther fay of it, what every man that knows any thing of Chriftianity muft agree with him in, ‘ If you had no other reafon to go out of the Roman church, this alone would fufhce, that you fee and hear, how contrary to the law of God, they flied innocent blood. This Angle c.rcumftance {hall, God willing, ever {eparate me from the Papacy. And if I w'as now fubjedl to it, and could blame no¬ thing in any of their doftrines ; yet for this crime of cruelty, I would fly from her communion, as from a den of thieves and murderers.” DRAGS, in the fea language, are whatever hangs over the {hip in the fea, as fliirts, coats, or the like j and boats, when towed, or whatever elfe that after lng, Drag's. D R A [ 3 this manner may hinder the flap’s way when fne fails, are called drags. DRAIN, a cut,or ditch for carrying off water from the foil, to improve it for the purpofes of agriculture. In the fen countries of England drains are 20, 30, and fometimes 40 feet wide, carried through the marfliy ground to feme river or other place capable of difeharging the water which they carry out of the fen lands. DRAINING. For the different methods, fee A- griculture Index. DRAKE, the male of the duck kind. See Anas, Ornithology Index. Drake, Sir Francis, a celebrated Englifli admi¬ ral, was the fon of Edmund Drake a failor, and born near Taviftock in Devonlhire, in the year 1545. He was brought up at the expence, and under the care of, Sir John Hawkins, who was his kinfman *, and, at the age of 18, was purfer of a fliip trading to Bifcay. At 20, he made a voyage to Guinea ; and, at 22, had the honour to be made captain of the Judith. In that ca¬ pacity he was in the harbour of St John de Ulloa, in the gulf of Mexico, where he behaved moll gallantly in the glorious aftions under Sir John Hawkins, and returned with him to England with great reputation, though not worth a groat. Upon this he proje£led a delign againft the Spaniards in the Weft Indies ; which he no fooner publilhed, than he had volunteers enough ready to accompany him. In 1570, he made his firft expedition with two ftiips; and the next year with one only, in which he returned fafe, if not rvith fuch advantages as he expe&ed. He made another expedition in 1572, wherein he did the Spaniards fome mifehief, and gained confiderable booties. In thefe expeditions he was much aflifted by a nation of Indians, who then were, and have been ever fince, en¬ gaged in perpetual wars with the Spaniards. The prince of thefe people was named Pedro; to whom Drake prefented a fine cutlafs from his fide, which he faw the Indian greatly admired. Pedro, in return, gave him four large wedges of gold ; which Drake threwr into the common ftock, faying, That he thought it but juft that fuch as bore the charge of fo uncertain a voyage on his credit, ftiould (hare the utmoft advan¬ tage that voyage produced. Then, embarking his men with all the wealth he had obtained, which was very confiderable, he bore awTay for England, where he arrived in Auguft 1573. His fuccefs in this expedition, joined to his honour¬ able behaviour towards his owners, gained him a high reputation ; and the ufe he made of his riches, a ftill greater. For, fitting out three ftout frigates at his own expence, he failed with them to Ireland ; where, under Walter earl of Effex, the father of the famous unfortunate earl, he ferved as a volunteer, and did many glorious adlions. After the death of his noble patron, he returned into England; w’here Sir Chriftopher Hat¬ ton introduced him to her majefty, and procured him countenance and protedlion at court. By this means he acquired a capacity of undertaking that grand ex¬ pedition which will render his name immortal. The firft thing he propofed w’as a voyage into the South feas through the ftraits of Magellan ; which was w'hat hitherto no Engliftiman had ever attempted. The pro- jedl was ivell received at court.; the queen furnhhed Vol. VII. Part I. 13 ] D R A him with means; and his own fame quickly drew to¬ gether a fuflicient force. The fleet with which he failed on this extraordinary undertaking, confifted only of five veffels, fmall when compared with modern ftiips, and no more than 164 able men. lie failed on the 13th of December 1577 ; on the 2 5th fell in with the coaft of Barbary, and on the 29th with Cape Verd. On the 13th of March he paffed the equinoctial, made the coaft of Brazil on the 5th of April, and entered the river de la Plata, where he loft the company of two of his ftiips ; but meeting them again, and taking out their provifions, he turned them adrift. On the 29th of May he entered the port of St Julian’s, where he continued two months for the fake of laying in provi¬ fions: on the 20th of Auguft he entered the ftraits of Magellan, and on the 25th of September paffed them, having then only his own fliip. On the 25th of No¬ vember he came to Macao, which he had appointed for a place of rendezvous in cafe his fliips feparated ; but Captain Winter, his vice-admiral, having repaffed the ftraits, wras returned to England. Thence he con¬ tinued his voyage along the coaft of Chili and Peru, taking all opportunities of feizing Spanifti (hips, and attacking them on fhore, till his men were fated with plunder ; and then, coafting America to the height of 48 degrees, he endeavoured to find a paffage that way back into our feas, but could not. However, he land¬ ed, and called the country New Albion, taking poffef- fion of it in the name and for the ufe of Queen Eliza¬ beth ; and, having careened his fliip, fet fail from thence on the 29th of September 1579, for the Moluccas. He is fuppofed to have cholen this paffage round, partly to avoid being attacked by the Spaniards at a difadvantage, and partly from the latenefs of the fea- fon, whence dangerous ftorms and hurricanes were ap¬ prehended. On the 13th of October he fell in with certain iflands inhabited by the moft barbarous people he had met with in aB his voyage : on the 4th of No¬ vember he had fight of the Moluccas; and, coming to Ternate, wras extremely well received by the king thereof, who appears from the moft authentic relations of this voyage to have been a wife and politic prince. On the xoth of December he made Celebes; where his fliip unfortunately ran upon a rock, the 9th of January following; from wrhich, beyond all expectation, and in a manner miraculoufly, they got oft', and continued their courfe. On the 16th of March he arrived at Java Major ; and from thence he intended to have diredted his courfe to Malacca ; but found himfelf obliged to alter his purpofe, and to think of returning home. On the 2 5th of March 1580, he put this defign in execu¬ tion ; and on the 15th of June he doubled the Cape of Good Hope, having then on board 57 men, and but three calks of water. On the 1 2th of July he paffed the line, reached the coaft of Guinea on the j6th, and there watered. On the l£th of September he made the illand of Tercera ; and on the 3d of November entered the harbour of Plymouth. This voyage round the world w7as performed in two years and about ten months. Shortly after his arrival, the queen going to Deptford went on board his ftiip ; where, after dinner, flie conferred on him the order of knighthood, and de¬ clared her abfolute approbation of all he had done. She likewdfe gave directions for the prefervation of his fliip, that it might remain a monument of his own and his R r country’s D R A [ 3' Drake, country’s glory. This celebrated (hip, which had been -—r—1 contemplated many years at Deptford, at length de- caying, it was broke up, and a chair, made out of the planks, was prefented to the univerfity of Oxford •, up¬ on which the famous Abraham Cowley made the fol¬ lowing verfes : To this great (hip, which round the world has run, And match’d in race the chariot of the fun : This Pythagorean (hip (for it may claim, Without prefumption, fo deferv’d a name, By knowledge once, and transformation now) In her new ihape this facred port allow. Drake and his fhip could not have wifh’d, from fate, An happier ftation, or more blefs’d eftate : For, lo ! a feat of endlefs reft is given, To her in Oxford, and to him in heaven. Works, Vol. II. In the year 15855 he failed with a fleet to the Weft Indies, and took the cities of St Jago, St Domingo, Carthagena, and St Auguftine. In 1587, he went to Lifbon with a fleet of 30 failj and having intelligence of a great fleet aflembled in the bay of Cadiz, which wras to have made part of the armada, he with great courage entered that port, and burnt there upwards of 10,000 tons of (hipping which he afterwards merrily called burning the king of Spain's beard. In 1588, when the armada from Spain was approaching our coafts, Sir Francis Drake Was appointed vice-admiral under Charles Lord Howard of Effingham, high admiral of England, where fortune favoured him as remarkably as ever: for he made prize of a very large galleon, commanded by Don Pedro de Valdez, who was reputed the proje&or of this invafion. This affair happened in the following manner: On the 22d of July, Sir Francis obferving a great Spanifh fhip floating at a di- ftance from both fleets, fent his pinnace to fummon the commander to yield. Valdez replied, with much Spanifh folemity, that they were 450 ftrong *, that he himfelf was Don Pedro, and flood much upon his ho¬ nour } and thereupon propounded feveral conditions, upon which he was willing to yield. But the vice-ad¬ miral replied, That he had no leifure to .parley 5 but if he thought fit inftantly to yield, he might; if not, he fliould foon find that Drake was no coward. Pedro, hearing the name of Drake, immediately yielded, and with 46 of his attendants came on board Drake’s flup. This Don Pedro remained about two years Sir Francis Drake’s prifoner in England ; and, when he was re¬ leafed paid him for his own and his captain’s liberties a ranfom of 3500I. Drake’s foldiers were well recom- penfed with the plunder of this fhip for they found in it 55,000 ducats of gold, which were divided among A Jittle before this formidable Spanifh armament nut to fea, the ambaffador of his Catholic majefty had the confidence to propound to Queen Elizabeth, in La¬ tin verfe, the terms upon which fhe might hope tor peace; which, with an Englifh tranflation by Dr Ful¬ ler, we will infert in this place, becaufe Drake’s expe¬ dition to the Weft Indies makes a part of this meflage. The verfes are thefe : TV voto ne pergas hello defendere Belgas; %iue Dracus eripuit nunc rejlituantur oportef. l ] D R A pater ever tit jubeo te condere cellas: Religio Paper fac rejHtuantar ad unguem. Thefe to you are our commands, Send no help to th’ Netherlands : Of the treafure took by Drake, Reftitution you muft make : And thofe abbeys build anew. Which your father overthrew : If for any peace you hope, In all points reftore the pope. The queen’s extempore return : yld Grercas, bone rex, font mandata kalendas. Worthy king, know, this your will At Latter Lammas we’ll fulfil. In the year 1589, Sir Francis Drake commanded as admiral the fleet fent to reftore Don Antonio king of Portugal, the command of the land forces being given to Sir John Norris : but they were hardly got to fea, before the commanders differed, and^ fo the attempt proved abortive. The war with Spain continuing, a more effe&ual expedition was undertaken by Sir John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake, againft their fettle- ments in the Weft Indies, than had hitherto been made during the whole courfe of it: but the commanders here again not agreeing about the plan, this alfo did not turn out fo fuccefsfully as was expefted. AH dif¬ ficulties, before thefe two laft expeditions, had given way to the fkill and fortune of Sir Francis Drake ; which probably was the reafon why he did not bear thefe difappointments fo well as he otherwife would have done. A ftrong fenfe of them is fuppofed to have thrown him into a melancholy, which occafioned a bloody flux ; and of this he died on board his own fhip near the town of Nombre de Dios in the W eft In¬ dies; on the 28th of January 1595-6. His death was lamented by the whole nation, and particularly by his countrymen ; who had great reafon to love him from the circumftance of his private life, as well as to efteem him in his public charaaer. He was eleaed burgels for the town of Boffiny, alias Tintagal, in the county of Cornwall, in the 27th parliament of Queen Eliza¬ beth; and for Plymouth in Devonfhire, in the 35th of the fame reign. This town had very particular obli¬ gations to him : for, in the year 1587, he undertook to bring water into it, through the want of which, till then, it had been grievoufly diftreffed; and he perform¬ ed it by condufting thither a ftream from fprmgs at eight miles diftance, that is to fay, in a ftraight line . for in the manner he brought it, the courfe of it runs upwards of 20 miles. DR AKENBORCH, Arnold, doflor of laws. 1 his celebrated literary character w’as a native of Utrecht, and was born on the iftof January 1684, and in which city he was afterwards profeffor of rhetoric and hi- ftory. Grsevius and Burmann taught him the belles lettres, and Cornelius Van Eck was his preceptor while he devoted his attention to the law. He fuc- ceeded Profeffor Burmann in the year 1716, and ter¬ minated his mortal career in 1748, in the 64th year of his age. He was an author of very confiderable eminence, as the following publications fufficiently e- vince. His differtation entitled, Difputatio Philolog. tiijt. Drake, Draken- broch. D R A f 315 j D R A Brama Hijl. de prctfeElls urbis, in 4to, proves him to have been an able philologift, and gave flattering indica- , tions of future eminence. Its intrinflc merit caufed it to be reprinted at Frankfort-on-tbe-Oder, in 1750, by Profeffor Uhl, accompanied with a life of its learn¬ ed author. His next work, entitled Difputatio de offi¬ cio prafeclorum prcetorio, was publiflied in the year 1707', and ten years after his C. Silii Ita/ici Punicoritm, in 17 books, to render which perfeih and complete, nothing was omitted by this great man ; many hiftori- cal fubjedts being engraved for the purpofe of elucida¬ ting the text, to which his own copious and learned annotations mofl: powerfully contributed. His fplendid edition of Livy, with a life of that eminent hillorian, will render his name immortal. It is entitled T. Livii Patavini hifloriarum ab urbe condita libri, qui fuperjunt, 9mnes. Lugd. Batav. 1738 and 1746; 7 tom. The preface to this work is very long, and replete with erudition, giving a particular account of all the liter¬ ary charadlers who have at different periods commen¬ ted on the works of Livy. He took the edition of Gronovius for his model, as being in his ellimation the mofl: corredf j but he made many important alter¬ ations on the authority of manuferipts which it is pro¬ bable Gronovius had either never feen, or not taken the pains to confult. Upon the whole, this edition of Livy is at once the mofl: elaborate, interefting, and in- flrudfive, ever given to the world, fince into it he has introduced the criticifms of Duchier, Gronovius, Pe- rizonius, and Sigonius, in addition to his own, which are certainly fraught with much literature and deep difeernment. DRAMA., a poem containing fome certain a&ion, and reprefenting a true picture of human life, for the delight and improvement of mankind. The principal fpecies of the drama are two, comedy and tragedy. Some others there are of lefs note, as parfforal, fatire, tragi-comedy, opera, &cc. See the ar¬ ticle Poetry. DRAMATIC, an epithet given to pieces written for the ftage. See Poetry. DRAN, Henry Francis Le, a French furgeon of diftinguifhed eminence, was born in the year 1685. His father followed the fame profeflion at Paris, and was highly celebrated for his treatment of cancers. Dran had much experience as well as abilities, although his anatomical knowledge was rather circumfcribed, and his acquaintance with books was far from being extenfive. In 1730, he published in 8vo a valuable work, entitled Parallele des differentes Manures de tirer la Pierre hors de la VeJJie. In this work he takes a comparative view of the different modes of perform¬ ing the hazardous operation of lithotomy, preferring the lateral method which was praftifed by Ckefelden. In the year 1731, he publiflied his Obfervations de Chirurgie, avee des Rejleblions, in , 2 vols i2mo, which is juftly confidered as a valuable performance for men who are employed in the praftice of furgery. In 1757, appeared his Praite 011 Reflexions drees de la Pratique fur les Playes d1 Slrmcs a Feu ; in which he gives the refults of his own praftice while in the army, with efficacious methods for the cure of gun-fliot wounds. Gataker tranflated into Engliih his Fraite des operations de Chiruroic, to which many interelling ob¬ fervations were added by Chefelden. In 176$, were Drank publithed his Confultations fur la plupart des Maladies ^ ^ ^ qui font du Reffiort de la Chirurgie; the plan of w'hich “ J is admirably calculated for the inftruflion of young pradlitioners. As at leaft one evidence of the merit of Dran’s works, tranflations of them have been made into various languages. If his judgment was pene¬ trating, he was equally famed for his fuccefsful opera¬ tions. Fie died at Paris in the year 1770, in the 85th year of his age. DKANK, among farmers, a term ufed to denote wild oats, which never fail to infeft worn-out lands ; fo that, when ploughed lands run to thefe weeds and thirties, the farmer knows it is high time to fallow them, or elfe to fow them with hay feed, and make pafture of them. DRAPERY, in Sculpture and Painting, fignifies the reprefentation of the clothing of human figures, and alfo hangings, tapeftry, curtains, and moft other things that are not carnations or landfcapes. See Painting, Crayon, Drawing, and Miniature. DRASTIC, in Phy/ic, an epithet beftowed on fuch medicines as are of prefent efficacy, and potent in ope¬ ration ; and is commonly applied to emetics and ca¬ thartics. DRAVE, a large navigable river, which, taking its rife in the archbiffiopric of Saltzburgh, in Germany, runs fouth-eaft through Stiria ; and continuing its courfe, divides Hungary from Sclavonia, and fails into the Danube at Effeck. DRAUGHT, in Medicine. See Potion. Draught, in trade, called alfo doff or clouch, is a fmall allowance on weighable goods, made by the king to the importer, or by the feller to the buyer, that the weight may hold out when the goods are weighed again. The king allows itb draught for goods weighing no lefs than 1 cwt. 2 lb for goods weighing between I and 2 cwt. 31b for goods weighing between 2 and 3 cwt. 41b from 3 to 10 cwt. ylb from 10 to 18 cwt. 9lb from 18 to 30 or upwards. Draught is alfo ufed fometimes for a bill of ex¬ change, and commonly for an order for the payment of any fum of money due, &c. Then the perfon who gives the order, is faid to draw upon the other. Draught, or, as it is pronounced, Draft, in Ar- chitedure, the figure of an intended building deferibed on paper ; wherein are laid down, by fcale and com- pafs, the feveral divifions and partitions of the apart¬ ments, rooms, doors, paffages, conveniences, &c. in their due proportion. It is ufual, and exceedingly convenient, before a building is begun to be raifed, to have draughts of the ichnography, or ground-plot of each floor or ftory: as alfo of the form and faffiion of each front, with the windows, doors, ornaments, &c. in an orthography, or upright. Sometimes the feveral fronts, &c. are taken, and reprefented in the fame draught, to (how the effefl of the whole building; this is called a feenography, or perfpeXive. , Draught, the depth of a body of water neceffary to float a (hip ; hence a (hip is faid to draw fo many feet of water, when (he is borne up by a column of wa¬ ter of that particular depth. Thus, if it requires a R r 2 body D R A [ 3> Draught, body of water whofe depth is equal to i 2 feet, to float Drawback. or buoy Up a fliip on its furface, fhe is faid to draw I 2 feet water*, and that this draught may be more readily known, the feet are marked on the ftem and ftern poll, regularly from the keel upwards. DRAUGHT-Hoaks, are large hooks of iron, fixed on the cheeks of a cannon carriage, two on each fide, one near the trunnion-hole, and the other at the train, di- llinguiihed by the name of fore and hind draught-hooh. Large guns have draught hooks near the middle tran- fom, to which are fixed the chains that ferve to keep the (hafts of the limbers on a march. The fore and hind hooks are ufed for drawing a gun backwards or forwards, by men with ftrong ropes, called diaught- ropes, fixed to thefe hooks. DrauGHT-Horfey in farming, a fort of coarfe-made horfe, deilined for the fervice of a cart or plough. DRAWBACK, in commerce, certain duties, either of the cuftoms or of the excife, allowed upon the ex¬ portation of fome of our own manufa61ures 5 or upon certain foreign merchandifes, that have paid duty on importation. The oaths of the merchants importing and export¬ ing are required to obtain the drawback on toreign goods, affirming the truth of the officers certificate on the entry, and the due payment of the duties: and thefe may be made by the agent or hufband of any cor¬ poration or company j or by the known fervant of any merchant ufually employed in making his entries, and paying his cuftoms. In regard to foreign goods entered outward, if lefs quantity or value be fraudulently (hip¬ ped out than what is expreffed in the exporter’s certi¬ ficate, the goods therein mentioned, or their value, are forfeited, and no drawback to be allowed for the fame. Foreign goods exported by certificate in order to ob¬ tain the drawback, not fhipped or exported, or reland¬ ed in Great Britain, unlefs in cafe of diftrefs to fave them from perifhing, are to lofe the benefit of the drawback, and are forfeited, or their value, with the veffel, horfes, carriages, &c. employed in the reland¬ ing thereof j and the perfons employed in the reland¬ ing them, or by whofe privity they are relanded, or into whofe hands they (hall knowingly come, are to for¬ feit double the amount of the drawback. Officers of the cuftoms conniving at, or affifting in any fraud re¬ lating to certificate goods, befides other penalties, are 6 1 D R A. to forfeit their office, and fuffer fix months imprifon- Draw; ment without bail or mainprife ; as are alfo mafters, Bn g& or perfons belonging to the drips employed therein. Dra|virig_ Bonds given for the exportation of certificate goods to u—- Ireland muft not be delivered up, nor drawback allow¬ ed for any goods, till a certificate under the hands and feals of the colledlor or comptroller,^ &c. of the cu¬ ftoms be produced, teftifying the landing. BRAir-Bridge, a bridge made after the manner of a float, to draw up or let down, as occafions ferve, be¬ fore the gate of a town or caftle. See Bridge. A draw-bridge may be made after feveral different ways; but the mofl common are made with plyers, twice the length of the gate, and a foot in diameter. The inner fquare is traverfed with a crofs, which ferves for a counterpoife j and the chains which hang from the extremities of the plyers to lift up or let down the bridge are of iron or brafs. In navigable rivers it is fometimes neceffary to make the middle arch of bridges with two moveable plat¬ forms, to be raifed occafionally, in order to let the mafts and rigging of (hips pafs through. This kind of draw bridge is reprefented in Plate CLX’V III. where AB is the width of the middle arch ; AL and BL, the two piers that fupport the draw-bridge NO, one of the platforms of which is raifed, and the other let down, having the beam PQ__for its plyer. lo NO are fufpended two moveable braces EH, EH *, which refting on the fupport E, prefs againft the bracket M, and thereby (Lengthen the draw-bridge. Thefe braces are conduced to the reft by means of the weight. S, pulling the chain SLF. . DRAir-Net, a kind of net for taking the larger fort of wildfowl, which ought to be made of the beft fort of packthread, with wide meffies 5 they fliould be about two fathoms deep and fix long, verged on each fide with a very ftrong cord, and ftretched at each end on long poles. It fliould be fpread fmooth and flat upon the ground and ftrewed over with grafs, fedge, or the like to hide it from the fowl ■, and the fportf- man is to place himfelf in fome (belter of grals, fern, or fome fuch thing. . , DRAWING, in general, denotes the a&ion of pul¬ ling out, or hauling along', thus we read of tooth¬ drawing, wire-drawing, See. DRAWING, THE art of reprefenting the appearances of objefts upon a plane furface, by means of lines, ffiades, and ffiadows, formed with certain materials adapted to the purpofe. { j. Of the proper Materials for Drawing, and the manner of ufng them. The firft thing neceffary for a beginner is to furniffi himfelf with proper materials, fuch as black lead pen¬ cils, crayons of black, white, or red chark, crow- quill pens, a rule and compaffes, camels hair pencils^ and Indian ink. He muft accuftom himfelf to hold the pencil farther from the point than one does a pen in writing j which will give him a better command of it, and contribute to render the ftrokes more free and bold. The ufe of the pencil is to draw the firft fketches or outlines of the piece, as any ftroke or line that is amifs may in this be more eafily rubbed out than in any other thing; and when he has made the fketch as correft as he can with the pencil, he mpp then draw carefully the beft outline he has got, wxtft 3'7 DRAWING. his crow-quill pen and ink (a) ; after which he may difcharge the pencil lines, by rubbing the piece gently with the crumb of ftale bread or India rubber. Ha¬ ving thus got the outline clear, his next work is to {hade the piece properly, either by drawing fine ftrokes with his pen where it requires to be (haded, or by walking it with his pencil and the Indian ink. As to his rule and compaffes, they are never or very rarely to be ufed, except in meafuring the proportions of figures after he has drawn them, to prove whether they are right or not ; or in houfes, fortifications, and other pieces of architedlure. § 2. Of drawing Lines, Squares, Circles, and other re¬ gular and irregular Figures. Having got all thefe implements in readinefs, the firit praftice mud be to draw ftraight and curve lines, with eafe and freedom, upwards and downwards, fide- wife to the right or left, or in any direction whatfo- ever. He muft alfo learn to draw, by command of hand, fquares, circles, ovals, and other geometrical figures : for, as the alphabet, or a knowledge of the letters, is an introdu£Iion to grammar •, fo is geometry to drawing. The praffice of drawing thefe fimple figures till he is mailer of them, will enable him to imitate, with greater eafe and accuracy, many things both in nature and art. And here it is proper to ad- monifli him, never to be in a hurry j but to make him- felf perfectly mafter of one figure before he proceeds to another : the advantage, and even neceftity, of this, will appear as he proceeds. Two obfervations more may be added: r. That he accutfom himfelf to draw all his figures very large, which is the only way of ac¬ quiring a free bold manner of defigning. 2. That he praftife drawing till he has gained a tolerable mallery of his pencil, before he attempts to fliadow any figure or objecl of any kind whatever. j 3. Of Drawing Eyes, Ears, Legs, Arms, Hands, Feet, ell acquainted with what then appears in every aftion, the artift will be able to form an adequate idea how it ought to be exprefled. Thefe circumftances are little known ; hence feldom attended to in defigning. When the cubit or fore-arm is bended, the biceps (Plate CLXXXII. 5. 5.) has its belly very muchraifed, as appears in the left arm. The like may be obferved of the triceps (Plate CLXXXIIL 6. 6.) when the arm is extended as obferved in the right arm. The ftraight mufcles of the abdomen (Plate CLXXXII. 7. 7.) appear very ftrong when rifing from a decumbent pofture. Thofe parts of the great ferratus mufcle (ib. 8. 8.) which are received in the teeth or beginnings of the oblique defcending mufcle immediately below, are very much fwelled when the fhoulder on the fame fide is brought forwards ; that ferratus mufcle then being in aftion in drawing the fcapula forwards. The long extending mufcles of the trunk (Plate CLXXXIII. 9. 9.) aft alternately in walking, after this manner : If the right leg bears the weight of the bo¬ dy, and the left is in tranflation as on tiptoe, the laft mentioned mufcles of the back on the left fide may be Vol. VII. Part I. obferved to be tumefied on the other fide about the re¬ gion of the loins, and fo on the other fide. The trochanters, or outward and uppermoft heads of the thigh-bones (Plate CLXXXIIL 10. 10.), vary in their pofitions in fuch a manner as no precife obiervation can explain their feveral appearances} but the ftudy after the life ought to be carefully at¬ tended to. If the thigh is extended, as when the whole weight of the body refts on that fide, the gluteus or buttock mufcle ( Plate CLXXXIII. 11.11.) makes a very differ¬ ent appearance from what offers at another time ; but if the thigh is drawn backwards, that mufcle appears ftill more and more tumefied. When the whole leg is drawn upwards forwards, and at the fame time the foot is inclined inwards, the up¬ per part of the fartorius mufcle (Plate CLXXXII. 12. 12) appears rifing very ftrong ; in other pofitions of the thigh, that mufcle makes a furrowing appearance in its whole progrefs. If a man is upon tiptoe, the extending mufcles of the leg placed on the fore part of the thigh (Plate CLXXXII. 13. 13. 13.), and thofe of the foot that compofethe calf of the leg (Plate CLXXXIIL 14. 14.) appear very ftrong, and the long peronaeus (Plate CLXXXI1. 15.) makes a confiderable indentation or furrowung at that time in its progrefs on the outfide of the leg. Many other remarks might here be offered j but a due attention to nature will foon difcover them. § 6. Of Light and Shade. After the learner has made himfelf in fome mea- fure perfeft in drawing outlines, his next endeavour muft be to fhade them properly. It is this which gives an appearance of lubftance, fliape, diftance, and di- ftinftion, to whatever body he endeavours to repre- fent, whether animate or inanimate. The beft rule for doing this is, to confider from what point, and in what direftion the light falls upon the objtfts which he is delineating, and to let all his lights and {hades be pla¬ ced according to that direftion throughout the whole work. That part of the objeft muft be lighteft which hath the light moft direftly oppofite to it j if the light falls fideways on the pifture, he muft make that fide which is oppofite to it lighteft, and that fide which is fartheft from it darkeft. If he is drawing the figure of a man, and the light be placed above the head, then the top of the head muft be made lighteft, the {boul¬ ders next lighteft, and the lowTer parts darker by de¬ grees. That part of the objeft, whether in naked figures or drapery, or buildings, that ftand farthefl: out, muft be made the lighteft, becaufe it comes nearefl: to the light ; and the light lofeth fo much of its bright- nefs, by how much any part of the body bends in¬ ward, becaufe thofe parts that flick out hinder the luftre and full brightnefs of the light from jinking on thofe parts that fall in. Titian ufed to fay, that he knew no better rule for the diftribution of lights and ftiadows than his obfervations drawn from a bunch of grapes. Satins and filks, and all other ftiining fluffs, have cer¬ tain glancing refleftions, exceeding bright where the light falls ftrongeft. The like is feen in armour, brafs pots, or any other glittering metal, where you fee a fudden brightnefs in the middle or centre of the light, S f which 322 drawing. which difcovers the fhining nature of fuch things. Oo- ferve alfo, that a ftrong light requires a ftrong (hade, a fainter light a fainter {hade •, and that an equal balance be preferved throughout the piece between the lights and {hades. Thofe parts which muft appear round require but one ftroke in {hading, and that fometimes but very faint 5 fuch parts as fhould appear deep or hol¬ low, require two llrok.es acrofs each other, or fome¬ times three, which is fufficient for the deepeft. {hade. Care muft be alfo taken to make the outlines faint and fmall in fuch parts as receive the light j but where the fhades fall, the outline muft be ftrong and bold. The learner muft begin his {tradings from the top, and pro¬ ceed downward, and ufc his utmoft endeavours both by pradtice and obfervation to learn how to vary the {tradings properly ; for in this confifts a great deal, of the beauty and elegance of drawing. Another thing to be obferved is, that as the human fight is weakened by diftances, fo objects muft feem more or lefs con fill¬ ed or clear according to the places they hold in the piece : Thofe that are very diftant,——weak, faint, and confufed j thofe that are near and on the foremoft ground,—clear, ftrong, and accurately finilhed. §7.0f Drapery. In the art of clothing the figures, or calling the drapery properly and elegantly upon them, many things are to be obferved. M. The eye muft never be in doubt of its objedl; but the drape and proportion of the part or limb,' which the drapery is fuppofed to cover, muft appear $ at leaft fo far as art and probability will per¬ mit : and this is fo material a confideration, that many artifts draw firft the naked figure, and afterwards put the draperies upon it. 2. The drapery muft not fit too clofe to the parts of the body : but let it feem to flow round, and as it were to embrace them 5 yet fo as that the figure may be eafy, and have a free motion. 3. The draperies which cover thofe parts that are ex- pofed to great light muft not be fo deeply {haded as to feem to pierce them ", nor fhould thole members be croffed by folds that are too ftrong, left by the top great darknefs of the fhades the members look as if they were broken. 4* ^ folds muft be drawn firft, and then ftroked into leffer ones: and great care muft be taken that they do not crofs one another im¬ properly. 5. Folds in general ftiould be large, and as few as poflible. However they muft be greater or lefs according to the quantity and quality of the fluffs of which the drapery is fuppofed to be made. The qua¬ lity of the per Ion is alfo to be confidered in the drapery. If they are magiftrates, their draperies ought to be large and ample : if country clowns or {laves, they ought to be coarfe and fhort} if ladies or nympua, light and foft. 6. Suit the garments to the body, and make them bend with it, according as it ftands in or out, ftraight or crooked 5 or as it bends one way or another -/ and the clofer the garment fits to the body, the narrower and fmaller muft be the folds. 7- Fcdds well imagined give much fpirit to any kind of aftion ; becaufe their motion implies a motion in the afting member, which feems to draw them forcibly, and makes them more or lefs ftirring as the aftion is more or lefs violent. 8. An artful complication of folds in a circular manner greatly helps the effett of foreflrort- cnings. 9. All folds confift of two {hades, and no more : which you may turn with the garment at plea- fure, fliadowing the inner fide deeper, and the outer more faintly. 10. The {hades in filk and fine linen are very thick and fmall, requiring little folds and a light ftiadow. 11. Obferve the motion of the air or wind, in order to draw the loofe apparel all flying one way ; and draw that part of the garment that adheres clofeft to the body before yon draw the loofer part that flies off from it; left, by drawing the loofe part of the garment firft, you ftiould miftake the pofition of the figure, and place it awry. 12. Rich ornaments, when judicioufly and fparingly ufed, may fometimes contribute to the beauty of draperies. But fuch orna¬ ments are far below the dignity of angels or heavenly figures 5 the grandeur of whofe draperies ought rather to confift in the boldnefs and noblenefs of the folds, than in the quality of the fluff or the glitter of orna¬ ments. 13. Light and flying draperies are proper on¬ ly to figures in great motion, or in the wflnd : but when in a calm place, and free from violent adion, their draperies ftrould be large and flowing } that by their contrail and the fall of the folds, they may ap¬ pear with grace and dignity. Thus much for drape¬ ry ; an example or two of which are given in Plate CLXX1X. But fee farther the articles Crayon and Painting. § 8. On the Pajfions. The pafiions, fays M. le Brun, are motions of the foul, either upon her purfuing what {he judges to be for her good, or ftiunning what Ihe thinks hurtful to her j and commonly, whatever caufes emotion or paf- fion in the foul, creates alfo fome aftion in the body. It is therefore neceffary for a painter to know which are the different adieus in the body that exprefs the feveral paflions of the foul, and how to delineate them. M. Le Brun has been extremely happy in exprefling many of the paflions, and the learner cannot ftudy any thing better than the examples which he has left us of them. However, as M. De Piles juftly obferyes, it is abfurd as well as impoflible to pretend to give fuch particular demonftrations of them as to fix their ex- preflion to certain ftrokes, which the painter Ihould be obliged to make ufe of as effential and invariable rules. This (fays he) would be depriving the art of that ex¬ cellent variety of expreflion w’hich has no other princi¬ ple than diverfity of imagination, the number of which is infinite. The fame paflion may be finely expreffed feveral ways, each yielding more or lefs plealuie in proportion to the painter’s underftanding and the ipec- tator’s difeernment. Though every part of the face contributes towards exprefling the fentiments of the heart, yet the eye¬ brow, according to M. Le Brun, is the principal feat of expreffion, and where the paflions beft make them- felves known. It is certain, fays he, that the pupil of the eye, by its fire and motion, very well ihows the a- gitation of the foul, but then it does not exprefs the kind or nature of fuch an agitation } whereas the mo¬ tion of the eyebrow differs according as the paflions change their nature. To exprefs a fimple paflion, the motion is fimple ; to exprefs a mixed paflion, the mo¬ tion is compound : if the paflion be gentle, the mo¬ tion is gentle : and if it be violent, the motion is fo too. We may obferve farther, fays he, that there are two DRAWING. two kinds of elevation in the eyebrows. One, in which the eyebrows rife up in the middle ; this eleva¬ tion exprefles agreeable fenfations, and it is to be ob- ferved that then the mouth riles at the corners : Ano¬ ther, in which the eyebrows rife up at the ends, and fall in the middle $ this motion denotes bodily pain, and then the mouth falls at the corners. In laughter, all the parts agree ; for the eyebrows, which fall to¬ ward the middle of the forehead, make the nofe, the mouth, and the eyes, follow the fame motion. In weeping, the motions are compound and contrary j for the eyebrows fall toward the nofe and over the eyes, and the mouth rifes that way. It is to be obferved al- fo, that the mouth is the part of the face which more particularly exprefles the emotions of the heart : for when the heart complains, the mouth falls at the cor¬ ners 5 when it is at eafe, the corners of the mouth are elevated ; and when it has an averfion, the mouth fhoots forward, and rifes in the middle. “ The head (fays M. De Piles) contributes more to the expreflion of the paffions than all the other parts of the body put together. Thofe feparately can only Ihow fome few pafilons, but the head exprefles them all. Some, however, are more peculiarly exprefled by it than others : as humility, by hanging it down j ar¬ rogance, by lifting it up 5 languilhment, by inclining it to one fide ; and obflinacy, when with a ftiff and re- folute air it ftands upright, fixed, and ftiffbetween the two fhoulders. The head alfo belt {hows our fupplica- tions, threats, mildnefs, pride, love, hatred, joy, and grief. The whole face, and every feature, contributes lomething : efpecially the eyes ; which, as Cicero fays, are the windows of the foul. The paflions they more particularly difcover are, pleafure, languilhing, fcorn, ieverity, mildnefs, admiration, and anger j to which one might add joy and grief, if they did not proceed more particularly from the eyebrows and mouth ; but when thofe twTo paflions fall in alfo with the language of the eyes, the harmony will be wonderful. But though the paflions of the foul are moft vifible in the lines and features of the face, they often require the afliftance alfo of the other parts of the body. Without the hands, for inftance, all aftion is weak and imper- feft •, their motions, which are almoft infinite, create numberlefs expreflions : it is by them that we dejire, hope, promife, call, fend back ; they are the inftruments cf threatening, prayer, horror, and praife; by them we approve, condemn, refufe, admit, fear, afk ; exprefs our J°y and grief, our doubts, regrets, pain, and admi¬ ration. In a word, it may be faid, as they are the language of the dumb, that they contribute not a lit¬ tle to fpeak a language common to all nations, which is the language of painting. But to fay how thefe parts muft be difpofed for expreffing the various paf¬ fions, is impoflible ; nor can any exaft rules be given lor it, both becaufe the talk would be infinite, and be- caufe every one muft be guided in this by his own ge¬ nius and the particular turn of his own ftudies.” See the article Passions, and the Plate there referred to. § 9. Q/'drawing Flowers, Fruits, Birds, Beafs, &c. The learner may proceed now to make fome at¬ tempts at drawing flowers, fruits, birds, beafts, and the like j not only as it wdll be a more pleafing em¬ ployment, but as it is an eafier talk, than the draw¬ ing of hands and feet, and other parts of the human body, which require not only more care, but greater exaftnefs and nicer judgment. Very few rules or in- ftru&ions are requifite upon this head ; the beft thing the learner can do is, to furniih himfelf with good prints or drawings by way of examples, and with great care and exadlnefs to copy them. If it is the figure of a beaft, begin with the forehead, and draw the nofe, the upper and under jaw, and flop at the throat. Then go to the top of the head, and form the ears, neck, back, and continue the line till you have given the full fliape of the buttock. Then form the breaft, and mark out the legs and feet, and all the fmaller parts. And, laft of all, finilh it with the proper {ha- dows. It is not amifs, by way of ornament, to give a fmall (ketch of landfcape 5 and let it be fuitable and na¬ tural to the place or country of the beafl: you draw. Much the fame may be faid with regard to birds. Of thefe, as wTell as beafts and other objefts, the learner will find many examples among the plates given in this work. § 10. Of drawing Landfcapes, Buildings, Sec. Of all the parts of drawing, this is the moft ufeful and neceflary, as it is what every man may have occa- fion for at one time or another. To be able, on the fpot, to take the (ketch of a fine building, or a beau¬ tiful profpeift ; of any curious production of art, or uncommon appearance in nature ; is not only a very definable accompliftiment, but a very agreeable amufe-* ment. Rocks, mountains, fields, woods, rivers, cata- raCts, cities, towns, caftles, houfes, fortifications, ruins, or whatfoever elfe may prefent itfelf to view on our journeys or travels in our own or foreign countries, may be thus brought home, and preferved for our fu¬ ture ufe either in bufinefs or converfation. On this part, therefore, more than ordinary pains (hould be be- ftowed. All drawing confifts in nicely meafuring the diflan- ces of each part of the piece by the eye. In order to facilitate this, let the learner imagine in his own mind, that the piece he copies is divided into fquares. For example : Suppofe or imagine a perpendicular and a horizontal line crofling each other in the centre of the piClure you are drawing from ; then fuppofe alfo two fuch lines crofling your own copy. Obferve in the original, what parts of the defign thofe lines interfeCI, and let them fall on the fame parts of the fuppofed lines in the copy : We fay, the fuppofed lines; becaufe though engravers, and others who copy with great exa&nefs, divide both the copy and original into many fquares, as below *, yet this is a method not to be re¬ commended, as it will be apt to deceive the learner, W’ho will fancy himfelf a tolerable proficient, till he comes to draw after nature, where thefe helps are not to be had, when he will find himfelf miferably defec¬ tive and utterly at a lofs. If he is to draw a landfcape from nature, let him S f 2 take 3^ 324 drawing. take his ftation on a rifing ground, where he will have a large horizon j and mark his tablet into three divi- fions, downwards from the top to the bottom; and divide in his own mind the landfcape he is to take, in¬ to three divifions alfo. Then let him turn his face di- reaiy oppofite to the midft of the horizon, keeping his body fixed, and draw what is direftly before his eyes upon the middle divifion of the tablet j then turn his head, but not his body, to the left hand, and de¬ lineate what he views there, joining it properly to what he had done before ; and, laftly, do the fame by what is to be feen upon his right hand, laying down every thing exaftly both with refpea to diftance and proportion. One example is given on Plate CLXXIX. The beft artifts, in drawing their landfcapes, make them (host away one part lower than another. Thofe who make their landfcapes mount up higher and higher, as if they flood at the bottom of a hill to take the profpeft, commit a great error : the beft way is to get upon a rifing ground, make the neareft objefts m the piece the higheft, and thofe that are farther off to (hoot away lower and lower till they come almoft level with the line of the horizon, leffening every thing pro- portionably to its diftance, and obferving alfo to make the objefts fainter and lefs diftindl the farther they are. removed from the eye. He muft make all his lights and (hades fall one way, and let every thing have its proper motion : as trees (haken by the wind, the (mall boughs bending more, and the large ones lefs : water agitated by the wind, and daftnng againft (hips or boats j or falling from a precipice upon rocks and ftones, and fpirting up again into the air, and (prink- ling all about : clouds alfo in the air, now gathered with the winds; now violently condenfed into hail, rain, and the like : Always remembering, that what¬ ever motions are caufed by the wind muft be made all to move the fame way, becaufe the wind can blow but one way at once. . Finally, It muft be obferved, that in order to attain any confiderable proficiency in drawing, a knowledge of Perspective is abfolutely neceffary : fee that ar¬ ticle. D R A. Drav DRAY, a kind of cart ufed by brewers for carry- Drayfon. bg barrels of beer or ale j alfo a fledge drawn without Dray, among fportfmen, denotes fquirrel nefts built in the tops of trees. . ... DRAYTON, Michael, an eminent Fngliln poet, born of an ancient family in Warwickfture in 15 3. His propenfity to poetry was extremely ftrong, even from his infancy 5 and we find the moft of his principal poems publiftied, and himfelf highly diftingmftied as a poet by the time he was about 30 years of age.—it appears^from his poem of Mofes’s Birth and Miracles, that he was a fpeftator at Dover of the famous Spamfti armada, and it is not improbable that he was engage in fome military employment there. It is certain, that not only for his merit as a writer but his valuable qua¬ lities as a man, he was held in high eftimation, and ftrongly patronized by feveral perfonages of confe- quence ; particularly by Sir Henry Goodere, Sir Wal¬ ter Afton, and the countefs of Bedford; to the fii of whom he owns himfelf indebted for great part of his education, and by the fecond he was for many years fUPHis poems are very numerous ; and fo elegant, that his manner has been copied by many modern writers of eminence fince. Among thefe the moft celebrated one is the Poly-Albion, a chorographmal defcription ot England, with its commodities, antiquities, and cu- riofities, in metre of 12 fyllables ; which he dedicated to Prince Henry, by whofe encouragement it was writ¬ ten : and whatever may be thought of the poetry, his defcriptions are allowed to be txa&. He was fty e poet laureat in his time : which, as Ben Johnfon was then in that office, is to be underftood in a loofe fenfe of approbation as an excellent poet ; and was beftowed on others as well as Drayton, without being confined ftri&ly to the office known by that appellation. He died in 1631; and was buried in Weftmmfter abbey D R E among the poets, where his buft is to be feen, with an Dreams, ^ epitaph penned by Ben Johnfon. DREAMS, are all thofe thoughts which people feel paffing through their minds, and thofe imaginary tranfaftions in which they often fancy themfelves en¬ gaged, when in the date of deep. Scarce any part of nature js lefs open to our obier- vation than the human mind in this ftate. 1 he dreamer himfelf cannot well obferve the manner in which dreams arife or difappear to him. When he awakes, he cannot recolleft the circumftances of his dreams with Efficient accuracy. WTre we to watch over him with the moft vigilant attention, we could not perceive with certainty what emotions are excited, m his mind, or what thoughts pafs through it, during his fleep. But though we could afcertam thele phe¬ nomena, many other difficulties would ftill remain. What parts of a human being are adhve, what dor¬ mant, when he dreams ? Why does not he always dream while afleep ? Or why dreams he at all ? Do any cir¬ cumftances in our conftitution, fituation, and peculiar chara&er, determine the nature of our dreams . We may lay before our readers luch faffs as have been afcertained concerning dreaming, and the mo t plaufible conjeaures that have been offered to explain thofe particulars, about which we can only conjeaure, or have at lead hitherto obtained nothing more certain than conjeaure. . j. In dreaming, we are not confcious of being aileep. This is well known from a thoufand circumftances. When awake, we often recolka our dreams ; and we remember on fuch occafions, that while thofe dreams were paffing through our minds, it never occurred to us that we were feparated by fleep from ^ a^lYe world. We are often obferved to aa.and talk in dreaming as if we were bufily engaged in the inter- courfe of focial life. r , „ 2. In dreaming, we do not confider 0l^^nVeeffing V d a a w r x c IMateCr.XKVIll cr.xxrx. / \7T,'«r;‘ I DHA WI JST (T. Plate CLXXXM. 3) P AW IN G . Hate CLIXXHI. c%/2s// /fa/^s/cufeZcr/esit. Dreams. D R E [ 325 ] D R E witneflirig or bearing a part in a fi&itious fcene : we feem not to be in a fimilar fituation with the atbors in a dramatic performance, or the fpeilators before whom they exhibit, but engaged in the bufinefs of real life. All the varieties of thought that pafs through our minds when awake may all’o occur in dreams ■, all the images which imagination prefents in the former Hate, (he is alfo able to call up in the latter j all the fame emotions may be excited, and we are often afluated by equal violence of paffion ; none of the tranlatlions in which we are capable of engaging while awake is im- poffible in dreams*: in (hort, our range of adlion and obfervation is equally wide in the one ftate as in the other; and while dreaming, we are not fenfible of any diftin&ion between our dreams and the events and tranfa£!ions in which we are adlually concerned in our intereourfe with the world. 3. It is faid, that all men are not liable to dream. Dr Beattie, in a very pleafing eflay on this fubjeft, relates, that he knew a gentleman who never dreamed except when his health was in a difordered ftate j and Locke mentions fomewhere, that a certain perfon of his acquaintance was a ftranger to dreaming till the 26th year of his age ; and then began to dream in confequence of having a fever. Thefe inftances, how¬ ever, are too few, and we have not been able to ob¬ tain more ; and, befides, it does not appear that thofe perfons had ahvays attended, with the care of a philo- fopher making an experiment, to the circumftances of their deep. They might dream, but not recoiled their dreams on awaking ; and they might both dream and recoiled their dreams immediately upon awaking, yet afterwards fuffer the remembrance of them to flip out of the memory. We do not advance this therefore as a certain fad concerning dreaming $ we are rather in¬ clined to think it a miftake. But though it appears to be by no means certain that any of the human race are through the whole of life abfolute ftrangers to dreaming } yet it is well known that all men are not equally liable to dream. The fame perfon dreams more or lefs at different times j and as one perfon may be more expofed than another to thofe circumftances which promote this exercife of fancy, one perfon may therefore dream more than ano¬ ther. The fame diverfity will naturally take place in this as in other accidents to which mankind are in ge¬ neral liable. 4. Though in dreams imagination appears to be free from all reftraint, and indulges in the moft wanton freaks; yet it is generally agreed, that the imaginary tranfadions of the dreamer bear always fome relation to his particular charader in the world, his habits of adion, and the circumftances of his life. The lover, we are told, dreams of his miftrefs •, the mifer of his money j the philofopher renews his refearches in fleep often with the fame pain and fatigue as when awake j and even the merchant, at times, returns to balance his books, and computes the profits of an adventure, when flumbering on his pillow. And not only do the more general circumftances of a perfon’s life influence his dreams *, his paflions and habits are nearly the fame when afleep as when awake. A perfon whofe habits of life are virtuous, does not in his dreams plunge into a feries of crimes j nor are the vicious reformed when they pafs into this imaginary world. The choleric Dreams, man finds himfelf offended by flight provocations _v ~ as well in his dreams as in his ordinary intercourfe with the world, and a mild temper continues pacific in fteep. 5. The charader of a perfon’s dreams is influenced by his circumftances when awake in a ftill more unac¬ countable manner. Certain dreams ufually ariie in the mind after a perfon has been in certain fituations. Dr Beattie relates, that he once, after riding 30 miles in a high wind, pafled a part of the fucceeding night in dreams beyond defcription terrible. The ftate of a perfon’s health, and the manner in which the vital fundions are carried on, have a confiderable influ¬ ence in determining the charader of dreams. Af¬ ter too full a meal, or after eating of an unufual fort of food, a perfon has always dreams of a certain nature. 6. In dreaming, the mind for the moft part carries on no intercourfe through the fenfes wflth furrounding objeds. Touch a perfon gently who is afleep, he feels not the impreflion. You may awake him by a (mart blow ; but when the ftroke is not fufficiently violent to awake him, he remains infenfible of it. We fpeak foftly befide a perfon afleep without fearing that he overhear us. His eyelids are Unit j and even though light (hould fall upon the eyeball, yet ftill his powers of vifion are not wakened to adive exertion, unlefs the light be fo ftrong as to roule him from fleep. He is infenfible both to fweet and to difagreeable fmells. It is not eafy to try whether his organs of tafte retain their adivity, wfithout awakening him 5 yet from ana¬ logy it may be prefumed that thefe too are inadive. With refped to the circumftances here enumerated, it is indifferent whether a perfon be dreaming or buried in deep fleep. Yet there is one remarkable fad concerning dream¬ ing w hich may feem to contradid w hat has been here afferted. In dreams, wre are liable not only to (peak aloud in confequence of the fuggeftions of imagination, but even to get up, and walk about and engage in little enterprifes, without awaking. Now, as we are in this inftance fo adive, it feems that we cannot be then in¬ fenfible of the prefence of furrounding objeds. The fleepwalker is really fenfible in a certain degree of the prefence of the objeds around him $ but he does not attend to them with all their circumrtances, nor do they excite in him the fame emotions as if he were awake. He feels no terror on the brink of a precipice j and in confequence of being free from fear, he is alfo without danger in fuch a fituation unlefs fuddenly awaked. This is one of the moft inexplicable phenome¬ na of dreaming. There is alfo another fad not quite confonant with what has been above mentioned. It is faid, that in fleep a perfon will continue to hear the noife of a catarad in the neighbourhood, or regular ftrokes wfith a ham¬ mer, or any fimilar found fufficiently loud, and con¬ tinued uninterruptedly from before the time of his fall¬ ing afleep. We know not whether he awakes on the fudden ceffation of the noife. This fad is afferted on fufficient evidence : it is curious. Even when awake, if very deeply intent on any piece of ftudy, or clofely occupied in bufinefs, the found of a clock ftriking in the neighbourhood, or the beating of a drum, will efcape [ 326 ] D R E a pretty certain truth, that many, if not all, of the Dreams. D R E Breams, efcape us unnoticed j and *t is therefore the more fur- —"Vprifing that we (hould thus continue fenfible to founds when afleep. 7. Not only do a perfon’s general character, habits of life and Hate of health, influence his dreams ; but thofe concerns in which he has been moft deeply inte- refted during the preceding day, and the views which have arifen moft frequently to his imagination, very often afford the fubje£ls of his dreams. When I look forward with anxious expeflation towards any future event, I am likely to dream either of the difappoint- ment or the gratification of my wilhes. Have I been engaged through the day, either in bufinefs or amufe- ments which I have found exceedingly agreeable, or in a way in which I have been extremely unhappy ? either my happinefs or my mifery is likely to be re¬ newed in my dreams. 8. Though dreams have been regarded among almoft all nations through the world, at leaft in fome periods of their hiftory, as prophetic of future, events; yet it does not appear that this popular opinion has been eftablifhed on good grounds. Chriftianity, indeed, teaches us to believe, that the Supreme Being may, and a£lually does, operate on our minds, and influence at times the determinations of our will, without making us fenfible of the reftraint to which we are thus fubjeft- ed. And, in the fame manner, no doubt, the fug- geftions which arife to us in dreams may be produced. The imaginary tranfaftions in which we are then en¬ gaged, may be fuch as are aftually to occupy us in life ; the ftrange and feemingly incoherent appearances which are then prefented to the mind’s eye, may al¬ lude to fome events which are to befal ourfelves or others. It is, therefore, by no means impoffible, or inconfiftent with the general analogy of nature, that dreams {hould have a refpeft to futurity. We have no reafon to regard the dreams which are related in the Holy Scriptures to have been prophetic of future events, as not infpired by Heaven, or to laugh at the idea of a prophetic dream as abfurd or ridiculous. Yet it would be too much to allow to dreams all that importance which has been afcribed to them by the priefthood among heathen nations, or by the vul¬ gar among ourfelves. We know how eafily ignorance impofes on itfelf, and what arts impofture adopts to im- pofe upon others. We cannot trace any certain con¬ nexion between our dreams and thofe events to which the fimplicity of the vulgar pretends that they refer. And we cannot, therefore, if difpofed to confine our belief to certain or probable truths, join with the vul¬ gar in believing them really referable to futurity. 9. It appears that the brutes are alfo capable of dreaming. The dog is often obferved to ftart tudden- Iv up in his deep, in a manner which cannot be ac¬ counted for in any other way than by fuppofing that he is roufed by fome impulfe received in a dream. The fame thing is obfervable of others of the inferior animals. That they {hould dream, is not an idea incon¬ fiftent with what we know of their economy and man¬ ners in general. We may, therefore, confidei it as beings. It appears, then, that in dreaming we are not con- fcious of being afleep } that to a perfon dreaming, his dreams feem realities*, that though it be uncertain whether mankind are all liable to dreams, yet it is well known that they are not all equally liable to dream : that the nature of a perfon’s dreams depends in fome meafure on his habits of a&ion, and on the circum- ftafices of his life : that the ftate of the health too, and the manner in which the vital funftions are carried on, have a powerful influence in determining the charafter of a perfon’s dreams : that in fleep and in dreaming, the fenfes are either abfolutely ina&ive, or nearly fo : that fuch concerns as we have been very deeply inte- refted in during the preceding day, are very likely to return upon our minds in dreams m the hours of reft ; that dreams may be rendered prophetic of future events ; and therefore, wherever we have fuch evidence of their having been prophetic as we would accept on any other occafion, we cannot reafonably reje£I the fadl on account of its abfurdity ; but that they do not appear to have been aftually fuch, in thofe inftances in which the fuperftition of nations, ignorant of ttue religion, has reprefented them as referring to futurity, nor in thofe inftances in w'hich they are viewed in the fame light by the vulgar among ourfelves *, and, laftly, that dream¬ ing is not a phenomenon peculiar to human nature, but common to mankind with the brutes. We know of no other fa&s that have been fully af- certained concerning dreaming. But we are by no means fufficiently acquainted with this important phe¬ nomenon in the hiftory of mind. We cannot tell by what laws of our conftitution we are thus liable to be fo frequently engaged in imaginary tranfaftions, nor what are the particular means by which the delufion is accompli fired. The delufion is indeed remarkably Prong. One will fometimes have a book prefented to him in a dream, and fancy that he reads; and actually enter into the nature of the imaginary compofition be¬ fore him, and even remember, after he awakes, what he knows that he only fancied himfelf reading (a). Can this be delufion ? If delufion, how or for what purpofes is it produced ? 1 he mind, it would appear, does not, in fleep, become inaftive like the body ; or at leaft is not always ina&ive while we. are afleep. When we do not dream, the mind muft either be in- aflive, or the connexion between the mind and the body muft be confidered as in fome manner fufpended : and when we dream, the mind, though it probably a£ls in concert w7ith the body, yet does not aft in the fame manner as when we are awTake. It feems to be clouded or bewildered, in confequence of being depriv¬ ed for a time of the fervice of the fenfes. Imagina¬ tion becomes more aftive and more capricious. and all the other powers, efpecially judgment and memory, become difordered arid irregular in their operation. Various theories have been propofed to explain what appears here moft inexplicable. The ingenious Mr Baxter f,! The writer of this article has been told by a refpeaable old gentleman of his acquaintance fmce dead, thlt he had frequently dreams of this nature. The fail may therefore be confidered as unqueftronable. D R E C 327 ] D R E T>reams-. Baxter, in his Treatife on the Immateriality of the Hu- and Formey has been too haftily and incautioully ad- Dreams. "~'V nian Soul, endeavours to prove that dreams are pro- vanced. " —y— duced by the agency of fome fpiritual beings, who ei- Other phyfiologifts tell us, that the mind, when we ther amufe or employ themfelves ferioufly in engaging dream, is in a date of delirium. Sleep, they fay, is at- mankind in all thofe imaginary tranfaftions with which tended with what is called a collapfe of the brain j they are employed in dreaming. This theory, how- during which either the whole or a part of the nerves ever, is far from being plaufible. It leads us entirely of which it confifts, are in a date in which they can- beyond the limits of our knowledge. It requires us not carry on the ufual intercourfe between the mind to believe without evidence. _ It is unfupported by any and the organs of fenfation. When the whole of the analogy. It cieates difficulties dill more inexplicable brain is in this date, we become entirely unconfcious than thofe which it has been propoled to remove. I ill of exidence, and the minds finks into inactivity : when it appear that our dreams cannot poffibly be produced only a part of the brain is collated, as they term it, without the interference of other Ipiritual agents, pol- we are then neither afleep nor awake, but in a fort of feffing fuch influence over our minds as to deceive us delirium between the two. This theory, like the lad with fancied joys, and involve us in imaginary afflic- mentioned, fuppofes the mind incapable of a&ing tions, we cannot reafonably refer them to fuch a caufe. without the help of fenfation : it fuppofes that we Befides, from the fa£ts which have been dated as well know the nature of a date of which we cannot afcer- known concerning dreams, it appears that their nature tain the phenomena : it alfo contradicts a known fad, depends both on the date of the human body and on in reprefenting dreams as confufed images of things that of the mind. But were they owing to the agen- around us, not fanciful combinations of things not ex- cy of other ipiritual beings, how could they be influ- iding together in nature or in human life. We mud enced by the date of the body ? 1 hofe mud be a cu- treat it likewile, therefore, as a bafelefs fabric. nous fet of Ipiritual beings who depend in fuch a man- In the lad edition of this work, a theory fomewhat ner on the date of our corporeal frame. Better not different from any of the foregoing was advanced in to allow7 them exidence at all, than to place them in this fubjed. It was obferved,°that the nervous fluid UCVxra,rependjnCr ‘ • ^ which is allowed to be fecreted from the blood by the* Wolhus, and after him M. Formey, have fuppofed, brain, appears to be likewife abforbed from the blood , that dreams never arife in the mind, except in confe- by the extremities of the nerves. It was farther ad- quence of fome of the organs of fenfation having been vanced, that as this fluid was to be confidered as the previoufly excited. Either the ear or the eye, or the or- principle of fenfibility; therefore, in all cafes in which gans of touching, tading, or fmelling, communicate a fufficient fupply of it was not abforbed from the information, fomehow, in a tacit, fecret manner j and blood by the extremities of the nerves, the parts of the thus Partly roufe its faculties from the lethargy in body to which thofe nerves belonged, mud be, in fome which they are^ buried in deep, and engage them in a degree, deprived of fenfation. From thefe pofitions ienes o. contufed and imperfeCt exertions. But it was inferred, that as long as impreffions of external what panes in dreams is fo very different from all that objeCts continue to communicate a certain motion we do when awake, that it is impoflible for the from, the fentient extremities of the nerves to the dreamer himfelf to didinguiffi, whether his powers of brain,—fo long we continue awake ; and that, when ieniation perform any part on the occafion. It is not there is a deficiency of this vital fluid in the extremi- neceffary that imagination be always excited by fen- ties of the nerves, or wffien from any other caufe it iation. fancy, even when we are awake, often wan- ceafes to communicate to the brain the peculiar motion tiers from the prefent Icene. Abfence of mind is inci- alluded to, we mud naturally fall afleep, and become dent to the dudious : the poet and the mathematician infenfible of our exiflence. It followed of confequence many times forget where they are. We cannot difeo- that, in deep, the nervous fluid between the extreme ver from any thing that a perfon in dreaming difplays parts of the nerves and the brain mud either be at red to the oblervation of others, that his organs of fenfa- or be deficient, or be prevented by fome means from tion take a part in the imaginary tranfaftlons in which pafling into the brain : and it was concluded, that ie is employed. In thofe indances, indeed, in which whenever irregular motions of this fluid were occafion- perlons afleep are faid to hear founds ; the founds ed by any internal caufe, dreaming was produced. In which they hear are faid alfo to influence, in fome this manner it appeared that we might be deceived manner, the nature of their dreams. But fuch in- with regard to the operation of any of the fenfes dances are fingulan Since then it appears that the fo as to fancy that we faw obje&s not actually before per on who dteams is himfelf incapable of didinguiflx- us,—to hear imaginary founds,—to tade,—to feel, and mg either during his dreams, or by recolledion when to fmell in imagination. The indances of vifions awake, whether any new impreflions are communicated which will fometimes arife, and as it were fwim be- to him in that date by his organs of fenfation ; that fore us when awake, though our eyes be Ihut, tinnitus even y watching over him, and comparing our obfer- aitrium, which is often a fymptom in nervous difeafes, nations of his circumdances and emotions, in his and the drange feelings in the cafe of the amputated dreams, with what he recolleds of them after awak- limb, were produced in proof of this theory, and 1H£>* we cannot, except in one or two Angular indan- applied lo as to confirm it. ce^, afeertain this fad ; and that the mind is not in- We are dill of opinion, that this theory is more capa e o ading while the organs of fenfation are plaufible, and goes farther toward explaining the na- at red, and on many occafions refufes to liden to ture of dreaming, and the manner in which r/reawr are the information which they convey j we may, with- produced, than any other with which we are acquaint- out hefitation, conclude, that the theory of Wolfius ed. But it mud be confefl'ed, upon a review, that even * in D R E in it there is too much fuppolitiom nervous fluid is but imperfe&ly known, and even its exiftence not very fully ai'certained. I he nature ol the connexion by which the foul and body are united, feems to be almoft beyond our comprehenfion. And till we can apply experiment and obfervation in a bet¬ ter manner to this branch of phyfiology, it mult un¬ doubtedly remain unknown. To fomething mylienous in the nature of that connexion, the delufion produced in dreams is in all probability owing. Amid this uncertainty with refpect to the manner in which the powers of mind and body perform their Wtions in dreaming, it is pleafing to find that we can, however, apply to ufeful purpofes the imperfeft knowledge which we have been able to acquire con¬ cerning this feries of phenomena. Our dreams are affected by the ftate of our health, by the manner in which we have paffed the preceding day, by our gene¬ ral habits of life, by the hopes which we moft londly indulge, and the fears which prevail moft oyer our fortitude when we are awake. From recolle&ing our dreams, therefore, we may learn to correft many im¬ proprieties in our conduft ; to refrain from bodily ex- ercifes, or from meats and drinks that have unfavour¬ able effe£ts on our conftitution ; to refill, in due time, evil habits that are ftealing upon us •, and to guard again!! hopes and fears which detach us bom our pro¬ per concerns, and unfit us for the duties of life. In- ftead of thinking what our dreams may forebode, we may with much better reafon reflea by what they have been occafioned, and look back to thofe circum- ilances in our paft life to which they are owing. 1 he fleep of innocence and health is found and refrelhing , their dreams delightful and pleafing. . A diftemper- ed body, and a polluted or perturbed mind, are haunt¬ ed in fleep with frightful, impure, and unpleafing dr Some very beautiful fables have been written both by ancients and moderns in the form of dreams. The Somnium Scipionis is one of the fine!! of Cicero s com- pofitions. He who (hall carefully perufe this piece, with Macrobius’s commentary upon it, will acquire from them confiderable knowledge of ancient philolo- nhy. In the periodical publications, which have d.f- fufed fo much elegant and ufeful knowledge throug Britain, the Tatlers, Speftators, Guardians, &c. we had a number of excellent dreams. Addiion excelled in this way of writing. The publ.c are now lefs par- tial to this fpecies of compofition than they formerly Dr Beattie, in his valuable effay on the fubje& of dreaming, quotes a very fine one from the 1 atler, and gives it due praife. - , The reader who is difpofed to fpeculate farther on this fobiefl, may confult Beattie’s Mays, Hartley on Man, and the principal writers on phyfiology. DRELINCOURT, Charles, mmifter of the re¬ formed church at Paris, was born at Sedan in 1595, where his father enjoyed a confiderable poll. He had all the qualifications that compofe a rebpeftable cleigy- man ; and though he defended the Proteftant caufe again!! the Romifti religion, was much efteemed even among the Catholics. He is be!! known in England by his Confolations again!! the Fears of Death which w^ork was tranflated, and is often printed. He mar- Drench r 028 ] D R E The nature of the tied the daughter of a rich merchant at Paris by whom he had 16 children. His third fon, profeffor of pbync Drefden, at Leyden, was phyfician to the prince and pnneeis of Orange before their acceflion to the crown ot Lngland. Bay le has given him a high charaaer. Mr Drehncourt died in 1660. , _ , . f DRENCH, among farriers, a phyfical potion for hories. 1 he ingredient for this purpole are to be beat coarfely, and either mingled with a decodum or with wine. Then let all infufe about a quarter of an hour, and give it to the horfe with a born after he has been tied up two hours to the rack. DREPANE, the ancient name of Corcyra, from the curvity of its figure, refembling a fickle. Daz?A.SE,(Dreparwm,) in indent Geography, a town of Bithynia, fituated between the Sinus Aftacenus and the Bofphorus Thracius •, called Helenopohs by Con- ftantine, in honour of his mother (Nicephorus Calht- tJ DREPANUM, in Ancient Geography, the promon¬ tory Rhium in Achaia ; fo called becaufe bent in the manner of a fickle. Another Drepanutn on the Ara¬ bic gulf, on the fide of Egypt. A third on the north fide of Crete, fituated between Cydoma and the Sinus Amphimallus. A fourth on the weft fide of Cyprus. A fifth, a promontory of Cyrenaica, on the Mediterranean. Drepahum, -f; or Drepana, -orurn; a town and port on the weft fide of Sicily, and to the weft of Mount Eryx : Drepanitani the people. Now Jrepano, a city and port town on the weftmoft point of Sicily. E. Long. 12. 8. N. Lat. 38. O. _ r DRESDEN, the capital city of the ele61 orate ot Saxon, in Germany. It is feated on the nver Elbe which divides it into two parts. One part is called Old Drefden, and the other the New Town, in the German language New Stadt. They are joined together by a ftone bridge, fupported by 19 piers, and 630 paces in length. As this bridge was too narrow for the crowds of people that were continually palling and repafling. King Auguftus in 1730, caufed two walks for foot paffengers to be built, one on each fide, m a very won¬ derful manner •, the one for thofe that go into the city, and the other for thofe that return back. Thefe are bordered with iron pallifadoes of curious workmanfihip. Drefden is furrounded by ftrong and handfome fortifi¬ cations ; and contains, according to the late!! accounts, 110,000 inhabitants. _ a , ..1 All the buildings of this city are conftruaed with fquare freeftone, and are almoft all of the fame heig t. They have ftone from the neighbourhood of I mna, about ten miles from this city, which is readily brought down the Elbe. In general the houfes are high and ftrong ; the ftreets wide, ftraight, well paved, clean, and well illuminated in the night* ^the re are large fquares, difpofed in fuch a manner, that Drefden may pafs for one of the handfomeft cities in the world. 1 he ele&or’s palace is a magnificent ftruaure and abounds in many valuable cunofities both of nature and a . The colle&ion of pi&ures is reckoned one of the fine that exifts, and is valued at 500,000!. , . Above 700 men are here conftantly employed m the porcelain manufaaure, the annual expence of which is eftimated at no more than 80,000 crowns ; and the manufaaure yields to the king 200,00© crowns yemdy. D R E ^Brcffing. befides tbe magnificent prefents which he occafionnlly * 1 makes, and the large quantity referved for the-ufe of his houfehold. I he other mcft confiderable article of trade is filvcr, of which the mines near Fridburg produce every 15 days near the value of 20,000 dollars. The metal is brought into the city in ingots, where it is immediately coined and delivered to the proprietors. ’I he court of Drefden is one of the moft remarkable in Furope for fplendour and profufion. Six thoufand five hundred ducats are yearly allowed for comfits and fimilar articles, which is near twice as much as the king of Pruffia allows for the whole expence of his table. The revenues of the elector are eftimated at about 1,576,0001.5 which arife from the taxes on .Kinds, and a capitation of fix dollars on all males as loon as they commence an apprenticefhip or begin to W’ork. People of a higher rank are taxed according to their clafs, and are liable to be called to account if they aflume not an exterior appearance correfpondent to the extent of their fortune. Every foreigner pays capitation after refiding fix months in the country. The Jews are taxed at 50, their wives at 30, and their chi.dren at 20^dollars. There is alfo an excife on all eatables and liquors 5 and 10 per cent, is levied out of the incomes of the people. Though this city lies in a low fituation, yet it hath agreeable profpecls. It is fupplied with a prodigious quantity of provifions, not only out of the neighbour¬ hood, but from Bohemia, which are brought every market day, which is once a-w’eek. E. Long. 13. 34. N. Lat. 5r. 12. DRESSING ot H-cmp and Flax. See FiAX-Dref- ±)rf.ssing of Meats) the preparing them for food by means of culinary fire. 1 he defign of drefling is to loofen the compages or texture of the flefh, and difpofe it for difiblution and digeftion in the ftomach. Flelh not being a proper food without dreffing, is alleged as an argument that man was not intended by nature for a carnivorous ani¬ mal. The ufual operations are roafting, bailing, and fiew- ^n,? In roafting, it is obferved, meat will bear a much greater and longer heat than either in boiling or ftew- ing 5 and in boiling, greater and longer than in fterv- ing. I he realon is, that roafting being performed in the open air, as the parts begin externally to warm, they extend and dilate, and fo gradually let out part of the rarefied included air, by which mebns the inter¬ nal fuccuftions, on which the diffblution depends, are much weakened and abated. Boiling being performed in water, the preflure is greater, and confequently the fuccuftions to lift up the weight are proportionably llrong 5 by which means the coflion is haftened : and even in this way there are great differences 5 for the greater the wTeight of water, the fooner is the bufinefs done. In ftewing, though the heat be infinitely fhort of what is employed in the other w7ays, the operation is much more quick, becaufe performed in a dole veffel, and full 5 by which means the fuccuftions are oftener repeated, and more ftrongly reverberated. Hence the force of Papin’s digefter ; and hence an illuftration of the operation of digeftion. Vol. VII. Part I. t 329 1 t) R I Drieper. Boiling, Dr Cheyne obferves, draws more of the Dreflln.-r rank ftrong juices from meat, and leaves it lefs nutri¬ tive, more diluted, lighter, and eafier of digeftion : , roafting, on the other hand, leaves it fuller of the ftrong nutritive juices, harder to digeft, and needing more dilution. Strong, grown, and adult animal food, therefore, fiiould be boiled; and the younger and ten¬ derer roafted. Dressing, in Surgery, the treatment of a wound or any difordered part. The apparatus of drefling con- fifts of doflils, tents, plafters, compreffes, bandage*, bands, ligatures, and firings. See Surgery Index. DREVET, Peter, the Younger, an eminent French engraver, was a member of the royal academy of painting and fculpture 5 and died at Paris in 1739, at 42 years of age. His portraits are neat and ele¬ gant ; but laboured to the laft degree. He particular¬ ly excels in reprefenting lace, filk, fur, velvet, and other ornamental parts of drefs. His father was excellent in the fame art ; and had inftru&ed, but was furpaffed by the fon. The younger Drevet did not confine him- felf to portraits. We have feveral hiftorical prints by him, which in point of neatnefs and exquifite work- manfhip are fcarcely to be equalled. His moft efteem- ed and beft hiftorical print is very valuable 5 but the firft impreflions of it are rarely to be met with : it is. The Prefentation of Chrift in the Temple 5 a very large plate, lengthwife, from Louis de Bologna. The following deferve alfo to be particularized : The Meeting of Abraham’s Servant with Rebecca at the Well; a large upright plate, from An. Coy pel : and Abraham, with his fon Ifaac on the Altar," the fame, from the fame, date 1707; the firft impreflions of which are before the work upon the right thigh of Ifaac was altered, the curved lines from the button almoft down to the knee being in thofe impreffions arched downwards, but in pofterior ones arched up¬ wards. Among his portraits, the two following are juftly held in the higheft eftimation : M. Boffuet biftiop of Meaux ; a whole length figure {landing, a middling fized upright plate, from Rigaud : and Samuel Bernard; a whole length figure fitting in a chair, a large upright plate. The firft impreflions of the laft are, before the words Confeiller el Elat were inferted upon the plate. DREUX, a town in the Me of France, remarkable for its antiquities; and for the battle which was fought in December 1562 between the Papifts and the Proteftants, in which the latter were defeated. Some think it took its name from the priefts of Gaul, called the Druids, in the times of Paganifm. It con- fifts of two parifties, St Stephen’s and Notre Dame, called the great church, which is pretty well built. It is feated on the river Blaife, at the foot of a mountain, on which is a ruined caftle. E. Long. 1. 27. N. Lat! 48. 44. DRIEPER, or Dnieper, a river of Ruflia, which rifes in the foreft of Volkonfld, near the foutce of the Volga, about 100 miles from Smolenlko. It paffes by Smolenfko and Mohilef, feparates the Ukraine from Poland, flows by Kiof, and falls into the Black fea be¬ tween Otzakof and Kinburn. By the acquifition of the piovmce of IVIohilef, its whole courle is now in¬ cluded within the Ruffian territories. It begins to be navigable at a little diftance above Smolenlko, though T t ia X) R I E 330 D R I ir. forae fcafons of the yeat it It ^ ‘ha'Iow -e the town, that the goods tauft be tranfpo.ted upon rates wkU th/.hyV. I„ the blood-vef- and fmall flat-bottomed^boats. H ^ muft be ke fluid in order t0 pr0per STS neareft'meridian, when miature, drink rncreafes *0 fluidity, and gtves .enfton Drink. JJK.ir 1, in iMuvigutwu, uwu. “-t,-- , a fhip’s motion makes with the neareft meridian, when {he drives with her fide to the wind and waves and is not governed by the power of the helm : it alfo im¬ plies the diftance which the ihip dnves on that line. A fhip’s way is only called drift m a ftorm 5 and then when it blows fo vehemently as to prevent her from carrying any fail, or at leaft reftrains her to fuch a portion of fail as may be neceffary to keep her fuffi- ciently inclined to one fide, that (he may not be dif- mafted by her violent labouring produced by the tur¬ bulence of the fea. t i Drift, in mining, a paffage cut out under the earth betwixt draft and diaft, or turn and turn j or a pailage or way wrought under the earth to the end of a meer of ground, or part of a meet. • , DRiFT-Sail, a fail ufed under water, veered out right a-head by (beets, as other fails are. It ferves to keep the (hip’s head right upon the fea in a dorm, and to hinder her from driving too fad in a current. DRILL in Mechanics, a fmall indrument tor ma- king fuch holes as punches will not conveniently ferve for.8 Drills ate of various fizes, and are chiefly tiled bv fmiths and turners. . . „ Drill, or Drill-Box, a name given to an indrument for lowing land in the new method of horfehoeing hufbandry. See Agriculture Index. _ DRtLL-Sowing, a method of lowing grain or feed of any kind, fo that it may all be at a proper depth m th<* earth, which is neceffary to its producing health¬ ful" and vigorous plants. For this purpofe a variety of drill ploughs have been invented and recommen e . See Agriculture Index ,r r , DRILLING is popularly ufed for exercifing fol- diers. The word is derived from the french drille, '^DRI MbrS*;“a^genus^olf plants changed by Murray, in the 14th edit, of ;5jy?. Veget. to Winteraj which r'DRmira parfof our ordinary food in a liquid f0rThe gteS”; of drink is to fupply fluid ; facili- tate folution ; in confequence of that, to expede the eva¬ cuation of the ftomach, and promote the progrefs of rte aliment through traflion of the lonSItu^!oa^^^s laut^fluhf^an^pals^ lels, wnere an muu. ^ ^ 1 mixture, drink increafes the fluidity, and gives tendon, by its bulk, without concomitant acrimony or too much elafticity, and fo (Length and ofcillatory motion : hence drink contributes to fanguification, as fometimes food gives too denfe a nutriment to be acled upon by the folids; and hence alfo we can fee how drink promotes the fecretions. Thefe are the efTefts of drink in gene¬ ral ; but what has been faid mud be taken with fome limitations •, for the more liquid the food, it is fooner evacuated, and lefs nourilhment is extra^ed. Hence drink is, in fome degree, oppofed to nounihment ; and fo, cceteris paribus, thofe who ufe leaft drink are molt ^ AlUhe effeas of drink above mentioned are produ¬ ced by Ample water j and it may be faid, that other liquors are fit for drink in proportion to the water they contain. Water, when ufed as_ drink is often im¬ pregnated with vegetable and farinaceous fubftances , but, as drinks, thefe impregnations are of little C01“e“ quence: they add, indeed, a little nounftiment; but this is not to be regarded in a healthy ftate. Some¬ times we impregnate water with the fruBus acido-dul- ces ; and then, indeed, it acquires other qualities, of confiderable ufe in the animal economy. All drinks, however, may be reduced to two heads : _ fnft, pure water, or where the additional fubftances give no ad¬ ditional virtue 5 fecondly, fermentatec. Of the firft we have already fpoken •, and the latter have not on y the qualities of the firft, but alfo qualities peculiar to themfelves. . , Fermented liquors are more or lefs poignant to the tafte, and better calculated to quench Jhir, may be owing to various caufes : Firft, To de-eft of fluid in the fyftera, which occafions a fcanty fecretion m the mouth, fauces, and ftomach ; the drynefs of the mouth and fauces will alfo in this cafe be increafed by their continual expofure to the perpetual flux and reflux of the evaporating air. Secondly, Thirft depends on a large proportion of folid vifeid food. Thirdly, On an alkalefcent aliment, efpecially if it has attained any thing of the putrefaftive taint. Fourthly, On the heat of the fyftem ; but this feems to operate in the fame manner" as the firft caufe, giving a fenfe of drynefs from its diffipation of the fluids. The fermented liquors are peculiary adapted for obviating all thefe caufes , fti- p . . ■’ , r ...u c orvrl ftnmach. to throw tra£Son of the longitudinal fibte, of fto^ pecu^ty d ft ach, to throw pylorus is drawn up, and nothing but P outthe faliva and gaftric liquor by their poignancy . which, by its bulk, makes a hurried progrefs throug arefcency they are fitted to deftroy alkalefcent the inteilntes, and fo determines a greater ^ ^ony,‘to quench thitft from that caufe : by there ftool, as lefs then can be abforbed by the Iad^s* idi Jhev di]ute vifcid food ; though here, indeed, Hence a large quantity of common wa er a they anfwer no better than common water. In two found purgative ; and, Cftens paribus, that aLment y mote the evacuation by ftool, and pro- which is accompanied with the large ProPor^on Rrefs through the inteftines : firft, by their fluidity and drink, makes the largeft evacuation by ftool Here a g _ fecogndl by their acefcency, which, uniting queftion has arifen, about where t1ae J^uRnt par , forms the peculiar ftimulus formerly men- the aliment is firft remarkably collefted. It is com- with the m , ^ ^ KWd.veffels. in fo far as monry thought to'be in the great guts: but undoubt- ^lv 0ften begins in the lower part of the ileum, efoecially when the drink is in a fmall proportion, and when the progrefs of the aliment is flow i for when^the co-tents of the guts are very fluid, they are quick y ™led cn. and teach the great guts before they de- tinned. Carried into the blood-veifels, m fo far as they retain any of the faline nature, they ftimulate the excretories, and promote urine and fweat ; correfting thus alkalefcency,Pnot only by mixture, but d.ffipation 0fMtnyephylcians>d treating of fermented liquors^ D R I have only mentioned thefe qualities, reje&ing their nu¬ tritious virtue, which certainly ought to be taken in j though by expediting the evacuation by ftool they make lefs of the nutritious parts of the aliment to be taken up, and by ftimulating the excretories make thefe nu¬ tritious parts to be for a Ihorter time in the fyftem. All thefe and many more effeds arile from fermented liquors. Their acefcency fometimes promotes the dif- eafe of acefcency, by increafing that of vegetables, afl:- ing as a ferment, and fo producing flatulency, purging, cholera, &c.: fo that, with vegetable aliment, as little drink is neceffary, the moft innocent is pure water; and it is only with animal food that fermented liquors are neceflary. In warmer climates,would feem neceflary to obviate alkalefcency and heat. But it fliould be confidered, that though fermented liquors contain an acid, yet they alfo contain alcohol ; which, though it adds ftimulus to the ftomach, yet is extreme¬ ly hurtful in the warmer climates, and wherever alka¬ lefcency prevails in the fyftem. Nature in thefe cli¬ mates has given men an appetite for water impregnated with acid fruits, e. g. fherbet: but the ufe of this needs caution, as in thefe countries they are apt to fhun ani¬ mal food, ufing too much of the vegetable, and often thus caufmg dangerous refrigerations, choleras, diar¬ rhoeas, &c. Of varieties of fermented liquors. We ftiall only mention here the chief heads on which thefe varieties depend, Firft, They are owing to the quality of the fubjeft, as more or lefs vifcid ; and to its capacity alfo of undergoing an aftive fermentation, although perhaps the more vifcid be more nutritious. Hence the differ¬ ence between ales and wines ; by the firft meaning fer¬ mented liquors from farinacea, by the fecond from the fruits of plants. It depends, fecondly, On the acerbity, acidity, nature,?and maturation, of the fruit. Thirdly, The variety depends on the conduft of the fermentation. In general, fermentation is progreflive, being at firft aftive and rapid, detaching the fixed air or gas fyl- vejlre, at the fame time acquiring more acid than be¬ fore. ThTe qualities of flatulency and acidity remain for fome time : but as the fermentation goes on, the liquor becomes more perfefl, no air is detached, and alcohol is produced ; fo that fermented liquors differ according to the progrefs of the fermentation, and have different effe&s on the fyftem. When fermentation is Hopped before it comes to maturity, though naturally it proceeds in this way, yet by addition of new fer¬ ment it may again be renewed with a turbid inteftine motion. DRIVERS, among fportfmen, a machine for driv¬ ing pheafant powts, cohfifting of good ftrong ofier wands, fuch as the balketmakers ufe ; thefe are to be fet in a handle, and twifted or bound with fmall ofiers in two or three places. With this inftrument the fportf- man drives whole eyes of young powts into his nets. See the next article. ^ DRIVING, among fportfmen, a method of taking pheafant powts. It is thus: The fportman finds out the haunts of thefe birds; and having fixed his nets there, he calls upon them together by a pheafant call, imitating the voice of the dam ; after this he makes a noife with his driver, which will make them run a little way forward in a clufter ; and this he is to re¬ peat till he has made fure of them, which an expert [ ] D R O Dromore. fportiman never fails to do, by driving them into his Driving; nets. Driving, in Metallurgy, is faid of filver, when, in the operation of refining, the lead being burnt away, the remaining copper rifes upon its furface in red fiery bubbles. Driving, in the fea language, is faid of a fhip, when an anchor being let fall will not hold her faft, nor pre¬ vent her failing away with the wind or tide. The beft help in this cafe is to let fall more anchors, or to veer out mqre cable ; for the more cable ftie has out, the fafer (he rides. When a (hip is a-hull or a-try, they fay fhe drives to leeward. DROGHEDA, by the Englifti called ’Tredah, a town of Ireland, in the province of Leinfter and county of Lowth, and fituated on the bay of the fame name, in W. Long. 6. 17. N. Lat. 53. 45. It was formerly very remarkable for its fituation and ftrengtb. In con- fequence of this it was much diftinguifhed by the old Englifti monarchs. Edward II. granted it a market and fair ; and to thefe were added other great privi¬ leges in fucceeding ages, particularly the right of coin¬ age. It was bravely defended againft the rebels in 1641. After the ceffation of arms it was taken by the duke of Ormond and the earl of Inchiquin ; but was retaken by Cromwell in 1649. At this time it fuffered fo much, that for a long time after it remained almoft in ruins, The buildings were exceedingly ftiattered ; and the town being taken by ftorm, not only the gar- rifon, but the inhabitants, men, women, and children, were moftly put to the fword. By degrees, however, it recovered, and is at prefent a large and populous place. It is a town and county ; and as fuch fends two reprefentatives to parliament. It has a great fhare of inland trade, and an advantageous commerce with England ; and though the port is but indifferent and narrow at its entrance, with a bar over which fhips of burden cannot pafs but at high water, yet a great deal of bufinefs is done ; fo that, from a low and declining port, it is now become rich and thriving, Drogheda is perhaps one of the ftrongeft inftances than can be mentioned of the ineftimable benefit of a river in any degree navigable ; for though the Boyne is not capable of carrying veffels bigger than barges or pretty large boats, yet the conveniency that this af¬ fords of conveying coals by water carriage through a great extent of country, introduced a correfpondence between this place and Whitehaven in Cumberland, to which the revival of its commerce has been in a great njeafure owing. DROITWITCH, a town of Worcefterftiire in England, noted for excellent white fait made from the fait fprings in its neighbourhood. It fends two mem¬ bers to parliament. W. Long. 2. 16. N. Lat. qz. 20. DROMEDARY. See Camelus, Mammalia Index. DROMORE, a town of Ireland, in the county of Down. It is a very ancient town, and the feat of a bifhopric. The fee was founded by St Colman in the 6th century. It was refounded by King James I. who by his charters (now preferved in the Rolls office) grant¬ ed it very great and uncommon privileges. Among other marks of royal favour, he diftinguifhes the bi- ffiops of this fee by the ftyle of “ A. B. by Divine Providence bifliop of Dromore whereas all other T 1 2 . biffiops Drone. D R O [ 33 billiops in Ireland, except tbofe of Meath and luldate, i r - » ,, i -r-v • nnKic ipf* 'A\- 2 1 d r o Drone. are ftyled, “by Divine Permifiion.” Ibis fee, al¬ though the leaft in its extent, is fo complete and per- fe£l in its endowment and jurifdiftion, that it need not envy the greateil and moft opulent. DRONE, a kind of large bees which make their appearance in hives about the month of May, but never work nor prepare any honey : and are at laft all killed by the reft. Under the article Bee, N 20 et ft?• have given an account of the experiments of Meffrs Debraw and Schirach concerning thefe animals : but in a Treatife upon Bees and their Managen&nt by Mr Bonner near Berwick on Tweed, who has made the management of bees his ftudy for a great number of years, this author diffents from the opinions of the above-mentioned gentlemen for the following reafons, which we fhall give in his own words. Having men¬ tioned the opinions of Mr Debraw concerning the littm drones mentioned in the article above mentioned, he proceeds thus: , . r i “ i. Can it be thought that the prying eyes of mul¬ titudes in many generations fhould have efcaped feeing thofe little drones (they being, according to his ac¬ count, vaftly numerous) thruft their poftenor parts in¬ to the cells? Yet none ever faw them do it except himfelf j while many have feen the queen do it, though but a ftngle bee. . , , i ■ j “ 2. It is well known the queen is very long behind the wings, wife nature having made her fo, in order that ftie might thruft her pofterior part into the cells, and yet her wings fcarcely touch them, nor receive the leaft injury. If thefe imaginary little drones had to thruft their pofterior parts into the cells m the lame manner as the queen, certainly their wings would have been made in the fame manner fhort,_and their pofte¬ rior parts long and taper, which is not the cafe. Whereas were a bee of any kind (the queen excepted) to thruft its hinder part into a common cell, its wings or coats would come over its head, and be antic-like, and injure both them and its body. Befides, 1 fcarce y think they could get into the common cells that way at any rate for want of room. “ Mr Debraw grants, that without a queen or errgs^bees will not begin to work, as well knowing they cannot propagate their fpecies without her j and vet he fays, thole bees which wanted little drones be- aan to work, and. the queen laid eggs, and all went forward, till they were not impregnated, and then they gave over work, and deferted the hive. Certainly thofe figacious creatures would have been as fenhble tha they wanted drones at the very firft, when they were put into the hive, and that they could not do without them, as they are fenftble when they want a queen, and that it is needlefs to begin work without her •, and it maht be added, that two different kinds of drones in one hive does not appear to be probable, or ferve any end* ' “ But I fhdl narrate fome of my own experiments on that head, which will put it, I hope beyond dilpute : On September ift, I had a hive breeding faft ; I took out all her bees (among which were only ,our large drones, which I killed), and I put them in a hive that had nothing in her but empty combs : I waited ten days, when, by looking between the combs I law her have new fealed up maggots in her cells. 1 then took all her bees out, and ftrook them into a tub full of wa¬ ter, and recovered them gradually *, and when recover¬ ing, I preffed every one of them, in order to iee if I could find any of thofe little drones, but could not find one ; but all and every one of them had flings ; they were in number 3coo. After which 1 fearched the hive I took them out of, and cut out all her combs that had eggs in them, and found they had new laid eggs, four days old eggs, and maggots in them. 1 then recovered the queen and all the bees, and put m the fame hive again, which had not an egg in her now, and waited other twenty days, and faw her in fine oays working very well j a lure indication (he was breeding again. I then turned her up, and cut out one of her brood combs, and faw in it new laid eggs, .oui ^ajs old eggs, and maggots and fome young almoit fit tor emereing out of their cells. “ the very fame day I made a further experiment : I had a hive which I faw had fome brood combs m her, but file had not had a large drone for four weeks before in her-, fhe had not above 5oo bees in her which favoured me, becaule few m number. _ I took the hive into a clofe place in my houfe, m oreei ^ that not a tingle bee fbould efcape me j I then took - all the bees out of her, and immerfed them m wa¬ ter ; and when recovering, I preffed every one of them, and each bee had a Iting, as in the former ex- Per,‘ I think the above experiments may. fatisfy any judicious perfon, that there is no fuch thing in being Is little drones, unlefs in Mr Debraw’s brain Arid if Mr Debraw, who can find 57-m a fmall fwarm of bees, will fend me the odd ieven, I will fend hun one of my bell hives for them, and he will fcarcely think he is ill paid. I add I never faw a hue in fpring, however few bees in her but (he bied feme fhe had a queen, though to be fine few in proportion t0 ^B^this time the reader will be very ready, no doubt, to a Ik me the ufe of the drones. I beg to be excufed on that head, as I have not the leaft idea of their ufe in a hive ; they do not fecundate the queen, for ftie can lay and breed too though fine never fee them. Their heat does not appear to me to be ne- ceffary for hatching the young, as they ^e mo il¬ ly hatched before any are bred in a hive j and uhen drones are in the hive, the weather is lo warm, and fo many common bees in it, that they appeal o mv rather too much heat, by their lying out of the hives °ft^i have many times had good hives with few or no drones in them all the year 5 and Keys is quite wrong when he fays a top fwarm will not do without dio in her ; far I am pofitive to the contrary, as in the fummer 1785 I took off four fwarms of mine own in one day with not a Tingle drone in any of them, and they all throve well, and b«d drones in themlelves about four weeks after. a Although I cannot fay what ufe the drones are of to a hive (unlefs it be to help away with a great deal of her honey, which they are very good at), yet the beft hives have them fooneft m the year tHy g - nerallv apnearing in fuch about the latter end of May, and the bees pufa period to their lives about Lammas, at which time I give them all the affiftance 1 can. ^ D> R O [ 333 J D R O way they kill them is thus : They pull and bite them with their teeth, and fling them alfo. I have feen great havock make of.them in one day, as appeared by their lying dead before the door of the hive. But their mold etfeflual way of killing them is their banifhing them from the honeycombs •, upon which the drones betake themfelves to the under edges of the hives in great numbers, and to the board the hive Hands on 3 and fometimes, though rare, I have even feen them come to the outlide of the hive, and clutter there about the bulk of a man’s hand. When they are banithed thus, they are very dull and lifelefs : and I have lifted up a hive from the board, and there they would have been fitting clofe on it, with fcarcely three or four common bees among them 3 and I have trod to death 40 or more at a time. “ We may now take a view of the difadvantages at¬ tending the old, and alfo Mr Debraw’s principles on bees, were they true ; and next fee how a hive of bees may be preferved from coming to ruin, according to my fentiments on them. “ 1. The old principles on bees fay, that without a queen or royal cell be in a hive, it will come to ruin. “ 2. Mr Debraw’s principles fay, that without little drones be in a hive it will come to ruin. “ 3. I fay, if a hive have only new laid eggs in her (which may be eafily got the greatell part of the, year, in cafe fire have none of her owm) and common bees, Are will find herfelf a queen, and lo thrive. “ According to the old principles, it is eafily feen that, in cafe a hive lofe her queen, wdren there is no royal cell in her, and no queen can be got to put to her (neither of which can be expended but in June and July), fire is entirely ruined. “ According to the Frenchman’s fcbeme, there mull be drones in a hive at all times of the year to fecun¬ date the eggs, otherwife the hive is ufelefs. Suppofing his fentiments to be true (which, however, can by no means be admitted, feeing there is no fuch thing as little drones), how perplexed would the owner be to know when there were little drones in the hive ! When he wanted to make an artificial fwarm, he might bring off a queen and common bees with her 3 but howT (hould he come to know whether there were any, or a luffi- cient quantity, of little drones among them, as they canaot be diftinguilhed from the commons but by im- merfion and preffure, which would be intolerably troublefome, and next to killing the bees, and not at all pra from a great fulnels of the ftomach. But this opinion our author rejeds, becaufe in 13 dogs which he had drowned and afterwards dif- feded, no figns of fuch a fulnefs appeared. Another reafon is drawn from the want of the common marks of D R O Drowning, of apoplexy on the difleftion of the brain, and from the aftual prefence of water in the lungs. He is of opinion, that the death of drowned perfons happens in confequence of water getting into the lungs, and flopping the blood in the arteries. He then difcuffes the queftion how far the blowing of air into the lungs is ufeful in recovering drowned people. 11 their death is to be afcribed to the w^er entering the lungs, this pra6tice, he obferves, muft be hurtful, as it wnll in- creafe the prefi'ure on the blood-Veffels, or may even force the water into them ; which, on the authority of Lewis’s experiments, he alleges is poffible. But, in fpite of this reafoning, he afferts, that from experience it has been found ufeful. He allows, that the prac¬ tice of fufpending drowrted people by the feet muft be hurtful, by determining the blood too much to the head ; but he obferves, that remedies in fome refpe&s hurtful may be ufed when the advantages derived from them preponderate ; and is of opinion, that the prac¬ tice above mentioned may be ufeful by agitating the vifcera againft each other, and thus renewing their mo¬ tions. Cutting the larynx in order to admit air more freely to the lungs, he reckons to be of little or no life ; but acknowledges, however, that it may fome- times prove beneficial on account of the irritation occa- fioned by the operation. Dr Cullen, in his Letter to Lord Cathcart concern¬ ing the recovery of perfons drowned and feemingly ■dead, tells us, that “ From the difledlion of drowned men, and other animals, it is known, that very often the water does not enter into the cavity of the lungs, nor even into the ftomach, in any quantity to do hurt to the fyftem ; and, in general, it is known, that, in moft cafes, no hurt is done to the organization of the vital patts. It is therefore probable, that the death which enfues, or feems to enfue, in drowned perfons, is owing to the ftoppage of refpiration, and to the ceafing, in confequence, of the circulation of the blood, whereby the body lofes its beat, and, with that, the ac¬ tivity of the vital principle.” In the Phil. Tranf. vol. Ixvi. Mr Hunter gives the following theory. The lofs of motion in drowning feems to a rife from the lofs of refpiration ; and the im¬ mediate effeft this has upon the other vital motions of the animal, at leaft this privation of breathing, ap¬ pears to be the firft caufe of the heart’s motion ceafing.^ It is moft probable, therefore, Mr Hunter obferves, that the reftoration of breathing is all that is neceffary to reftore the heart’s motion ; for if a fufficiency of life ftill remains to produce that effeft, we may fup- pofe every part equally ready to move the very inftant in which the a&ion of the heart takes place, their ac¬ tions depending fo much upon it. What makes it very probable, that the principal effeft depends upon throw7- ing air into the lungs, is, that children in the birth, when too much time has been fpent after the lofs of that life which is peculiar to the foetus, lofe altogether the difpofition for the new life. In fuch cafes there is a total fufpmfion of the aftions of life ; the child re¬ mains to all appearance dead ; and would die, if air was not thrown into its lungs, and the firft principle of aftion by that means reftored. To put this in a clearer right, Mr Hunter gives the refult of fome ex¬ periments made on a dog in 1755 —A Pa‘r double bellows were provided, which were fo conftru&ed, that D R O by one adlion air was thrown into the lungs, and by Drowning, the other the air was fucked out which had been thrown in by the former, without mixing them toge¬ ther. The muzzle of thefe bellows was fixed into the trachea of a dog, and by working them he was kept perfeftly alive. While this artificial breathing was going on, the fternum was taken off, fo that the heart and lungs were expofed to view. The heart then con¬ tinued to aft as before, only the frequency of its ac¬ tion was greatly increafed. Mr Hunter then flopped the motion of the bellows •, and obferved that the con- tra&ion of the heart became gradually weaker and lefs frequent, till it left off moving altogether ; but by re¬ newing the operation, the motion of the heart all'o re¬ vived, and foon became as ftrong and frequent as be¬ fore. This procefs was repeated upon the fame dog ten times ; fometimes flopping for five, eight, or ten minutes. Mr Hunter obferved, that every time he left off working the bellows, the heart became ex¬ tremely turgid with blood, and the blood in the lett fide became as dark as that in the right, wThich w7as not the cafe when the bellows were working. Thefe fituations of the animal, he obferves, feem to be ex- adlly fimilar to drowning. Dr Edmund Goodwyn, in a treatife lately publifhed on this fubjeift, has endeavoured to afeertain the eftefts of fubmerfion upon living animals in a more accurate manner than had hitherto been done. His firft care was to determine the fymptoms which took place be¬ fore death ; and to obferve thefe, he procured a large glafs bell in which the animals were to be immerfed. Having inverted, and filled this with water, be put in¬ to it feveral cats, dogs, rabbits, and fmaller animals, confining them among the water till they were appa¬ rently dead. In thefe experiments he obferved, that immediately after fubmerfion the pulfe became weak and frequent •, there was an apparent anxiety about the breaft, and ftruggling to relieve it. In thefe drug¬ gies the animal rofe to the top of the water, throwing out a quantity of air from the lungs. After this the anxiety increafes, the pulie becomes weaker, and the ftruggles more violent } he rifes again to the furface, throws out more air from the lungs, and in his effoits to infpire, a quantity of water commonly paffes into the mouth. The fkin about the face and- lips then becomes blue, the pulfe ceafes, the fphimfters are re¬ laxed, and the animal falls down without fenfe or mo¬ tion. On differing the bodies of drowned animals, our author met with the following appearances: I. Fhe external furface of the brain w7as darker, but the lefiels of it were not more turgid than ufual, nor was there any appearance of extravafation. 2. I he pulmonary arteries and veins were filled w7ith black blood, and the lungs themfelves contained fome frothy liquor. _ 3. Not- withftanding thefe fymptoms, the right auricle and ventricle were ftill contrafling and dilating ; the left finus venofus and auricle moving feebly, but the left ventricle at reft. 4. The right and left auricles Oi the heart the right ventricle, and the left finus venofus, were’filled with black blood; but the laft ventricle only half filled with the fame, and a quantity of the fame black blood was alfo contained in the fmaller branches of the arteries proceeding from the left ven- This inveftigation was followed by a moft careful 0 and f 334 1 D R O [ 335 I D R O Drowniisf- and Ingenious inquiry concerning the caufes of the i'ymptoms already related. To find out whether or not the entrance of water into the lungs was the caufe, or whether water really entered the lungs in thefe cafes or not, he drowned feveral .animals among ink $ and by infpecting their bodies, found, that though water really did enter, it was in fuch fmall quantity that it could not be fuppofed capable of producing fuch vio¬ lent effe&s. To afcertain this, however, more exa£l- ly than could be done by the ink, he drowned other animals in quickfilver ; which, by reafon of its not be¬ ing mifcible with the animal fluids, could be more ac¬ curately collefted. By thefe it appeared that no more than five drachms of the fluid in which a cat was im- merfed entered her lungs in the time of drowning ; and to determine wdiether or not this could be the oc- cafion of the animal’s death, he made the following experiment : Having confined a cat in an ereft pofture, he made a fmall opening in the trachea, by cutting one of the cartilaginous rings ; and through this open¬ ing he introduced two ounces of water into the lungs. The only confequences were a difficulty of breathing and weak pulfe j but thefe foon abated, and it lived fe¬ veral hours afterwards without any apparent inconve¬ nience. On ftrangling it he found two ounces and a half of water in the lungs. On repeating the experi¬ ment with other fluids, he found the difficulty of breathing and alteration in the pulfe fomewdiat great¬ er •, but in thefe inftances alfo they abated in a few hours ; and when the animals were ftrangled, the lungs were found to contain four ounces of fluid. From all thefe experiments Dr Goodwyn draw’s the following conclufions : I. “ A fmall quantity of fluid ufually paffes into the lungs in drowning. 2. This water enters the lungs during the efforts to infpire ) and mixing with the pulmonary mucus, occafions the frothy appearance mentioned by authors. 3. The whole of this fluid in the lungs Is not fufficient to pro¬ duce the changes that take place in drowming. And hence it follows, that the wrater produces all the chan¬ ges that take place in drowming indireBly, by exclud¬ ing the atmofpheric air from the lungs.” This natu¬ rally leads to an invefligation of the ufes of refpiration, and the effeHs of the air upon the blood and lungs in that action, which our author traces with great accu¬ racy and very convincing experiments. He begins rvith attempting to determine the quantity of air drawn in at each infpiration, with the proportional quantity left after expiration. The experiments by which he endeavoured to afcertain thefe quantities feem to be more uncertain than the others, as indeed there are not data fufficient for them. From fuch as he had an op¬ portunity of making, how’ever, the following conclu- ffons were deduced : 1. “ The lungs contain 109 cubic inches of air after a complete expiration j and this quantity receives an additional quantity of 14 cubic inches during each infpiration. 2. The dilatation of the lungs after expiration is to their dilatation after infpiration as 109 to 123. 3. The blood circulates through the pulmonary veffels in all the degrees of na¬ tural refpiration. 4. The circulation through them, after expiration, is fufficiently free to keep up the health of the fyftem.” The laft part of our author’s inquiry, viz. concern¬ ing the chemical changes produced in the air by refpi¬ ration, and the effe&s of the air upon the blood itfelf, Drowning, falls naturally to be confidered under the article Re-^ spiration : fo that here we ffiall only obferve in ge¬ neral, that his experiments evidently ffiovv that the difeafe produced by drowning arifes entirely from the exclufion of the atmofpheric air or its dephlogifticated part j for which rtafon he recommends inflating the lungs wuth that kind of air in preference to any other. From thefe different views of this matter, phyficians have differed confiderably in their account of the me¬ thods to be followed in attempting the recovery of drowned perfons. De Haen recommends agitation of all kinds •, every kind of ftrmulus applied to the mouth nofe, and reiSlum *, bleeding ; heat, both by warm clothes and warm water ; blowing air into the trachea $ ftimu- lants, fuch as blifters, warm allies, &c. applied to the head, ankles, thighs, pit of the ffomach, and other parts. Doiffor Cullen’s obfervations on this fubje£t are as follow.—“With refpeft to the particular means to be employed for the recovery of drowned perfons, it is to be obferved, in the firft place, That fuch as were re¬ commended and pra&ifed, upon a fuppofition that the fuffocation was occafioned by the quantity of water taken into the body, and therefore to be evacuated again, were very unhappily advifed. The hanging up of perfons by the heels, or fetting them upon the crown of the head, or rolling the body upon a cafk, were ge¬ nerally praclifed, upon a fuppofition altogether falfe ; or upon the fuppofition of a cafe which, if real, is ap¬ prehended to be irrecoverable. At the fame time, thefe practices were always attended with the danger of burfting fome veffels in the brain or lungs, and of rendering thereby fome cafes incurable that were not fo from the drowning alone. All fuch practices, therefore, are now very properly difapproved of and forbidden. “ In thofe cafes in which the body has not been long in the water, and in which therefore the natural heat is not entirely extinguiffied, nor the irritability of the moving fibres very greatly impaired, it is poffible that a good deal of agitation of the body may be the only means neceflary to reftore the ablion of the vital or¬ gans ; but in other cafes, where the beat and irritabi¬ lity have ceafed to a greater degree, it is to me very doubtful if much agitation can be fafe, and if any de¬ gree of it can be ufeful, till the heat and irritability are in fome meafure reftored. In all cafes, any violent concuffion cannot be fafe, and, I believe, is never ne- ceffary. It may be proper here to obferve alfo, that in tranfporting the body from the place where it is taken out of the water, to the place where it may be neceffary for applying the proper means of its recove¬ ry, all poflures expofing to any improper compreffion,, as that of the body’s being carried over a man’s Ihoul- dcr, are to be avoided. The body is to be kept ftretched out, with the head and upper parts a little raifed j and care is to be taken to avoid the neck’s be¬ ing bent much forward. In this manner, laid upon one fide, and upon fome ftraw’ in a cart, it may be moft properly conveyed ; and the agitation which a pretty brifk motion of the cart may occafion, will, in molt cafes, do no harm. “ From the account I have given above of the cau- fes,. D R O Browning, fes, or of tue appearances, of death in drowned per- fons, it is evident, that the firft ftep to be taken for their recovery is to reftore the heat of the body, which is abfolutely neceffavy to the activity of the moving fi¬ bres. For this purpofe, the body, as foon as polhble, is to be firipped of its wet clothes, to be well dried, and to be wrapped »p in dry, and (if poflible) warm, coverings : and it is to be wifhed, in all ca.es, as loon as the report of a perfon’s being drowned is heard, that blankets fhould be immediately carried to the water fide ; fo that, as foon as the body is got out of the wa¬ ter, the change of covering juft now mentioned may be inftantly made *, or, if the body has been naked when drowned, that it may be immediately cried, and defended againft the cold of the air. Befides covering the body with blankets, it will be further of advantage, if it can be done without lofs of time, to cover the drowned body with a warm ihirt or waiftcoat immedi¬ ately taken from a living perfon. # “ When, at the time of a perfon’s being drowned, it happens that the fun fhines out very hot, I think there can be no better means of recovering the heat, than by expofing the naked body, in e\ery part, to the heat of the fun ; while, at the fame time a 1 other means neceffary or ufeful for the recovery of life are alfo employed. , , . “ When the heat of the fun cannot be employee, the body Ihould be immediately tranfported to the neartit houfe that can be got convenient for the purpoie : the fitteft will be one that has a tolerably large chamber, in which a fire is ready, or can be made ; and if polh- ble, the houfe (hould afford another chamber, in which alfo a fire can be provided. “ When the drowned body is brought into iuch houfe, and care is at the fame time taken that no more people are admitted than are abfolutely neceffary to the fervice of the drowned perfon, every endeavour muff be immediately employed for recovering the heat of the body, and that by different meafures, as circumftances (hall direft. , , . u “ If in the neighbourhood of the place, there, e any-brewery, diftillery, dyery, or fabric which gives an opportunity of immediately obtaining a quantity of warm water and a convenient veffel, there is nothing more proper than immerfing the body in a warm bath. Even where a fufficient quantity of warm water can¬ not be had at once, the bath may be ftill praftifed, it the accident has happened in or very near a town or village, when a great many fires .may be at once em¬ ployed in beating fmall quantities of water*, for in this way the neceffary quantity may be foon obtained. To encourage this praftice, it is to be obferved, that one part of boiling water is more than fufficient to give the neceffary heat to two parts of fpnng or fea -water, as it is not proper to apply the bath at firft ve¬ ry warm, nor even of the ordinary heat of the human ' body, but fomewhat under if, and, by the addition of warm water, to bring it gradually to a heat very little above it. „ , . “ If the drowned body be of no great bulk, it may be conveniently warmed by a perfon’s lying down m bed with it, and taking it near to their naked body, changing the pofition°of it frequently, and at the fame time chafing and rubbing with warm cloths the 336 J D R O parts which are not immediately applied to their warm Browning;. body. “ If none of thefe meafures can be conveniently praffifed, the body is to be laid upon a bed before a moderate fire, and frequently turned, to expofe the different parts of it j and thus, by the heat of the fire gradually applied, and by rubbing the body well with coarfe towels, or other cloths well warmed, pains are to be taken for reftoring its beat. This will be pro¬ moted by w7arm cloths applied and frequently renewed under the hams and armpits ; and by hot bricks, 01 bottles of warm water, laid to the feet. “ In the practice of rubbing, it has been propofed to moiften the cloths applied with camphoiated (pints, or other fuch ftimulating fubftances ', but I think this muft prove an impediment to the rubbing j and I would not recommend any praffice of this kind, except, per¬ haps, the application of the vinous fpirits of fal ammo¬ niac to the wrifts and ankles only. “ Tor recovering the heat of the body, it. has been ^ propofed to cover it all over with warm grains, afnes, fand, or fait *, and where thefe, fufficiently warm, aie ready at hand, they may be employed •, but it is very feldom they can be obtained, and the application might often interfere with other meafures that may be necei- fary. All therefore that I can propofe with refpeff to the ufe of thefe, is to obferve, that bags of warm and dry fait may be amongft the molt convenient ap¬ plications to the feet and hands, of drowned perfons 5 and the quantity neceffary for this purpofe may be got pretty quickly by heating the fait in a frying pan over a common fire. . . , “ While thefe meafures are taking for recovering the heat, means are at the fame time to be employed for reftoring the aftion of the moving fibres. It is well known, that the inteftines are the parts of the body which, both from their internal fituation and peculiar conftitution, retain the longeft their irritabiuty \ and therefore, that, in drowned perfons, ftimulants applied may have more eftVa upon the inteftines than upon other parts. The aftion, therefore, of the 'nteftmes is to be fupported or renewed as foon as poflible *, as the reftoring and fupporting the a£fion of fuch a con- fiderable portion of moving fibres as thofe of the intef¬ tines, muft contribute greatly to reftore the aftmty of the whole fyftem. _ r , . A. . a “ Tor exciting the a£Hon of the inteftines, the molt proper mean is, the application of their ordinary ftimu- lus of dilatation 5 and this is moft effeaually applied, by forcing a quantity of the air into them by the fun¬ dament. Even the throwing in cold air has been found ufeful : but it will certainly be better if heated, air can be employed *, and further, if that air can be impreg¬ nated with fomething which, by its acrimony alfo may be powerful in ftimulating the inteftines. “ From all thefe confiderations, the fmoke of burning tobacco has been moft commonly applied, and has up¬ on many occafions proved very effe&ual. . I bis will be moft properly thrown in by a particular apparatus, which, for other purpofes as well as this, fhould be m the hands of every fur-geon *, or at leaft fhould, at the public expence, be at hand in every part of the coUn. * t • fr* Viannpn- With rc- ^wFownlngs are likely to happen. With re¬ gard to the ufe of it. 1 have to obferve, that trll the D R O [ 337 ] D R O Drowning, the tobacco is kindled in a confiderable quantity, a ~ v" great deal of cold air is blown through the box and tube •, and as that, as hinted above, is not lb proper, care fhould be taken to have the tobacco very well kindled, and to blow through it very gently, till the heated fmoke only palles through. If, upon certain occafions, the apparatus referred to Ihould not be at hand, the meafure however may be executed by a com¬ mon tobacco pipe, in the following manner : A com¬ mon glyfter pipe, that has a bag mounted upon it, is to be introduced into the fundament, and the mouth of the bag is to be applied round the ftnall end of a to¬ bacco pine. In the bowl of this, tobacco is to be kindled j and,'either by a playing card made into a tube and applied round the mouth of the bowl or by applying upon this the bowl of another pipe that is empty, and blowing through it, the fmoke may be thus forced into the inteftines, and, in a little time, in a confiderable quantity. “ If none of thefe means for throwing in the fmoke can be employed, it may be ufeful to injeft warm wa¬ ter to the quantity of three or four Englifh pints. This may be done by a common glyfter bag and pipe, but better by a large fyringe ; and it may be uleful to difl'olve in the water fome common fait, in the propor¬ tion of half an ounce to an Englilh pint j and alfo, to add to it fome w-ine or brandy. “ While thefe meafures for recovering the heat of the body and the aflivity of the moving fibres are em¬ ployed, and efpecially after they have been employed for fome time, pains are to be taken to complete and finifti the bufinefs, by reftoring the aflion of the lungs and heart. “ On this fubjeft, I am obliged to my learned and ingenious colleague Dr Monro, who has made fome experiments for afcertaining the beft manner of in¬ flating the lungs of drowned perfons. Ey thefe expe¬ riments he finds it may be more conveniently done by blowing into one of the noftrils, than by blowing into the mouth. For blowing into the noftril, it is necel- fary to be provided with a wooden pipe, fitted at one extremity for filling the noftril, and at the other for being blown into by a perfon’s mouth, or for receiving the pipe of a pair of bellows, to be employed for the fame purpofe. Doffor Monro finds, that a perfon of ordinary ftrength can blow into fuch a pipe, with a fufticient force to inflate the lungs to a confiderable degree ; and thinks the wTarm air from the lungs of a living perlon will be moft conveniently employed at firft ; but when it is not foon effeflual in reftoring the refpiration of the drowned perfon, and that a longer continuance of the inflation is neceftary, it may be pro¬ per to employ a pair of bellows, large enough at once to contain the quantity of air neceffary to inflate the lungs to a due degree. “ Whether the blowing in is done by a perfon’s mouth, or by bellows, Dr Monro obferves, that the air is ready to pafs by the gullet into the ftomach j but that this may be prevented, by prefling the lower part of the larynx backwards upon the gullet. To perfons of a little knowledge in anatomy, it is to be obfer- ved, that the prefture thould be only upon the cri¬ coid cartilage, bv which the gullet may be ftraiten- ed, while the paflbge through the larynx is not inter- lupted. Vot.. VII. Part L “ When, by blowing thus into the noftril, it can be perceived, by the raifing of the cheft or belly, that the lungs are filled with air, the blowing in Ihould ceafe ; and by prefling the bread and belly, the air received into the lungs (hould be again expelled ; then the blow¬ ing and expulfion fhould be again repeated ; and thus the praflice is to be continued, fo as to imitate, as ex- aflly as poflible, the alternate motions of natural re¬ fpiration. “ It is hardly neceflary to obferve, that when the blowing into the noftril is pratftifed, the other noftril and the mouth fhould be accurately clofed. “ If it ftiould happen, that in this pradlice the air does not feem to pafs readily into the lungs, Doffor Monro informs me it is very pradlicable to introdu e direffly into the glottis and trachea a crooked tube, fuch as the catheter ufed for a male adult. For this he offers the following direflions : The furgeon {hould place himfelf on the right fide of the patient $ and, in¬ troducing the fore finger of his left hand at the right corner of the patient’s mouth, he fhculd pulh the point of it behind the epiglottis ; and ufing this as a directory, he may enter the catheter, which he bolds in his right hand, at the left corner of the patient’s mouth, till the end of it is paffed beyond the point of his fore finger , and it is then to be let fall, rather than puftied into the glottis; and through this tube, by a proper fyringe applied to it, air may be with certainty blowm into the lungs. I obferve, that fome fuch meafure had been propofed by Monf. le Cat in France ; but I have not leanjed that it has ever been put in praftice, and I am afraid it may be attended with feveral difficulties, and muft be left to the difcretion of furgeons, who may be properly provided and inftrufled for this purpofe. “ For throwing air with more certainty into the lungs, it has been propofed to open the windpipe in the fame manner as is done in the operation which the furgeons call bronchotomy, and by this opening to blow into the lungs 5 and when the blowing into the noftril does not feem to fucceed, and a fkilful operator is at hand, I allow that the meafure may be tried ; but I can hardly fuppofe that it will be of any ad¬ vantage when the blowing in by the noftril has entire¬ ly failed. “ It is to be hoped, that by blowing into the lungs one way or other, even a ^quantity of water which had been taken into the lungs may be again w'afhed out •, and the fame feems to be the only effedlual means of waffling out that frothy matter which is found to fill the lungs of drowned perfons, and which proves, if I miftake not, the moft common caufe of their mortal fuffocation. This praflice, therefore, is to be imme¬ diately entered upon, and very affiduoufly continued for an hour or two together. “ I have now mentioned the meafures chiefly to be purfued and depended upon for the recovery of drown¬ ed perfons .j but muff ftill mention fome others that may prove confiderable helps to it. “ One of thefe is, the opening the jugular veins to relieve the congeftion, which aim oft conftantly occurs in the veins of the head, and is probably a frequent caufe of the death of drowned perfons. For relieving this congeftion, the drawing fome blood from the ju¬ gulars, very early, may certainly be of fervice ; and it will be particularly indicated by the livid and purple U u colour Drowning- D R O [ 338 1 D R O & * Drowning, colour of the face* It may even be repeated, accord- 1 j ' 1 jng to the effedl it feems to have in taking off that fuf- fufion but when the drowned perfon is in fome mea- fure recovered, and fome motion of the blood is re- ftored, it will be proper to be very cautious in making this evacuation, and at leaft to take care not to pufh it fo far as to weaken too much the recovering, but {till weak, powers of life. # . . “ Another meafure for recovering the activity of the vital principle, is the application of ceitain ftimulants to the more fenfible parts of the body, fuch as holding the quicklime fpirit of fal ammoniac to the nofe, or putting a little of it upon a rag into the noftrils. It has been ufual to pour fome liquids into the mouth j but it is dangerous to pour in any quantity of liquid, till it appear that the power of fwallowing is in iome meafure reftored. _ « When a furgeon is at hand, and is provided with proper apparatus, a crooked pipe may be introduced into the gullet; and by this a gill or two of warm wine may be poured down into the ftomach, and probably with advantage. But when no fuch apparatus is at hand or furgeon to employ it, and the power of fwal¬ lowing is ftill doubtful, the trial of pouring liquids in¬ to the mouth ftiould be made by a fmall quantity of warm water alone ; and when, from fuch trial, the power of fwallowing (hall appear to be recovered, it may then be allowable to favour the further recovery of the perfon, by pouring in fome wine or brandy.-— In {hort, till fome marks of the recovery of fwallow¬ ing and refpiration appear, it will not be lafe to apply any ftimulants to the mouth ; excepting that of a few drops of fome acrid fubftance to the tongue, and which are not of bulk enough to Hide back upon the glottis : I can think of no ftimulant more convenient¬ ly and fafely to be applied to the mouth and noftrils, than a moderate quantity of tobacco fmoke blown into ^‘"'Though I do not imagine that drowned perfons are ever hurt by the quantity of water taken into their ftomach, yet, as a ftimulus applied to the ftomach, and particularly as the aftion of vomiting proves a ftimulus to the whole fyftem, I can have no objection to the French praftice of throwing in an emetic as foon as any fwallowing is reftored. For this pur- nofe, I would fucceflively throw in fome tea-fpoonfuls of the ipecacuanha wine •, and when it does not in¬ terfere with other neceffary meafures, the fauces may be gently irritated by an oiled feather thruft into “ With regard to the ftimulants, I muft conclude with obferving, That when a body has lain but for a {hoi t time in the water, and that therefore its heat and irritability are but little impaired, the application of ftimulants alone has been often found effe&ual for the recovery : but on the contrary, when the body has lain long in the water, and the heat of it is very much extinguiftied, the application of any other ftimu¬ lants than that of tobacco fmoke to the inteftines can be of very little fervice ; and the application of others ought never to interfere with the meafures for recover¬ ing heat and the motion of refpiration. ‘i With refpeft to the whole of theie pra£lices, I expcff, from the principles upon which they are in general recommended, it w-ill be underftood that they Drowning* are not to be foon difcontinued, though their effefts do v 1 not immediately appear. It is obvious, that, in many cafes, it may be long before the heat of the body, and the a&ivity of the vital principle, can be reftored, al¬ though in a longer time it may very poflibly be ac- complifhed. In fadl, it has often happened, that though means employed for one hour have not fucceeded, the fame continued for two or more hours, have at length had the wiftied-for effe&s. It ftiould therefore be a conftant rule, in this bufinefs, that the proper means ftiould be employed for feveral hours together j unlefs it happen that, wjhile no fymptoms of returning life appear, the fymptoms of death {hall, at the fame time, go on conftantly increafing. “ In the whole of the above I have kept in view chiefly the cafe of drowned perfons ; but it will be ob¬ vious, that many of the meafures propofed w'ill be equally proper and applicable in other cafes of fuffoca- tion as thofe from ftrangling, the damps of mines, the fumes of charcoal, &c. j and a little attention to the difference of circumftances will lead to the meafures moft proper to be employed. Mr Hunter, in the before-mentioned paper, differs pretty conftderably from He Haen and Hr Cullen. He obferves, that when afliftance is foon called after immerfion, blowing air into the lungs will in fome cafes effeft a recovery ; but wTen any confiderable time has been loft, he advifes ftimulant medicines, fuch as the vapour of volatile alkali, to be mixed with the air j which may eafily be done, by holding fpirits of hartfliorn in a cup under the receiver of the bellows. And, as applications of this kind to the olfaflory neives tend greatly to roufe the living principle, and put the mufcles of refpiration into aSion, it may probably, therefore, be moft proper to have air impregnated in that manner thrown in by the nofe. To prevent the ftomach and inteftines from being too much diftended by the air fo injeaed, the larynx is direded to be gent¬ ly preffed againft the cefophagus and fpine. ' While this bufinefs is going on, an afliftant fhould prepare bed clothes, carefully brought to a proper de¬ gree of heat. Heat our author confiders as congenial w ith the living principle ; increafing the neceffity of ac¬ tion, it increafes aaion } cold, on the other hand, lef- fens the neceflity, and of courfe the aaion is dimi- niftied : to a due degree of heal, therefore, the living principle, he thinks, owes its vigour. From experi¬ ments, he fays, it appears to be a law in animal bodies, that the degree of heat ftiould bear a proportion to the quantity of life *, as life is weakened, this proportion requires great accuracy, wdiile greater powers of lite allow it greater latitudes. # After thefe and feveral other obfervations on the lame fubjeft, our author proceeds to more particular direc¬ tions for the management of drowned people. If bed clothes are put over the perfon, fo as fcarce to touch him, fleams of volatile alkali, or of warm balfams, may be thrown in, fo as to come in contact with many parts of the body. And it might probably be advantageous, Mr Hunter obferves, to have fleams of the fame kind conVeyed into the ftomach. This, we are told, may be done by a hollow bougie and a ly- ringe : but the operation fhould be very ipeedily per- D R O Drowning, formed, as the inftrument, by continuing long in the ‘“—■v—— mouth, might produce ficknefs, which our author fays he would always wifh to avoid. Some of the warm ftimulating fubftances, fuch as juice of horferadilh, peppermint water, and fpirits of hartlhorn, are dire£led to be thrown into the fto- mach in a fluid ftate, as alfo to be injected by the anus. Motion poflibly may be of fervice ; it may at leaf! be tried : but as it hath lefs effect than any other of the ufually prefcribed ftimuli, it is direfted to be the laft part of the procefs. The fame care in the operator, in regulating the proportion of every one ofthefe means, is here directed, as was formerly given for the application of heat. For every one of them, our author obferves, may pof- fibly have the fame property of deftroying entirely the feeble adfion which they have excited if adminiftered in too great a quantity : inftead, therefore, of increaf- ing and haftening the operations on the firfl: flgns of returning life being obferved, as is ufually done, he de- fires they may be leflened j and advifes their increafe to be afterwards proportioned, as nearly as poflible, to the quantity of powers as th^y arife. When the heart begins to move, the application of air to the lungs fhould be leflened, that, when the mufcles of refpiration begin to aft, a good deal may be left for them to do. Mr Hunter abfolutely forbids bloodletting in all fuch cafes; for as it not only weakens the animal principle, but leflens life itfelf, it mull confequently, he obferves, leffen both the powers and difpofitions to aftion. For the fame reafon, he is againft introducing any thing into the ftomach that might produce fick¬ nefs or vomiting; and, on the fame principle, he fays, we fliould avoid throwing tobacco fumes, or any other fuch articles, up by the anus, as might tend to an eva¬ cuation that way. The following is a defcription of inftruments recom¬ mended for fuch operations by our author. Firfl:, A pair of bellows, fo contrived, with two fe- parate cavities, that, by opening them when applied to the noftrils or mouth of a patient, one cavity will be filled with common air, and the other with air fuck¬ ed out from the lungs, and by (hutting them again, the common air will be thrown into the lungs, and that fucked out of the lungs difcharged into the room. The pipe of thefe fhould be flexible ; in length a foot, or a foot and a half; and, at lead, three eighths of an inch in width. By this the artificial breathing may be con¬ tinued, while the other operations, the application of the ftimuli to the ftomach excepted, are going on, which could not be conveniently done if the muzzle of the bellows were introduced into the nofe. The end next the nofe fhould be double, and applied to both noftrils. Secondly, A fyringe, with a hollow bougie, or flexible catheter, of fufficient length to go into the ftomach, and convey any ftimulating matter into it, without affefting the lungs. Thirdly, A pair of fmall bellows, fuch as are commonly ufed in throwing fumes of tobacco up by the anus. Notwithftanding the difterences in theory, however, between the phyficians above mentioned, it is certain, that within thefe few years great numbers of drowned people have been reftored to life by a proper ufe of the remedies we have enumerated, and focieties for the rc- [ 339 1 D R O covery of drowned perfons have been inrtituted in dif- Drowning, ferent places. The firft fociety of this kind was infti- ^ tuted in Holland, where from the great abundance of canals and inland feas, the inhabitants are particularly expofed to accidents by water. In a very few years 150 perfons were faved from death by this fociety j and many of thefe had continued upwards of an hour with¬ out any figns of life, after they had been taken out of the water. The fociety was inftituted at Amftcrdam in 1767: and, by an advertifement, informed the in¬ habitants of the United Provinces of the methods pro¬ per to be ufed on fuch occafions j offering rewards at the fame time to thofe wFo flrould, with or without fuccefs, ufe thofe methods for recovering perfons drown¬ ed and feemingly dead. The laudable and humane example of the Dutch was followed in the year 176!? by the magiftrates of health in Milan and Venice j af¬ terwards by the magiftrates of Hamburg in the year 1771, by thofe of Paris in the year 1772, and by the magiftrates of London in 1774. The following direftions are given for the recovery of drowned perfons by the fociety at London. I. As foon as the patient is taken out of the water, the wet clothes, if the perfon is not naked at the time of the accident, Ihould be taken off with all poflible ex¬ pedition on the fpot (unlefs fome convenient houfe be very near), and a great coat or two, or fome blankets if convenient, ihould be wrapped round the body. II. The patient is to be thus carefully conveyed in the arms of three or four men, or on a bier, to the neareft public or other houfe, where a good fire, if in the winter feafon, and a warm bed, can be made ready for its reception. As the body is conveying to this place, a great attention is to be paid to the pofition of the head j it mull be kept fupported in a natural and eafy pofture, not fuffered to hang down. III. In cold or moift weather, the patient is to be laid on a mattrefs or bed before the fire, but not too near, or in a moderately heated room $ in warm and fultry weather, on a bed only. The body is then to be wrapped as expeditioufly as poflible with a blanket, and thoroughly dried with warm coarfe cloths or flan¬ nels. IV. In fummer or fultry weather too much air can¬ not be admitted. For this reafon it will be neceffary to fet open the windows and doors, as cool refrefliing air is of the greateft importance in the procefs of re- fufeitation. V. Not more than fix perfons are to be prefent to apply the proper means j a greater number will be ufe- lefs, and may retard, or totally prevent, the reftoration of life, by rendering the air of the apartment unwhole- fome. It will be neceffary, therefore, to requeft the abfence of thofe who attend merely from motives of curicfity. VI. It will be proper •for one of the afliftants, with a pair of bellows of the common fize, applying the pipe a little way up one noftril, to blow with fome force, in order to introduce air into the lungs 5 at the fame time the other noftril and the mouth are to be clofed by another afliftant, whilfl: a third perfon gently preffes the cheft with his hands, after the lungs are oblerved to be inflated. By purfuing this procefs, the noxious and ftagnant vapours will be expelled, and natural breath¬ ing imitated. If the pipe of the bellows be too large, U u 2 the DUO [ 340 ] .Drowning, tire air may be blown in at the moutb, tbe nollrils at expeditioufly ' v'"""* the fame time being clofed, fo that it may not efcape that way: but the lungs are more eafily filled, and na¬ tural breathing better imitated, by blowing up the noftril. VII. Let the body be gently rubbed with common V iA. AACA AAIA. J . , . fait, or with flannels, fprinkled with fpints, as rum or geneva (a). A warming pan heated (the body being furrounded with flannel) may be lightly moved up and down the back. Fomentations of hot brandy are to be applied to the pit of the ftomach, loins, &c. and often renewed. Bottles filled with hot water, heated tiles covered with flannel, or hot bricks, may be efh- eaciouflv applied to the foies of the feet, palms of the hands, and other parts of the body. The temples may be rubbed with fpirits of hartfhorn, and the noftrils now and then tickled with a feather; and inufif, or eau de luce, fhould be occafionally applied. VIII. Tobacco fumes fhould be thrown up the fun¬ dament : if a fumigator be not at hand, the common pipe may anfwer the purpofe.. The operation fhould be frequently performed, as it is of importance ; for the good effects of this procefs have been experienced in a variety of inftances of fufpended animation. But fhould the application of tobacco fmoke in this way not be immediately convenient, or other impediments arife, clyfters of this herb, or other acrid infulions with fait, &c. may be thrown up with advantage. IX. When thefe means have been employed a con- fiderable time without fuccefs, and any brewhoufe or warm bath can be readily obtained, the body fliould be carefully conveyed to fuch a place, and remain 111 the bath, or furrounded with warm grains, for thiee or four hours. .in 1 1 u If a child has been drowned, its body fliould be wiped perfeaiy dry, and immediately placed in bed between two healthy perlons. 1 he falutary effects of the natural vital warmth, conveyed in this manner, have been proved in a variety of luccefsful cafes. X. While the various methods of treatment are em- oloyed, the body is to be well fliaken every ten mi¬ nutes, in order to render the procefs of animation more certainly fuccefsful; and children, in particular, are to be much agitated, by taking hold of their legs and arms, frequently and for a continuance of time. In va¬ rious inftances agitation has forwarded the recovery of boys who have been drowned, and continued for a pon- fiderable time apparently dead. # r , XI. If there be any figns of returning life, fuch as fighing, gafping, or convulftve motions, a fpoontul o -any warm liquid may be admimftered ; and if the aft of fwallowing is returned, then a cordial of warm brandy or wine may be given in fmall quantities, and frequently repeated. , . , XII Eleftricity may be tried by the judicious and Ikilful,’ as its application neither prevents nor retards the various modes of recovftty*already recommended; but on the other hand, will mbft probably tend to ren¬ der the other means employed more certainly and more D R U ca^cvah.iwa.i.j efticacious. This ftimulus bids fair to prove an important auxiliary in cafes of fufpended ani¬ mation ; and therefore deferves the ferious regard and attention of the faculty. . The methods which have been fully defcnbed, are to be employed with vigour for three hours or upwards. Bmg II Druids. t V.V* " o ‘ - although no favourable circumftances fhould aide ; tor it is a vulgar and dangeious opinion to fuppofe that perfons are irrecoverable, becaufe life does not foon make its appearance ; an opinion that has configned to the grave an immenfe number of the feemingly dead, who might have been reftored to life by refolution and perfeverance. Bleeding is never to be employed in fuch cafes, un- lefs by the direfhon of one of the medical afliftants, or fome other gentleman of the faculty who has paid at¬ tention to theTefufcitating art. DRUG, a general term for and grocery kinds, efpecially and dyeing. See Materia and Dyeing. DRUGGET, in commerce, goods of the druggift thofe ufed in medicine Medica, Pharmacy, fluff fometimes all wool, and fometimes half wool half thread, iometimes^ corded, but ufually plain. Thofe that have the woof of wool, and the warp of thread, are called threaded druggets; and thofe wrought with the fhuttle on a loom of four marches, as the ferges of Mom, Beauvois, and other like fluffs corded, are called corded druggets. As to the plain, they are wrought on a loom of two marches, with the fhuttle, in the fame manner as cloth, cambkts, and other like fluffs not corded. _ DRUID/E, or Droium, in Ancient Geography, a very ancient town, the principal place of the Druides or Druidae in Gaul, as they are called (Cse.ar, Cicero). Now Dreux in the Orleannois. Here they met every year in a confecrated grove, according to Cmlar. I he town was alfo called Durocafes. W. Long. I. 21. N. Lat. 48. 45. . . a DRUIDS, Druiues, or Druids, the prielts or minifters of religion among the ancient Celts: or Gauls, Britons, and Germans. . TJ , Some authors derive the word from the Hebrew n-umi demtrm, or drutfm, which they tranflate co»- temblatores. Picard, Celtoprcd. lib. ii. p. 58. believes the druids to have been thus called from Dr*//, or Dryius, their leader, the fourth or fifth king of the Gauls, and father of Saron or Naumes. Pliny, Sal- mafius, Vigenere, &c. derive the name from oak; on account of their inhabiting, or at leaf! frequenting, and teaching in forefts ; or perhaps becaufe, as Pliny fays they never facrificed but under the oak. But it is hard to imagine how the druids fhould come to fpeak Greek. Menage derives the word from the om Bn- tifh drus, “daemon, magician.” Borel, frorn the Saxon dry, “ magician or rather from the old Britifh dru, or dervo, “oak,” whence he takes to be derived; which is the moft probable fuppofition. _Gorop. Be- canus, lib. i. takes druis to be an old Celtic and Ger¬ man word, formed from trowis or truvlls, a doaor of \h.e (a) Dr Fothergill of Bath, in a letter to the Regifter, advifes as a potent stmftard moiftened with fpirits. and attive ftimulus the patent # D R U [341 Druids, of the truth and the faith 3” which etymology Vcffius ] General ac¬ count of the druids. acquiefces in. The druids were the firfl and moft diftinguiihed or¬ der among the Gauls and Britons', they were cnofen nnt nf the belt families; and the honours of their biith, D R U to religion. ”1 ne Bntilh and Gauliin youth flocked to them in crowds to be inltrufted by them. The chil¬ dren of the nobility, Mela tells us, they retired with into caves, or the moll defolate parts of forelfs, and kept them there fometimes for twenty years under Befides the immortality and metemp- Druids. and the "judges of all affairs indifferently. Whoever refufed obedience to them was declared impious and accurfed. We know but little as to their peculiar doc¬ trines 3 only that they believed the immortality of the foul, and, as is generally alio iuppoled, the metemp- fychofis j though a late author makes it appear highly probable they did not believe this laft, at lead not in the fenfe of the Pythagoreans. The chief fettlement of the druids in Britain was in the ille of Anglefey, the ancient Mona, which they •'‘might choofe for this purpofe, as it is well ftored with fpacious groves of their favourite oak. They were di¬ vided into feveral dalles or branches, viz. the vacerri, bardi, cubages, Jymnothu, ox femnothci, and faronidcc. The vacerri are held to have been the priefts 3 the bardi, the poets 3 the cubages, the augurs 3 and the faronidce, the civil judges and inftrudfors of youth. As to the femnothei, wrho are faid to have been im¬ mediately devoted to the fervice of religion, it is pro¬ bable they were the fame with the vacerri. Strabo, however, (lib. iv. p. 197.) and Picard after him in his Celtopaedia, do not comprehend all thefe different or¬ ders under the denomination of druids, as fpecies un¬ der their genus, or parts under the whole ; but make them quite different conditions or orders. Strabo, in effedf, only ditfinguifhes three kinds ; bardi, votes, and druids. The bardi were the poets 3 the votes, varus (apparently the fame with the vacerri), were the prieils and natural!fts 3 and the druids, befide the ffudy of nature, applied themfelves likewife to mora¬ lity. Diogenes Laertius affures us, in his prologue, that the druids were the fame among the ancient Britons with the fophi or philofophers among the Greeks 3 the magi among the Persians 3 the gymnofophitts a- mong the Indians 3 and the Chaldeans among the Af- fyrians. Their garments were remarkably long ; and, when employed in religious ceremonies, they always wore a white furplice. They generally carried a wand in their hands 3 and wore a kind of ornament enchafed in gold about their necks, called the druid's'egg. Their necks were likewife decorated with gold chains, and their hands and arms with bracelets : they wore their hair very fhort, and their beards remarkably long. The druids had one chief, or arch-druid, in every nation, who a£fed as high prieft, or pontifex maximus. He had abfolute authority over the reft 3 and command¬ ed, decreed, punifhed, &c. at pleafure. At his death he was fucceeded by the moft confiderable among his furvivors 3 and, if there were feveral pretenders, the matter w^as ended by an ele£lion, or elfe put to the de- cifion of arms. The druids, we have obferyed, were in the higheft efteem. They preftded at facrifices, and other cere¬ monies 5 and had the direction of every thing relating powder and wifdom of the gods, &c. They pi the memory and aflions of great pien in their verfes, which they never allowed to be wrote down, but made their pupils get them by heart. In their common courfe of learning, they are faid to have taught them twenty-four thoufand luch verfes. By this means their dodfrines appeared more myfterious by being unknown to all but themfelves 3 and having no books to recur to, they were the more careful to fix them in their me¬ mory. They worfhipped the Supreme Being under the name of Efus, or llefus, and the fymbol of the oak 3 and had no other temple than a wood or a grove, where all their religious rites were performed. Nor was any perfon admitted to enter that facred recefs,. unlefs he carried with him a chain, in token of his abfolute dependence on the Deity. Indeed, their whole reli¬ gion originally confifted in acknowledging, that the Supreme" Being, who made his abode in thefe facred groves, governed the univerfe 3 and that every crea¬ ture ought to obey his laws, and pay him divine ho¬ mage. They confidered the oak as the emblem, or rather the peculiar rcfidence, of the Almighty 5 and accord¬ ingly chaplets of it were worn both by the druids and people in their religious ceremonies, the altars were ftrewed with its leaves, and encircled with its branches. The fruit of it, efpecially the miftetoe, was thought to contain a divine virtue, and to be the peculiar gift of heaven. It was therefore fought for on the fixth day of the moon with the greateft earneft- nefs and anxiety 3 and when found was hailed with fuch raptures of joy, as almoft exceeds imagination to conceive. As foon as the druids were informed of this fortunate difeovery, they prepared every thing ready for the facrifice under the oak, to which they fattened two white bulls by the horns 3 then the arch¬ druid, attended by a prodigious number of people, afeended the tree, drefled in white 3 and with a con- fecrated golden knife, or pruning-hook, cropped the mifletoe, which he received in his fagum or robe, arnidlt the rapturous exclamations of the people. Having fe- cured this facred plant, he defeended the tree 3 the bulls were facrificed 3 and the Deity invoked to blefs his own gift, and render it efficacious in thofe diftem- pers in which it fhould be adminiftered. The confecrated groves, in which they performed their religious rites, weie fenced round with ftones, to • prevent any perfon’s entering between the trees, ex¬ cept through the paffages left open for that purpofe, and which were, guarded by fome inferior druids, to prevent any ftranger from intruding into their myfte- ries. Thefe groves were of different forms 3 fome quite circular, others oblong, and more or lefs ca¬ pacious as the votaries in the diftrifts to which they belonged were more or lefs numerous. The area in v the: D R U f 342 ] D R U Druids, the centre of the grove was encompaffed with feveral “~~v " “' rows of large oaks fet very clofe together. Within this large circle were feveral fmaller ones furrounded with large {tones 5 and near the centre of thefe fmaller circles were {tones of a prodigious fize and conve¬ nient height, on which the victims were {lain and of¬ fered. Each of thefe being a kind of altar, was fur- rounded with another row of {tones, the ufe of which cannot now be known, unlefs they were intended as cinctures to keep the people at a convenient diitance from the officiating prieft. Suetonius, in his life of Claudius, affures us the druids facrificed men*, and Mercury is faid to be the god to whom they offered thefe victims. Diod. Sicu¬ lus, lib. vi. obferves it was only upon extraordinary occafions they made fuch offerings ; as, to confult what meafures to take, to learn what fliould befal them, &c. by the fall of the vidim, the tearing of his members, and the manner of his blood guffiing out. Auguftus condemned the cuftom, and "l iberius and Claudius punifhed and aboliffied it. We learn from Caefar, that the druids were the judges and arbiters of all differences and difputes, both public and private : they took cognizance of murders, inheritances, boundaries, and limits ; and decieed re¬ wards and pumfhments. Such as dilobeyed their de- cifions they excommunicated, which w'as their prin¬ cipal puniihmentthe criminal being hereby excluded from all public affemblies, and avoided by all the world ; fo that nobody durft fpeak to him for fear of being polluted. Strabo obferves, they had fometimes intereft and authority enough to (lop armies upon the point of engaging, and accommodate their differences. Their opi- It hath been difputed, whether the druids were nions and themfelves the inventors of their opinions and fyftems philofophy, 0f religion and philofophy, or received them from whence de-otj,ers> Some have imagined, that the colony of Pho- llVed‘ cians which left Greece and built Marfeilles in Gaul about the 57th Olympiad, imported the firft principles of learning and philofophy, and communicated them to the Gauls and other nations in the weft of Europe. It appears, indeed, that this famous colony contribut¬ ed not a little to the improvement of that part of Gaul where it fettled, and to the civilization of its in¬ habitants. “ The Greek colony of Marfeilles (fays Juftin) civilized the Gauls, and taught them to live under laws; to build cities and enclofe them with wallsj to raife corn ; to cultivate the vine and olive *, and, in a word, made fo great a change both in the face of the country and the manners of its inhabitants, that Gaul feemed to be tranftated into Greece, rather than a few Greeks tranfplanted into Gaul.” But though we may allow that the druids of Gaul and Britain borrowed fome bints and embelliffiments of their philofophy from this Greek colony, and perhaps from other quarters, we have reafon to believe that the fubftance of it was their own. Others have fuggefted, that the druids derived their philofophy from Pythagoras, who pub- liffied his doftrines at Crotona in Italy *, where he lived in the higheft reputation for his virtue, wifdom, and learning, above 20 years. Phis conjeaure is very much confirmed by this remarkable expreflion of Am- m"fanus Marcellinus, “ That the druids were formed into fraternities, as the authority of Pythagoras de¬ creed,” It hath been alfo obferved, that the philofo- I phy of the druids bore a much greater rcfemblance to Druids, that of Pythagoras than to that of any of the other fages of antiquity. But it feems probable, that Am- mianus meant no more by the above expreffion than to illuftrate the nature of the druidical fraternities, by comparing them to tbofe of the Pythagoreans, which were well known to the Romans ; and the refemblancc between the Pythagorean and druidical philofophy may perhaps be beft accounted for, by fuppofing, that Pythagoras learned and adopted fome of the opinions of the druids, as well as imparted to them fome of his difcoveries. It is well known, that this philolbpher, animated by the moft ardent love of knowledge, tra¬ velled into many countries in purfuit of it, and got himfelf admitted into every fociety that was famous for its learning. It is therefore highly probable in itfelf, as well as dire£fly afferted by feveral authors, that Py¬ thagoras heard the druids of Gaul, and was initiated into their philofophy. ^ ^ From the concurring teftimonies of feveral au-jviort par» thors, it appears that phyfiology, or natural philo-ticular ac- fophy, was the favourite ftudy of the druids of Gaul jCOl^nt; t*‘e and Britain. Cicero tells us, that he w as perfonally acquainted with one of the Gaulifti druids, Divitia- cus the iEduan, a man of quality in his country, who profeffed to have a thorough knowledge of the laws of nature, or that fcience which the Greeks ^ call phyfics or phyfiology. According^ to Diodorus Phyf.cs, or Siculus, Strabo, Csefar, Mela, Ammianus Marcel-natural phi. linus, and others, they entered into many difqui-loloPhy* fkions and deputations in their fchools, concerning the form and magnitude of the univerfe in general, and of this earth in particular, and even concerning the moft fublime and hidden fecrets of nature. On tbefe and the like fubjects they formed a variety of fyftems and hypothefes ; which they delivered to their difciples in verfe, that they might the more eafdy retain them in their memories, fince they were not allowed to com¬ mit them to writing. Strabo hath preferved one of the phyfiological opinions of the druids concerning the univerfe; viz. that it was never to be entirely deftroyed or annihilated; but was to undergo a fucceffion ot great changes and revolutions, which were to be produced fometimes by the power and predominacy of water, and fometimes by that of fire. This opinion, he inti¬ mates, was not peculiar to them, but wTas entertained alfo by the philofophers of other nations ; and Cicero fpeaks of it as a truth univerfally acknowledged and un¬ deniable. “ It is impoffible for us (fays he) to attain a glory that is eternal, or even of very long duration, on account of tbefe deluges and conflagrations of the earth which muft neceffarily happen at certain perioos. This opinion, which was entertained by the moft an¬ cient philofophers of many different and very diftant nations, was probably neither the refult of rational in¬ quiry in all thefe nations, nor communicated from one of them to others ; but defeended to them all from their common anceftors of the family of Noah by tra¬ dition, but comupted and mifunderftoed through length of time. The agreement of the druids with the phi¬ lofophers of fo many other nations in this opinion about the alternate diffolution and renovation of the world, gives us reafon to believe, that they agreed with them alfo in their opinion of its origin from two di- ftinft principles; the one intelligent and omnipotent, which D R U [ 343 1 D R U Druids, which was God ; the other inanimate and inadtive, l“'—V'*—*' which wa* matter. We are toid, by Caefar, that they had many difquifitions about the power of God ; and, no doubt, amongft other particulars, about his creating power. But whether they believed with fome that mat¬ ter was eternal, or with others that it was created; and in what manner they endeavoured to account for the difpofition of it into the prefent form of the univerfe, we are entirely ignorant, though they certainly had their fpeculations on thele fubje&s. We are only in¬ formed. that they did not exprefs their fentiments on thefe and like heads in a plain and natural, but in a dark, figurative, and enigmatical manner. This might incline us to fufpe£t, that Pythagoras had borrowed from them his doftrine about numbers, to whofe myfti- cal energy he afcribes the formation of all things ; for nothing can be more dark and enigmatical than that doftrine. The druids difputed like wife about the mag¬ nitude and form of the world in general, and of the earth in particular^ of which things they pretended to have a perfedt knowledge. We know not what their opinions w-ere about the dimenfions of the univerfe or of the earth, but we have feveral reafons to make us imagine that they believed both to be of a fpherical form. This is vifibly the (hape and form of the fun, moon, and liars, the moll confpicuous parts of the uni¬ verfe; from whence it wTas natural and eafy to infer, that this w-as the form of the world and of the earth. Accordingly this feems to have been the opinion of the philofophers of all nations; and the circle was the fa¬ vourite figure of the druids, as appears from the form both of their houfes and places of worlhip. Befides thefe general fpeculations about the origin, diffolution, magnitude, and form of the world and of the earth, the druids engaged in particular inquiries into the natures and properties of the different kind of fubllances. But all their difcoveries in this moll ufeful and extenfive branch of natural philofophy, whatever they wrere, are S entirely loll. Aftronomy. Allronomy alfo appears to have been one of the chief lludies of the druids of Gaul and Britain. “ The druids (fays Caefar) have many difquifitions concerning the heavenly bodies and their motions, in which they inllrucl their difciples.” Mela, fpeaking of the fame philofophers, obferves, “ That they profefs to have great knowledge of the motions of the heavens and of the liars.” Some knowledge of this Icience indeed was not only necelfary for meafu- ring time in general, marking the duration of the dif¬ ferent feafons, regulating the operations of the huf- bandman, direfling the courfe of the mariner, and for many other perfons in civil life ; but it w’as efpecially necelfary for fixing the times and regular returns of their religious folemnities, of which the druids had the foie direflion. Some of thefe folemnities were month¬ ly, and others annual. It was therefore necelfary for them to know, wuth fome tolerable degree of exaflnefs, the number of days in which the fun and moon per¬ formed their revolutions, that thefe folemnities might be obferved at their proper feafons. This w7as the more necelfary, as fome of thefe folemnities were attended by perlons from different and very diltant countries, who were all to meet at one place on one day ; who mull have had lome rule to difcover the annual return of that day. The moll perceptible divifion of time by the two great luminaries is into day and night; the former oc- —■^ cafioned by the prefence of the fun above the horizon, me_ the latter by his abfence, which is in fome meafure fup thod ot plied by the moon and liars. The druids computed compuiing their time by nights, and not by daysj a cullom wdrichume. they bad received from their moll remote ancellors by tradition, and in which they were confirmed by their meafuring their time very much by the moon, the mi- ftrefs and queen of night. As the changes in the afpe£l of that luminary are moll conlpicuous, they en¬ gaged the attention of the moll ancient ailronomers of all countries, and particularly of the druids, w’ho regu¬ lated all their great folemnities, both facred and civil, by the age and afpefl of the moon. “ When no un- expe&ed accident prevents it, they alfemble upon Ha¬ ted days, either at the time of the new7 or full moon ; for they believe thefe to be the mod aufpicious times for tranfadling all affairs of importance.” Their moll augult ceremony of cutting the milletoe from the oak by the arch-druid, was alw-ays performed on the fixtli day of the moon. Nay, they even regulated their mi¬ litary operations very much by this luminary, and avoided, as much as polfible, to engage in battle while the moon wras on the wane. As the attention of the druids was fo much fixed on this planet, it could not be very long before they difcovered that flie palled through all her various afpedls in about thirty days ; and by degrees, and more accurate obfervations, they would find, that the real time of her performing an entire revolution was very nearly 294- days. This fur- nilhed them with the divifion of their time into months, or revolutions of the moon ; of which we know with certainty they were polfelfed. But this period, though of great ufe, was evidently too fhort for many pur- pofes, and particularly for meafuring the feafons; which they could not fail to perceive depended on the influ¬ ences of the fun. By continued obfervation they dif- - covered, that about 12 revolutions of the moon inclu¬ ded all the variety of feafons, which begun again, and revolved every 12 months. This fuggelled to them that larger divifion of time called a year, confilting of 12 lunations, or 354 days, which was the moll ancient meafure of the year in almolt all nations. That this was for fome time at leall the form of the druidical year, is both probable in itfelf, and from the following ex- preflion of Pliny : “ That they began both \heir months and years, not from the change, but from the fixth day of the moon.” This is even a demonllration that their years confilled of a certain number of lunar revolutions, as they always commenced on the fame day of the moon. But as this year of 12 lunar months falls 11 days and nearly one-fourth of a day Ihort of a real revolution of the fun, this error would foon be per¬ ceived, and call for reformation; though we are not informed of the particular manner in which it was rec¬ tified. Various arguments might be collefted to make it very probable that the Britons were acquainted with a year exa£l enough for every purpofe of life, w hen they were firll invaded by the Romans ; but it will be lufficient to mention one, w7hich is taken from the time and circumltances of that invafion. The learned Dr Halley hath demonltrated that Csefar arrived in Britain, in his firll year’s expedition, on the 26th day of Au- Druids D R U [ 344 ] gufl : and Csefar himfelf informs us, tlrat at bis arrival of the Chnftian era the harveft was finiibed, except in one field, which by fome means or other was more backward than the reft of the country. ’Phis is a proof that the Bntifh huf- bandmen knew and ufed the moft proper leafons for ploughing, lowing, and reaping. ine druids, as we are told by Pliny, had alfo a cycle or period of 30 years, which-they called an age, and which commenced like- wife on the fixth day of the moon :: but that author hath not acquainted us on what principles this cycle was formed, nor to what purpofes it was app*ed. We can hardly fuppofe that this was the cycle of the fun, which confifts of 28 years, and regulates the dominical letters. It is more probable, that while the druids made ufe of the year of 1 2 lunar months, and had not invented a method of adjufting it to the real revolution of the fun, they obferved that the beginning of this year had pafi’ed through all the feafons, and returned to the point from whence it fet out, in a coui.e of about 33 years} which they might therefore call an age. Others may perhaps be of opinion, that this 30 years cycle of the druids is the fame with the great year of the Pythagoreans, or a revolution of Saturn. Some have imagined that the druids were alfo acquainted with the cycle of 19 years, which is commonly called the cycle of the moon. But the evidence of this de¬ pends entirely on the truth of that fuppofition, that the Hyperborean ifland, which is defcribed by Diodo¬ rus Siculus, was Britain, or fome of the Bntifh ifles. Among many other furprifing things, that author fays, concerning the Hyperborean ifland, ‘‘ That its inhabi¬ tants believed that Apollo defcended into their illand at .7 Their the end of every 19 years', in which period of time the fun and moon, having performed their various revolu¬ tions, return to the fame point, and begin to repeat the fame revolutions. This is called by the Greeks the great year, or the cycle of Melon. , j| We are told both by Caefar and Mela, that the knowledge druJds ftudied the Bars as well as the fun and moon ; of the ftars. ^ j that they profefied to know, and taught their difciples, many things concerning the motions of theie heavenly bodies. From tbefe tellimomes we may con¬ clude that the druids were acquainted with the pla¬ nets, diftinguifhed them from the fixed ftars, and care¬ fully obferved their motions and revolutions, if this riifcovery was the refult of their own obferyations, it would be gradual, and it would be a long time before they found out all the planets. They might perhaps have received fome afliftance and information from Py¬ thagoras, or from fome other quarter. But whether this difcovery of the planets was their own or com¬ municated to them by others, it is highly probable that they were acquainted with the precife number of theie wandering ftars. Dio Caflius fays, that the cuftom of giving the name of one of the planets to each of the feven days of the week was an invention of the Egyp¬ tians, and from them was gradually communicated to all the other nations of the world ; and that in his time this cuftom was fo fiimly eftabl.Qied, not only among the Romans, but among all the reft of man¬ kind, that in every country it appeared to be a native inftitution. The knowledge of the planets, and per¬ haps the cuftom of giving their names to -the days ol the week, was brought out of Egypt into Italy _ y Pythagoras, more than 500 years before the beginnmg D R U , and from thence it could not be Druids. very long before it reached Gaul and Britain. Tut though we have little or no reafon to doubt that the druids knew the number and obferved the motion of the planets, yet it may be queftioned whether they had difcovered the times in which they performed their fe- veral revolutions. Some of thefe ftars, as Jupiter and Saturn, take fo great a number of years in revolving, that it required a very extraordinary degree of patience and attention to difcover the precife periods of tneir revolutions. If we could be certain that the illand in which the ancients imagined Saturn lay alleep, was one of the Britilh ifles, as Plutarch intimates it was, we might be inclined to think that the Britifh diuids were not ignorant of the length of the period in which the planet Saturn performs a revolution. For that fame author, in another treatife, tells us, “ I hat the inha¬ bitants of that ifland kept every thirtieth year a folemn feftival in honour of Saturn, when his flar entered into the fign of Taurus.” . If we could depend upon the above teftimony ot Plutarch, we fliould have one pofitive proof that the druids of the Biitifh ifles were acquainted with the conftellations, and even with the figns of the zodiac ; and that they meafured the revolutions of the fun and planets, by obferving the length of time between their departure from and return to one of thefe figns. But we have no dire£t evidence of this remaining in hiftory. . „ . The druids of Gaul and Britain, _as well as the an¬ cient philofophers of other countries, had a general plan or fvftem of the univerfe, and of the difpofition pidil AViLV-m vyx w.v. # l and arrangement of its various parts, in which they in- ftru£fed their difciples. This is both probable initfeP, and is plainly intimated by feveral authors of the great- eft authority. But we cannot be certain whether this druidical fyftem of the world was of their own inven¬ tion, or was borrowed from others. If it was borrow- en, it was moft probably from the Pythagoreans to whom they were the neareft neighbours; and with whom they had the greateft intercourfe. _ It hath been imagined, that the druids had inftru- ments of fome kind or other, which anfwered the fame purpofes with our telefcopes, in making obferya- tions on the heavenly bodies. The only foundation of this very improbable conje&ure is an expreflion 01 Diodorus Siculus, in bis defcriptlon of the famous Hy¬ perborean ifland. “ They fay further, that the moon is feen from that ifland, as if flie was but at a little diftance from the earth, and having hills or moun¬ tains like ours on her furface.” But no fuch inference can be reafonably drawn from this expreflion, which m reality merits little more regard than what Strabo re¬ ports was faid of fome of the inhabitants ot Spain : “ That they heard the hiding noife of the tun every evening when he fell into the weftern ocean. The application of the druids to the ftudy of phi.o- fophy and aftronomy amounts almoit to a demonltra- tion that they applied alfo To the ftudy of arithmetic and geometry. For fome knowledge of both thete fciences is indifpenfably neceffary to the phyfiologift and aftronomer, as well as of great and daily ufe in the Common affairs of life. If we were certain that Abaris, the iaroous y~ perborean philofopher, the friend and D R U T?tuids. didiah)% thagoras, was really a Britifh druid, as fome have ima gined, we fliould be able to produce direft hidorical evidence of their arithmetical knowledge. For 1am- blicus, in the life of Pythagoras, fays, “ that he taught Abaris to find out all truth by the fcience of arithme¬ tic.” It may be thought improbable that the druids had made any confiderable progrefs in arithmetic, as this may feem to be impolFible by the mere ftrength of memory without the affiftance of figures and of written rules. But it is very difficult to afcertain what may be done by memory alone, when it hath been long exercifed in this way. We have had an ToSNe/'7,U-X'eXarnple in °Ur 0wn age’ a Perfon * who could per¬ form fome of the moft tedious and difficult operations in arithmetic by the mere ftrength of his memory. The want of written rules could be no great difad- vantage to the druids, as the precepts of this, as well as of the other fciences, were couched in verfe, which would be eafily got by heart and long remembered. Though the druids were unacquainted with the Ara¬ bic characters which are now in ufe, we have no rea- Ibn to fuppofe that they were deftitute of marks or characters of fome other kind, which, in fome mea- fure, anfweredi the fame purpofes, both in making and recording their calculations. In particular, we have reafon to think, that they made ufe of the letters of the Greek alphabet for both thefe purpofes. This feems to be plainly intimated by Csefar in the follow- ing expreffion concerning the druids of Gaul : “ In almoft all other public tranfaCtions, and private ac¬ counts or computations, they make ufe of the Greek letters.” This is further confirmed by what the fame author fays of the Helvetii j a people of the fame ori¬ gin, language, and manners, with the Gauls and Bri- tons. “ Tables were found in the camp of the Hel¬ vetii written in Greek letters, containing an account of all the men capable of bearing arms, who had left their native country, and alfo feparate accounts of the boys, old men, and women.” There is hiftorical evidence’ of the druids being alfo well acquainted with geome¬ try. “ When any difputes arife (fays Caefar) about their inheritances, or any controverfies about the li- jnits of their fields, they are entirely referred to the decifion of their druids.” But befides the knowledge of menfuration which this implies, both Csefar and IVTela plainly intimate that the druids were converfant in tlm moft fublime fpeculations of geometry ; “ in meafuring the magnitude of the earth, and even of the world.” There are ftill many monuments remaining in Britain and the adjacent ifies, which cannot fo rea- fonably be afcribed to any as to the ancient Britons, and which give us caufe to think, that they had made’ great progrefs in this ufeful part of learning, and could apply the mechanical powers fo as to produce very aftoniffiing effefts. As thefe monuments appear to have been defigned for religious purpofes, we may be certain that they were erefted under the diredlion of the druids. How many obelifks or pillars, of one rough unpoliffied ftone each, are ftill to be feen in Britain and its ifies ! Some of thefe pillars are both very thick and lofty, erefted on the fummits of bar- rows and of mountains ; and fome of them (as at Stone¬ henge) have ponderous blocks of ftone raifed aloft, and refting on the tops of the upright pillars. We can Vol. VII. Part I. f 345 ] D R U dSkill in me chanies. hardly iuppofe that it was poffible to cut thefe prodi- Druids, gious mailes of ftone (fome of them above 40 tons * : in weight) without wedges, or to raife them out of the quarry without levers. But it certainly required ftill greater knowledge of the mechanical powers, and of the method of applying them, to tranfport thofe huge ftones from the quarry to the places of their deftination j to erefl; the perpendicular pillars, and to elevate the impofts to the tops of thefe pillars. If that prodigious ftone in the parifh of Conftantine, Cornwall, was really removed by art from its original place, and fixed where it now ftands (as one of our moft learned and diligent antiquaries thinks it was *), * ^tr- it is a demonftration, that the druids could perform the moft aftonilhing feats by their ikill in mechanics. I hat. the Britilh druids were acquainted with the 17 ’ ’ principles and ufe of the balance, we have good reafon to believe, not only from the great antiquity of that difcovery in other parts of the world, but alfo from fome druidical monuments which are ftill remaining in this ifland. Thefe monuments are called Lagan Stones, or rocking ftones j and each of them confifts of one prodigious block of ftone, refting upon an upright ftone or rock, and fo equally balanced, that a very fmall force, fometimes even that of a child, can move it up and down, though hardly any force is fufficient to remove it from its ftation. Some of thefe ftones may have fallen into this pofition by accident, but others of them evidently appear to have been placed in it by art. I hat the ancient Britons underftood the conftruc- tion and ufe of wheels, the great number of their war- chariots and other wheel-carriages is a fufficient proof j and that they knew how to combine them together and wdth the other mechanical powers, fo as to form machines capable of raifing and tranfporting very heavy weights, w?e have good reafon to believe. In a word, if the Britifti druids were wholly ignorant of the prin¬ ciples and ufe of any of the mechanical powTers, it was moft probably of the fcrew, though even of this we cannot be certain. In Germany and in the northern nations of Europe Medicine, the healing art was chiefly committed to the old wo¬ men of every ftate } but in Gaul and Britain it was en- trufted to the druids, who were the phyficians as well as the priefts of thefe countries. Pliny fays exprefsly, “ That Tiberius Cgefar deftroyed the druids of the Gauls, who were the poets and phyficians of that na¬ tion j” and he might have added of the Britons. The people of Gaul and Britain were probably induced to devolve the care of their health on the druids, and to apply to thefe priefts for the cure of their difeafes, not only by the high efteem they had of their wifdom and learning, but alfo by the opinion which they en¬ tertained, that a very intimate connexion fubfifted be¬ tween the arts of healing and the rites of religion, and that the former were moft effeflual when they were ac¬ companied by the latter. It appears indeed to have been the prevailing opinion of all the nations of anti¬ quity, that all internal difeafes proceeded immediately from the anger of the gods ; and that the only way of obtaining relief from thefe difeafes was by applying to their priefts to appeafe their anger by religious rites and facrifices. This was evidently the opinion and praflice of the Gauls and Britons, who in fome dangerous cafes facrificed one man as the moft effeftual means of curing X x another. D R U [ 346 ] D R U Druids. 1 x Botany. another. “ They are much add'nfled (fays Caefar) to fuperftition ; and for this caufe, thofe who are affli&ed wTith a dangerous difeafe facrifice a man, or promife that they will facrifice one, for their recovery. For this purpofe they make ufe of the miniltry of the druids ; becaufe they have declared, that the anger of the immortal gods cannot be appeafed, fo as to fpare the life ot one man, but by the life of another. This way of thinking gave rife alfo to that great number of magical rites and incantations with which the medical practices of the druids, and indeed of all the phyficians of antiquity, were attended. “ No body doubts (fays Pliny) that magic derived its origin from medicine, and that, by its flattering but delufive promifes, it came to be efteemed the moll fublime and facred part of the art of healing.” That the druids made great ufe of herbs for medi¬ cinal purpofes, we have fufficient evidence. They not only had a moft fuperftitious veneration for the miile- toe of the oak, on a religious account, but they alio entertained a very high opinion of its medical virtues, and efteemed it a kind of panacea or remedy for all difeafes. “ They call it (fays Pliny) by a name which in their language fignifies All-heal, becaufe they have an opinion that it cureth all difeafes.” I hey believed it to be in particular a fpecific againft barrennefs, and a fovereign antidote againft the fatal effedls of poilons of all kinds. It was efteemed alfo an excellent emol¬ lient and difcutient for foftening and difcufling hard tumours ; good for drying up icrophulous fores j for curing ulcers and wounds ; and (provided it was not fuffered to touch the earth after it was cut) it was thought to be a very efficacious medicine in the epi- lepfy or falling ficknefs. It hath been thought ufeful in this laft calamitous difeafe by fome modern phyfi¬ cians. The pompous ceremonies with which the miile- toe was gathered by the druids have been alieady de- fcribed. The felago, a kind of hedge byffop refem- bling favin, was another plant much admired by the druids of Gaul and Britain for its fuppofed medicinal virtues, particularly in all difeafes of the eyes. But ita efticacy, according to them, depended very much upon its being gathered exadlly in the following manner . The perfon who gathered it was to be clothed in a white robe 5 to have his feet bare, and waflied in pure water ; to offer a facrifice of bread and wine before he proceeded to cut it; which he was to do with his right hand covered with the fkirt of his garment, and^with a hook of fome more precious metal than iron.. When it was cut, it was to be received into, and kept in a new and very clean cloth. When it was gathered exaclly according to this whimlical ritual, they affirmed that it was not only an excellent medicine, but alio a powerful charm and prefervative from misfortunes and unhappy accidents of all kinds. They entertained a hiah opinion alfo of the herb famolus or marfhwort, for its fanative qualities ; and gave many direftions for the gathering it, no lefs fanciful than thofe above men¬ tioned. The perfon who was to perform that office was to do it falling, and with his left Viand ", he was on no account to look behind him, nor to turn his face from the herbs he was gathering. It would be tedious to relate the extravagant notions they entertained of the many virtues of the vervain, and to recount the ridi¬ culous mummeries which they praftifed in gathering and preparing it, both for the purpofes of divination and phyfic. Thefe things may be feen in Plin. Hift. Nat. 1. 25. c. 9. from whence we have received all thefe anecdotes of the botany of the druids. It is eafy to fee that his information was very imperfea } and that, like many of the othe»r Greek and Roman writers, he defignedly reprefents the philofophers of Gaul and Bri¬ tain in an unfavourable light. The herb which was called Britannica by the ancients, which fome think was the great water-dock, and others the coohlearia or feur- vy-grafs, was probably much ufed in this ifland for me¬ dical purpofes j as it derived its name from hence, and was from hence exported to Rome and other parts. Though thefe few imperfeft hints are all that .we can now colleft of the botany of the Britifh druids, yet we.have fome reafon to think that they were not con¬ temptible botanifts. Their circumftances were pecu¬ liarly favourable for the acquifition of this, kind of know¬ ledge. For as they fpent moft of their time in the receffes of mountains, groves, and woods, the fponta- neous vegetable produftions of the earth conftantl.y prefented themfelves to their view, and courted their attention. r r- 1 The opinions which, it is faid, the druids ot Gaul and Britain entertained of their anguinum or ferpents egg, both as a charm and as a medicine, are romantic and extravagant in a very high degree. This extraor¬ dinary egg was formed, as they pretended, by a great number of ferpents, interwoven and twined together j and when it was formed, it was raifed up in ^ ^ by the biffing of thefe ferpents, and was to be catched in a clean white cloth before it fell to the ground. The perfon who catched it was obliged to mount a fwift horfe, and to ride away at. full fpeed to elcape from the ferpents, who purfued him with great rage, until they were flopped by fome river. I he way ot making trial of the genuinenefs of this egg was no leis extraordinary. It was to be enchaled m gold, and thrown into a river, and if it was genuine it fwim againft the ftream. “ I have feen (lays Pliny) that egg ; it is about the bignefs of a moderate apple, its fhell is a cartilaginous incruftation, full of little ca¬ vities, fucb as are on the legs of the polypus j it is the infignia or badge of diftinaion of the druids. 1 he virtues which they aferibed to this egg were many and wonderful. It was particularly efficacious to ren¬ der thofe who carried it about with them fuperior to their adverfaries in all difputes, and to procure them the favour and friendfhip of great men. Some have thought that this whole affair of the ferpents egg was a mere fraud, contrived by the druids, to excite the admiration and pick the pockets of credulous people, who purchafed thefe wonder-working eggs from them at a high price. Others have imagined that this ftory of the anguinum (of which there is an ancient monu¬ ment in the cathedral at Paris) was an emblematical reprefentation of the doarine of the druids concerning the creation of the world. The ferpents, fay they, re- prefent the Divine wifdom forming the un.verfe, and the egg is the emblem of the world formed by that wifdom. It may be added, that the v.rtue afcr.bed to the anguinum, of giving thofe who poffcffed it a iu- periority over others, and endearing them to great men, may perhaps be intended to reprefent the natural et- fefts of learning and philofophy. But in fo doubt u Druids. Druids. Rhetoric. D R U [ 347 ] D R U full liberty to form what gyrics, which the poet or bard pronounced. The ora- Druid tors, by the force of their eloquence, had a powerful afcendant over the greateft men in their time. For if any orator did but afk the habit, arms, horfe, or any other thing belonging to the greateft man in thefe iilands, it was readily granted him 5 fometimes out of refpeCt, and fometimes for fear of being exclaimed a- gainft by a fatire, which in thofe days was reckoned a great difhonour.” x- If the Britilh druids, confidering the times in which Magic and they lived, had made no contemptible proficiency in divination, feveral parts of real and ufeful learning, it cannot be denied that they were alfo great pretenders to fupe- rior knowledge in certain vain fallacious fciences, by which they excited the admiration, and took advan¬ tage of the ignorance and credulity of mankind. Thefe were the fciences (if they may be fo called) of magic a matter every one is at ' judgment he thinks proper. As the influence and authority of the druids in their country, depended very much upon the reputation of their fuperior wifdom and learning, they wifely applied to the ftudy of thofe fciences which moft dire&ly con¬ tributed to the fupport and advancement of that repu¬ tation. In this number, befides thofe already mention¬ ed, we may juftly reckon rhetoric, which was diligent¬ ly ftudied and taught by the druids of Gaul and Bri¬ tain -y who to the charms of their eloquence were in¬ debted for much of the admiration and authority which they enjoyed. They had indeed many calls and oppor¬ tunities to difplay their eloquence, and to difcover its great power and efficacy •, as, when they wrere teach¬ ing their pupils in their fchools $ when they difcourfed in public to the people on religious and moral fubjefts; when they pleaded caufes in the courts of juftice ; and when they harangued in the great councils of the na¬ tion, and at the heads of armies ready to engage in battle, fometimes with a view to inflame their cou¬ rage, and at other times with a defign to allay their fury, and difpofe them to make peace. Though this laft was certainly a very difficult talk among fierce and warlike nations, yet fuch was the authority and elo¬ quence of the druids, that they frequently fucceeded in it. “ They pay a great regard (fays Diodorus Si¬ culus) to their exhortations, not only in the affairs of peace, but even of war, and thefe are refpedted both by their friends and enemies. They fometimes ftep in between two hoftile armies, who are ftanding with their fwords drawn and their fpears extended, ready to en¬ gage ; and by their eloquence, as by an irrefiftible en¬ chantment, the)r prevent the effufion of blood, and prevail upon them to (heath their fwords. So great are the charms of eloquence and the power of wifdom even amongft the moft fierce barbarians.” The Britifh kings and chieftans who were educated by the druids, were famous for their eloquence. This is evident from the many noble fpeeches which are afcribed to them by the Greek and Roman writers. For though thefe ipeeches may not be genuine, yet they are a proof that it was a well known fa It hath been obferved that the real ule of ftrong li¬ quors, and the abufe of them by drinking to excefs, depend much upon the temperature of the climate in which we live. The fame indulgence which may be neceffary to make the blood move in Norway, would make an Italian mad. A German, therefore, fays the prefident Montefquieu, drinks through cuftom founded upon conftitutional neceffity; a Spaniard drinks through choice, or out of the mere wantonnefs of luxury *, and drunkennefs, he adds, ought to be more feverely pu- niflied where it makes men mifehievous and mad, as in Spain and Italy, than where it only renders them ftupid and heavy, as in Germany and more northern countries. And accordingly, in the warmer climate of Greece, a law of Pittacus enafted, “ that he who committed a crime when drunk fhould receive a double punifhment j” one for the crime itfelf, and the other for the ebriety which prompted him to commit it. The Roman law indeed made great allowances for this vice : per vinum delapfis capitahs peena remittitur. But the law of England, confiderir.g how eafy it is to coun¬ terfeit this excufe, and how w'eak an excuie it is (though real), will not fuffer any man thus to privilege one crime by another. For the offence of drunkennefs a man may be pu- niflied in the ecclefiaftical court, as w’ell as by juftices of peace by ftatute. And by 4 Jac. I. c. 5. ai d 21 Jac. I. c. 7. if any perfon fhall be cenvi&ed of drunkennefs by the view of a juftice, oath of one wit- nefs, D R U [ 35i j D R U Drunken- nefs, &c. he {hall forfeit 5s. for the firft offence, to nets‘ be levied by diftrefs and fale of his goods; and for want of a diftrefs, ftiall fit in the flocks fix hours : and for the fecond offence, he is to be bound with two fure- ties in xol. each, to be of good behaviour, or to be committed. And he who is guilty of any crime through his own voluntary drunkennefs, ftiall be punifti- ed for it as ifhe had been fober. It has been held that drunkennefs is a fufficient caufe to remove a magi- ftrate •, and the profecution for this offence by the fta- tute of 4 Jac. I. c. 5. was to be, and ftill may be, be¬ fore juftices of peace in their feflions by way of in- di&ment, &c. Equity will not relieve againft a bond, &.c. given by a man when drunk, unlefs the drunken¬ nefs is occafioned through the management or con¬ trivance of him to whom the bond is given. The appetite for intoxicating liquors appears to be altnoft always acquired. One proof of which is, that it is apt to return only at particular times and places j as after dinner, in the evening, on the market day, at the market town, in fuch a company, at fuch a tavern. And this may be the reafon, that if a habit of drunk¬ ennefs be ever overcome, it is upon fome change of place, fituation, company, or profeflion. A man funk deep in a habit of drunkennefs, will upon fuch occa- fions as thefe, when he finds himfelf loofened from the affociations which held him faft, fometimes make a plunge, and get out. In a matter of fuch great im¬ portance, it is well worth while, where it is tolerably convenient, to change our habitation and fociety, for the fake of the experiment. Habits of drunkennefs commonly take their rife either from a fondnefs for, or connexion with, fome company, or fome companion, already addifted to this practice j which affords an almoft irrefiftible invi¬ tation to take a ftiare in the indulgencies which thofe about us are enjoying with fo much apparent relifh and delight ; or from want of regular employment, which is fure to let in many fuperfluous cravings and cuftoms, and often this amongft the reft ; or, laftly, from grief or fatigue, both which ftrongly folicit that relief which inebriating liquors adminifter for the pre- fent, and furnifh a fpecious excufe for complying with the inclination. But the habit, when once fet in, is continued by different motives from thofe to which it owes its origin. Perfons addicled to exceflive drink¬ ing fuffer, in the intervals of fobriety, and near the re¬ turn of their accuftomed indulgence, a faintnefs and oppreflion about the prcecordia which it exceeds the ordinary patience of human nature to endure. This is ufiially relieved for a fhort time by a repetition of the fame excefs: and to this relief, as to the removal of every long-continued pain, they wdio have once expe¬ rienced it are urged almoft beyond the power of refift- ance. This is not all : as the liquor lofes its ftimulus, the dofe muft be increafed, to reach the fame pitch of elevation or eafe which increafe proportionably acce¬ lerates the progrefs of all the maladies that drunken- cefs brings on. Whoever reflear, which iignifies Cut-throat. With this claim to his triendfliip, he enjoyed the favour of Ali until it was diflurbed by an accident. This jealous bey having profcribed one of his bene- fa&ors called Saleh Bey, commanded Djezzar to cut off his head. Either from humanity or fome fecret friendfliip for the devoted vi61im, Djezzar hefitated, and even remonftrated againft the order. But learning the next day that Mohammed Bey had executed the commiffion, and that AH had fpoken of him not very favourably, he thought himfelf a loft man, and, to avoid the fate of Saleh Bey, efcaped unobferved, and reached Conftantinople. He there folicited employ¬ ment fuitable to his former rank \ but meeting, as is ufual in capitals, with a great number of rivals, he pur- fued another plan, and went to feek his foitune in Sy¬ ria as a private foldier. Chance conduced him among the Drufes, where he was hofpitably entertained, even in the houfe of the kiaya of the emir Youfef. From thence he repaired to Damafcus, where he foon ob¬ tained the title of Aga, with a command of five pair of colours, that is to fay, of 50 men •, and he was thus fituated when fortune deftined him to the government of Bairout. Djezzar was no fooner eftablifhed there than he took pofleflion of it for the Turks, Youfef was confounded at this proceeding. He demanded juftice at Damaf¬ cus; but finding his complaints treated with contempt, entered into a treaty with Daher, and concluded an offenfive and defenfive alliance with him at Ras-el-aen, near to Sour. No fooner was Daher united with the Drufes than he laid fiege to Bairout by land, whilft two Ruffian frigates, whofe fervice was purchafed by 600 purfes, cannonaded it by fea. Djezzar was com¬ pelled to fubmit to force, and, after a vigorous refift- ance, gave up the city, and furrendered himfelf prifon- er. Shaik Daher, charmed with his courage, and flat¬ tered with the preference he had given him in the fur- fender, conduced him to Acre, and ftiowed him every mark of kindnefs. He even ventured to truft him with a fmall expedition into Paleftine ; but Djezzar, on approaching Jerufalem, went over to the Turks, and returned to Damafcus. The war of Mohammed Bey breaking out, Djezzar offered his fervice to the captain pacha, and gained his Confidence. He accompanied him to the fiege of Acre ; and that admiral having deftroyed Daher, and finding no perfon more proper than Djezzar to accomplilh the defigns of the Porte in that country, named him pacha of Saide. Being now, in confequence of this revolution, fu- perior lord to the emir Youfef, Djezzar is mindful of injuries in proportion as he has reaion to accufe him¬ felf of ingratitude. By a conduft truly Turkiih, feign¬ ing alternately gratitude and refentment, he is alter¬ nately on terms of difpute and reconciliation with him, continually exafting money as the price of peace, or an indemnity for war. His artifices have fucceeded fo well, that within the fpace of five years he has extort¬ ed from the emir four millions of French money (above 160,000!.); a fum the more aftoniftring, as the farm of the country of the Drufes did not then amount to 100,000 livres (4000I.) In 1784, he made war on him, depofed him, and befto > e