.?
u 1 ^
-- -
'’T
Chap, IV. CONCH
nens in canalem integrum reflum five fubafcenden-
tem.
27. Trochus. Animal Umax. Tefta univalvis
fpiralis, fubconica. Apertura fubtetragono-angulata
feu rotundata, fuperius tranfverfe coarftata $ columella
obliquata.
28. Turbo. Animal Umax. Tefta univalvis, fpi-
ralis, folida. Apertura coarftata, orbicuiata, inte-
gra.
29. Helix. Animal Umax. Tefla univalvis, fpi-
xalis, fubdiaphana, fragilis. Apertura coar£lata, in-
tus lunata feu fubrotunda ; fegmento circuli dempto.
30. Nerita. Animal Umax. Terta univalvis, fpi-
ralis, gibba, fubtus planiufcula. Apertura femiorbi-
cularis, vel femilunaris $ labio columellte tranfverfo,
truncato, planiuiculo.
31. Haliotis. Animal Umax. Tefta auriformis,
patens: fpira ocultata lateiali difco, longitudinaliter
poris pertufa.
32. Patella. Animal Umax. Tefta univalvis
fubconica, abfque fpira.
33. Dentalium. Animal terebella. Tefta tubu-
lofa, refla, monothalamia, utraque extremitate pervia.
34. Serpula. Animal terebella. Terta unival¬
vis, tubulofa, adherens (faepe iftbmis integris pafiira in-
tercepta).
35. Teredo. Animal terebella, Valvis duabus
calcariis hemifphericis, anterius excifis, et duabus lan-
ceolatis. Tefta teres, flexiofa, lignum penetrans.
36.SAIELLA. Animalnereis. Ore ringente tentaculis
duobus, craffioribus pone caput. Tefta tubulofa con-
texta ex arenulis confertim membranae vaginali infer-
tis.
O L O G Y.
terminating in an entire ftraight, or flightly afcending
canal.
27. T. Animal a Umax. Shell univalve, fpiral,
fomewhat conic. Aperture fomewhat angular, or
rounded : the upper fide tranfverfe and contrafted ;
pillar placed obliquely.
28. T. Animal a Umax. Shell univalve, fpiral, fo~
Ud. Aperture contra&ed, orbicular, entire.
29. H. Animal a Umax. Shell univalve, fpiral, fub»
diaphanous, brittle. Aperture contracted, femilunar
or roundifti.
30. N. Animal a Umax. Shell univalve, fpiral, gib¬
bous, flattifti at bottom. Aperture femiorbicular or
femilunar, pillar Up tranfverfely truncated and flatten¬
ed.
31. H. Animal a Umax. Shell ear-fliaped dilated,
with a longitudinal row of orifices along the furface ;
the fpire lateral and nearly concealed.
32. P. Animal a Umax. Shell fubconic, without
fpire.
33. J)- Animal a terebella. Shell tubular, ftraight,
or flightly curved, with one cavity open at both ends.
34. S. Animal a terebella. Shell tubular, generally*
adhering to other fubftances (often feparated internally
by entire divifions.)
35. T. Animal a terebella. With two calcareous,
hemifpherical valves, anteriorly cut off, and two lan¬
ceolate ones. Shell round, fiexuous, penetrating
wood.
36. S. Animal a nereis. With a ringent mouth,
and two thicker tentacula behind the head. Shell tu¬
bular, confifting of particles of fand united to a mem¬
brane by a glutinous cement.
I. MULTIVALVES.
Vhiton. Gen. I. Chiton.
Gen. Char. The animal inhabiting this fliell is a doris.
The ftiell confifts of feveral fegments or valves, ar¬
ranged along the back.
Spec IBs.
hifpidus. I. C. fhell with fix plates or valves ftriated. Ame¬
rica.
thalajjinus. 2. C. fliell fix-valved, glabrous, oval, a little con¬
vex, fea-green. America.
tubsrcula- 3. C. ftiell feven-valved, body tuberculated. Ame-
tus. rica.
crinitus. * 4. C. (hell feven-valved, thick fet with ftiort hairs,
-g inch long. Sandwich, Aberdeen.
aculeatus. 5. C. ftiell eight-valved, ftriated, body prickly.
Afia.
fafcicula- * 6. C. (hell eight-valved^ apparently fmooth, but
tus. when examined with a glafs, is found to be rough
like ftiagreen. Coaft of Barbary, Salcomb bay, Devon-
ftiire, Sandwich.
fquamofus. 7. C. eight valves, femiftriated, margin covered
with minute fcales. America.
punflatus. 8. C. with eight valves, fmooth body with exca¬
vated dots, Europe, America.
Vol. VI. Part II.
9. C. eight valves, fubftriated; ftrim covered, body ruler.
red. North feas.
* 10. C. eight valves, fmooth, with tranfverfe Writs albus.
at the margin of the valves : body white, oval; firft
Valve notched on the hinder edge. Northern feas ; on
oyfter fliells from Poole.
11. C. eight valves, fmooth, carinated, oval, com-cinereus.
prefled. Northern feas, Salcomb bay.
12. C. feven carinated valves ftrongly beaked
beaks frequently rufous, 4 inch long. Salcomb bay, Dir.
but rare. Montagu, Ted. Brit. p. 3.
13. C. eight-valved, thick ridged ; the outfide bicolor.
green, infide fnowy, edged with black.
14. C. eight-valved, cherry colour, fmooth, Withcerafinus.
fnowy marginal teeth.
15. C. eight-valved, thick, black brown. Straitsw/W/W-
of Magellan.
16. C» eight-valved, brown, fmooth j infide teeth oifiifcus.
the margin fnowy. India.
. 17. C. eight-valved, fmooth, within fea-green, mar- macula tut.
gin covered with gray white fcales.
18. C. eight-valved, fmooth, varied with white and warworn-
black. Var. feven-valved. America. tus.
19. C. flat above, with numerous raifed dots mgranulatus
rows ; border broad, fpinous. America.
20. C. eight-valved, fmooth above, piceous andvaried/wowj-.
with white and black. America j Red fea.
3 E
2U C.
402
■Indus.
minimus.
cimex.
afellus.
ikaf'
ijlandlcus.
marglna-
tus.
Levis.
amiculatus
*5
Xepas.
balanus.
balanoides.
intertexta.
cornubien-
Jls..
tintinabu-
lum.
diadema.
bahsnaris.
cojlata.
conoides.
tejludina-
ria.
galeata.
pahnipes.
tulipa.
mitclla.
CONCH
2 1. C. elght-Valved, whitifh afh colour, with a
fcaly border j middle valves finely punctured. Ame¬
rica.
22. C. eight-valvcd, fmooth, black, very fmall.
Norway feas.
23. C. eight-valved, carinated, diaphanous, band¬
ed : extreme valves finely punctured j fmall. Nor¬
way.
24. C. eight-valved, deep black, convex above,
with a yellowifh fpot on each valve. North feas.
25. C. eight-valved, thick, convex, white ; firft
valve notched, laft toothed, middle ones emarginate j
four inches long. Cape of Good Hope.
26. C. eight-valved, fubcylindrical, finely punftured ;
very minute and narrow at each end.
* 27. C. eight-valved, carinated along the back } the
valves projecting over each other in a point. Salcomb
bay, Sandwich.
* 28. C. eight-valved, fmooth, with an elevated band
down the back 5 the length 4 inch. Loch Broom,
Rofs (hire, Salcomb bay.
29. C. eight-valved, kidney-fhaped, fragile ; valves
imbricated. Kurile iflands.
Gen 2. Lepas, Acorn-fhell.
Gen. Char. Animal a triton {hell affixed at the
bafe, and compofed of many unequal eredt valves.
Species.
* 1. L. conic, grooved, lid fharp pointed. European
feas, Britain.
* 2. L. conic, truncated, fmooth ; lip obtufe. Ame¬
rican and Indian feas ; abundant on the coalts of Bri¬
tain.
* 3. L. fomewhat depreffed ; valves imbricated and
obliquely ftriated. Weymouth.
* 4. L. bafe dilated, aperture rather narrow ; valves
grooved near the lower edges. Cornwall.
5. L. conic, obtufe, beli-lhaped, rugged and fixed.
Indian and American feas.
* 6. L. roundifh, fix-lobed ; valves grooved longitu¬
dinally. European and Indian feas, Scotland.
7. L. fubconic, with fix elevated, wrinkled, 4-par-
ted lobes; lid membranaceous, and two toothed ; found
adhering to the peCloral wrinkles of the balaena
boops.
* 8. L. fomewhat conic, with equidifiant ribs, diver¬
gent from the aperture ; lid pointed. On rocks on the
Ptmbrokefhire coaft.
* 9. L. conic, fmooth, valves pointed, aperture very
fmall; fhell fmall, reddifh ; valves finely teffelated.
Weymouth.
10. L. plano-convex, with fix excavated flriated
rays -x lid compofed of four triangular pieces inferted
on a membrane.
11. L. helmet-form, with a lateral aperture; {hell
boat-lhaped, fmooth. Adheres to the gorgonia verru-
cofa, and ventilabrum.
12. L. eredd, conic; valves palmated at the bafe;
{hell white.
13. L. fubcubic, fmooth ; lid acute, tranfverfely flri-
ated. Northern ocean.
14. L. comprefled, ereft, irregularly ftriated. Indian
ocean.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
* 15. L. compreffed, 13-valved, fmooth, feated on ‘ifcalpellum.
fcaly peduncle, which is large, and compofed of
rings, covered with Ihort hairs. North feas, Ply¬
mouth.
* 16. L. compreffed, five-valved, ftriated, peduncula-
ted. American and Atlantic feas, coait of Devon-
fhire ; is fometimes found in a foffil {late.
* 17. L. compreffed, 5-valved, pedunculated; anatifera.
heres to the bottom of {hips, when it is well known
by the name of bernacle.—It was from this fpecies of
{hell that the bernacle goofe was fuppofed to have had
its origin. Gerard’s account of this transformation, as
it affords a remarkable inffance of the credulity of the
times, is too curious to be omitted. “There are found
in the north parts of Scotland, and the iflands adjacent
called Orchades, certain trees whereon do grow cer¬
tain {hells tending to rufl'et, wherein are contained lit¬
tle living creatures : which {hells in time of maturitie
do open, and out of them grow thofe little living
things, which falling into the water do become fowles,
which we call barnakles ; in the north of England
brant geefe ; and in Lancafliire, tree geefe ; but the
other that do fall upon the land periffi, and come to
nothing. Thus much from the writings of others, and
alfo from the mouths of people of thole parts, which
may very well accord with truth.”
“ But what our eyes have feene, and hands have
touched, we fhall declare. There is a fmall ifland in
Lancaflrire, called the pile of Foulders, wherein are
found the broken pieces of old and bruifed {hips, fome
whereof have been caff thither by ffiipwracke, and al¬
fo the trunks and bodies with the branches of old and
rotten trees, caff up there likewife : whereon is found
a certain fpume or froth that in time breedeth into cer-
taine {hells, in Ihape like thofe of the mulkle, but
{harper pointed, and of a whitifti colour : wherein is
contained a thing in forme like a lace of filke, finely
w'oven, as it were, together, of a whitifh colour, one
end whereof is faftened unto the infide of the {hell, even
as the fiffi of oifters and mulkles are : the other end
is made faff unto the belly of a rude mafs or lumpe,
which in time commeth to the fhape and forme of a
bird : when it is perfectly formed the fhell gapeth open,
and the firft thing that appeareth is the forefaid lace
or firing ; next come the legs of the bird banging out,
and as it groweth greater it openeth the {hell by de¬
grees, till at length it is all come forth and hangeth
only by the bill : in fliott {pace after it cometh to
full maturitie, and falleth into the fea, where it ga-
thereth feathers, and groweth to a fowl bigger than a
mallard, and leffer than a goofe, having blacke legs,
bill or beake, and feathers blacke and white, fpotted
in fuch manner as is our magpie, called in fome places
a pie-annet, which the people of Lancafliire call by
no other name than a tree-goofe : which place afore-
faid, and thofe parts adjoyning do fo much abound
therewith, that one of the beft is bought for three¬
pence. For the truth hereof, if any doubt, let them
repaire unto me, and I fliall fatisfie them by the tefti-
monie of good witneffes. Herbal/, p. 1588.
18. L. membranaceous, ventricofe, feated on a tnht aurita.
and eared, 8-valved. North feas.
19. L. hooked behind, 6-valved, wrinkled, not anpjittacus.
inch long. Chili.
20. L.
4°3
Chap. IV.
CONCHOLOGY.
minor.
Verruca.
angujlata.
porofa.
elongata.
patellaris.
fp'mofa.
violacea.
poUicipes.
cylindrica.
crifpata.
curiofa.
Jlrxmia.
fafcicu-
laris.
26
Pholas.
daclylus.
■cojlata.
Jfriata.
Candida.
pujilla.
crifpata.
orientahs.
20. L. reddxfti, 6-valved, unequal; lid pointed.
India.
21. L. liemifpherical, ferrated, 6-valved; 4 outer
valves and lid plaited. North feas.
22. L. elongated, fmooth, 6-valved; aperture nar¬
row, lid minute.
23. L. granulated and llriated, conic, tubular; lid
obtufe. India.
* 24. L. cylindrical, fnowy, pellucid, 6-valved ; lid
obtule, grooved and tranfverfely llriated. Three inches
long. Iceland, Weymouth. Ba/anus C/avatus, Mon¬
tagu, p. to.
25. L. 6-valved; outwardly violet mixed with white,
and marked with fine longitudinal flriae : valves denti¬
culate at the margin. Coromandel, very rare.
26. L. conic with 12 triangular valves, 6 more de-
preffed, whitilh and tranfveriely ftriated, and 6 purple
and longitudinally ftriated ; all armed with tubular
recurved fpines. India.
27. L. 6-valved, thick, glabrous, white with violet
rays. India.
28. L. many-valved. comprefled, ereft, fmooth :
feated on a ftiort hard, fcaly peduncle. Mediterranean.
29. L. {lightly curved, with a large oblique orifice;
lip horned. Africa.
30. L. oval-truncated, conic, with 6 blueifli valves
(haded with white, and 6 reddilh, elevated, fpinous,
and perpendicularly ftriated; an inch high; is fre¬
quently perforated by the teredo.
31. L. folid, white, depreffed with carinous grooves,
unequally fmooth internally. Kurile iflands.
32. L. conico-convex, 4 valves ferrate-ftriated ; lid
2-valved. North feas.
* 33* L. 5-valved, fmooth, dorfal valve dilated at the
bale. St George’s Channel.
Gen. 3. Pholas.
Gen. Char.—The animal is an afcidia. Shell bivalve,
divaricate, with feveral lelfer differently acceffory
ones at the hinge. Hinges recurved, united by a
cartilage. Beneath the hinge internally is an in¬
curved tooth.
Species.
* 1. P. oblong, with reticulated, fubfpinous ftriae, on
the upper part. Europe. Salcomb bay, Devonihire.
Five inches long; is found in hard clay, marl, and wood;
has a phofphorefcent property.
2. P. ovate ; ftriated with elevated ribs ; 6 inches
long. American feas.
3. P. ovate, multifarioufly ftriated. Europe, In¬
dia.— This fpecies feems to be nearly equally deftruc-
tive with the teredo navalis. The pholas perforates
the wood acrofs the grain or fibre ; the teredo infinuates
itfelf along the fibres, or in the fame direction.
* 4. P. oblong, muricated on all fides, with decuffa-
ted ftrise. Europe, America, Salcomb bay.
5. P. oblong, rounded, ftriae arched. America, In¬
dia. This animal penetrates the bottom of drips.
* 6. P. oval ; part next the hinge more obtufe, wa¬
ved, ftriated ; tooth of the hinge curved, large and
ftrong. Two inches long. Europe. Weft of Eng¬
land.
7. P. oblong, with a ftrait margin : one half quite
fmooth, the other reticulated with ftrite. Siam and
Tranquebar.
8. P. narrow, white, finely ftriated. Bay of Cam- campechi-
peachy. ana.
9. P. fhort, turgid, furrowed, with fine elzvated cordata.
traniverfe ftriae ; aperture heart-ftiaped.
10. P. oblong, depreffed, with diftant longitudinal
ftriae ; five inches long. Chili.
11. P. oblong, white, with a longitudinal brown teredufa.
granular future ; penetrates timber. Belgic (bores.
12. P. bivalve, white, with tranfverfe arched ftrke \hians.
convex in the middle; apetture large, oval; perforates
calcareous rocks. American iflands.
II. BIVALVE SHELLS.
27
Gen. 4. My A. Mya-
Gen. Char.—The animal is an afcidia. The (hell is
bivalve, generally gaping at one end. The hinge
has broad, thick, ftrong teeth, feldom more than
one, and not inferted into the oppofite valve.
Species.
* 1. M. ovate, truncated, gaping greatly behind j/nmwta.
tooth proje&ing, obtufe ; inches long. Europe.
* 2. M. brittle, femitranfparent, (loping downwardsdeclivis.
near the open end. Hebrides.—A fifh much elleem-
ed as food by the inhabitants.
* 3. M. ovate, rounded behind; 24 inches long, arenaria.
European feas, Portfmouth.
* 4. M. ovate ; a Angle, longitudinal, notched tooth,pitforum.
in one hinge, and two in the other; near 2 inches
long, and 34 broad. Europe, Barbary, River Ken-
net, Berkfhire.—This (hell is employed by painters for
holding water colours.
* 5. M. ovate, a little contra&ed in the middle of the margari-
thinner margin; primary tooth of the hinge conic ; t if era.
length 24 inches, breadth 5 inches; inhabits moft parts
of the ardlic circle, and is moft frequently found in '
mountainous rivers, and about catara&s.— ['his (hell
yields mother-of-pearl and pearl. The River Conway
in Wales, was formerly famous for producing pearl of
great fize and value. They have alfo been found in
the river Irt, in Cumberland. Sir John Havkins ob¬
tained a patent for fifhing them in that river.
6. M. oblong, dilated ; the narrower bafe com-perna.
preffed. Straits of Magellan, Barbary.
7. M. tongue-draped; hinge terminal, femiorbicular;
4 inches long, and 14 broad. Indies.
8. M. ftriated, valves with two fubfpinous ridges;
hinge without teeth. North feas.
9. M. oval, equivalve, widely gaping, and ftnattd-, edentula.
I inch long. Shores of the Cafpian fea.
10. M. equivalve, pellucid, finely ftriated. Kiversradiata.
of Malabar.
11. M. ovate, oblong; 3 inches broad, 14 long, oblontra.
12. M. globular, fnowy, pellucid. Guinea. anatina.
13. M. equivalve, fnowy, ovate, oblong; ftriae dt-mcobarica.
cuffated. Nicobar Blands.
14. M. ovate, compreffed, clofed. New Zealand, aufralis.
15. M. rounded, flattidi, tranfverfely ftriated. Ca gaddana.
diz.
16. M. rhombic, green, protuberant parts wrinkled, cotrugata*
Rivers of Coromandel.
3 E 2
17. M.
4°4 CONCH
rvgofa. 17. M. oval, wrinkled, outwardly greenifti, within
pearly. Rivers of Coromandel.
nodofa. 18. M. oval, greenilhj protuberant parts knotty.
norwegica. 19. M. oval, longitudinally and thickly ftriated j
one end rounded, the other truncated.
fpuria. 20. M. rhombic j protuberant part glabrous. Rivers
of Tranquebar.
glyccmeris 21. M. gaping at both ends, thick, lamellous, ob¬
long, oval; 5 inches long, 10 broad. Mediterranean
fea.
fyrmato-
pbora.
nitida.
membra-
nacea.
bytflifera.
dubia.
inxquival-
vis.
fuborbicu-
Iqris.
pratenuis.
dijlorta.
bidentata.
28
Solem
22. M. ovate, deprefled ; margin of the hinge with
a fubulate proje&ion near the primary tooth; that
of the other valve dilated. Rivers of Guinea.
23. M. oval, fmooth; an obtufe tooth in each hinge.
Norway.
24. M. ovate, membranaceous, with a protrafled,
reflected margin at the probofcis.
25. M. coarfe, thick, oblong, ftriated, convex;
hinge without a tooth. Greenland coaft.
* 26. M. with an oval and large hiatus oppofite to
the hinge ; length of a horfe bean. Weymouth.
* 27. M. fubtriangular, opaque, white ; under valve
deep; upper valve not half the fize of the other.
Cornwall, Devonlhire. Montagu, Teji. Brit. p. 38.
* 28. M. fubpellucid, faintly ftriated tranfverfely;
lides nearly equal, rounded ; hinge central, of an
inch; found in hard limeftone at Plymouth. Montagu,
Tejl. Brit. p. 39.
* 29. M. oval, thin, brittle, flat; ftriae fine, concen¬
tric. Falmouth harbour.
* 30. M. fubpellucid, thin, fragile, diflorted into
various fhapes. Falmouth. Montagu, TeJ}. Brit.
* 31. M. fuboval, comprefl'ed; hinge with two broad,
ereft, laminated teeth in one valve; none in the other.
Salcomb bay.
Gen. 5. Sol e-n , Razor-fie ath.
Gen. Cbar.—The animal inhabiting this fliell is an af-
cidia : {hell bivalve, oblong, open at both ends;
hinge with a fubulate, reflected tooth, often double,
and not inferted in the oppofite valve.
Species.
vagina. * 1. S. linear, ftraight, roundifii; one end margined;
hinge with a fingle oppofite tooth in each valve. Eu¬
ropean and Indian feas, Caermarthenfhire, Wey¬
mouth.
Jiliqua. * 2. S. linear, ftraight, one hinge 2-toothed. Euro¬
pean, and Indian feas. Length I inch, breadth 8 inches.
Common on the fliores of Britain, where it is employ¬
ed as food.—This fpecies lurks in the fand, near low-
water mark, in a perpendicular direftion, and when in
want of food, they raife one end above the furface,
and protrude the body a confiderable way out of the
’ftrell. At the approach of danger they dart deep into
the fand, as far even as to the depth of two feet; and
the place is known by a fmall hollow on the furface.
They are fometimes taken by digging them out of the
fand, or by ftriking a barbed dart into their bodies.
enjis. * 3. S. linear, in form of a fcymeter; one hinge 2-
toothed ; | of an inch long, 5 inches broad. Euro¬
pean feas ; not uncommon on the Britifli fliores.
pellucidus. * 4. S. fubarched, fuboval, pellucid; one hinge 2-
toothed; length ^ inch, breadth above one inch. An-
glefea, Cornwall.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
* 5. S. linear, oval, ftraight; hinge in the middle z-legumen.
toothed, one of them bifid ; z\ inches broad- Euro¬
pean and Atlantic feas, Anglefea, Hampfhire.
* 6. S. kidney-fhaped, a fingle tooth in one valve, twocultellus.
in the other. Europe and India, Cornwall.
7. S. oval, ftraight, fmooth, with a tranfverfe, ^o-radiatus.
prefled rib on one fide. India.
8. S. oval, obliquely ftriated. Atlantic and IndianJirigilatus.
feas.
9. S. ovate, membranaceous, hairy, with a falcated
rib at the hinge. Indian ocean.
10. S. oval, oblong, truncated before. Pacific o-macha.
cean.—This fpecies produces pearl.
11. S. roundifh, inflated, iubftriated. Indian nndibuUatus.
American feas.
* 12. S. oval; angles of the valves ferrated ; fize oiminutus.
a cucumber feed. Coral rocks in Norway and Green¬
land ; in hard limeftone at Plymouth.
13. S. ovate, oblong, with tumid boffes. Java. virens.
14. S. oval, ftraight, fmooth, with prominent rntxa- diphos.
branes; 24 inches long, 5 broad. Indian ocean.
15. S. linear, oval, ftraight. Tranquebar. minimus.
16. S. linear, oval, ftraight, with arched ftriae. N\-maximus.
cobar. A very rare fpecies.
17. S. tranfverfely wrinkled, contracted in the m\dL-coarElatus.
die, rounded at both ends ; 4 °f an inch long, 2-4
broad. Nicobar iflands.
18. S. equivalve, rofey, tooth of the hinge fubbifid. ro/£z*,r.
Red fea.
19. S. oval, quite fmooth; hinge callous, two tooth-fanguino-
ed. Jamaica. lentus.
20. S. equivalve, tranfverfely ftriated ; hinge with aJiriatus,
fingle tooth. Nicobar iflands.
21. S. tranfverfely ftriated, hinges two-toothed, with occidens.
a hollow in the middle ; 4 inches broad, and 2 long.
* 22. S. partly fmooth, partly rough, with undulated,
crimped lines. River Tees in England.
23. S. protuberances or beaks of the fhell f-parted,
an inch long, 2j broad ; rounded at the ends.
* 24. S. pellucid, fragile, deprefled; fuboval, concen-/>//7«<7.
trically wu'inkled ; a blunt tooth in each valve ; 4 °f
an inch long, and broad. Torcrofs. Montagu, 'Teji.
Brit. p. 566.
29
Gen. 6. Tellina. Tellina.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys : the fliell is bi¬
valve, generally Hoping on one fide ; in the fore
part of one valve there is a convex, and in that of
the other, a concave fold ; the hinge has ufually
three teeth, the lateral ones flat, or nearly obfolete,
in one valve.
Species.
A. ovate and thickifh.
1. T. roundifli, comprefied, wrinkled on the ioxt-gargadia.
part. Indian ocean, very rare.
2. T. fubovate, rough, with lunated fcales, difpofed lingua fe¬
rn. a quincunx. Indian ocean. Us.
3. T. angular, with tranfverfe, recurved ftriae ; 2 virgata.
inches long, and 24 broad. Indian and Atlantic o-
ceans.
4. T. fubovate, angular before, with tranfverfe, xt-angulata*
curved ftriae; no lateral teeth; 14 inch long and 2
broad. Indian ocean.
5. T,
Chap. IV.
gari.
fragilis.
CONCH
5. T. ftrlae recurved, tranfverfe; lateral teeth obfo-
lete. Indian ocean.
* 6. T. ovate, white, gibbous, with tranfverfe, re¬
curved ftriae ; beaks yellowifh. European feas, Bri¬
tain.
deprejfa. * 7. T. very thick, depreffed, oblong, with tranfverfe,
concentric ftriae. Europe, Britain.
crajfa. * 8. T. very thick, broad, deprelfed; concentric ftriae
numerous, 1^ inch broad, and long. Europe, Bri¬
tain.
rugofa. 9. T. wrinkles tranfverfely undulated, hinged with
two lateral teeth. Indian and American feas.
injlata. 10. T. rounded, thick, gibbous; ftriae longitudinal,
fine.
multan- 11.T. ovate, ventricofe, inequivalve, with decuf-
gulata. fated ftriae. Tranquebar.
papyracea. 12. T. thin, ovate, ventricofe, and tranfverfely ftri-
ated : wrinkles on the fore-part, plaited : 3 lines long
and i^- inch broad. Guinea.
gippofa. 13. T. triangular, ventricofe, and finely ftriated
tranfveifely.
znceqmla- 14. T. equivalve, roundifh, white, with a few tranf-
tera. verje ftriae towards the margin.
knorii. 15. T. rich red colour, with a violet margin; 2^
inches broad, and long.
bornii. 16. T. tranfverfely ftriated ; one fide bent and red-
difh, with red rays ; \ inch long, and 2 inches broad.
pujilla. 17. T. ovate, ventricofe, thin, tranfverfely ftriated,
very minute. Rivers of Europe.
tnaculata. * 18. T. fubovate, thickifti, with decuffated ftriae, and
irregular fpots; figure of the fpots different in different
ftiells, but exadlly fimilar in both valves of the fame
fhell. Denbigh in England.
Tivalis. * 19. T. obliquely fubovate, tranfverfely grooved; fize
of a pea. River Avon near Salifbury.
B. ovate, comprejjed.
20. T. oval, fmooth, with prominent membranes;
fize of an egg. European ocean.
21. T. oval, with rough pubes, flattened fides, fer-
rated ; inch long, and 3 broad. Indian ocean.
* 22. T. ovate, compreffed, tranfverfely fubftriated,
fmooth, with acute margins. European and Mediter¬
ranean feas, common, on the fhores of Britain.
vsnabilis. * 23. T. ovate, oblong, with pale purple rays. Eu¬
ropean and Atlantic feas, Britain.
Icevigata.. 24. T. ovate, fmooth, lateral teeth, margined. Eu¬
ropean and Indian feas.
radiata. * 25. T. oblong ; ftriae faint, longitudinal. European
and American feas, Britain.
rqflrata. 26. T. oblong, the fore-part produced into an angular
beak. Indian ocean.
tn<tquival- 27. T. oblong, produced into a beak, upper valve
vis. flat, lower convex ; length inch, breadth I inch.
European and North feas.
trifafciata.* 28. T. ovate, fmoothifh, triradiate, with red and
flightly ftriated tranfverfely. European feas, Britain.
zncarnata. * 29. T. ovate, a little produced on the fore-part, flat-
tifh ; 2 inches broad. European and Mediterranean
feas, Britain.
donacina. * 30. T. ovate, flattifh, very obtufe on the fore-part.
Mediterranean, Sandwich, Weymouth.
Uruncata. 31. T. oval, compreffed, fubftriated; fore-part trun¬
cated. Java.
olbida.
foliacea.
planata.
O L o G Y. 405
32. T. flat, fore-part truncated, yellow; inchtrilatera.
long, and 2 broad.
33. T. oblong, brittle, yellowifh; rounded on oneoblonga.
fide. Europe.
34. T. white, tranfverfely ftriated, and b\fax\o\x{[yfpeng/eri.
hooked on each fide. Nicobar iflands.
* 35. T. with rugged, concentric ftrias; the fize of amgofa.
filbert. Weymouth.
* 36. T. oval, oblong, deeply ftriated, parallel to thecor««^/-
margin. Cornwall. cnjis.
* 37. T. oblong, ovate, compreffed, with fine, txar\{-fervenjis.
verfe ftriae; 1 inch long, and 2 broad. North feas,
Weymouth, Yorkfhire.
38. T. purple, with white bands, and decuffated op<?ra//<3/*7.
ftnae; one valve convex, the other flat; 2j inches
broad and Ilong.
39. T. oval, inequivalve, flat, pellucid, with fine hyalina.
decuffated ftriae; inch long, 3 broad. Guinea.
40. T. yellowifh, very thin, perpendicularly ft.xi-vitrea.
ated. North and Baltic feas.
41. T. oval, very thin, tranfverfely ftriated; \o lanceolata,
lines long, li inch broad. India.
42. T. oval, pellucid, with a rib in each xv\.\z,apelina.
reaching from the hinge to the outer margin ; very
thin. Nicobar.
43. T. oval, pellucid, fcarlet, tranfverfely ftriated, comWtf*
very thin. Sea round Iceland.
44. T. ftriae fine, tranfverfe, lengthened forwards‘t’zrgvWftfi"
into a beak, very fmall and rounded. Rivers of Vir¬
ginia.
45. T. nearly triangular, margin dilated, 2 inches
broad, and long.
46. T. rounded, flat, thin, with longitudinal ft.x\,x,.peBinata,
47. T. flattifh, red, with white rays; one end poaxtf.- angujlata.
ed, the other rounded.
48. T. oval, rounded at each end ; variegated, with variegata.
a whitifh ray at the crown.
49. T. oval, a little pointed at one end ; 2 §• inches madagaf-
long, and 3^ broad. Madagafcar. carienjis,
50. T. purpliih at each end; inch long and [qxs\z-purpuref-
thing broader. cens.
51. T. pointed at one end, yellowiftr within, xadiz- afpera*
•ted and rough with tranfverfe ftriae without; inch
long and 3 inches broad.
52. T. flightly wedged, whitifh, and tranfverfely
ftriated ; 1-^ inch broad, and 1 long. ris.
53. T. white, with unequal fides, pointed at one end; fata.
ij- inch long, and 2 broad. Norway feas.
54. T. thick, beak purplifh without. Jamaica. jamaicenjis
* 55. T. outwardly white and rough, with tranfverfe r^o/w-
ftriae ; w'ithin bluifti1; 2 inches broad, 1 long. 'R\vev boides.
Tees, England.
* 56. T. purplifh, tawny, with white rays, 1 inch vinacea.
long, and 1^ broad. Britifh and Baltic feas.
57. T. roly, with a white band. Shores of Tuf- %onata.
cany.
58. T. whitifh, with a paler band ; within yellow, albicans.
59. T. reddifh, with pale yellow fpots, and decuffa- rufefcens,
ted ftriae ; \ inch long, broad.
60. T. unequal fided, depreffed, minutely ftriated. plana.
61. T. unequal fided, round at both ends, rofy 'wViX.zJlriata,
pellucid ; 2 inches broad l-J long.
62. T. rofy, with thin ribs running from the hinge rofca.
to the margin; 1 inch long, i~ broad.
l
63. T.
I
406
CONCH
punicea. 63. T. oval, fiat, equal fided, tranfverfely ftriated ;
I inch long, 2 broad.
cornpla- 64. T. obovate, flattened •, obfoletely ftriated, red-
nata. difh, with a dilated margin •, 2 inches long, 3 broad.
faiula. * 63. T. ovate, cornpreffed, inflated, lengthened be¬
fore ; one valve fmooth, the other with oblique, re-
flefted ftrise. Mediterranean, American and North
feas, Wales.
adanfoni. 66. T. whitifh, with a violet hinge. Africa.
cancellata. 6']. T. thin, with numerous longitudinal grooves
crofting the tranfverfe wrinkles. Atlantic.
Jlrigofa. 68. T. with whitilh bands, glabrous and wrinkled
at the margin. African ftiores.
C. fuborlicu/ar.
balaujlina. 69. T. dilated, orbicular, lateral teeth in one valve.
Mediterranean.
remits. 70. T. comprefled and tranfverfely wrinkled j 3
inches long, 3^ broad. Indian and American oceans.
reticulata. 71. T. lentiform, compreffed, reticulate. India.
fcobitina. 72. T. lentiform, rough, with lunated feales difpof-
ed in a quincunx ; 24- inches long, 2^ broad. Indian
ocean.
laBea. 73. T. lentiform, gibbous, white, pellucid, fmooth.
Mediterranean.
carnaria. * 74. T. white, with a rofy tinge within and with¬
out ; fine Arise, difpofed obliquely. Europe and Arne-
* rican iflands, Britain.
bimaculata* 75. T. triangularly rounded, fmooth, whitilh, with
two oblong red fpots on the infide 5 fcarcely an inch
broad. Europe and American feas, Britain.
balthica. *]6. T. roundilh, fmooth, outfide bloom colour j fize
of a horfe bean. Baltic.
pi/iformis. 77. T. fubglobular, fmooth, obliquely fubflriated,
fize of a pea 5 mouths of rivers in Europe.
divaricata. 78. T. fubglobular, white, with oblique bifarious
ftriae. American feas.
digitaria. 79. T. fubglobular, pale, furrounded with oblique
uniform ftrite •, fize of a pea, nearly an inch long. A-
nrerican and Indian feas.
cornea. * 80. T. globular, glabrous, horn-colour, with a tranf¬
verfe groove, fize of a pea. Ponds and frelh waters of
Europe, Britain.
lacujlris. 81. T. rhombic, flattilh, glabrous, with an acute
protuberance. Pools and marlhes of Europe.
amnea. 82. T. heart-lhaped, tranfverfely grooved. Pools
and ditches of Europe.
Jluminalis. 83. T. triangular, gibbous, tranfverfely ftriated.
Ri ver Euphrates.
Jluminea. 84. T. triangular, gibbous, tranfverfely ribbed. China*
fluviatilis. 85. T. triangular, tranfverfely wrinkled. Canton.
iberica. 86. T. globular, fmooth, poliftied. Shores of Ibe¬
ria.
adriatica. 87. T. fubglobular, margined, denticulated, white
without, pearly within. Shores of the Adriatic.
Jinuofa. T. fubglobular, equivalve and equal fided, with
a few tranfverfe ftriae.
purpurata. 89. T. equal fided, fmooth, lucid purple colour j one
inch long, l4 broad.
Candida. 90. T. white, with fine tranfverfe ftriae.
gallica. 91. T. triangular, pe&inated. France.
fenegalen- 92. T. triangular, globofe, with tranfverfe grooves.
Jis. Africa.
angulofa. 93. T. oval, flattiftr, tranfverfely ftriated, fore-part
angularly infledled. America.
2
O L O G Y. Chap. IV
94. T. tranfverfely ftriated, orbicular, angular onpolvvona.
the fore-part. India.
Gen. 7. Cardium, Cochle. Cardfum.
Gen. Char .—The animal is a tethys: the ftiell is bi¬
valve, nearly equilateral, equivalve, generally con¬
vex, longitudinally ribbed, ftriated or grooved, with
a toothed margin. Hinge of the two teeth near the
beak, and a larger remote lateral one on each fide j
each locking into the oppofite.
Species.
1. C. gibbous, equivalve, with elevated, catinat-cojlaturrt,
ed, concave, membranaceous ribs j three inches long,
three and a half broad, three high. African ocean.
2. C. heart-lhaped, valves compreffed and caiinat-cardi/fa,
ed with teeth } tw7o and a half inches long, above twro
broad. Indian ocean.
3. C. heart-lhaped ; fore-part furrowed with Vines, rofeum,
hind part with broader ftriae, forming by their union
the figure of a heart. Nicobar iflands.
4. C. heart-draped 5 valves ftriated, notched; behind retu/um.
the beaks a lunated, heart-lhaped gape ; two inches
long, and nearly the fame breadth. India, Arabia,
and Egypt.
5. C. heart-draped, fubquadrilateral; valves carina-ZwTzfcrzr-
ted, beaks diftant. Indian ocean. ' dium.
6. C. heart-ftiaped, fubtrilateral; valves tranfverfely/zV/War-
grooved, and the fore-part longitudinally ftriated ; has dium.
only been found in the foflil ftate.
7. C. heart-fhaped, carinated ; fore-part obliquely/z«e<7/zzffz.
truncated, thin, quite fmooth, fnowy, with gilt ftrim
above an inch long.
* 8 C. fomething heart-flraped, fubangular, valves medium.
angular, grooved, fmooth. European and American
feas, coaft of Durham.
* 9. C. fomewhat heart-flraped, ribs high, and groov- aculeatum.
ed down the middle, and befet with large hollowed
fpines near the circumference. European and Medi¬
terranean feas, Devonlhire.
* 10. C. llightly heart-lhaped ; ribs fpinous, caxinaU echinatum.
ed. European feas, Britain.
* 11. C. flightly heart-lhaped, triangular ribs, befet cz/zare.
along the ridges with thin fpines ; fize of a hazel-nut.
European feas, Cornwall.
12. C. flightly heart-ftiaped, with elevated, fahln-ciliatum,
angular ciliated grooves. North feas.
13. C. fomewhat heart-ftiaped, with obtufe, knotty,/zz^zrezz-
tranfverfely ftriated grooves. Mediterranean. latum.
14. C. heart-lhaped, with arched imbricated feales ifocardia.
along the grooves. Mediterranean.
15. C. fomewhat heart-lhaped, fubangular. India.^/rzzfzzzw.
16. C. fubcordate, with lunated, coloured grooves, zzzzez/cz.
India.
17. C. fubcordate, grooved, and muricated at ihemuricatum
lides. America.
18. C. oblong, with angular grooves, ferrated at the magnum.
fide. America and India.
19. C. fubovate, grooved; anterior margin rough,y?zz,zzzzzw.
pofterior one-toothed. India.
* 20. C. obovate, with obfolete, longitudinal Vixicejavigatum.
and a few tranfverfe ones concealed by a gloffy, yel-
lowilh brown epidermis. European and American
feas, Britain.
21. C.
Chap. IV.
CONCH
/erratum.
edule.
icelandi-
cum.
greenlan-
dicum.
rujlicum.
glaucum.
peciinatum
•virginicum
Irilaterum.
auricula.
trifle.
monjlro-
fum.
lima.
21. C. obovate, fmooth, with obfolete ftriae j inte¬
rior margin ferrated. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
* 2 2. C. antiquated, with 28 depreffed ribs, with ob¬
folete, recurved feales. Abounds frequently on all Tan¬
dy coafts, and is lodged a little beneath the fand. This
is employed as a wholefome and nourifhing food. It
is the common cockle of this country.
23. C. grooved with about 36 triangular, fmooth
ribs. Iceland and Greenland feas.
24. C. antiquated, glabrous, thin, with angular
ferruginous lines •, two and three-fourths inches long,
three and a half broad. Greenland and Iceland.
25. C. antiquated with 20 remote grooves, the in¬
termediate fpaces rugged. Mediterranean feas.
26. C. fubantiquated, hind-part with 20 grooves
imbricated upwards. Barbary.
27. C. flightly heart-lhaped and pedlinated. Me¬
diterranean.
28. C. triangular, rounded, equilateral, with tranf-
verfe, membranaceo-recurved wrinkles ; hinges blue.
Mediterranean.
29. C. triangular, gibbous, ftriated. Cafpian fea.
30. C. heart-lhaped, fubrhombic, 24 ribs on each
fide ; the grooves finely notched ; two and one-fourth
inches long, and one three-fourths broad. Arabia and
Egypt.
31. C. oval, fuoooth ; margin flriated on each fide
the beak.
32. C. gibbous ; one fide impreffed and ochraceous,
the other convex, heart-draped, and whitilh, fpotted
with yellow’. Nicobar ifiands. A very rare fpecies.
33. C. gibbous, with prickly ribs •, anterior ones
with recurved, membranaceous tubercles, crenated at
the fides. Nicobar ifiands.
rmgens. 34. C. rounded, ventricofe, white, with deep teeth
on the margin j anterior ones rofy. Africa and Ame¬
rica.
papyra-
ceum.
ceolicum.
oblongum.
cra/futn.
latum.
pigmeum.
macula-
turn.
jlexuofum.
Jluviatile.
gaditanum.
brajilen/e.
35. C. pellucid, cinereous, with thin longitudinal
flriae. India.
36. C. thick, with longitudinal anterior ftriae, and
tranfverie poilerior ones. Guinea, Antilles illands.
37. C. yellowilh, oblong, turgid, ribbed ; anterior
parts glabrous ; margin notched ; three inches long,
two and a half broad, ribs about 30. Mediterranean.
38. C. brownilh, rather oblong, thick, antiquated,
with deeper teeth on the margin ; ribs about 23. Me¬
diterranean and North feas.
39. C. broad, unequal fided, within white \ ribs flat
and Ipinulous •, two inches long, two and a half broad.
Tranquebar and Nicobar ifiands.
* 40. C. fomevvhat heart-lhaped, fubangular; grooves
imbricated, or belet with recurved feales. Falmouth,
Sandwich.
41. C. with crowded, undulated Wrinkles; ribs
broad, grooves narrow ; three inches long, three and
one-fourth broad. Bay of Campeachy.
42. C. rounded, browm ; ribs flexuous, grooves
wrinkled ; l| inch long, and about the lame breadth.
* 43. C. flattifh, thick, vrhite, with flat ribs. Mouth
of the Tees, England. Rare.
44. C. rounded, yellow'ifh-white, varied with red,
green, and brown, and marked with decuffated ftriae.
Cadiz.
45. C. rounded ; ribs flat, broad, finely notched.
Brazil,
O L O G Y. 407
46. C. rather oblong, white, with blackifh fpots ; amhoi-
ribs about 12, very conve.x ; inches long. nenfe.
47. C. heart-lhaped, equilateral, tawny white mthfquamo-
purplilh within ; ribs with imbricated feales. fum.
48. C. reddilh, thin, rounded, with decuflated e<2we//3-
ftriae. turn.
49. G. reddilh, unequal fided ; ribs convex, tranf- rubigino-
verlely ftriated. • fum.
50. C. unequal-fided, ribbed, whitilh, within pur- albidum.
pie ; minute.
51. C. inequilateral, oblong, with fine ribs AovibXtdi virefeens.
above.
52. C. rounded, whitilh, with a brown band ; x\bsfafeiatum,
acute.
Gen. 8. Mactra. Madra.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys; the Ihell is bi¬
valve, unequal fided and equivalve ; the middle tooth
of the hinge is complicated, with a fmall hollow on
each fide ; the lateral ones are remote, and inferted
into each other.
Spec ms.
1. M. fmooth, with a flat, anterior margin, on whichfpengleri,
is a lunated gape, 3^ inches broad. Cape of Good
Hope.
2. M. with tranfverfe, wrinkled plaits, diaphanous
/ anterior margin flattilh, Ihell thin like paper ; from 1
to 2 inches long, 2^ broad. Indian ocean.
3. M. thin, pellucid, white, convex; fore-part npapyracea-
little gaping, finely ftriated and ribbed. Nicobar
illands. Very rare.
4. M. fmooth, diaphanous ; back fubftriated, with ^Jlriatula.-
fmooth marginal impreflion before them, furrounded
with a rim ; 2-§- inches long, 3.broad. Mediterranean
and Coromandel coafts.
5. M. triangular, thick, with ftrong, thick crovid-Jlriata.
ed, arched ftriae.
6. M. obtufely triangular, whitilh, with milk-white rotundata.,
bands on the beaks ; margins on each fide the beaks
violet; inch long, and nearly 2 broad. Mediter¬
ranean.
7. M. fmooth, diaphanous, ftriated ; beak tmooCn,g/abrata.
margins on each fide of them ftriated ; inch long
and 2 broad. African and Indian oceans.
8. M. fnowy, glofly, thick, diaphanous, fmooth; nitida.
depreflions on each fide the beaks ftriated.
9. M. fmooth, fubdiaphanous, white, with paler corallina,.
bands ; 2 inches broad, 1 £ long. Mediterranean and
Guinea.
io; M. thin, turgid, pellucid white ; fore-part hwe-laftea.
ly ftriated, with paler bands. Indian ocean.
* 11. M. femitranfparent, fmooth, gloffy, obfo 1 etelyflultorum.
radiated, white without, purplilh within ; fides nearly
equal ; length 14 inch, breadth i|. European and
American feas, England, and Ihores of Scotland.
12. M. femitranfparent, fmooth, fawn colour with grand is,-
pale rays; beak and hinge placed beyond the middle ;
24 inches long, 34 broad.
* 13. M. ftrong, fubtriangular, of a yellowifh-whiteyo/*i/<7„
colour, with a few concentric ridges ; equal-fided ; id-
inch long, 14 broad. Common on European Ihores,
and alfo in Britain.
* 14. M. oval, oblong, fmooth, with irregular con- lutraria;.
centric ftrite ; infide glofly white, gaping a little at both
ends..
4o 8
cygnus.
macula.
turgida.
violacea.
<uneata.
glauca.
•pellucida.
fragi/is.
rugofa.
mcobarica
compla-
nata.
li/leri.
piperita.
32
Donax.
jcortum.
pubefctns.
CONCH
ends. Europe, near the mouths of rivers. Found ve¬
ry large on the coaft of Caermarthen, and fome parts
of Cornwall.—The animal which inhabits this (hell,
according to Montagu, is an afcidia ; and he obferves
that it frequently protrudes not lefs than 7 or 8 inches
from the fmaller end in fearch of food. Tejl. Brit.
p. 100.
15. M. three-fided, finely ftriated tranfverfely •;
fore-part fiattifh and (lightly wrinkled ; I inch long
and rather broader. Tranquebar.
16. M. obtufely triangular, fmooth, thin, with pel¬
lucid chefnut fpots $ within white, and finely ftriated;
a heart-fhaped impreflion behind the beaks j 1^ inch
long, and rather broader.
17. M. inflated, faintly ftriated, ochraceous and
white within ; hinge with a fupernumerary, triangular,
double tooth ; T.\ inches long, 3^ broad. Tranque¬
bar.
18. M. thin, obfoletely radiated, finely ftriated
tranfverfely ; margins on each fide the beaks w’hitifh j
2 inches long and 3 broad. Tranquebar.
19. M. wedge-ftiaped, blue, with fine tranfverfe
ftriae j margin notched within ; I inch.long and fcarce-
ly fo broad.
20. M. ovate, dirty w’hite with glaucous rays, and
fine tranfverfe ftriae j 2^ inches long, 34 broad. Me¬
diterranean.
21. M. ovate, thin, pellucid, white, wdth unequal
tranfverfe ftriae j 1^-inch long, and 2 broad. Guinea.
22. M. ovate, thin, fmooth, pellucid, flattifti; an¬
terior gape tranfverfely ftriated, and wrinkled. Nico¬
bar iflands.
23. M. ovate, dirty white, with elevated longitudi¬
nal ftriae ; crofting the tranfverfe ones, which are a lit¬
tle more raifed \ 2^ inches long, 2^ broad 5 thick, and
white within.
24. M. ovate, thin, pellucid, fmooth on the fore¬
part ; the hind-part with cancellated ftriae. Nicobar
iflands.
25. M. ovate, thin, with arched plates 5 the plates
tranfverfely ftriated $ no lateral teeth j 1 inch long,
broad. India.
* 26. M. very thin, nearly round, whitiftr j hinge
wnth a triangular tooth, and large cavity •, i~ inch
long, and 2 broad. Common on the (bores of Bri¬
tain. MaBra compreffa, Montagu, Tejl. Brit. p.
96.
27. M. ovate, comprefled, tranfverfely ftriated 5
hinge teeth very minute, with a large oblique hollow.
Mediterranean.
Gen. 9. Donax, or Wedge-Jhell.
&en. Char.—The animal is a tethys. The (hell is bi¬
valve, with generally a crenulate margin ; the ante¬
rior margin very obtufe *, hinge with two teeth, and
a Angle marginal one placed a little behind ; rarely
double, or triple.
Species.
t. D. triangular, heart-(haped, with a flat frontal
margin. Indian ocean.
2. D. ciliated with fpines on the anterior margin.
Indian ocean.
O L O G Y. Chap. TV.
3. D. wrinkled and gibbous before, with notched ruga/a.
margins. Mediterranean and Atlantic feas.
* 4. D. oblong, fmooth, glofly, finely ftriated \ongi-truncu/us*
tudinally ; margin crenated j an inch broad. Euro¬
pean coafts, Wales.
5. D. obtufe before, ftriated, the margin denticula-^ntfta.
ted. Southern Europe.
* 6. D. obtufe in front, lips tranfverfely wrinkled; denticula*
finely ftriated longitudinally j margin denticulated./#.
European and American feas j (hores of Britain, but
rare.
7. D. wedge-(haped, margins very entire; 1 \ndbcuneata.
long, broad. Tranquebar.
"S. D. gibbous, finely ftriated tranfverfely, fpottedJaba.
with yellow.
9. D. ovate, comprefled, fmooth, marked with pnx-fcripta.
pie waved lines ; margins crenulate. Malabar coafts.
10. D. ovate, ftriae muricated ; margin denticulat-^wr/c#/#.
ed. Indian ocean.
* 11. D. oval, with tranfverfe, waved, ereft, ftriated, irus.
membranaceous w'rinkles ; fize of a fmall kidney bean.
Mediterranean, (hores of Devonftiire and Cornwall,
where it is found in the hardeft limeftone.
12. D. obtufe before, obfoletely ftriated at the fides ; tcesiigate,
margin very entire ; hinge without marginal teeth ;
inch long, 2 inches broad. Tranquebar.
13. D. hind-part fmooth and perpendicularly ^.nEt-fpinofa,
ed ; fore-part truncated, and finely cancellated ; angles
fpinous. Tranquebar. Very rare.
14. D. flelh-coloured, anterior part truncated, wrink- incarnata,
led, and marked with reticulated Arise; hind-part
wedge-ftiaped, and furrowed with fine perpendicular
ftriae. Tranquebar.
15. D. oval, fmooth, olive-green, within filveryargentea,
margin with more elevated acute teeth, near the
hinge.
16. D. ovate, with elevated ftriae crofting a few bicolor.
tranfverfe ones ; rufous with a white ray on one fide.
17. D. brown, with hyaline fpots; outfide with radiata.
crowded, arched, tranfverfe ftriae ; infide with perpen¬
dicular ones; I inch broad, l^r long. Tranquebar.
18. D. with thin perpendicular ftriae, crofting theJ?ramine<Tr
tranfverfe ribs on the fore-part ; draw colour, with
darker tranfverfe bands; margin tawney and entire be¬
hind ; 1 inch long, ^ broad.
19. D. entirely white, with a few thin, arched, Candida.
tranfverfe ftriae, which are oblique towards the rim ;
hinge with three oblique middle teeth ; margin entire ;
I inch long, and fomething broader.
* 20. D. oblong, fmooth, gloflfy, light yellow, with com/*/#-
fmall fpots or ftreaks of white, and one broad ray ofnata.
the fame from the back to the oppofite margin ; -f inch
]ong, !'road. Devonfhire, but rare. Montagu,
Te/l. Brit. p. 106.
* 21. D. oblong, fuboval, fmooth, glofly, commonlyp/ebeia.
marked with two brown (tripes longitudinally from the
beak ; margin fmooth ; fcarcely 4- inch long, -4 broad.
Weymouth, Dorfetftdre. Montagu, Te/l. Brit. 107.
33
Gen. 10. Venus. Venus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys ; (hell bivalve, fron¬
tal margin flattened, wdth incumbent lips ; hinge
with three teeth, all of them approximate ; the la¬
teral ones divergent at the tip.
Species.
4°9
Chap. IV.
dionc.
paphia.
marica.
difera.
b&jana.
excav&ta.
■verrucofa.
iapicida.
divergent.
tajjina.
cancellata,
gallina.'
guineen-
fis.
petulea.
Jlexuofa.
erycina.
mercena-
ria.
icelandica.
chione.
CONCH
Species.
[A. Shellfomewhat heart-[Imped.
I. V. tranfverfely grooved, with a double row of
fpines on the flattened fide. American ocean. This
fhell is very rare.
* 2. V. fomewhat heart-fliaped,with thickened wrinkles ;
flattened fide with attenuated wrinkles ; lips compli¬
cated ; 2 inches long, ii broad. American iflands,
Cornwall.
3. V. heart-fhaped, with decuffated ftriae, flattened
margin, lamellated. American ocean. Very rare.
4. V. fomewhat heart-fhaped, with tranfverfe, re¬
mote, reflefted grooves 5 margin crenulated. Ameri¬
can ocean. Very rare.
5. V. brittle, glabrous, with a few tranfverfe ftriae.
Brazil.
6. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, with a deep,
heart-fhaped depreflion behind the beaks 5 flat fide,
broad.
* 7. V. with membranaceous, tranfverfe, ftriated
grooves, forming tubercles towards the outer margin j
margin crenulated 5 2 inches long, 2 broad. Mediterra¬
nean, Antilles iflands, Cornwall.
8. V. longitudinally ftriated forwards, and tranf¬
verfely backwards. American iflands.
9. V. white, wuth fine, crowded, divergent ftriae.
American iflands.
10. V. with tranfverfe, recurved, acute grooves j
pofterior margin crenated, and grooved behind the
beaks. European feas. It is often found in a foflil
ftate.
ix. V. with tranfverfe, membranaceous, remote
ftriae, and a heart-fhaped depreflion behind the beaks ;
1 inch long, i~ broad. Indian ocean.
* 12. V. radiate, with tranfverfe, obtufe ftriae; hind
tooth of the hinge minute ; margin crenulated, 1 inch
long, broad. American and European feas, Corn¬
wall.
13. V. with tranfverfe, acute ftriae; lips finely ftri¬
ated and rofy ; margin very entire. Africa.
14. V. flightly grooved, margin crenated; fize of a
hazel-nut. South of Europe.
15. V. grooves obtufe, tranfverfe; lips of the ante¬
rior margin with an elevated angle; 1 inch long,
broad. American and Indian oceans.
16. V. grooves tranfverfe, parallel, obtufe; anterior
margin glabrous ; depreflion behind the beaks ovate ;
2y inches long, 3 broad. India.
17. V. ftrong and thick, with flight tranfverfe ftriae,
and covered with a brown cuticle ; within, pale vio¬
let ; margin crenated ; 3 inches long, and nearly 3
broad. Europe, North America. Shells of this fpecies
are found foflil in the mountains of Sweden. In North
America they are called clams, and the Indians make
wampum or money of them.
* 18. V. thick and ftrong, with flight tranfverfe ftriae,
and covered with a brown cuticle ; within pure white,
and fmooth ; margin entire ; 34- inches long, 4 broad.
Europe, Africa, Cafpian fea, Caermarthenlhire, and
ftiores of Scotland. The fifti is employed as food by
the Icelanders.
*19. V. fmooth, with fine tranfverfe wrinkles ; mar¬
gin entire; hind tooth of the hinge lanceolate ; 3
Vol. VI. Part I.
O L O G Y.
inches loirg, 3^ broad. Afiatic fcas; Cornwall, where
this fpecies is called queen.
20. V. fmooth, with a few faint fpots; 1^- inch long, tnaculata.
broad. American ocean.
21. V. glabrous, with a brown gibbous flope before, were/m*,
and gaping membranes; margin entire. Near the
mouths of rivers, Indian ocean.
22. V. fmooth, radiated with white ; lips of the m-lceta.
terior flope violet; i-J- inch long, l-y broad. Mediter¬
ranean and Indian feas.
23. V. triangular, rounded, gibbous, fmooth, zn&caJlrcnJiSi
marked with angular chara£!ers ; inch long, 2
broad. Indian ocean, Red fea.
24. V. fmooth, tranfverfely ftriated before and hc-phryne.
hind ; pofterior flope obcordate, with violet veins.
Southern ocean.
25. V. ovate, comprefled, tranfverfely ftriated, with meroe.
a gaping future behind ; i-| inch long, 2-| broad. A-
merican and Indian ocean.
26. V. fubovate, tranfverfely ftriated, and fubpel-minuta.
lucid ; membranes clofed ; from 1 to 2 inches broad,
i-i- long. Iceland.
* 27. V. oval, longitudinally wrinkled, femipellucid,fl^/?brrt/<7a
faintly radiated with purple and white ; i~ inch long,
broad. European and American feas, Falmouth.
28. V. oval, gibbous, longitudinally ftriated, andjimbriata,
tranfverfely grooved ; margin crenated ; 2 inches long,
3 broad. Eaft Indies.
29. V. ftriae elevated, decuflated ; heart-draped dt-reticulata.
preflion behind ; margin entire ; 2 inches long, 24-
broad. India.
30. V. ftriae reticulated, and fcaly on the back ^zxt.fquamofa.
India.
31. V. roundiflr, with decuffated, membranaceous/wer/iertf,
ftriae ; lips flexuous. India.
32. V. triangular, fmooth, retufe behind and hz-triple.
fore; 1 inch long, and rather broader. Mediterra¬
nean.
33. V. with arched, membranaceous, tranfverfe///ctf/tf.
ftriae ; pofterior flope reddiftr, heart-ftraped ; lips ob¬
lique. Indian feas. Very rare.
34. V. gibbous, with tranfverfe, membranaceous,
arched ftriae; pofterior flope heart (haped ; margin
crenated ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. India.
35. V. with tranfverfe, acute ftriae, anteriorly mem-cali/le.
branaceous ; anterior flope fliort, pofterior indiftimft.
Red fea.
36. V. rounded, with decuffated ftriae; {oxz-yaxtgranulata.
and crenated margin violet. American ocean.
37. V. with perpendicular, imbricated ribs, txax\[-imbricata.
veriely ftriated ; margin crenated. It has been found
in a foffil ftate in France.
38. V. with fine tranfverfe ftriae, crofting fome d\- divarica-
verging longitudinal ones towards the margin ; pofte-ta.
rior impreftion ovate ; margin crenated. E. Indies.
39. V. oblong, flattifh, tranfverfe ftriae runningcontraria.
contrary behind ; margin crenated. Guinea.
40. V. oblong, ovate, radiated, with thick, crowd-v«//W.
ed, tranfverfe ftriae ; anterior flope broad, ovate ; po¬
fterior impreflion heart-ftiaped ; li inch long, 2 broad.
Malabar.
41. V. tranfverfely ftriated, the back glabrous; an-Jlamrnea.
terior flope broad, with brown lines ; pofterior impref-
fions heart-ftiaped, with browm lines. Red fea.
3F
42. V,
4io
corbicula.
finuofa.
herma-
phrodita.
coaxans.
cq/la.
ajfinis*
cpima.
triradiata.
nelulofa.
contempta.
japonica.
Jlriata.
textllis.
corrugata.
vionjlrofa.
ponderofa.
fubviridis.
rojlrata.
fufca.
lujitanica.
pun&ula-
ta.
fafciata.
cornea,
virgo to.
verjicolor.
c o n c H
42, V. triangular, fmooth, truncated on each fide,
with yellowifh rays ; flopes heart-fhaped ; margin very
entire. Atlantic and American feas. Rare.
* 43- V. thin, convex, foraewhat triangular, with a
deep obtufe finus in the middle of the front. Bri¬
tain.
44. V. triangular, very fmooth, olive coloured, ob-
fcurely banded : anterior Hope heart draped j pofterior
ovate. Rivers of Guinea. Rare.
45. V. green, within white, with tranfverfe, une¬
qual, membranaceous ft rise ; margin acute 5 2inches
long, 3 broad. Rivers of Ceylon.
46. V. gibbous, fnowy ; anterior part convex ; wi¬
thin pale violet j anterior dope roundidr, poderior heart-
fhaped *, margin very entire. India.
47. V. thin, glabrous, convex ; white variegated
with browm j pofterior dope elongated, with oblique
tumid lips ; four teeth in the hinge. Mauritius.
48. V. thick, convex ; anterior dope ovate, pof¬
terior heart-draped ; hinge with three teeth. India.
49. V. convex, gray, with three blackidr blue
rays ; pofterior dope elongated^ lips tumid. Tranque-
bar.
50. V. ochraceous, with cinereous and bluidr fpots j
anterior dope ovalj pofterior dope ovate, bluidr. Tran-
quebar.
51. V. thick, triangular, equilateral, fmooth 5 beaks
convergent ; primary tooth of the hinge crenulated :
minute. Malabar.
52. V. oblong, ovate, inequilateral; lid tranfverfe ;
ftrice crowded at the ddes j pofterior dope oblong,
ovate. Japan.
53. V. ventricofe, anteriorly angular, with tranfverfe,
thick, fmooth and dightly arched flrise : pofterior dope
heart-draped. India. Rare.
54. V. oval, quite fmooth, inequilateral ; dopes ob¬
long ; margin very entire; inch long, 2^ broad.
Malabar, Red fea.
55. V. ovate, wdritidr ; ftriae tranfverfe, anteriorly
thick and ftrong, pofteriorly thin and undulating.
Mediterranean.
56. V. ovate, whitidr ; Arise decudated ; hinge with
only two teeth in the left valve. Nicobar idands.
57. V. folid, weighty, inequilateral, wrinkled on both
fides; margin crenulated ; hinge with two teeth. South¬
ern ocean.
58. V. greenidr, glabrous, thick : margin entire,
beaks prominent.
59. V. ovate; ftriae perpendicular, fcaly, crofting
the tranfverfe ones.
60. V. brown, with fine, perpendicular ftriae ;
inch long, 2^ broad.
61. V. oblong, with fine tranfverfe ftriae ; margin
crenated. Seas round Portugal.
62. V. ovate, wdiite, with bay lines, and yellowifh
dots. Corfica.
63. V. round, fmooth, wuth bay and yellowidi rays,
partly blue, and partly livid.
64. V. oval, inequilateral, flightly wrinkled, fiedi-
eoloured, with three rays ; inch long, 2j broad.
65. V. externally fteel blue, with yellow rays; in¬
ternally violet. Indian ocean.
66. V. oval, obliquely ftriated, whitifh ; rays white,
tawny, bluidr and red.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
67. V. ovate, inequilateral, finely ftriated and dot-
ted with blue : rays brownidi and black.
68. V. ovate, violet; ftriae perpendicular ; \\ inch amethyjli-
long, 2£ broad. na.
69. V. pofteriorly ovate, tranfverfely and unequal- callipyga.
ly ftriated, and marked wTith angular lines. Shores of
Lifbon.
70. V. ovate, with fine decuffated ftriae; white oxfenegalen-
dedi-coloured, varied with brown ; \\ inch broad, notyfo.
one inch long. Senegal.
71. V. triangular, white or yellow, with about waWiW.
40 tranfverfe parallel grooves ; li inch long. Sene¬
gal.
72. V. heart-fhaped, with tranfverfe, remote, zitC2.-fuccinEia.
vated grooves; margin crenulated.
73. V. heart-diaped, much compreffed, tranfverfely
grooved.
74. V. heart-diaped, polidied, white, marked with auflralis.
brownidi charafters ; margin entire. Southern ocean.
75. V. ovate, livid, with numerous, interrupted,
bluidi rays ; pofterior dope ovate. Shores of Ceylon
and Florida.
B. Orbicular.
* 76. V. lentiform, with crenated, decuflated Rrisetigerina.
pofterior dope imprefled, ovate. American and Indian
ocean, fhores of Weymouth.
77. V. orbicular, tranfverfely ftriated, with rough,projtrata.
membranaceous lips ~ two inches long, not fo broad.
Coromandel.
78. V. lentiform, with glabrous wrinkles, white withpenjylva-
a longitudinal groove anteriorly on each fide; 2 inches «/c«.
long. America.
79. V. white, fomewhat glabrous, with a longitudi-y^wr/tf.
nal groove anteriorly, and hinge without lateral teeth.
Shores of Iceland and Ferro idands.
80. V. lentiform, glabrous, fmooth, with excavated
dots. India.
81. V. lentiform, longitudinally grooved, dio\.X.tdipunflata.
within ; 2 inches long, 2^ broad. India, but rare.
* 82. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, pale, with ob-exoleta.
folete rays; pofterior dope heart-fhaped : 2 inches
long, and 2 broad. Norway, and coafts of Britain,
Cornwall.
* 83. V. thin, convex, orbicular, whitifh, tinged with undata,
yellowr, with thin, tranfverfe ftriae; margins waved.
Britilh feas, Falmouth.
84. V. gibbous with tranfverfe, remote, rather ob- tumidula,
folete grooves ; margin entire.
85. V. longitudinally ftriated, with tranfverfe, white,yi/zeff/fj-.
and violet arches ; margin interiorly crenated. Chinefe
fhores.
86. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, v’ith an oh-finuata.
long gaping vent on the anterior Hope ; hinge with 4
teeth. Nicobar ifiands.
* 87. V. lentiform, wuth remote, tranfverfe, membra-^orea/zj',
nSceous ftriae ; inch long, 2 broad. European feas,
Britain.
88. V. fublentiform, with ■wrinkled, longitudinal/te^z/zata,
grooves, branched near the anterior margin ; 14 inch
long, 2 broad. Indian and American oceans.
89. V. lentiform, comprefled, ftriated, angular; thtferipta.
hinder angle ftraight. Indian ocean, and Red fea.
Very rare.
90. V.
Chap. IV. CONCH
edentula.
cinEla.
concentri-
ca.
juvenilis*
hijlrio.
ghbofa.
pc&uncu-
lus.
albida.
campeach-
ienjis.
crajja.
purpuraf-
cens.
rubra.
90. V. fubglobular, lenticular, wrinkled, without
teeth ; pofterior (lope ovate. American ocean.
91. V. very convex, and furrounded with rings ; in¬
termediate grooves crenated \ pofterior Hope heart-
Ihaped ; margin crenulated. A minute (hell.
92. V. white, fub orbicular, compreffed, with con¬
centric ftrise \ margin very entire ; pofterior Hope
heart-fliaped. Atlantic and American leas. A large
(hell.
93. V. lentiform, with tranfverfe, crowded ftriae j
anteriorly circular, and terminating in wrinkles be¬
hind } pofterior (lope heart-ftiaped ; margin very en¬
tire. India.
94. V. lentiform, with tranfverfe, acute, arched
ftrias; margin entire j pofterior (lope heart-fliaped. In¬
dia. Rare.
95. V. globular, with fine tranfverfe ftriae ; margin
very entire j hinge with two teeth; 1 inch long, 14-
broad. Red fea. Very rare.
96. V. orbicular, equilateral, tranfverfely wrinkled,
and variegated with rufous. Japan.
97. V. orbicular, fub-comprefled, equilateral, white,
with fine tranfverfe ftriae. Jamaica.
98. V. orbicular, inequilateral, with crowded, acute,
tranfverfe ftrias ; inches long. Bay of Campea-
chy.
99. V. orbicular, folid, compreffed, with fine tranf¬
verfe ftriae, and red rays.
100. V. orbicular, with fine tranfverfe ftriae, and pur-
plifh rays.
101. V. orbicular, inequilateral, chefnut with dark¬
er rays, and crowded, thick, tranfverfe ftriae. Jamai-
violacea.
fpadicea.
cancellata.
bengalen-
fis.
aurea.
obfcura.
purpurata.
nux.
rugata.
gibbula.
Jlellata.
italica.
braxilia-
71 a.
pellucida.
holoferi-
xea.
ca.
102. V. w'ith perpendicular fcaly ftriae ; margin
denticulated, violet within.
103. V. ftriae perpendicular, and fcaly towards
the margin ; colour chefnut ; 2 inches long, 2-J broad.
104. V. fub rufous, cancellated ; a minute (hell.
105. V. orbicular, nearly equilateral, with thick,
perpendicular ftriae ; beaks turned back. Bengal.
# 106. V. fub-orbicular, inequilateral, tranfverfely
ftriated, and marked with faint longitudinal ftriae : 1
inch long, 1-^ broad. Dorfetflrire.
107. V. brown, with thin perpendicular ftriae; ij;
inch long, 2bs broad.
108. V. orbicular, fub-equilateral, perpendicularly
wrinkled, and with purple rays ; i-|- inch long, IJ
broad.
109. V. lentiform, teftaceous, wrinkled ; pofterior
(lope heart (haped. Ionian (hores.
110. V. orbicular, teftaceous, fub-equilateral, with
diftant tranfverfe wrinkles.
111. V. lentiform, tranfverfely ftriated, anteriorly
truncated.
11 2. V. orbicular, fmooth, golden, with a white (far
at the beak. Li (bon.
113. V. orbicular, pale yellow-, with elevated, tranf¬
verfe, diftant ftriae. Mediterranean.
114. V. lentiform, yellowifh brown, with thin, tranf¬
verfe, diftant ftriae; pofterior (lope heart-ftiaped, bluilh ;
anterior (lope broad, bluifti. Brazil.
115. V. orbicular, pellucid, fmooth ; anterior (lope
pale golden, with chefnut fpots ; pofterior (lope heart-
ftiaped, writh red and green veins. Brazil.
116. V, orbicular, folid, white, with undulated, gol-
o l o G Y. 411
den ftrim, and a broad yellow band towards the margin,
variegated with tranfverfe, brown lines.
117. V. orbicular, ventricole, thick, brownidi, x'x- Mcicajfa-
diated with white ; ftrise annular. Macaflar. rica.
118. V. fub-orbicular, of an orange colour; 2 inches ayrdtf/ztf.
long, broad.
119. V. lentiform, fulvous, with fine circular ftrise. fulva.
120. V. orbicular, white, with reticulated ftris. Candidas
I3i. V. orbicular, tranfverfely ftriated, whitifh, with albicans.
brown fpots, lines, and angular charafters.
122. V. fub-orbicular, tranfverfely ftriated, white undulata.
with reddifli undulated lines and dots.
123. V. orbicular, equilateral, white, wuth fine tranf-lineata.
verfe ftrise, thicker towards the margin.
124. V. fmooth, nearly equilateral, whitiftr. hevis.
125. V. orbicular, fmooth, inequilateral, livid \\oxw- cornea.
colour, with a white, tranfverfe line.
126. V. orbicular, fulvid, dotted with white at \hegutlala.
margin.
127. V. inequilateral, reddifli, fmooth, with a few rufefcens>
tranfverfe lines.
128. V. lentiform, ftrise cancellated and radiated
margin crenulated ; greenifh, with darker fpots.
129. V. white, with radiated fpots and arched ft.x\-x.-,maculofd,
in the middle a large gray fpot, tapering upwards.
1 30. V. entirely of a flefti colour, with longitudinal cojlata.
ribs crofting the remote tranfverfe wrinkles ; inch
long, 14 broad.
131. V. thin, convex, with fine tranfverfe ftrise ; with- wauaria.
in fnowy, without marked with the letter IV, and many
fcattered dots : beaks inflated.
132. V. tumid, folid, fmooth ; with a few tranf- lumens.
verfe wrinkles towards the margin ; hinge with 4 teeth
in each valve ; ij- inch long, 2 broad. Africa.
133. V. thin, orbicular, pellucid, fmooth, inov,-y ^diapbana.
hinge with two teeth in each valve ; i^inch diameter.
Weftern (bores of Africa.
134. V. fub-orbicular, compreffed, hard, tranfverfely z/wra.
grooved, reddifli, with browm rays ; 6 inches broad, 44
lonS* . ...
135. V. orbicular, compreffed, fnowy, wuth \ong\tu-eburnea*
dinal rounded grooves, croffed wuth tranfverfe ftrise ; 9
lines in diameter. Africa.
136. V. tranfparent, pale, fulvous within and without, lucida.
with fine longitudinal grooves ; 16 lines long. Africa.
137. V. orbicular, a little convex, wuth longitudinal
ftrise perpendicular in the middle, obliquely divergent
towards the outfide, and croffed by tranfverfe ones;
intermediate grooves and inner margin crenated.
138. V. orbicular, fub-equilateral, with t\tvnX.tA,aculeata.
acute, tuberculated ribs ; margin denticulated, and
crenated.
C. Oval, a little angular near the heals.
* 139. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, wuth undulated
tranfverfe ftriae ; 2 inches long, 2 \ broad. Europe and
India, coaft of Britain.
140. V. Inequilateral, thin, with fine decuffated^eogrtf/^/i
ftriae; white, reticulated with brown. Mediterranean, rr?.
141. V. ovate, anteriorly angular, with tranfver(ero/z/««bto»
Arise ; intermediate tooth of the hinge bifid ; i~ inch
long, 3 broad. Indian ocean. Rare.
* 142. F. ovate, with decuffated ftriae anterioily angu~decaj/ata.
lar ; inch long, 2 broad. Mediterranean, Britilh
coaft s,
3 F 2
142. V.
412 CONCH
•virginea. 142. V fubovate, anteriorly fubangular, with un¬
equal, tranfverfe ftrijc j anterior Hope tumid. Adri¬
atic.
^virgmica. 143. V. ovate, tranfverfely wrinkled j 1 inch long,
14- broad. Virginia.
rhomboi- * 144. V. deprefled or rhomboid, with concentric
des. ftrias 5 pale brown, variegated j | inch long, broad.
Britifh coafts.
cruentata.
lutefcens.
fanguino-
lenta.
argentea.
donacina.
afra.
dealbata.
hthophaga.
I45* V. ovate, inequilateral, tranfverfely filiated
and fpotted with red.
146. V. ovate, tranfverfely ftriated ; outwardly ra¬
diated and marked towards the margin with characters,
lines and fpots 5 within yellowifh.
147- ^ • oval> fmooth, yellowifh, with red fpots and
dots 5 li inch long, broad. Shores of Naples.
148. V. oblongifh, imooth, lilvery, with black lines
united into bands. Shores of Cadiz.
I49- ^• oblongifh, flattened, anteriorly tranfverfely
grooved ; internal margin crenulated ; Hopes linear,
excavated : inch long, broad.
15°. V. grooved, umbo pointed; poflerior Hope
wrinkled and heart-fhaped ; grooves fine, about 130;
1 inch broad. Africa.
151, V. oblong, thin, flattened, bluifii when the fifh
is alive, and fnowy when it is dead ; 1-4 inch broad, |
long. Africa.
152. V. ovate, reticulated, gaping on each fide; hinge
with 2 teeth, alternately bifid. Shores of Croatia, a-
mong rocks and Hones.
c 34
Spondyius.
Gen. 11. Spondylus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys ; fhellhard, folid, with
unequal valves, one of them convex, the other rather
flat ; hinge with two recurved teeth, feparated by a
fmall hollow.
Species.
gtrdaro- j. S. flightly eared and fpinous. Mediterranean,
pus. Indian, and other feas.—This fpecies varies greatly in
fize, thicknefs and colours. Sometimes it is entirely
purple, orange, white or bloom colour, and foraetimes
it is marked with various flreaks, fpots, dots, or bands.
regius. 2. S. without ears, and fpinous. In this fpecies the
fliell is fub-globular, white within, without purplifh,
fcarlet, flame colour, orange or white : fpines general¬
ly two inches long, fometimes cylindrical, with a cre-
nated margin. India, Malta. Very rare.
plicatus. 3. S. without ears or fpines, plaited. India, Ame¬
rica, and the Mediterranean. The fhell is white,
with yeliowilh, reddifh, brownifh, or violet lines and
veins.
citreus. 4. S. oblong, plaited, fpinous. In this fpecies the
fhell is imbricated, of a citron colour, or red, with
the inner margin orange. It is 2 inches long, 1^
broad. The whole fhell is thin and nearly tranf-
parent.
35
Chama. Gen. 12. Chama, or Gaping Cockle.
Gen. Char.—The animal a tethys ; the fhell bivalve,
rather coarfe ; hinge with a callous gibbofity,
obliquely inferted in an oblique hollow; anterior
Hope clofed.
Species.
por. * i. C. roundifh, fmootb j beaks recurved j anterior
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
Hoped with a gaping fenG Adriatic and Cafpian feas,
Hebrides. Sometimes it is found of a large fize.
2. C. plaited, with arched fcales ; pofierior ilo'pegigas.
gaping, vvith crenulated margins. Indian ocean.—This
fpecies fometimes meafures only about an inch in length,
but fometimes it is found to be the largefl of fiiells,
and equal to 5321b. weight. The fifh which it con¬
tains is faid to furnifir a meal to 120 men ; and its muf-
cular Hrength is fo great as to cut afunder a cable, or
lop off the hand of a man.
3. C. plaited, muricated, pofferior Hope retufe, hippopus,
clofed, toothed : 5 inches long, 7 broad. Indian o-
cean.
4. C. fomewhat heart-fhaped, with longitudinal
grooves, and tranfverfe flriae ; ribs from 19 to 22. At¬
lantic and Indian feas.
5. C. trapeziform, gibbous, with longitudinal, CTer\VL~ trapezia.
lated grooves; about the fize of a pea. Norway feas.
6. C. fub-orbicular, compreffed, coarfe, with decui-femiorbi*
fated Unas. . culata.
7. C. oblong with imbricated grooves; 2ea\.tx\oxcanalicu-
part retufe ; 4 inch long, 14 broad. American and In-lata.
dian feas.
8. C. heart-Hiaped, tranfverfely flriated ; one hdecordata.
elongated, compreffed. Indian and Red feas.
9. C. roundifh, with toothed grooves, mixed withfatiata.
dots; poflerior Hope retufe; heart-fhaped.
10. C. oblong, fore part angular, with anterior z.-oblonga.
cute teeth. Shores of Guinea.
11. C. imbricated, with jagged lamellae ; beak a lit- lazarus.
tie fpiral obliquely. India.
12. C. orbicular, muricated ; one valve flatter, Catgryphoi-
other with a fub-fpiral, produced beak. Mediter-tfkr.
rannean, American, and Indian feas.
13. C. with conic valves, and horn-fhaped, oblique, ^/co/vz/lr.
tubular beaks, longer than the valve. Indian and A-
merican feas.
14* C. grooved, muricated, with excavated &q\.s \ arcnella*
hinge with a feflile callus; 2 inches broad and 2 long.
American ocean.
15. C. obtufely triangular, equilateral, plaited ; sm-moltkiana.
terior Hope elevated, with oblique plates and flrite :
fize of a hazel nut.
16. C. tranfverfely wwinkled, and longitudinally
flriated. In the middle of each valve within is an ad- rata.
ditional chamber. American ocean. Small, w’hitifh,
very rare.
17. C. rounded, with lamellae difpofed in row's ; \n-macero-
ternal margin crenulated. American ocean. phylla.
18. C. white, with foliaceous, ferrated, tranfverfe</b//tfcrtf,
flriae, the interflices crenated, beaks recurved. Medi¬
terranean and American feas. This fpecies is found fof-
fil in Campania: it is fometimes round, and fometimes
oblong.
19. C. rounded, white, and undulated with hr own, arata,
with triangular, wrinkled, perpendicular ribs : margin
unequal. Shores of Syracufe.
20. C. w'rinkled, oblong, narrow, browm ; lowerfufca.
valve with a projecting, rounded, fubincurvated beak.
21. C. roundifh, ventricofe, inequivalve, muricated, effra*.
wdth fcattered, unequal, fcaly fpines. America. This
fhell is of a citron colour.
22. C. roundiflr, longitudinally flriated; poflerior
Hope retufe. Shores of Chili, where it buries itfelf in
the fands. The fhell is white, violet and yellow,
and
Chap. IV. CONCH
and within an elegant purple. It is about 4 inches
in diameter. The filh affords a rich and agreeable
food.
rugofa. 23. C. fuborbicular, with very deep grooves ; wrin¬
kles (lightly imbricated ; margin doubly folded. The
grooves are about 30 in number.
gryphica. 24. C. oblique, with a lateral oblique pit, wrinkled j
callus of the hinge toothed. Barbary.
corallio* 25. C. cylindrical, white, diaphanous, with decuf-
phaga. fated ftrise} the tranfverfe ffrise arched and imbri¬
cated.
36
Area. Gen. 13. Arca or Ark-Jhell.
Gen. Char, The animal a tethys ? The (hell bivalve,
equivalve ; the hinge with a number of teeth, (harp,
alternate, and inferted all along the rim.
Species.
tortuofa.
noce.
barbata.
modiolus.
pella.
ovata.
pellucida.
rojlrata.
Jlriata.
pulchella.
afra.
fojjtlis.
cancellata.
minuta.
A. Margin very entire, beaks recurved.
I. A. parallelepiped, deeply ftriated longitudinally j
leffer valve obliquely carinated. Indian ocean, very
rare.
B. Margin entire, beak injleBed.
* 2. A. Noah's ark; oblong, ftriated, and emarginated
at the tip 5 beaks very remote, bent in $ margin gaping.
Mediterranean and Atlantic Teas, Cornwall.
3. A. oblong, ftriated, bearded with byffus ; beaks
approximate-, margin clofed. Europe and Indian Teas.
4. A. oblong, ftriated, anteriorly angular. Medi¬
terranean.
5. A. ovate, pellucid, fubftriated ; anterior (lope di-
ftindl, prominent ; hinge ciliar. Mediterranean.
6. A. ovate, with decuffated ftrise, fnowy, and co¬
vered with a ruffet brown epidermis 5 margin gaping.
Red fea.
7. A. pellucid, brittle, round at each end, obfo-
letely ftriated ; teeth of the hinge very (harp. Nico¬
bar iilands.
8. A. convex, with tranfverfe ftriae ; hind-part round¬
ed, fore-part extended into an acute beak; 4 inch long,
broad. Baltic and Norway feas.
9. A. lentiform, with numerous decuffated ftriae;
lateritious and reddifti within ; pofterior excavation
triangular ; hinge arched ; an inch broad, and fome-
thing longer. Red fea.
10. A. roundifti, biradiated, with tranfverfe ftriae.
II. A. whitifti, covered with a whiter (kin, with de¬
cuffated ftrise; grooved, and obliquely truncated ; from
4 to 5 lines long, and 3 broad. Africa.
12. A. thick, roundilli, longitudinally ftriated, and
tranfverfely ribbed; ribs, with undulated ftrise; 3inches
long, 34- broad. Found in a foffil ftate in the duchy
of Limbourg.
13. A. with cancellated ftrise, and bearded; mar¬
gin gaping in the middle. American ocean.
*14. A. a little compreffed, tranfverfely ftriated, taper¬
ing at the remoter end, and rounded at the oppofite
ones ; 2^ lines long, and 4 broad. Greenland feas,
Sandwich.
C. Margin crenated; beaks recurved.
heiea. * 15. A. with a rhomboidal, yellowilh white, (hell,
and obfolete, decuffated ftrice; fize of a horfe bean.
European feas, Devonihire.
O L O G Y. 413
16. A. oblong, with ftriated tubercles; beaks in- nodulofa.
curved, remote; margin entire, clofed. Denmark.
17. A. obliquely heart-lhaped, with numerous un-antiquata,
armed grooves. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
18. A. obliquely heart-lhaped, fmooth, with grooves^fenilis.
margin plaited ; 3 inches long, 4 broad. America,
Africa.
19. A. fiightly heart-lhaped, with rcmxic&tzdigranofa.
grooves ; inch long, broad. American and In¬
dian oceans.
20. A. ovate compreffed; with perpendicular knotty forZ'/zv/Zs’.
ftrise; beaks obtufe, approximate. Nicobar iflands.
21. A. lenticular, with longitudinal ftrise, croffed hy decuj/ata.
faint, tranfverfe ones ; anterior (lope clofed. American
ocean.
22. A. lenticular, nearly equilateral, perpendicularly cequilatC'
ftriated without and within ; white, with chefnut fpots. ra.
American ocean.
23. A. lenticular, a little oblique, wdth decuffated
ftrise ; anterior (lope, with a very narrow vent. Indian
and American oceans.
24. A. ventricofe ; ftrite decuffated ; anterior (lope rr/cw/Zz/J-.
heart-lhaped ; 2 inches long, and 3 broad. Nicobar
iflands.
25. A. rounded on each ftde ; chefnut, and marked
with decuffated (trise ; external margin infledled, and ra.
repand in the middle ; beaks approximate. Straits of
Magellan.
26. A. rhomboidal, white, with decuffated ftrise; rr/r'rw/a/r?,
beaks approximate ; anterior (lope heart-draped.
27. A. pellucid, rhomboid, with decuffated RvisdCandida.
fore-part produced; hind-part truncated. American
ocean and African (hores.
28. A. inequivalve, ovate, with flat, longitudinalzW/rtf,
ftrise and deep grooves; anterior (lope heart-(haped ; ^
inch long, 14 broad. Indian ocean.
29. A. rounded before and truncated behind, Viithjamaicenjis
crenated or nodulous perpendicular ribs. Jamaica.
30. A. ovate, wdth broad, crenated, or fcaly, campeaclri*
pendicular ftriae ; hinge arched. Campeachy bay and ezz/zir.
Barbadoes.
31. A. broad, cancellated, truncated before; flatten-/zz/zz.
ed fide heait-fliaped.
32. A. ovate, longitudinally grooved, with ^a^atfenegalen-
tranfverfe wrinkles; white; 8 lines long, 10 broad.^yfr.
Africa.
D. Margin crenated, beak infieRed.
33. A. lenticular, without ears, fmooth, with a undata.
plaited margin ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. American
ocean
34. A. lenticular, (lightly eared, with (lightly [m-pe3unculus
bricated grooves; margin plaited; ij- inch long,
and fomething broader. American ocean and Red
fea.
35. A. lenticular, without ears, with fmooth, \ox\g\-peRinata.
tudinal ftrise. American ocean.
* 36. A. fuborbicular, gibbous, and faintly ftriated^/yrjvzzz-m.
tranfverfely. European and Indian feas, Cornwall.
Area Pilofa, Montagu.
37. A. fuborbicular, equilateral, hairy; inches pilofa.
long, 24 broad. Afiatic and American feas.
38. A. roundifli, fmcoth, (lightly eared, mi. nummana,
verfely ftriated. Mediterranean.
*39. A.
j
4X4
nucleus.
rhomboi-
dea.
tnartnora-
ta.
angulofa.
fcapha.
37
Oflrea.
Maxima.
jacobxa.
%ic%ac.
Jlr'iatula.
tninuta.
pleuronec-
tes.
laurentii.
faponica?
CONCH
* 39* A. obliquely ovate, fmoothifh, with a triangular
hinge ; fize of a hazel nut. European Teas. It is
fometimes found fofiil. Shores of Britain.
. 40. A. entirely white, rhomboid, heart-(haped, and
ribbed 5 anterior and dorfal ribs knotty ; beaks remote.
Indian and American oceans.
41. A. equilateral, thin, flattifh, with fine decufla-
ted ftriae ; beaks approximate ; hinge arched. Amerir
can ocean.
42. A. ventricofe, with longitudinal ftriae and lines;
and angular on one fide ; beaks approximate ; hinge
arched ; brown with a few {pots. Shores of Africa and
American ocean.
43. A. oblong, much depreffed, ftriated; beak
{lightly prominent. Ceylon.
Gen. 14. Ostrea, Oyfler.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a tethys j the {hell bi¬
valve j generally with unequal valves, and {lightly
eared ; hinge without teeth, but furmfhed with an
ovate hollow, and moftly lateral, tranlverle grooves.
Species.
A. Valvesfurnifhed with ears, and radiated. The Scallop.
a. Equilateral; ears of the valves equal.
* I. O. with 14 or 15 rounded ribs, longitudinally
grooved, with fine tranfverfe ftriae ; 5 inches long, 54
broad : ears large, with decuffated ftriae ; lower Valve
convex, white, often varied wuth red bands or fpots j
upper valve flat, reddifh. Found in large beds in moft
European feas, where they are dredged up, pickled,
and barreled for fale. It is faid, that the greateft quan¬
tity is taken after a fall of fnow. This is the fhell
worn formerly by pilgrims on the hat or coat, as a mark
that they had croffed the fea for the purpofe of pay¬
ing their devotion to the Holy land ; in commemora¬
tion of this it is ftill preferved in the arms of many
families.
* Z.O. with about j 4 angular and longitudinally ftriated
rays ; wpper valves flat, with rounded rays which are
finely ftriated tranfverfely 5 lower valve with angular
rays, which are ftriated longitudinally. Ears concave
and fmooth on the upper fide. European feas. Dor-
fetfhire, but rare.
3. O. with 18 flattened rays*, ears finely wrinkled;
lower valve convex ; rays finely ftriated tranfverfely ;
upper valve flat, with about twice as many angular
lines as there are rays. American ocean.
4. O. with 16 faint rays with tranfverfe membrana¬
ceous ftrise : margin very entire ; valves nearly equal¬
ly flat. Indian ocean.
5. O. with 20 convex rays ; lower valve white
and very convex ; upper valve white, clouded with
brown, flatter and plaited. Indian ocean.
6. O. equivalve, with x 2 doubled rays, and fmooth
on the outfide ; 44 inches long, gaping at each end.
Indian ocean.
7. O. upper valve fub-convex, wuth very fine per¬
pendicular lines, crofting very fine, concentric, tranf-
verfe ftrise ; lower valve with 48 rays, and 48 ftr’se
within ; 24 mches long, about the fame breadth. S.
America. Rare.
8 O '"quivalve, a little convex, margined wutb yel¬
low ; upper valve with faint lines crofting tranfverfe con-
O L O G Y, Chap. IV,
centric bands, and 48 elevated ftrhe within ; 5 ’ inches
long, about the fame breadth. Guinea and Japan.
9. Q. equivalve, glabrous, with oblong crowded ftriae;
upper valve more convex, lower flatter than in moft o- ca.
thers. Straits of Magellan.
to. O. with 9 or 10 rays; the interftices longitu- hybrida.
dinally ftriated : margin repand within. Norway feas.
11. O. nearly equivalve; with 12 convex xzys radula.
croifed by crenated ftrias ; 34 inches long, 24 broad.
Indian ocean.
1 2. O. equivalve, flattilh, with 9 unequal rays, im- imbricata.
bricated with feales. Red fea.
13* O. roundifh with 8 convex chefnut rays; evixsfubrotunda
roundilh, white wdth a yellowifh border ; i-J inches
long, 2 broad.
14. O. nearly equivalve, with 16 convex fmoothifh/>//ra.
rays, and ftriated acrofs; 14 inches long, 1 inch broad.
India.
15. O. roundifh w’ith convex rays, outer ones finely cmzafa.
ftriated longitudinally ; margin deeply crenated ; ears
tranfverfely ftriated.
16. O. ovate with numerous fine ftrise ; margin ext-fnuofa.
nated within.
17* O. oblong with fcaly rays; the interftices bxo^.d-fquamofa.
er, and marked with perpendicular ftrise ; ears wrink¬
led perpendicularly.
18. O. roundifli with 18 rays imbricated with feales;
ears ftriated tranfverfely ; 4 inch long.
* 19. O. with 20 fmooth rays, the interftices \.x?cs\{-fiibrufa.
verfely ftriated ; margin crenated ; 2 inches long, and
the fame breadth. Shores of Britain.
20. O. flattened, with 18 fmooth rays, the interftices verf color.
cancellated.
21.O. roundifli wuth 5 rays ; middle-fized. rofea.
22. O. brown with flat rays which difappear to-fufea.
wrards the hinge ; lower valve convex, upper flat. In¬
dian ocean.
23. O. thin, flat, purple, with Very minute pependicu- tenuis.
lar ftriae crofling circular tranfverfe ones ; the ftrise are
elevated within.
24. O. thin, pale yellow*, with thick rays. lutea.
25. O. roundilh, white, with a mixture of faffron; muricata.
the rays convex and finely and Iharply muricated ; 24
inches long.
26. O. roundilh, tawmy, dotted with white and black;
the rays thick.
27. O. roundifh, browm, with black tranfverfe Vines nodulofa.
and dots ; rays convex and knotty.
28. O. thin, whitifh, rofy, with white ftripes; x-zysradiata.
convex.
29.O. oblong, pale yellow, fpotted with viWite \punttata.
beaks varied with white and browm ; rays crenated ;
2 inches long.
30. O. roundifli, thin, varied with rofy and viVitiVn.) aculeata.
rays thbk with aculeate feales.
31. O. thin, flat, white, with a faffron edge; rays plana.
round and broad.
32. O. oblong, red, minutely ftriated. puflla.
33. O. convex on each fide, yellowifh within ; raysJlavefcens.
convex.
34. O. roundifli, deeo red, vuth a white hinge Andfabellum.
few fpots ; rays fmooth.
35* O. glabrous, refembling a foondylus; but thefpondyloi-
eais are equal. des.
36.O.
Chap. IV. CONCH
violacea, 36. O. flattifh 011 each fide j outfide brown, inlide
violet. Mediterranean.
aurantia. 37. O. roundilh, plaited, and finely firiated longi¬
tudinally } a white femicircular band towards the
hinge.
vittata. 38. O. within purple, without, alternate brown and
red bands j rays convex.
miniata. 39. O. white with confluent red fpots; rays rough ;
convex valve, with tranfverle, crilp lamellae ; inch
long, broad.
infiata. 40. O. convex on each fide ; clofed, oblong, pellucid \
32 rays; twice as long as it is broad. A rare {hell.
b. Ears unequal; one of them generally ciliated, with
/pines within,
pallium, 41. O. Ducal mantle. Equivalve, with 12 convex
rays, ftriated, rough, and imbricated with fcales •, red,
varied with brown and white ; ears ilriated, crenated
or fcaly. India.
fanguino- 42. O. equivalve, with 9 thick obtufe rays; inter-
lenta. flices longitudinally Ilriated, tuberculated and prickly.
Red fea.
tna,ulofa. 43. O. equivalve, pale yellow, with tawny fpots;
rays 1 2, thick and flattifli j ears white, with tranfverfe
fcaly ribs.
nodofa. 44. O. with 9 rays, covered rvith apparently veficular
tubercles. American and African oceans.
pes felis. 45. O. with 9 ftriated rough rays; one of the ears
very fmall.
pellucens. 46. O. nearly equivalve, with 9 rays ; fmooth, with
fpoon like hemifpherical fcales on the lower valve; mi¬
nute, pellucid ; upper valve fpotted with red. African
feas.
ohliterata. 47. O. fmooth on the outfide, with 24 douibled rays.
Indian ocean.
fanguinea. 48. O. equivalve, with 22 rays; ears fmall; 2
inches long, broad. Mediterranean and Atlantic
feas.
maria. * 49. O. equivalve ; rays about 30 ; comprefled, and
befet with tranfverfe, prickly fcales ; one ear very
fmall ; 2^ inches long, 2 broad. European feas, coafts
of Britain.
pufw. * 50. O. equivalve, rays about 40, filiform ; furface
often irregular or diftorted ; 2 inches long, if broad.
European and American feas, Cornwall.
cbfoleta. * 51. O. equivalve, femi-tranfparent, fmooth; dark
purple; with 8 nearly obfolete rays ; inch long. Bri-
tilh coafts. ,
levis. 52. O. fmooth ; ears red ; inch long. Anglefea,
Falmouth.
glabra. 53. O. ears nearly equal, equivalve, fmooth, with
from 10 to 15 fmooth flattilh rays ; infide with eleva¬
ted double ftriae ; 2 inches long, 2 broad. European
and American feas.
opercularis * 54. O. rays 20 ; roundiflr and rough, with decuflated
ftriae ; upper valve a little more convex ; 2f inches
diameter. North feas, Devonfhire and Cornwall,
where it is called frill or queen.
gibla. 55. O. equivalve, gibbous, with 20 glabrous rays.
American feas.
fulcata. 56. O. white, with flefh-coloured fpots ; rays gla¬
brous, 32 on the lower valve, 35 on the upper; if
inch long. Malabar.
hi/lrionica. 57- thin, flattened, pellucid, with fine tranfverfe
wrinkles, and 11 rays which are waved.
O L O G Y. 415
58. O. orbicular, with purple circles, and about 100 icelandica.
rays ; 3f inches long, 3 J broad. Mediterranean. The
filh of this fpecies is employed as food.
59. O. equivalve, glabrous, immaculate, tvith minute triradiata.
ftriae ; upper valve with 3 rays. Nomay feas.
60. O. nearly equivalve, ftriated, fpotted rough \.o~fuci,
wards the margin. Found on the fucus faccharinus in
the North fea.
61.O. nearly equivalve, ftriated, glabrous, red, with tigerina.
whitifh fpots. On fuel in the North feas.
62. O. nearly cquivalve, ftriated, glabrous ; rays q,feptemra*
convex. North feas. diata. •
63. O. nearly equivalve; within and without grooved arata.
and red ; one part rough, the other glabrous. North
feas.
64. O. convex on each fide, wfith 22 rounded, tranf-fenatoria,
verfe, wrinkled rays ; inierftices with longitudinal,
granulated ftriae ; 2f inches long. Indian ocean.
65. O. or'ange, with 22 rounded rays, and plaited c/Vr/wa.
margin ; lower valve flatter. India.
66. O. equally convex, both Tides with 20 glabrous turgida.
rays ; interftices with tranfverfe, crowded wninkles;
margin with plaited teeth. Indian and American feas.
67. O. flattened, thin, pellucid, ftriated with xin-fulphurea.
merous imbricated rays; margin with crenated plates;
2 inches long. Red fea.
68. O. convex, purple, wuthin, white or red, wflthporphyria.
25 thick, rounded fcaly rays ; inches long. Red
fea.
69.O. hyaline, with an acute margin, very lien-ivVmr.
der rays, and concentric fcaly curves. North feas.
70. O. with 20 rounded rays; interftices vidm-tranqueba-
kled ; margin repand ; upper valve more convex, ria.
Tranquebar.
71. O. white, with purple fpots, and numerous xxn-fauciata.
equal rays; margin crenated. Red fea.
72. O. oblong, wTith undulated rays and ftriae ; an&crenu/ata,
tranfverfe, interrupted bands ; a fmall fliell; margin
crenulated.
73* O roundifti, fpotted; wuth deep grooves £me\yinnominct-
ftriated tranfverfely ; margin crenulated. Small. ta.
74- O. round!fli, pale, rufous, with 24 rays; zzxsrufefcens.
wflth decuffated ftriae; middle fixed.
75.. O. roundifti; rays thick, with diftant parallelfquamata.
fcales, and prickly at the fides.
76. O. rather oblong, with narrow fcaly rays ; in-anonyma.
terlliees broader, and ftriated perpendicularly; ears
perpendicularly wrinkled.
77. O. flattened, with 10 fmooth, flat, unequal rays;
ears tranfverfely ftriated. diata.
78. O. thin, with deprelfed, fcaly rays; ears (hort. tenuis.
India, and North feas.
79. O. with 20 rays, and tranfverfe, femilunar bands, valentii.
India.
80. O. oblong, with crowded rays, middle faedi, media.
reddifh.
81. O. faffron-coloured, with muricated fcaly rzys crocea.
alternately lefs ; fmall.
82.O. roundifti, white, with rofy fpots, radiated
fmall.
83. O. oblong, ochraceous, with rays fmooth on oneochraleucdt
part, and granulated on the other ; minute.
84. O. pale, tawny, with yellow fpots and hzn&^mujlelina.
and fmooth rays ; ears tranfverfely ftriated; 2^ inches
long.
85. O,
3'6
flammed.
incar not a.
guttata.
deprefl'a.
regie.
palltata.
fcminuda.
modefla.
CONCHO LOGY.
85. O. fafiron-coloured, oblong, with fine perpendi¬
cular ftrire ; very minute.
86. O. oblong, flelh-coloured, with interrupted red
bands, and flattened rays ; fmall.
87. O. yellow’ifh, rounded, dotted with red \ rays
unequally converging at the hinge.
88. O. ochraceous, with flat bifid rays; I inch
long.
89. O. roundlfh, deep-red, with rounded rays.
90. O. equivalve, with numerous fmooth rays : is
lefs rough, and has fewrer rays than oflrea pallium.
91. O. orange, oblong, muricated, rvith fcales as
far as the middle \ rays 22 j i-J- inch long, i-J- broad.
92. O. roundilh, hoary, with brownilb, reddiflr, and
bluiih fpots ) interfticts of the rays broad j 2 filiform
bands at the hinge.
principalis. 93. O. purple, with a brown margin ; rays fcaly
from the middle, and fmooth at the hinge.
verflcolor. 94. O. variegated, with pedlinated fmoo'th rays,
c. Valves more gibbous on one flde.
flavicans. 95. O. nearly equivalve, with 8 ftriated rays j mar¬
gin rounded on one fide. South fea.
fafciata. 96. O. equivalve, with 20 rough rays ; interftices
ftriated } ears equal, fmall. Atlantic feas.
fragilis. 97. O. equivalve, with 25 rays ^margin very en¬
tire \ ears acute ; 1-5: inch long. Nicobar iflands.
lima. 98. O. equivalve, with 22 imbricated fcaly rays,
rounded at one margin •, ears obliterated •, 3 inches
long, 2 j broad. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
glacialis. 99. O. with 50 imbricated, interrupted rays-, ears
equal ; one of them unequally plaited. American o-
cean.
bians. 100. O. whitifh, thin, gaping on each fide, and ob¬
lique, with obfolete, undulated rays, and tranfverfe,
rounded, femilunar ftriae j 14 inch long, i broad. Nor¬
way.
■excavata. 101. O. dirty white, with longitudinal, undulated
ftrige, and a few tranfverfe rings one ear obfolete j
margin entire j 5 inches long 3^ broad. Norway.
B. Rough, and generally plaited on the outflde. Otsters.
malleus. 102. O. equivalve, 3 lobed, 2 of them placed tranf-
verfely like the head of a hammer ; 6 inches long, and
4Y broad. Deep parts of the Indian and Southern o-
ceans. Very rare.
mlfella. 103. O. fub-pellucid, narrow, elongated, lamel-
lated j one end rounded j inches long, 1 broad.
Red fea.
anatina. 104. O. pellucid, lamellated, and laterally incurved;
I inch broad, and including the curvature, 3 inches
long. Nicobar iflands.
diluviana. ^05. O. plaited on the outfide 5 margin with ereft,
acute, angular teeth fize of a common oyfter •, found
in a foflil ftate in the calcareous mountains of Sweden.
folium. J06. O. ovate, obtufely plaited at the fides 5 para-
fitical j found adhering to gorgonia in the Indian
ocean.
orbicula- 107. O. orbicular, flat, with an entire crenated mar-
ris. gin ; fize of the end joint of the thumb.
(dulis. 108. O. eatable or common 0flier; orbicular and
rugged, with undulated, imbricated fcales j one valve
flat, and verv entire. European and Indian feas.—It
is found, either in large beds, or adhering to rocks.
The fhell is of various fizes, forms, and colours j with-
Chap. IV,
in white, and often glofly, and of a pearly appearance.
The old Ihells have often an anomia fixed to them, and
they are frequently covered with the ferpula ..nd le-
pas, and the fertularia and other zoophytes. .3
The common oyfter has been long known as a nu-0\fter.s ear.
tritious food, and indeed in moft countries u greatly P'oyed as
efteemed as a delicate luxury of the table. The oy- t0Ck*•
fter is fuppofed by naturalifts to be a hermaphrodite
animal. The fpawn which they caft in May, adheres
to the rocks and other fubftances at the bottom of the
fea j and the {hell, it is fuppofed, is formed in the
fpace of 24 hours, and which, according to fome,
never leaves the fpot till removed by violence. But
from the obfervations of M. Dicquemare, who has
particularly ftudied the economy of the oyiter, it ap¬
pears that it poflefles the power of moving from place
to place, and that it varies its habits according to cir-
cumftances. Oyfters which are recently taken up from
places which are left dry by the fea open their {hell,
lofe their Water, and die in a few days. But the
fame oyfters kept in refervoirs, where they are left oc-
cafionally by the fea, expofed to the rays of the fun,
to fevere cold, or are difturbed in their beds, acquire
the habit of keeping the {hell clofe when they are un¬
covered with water, and exift without injury from this
treatment for a long time. The oyfter ftiould be frefts,
tender and moift. Thofe which are moft efteemed are
caught at the mouths of rivers, and in clear water.
The want of freftr water, it is faid, renders oyfters
hard, bitter, and unpalatable. Mud and fea weeds
are extremely injurious to the propagation and increa{e
of the oyfter. Other {hell fifti, and cruftaceous ani¬
mals, as muflels, fcallops, ftar-fifti and crabs, are their
moft deftrnftive enemies. _
Oyfters are of different colours in different places : in Of different
Spain they are found of a red and ruffet colour ; in Illy- kinds,
ria brown, with the filh black, and in the Red fea of the
colour of the iris. The green oyfter, which is eaten in
Paris, is brought from Dieppe. This colour is afcribed
to the verdure which encompaffes the bed on which they
are produced. The oyfters from Britanny in France
too, have been long famous j but thofe which are brought
from Marennes in Saintonge, are in higheft eftimation.
The oyfters which are edged with a fmall brown fringe
or beard, are generally preferred. Thefe are account¬
ed by the epicures fecundated oyflers. . 4G
In tropical regions, the common oyfter is found at- Adhere to
tached to trees. This affertion of the growth of oyf- trees in
ters on trees has been often ranked among the exag-^tS.
gerated or groundlefs ftories of the marvellous travel¬
ler ; but this circumilance when properly explained,
will not appear different from the ufual economy of
this teftaceous animal. In warm climates where vege¬
tation is fo much more luxuriant than in northern lati¬
tudes, a great variety of plants, among which are feen
large trees, grow on the {bores to the very edge of the
fea - and particularly on thofe places which are fhel-
tered from the agitation of the waves. In fuch places,
at the heads of bays and harbours, great abundance of
mangrove trees grow up from the bottom, where it is
feveral feet deep,' covered with water. It is generally
the mangrove tree that the oyfter is found in the
ft Indies. Without the trouble of picking them
on
Weft
from the trees, the branches growing under water to
which they are attached, are cut off, carried home in
bafkets.
Chap. IV. CONCH
bailcets, and In this ftate brought to table, where they
are either eaten raw, or roafted, as the European oyf-
ter. We have eaten oyfters which wjere produced in
this way, in the Lagoons at the head of Port Morant
harbour in Jamaica, a few minutes after they were ta-
fe- n from the water. They were of a fmall fize, but
extremely delicate and high flavoured.
Britain has been noted for oyfters from the time of
Juvenal, who, fatirizing Montanus an epicure, fays,
Circceis nata forent, an
Lucrinum adfaxum, Rutupinove edita fundo,
OJlrca, callebat primo depvendeYe morfu.
He, whether Circe’s rock his oyfters bore,
Or Lucrine lake, or diftant Richborough’s ftiore,
Knew at firft tafte.
The luxurious Romans were very fond of this
fiih, and had their layers or ftews for oyfters as we
have at prefent. Sergius Grata was the firft inventor,
Pennant's as early as the time of L. Craflus the orator. He did
Brit. Zool. not make them for the fake of indulging his appetite,
yeL 1V' but through avarice, and made great profits from
P' l°2' them. Grata got great credit for his Lucrine oyfters j
for, fays Pliny, the Britifh were not then known.
The ancients ate them raw, having them carried up
unopened, and generally eating them at the beginning
of,the entertainment, but fometimes roafted. They
alfo ftewed them with mallows and ducks, or with
fifh.
41 Britain ftill retains its fuperiority in oyfters over
Oyfters of other countries. Moft of our coafts produce them
Britain. naturally ; and in fuch places they are taken by dred¬
ging, and are become an article of commerce, both
raw and pickled. The fhells calcined are employed
in medicine as an abforbent, and in common with
other (hells, prove an excellent manure.
Stews or layers of oyfters are formed in places
which nature never allotted as habitations for them.
Thofe near Colchefter have been long famous; at pre¬
fent there are others that at leaft rival the former, near
the mouth of the Thames, The oyfters, or their fpats,
are brought to convenient places, where they improve
in tafte and fize. It is an error to fuppofe, that the
fine green obferved in oyfters taken from artificial beds,
is owing to copper; this fubftance, or the folution of
it, is deftrudlive to all fifli. The following is the ac¬
count of the whole treatment of oyfters, from Biftiop
Sprat’s Hiftory of the Royal Society, from p. 307 to
309.
“ In the month of May the oyfters caft their fpawn,
(which the dredgers call their /pats'): it is like to a
drop of candle, and about the bignefs of a half¬
penny. The fpat cleaves to ftones, old oyfter ftiells,
pieces of wood, and fuch like things, at the bottom
of the fea, which they call adtch. It is probably
conje&ured, that the fpat in 24 hours begins to have
a ftiell. In the month of May, the dredgers (by the
law of the admiralty court) have liberty to catch all
manner of oyfters, of what fize foever. When they
have taken them, with a knife they gently raife the
fmall brood from the clwtch, and then they throw
the clutch in again, to preferve the ground for the
future, unlefs they be fo newly fpat, that they can¬
not be fafely fevered from the cultch ; in that cafe
they are permitted to take the ftone or fhell, &c. that
Vol. VL Part IL
O L O G Y. 4*7
the fpat is upon, one fhell having many times 2C
fpats. After the month of. May, it is felony to carry
away the cultch, and puniftiable to take any other
oyfters, unlefs it be thofe of fize, (that is to fay) about
the bignefs of an half-crown piece, or when, the two
(hells being (hut, a fair (hilling will rattle between
them.
“ The places where thefe oyfters are chiefly catch-
ed, are called the Pcnt-Burnham, Malden, and Colne-
waters; the latter taking its name from the river of
Colne, which pafleth by Colchefter, gives name to
that town, and runs into a creek of the fca, at a
place called the Hythe, being the fuburbs of the
towm. This brood and other oyfters they carry to
the creeks of the fea, at Brickelfea, Merfy, Langno,
Fingrego, Wivenho, Tolefbury, and Saltcoafe, and
there throw7 them into the channel, which they call
their beds or layers, where they grow and fatten ; and
in two or three years the fmalleft brood wall be oyfters
of the fize aforefaid. Thofe oyfters which they would
have green, they put into pits about three feet deep
in the fait marthes, which are overflowed only at
fpring-tides, to wThich they have (luices, and let out
the fait water until it is about a foot and a half deep.
Thefe pits, from fome quality in the foil co-operating
with the heat of the fun, will become green, and
communicate their colour to the oyfters that are put
into them in four or five days, though they commonly
let them continue there fix weeks or two months, in
which time they will be of a dark green. To prove
that the fun operates in the greening, Tolefbury pits
will green only in fummer; but that the earth hath
the greater power, Brickelfea pits green both winter
and fumiqer : and for a further proof, a pit within
a foot of a greening pit will not green; and thofe
that did green very well, will in time lofe their qua¬
lity. The oyfters, when the tide comes in, lie with
their hollow (hell downwards; and when it goes out,
they turn on the other fide ; they remove not far from
their place, unlefs in cold weather, to cover themfelves,
in the oofe. The reafon of the fcarcity of oyfters,
and confequently of their dearnefs, is, becaufe they
are of late years bought up by the Dutch.
“ There are great penalties by the admiralty court
laid upon thofe that fifli out of thofe grounds which
the court appoints, or that deftroy the cultch, or that
take any oyfters that are not of fize, or that do not
tread under their feet, or throw upon the (bore, a fifli
which they call a jive-fiuger, refembling a fpur-rowl,
becaufe that fifli gets into the oyfters when they gape,
and fucks them out.
“ The reafon that fuch a penalty is fet upon any
that (hall deftroy the cultch, is, becaufe they find
that if that be taken away, the oofe will increafe,
and the mufcles and cockles will breed there, and de¬
ftroy the oyfters, they having not whereon to (lick
their fpat.
“ The oyfters are fick after they have fpat; but in
June and July they begin to mend, and in Auguft
they are perfedflly well , the male oyfter is black-fick,
having a black fubftance in the fin ; the female white-
fick (as they term it), having a milky fubftance in the
fin. They are fait in the pits, falter in the layers, but
falteft at fea.”
The oyfter affords the curious in microfcopic obfer-
3 G vations
/
418
4*
Liquid a-
bout the
oyfter feea
with the mi
crofcope.
femi-aura
ta.
Jlriata.
fornicata.
JincnJis.
CONCH
xrations a very pleafing entertainment. In the clear li¬
quor many little round living animalcules have been
found, whofe bodies being conjoined, form fpherical
.figures, with tails, not changing their place otherwife
than by finking to the bottom, as being heavier than
the fluid ; thefe have been feen frequently feparating,
and then coming together again. In other oyfters,
animalcules of the fame kind were found, not conjoin¬
ed, but fwimming by one another, whence they feem-
ed in a more perfect {fate, and were judged by Mr
Leeuwenhoek to be the animalcules in the roe or femen
of the oylfer.
A female oyfter being opened, incredible multitudes
of fmall embryo oyfters were feen, covered with little
(hells, perfedfly tranfparent, and fwimming along (low¬
ly in the liquor 5 and in another female, the young
ones were found of a browner colour, and without any
appearance of life or motion.
Monfieur Joblot alfo kept the water running from
oyfters three days, and it appeared full of young oy¬
fters fwimming about nimbly in it ; thefe increafed in
fize daily; but a mixture of wine, or the vapour of vi¬
negar, killed them.
In the month of Anguft oyfters are fuppofed to
breed, becaufe young ones are then found in them.
Mr Leeuwenhoek, on the 4th of Auguft, opened an
oyfter, and took out of it a prodigious number of
minute oyfters, all alive, and fwimming nimbly about in
the liquor, by means of certain exceeding fmall organs,
extending a little way beyond their (hells; and thefe he
calls their beards. In thefe little oyfters, he could dif-
cover the joinings of the (hells; and perceived that there
were feme dead ones, with their (hells gaping. Thefe,
though fo extremely minute, are feen to be'as like the
large oyfters in form as one egg is to another.
As to the fize of them, he computes, that 1 20 of
them in a row would extend an inch ; and confe-
quently, that a globular body, whofe diameter is an
inch, w'ould, if they were alfo round, be equal to
1,728,000 of them. He reckons 3000 or 4000 are
in one oyfter, and found many of the embryo oyfters
among the bairds ; fome faftened thereto by (lender
filaments, and others lying loofe : he like wife found
animalcules in the liquor 500 times lefs than the em-
bryo-oyfters.
It is not uncommon to fee on oyfter-ftiells, when in
a dark place, a (hining matter or bluifti light, which
flicks to the fingers udien touched, and continues (hin¬
ing and giving light for a confiderable time, though
without any fenfible heat. This {hining matter being
examined with a microfcope, is (aid to confift of three
forts of animalcules; but it is more probable that it is
the phofporefeent light which feparates from animal
matters, particularly fi(h, in the incipient ftage of the
putrefaflive procefs.
1O9. O. oval, (lightly eared, fmooth, with an ob¬
lique bale; inch long, broad. Mediterra¬
nean.
* no. O. oval, with longitudinal, irregular, undula¬
ted filiform ridges ; infide fmooth, gloffy -white, with
a pearly hue. European feas, (hores of Britain.
111. O. rough, oblong, linear, with divergent hinges;
internally vaulted. Red fea.
112. O. rough, lamellated, unequal, and glabrous
O L O G Y. Chap. IV,
within; lower valve large; 4 inches long. Chinefe
(hores.
113. O. equivalve, pellucid, flattened, oval, 'w'w.hfpondjloi^
perpendicular, undulated ftriae on the upper valve : dea.
3 inches long, broad. India.
x 14. O. plaited, and terminating in along, incurve
hollow beak ; middle ribs with imbricated, fpincus
wrinkles ; 2 inches long, and 1 broad. Red fea.
115* O. with longitudinal, wrinkled plaits; \q\vz?pticatula*
valve fmaller and flatter ; varies much in (liape and
fize. American and Mediterranean feas.
_ir6. O. oblong, rugged; upper valve lamellated,
with a denticulated margin ; the lower excavated, and
longitudinally grooved. Mediterranean.
117. O. nearly equivalve, thick, rough, lamellous ; virginica,
one valve with a prominent beak ; 9 inches long, and
4 broad. American and Indian oceans.
118. O. upper valve flat, lower one hollow7 and fax- cornucopicc
ated ; rough with feales, wiinkles and plaits, and ter¬
minating in an elongated beak. Indian and African
oceans.
119. O. thin ; lower valve convex and thicker ; \\\eparafitica,
other flat. Atlantic and Indian feas.—This fpecies,
like the common oyfter, fixes itfelf to the roots and
branches of trees, particularly the mangrove, which
grow out of the water. It varies in' form and fize,
and is often as large as the palm of the hand.
120. O. thin; upper valve longer and more con-£Xalbtda,
vex. Adriatic.—It is found fixed to other (hells.
121. O. rugged, with imbricated lamellae; margin
with obtufely plaited teeth ; 1 inch long.
122. O. equivalve, roundifti, fmooth, flat; 2 xwoktsfenegalen*
diameter. Shores of Senegal. Jxs.
123. O. thin, depreffed, rough, unequal; upper/W/tf/<7.
valve ribbed ; ribs w'ith a few fpines. Guinea.
124. O. oval, thin, terminating in a (hort, acute,ovalis.
lateral channelled beak ; ftrise perpendicular, unequal,
obfolete ; 1 inch long.
125. O. roundifti, fnowy, thin, pellucid; papyraceM.
valve terminating in a (hort, acute beak.
126. O. equivalve, orbicular, white, with concentric
femicircles. North feas.
127. O. equivalve, oblong, w7hite, glabrous, ^xm-retufa.
ted ; with an umbo or knob remote from the hinge.
North feas.
C. Hinge with a perpendicular grooved line.
T28. O. equivalve, obovate, unequal, rounder ztperna.
one end ; z\ inches long ; has fome refemblance to a
gammon of bacon. Indian and American feas.
x 29. O. equivalve, with a larger lobe, forming a ifogonunt.
right angle with the hinge ; from 5 to 7 inches long,
and broad in the middle ; (hell blackifh, violet
without, pearly within. Indian ocean and South feas.
Is a rare (hell.
130. O. equivalve, orbicular, comprefled, mzxcDox^ephippium,
naceous; 5 inches long, 5^ broad. Indian ocean and
Cape of Good Hope. Very rare.
131. O. equ'valve, thin, pellucid, and pointed TXpiBa.
the hinge ; the other end dilated ; margin acute ; 2
inches long, more than an inch broad. Red fea.
132. O. flat, hoary, thin, pellucid, lamellated ; in-legumen.
terftices of the grooves black ; 2 inches long, 4 lines
broad. Nicobar iflands.
133- o.
419
Chap. IV. CONCH
tilata. 133* O* flat* brittle, pellucid j dilated towards the
margin. America.
tnvtiloides. 134. O. nearly equivalve, ovate, ventricofe, ftraight.
torta. 13^. O. equivalve, intorted.—This and the pre¬
ceding fpecies are found foflil in Aiface.
pgs-lutrce. i36* o. equivalve, fmooth, wedge-fhaped with 6
obtufe plates, varied with purplilh and white, and
marked with fine longitudinal firiae ; margin flightly
fcalloped.
Gen. 15. Anomia.
43 . n /I J
Aponua. Qef?t Char.—"Fhe animal is a hgula or ftrap-iliaped
body, emarginated and ciliated j the bridles being
fixed to the upper valve. There are two linear
arms, longer than the body, open, ftretched out, al¬
ternate on the valve, ciliated on both fides j the hairs
are fixed to both valves •, the Ihell is inequivalve j
one valve being rather fiat, the other more gibbous
at the bale, with a produced beak, generally curved,
over the hinge ; one of the valves is often perforat¬
ed at the bale ; the hinge is without teeth. A (mall
linear fear appears prominent, with a lateral tooth
placed within •, but on the very margin of the flat
valve. There are two bony rays for the bafe of
the animal.
Species.
cranio laris
pe&inata.
ephippium.
Capa.
tie Sirica.
J'quamula.
patellifor-
mi r.
fcobinata.
aurita.
retufa.
gryphus.
1. A. orbicular *, the gibbous valve conico-convex,
flat valve with three hollows at the bafe •, 1 inch long,
4 broad. Mediterranean leas and Philippine iflands.
It is fometimes found foflil.
2. A. oblong, with branched grooves \ the gibbous
valve wnth two hollows behind. An inch long, -j
broad ; flat valve perforated. Mediterranean.
* 3. A. roundiflr, pellucid, with wrinkled plates j flat
valve perforated *, diameter fometimes 34 inches, mod
frequently about 2. European and American feas,
flrores of Britain.—It is often found adhering to the
common oyder. Mr Montagu thus accounts for the
perforation in thefe fhells. The tedaceous plug, he
obferves, by wTich the animal fixes itfelf to other bodies,
is firmly attached by drong ligaments to thefe bodies,
and fo clofely cemented, that they become infeparable.
When, therefore, the ftiell is torn, from its native place,
the plug is left behind upon the done or other fliell to
which it adhered.
* 4. A. obovate, unequal, violet •, upper valve convex;
lowTer perforated. European and American feas, flrores
of Britain.
5. A. roundifli, yellow, fmooth ; one valve convex
and gibbous ; very thin. Goads of Africa.
* 6. A. fmall, orbicular, entire, thin like the fcale of
a filh. European feas, Britain.
7. A. ovate, convex, fubdiaphanous, flriated ; pofle-
rior beak recurved and fmooth. North feas;
8. A. roundifli, fmooth, and rough within ; beak
perforated.
9. A. fubovate, flriated, and flightly eared ; beak
perforated. Norway feas.
10. A. obovate, driated, retufe, with a longitudinal
cavity ; beak perforated. Norway feas, adhering to
zoophytes. •
11. A. oblong, fmooth, with an obfolete lateral
plate on one valve, and incurved beak; the other
O L O G Y.
valve fliort and flattifli. Frequently found in a foflil
date.
1 2. A. femiorbicular, deprefled, with numerous &.nse,',peSicn.
one valve flat. Found in a foflil date.
13. A. roundifli, and a little dilated; gibbous ov\Jlnatula,
each fide; flriated; valves equal. Has been only
found foflil.
14. A. fuborbicular, obfoletely ftriated; \i\w%p.truncata.
truncated. European feas.
15. A. heart-flnped, with decuflated ftrioe ; fliorterreticularis.
valve more gibbous. Found foflil.
16. A. dilated, lunated, plaited wdth longitudinally/,//rtf(V//tf.
flriated grooves. Found only in a foflil date.
17. A. dilated, triangular, plaited with wu-inkled
grooves ; the middle broader. Found foflil in Eng¬
land and Switzerland.
18. A. roundifti with numerous grooves ; \a\vtslacunofa,
plaited at the tip ; one of them fhortei and pitted.
Found only in a foflil date.
19. A. obovate, grooved; beak of one valve yroim-pubefeens.
nent, the other gaping ; about the fize of a cucumber
feed, covered with fmall, eredf, diflant hairs. Nor¬
way feas.
* 20. A. conic, pointed, grooved ; one valve convexcufpidata.
with an incurved beak ; the other pyramidal with a
large triangular foramen. Found in Herbyfhire in a
foflil date.
21. A. roundifli with numerous grooves ; the vnlvesfarSla.
convex, and 8-toothed at the tip. Found foflil in Swit¬
zerland and Weflphalia.
22. A. obovate, dilated, dowmy; one valve with acaputfer*
longer perforated beak. Norway feas. It is general-/>e«/fj.
ly found adhering to the madrepora prolifera.
23. A. obovate, fmooth, convex; one valve Wwlaterebratu*
three plates; the other with two; the beak of one la.
valve prominent and perforated. Found frequently in
a foflil date.
24. A. with compreffcd plates at the fides of theangulata.
bale, anteriorly ; the middle three-toothed. Found foflil.
25. A. dilated, fmooth, convex ; ftriated with about hyjlerita.
3 lobes; anterior part depreffed, with an acute margin.
Found foflil in Germany.
26. A. two-lobed, equal, ftriated. Only found foflil. £z7<s£tf.
27. A. orbicular, flat, pellucid ; hinge with two placenta.
linear callofities growing within the fliell; 5 inches
diameter. Indian ocean.
28. A. nearly quadrangular, convex, and neatlya,//z7.
clofed ; bronzed; margin repand; 7 inches diameter.
Indian ocean.
* 29. A. covered with fpines as long as the ft.\tX\.s.fpinofa,
England, in a foflil dale.
30. A. roundilh, prickly; crown fmooth and re-aculcata.
curved behind ; lower valve flat, fmooth, and perfora¬
ted at the crown. Norway feas.
31. A. hyaline, ventricofe; crown bent towards themuricata.
right; upper valve longitudinally ftriated ; low'd valve
flat, very thin, and the circumference of the per¬
foration elevated. Guinea.
32. A. oblong, with a rounded margin ; one v?\\efquama.
flat, thin, fmooth, with a large ovate perforation at the
tip; the other convex, and longitudinally ftriated. Seas
of Norway.
33. A. orbicular, hyaline, thin, punctured ; flat v&stpunclflta.
perforated at the tip ; fmall, brittle. Ferro iflands.
3 G 2 34- A.
42o 'CONCH
vndulata. ’* 34. A. margin crcnatedj flat valve thin and fmooth,
with a large oval perforation 5 convex valve with tranf-
verfe arched ftrise, eroding undulated longitudinal ones.
Mediterranean, North feas, Devonfhire.
eapenjis 35. A. longitudinally ftriated, a little truncated ;
with a rounded, notched margin. Cape of Good Hope.
detruncata 36. A. truncated, orbicular, longitudinally ftriated j
flat valve with three ribs within ; other valve longi¬
tudinally ftriated within, and divided by a partition in
the middle. Mediterranean.
fanguino- 37. A. horny, fmooth, and convex on each fide j
lenta. upper valve emarginated, and radiated at the fides,
with an elevated, fanguineous back. India.
'uitrea. 38. A. ovate, ventricofe, hyaline ; lower valve with
two bony rays at the hinge, befides lateral teeth j
upper valve with a prominent, perforated tip ; l-J inch
long, 1 inch broad. Mediterranean.
cranium. 39. A. fmooth, ventricofe, finely ftriated tranf-
verfely ; | inch broad, lomething longer. Norway feas.
dorfata. 40. A. heart-ftiaped, folid, with arched tranfverfe
ring and wrinkles, and longitudinal ftriae and grooves.
Magellanic feas. Is often found foflil.
pjittacea. 41. A. horny and finely ftriated longitudinally j
fhorter valve gibbous ; longer one flat, with an incur¬
ved tip, triangularly perforated } rather large, pellucid.
Greenland. Very rare.
(ridentata. 42. A. yellowifh, pellucid, thin, finely ftriated
tranfverfely ; tricufpidate with tubular points ; valves
united. Mediterranean.
fpondyloi- 43. A. ovate, antiquated, with an obtufe channelled
des. beak.
ventricofa. 44. A. fubovate, folid, wdth a channelled beak.
gryphoides. 45. A. oval, fmooth, folid, opaque ; Idler valve
with a ftraight, obtufe, truncated beak.
jlexuofa. 46. A. very thin, lamellated, hollowed in the mid¬
dle ; upper valve flat \ lowrer valve convex towards the
crown, with an orbicular perforation beneath it. Nor¬
way feas.
rugofa. 47. A. obovate ; upper valve convex and finely
wrinkled j lower valve thin and fmooth, with a kidney-
fliaped perforation. Norway feas.
tylindrica. 48. A. very thin, cylindrical, and narrowed out¬
wardly } upper valve gibbous, lower hollow’. North
feas.
nucleus. 49. A. glabrous, oval, longitudinally grooved.
North feas.
avenacea. 50. A. pyriform, protraded, and flightly comprefled
towards the hinges. North feas.
fandaleum. 51. A. turbinated j back flat, with a ftriated cavity ;
lid flat and hemifpherical. Germany, in a foflil ftate.
^ Gen. 16. Mytilus, The MuJJel.
Mytilus. Gen. Char.—The animal is allied to an afeidia ; the
fhell bivalve, rough, generally affixed by a byflus or
beard of filky filaments; hinge moftly without
teeth, with generally a fubulate, excavated, longitu¬
dinal line.
Species.
A. Parajitical, affixed as it were by cla ws.
criJla-gcdU. 1. M. plated, fpinous j both lips rough. Indian
ocean and Red fea.
hyotis. 2.|M. plaited and imbricated, with broad, compreffed
feales ; both lips fmooth. Inhabits the ocean, on beds
of coral.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV,
3. M. plaited, fmoothilh ; one lip rough. American frons.
ocean.
B. Plat, or cotnpreJJ'ed into a flattened form, andflightly
eared.
4. M. Pearl-bearing muffiel. Flattened, nearly or- margare-
biular, with a tranfverfe bafe ; imbricated with X.oo'On- tiferus.-
ed tunics. American and Indian feas This fpecies
is about 8 inches long, and fomewhat broader j the in-
fide is finely poliftred, and produces the true mother-
of-pearl 5 and frequently alfo it affords the moft valuable
pearls. When the outer coat of the fhell, which is-
fometimes lea-green, or chefnut with white rays, or
whitifh w'ith green rays, is removed, it exhibits the
fame pearly luftre as the infide $ the younger fliells
have ears as long as the fhell, and refemble fcallops.
5. M. roundifh j longitudinally ftriated, pellucid, unguis*
and flightly eared. Mediterranean.
C. Ventricofe or convex*
6. M. cylindrical 5 rounded at both ends. Euro- lithopha*
pean, American, and Indian feas. It is about an inch^ar.
broad, and 3 long.—It perforates and eats aw'ay coral
rocks, and even the hardeft marbles. Thofe w’hich
are found in Europe have a thin brittle Ihell: the fhell
of thofe found in India is foft, and nearly coriaceous.
7. M. rhombic, oval, brittle, rugged, antiquated, rugofus.
and rounded at the ends. Seas and lakes, north of
Europe.—It is ufually found lodged in limeftone ; each
individual in a feparate apartment, w’ith apertures too
fmall for the fhell to pafs through.
8. M. ftriated, wuth vaulted knobs, and a bilocularis.
partition. Nicobar iflands.
9. M. convex one of the margins angular 5 the exuflus.
anterior extremity crenated j inch long. Ameri¬
can ocean and Red fea.
10. M. fmoothifh; ferruginous on the outfide, -awAlarbatus.
bearded at the tip j ^ inch long. Mediterranean and
Norway feas.
* xi. M. Eatable or common muffiel. Smooth, violet j
valves flightly recurved on the obtufe fide, and fome¬
what angular on the acute fide ; beaks pointed ; from
2 to 3 inches long. European and Indian feas This
fpecies is obferved to.be larger w’ithin the tropics, and
to diminifh gradually towards the north. It is found
in large beds, and generally attaches itfelf to other
bodies by means of its long filky beard. The fifh is
employed as food in many parts of the world, and is
efteemed rich and nutritious.
* 12. M. very crooked on one fide near the hedk.s,incurvatus
then generally dilated j within with a violet tinge.
Coaft of Anglefea.
* 13. M. oval, tranfparent, and elegantly radiated/^Z/z/f/z/z/J,
lengthwife with purple and blue j tw7o inches long.
Anglefea, in oyfter beds.
* 14. M. contracted into a deep rugged cavity, opyo-umbilica*
fite the hinge, forming a deep hollow when the valves/zzj-.
are clofed ; 5 inches long. Anglefea.
* 15. M. Ihort, ventricofe, obtufe at the beaks, andczzr/zzj1.
dirty yellowr. Weymouth.
16. M. fmooth, flightly curved j hind margin m-ungulatus,
fleCted 5 hinge terminal, two-toothed. Mediterrane¬
an, Cape of Good Hope, and New Zealand. Found
at the latter place refembling M. edulis; but is 5 inches
long, and 2j broad.
17. M.
Chap. IV. CONCH
bidtns. 17. M. ftriated, flightly curved 5 hind margin in¬
flected ; hinge terminal, two-toothed ; fcarcely an inch
long. Mediterranean and Atlantic feas.
modiolus. * 18. M. fmooth, blackifli, obtufe at the fmaller end,
and rounded at the other j one fide angular, near the
beaks ; from 6 to 7 inches long, 3 broad. European,
American and Indian feas, Devonfhire, Weymouth.
cygneus. * 19. M. ovate, very brittle, tranfverlely wrinkled; an¬
terior end comprefled, the other rounded ; hinge late¬
ral ; from 2 to 5 inches broad, and 3 long. Frequent
in the lakes and rivers of Europe, Britain.—It is the
largeft of Britilh frelh-water ihells. It arrives at the
greatefl: fize in ponds and ftagnant waters.
Cnatinus. 20. M. oval, a little comprefled ; brittle and femi-
tranfparent, with a membranaceous margin. Frefh
waters of Europe.—It refembles the laft, but is longer
and narrower. Ducks and crows, it is faid, are ex¬
tremely fond of both this and the laft fpecies.
Hindis. 21. M. fmooth, ovate, membranaceous, pellucid,
with a terminal hinge. Southern ocean.
ruber. 22. M. wrinkled j valves oblique and anteriorly di¬
lated. Southern ocean.
albus. 23. M. tranfverfely ftriated j beaks gibbous; hinge
lateral ; 6 inches long, 3^ broad. Shores of Chili.—
The filh is white, and affords a grateful food.
ater. 24. M. grooved, and fcaly behind. Chili.—-The
filh is black, and unfit for being eaten.
difiors. * 25. M. oval, horny, fubdiaphanous ; extremities
longitudinally ftriated ; middle tranfverfely. European
and fouthern feas, Cornwall and Devonlhire. From
the South feas it is 1^- inch broad ; in Britain rarely
exceeds i inch.
birundo. 26. M. fmooth*, valves 2-lobed*, lobe at the hinge
longer and thinner. American, Mediterranean, and
Indian feas.
pholadis. 27. M. oblong \ more obtufe on the fore-part *,
rough,, with tranfverfe wrinkles ; inch long,
broad. North feas.—This fpecies penetrates beds of
coral and other rocks, like the pholas.
Jlriatulus. 28. M. finely ftriated, hinge terminal, 1 tooth ‘r i|-
inch long, 14 broad. Northern and Indian feas.
vulgaris. 29. M. flattened on one fide and inflefted ; beaks
incurved, convergent ^ hinge I-toothed. American
ocean.
plicatus. 30. M. rhombic, inequilateral ; tranfverfely ftriated
and wrinkled ; beaks incurved. Nicobar iflands.
niveus. 31. M. ovate, fubdiaphanous*, finely ftriated longi¬
tudinally ; margin acute*, hinge 2-toothed ; fliell fnowy
and polifhed within. Nicobar iflands. Very rare.
• 32. M. nearly triangular, dilated before, and flat-
tifh gaping behind ; beaks pointed, turned back ; mar¬
gin very acute ; 4 inches long, 2 broad. Mediterra¬
nean and African (hores.
fmaragdi- 33. M. nearly triangular, flattifh ; hinge 2-toothed
nus. in one valve j i-toothed in the other. Tranquebar,
Guinea.
verjicolor. 34. M. nearly triangular, flattifli j hinge 1-toothed j
margin glabrous, acute 5 3 inches long, 2 broad.
Guinea.
coralho- 33. M. carinated in the middle, and crenated at the
pbagus. margin, with an obtufe knob ; ^ inch long. Indian
and American oceans. Pertorates rocks like a pholas.
hneatus. 36. M. triangular and dilated outwards, with an¬
gular, decuffated, and confluent lines j hinge 2-tooth-
fd. A minute Ihell.
O L O G Y. 421
37. M. oval, rufous, ftriated, with a crenulated^/h^.
margin. Seas of Greenland.—This fpecies is the food
of the anas hiemalis and hiftrionica.
38. M. thin, flightly wedged ; beaks recurved nndjluviatilis,
large. Frefli waters of Europe.
39. M. oblong, narrow, finely ftriated tranfverfely
one fide emarginated, the other rounded ; beaks pro¬
minent, curved. A minute brown ftiell.
40. M. broad, fhort, and rounded behind j hzdks mamma-
conic, protuberant. rius.
41. M. broad, and curved with a rough, rwggzdi,perjicus.
yellow coat *, within milky. Perfian fea.
42. M. broad, very fmooth, flammeous or rofe-co-/>/cc?«x.
loured wuth white bands *, beaks obtufe. Portugal.
43. M. pellucid, Ihining, bluiih, with o. clzxzX. co-fafciatut.
lour and pale red bands. Brazil.
44; M. broad and rounded at both ends ; claret co- undatus.
lour, with waved, bluifh, and greenifh, ftriae j margin
ferrated. Portuguefe fea.
45. M. rounded behind ; pale flefh-colour; purple/zzr/wrrw*
within ; margin denticulated. Shbres of Brazil.
46. M, ear-flhaped, wuth granulated wrinkles on thzfaxatilis.
outer fide, dilated and rounded. Amboyna.
47. M. tranfverfely ftriated, rounded at each end ; arg-cTZ/zw.
brown, filvery within ; beaks rounded.
48. M. narrow, fhining bluifli colour with \\Q\eX.fulgidus.
fpots at the fides ; beaks rounded, dilated. Seas of
Magellan.
49. M. gibbous, azure, with yellowifti ftripes he- a’zureus.
neath j beaks obtufe j 1 inch broad, -J long.
50. M. moufe-coloured, wdth violet fpots, and ^.murinus.
broad, rounded, rofy margin ; beaks pointed ftraight.
Guinea.
51. M. long, narrow, covered with a tefaceons tejlaceus.
fldn ; fhining filvery beneath, varied with blue, red,
yellow, and brown.
52. M. dilated outwardly 4 greenifh yellow, with virgatus.
rofy ftripes ; beaks obtufe, curved.
53. M. oblong, very thin, white, with oh[o\z\.e cordatus*
ftriae, and a heart-fhaped gap behind. Indian and
Southern oceans.
54. M. oval, flattifh, and tranfverfely ribbed j %Jlagnalis.
inches broad, 44 long. In frelh waters.
55. M. oval, convex, rounded behind ; elongated, %ellenf.s.
and obtufely pointed before 5 beaks obfolete ; 7 inches
broad, 3 long. Stagnant waters of Germany.
56. M. fuborbicular, with 15 triangular, evened rofeus.
grooves, and alternate triangular teeth 5 3 inches broad.
Africa.
57. M. gibbous, pointed, with 15 grooves; marginpuniceus\
toothed j 14 lines long, and-4 as broad j hinge with
4 minute teeth. Africa.
58. M. flat, thin, w’ith fine grooves, covered with niger.
a black Ikin, under which it is milky, and finely po¬
lifhed 5 1-4 inch long ; grooves about 100. Africa.
59. M. flat, fmooth, covered with a thick fulvousIcevigdtus,
fldn, under which it is rofy ; 24 inches long. Africa.
60. M. tranfverfely wrinkled ; obtufe at each end ; dubius.
fulvous, within pearly ; beaks obfolete *, hinge without
teeth 5 5 inches broad, 2 long. Frefh waters of Se¬
negal.
61. M. 5-celled ; valves carinated and flattifh on the polymer*
incumbent fide ) beaks obtufe and inflefted backwards -,pbus.
fize of a plumb ftone. Ruffian fea, and in frefh wa¬
ters, where it is much larger.
3 62. M.
422
canalicu-
latus.
rojlrum.
camcllii.
avonenfis.
. 4S
Pinna.
nulls.
peclinata.
iiobilis.
muricata.
rotundata.
fquamofa.
cornea.
faccata.
digitifor-
mis.
lobata.
'uhrea.
incurva.
bicolor.
exujlo.
yexillum.
papyracea
CONCH
62. M. fmoothirh, chefnut brown ; within party co¬
loured 5 focket of the hinge channelled.
63. M. oblong, thin, truncated j beaks (harp and
carinated j valves gaping at the end. Amboyna.
64. M. oblong, thin, truncated 5 beak (harp and
carinated ; valves completely doled. Japan.
* 65. M. with a fuboval (hell, of an olivaceous
brown colour, with concentric wrinkles ; fize of the
M. anatinus, but broader in proportion to its length.
The pollerior fide generally more obtufe and rounded.
River Avon in Wiltfiiire. Montagu, Tejl. Brit. 172.
Gen. 17. Pinna, Sea-Wing.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax 5 the (hell bivalve,
fragile, upright, gaping at one end, and furnifiied
with a byffus or beard. Hinge without teeth , the
valves united into one.
Species.
1. P. vaulted with arched feales, arranged in row's;
from 12 to 16 inches long, and from 4 to 8 broad ;
red *, from 6 to 8 grooves. Atlantic, Indian, and Red
feas.
2. P. longitudinally firiated half way j one fide
(lightly wrinkled tranfverfely } 3 inches long, 4 broad.
Indian ocean.
3. P. ftriated, wfith channelled, tubular, fubimbri-
cated feales ; 7J inches long, 3^ broad. Mediterra¬
nean, Adriatic, and American feas.
* 4. P. firiated with concave, ovate, acute feales 5 from
3 to 9 inches long, and 1 to 3 broad. European and
Indian oceans, Weymouth.
5. P. wdth obfolete feales, margin rounded ; fome-
times 2 feet long. Mediterranean.
6. P. with fine undulated feales, and flexuous,
broad wrinkles 5 fmaller end pointed and naked j 13
inches long, 6^ broad. Mediterranean.
7. P. thin, flefir colour, naked, longitudinally
grooved ; external margin acute and rounded.
8. P. fmooth, fatchel-fiiaped ; a little ere£l, and
(lightly faftigiated ; yj: inches long, 2% broad. Medi¬
terranean and Indian feas.
9. P. fmooth, tubular, finger-fhaped, incurved, ex¬
treme margin membranaceous 5 pellucid.
10. P. naked, lobed, ftraw-coloured, with purple
(Iriae.
11. P. hyaline, with longitudinal, W'aved ftriae;
the ftrise with a few feales, and crofled by other tranf-
verfe ftriae at the margin. Indian ocean. Very rare.
12. P. narrow, long, naked, carinated, with tranf-
verfe, undulated wrinkles. Indian ocean.
13. P. thin, intle&ed at the lateral margin *, yellow'-
i(h, with black brown rays j thinly ftriated longitudi¬
nally. Red fea.
14. P. flattilh, horny, with blackifh rays, fpots, and
clouds j and many fmooth ftrise. Southern ocean of
India. R are.
15. P. truncated at the outer margin ; dilated, na¬
ked, with a few black clouds -7 ftriated longitudinally
on the fore-part, and tranfverfely wrinkled behind.
India. Very rare.
16. P. thin, brittle, horny, longitudinally ribbed j
extreme margin roundilh. Indian ocean.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
17. P. flattUh, (lightly incurved, red, with a iewfanguinea.
perpendicular, fmooth ftrise j 3 inches long.
18. P. very ftraight, thin, and perpendicularly ftri-
ated, with tranfverfe, fpinous wrinkles, on the lower
margin.
General Obfervations.—It has been doubted whether
the animal which inhabits the pinna be a limax or dug,
according to the opinion of Linnaeus j and it is even
afferted, that it has not the fmalleft aftrnity with this
animal, but approaches much more nearly to that
which belongs to the mytilus. In proof of this, it is
faid that the pinna pofieffes no locomotive power, but
remains fixed by its byflus or beard to other bodies 5
and fo firmly attached, that it can by no means be dif-
engaged at the will of the animal ; for the fibres are
ftrongly agglutinated to the land, gravel, or other ex¬
traneous bodies within its reach. Indeed it feems not
at all improbable that all teftaceous animals, furniihed
wdth a fimilar beard, are intended by this ftrutture to
remain attached to the fpot where they are originally
produced.
This (hell-fifti wTas celebrated among the ancients on
account of the cloth which was made of the fine byflus
or beard by wLich it is attached. As a rare and cofi-
ly production it brought a high price, and was held in
great eftimation. At the prefent day even, according
to the information of modern travellers, the inhabitants
of Palermo and Naples manufacture gloves and (lock¬
ings from the fame fubftance.
The pinna has obtained a little reputation for the
praCtice of fome of the moral virtues, in treating a
(mall fpecies of crab with hofpitality and friendlhip, by
receiving it into the (hell, and defending it againft its
enemies. In return for this kindnefs, the crab, like
the jackall wdth the lion, aCts the part of a provider
and monitor, by warning its hoft of the prefence of its
prey or of the approach of an enemy. But this friend¬
ly intercourfe accords ill with the nature of the ani¬
mals between whom it is praCfiled. The crab, it is
far more probable, is a troublefome intruder j and not-
withftanding all the fervice he can repay, is confider-
ed as a very unwelcome gueft, and is indebted for his
lodging to his own aftivity, and the duggifti nature of
his hoft, rather than to his kindnefs and hofpitality.
III. UNIVALVE SHELLS.
Gen. 18. Argonauta.
46
Gen. Char.—The animal is a fepia or clio. The (hell Argonaut*!
is univalve, fpiral, involute, membranaceous, one-
celled.
Species.
1. A. ’The paper nautilus. Keel or ridge of the (hell argo.
(lightly toothed on each fide. The (hell, which is thin
as paper, brittle, and tranfparent, is white or yellow-
i(h, with fmooth or knotty ftriae or ribs which are
fometimes forked ; the keel is generally brownifh.
This (hell prefents confiderable varieties. Sometimes
the keel is narrow, and marked with clofe bifurcated
wrinkles ; fometimes it has a broad keel with tubercu-
lated ribs ; and fometimes a broad tuberculated keel
with few and fmooth ribs.
The fingular ftruChire and wonderful economy of
this
423
Chap, IV. CONCH
this animal very early attra&ed the attention of na-
turalifts. To its progreffive motion on the furface
of the ocean, mankind are indebted, it is faid, for the
firft hint of the art of navigation. This is alluded to
in the numbers of Pope :
Learn of the little nautilus to fail,
Spread the thin oar, and catch the driving gale.
What is the particular organization which enables
this animal to rife to the furface or to fink to the bot¬
tom at pleafure, feems not to be underftood by natura-
lifts ; whether it is by throwing out a quantity of wa¬
ter by which it becomes fpecifically lighter than the
element in which it lives, or by taking in a quantity
of air, which will produce the fame efteft. It is only
when the fea is calm and unruffled that the nautilus,
with his feeble bark, appears on the furface. In riling
through the water, the fliell is reverfed, the (harp edge
of the keel prefenting lefs refiftance to the liquid ; and
when it reaches the furface, the animal, by exerting its
arms, refiores it to a proper pofition for its voyage. A
quantity of water is taken into the fflell to balance it.
The animal then employs its arms as oars 5 or if a gen¬
tle breeze fweep the furface, it firetches two of them
perpendicularly, by which means the membrane be¬
tween them is extended in form of a fail ; the other
arms ferve as oars to direff the courfe, or to keep the
bark fteady, as well as part of the body which hangs
oyer the (hell, and feems to anfwer for a rudder.
1 bus equipped, the folitary navigator glides fmootbly
along the bofom of the ocean. But, on the approach
of the fmalleft danger, the appearance of an enemy,
or the flighteft ruffling of the furface of the water, it
inftantly retires within the fhell, and taking in a quan¬
tity of water or eje&ing a quantity of air, quick as
thought it finks to the bottom. Mediterranean and In¬
dian ocean.
vitreus. 2. A. keel of the lliell toothed in the middle. The
{hell is conic, tranfverfely riobed, with a convex keel j
aperture oval. It is a very rare fpecies.
cymbium. 3- A. keel of the fhell wrinkled, and without teeth 5
deprefled, thin, wrinkled, with fine longitudinal {Iriae
eroding the wrinkles. Mediterranean.
cornu. _ 4- A- keel, with 4 fmooth elevated rings j 1 line
high, y broad. Cape of Good Hope.
arttica. 5* A. fhell perforated with an entire keel ; 34 lines
diameter. Greenland feas, where it is frequently feen
floating in fpring and autumn.
Some fuecies of the argonauta are met with in all cli¬
mates from the Indian ocean to the Ihores of Greenland.
Gen. to. Nautilus.
Nautilus. Gen. Char.—-Yht nature of the animal which inhabits
this fhell is not well known. I he fliell is univalve,
divided into feveral compartments, communicating
by an aperture with each other.
Species.
A. Spiral, rounded, with contiguous whorls,
pompihus. 1. N. aperture of the fhell heart>ihaped ; whorls ob-
tufe j fmooth. Indian and African ocean.—This fpe¬
cies is often very large, and it is finely variegated with
brown flexuous ftreaks, fpots, and marks, under the
epidermis, which is white $ within it exhibits a beauti-
O L O G Y.
ful pearly glofs. It is employed tor drinking cups by
the inhabitants of the eail.
* 2’ aPert:ure °f the fhell linear; whorls with calcar,
vated joints 5 minute, white, opaque. Sheppey ifland.
* 3. N. with lateral fpires, with about 20 flexuous,
crenated joints in the exterior whorl ; marked by ele¬
vated ft rite ; aperture femicordate 5 fyphon central j
very minute. Mediterranean, Sheppey ifland, and Sand¬
wich.
4* h. • aperture obovate ; 4 or 5 volutions, with Xtt^beccarii,
fulcated joints j to in the firft fpire j frequent on molt
fhores •, minute.
* y. N. fimilar to the preceding fpecies,. but with theperverfus.
fpires reverfed. Shores of Britain, frequent.
* 6.^ N. fpiral with fmooth joints j femipellucid, white,/fufgzz/w-
glofly very minute. Sandwich. /2/s.
* 7. N. fpiral, {lightly umbilicated on each fide, with deprejjulus
many depreffed joints. Reculver, England. Very
minute, and rare.
* 8. N. fpiral, umbilicated, with furrowed joints ; umbilica-
colour opaque, white. Sandwich. Minute, not covcx- tulus.
mon.
.9* thick, fpiral, doubly umbilicated, wdth (me. craj/ulus.
joints; opaque, white. Reculver, England. Minute,
rare.
* to. N. fpiral, lobate ; fpires rounded on one (\X.e,lobatuIus,
deprefled on the other. Whitftable.
11. N. oblong, carinated ; aperture oval, narrow. car/Vm/w-
Sandwich. Minute, rare. lus^
12. N. a little bending, wdth raifed joints j length
T^-th of an inch. tulus.
r3- N. comprefled, fubcarinated, fpiral, fmooth,/<iZ7/(/7rfr»
glofly, horn-coloured, with 3 vifible volutions j dia-
metei one-fifth of an inch. Brooks, Rent 5 marfhes,
Rotherhithe. Not unfrequent. Lightfoot, Phil. Pratif.
76. Helix nitida, Lin. This is fuppofed to be the
only fpecies of frefh-water nautilus wdrich has been de-
feribed.
14- ^• white, convex j aperture linear: firft fpire balthicus,
largeft. Baltic.
_ 15. N. fpires of the (hells concealed j very (mvM.helicites,
Found in a foflil ftate on St Peter’s mountain at Mae-
ftricht.
^ iv). ?s. aperture linear; fpires comprefled, wdth rugoj'us.
thickened margins. Southern ocean. Very fmall.
17. N.. aperture comprefied, linear ; fpires covcipsei- umbihca*
fed ; umbilicus concave ; minute. Croatia. tus.
B. Spiral, rounded, with Jeparate whirls.
18; N. aperture orbicular; whirl cylindrical; owefpicu/a.
inch in diameter. American and Indian oceans.
ip. i\. fmootn, wdth 4 conic tubercles; very Tni-Jpengleru
nute. India.
N. diaphanous, middle partitions protuberant unguicula*
outwards; furface with fix conic tubercles; minute, ta/.
India.
C. Elongated, and nearly Jlraight.
*21. N. incurved, ipiral at the tip ; whirls eQViC\g\x-femilituifs,.
ous; minute, convex ; the partitions appearing out¬
wardly. Croatia, Sandwdch. Rare.
x2. N. fubconic ; giobuiar divifions growing erra- liiuus,
dually lefs ; tip incurved, fpiral. Red fea. Frequent¬
ly found foffil.
23. I\. with a flight curvature ; diviflons obliquely
ftriated ;
424
raphxvn-
Jtrum.
raphanus.
granum.
radicula.
fafcia.
incequalis.
flphuncu-
lus.
legumen.
4
cojlatus.
orthocera.
belemnita.
CONCH
ftriated j fyplion central. Mediterranean and Adriatic
feas.
24. N. fubcylindrical, with thick divifions, marked
with 12 elevated ftriae } fyphon central. Adriatic and
Mediterranean feas.
25;. N. jointed, divifions thick, with 17 elevated
ftriae 5 fyphon fublateral, oblique. Adriatic and Me¬
diterranean.
26. N. ovate, oblong, wdth thick divifions, marked
with 8 interrupted elevated ftriae \ fyphon oblique;
minute. Mediterranean.
* 27. N. oblong, ovate, wnth 8 or 9 fubglobofe arti¬
culations ; aperture a fmall fyphon. Adriatic, Sand¬
wich.
28. N. divifions ftriated ; joints fmooth, elevated ;
obtufe at the tip ; denticulated at the margin } fyphon
central. Adriatic. Very fmall.
29. N. cylindrical, with 8 divifions 5 aperture mar¬
gined ; very minute. Red fea.
30. N. fmooth, w’ith cylindrical, remote divifions ;
joints tapering, cylindrical. Seas of Sicily.
* 31. N. compreffed, jointed, margined at one end ;
fyphon lateral. Adriatic, Sandwich. Very rare.
* 32. N. ftraight, fubcylindrical, tapering-, joints 12,
railed, with 4 equidiftant, ftrong, longitudinal ribs the
whole length ; inch long. Coaft of Kent. Monta¬
gu, Tejl. Brit. 199. A variety of this has been difco-
vered with only 6 joints.
33. N. whirls of the fhellwith carinated ftriae. The
ocean. Frequently found foffil.
34. N. Thimder-Jlone. Equal, fmooth, conic, acute;
varies in fize, from 4: inch to 8 inches *, found foflil in
moft parts of Europe. It has fome degree of tranfpa-
rency ; and when burnt or rubbed, emits a fmell like
rafped horn.
0 Gen. 20. Conus, Cone-fhell.
Conus. Gen. Char.—The animal is a Umax. The {hell uni¬
valve, convolute, turbinate j aperture effufe, longi¬
tudinal, linear, wfithout teeth, entire at the bafe j
pillar fmooth.
Speciks.
A. Spire or turban nearly truncated,
tnarmo- 1. C. conic, brown, wuth ovate, fubangular, white
reus. fpots j whirls of the fpire channelled. American o-
cean.
wiperiahs. 2. C. whitilh, wfith longitudinal, livid bands, and di¬
vided brown and white 5 linear belts : fpire flat \ paint¬
ed with brown undulated ftripes, often emarginated.
A rare (hell.
literatus. 3. C. conic, white, with brown dots 5 fpire marked
with brown ftripes. Afiatic ocean.
generahs. 4. C. conic, polilhed, with a pointed, muricated
fpire ; whirls channelled. India.
Dirgo. C. conic, with a bluilh bale. African ocean.
capitaneus. 6. C. conic, glabrous, with a brown bafe j Ipire a
little convex : fometimes flat, and generally ftriped.
Afia.
tribunus. 7. C. white, with three yellowilh bands, fpotted with
chefnut: fpiie convex ; bafe tranfverfely ftriated.
miles. 8. C. conic, rough with a brown bafe : fpire convex.
India.
cingulum. 9. conic, yellowilh, with a fingle elevated beit
in the middle ; fpire acute. Friendly illands.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
B. Pyriform with a rounded bafe; cylinder half as long
again as the fpire.
10. C. yellow, with purplilh brown j longitudinal
branched lines, marked with two white bands, which
have a few brown fpots : fpire obtufe and finely ftria- ,
ted tranfverfely : inches long. Indies.
11. C. with rough punfftires at the bafe.—This fpe- ammiralis.
cies is divided into the following varieties. 1. With¬
out bands. 2. With irregular bands. 3. With
one regular band. 4. With two regular bands. 5.
With three regular bands. 6. With four regular
bands. 7. With five or more regular bands. 8. With
pun&ated, reticulated belts. To this laft divifion be¬
longs the cedo nulli, or celebrated admiral {hell, which
has been efteemed the rareft and moft precious of tef-
taceous produftions. Some fpecimens of the C. cedo
nulli have brought the extravagant price of 100 guineas.
The endlefs varieties of this fpecies are found in the
feas of South America.
12. C. teftaceous, fpotted with white 5 with four yc\-vacarius.
low, immaculate bands j the fecond angularly divided.
Southern ocean.
13. C. conic, fmooth, glabrous ; with obtufe, ic\s\^-fenator.
tured whirls: yellow fpotted with white.
14. C. fubcylindrical, fmooth, glabrous 5 finely yo-nobilis.
lilhed *, yellow or brown, fpotted with white.
15. C. with linear belts, articulated with white zn&genuanus*
brown : red, with bands alternately teffelated with
brown and red.
16. C. emaiginated at the bafe, ftriated j fpire ww-glaucus.
armed, with contiguous whirls. India and Africa.
17. C. gibbous, clouded with bluilh brown j 2.c.\itt,monochus.
ftriated at the bafe j fometimes dotted in rows.
18. C. grayifh, furrounded with oblong dots. minimus.
19. C. ovate, rugged, and muricated at the bafe •, rw/^fewj-.
fpire conico-convex. Var. 1. Without band. 1. With
a band clouded whitilh. Africa.
20. C. ovate, white, with reticulated yellow bands.
Africa.
21. C. llightly emarginated at the bafe and wnvik- letulinus.
led : fpire flattilh, mucronate. India. A large fhell.
2 2. C. flightly emarginated at the bafe, and vuitA-fgulinus.
led 5 Ipire acuminated, with flattilh whirls: three inches
long. India.
23. C. ovate, white, wfith black band $ compofed otebrecus.
tranfverfe fpots : a fmall Ihell.
24. C. emarginated at the bafe, and ftriated : vddwhjlercus
of the fpire channelled. Afia. mufearum.
25. C. elongated, muricated : the fpire crowned and xtar/wj-.
acute. Indian ocean.
26. C. elongated, finely ftriated tranfverfely ; vari- achatinus.
oufly clouded, and fpotted with white : fpire Ihort,
fpotted with browm, and tipt with red. American
ocean.
27. C. with w;hite rays and bands. radiatus.
28. C. pale yellow or chefnut fpots, with white oxleoninus.
yellow- tranfverfe bands : ipire rather acute.
29. C. light olive, with multifarious white dots, and jafpideus.
an oblique band : oblong. Small.
30. C. brown with blue clouds and white fpots. nebulofus.
31. C. conic, yellow, with white eyes and band : ccwZa/K.r.
bafe obliquely ftriated. _
32. C. Ihort, brown, with twm w’hite bands: thatco^f.
neareft the fpire Ipotted with browm.
33-C.
42S
Chap. IV. CONCH
amadis. 33. C. pale brown, with a broad band, and articula¬
ted belts above and beneath : fpire acute, crowned
with tubercles, and finely ftriated tranfverfely.
fubmneus. 34-C* with chefnut flripes the whole length: fpire
acute, and with the pillar lip fpotted with chefnut} the
bafe acute and obliquely filiated.
arachnoi- 35. C. reticulated with chefnut, with two or three
dens. darker bands ; fpire crowned and acute : a very rare
fpecies.
cojatus. 36. C. brown, with a white band ; undulated wnth
reddilh, thick and broad Itrice : fpire nodulous, with a
granulated band.
leucojhc- 37. C. white, clouded, ftriped, and fpotted with
tus. brown } with numerous rows of white and brown dots:
fpire crowned with tubercles. American ocean.
Citrinns. 38. C. citron with black lines, interrupted beneath :
fpire crowned wdth tubercles, with the bafe white.
Cura^oa.
tnfularis. 39. C. white with chefnut clouds, fpots and dots :
fpire acute.
coronatus. 40. C. with alternate, articulated belts and teffelated
fpots: fpire crowned with tubercles: ftiell often minute,
and with a w'hite band.
punBatus. 41, C. with twro yellowdlh brown bands, and nu¬
merous lines of dots : fpire varied with yellow dots
and lines.
'zeyleini- 42. C. fnowy with rofy and brown clouds, and nu-
cus. merous, articulated belts, varied with white and chef¬
nut : fpire pointed.
fo/idus. 43. C. conic, thick, tranfverfely ftriated ; clouded
with w'hite and brown, with a broad white band, and
pyramidal fpire } whirls channelled.
clavus.
nujjatella.
terebellum.
coccineus.
levins.
achroleu-
cus.
leevis.
ajjlnis.
violaceus.
granule-
tus.
polyzo.
nias.
C. Elongated and rounded at the bafe ; cylinder as long
again as the fpire.
44. C. with convex fmooth ftrias, the bafe bluifh.
Indian ocean, very rare.
45. C. fubcylindrical, red, rough ; ftriae tubercu-
lated. Ifland of Nuffatella in Afia, but very rare.
46. C. white, fhaded with blue } fubcylindrical, with
annular ftrise and yellow7 bands.
47. C. red, wdth tranfverfe lines, dotted with black}
with a white band, and fpire fpotted with red.
48. C. fubcylindrical, with annular ribs ; red with
darker clouds, and barred with white : fpire fpot¬
ted.
49. C. fubcylindrical, yellow7 : the bafe obliquely
ftriated, wdth a white band near it : fpire pointed with
ftriped fpots.
50. C. rufous wdth fulvous fpots, and tranfverfe
ftriae : fpire fpotted with yellow : bafe obliquely llria-
ted.
51. C. bluifh white, with four fulvous, linear bands,
and intermediate dull purple dots.
52. C. white with violet clouds and bands} rays pale
brown } fpire pyramidal, with fix whirls.
53. C. rough, unarmed, with fmooth, grooved ftriae;
African ocean. Shell red with white bands, and pur¬
ple linear dots.
54. C. white within ; outfide yellowifh brow’n and
rough, with fine granulated lines, with a white band
at the fpire denticulated beneath ; another at the bafe
with a paler tinge : fpire flattened, with ftriped fpots ;
bafe outwardly duiky, and violet within.
55. C. white with angular chefnut lines, and two
Vol. VI. Part II.
O L O G Y.
orange bands : fpire prominent : bafe furrounded with
orange lines, and intermediate ttflelated ipots.
56. C. conic, fnowy : fpire prominent, and crowned niveus.
with tubercles : aperture large.
57. C. orange flag, fmooth with whitifh bands; whiils araufla-
grooved at the tips. India. cus.
58. C. fubcylindrical, wdth longitudinal bands, dot- magus.
ted with w'hitt. India.
59. C. ovate, oblong, gibbous, clouded with fineflriatus.
parallel brown ftriae : four inches long. Africa.
60. C. with reticulated yellow veins, and yellow and textile.
brown fpots. Afia.
61. C. white with brown reticular veins and inter- auIleus.
rupted longitudinal bands. Afia. It varies much in
its colours.
62. C. fmooth w'hite writh bay charafters and rows thotna,
of dots, with three white belts and fpots ; the tip
reddifh ; fpire conic with grooved whirls. Indian
ocean.
D. Ventricofe in the middle, and contraBed at each
end.
63. C. ventricofe, yellow with white eyes bafe X.x\xu{-flnenfls.
verfely ftriated.
E. 7bin, ventricofe, and tinkling when thrown upon its
back on a table.
64. C. bluifh with yellow clouds and yellowifh \\i\c\fpeBrum.
dots and ftriae : fpire rather acute. Afiatic feas.
65. C. yellow clouded with wdrite : aperture Xz.x'gzbullatus,
and bluifh : fpire fometimes flat, fometimes acute.
66. C. oblong, gibbous, fmooth ; aperture gaping, tulipa.
India ; South America.
67. C. oblong, gibbous, crowned: aperture ^fm^'.geographi-
wrinkled at the bafe, and a little narrower: aperture
white : fpire fometimes rofy. Indian and African
feas.
68. C. white, clouded and fpotted with orange, With nubecula.
fcattered white dots ; fpire prominent, acute.
69. C. white, with alternate row's of irregular c\ie^-fpurius.
nut, or blackifh fpots, and interrupted, puiuflured
bands.
70. C. browm, fhaded with w'hite, with a white in- vexillum.
terrupted band; the white band is fometimes cru¬
ciate.
71. C. browm, barred with white, beneath narrow7-
er, fhaded with bluifh, and fmooth ; ipire conic, zx-Jus.
ferted.
Gen. 21. Cyprjea, Cowrie. Cypnea.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a flug ; fliell univalve, in¬
volute, fub-oyate, fmooth, obtufe at each end ; aper¬
ture eftufe at each end ; linear, extending the whole
length of the ftiell, and toothed on each fide.
Specirs.
1. C. flightly turbinated, ferruginous, with wbitlfh exanthe-
round fpots and eyes ; line down the back a littlewa.
branched. American, and Atlantic feas.
2. C. flightly turbinated, and marked with mappa.
ch arafters : line down the back branched. Indian and
African feas.
3. C. flightly turbinated with irregular ch a rafters -^arabica.
ftripe down the back Ample. India.
4. C. flightly turbinated, fub-cylindrical, fprinkled argus.
3 H with.
426
tejludirm-
ria.
Jltrcora-
ria.
carniola.
•zebra.
talpa.
atnethv-
Jlea.
lurida.
•venell:.
lota.
fragilis.
guttata.
c'tnerea.
piumbea.
eculata.
hi/lrio.
aurantium.
ferrugi-
nofa.
livida.
gibba.
turbinata.
venerea.
purpuraf-
cens.
clbida.
rufefcens.
tranflucens
funciulatc.
CONCHOLOGY.
Chap. IV.
with eyes; beneath 4 brown fpots j about 4 inches
long. Indian and Atlantic feas.
5. C. obtufe, fub-cylindrical j extremities depreffed.
Perfian gulf, and Indian ocean. This is the largeft
(hell of this genus.
6. C. {lightly turbinated, gibbous, with livid and
teftaceous fpots j emarginate on each fide, and flat be¬
neath. Guinea.
7. C. {lightly turbinated, pale, with fleftt-coloured
bands •, mouth violet ; 2 \ inches long. Afiatic ocean.
8. C. turbinated, cinereous, with brown bands j is
twice as large as the lafl, and the fpire more prominent.
India.
9. C. {lightly turbinated, fub-cylindrical, teftaceous,
with pale bands j beneath thickened and brown ; 3
inches long. India.
10. C. {lightly turbinated; fides gibbous and decorti¬
cated, 4 clouded, browniih bands above. Madagafcar.
1 1. C. {lightly turbinated, lurid and ilightly barred ;
extremities pale yellow, with 2 black fpots. Mediter¬
ranean and Atlantic feas.
12. C. {lightly turbinated, fpotted, and marked with
yellowilh dots ; extremities fpotted with brown; throat
rufous.
13. C. {lightly turbinated, white, with fubulate denti¬
cles. Sicily.
14. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, wuth longitudi¬
nal teftaceous waves, and pale bands. Mediterranean.
15. C. thin, gibbous, fulvous, dotted with white,
wuth a horizontal line in the middle; beneath white,
with yellow teeth.
16. C. thin, ventricofe, reddifh gray, with paler
bands.
17. C. flightly turbinated, thin, back lead colour,
with four bands varied wuth blue and brown ; undula¬
ted with browniih at the margin, and marked with blue
and browm lines. Guinea.
18. C. {lightly turbinated, ruflet browm, with white
eyes, and three paler bands on the back. American
ocean.
19. C. ovate, {lightly turbinated, with livid eyes ;
beneath flat, white; fides thickened, black, fpotted
with brown. Indian ocean.
20. C. {lightly turbinated, orange, with a white im¬
maculate edge ; throat bright red. Friendly iflands.
21. C. thin, elongated, yellowilh or bluifti, w-ith fer¬
ruginous fpots ; within blue.
22. C. thin, elongated, uniformly ftraw'-coloured,
pale yellow or reddilh ; beneath dotted with brown ;
teeth fubulate.
23. C. thin, gibbous ; back clouded, and tranfverfe-
ly barred.
24. C. turbinated, ovate, glaucous, with angular
pale fpots.
25. C. oblong, brown, writh ftriped gold fpots ; within
blue.
26. C. oblong, purplilh; beneath furrounded with
a white line.
27. C. oblong, whitifh ; ends of the lips fpotted with
fulvous.
28. C. oblong, reddifh brown; beneath whitiftr.
29. C. cylindrical, cinereous with pellucid bands.
30. C. cylindrical, fragile, white, with tranfverfe
bands of reddilh dots.
31. C. obtufe, ovate, {lightly turbinated with alongi- tigrina.
tudinal teftaceous line.
32. C. oblong, ferruginous, with paler bands. dubia.
33. C. turbinated, thin, bluifti brown, with ^rt&trifafciaia.
yellowifh bands varied with brown at each end. Rare.
34. C. turbinated, bluifh, white, dotted and clouded
with brown. cata.
35. C. oblong, {haded with purple, with a ^.nvj-bifafciata,
coloured band, and another narrower white one, and a
brown border ; 4 inches long.
36. C. cylindrical, above ; pale-violet, and {'poX.ttdcylindrical
wuth brown at the fides, with two browm fpots at each
end.
37. C. cylindrical, milk-white ; one fide bordered tew.
and varied, with a few pale-yellow, narrow marks, back¬
ed with three brownilh wraved bands.
38. C. ovate, a little deprefled ; one fide flightly
bordered ; back whitifh, with crowded yellowifti brown
dots and weaves, and 3 obfolete darker bands ; if inch
long, 1 broad.
39. C. oblong, of one colour, with a tinge of bloom; w/zzo/tf.
beneath dotted with white, with the border of one fide
and the teeth of the lip white ; above yellow at each
end ; fpire tipt with black.
40. C. thin, oblong, barred with brown, and &ottt&fangtiino*
with red at the fides. lenta.
41. C. turbinated, glaucous, margined; above g\b-fafciata.
bous, with tranfverfe brownifti bands ; throat glau¬
cous.
42. C. gibbous, glaucous, brown, with triangular, n?gzW.
teftaceous and whitilh fpots, and 3 tranfverfe bands ;
throat blackifh, glaucous.
43. C. turbinated, undulated with browniih, cloud-y/zz/w/tfAte
ed with pale ochre ; with deeper bands. Mauritius
ifland.
B. Obtufe, and without a jnanifefl fpire.
44. C. triangularly gibbous, and rather obtufe bz-caput-
hind ; browm, fpotted with white ; beneath white ; \\ferpentis.
inch long. Mauritius and Nuflatella iflands.
45. C. roundifh, gibbous, brown, with white, cor\-reticulum.
fluent, reticulated eyes, and a white horizontal line in
the middle of the back ; beneath white.
46. C.triangularly gibbous; behind deprefled, acute; waz/nVf-
beneath black; a large {hell, fpotted with brown. Java,o«tf.
Mauritius, and Nuflatella.
47. C. livid, with fmall white fpots ; 2 inches long. •y/te//z/j.
Indian ocean.
48. C. retufe, gibbous, cinereous, with a longitudi-wz/j.
nal browrn band ; teeth of the aperture blackilh. A-
merican and Mediterranean feas.
49. C. ovate, obtufe behind, and rounded before; tigris.
ferruginous, with deep brown fpots, and a yellow lon¬
gitudinal, dorfal line ; 4-*- inches long. Indian ocean.
(;o. C. ovate, obtufe behind, and rounded bcioie,fanmea.
with waved yellow fpots ; a rare {hell.
51. C. ovate, olive, clouded with yellow', and fpot- olivacea.
ted with browm ; beneath flat, pale brown : teeth of
the lip w'hite.
52. C. ovate, thin, white with greeniflr yellow do\.s,femineai
difpofed in row’s ; within violet.
53. C. oblong, ovate, with brown dots, and a yz\-lynx.
lowiflr line ; hind part a little acute, with a rufous
mouth ; 2 inches long. Madagafcar.
54. C.
Chap. IV. CONCH
ijabella.
amb’gua,
fcurra.
54. C. fub-cylindrical, with pale yellow extremities j
l|. inch long. Mauritius.
55. C. pyriform, dufky, with paler clouds and fpots.
56. C. ovate, oblong •, beneath flat $ yellowifli, with
greenith and livid, confluent drops j lides varied with
fcattered brown dots. India.
enyx.
clandejli-
na.
fuccin&a.
Kig-Kag.
hirundo.
afellus.
erronea.
urjellus.
pyrum.
tnaculofa.
pulla.
indica.
ovum.
felina.
atomaria.
nehulofa.
ocbroleuca.
Jlellata.
fubjlava.
ieucogajier
variolofa.
fulva.
leucqflo-
tna.
lineata.
cancellata.
lutsa.
hadia.
punElata.
vionaria.
C. Umbilicated or perforated.
57. C. beneath brown, above whitifh j {mail. Afia.
58. C. with fine tranfverfe lines here and there meet-
ing together. India.
59. C. interior lip rounded at each extremity.
60. C. pale yellow, with brown dots j the extremi¬
ties with 2 brown fpots.
61. C. above bluifh; extremities marked with 2
brown fpots. Maldivia iflands.
62. C. white, with 3 brown bands; oblong j minute.
Madeira iflands.
63. C. with an equal teftaceous fpot.
64. C. oblong, white j above fmooth, varied with
brown, and marked with 2 brown dots at the umbilicus
or perforation.
65. C. pale brown, with paler bands and ochra-
ceous fpots j beneath and at the fides fulvous 5 within
blue.
66. C. narrow, long, with flefli-coloured fpots above,
varied with pale, fulvous, and glaucous ones j fides
chefnut.
67. C. thin ; fides ruflet brown 5 above white, or
pale brown, with tranfverfe bands, or a fainter hori¬
zontal line.
68. C. cylindrical, marked above with chara&ers,
eyes, and a paler horizontal line j fides bloom-colour,
dotted with black. India.
69. C. thin, oblong, olivaceous, with fcattered ferru¬
ginous fpots ; beneath white.
70. C. oblong, narrow, plumbeous, with ferruginous
dots and fpots, and paler bands j marked at each ex¬
tremity with 2 brown fpots.
71. C. oblong, fnowy, dotted with brown ; each end
marked with 2 dufky dots \ -§• inch long.
72. C. oblong, gibbous j brown, with chefnut fpots.
73. C. thin, ochraceous, with paler fpots.
74. C. thin, cinereous, dotted with brown, and mark¬
ed with tranfverfe, elevated Arise.
7 ■ C. oblong, gibbous, fmooth, yellowifli.
76. C. oblong, purple ; beneath white.
77. C. oblong, dulky, writh two bands on the back,
and whitilh fpots.
78. C. folid, oblong, fulvous, with brown fpots, dif-
pofed in rows, and two dulky bands ; fides faffron.
79. C. oblong, gibbous ; clouded with brown and
blue ; fides fpotted wdth black j mouth white.
80. C. ovate, marked above with lines j borders
fpotted.
81. C. ovate, gibbous, with cancellated fpots, and a
horizontal line above.
82. C. brownilh, with twm white bands $ beneath
pale yellow, dotted with brown.
83. C. oblong, gibbous ; above bay, with brown
and white dots.
84. C. ovate, white, with teflaceous dots.
85. C. ovate, fmoothifli, yellowilh, with four brown
lunules, 'Shores of Guinea. Very rare flielk
O L O G Y. 427
86. C. lip toothed within ; with three rows of tn-conoidea.
bercles j pillar lip without teeth.
D. Margined.
87. C. umbilicated, pale yellow', with white roundcribraria^
fpots.
88. C. whitilh, with a knotty margin. Med iter ra-
nean, Atlantic, Ethiopic, and Indian feas.—-This fpe-
cies is collefted in great quantities, and tranfported
to Bengal, Siam, and other parts of India, where it
is employed by the natives as the medium of com¬
merce.
89. C. furrounded on the back with a yellow nng.annuluu
Amboyna and Alexandria.
90. C. gibbous, unequal, whitilh *, margin dotted £77»r/e7».
with brown ; back marked with teftaceous clouds. In¬
dian ocean.
91. C. with a jagged margin j yellow, dotted w\\\\erofa.
white 5 fides with a brownilh fpot. Mauritius and
Afcenfion iflands.
92. C. with a jagged margin, flelh-colour, with iderofa.
greenilh back, marked with fulvous dots j fides dotted
with brown. Mediterranean.
93. C. with a jagged margin; yellow, dotted withflaveola.
white ; fides marked with obfolete, fcattered, brown
dots.
94. C. flightly margined, yellowilh with fpurca.
fpecks ; fides dotted with brown. Mediterranean.
95. C. oblong, ovate; above bluilh, dotted and {'pot-oblonga.
ted with brown ; beneath and at the fides white.
96. C. cinereous, variegated with teftaceous ; •wVxX.tJloUda.
beneath, and at the fides; inch long. Amboyna.
97. C. triangularly gibbous, dotted with white, jag-
ged behind ; beneath yellow, immaculate. Indian o-
cean.
98. C. flightly margined, pale yellow, wdth black ccz’/Zar/tf.
eyes; margin white, dotted with browm ; 14 inch
iong.
99. C. pale violet, dotted with white; a very {mdWporaria.
fhell.
* too. C. with numerous tranfverfe furrows, fome ofpediculus,
which are forked ; a fmall Ihell, and ovate with vari¬
ous tints of red or white ; fometimes it is marked wdth
a longitudinal groove. Frequent on moft Ihores. Bri¬
tain.
101. C. margined on each fide, flightly produced
and rugged, with raifed tubercles above ; 1 inch long.
Nulfatella ifland.
102. C. whitilh) produced on each fide; back Xuhtr-madagaf.
culated, and marked with tranfverfe undulated ft.n?e.carienjis.
Madagafcar.
103. C. fomewhat produced, with elevated dots ; ta-JIaphylaa.
tremities pale yellow.
104. C. produced on each fide, and fprinkled vixthcicercula.
raifed dots. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
105. C. produced on each fide, and fmooth, -white or globulus,
yellow. Amboyna.
106. C. oblong, flightly produced, fmooth, yellow;ajjinis.
ocellated on each fide before.
107. C. thin, oblong, white, wuth ferruginous l^oXsfquallna.
and dots.
108. C. white or gray, with obfolete itxrugmousfmbriata,
fpots and tranfverfe bands; lips of the mouth marked
with violet fpots.
3 H 2
ipo. G,
4^8
erUenta.
reticulata.
rubigtnofa.
viiliaris.
acicu laris.
crajfa.
•vinofa.
angujlata.
Jimilis.
Jlriata.
JinenJis.
pujilla.
50
Bulla.
evum.
voha.
birojlris.
fpelta.
•vcrrucofa,
gibbofa.
naucam.
aperta.
hydatis.
CONCH
109. C. gibbous^ above bluifh with rufous dots} be¬
neath and at the fides white } lips citron.
110. C. reticulated} margin varied with ftriped
fpots.
111. C. oblong, white } within violet} back with a
ferruginous blotch } each end marked with two pale
yellow fpots} teeth of the lips yellowilh.
112. C. thin, fhort, yellowilh, green, with milk-
white eyes, and marked with a lateral horizontal line.
113. C. folid } above yellowilh, dotted with brown
with a horizontal pale line } beneath milk-white, with
impreffed dots at the margin.
114. C. thick, yellowilh, with 3 whitilh bands}
mouth bluilh } 4 inches long.
11 5. C. above white, with a claret ftain, and mark¬
ed with purple eyes, furrounded with a black circle,
and a horizontal white line } blue within. Mediter¬
ranean.
116. C. narrow, brown, with reddilli fpots at the
fides.
117. C. oblong, gibbous, yellowifh, dotted with white,
with a bluckilh Ipot at the margin.
1 iB. C. convex, bluilh white, dotted with brown }
beneath yellow, llriated on one fide.
119. C. oblong, folid, variegated with orange lips.
1 20. C. bluilh, fpotted with brown, and marked with
3 bands.
Gen. 22. Bulla, Dipper.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax } the Ihell univalve,
convoluted, unarmed with teeth } aperture a little
llraitened, oblong, longitudinal, very entire at the
bafe } pillar oblique, fmooth (b).
Species.
1. B. ovate, obtufe, flightly doubly beaked } one of
the lips toothed, from which it has the appearance of
a cypraea } 4 inches long. Amboyna and Friendly
illands.
2. B. two-beaked } the beaks long, ftriated and acute.
Jamaica. A rare Ihell.
3. B. two-beaked, margin thickened outwardly}
beaks long, imooth ; fize of a bean. Java.
4 B. oblong, rather obtufe at both ends} equal }
lip arched } margin thickened within } twice the fize
of a grain of wheat. Mediterranean and Adriatic.
5. B. tranfverfely angular, ovate, with a bony dot
on each fide. India.
6. B. angular, with an elevated belt. Brazil.
7. B. rounded, pellucid, {lightly ftriated tranfverfe-
ly } perforated at each end } an inch long. African and
Indian feas.
* 8. B. roundifti, pellucid, tranfverfely fub-ftriated }
outfide a little wrinkled },gloffy } one inch long. Eu¬
rope, Africa, Devonlhire.
* 9. B. rounded, pellucid, {lightly ftriated longitudi¬
nally } crown umbilicated } fize of a pea. Mediter¬
ranean, Devonftiire.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
* 10. B. rounded, obtufe at one end } crown umbili- ampulla.
cated. Frequent on moft {bores } Britain.
* 11. B. oblong, oval, tranfveifely ftriated} crown Ugn aria.
narrow, and {lightly umbilicated } 3 inches long. Eu¬
ropean {bores, Britain.
* 12. B. thick, white, opaque } aperture compreffed in regulbien-
the middle} minute. Reculver, England.—Bultajis.
obtufa, Montagu, Tert. Brit. 223.
13. B. rounded, glabrous, pellucid, marked withphyjis.
tranfverfe lines } fpire retufe. India.
14. B. roundifir} fpire elevated, obtufe, with amp/i/Jra,
coloured bands} {hell wftiite. Alia.
15. B. ob-ovate, with a clavated crown, indiftindlyfo/j.
fpire, and elongated beak } furface marked with reti¬
culated ftriae} 3 inches long. American and In¬
dian oceans.
16. B. rounded, turbinated, {lightly ftriated, with zrapa^
curvated beak, and finely wrought fpire } from 2 to 3
inches long. Indian ocean. [lata.
17. B. cylindrical} whirls of the fpire grooved. canalicu-
18. B. oblong, turbinated, fmooth} bale a little ftria-conoidea^
ted } futures crenulated } fize of an acorn.
* 19. B. ovate, pellucid } fpire obfolete } whirls con-fontinalis*
trary, or turning from right to left } aperture ovate,
oblong } ~ inch long. Shores of the Danube } lakes
and rivers of Europe } Britain.
* 20. B. ovate, pellucid} fpire contrary, prominent}
aperture ovate, lanceolate. Europe, Britain.—Lin¬
naeus fuppofes that this fpecies may be a variety of the
laft } but, according to Mr Montagu, the form of the
{hell, the ftrudlure of the animal, and its habitat, are al¬
ways diftindL Linnaeus fays, that this fpecies is found
among wet mofs. Mr Montagu found it only in dit¬
ches, and in a place occafionally overfiowed by the ri¬
ver Avon.
2 1. B. poliftred, with a pointed fpire ; aperture ob- turrita.
long. Northern Europe, in ditches and wet meadows.
22. B. brittle, with a depreffed contrary fpire} gelatinofa.
perturc ending in a beak } 2 { lines long. Rivers of
Denmark.
23. B. fides cylindrical, with a fubulate fpire, trun- terebelium.
cated at the bafe ; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.
24. B. ovate} fpire indiftindl, prominent at the top ',cypr<ea.
aperture more dilated behind ; pillar twilled } fize of
an acorn. Mediterranean.
25. B. with party-coloured double bands, and pur- virginea.
pie truncated pillar : aperture femilunar. Rivers of
Afia.
26. B. conic, pointed with tranfverfe bands and nn-fafeiata.
dulated fpots } aperture white. South America, India.
27. B. conic, pointed, glabrous, with undulated $\\\-J]rigata.
vous ftreaks } 2 inches long } B whirls in the fpire.
28. B. conic, white, ftriated } pillar ftraight and rc-Jlriatula.
flefted'.
29. B. oblong, pointed, white, grooved } fpire with exarata.
6 or 7 whirls.
30. B. tapering, erefl 5 white,, with 2 broad, reddiftr
bands at the aperture } a land fpecies.
31* B-
(b) In fome of the fpecies belonging to this genus, it appears that the animal poftefles different charadlers
from thofe of the Umax, and particulaily that which inhabits the bulla lignaria) a Britilh {hell, which.is furnifti-
ed writh a gizzard, of a teftaceous nature. See Lin. Tranf. vol. ii. p. 15.
Chap. IV.
CONCH
ambigua.
^ebra.
achatina.
hyalina.
•vata.
ferrugi-
nofa.
velum.
vejica.
cylindrica.
oliva.
valuta.
dotnini-
chenjis.
purpurea.
fpreta.
J'olida.
dercus-pu-
licum.
fcabra.
akera.
foluta.
carnea.
patula.
haliotoi-
dea.
plumula.
catena.
31. B. a little tapering and compreffed ; pale, flefli-
coloured, with two remote bands ; one broader and
brown, the other blue.
32. B. ovate, pointed, with longitudinal brown
bands 5 pillar inflefted, entire. Tranquebar. A land
fpecies.
33. B. ovate, pointed, with a wide crimfon mouth
and lip ; pillar truncated ; 8 inches long. American
ocean.
34. B. oblong, horn-coloured j fpire retufe ; thin ;
inch long.
35. B. fubovate, ilightly two-beaked } ftriated on the
back, and gibbous in the middle j chefnut with white
fpots and bands; within violet.
36. B. fub-ovate, equable, pale gray, undulated with
brown, and marked with ferruginous fpots, and two
white bands ■, 14 inch long.
37. B. thin, umbilicated on each fide ; white, with
capillary brown lines, and a fnowy band, edged with
brown on each fide j 1 inch long.
38. B. ovate, oblong, within milk-white, folid, pel¬
lucid ; aperture wide j two grooves on the back. Bra¬
zil.
* 39. B. cylindrical, fmooth, white, thin, -(lightly um¬
bilicated j twice as large as a grain of wheat. Europe,
Britain.
40. B. cylindrical, aperture fub-orbicular, and dila¬
ted beneath.
41. B. Imooth, cylindrical, olive; aperture elfufe ;
pillar intlated, truncated ; 7 whirls in the fpire.
42. B. lub-cylindrical, fpiral, reddifh, with longitu¬
dinal llriae, and (potted ; futures crenulated ; pillars
finuated and truncated. St Domingo.
43. B. ventricofe, rugged, and longitudinally (freak¬
ed ; aperture ovate, with a pointed lip, and deep black
border within. Africa, in rice fields.
44. B. ovate, thin, brown, and rough.
45. B. folid, red, varied with violet ; margin red ;
fpire a little prominent.
46. B. inflated, glabrous, horny ; cinnamon colour ;
five rows of dots ; pillar finuated, with an acute lip ;
extremity thin and ovate.
47. B. ovate, rough, (lightly carinated on the back,
and marked with decuffated itriae; white with rofy lines;
pillar (calloped, reflected. Java.
* 48. B. ovate, pellucid, with a truncated, channelled
crown ; 6 lines long. Nonvay feas, Banff in Scot¬
land, and near Portlmouth.
49. B. cylindrical, horny, tranfverfely ftriated, with
a retufe top or crown ; whirls margined, channelled.
50. B. ovate, flefh-coloured, gibbous ; lip arched,
thickened and toothed within. Shores of Africa.
* 51. B. fmooth, glofly, white, pellucid, oblong, invo¬
luted ; aperture large, terminating in a (liort canal,
mod contraded at the top ; length 1 inch. Weymouth..
* 52. B. fub-oval, thin, pellucid, white, refembling a
haliotis ; a little wrinkled ; aperture oval; length \
inch. Weymouth.
*53. B. ovate,, oblong, deprefied, pellucid, thin;
ftrongly wrinkled concentrically ; length i inch.
Milton fands, Devonfliire. Montagu, Teft. Brit, p*
214.
* 54. B. pellucid, white, finely flriated tranfverfely ;
the ftriae, magnified, have the appearance of the links
of a chain ; incfi diameter. Devonihire.
O L O G Y. 429
* 55. B. oblong, oval, fmooth, white ; apex rounded, urnbdicuta,
umbilicated ; aperture very narrow ; inch long. Fal¬
mouth.
* 56. B. fob-cylindrical, opaque, white; upper ^z\\.truncata,
longitudinally llriated ; lower plain ; apex truncated,
and largely umbilicated. Falmouth.
* 57. B. (mooth, gloify, pellucid, white, fuboval; bo-diaphana.
dy large, ventricofe ; apex pointed; aperture fub-oval;
-g- inch long. Salcomb bay. Rare.
51
Gen. 23. Voluta, Volute. Voluta-
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax ; the (hell is one cel¬
led, fpiral ; aperture without a beak, and fometimes
ellufe ; pillar twilled or plaited, generally without
lips or perforation.
Species.
A. Aperture entire.
r. V. contra&ed, oval, oblong, with a rugged fpire \auns-mide
pillar 2-toothed ; 4 inches long. India. In marfiiy
wToods and fwamps.
2. V. oval, oblong, with a wide aperture; ^Warjiammea-.
one-toothed.
. 3. V. contra6fed, oblong, oval, grooved; w-hitefulcata.
dotted with yellow ; pillar with two plaits; ^ inch
long.
4. V. thin, tranfverfely ftriated, flefh-colour, with bifafcigta,
two white bands; pillar one-toothed ; not one inch
long.
5. V. contrafled on the upper part ; yellow, withyftn,#.
a crenulated lip; pillar with two plaits; 4- lines
long.
6. V. oval, oblong, banded; pillar with three minuta.
plaits.
7. V. thin, brown ; whirls of the fpire cancellated ;pufilla.
pillar three-toothed ; very minute.
8. V. oval, oblong, glabrous, with a refledled gyoov-glahra.
ed lip ; pillar one-toothed.
9. V. oval, gibbous, umbilicated ; pillar with one auris-fileni
thick, flexuous plait; two inches long.
10. V. contra&ed, oblong ; fpires imooth ; pillar auris-jud<e,
toothed. Fens of India.
ir. V. fufiform, granulate, with an ovate aperture ;auris-maU
pillar cut, fpreading ; three inches long. New Gale-
donia.
* 12. V. oval, pointed at each end, and fpirally flri-1ornatilts,
ated ; pillar with a fingle fold : ^ inch long. Europe,
Wales.
* 13. V. thin, brittle, with two fmall fpires; mouthionenjis.
rounded, wide. Ifland of Iona, Scotland.
* 14. V. white, opaque, longitudinally ftriated. Sand-^/^.
wfich. Very minute.
15. V. contrafted, oblong, ovate, opaque, ftriated ; folidula.
fpire elevated and a little pointed ; pillar Ilightly
plaited.
16. V. contra£!ed, ovate, cylindrical ; fpire a little livida.
elevated, obtufe ; pillar with five plaits; one inch long.
Africa.
17. V. contrafted, fmooth, with an obtufe fpire;coffdta,
aperture toothed on each fide.
B. Subcylindrical, emarginated.
18. V. fmooth ; fpire obliterated at the bafe ; lip rz*porphyrias.
tule
43°
oliva.
annulata.
utriculus.
hiatula.
jafpidea.
nivea.
ifpidula.
carniolus.
datdylus.
miliaria.
tnonilis.
exilis.
perjicula.
pallida.
Jaha.
glabella.
prununu
reticulata.
tnercatoria
rujlica.
paupercula
tnendicaria
CONCH
tufe in the middle j pillar obliquely ftriated j five
inches long, Brazil.
19. V. fmooth j fpire refle&ed at the bafe j pillar ob¬
liquely ftriated. Indian feas.
20. V. fmooth, white, with a keel-fhaped ring on the
backj fometimes with reddilh waves.
21. V. elongated, fmooth, with a prominent fpire.
Indian and Ethiopic feas.
22. V. thin, with a cinereous fpotted back, callous
beneath ; aperture large ; pillar toothed at the bafe.
Shores of Spain.
23* V. white dotted with greenilh brown, or violet ;
fpire prominent; whirls with a band compofed of fpots
at the bale j an inch long. Shores of Spain.
24. V. Inowy, elongated, fmooth, banded. Spanifh
feas.
25* fmooth with a prominent fpire and fingle
margin j pillar obliquely ftriated j from one to two
inches long. India.
26. V. orange with blue bands 5 fpire flattened} aper¬
ture white.
C. Ob oval, effufe, cmarginated.
27. V. fmooth, with decuffated ftrise, obtufe} pillar
with fix plaits } 14 inch long. India.
28. V. flightly emarginated, white, with an oblitera¬
ted pale yellow fpire ; pillar obliquely ftriated. Me¬
diterranean.
29. V. entire white with ^n obliterated white fpire }
pillar obliquely ftriated 5 i~ inch long. China ; where
it is employed for making beads and necklaces. A
variety is found in Africa only lines long, with
8 or 10 thin plaits in the pillar.
30. V. obovate, entire, yellowifh, with two brown
bands ; fpire prominent; pillar obliquely ftriated.
31. V. fmooth, with a retufe, umbilicated fpire } pil¬
lar with feven plaits } lip with a crenated margin : one
inch long. African fea.
* 32. V. {hell entire, oblong, ovate, with an elevated
fpire } pillar with four plaits. African and European
ftiores, Britain.
33. V. flightly emarginated, fmooth, a little plaited;
fpire prominent ; pillar with four plaits; lip with a
crenulated margin ; one inch long. African ocean.
34. V. very entire, fmooth, with a levigated fpire ;
pillar wdth four plaits ; lip gibbous ; margin toothed :
from one to two inches long. African and Ameri¬
can feas.
35. V. very entire, fmooth, with a levigated fpire ;
pillar with four plates; lip without tooth, or margin :
l\ inch long. Ifland of Goree.
36. V. wuth flight decufiated grooves; lip internally
ftriated ; pillars flightly perforated ; two inches long.
American ocean and Guinea.
37. V. ftriated, with an obtufe fpire ; pillar retufe,
toothed ; lip gibbous, denticulated ; 4 inch long. Me¬
diterranean, American, and Indian feas.
38. V. fmoothifh wdth a prominent fpire ; pillar re¬
tufe, toothed \ lip gibbous, denticulated. Mediter¬
ranean and American feas.
39. V. entire, fmooth, with a ftriated bafe ; fpire a
little prominent; pillar with four plaits ; lip obtufe.
Mediterranean and Indian feas.
40. V. flightly ftriated, with a flightly granulated
fpire; pillar fmooth ; lip gibbous and denticulated ;
a
O L O C Y. Chap. IV.
fize of a kidney bean. Mediterranean and Indian
feas.
41. V. entire, plaited, and crofswife reticulated ; \>\\-cancellata.
lar with three plaits, flightly umbilicated, and a little
produced. African ocean.
42. V. fmooth, white, with blue bands and yeMow elegans.
mouth; fpire nearly obliterated; pillar fix toothed ;
fcarcely one inch long.
43. V. fmooth, greenifh wdiite, with numerous ovum.
bands ; lip inflected ; pillar with four plaits; 24 inches
long.
44. V. fpire obfolete ; fides with thickened margins; marginal**
four plaits in the pillar.
45. V. fubftriated, glabrous; fpire obtufe, hnooth,nucea.
prominent; five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
46. V. conic, white, with hollow punftured grooves cowr/r.
at the bafe ; whirls crenated ; fix plates in the pil¬
lar.
D. Tufjorm.
47. V. nearly entire, oblong, fmooth, with a 'proved-tringa.
nent excoriated fpire ; three plaits in the pillar ; lip
flightly toothed inwardly. Mediterranean.
48. V. flightly emarginated, oblong, fmooth ; ip\rzcornicula.
longifti; four plaits in the pillar ; lip equal and un¬
armed. Mediterranean.
49. V. entire, tapering, plaited and tranfverfely ftri- virgo.
ated ; three plaits in the pillar, wEich is perforated.
About a finger’s length, and marked with about 12
grooves.
50. V. emarginated, ftriated, and tranfverfely wrrivik-fcabriufcu*
led ; four plaits in the pillar, which is perforated; lip la.
notched ; two inches long. India.
51. V. nearly entire, tranfverfely wrinkled; iov^rrujina.
plaits in the pillar; lip crenulated. India.
52. V. nearly entire, fmooth, yellowifh with rtdnubila.
clouds tranfverfely ftriated ; lip crenulated ; four plaits
in the pillar. Friendly iflands.
53. V. emarginated, longitudinally grooved an&fanguifuga
tranfverfely ftriated ; lips fmooth ; four plaits in the
pillar; 14 inch long. Mediterranean and Indian
feas.
54. V. emarginated, round, fmooth ; whirls of Datcajfra.
fpire with plaited Arise; four plaits in the pillar ; 24
inches long. Afiatic fea.
55. V. flightly emarginated, round, fmooth ; -dhoxxt morio.
three plaits in the pillar.
56. V. tapering, marked with tranfverfe, rays of rtdacus.
dots ; fpire pointed, fmooth : fcarcely an inch long.
57. V. emarginated, fubangular, unarmed, and \.r?ir\[-vulpecula.
verfely ftriated ; four plaits in the pillar ; throat ftri¬
ated ; twm inches long. India.
58. V. emarginated, angular, anterior angles a little,piicana.
fpinous ; four plaits in the pillar; lip fmooth; two
inches long. Indian ocean.
;9» V. cylindrical, glabrous, reddifh, wdth fublivid bullata*
belts ; four plaits in the pillar within ; aperture effufe.
Indian ocean.
60. V. cylindrical with decuflated ftrite, and im-crenulata*
prefl'ed dots; white with yellowilh clouds ; lip and
whirls nodulous ; margin of the whirls crenulated;
eight plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
61. V. tapering, black with white fpots, tranfverfe]y_/£-&/i</W.
ftriated, firft whirl a little ventricofe ; four plaits in
the pillar. Indian ocean.
62. V.
Chap. IV. CONCH
nigra. _ 62. V. tapering, emarginated, blackifh ; whirls flat-
tifh 5 four plaits in the pillar. Guinea, Greenland.
fubdivifa. 63. V. tapering, emarginated, longitudinally ribbed,
plaited, and tranfverfely ftriated j three plaits in the
pillar. Indian ocean.
crutniata. 64. V. tapering, emarginated, barred and tranfverfe¬
ly ftriated with longitudinal knotty ribs, fpotted with
red ; pillar with three plait*. Indian ocean.
exafperata. 65. V. tapering, emarginated, granulous, with de-
cuftated ftriae and longitudinal ribs barred with brown;
five plaits in the pillar. Indian ocean.
granofa. 66. V. tapering, emarginated, tranfverfely ftriated
and longitudinally grooved, with elevated dots and
reddifti lines; three plaits in the pillar. Indian
ocean.
cajla. 67. V. tapering, fmooth, brown with white bands;
fix plaits in the pillar, which is emarginated at the
bafe. Shores of Amboyna.
leucogom- _ 68. V. tapering, chefnut, with flexuous white bands;
as‘ pillar obfoletely plaited : two inches long.
maculofa. 69. V. tapering, white with reticulated and fpotted
browm bands: one inch long.
nodu/ofa. jo. V. tapering, brown, cancellated ; angles of the
feftion nodulous, and whitiih : four plaits in the pil¬
lar.
fpadicea. 71. V. tapering, chefnut with yellow clouds and
fpots ; eight whirls in the fpire, which are longitudi¬
nally plaited and tranfverfely ftriated ; five plaits in the
pillar.
aurantia. 72. V. tapering, orange ; a white band in the four
firft whirls of the fpire ; lip denticulated ; four plaits
in the pillar.
decujfata. 73. V. tapering with decuflated ftrim ; the longitu-
nal one undulated ; about four plaits in the pillar.
polygona. _ 74. V. tapering, pundured, whirls longitudinally
ribbed, and finely ftriated tranfverfely ; three firft an¬
gular ; about five plaits in a (lightly umbilicated pil¬
lar.
acuminata.
biplicata.
! turricula.
: lineata.
difcors.
1 Jlriata.
fulcata.
Icevigata.
ocellata.
nafuta.
tnarmorea.
75. V. tapering, cancellated; beak (hort and cancel¬
lated ; four plaits in the pillar. Trancjuebar.
76. V. tapering, fmooth, white with yellow fpots
and black dots ; pillar doubly plaited.
77. V. tapering, two plaits in the pillar : whirls
turgid, with a'band of black dots ; firft whirl double.
78. V. tapering, with perpendicular black lines
crofting a white band ; 3 plaits in the pillar.
79. V. tapering; beneath browm dotted with white;
above white, with perpendicular waved yellow ftripes;
a minute (hell.
80. . tapering, finely ftriated tranfverfely ; dulky*
with red dots, and two paler bands ; minute.
81. V. tapering and grooved longitudinally ; brown,,
with a tranfverfe white nodulous band ; pillar five¬
toothed.
82. tapering, fmooth, brown ; fpire with a paler
band ; narrow*, fmalL
83. V. tapering, chefnut, with white eyes; mi¬
nute.
84. V. tapering, red, with rows of black dots; lip
prominent ; beak reflefled.
85. V. tapering, varied with white and brown; lip
inflecled. ^
ba>baden- 86. V. tapering, reddifti, finely ftriated tranfverfely ;
fiu aperture oblong, oval; fpire obtufe; ri inch long. A-
mencan feas.
o L O G Y. 43I
87. V. tapering, cancellated, with an obtufe fpire;
lip margined ; beak reflected. American ocean.
88. V. tapering, gibbous, yellow; each whirl with/nro/or.
a w'hite band, teffelated with black ; 3 plaits in the
pillar.
89. V. tapering, chefnut brown, with undulated turrit a.
brown lines; aperture ftriated ; 3 plaits in the pillar.
90. \. tapering, fmooth, white, with perpendicu-9j'rtf£«/2///0
lar, waved, blackilh yellow (tripes. Syracufe.
gi. V. tapering, poliftied, chefnut; within white; nitens.
pillar with 4 plaits.
92. V. tapering, citron, with rufous bands; 2~ citrina.
inches long.
93- V. tapering, pale brown, and longitudinally
ftiiated; (pire perforated; pillar perforated, and 4-
plaited.
94. V. tapering, a little ventricofe ; longitudinally rug-o/i?.
wrinkled, and tranfverfely ftriated ; whitfth with pice-
ous lines.
95. V. tapering, cinereous, ftriated with red; fpireJirigofa.
glabrous ; whirls rather tumid.
96. V. tapering, glabrous; 5 plaits in the pillar 'Joflilis.
has been only found in a foflil date.
97* V* tapering, thin, glabrous ; brown furrounded leuccfleBa,
wuth lines of white dots. Friendly iflands.
98. V. tapering, whitiih, cancellated; whirls with clathrus.
a band of yellow fpots.
99. V. tapering, tranfverfely.ribbed, with a tranf- virgata.
yerfe brown band, and longitudinal waved fpots; two
inches long.
100. V. tapering, cancellated; varied with tawnyleucojloma.
and white, with waved brown fpots ; mouth ochraceous.
101. V. tapering, tranfverfely ftriated ; yellow with variegatar
a brown band and fpots.
IC2. V. emarginated, tapering, marked with decuf-Jilaris.
fated ftrias, and red threads ; pillar 3-plaited.
103. V. cylindrical, whitiih, glabrous; fpire pro- vofoa.
jetting, obtufe, emarginated at the bafe ; pillar 4-
plaited ; 2 inches long. Shores of Guinea.
104. V. ovate, bay, longitudinally tvrinkled ; bt-taiervoyelii
neath tranfverfely grooved ; fpire obtufe, and crenated
at the future ; 4 plaits in the pillar; lip denticulated.
105. V. ovate, triangular, rugged, knotty, trahf- rhinoceros
verfely grooved and umbilicated ; pillar 3-plaited ; lip
toothed ; throat ftriated ; whirls muricated with knobs.
Shores of New' Guinea.
xo6. V. tapering, white; fpire with fine tranfverfe cojlata.
ft”*, and rounded ribs; firft whirl with 3 brown
bands ; 4 plaits in the pillar.
107. V. ovate, white ; fpire fpotted with brown \fpuria.
6 brown bands in the firft whirl; tail emarginated ;
lip imprefled ; pillar 6-plaited.
108. V. emarginated, ftriated, and marked With per tufa.
hollow punttures; lip denticulated ; 5 plaits in the
pillar ; 3 inches long. India.
109. V. emarginated, tranfverfely ftriated; white cardinalis.
with rows of teffelated chefnut (pots; pillar 5-plaited.
Indian ocean.
110. V. emarginated, fmooth ; margin of the whirls epfcopalu..
entire ; lip denticulated ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; r
inches long. India.—The animal of this (hell is (aid
to be poifonous when it is eaten, and has the power of
inflitting a wmund on thofe who touch it, with a kind
of pointed trunk. The natives of the ifland Tanna
employ the (hell as a hatchet, fixing it in a handle.
III., v..
4.32
papalis.
CONCH
■ill. V. emarginated, tranfverfely ftriated ; margins
of the whirls and lip denticulated j pillar 4-plaited.
Indian ocean.
patriarch- 112. V. obovate, folid, tranfverfely flriated, mark-
ahs. ed with nodulous plaits) wdiirls crowned with tubercles.
India.
tnujica. 113' V. margined with obtufe fpines in the whirls j
]iP imooth and very thick ; pillar 8-plaited. Ameri¬
can ocean. The plaits in the pillar are from 9 to 12
in fome varieties.
vefpertilio. 114. V. emarginated, with acute fpines on the
whirls ; lip fmooth ; pillar 4-plaited j from 3 to 6
inches long. Indian feas.
arahica. 115. V. emarginated; whirls tuberculated, and
marked with black charafters; 4 plaits in the pillar.
hebnca. 116. V. emarginated ; whirls with fubacute fpines;
5 ftronger and 3 obfolete plaits in the pillar ; 6 inches
long. India, Jamaica. Very rare.
turbwellus 117. V. nearly entire, turbinated, with conic fome-
what ereft fpines ; upper ones larger ; pillar 4-plaited;
3 inches long. Indian ocean.
capitellum. 118. V. ovate, rugged, knotty; 3 plaits in the pil¬
lar ; 2^ inches long. Indian and American feas.
ceramica. 119. V. ovate, acute, with divergent fpires ; about
5 plaits in the pillar ; fpines on the outer whirls gra¬
dually leffening into tubercles. Coromandel and Ce¬
ram.
pyrum. 1 20. V. obovate, flightly tailed, with ftriated whirls
on the fpire ; tip produced and quite glabrous ; pillar
3 plaited ; 7 inches long. Tranquebar and Ceylon.
laponica. 121. V. obovate, fmooth, with a pointed fpire, and
ventricofe ; pillar 5-plaited. Indian and American
feas.
vcxillum. 122. V. ventricofe, yellowifh-white, with orange
bands; firft whirl tuberculated and larger than the
reft ; pillar 6 plaited. Indian ocean. Very rare.
Jiavefcens. 123. V. pyriform, fmooth, with yellowiih clouds;
fpire varied with chefnut fpots ; 4 plaits in the pillar.
rupejlris. 124. V. elongated, ribbed; ribs crofted with fine
tranfverfe lines ; lip margined ; fpire papillary at the
tip ; many plaits in the pillar ; 4 inches long.
najfa. 125. V. ventricofe; fpire ribbed with fine tranfverfe
ftrice crofting the ribs ; lip margined, umbilicated ; 3
plaits in the pillar ; 1 inch long. Mauritius ifland and
Guinea.
craticulata 126. V. tapering and tranfverfely ftriated; white
with longitudinal chefnut ribs ; lip denticulated, ftri¬
ated ; 3 plaits in the pillar ; 3 inches long.
fpiralis. 127. V. longitudinally ribbed, and finely ftriated
trardvedely; a row of acute tubercles on the two firft
whirls ; 3 plaits on the pillar. Indian feas.
ma^ellani- 128. V. ventricofe, ochraceous, with white and
brown lines; lip fubulate ; whirls of the fpire convex ;
firft largeft ; 2 inches long.
129. V. finely reticulated and ftriated. with elevat¬
ed tranfverfe belts; lip crenated ; 4 plaits in the pillar,
which is a little umbilicated.
130. V. coarle, brown, fmooth ; bafe tranfverfely
ftriated ; fpire obtufe ; firft whirl ventricofe, with 4
narrow' bands ; the reft with a broad white band ; pil¬
lar with 3 plaits and umbilicated.
ca.
fiofft.
fufcata.
E. Ventricofe ; the fpire papillary at the tip.
tfthiopica* 131. V. emarginated ; fpire crowned with vaulted
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
fpines ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; 7 or 8 inches long.
Perfia, Afia, and the Cape of Good Hope.
132. V. emarginated; whirls of the fpire wdthcymbium,
grooved margins ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; lip callous.
Spain, Africa, and America.
133. V. emarginated ; fpire fmooth ; pillar 3-plait-c//*.
ed ; 4 inches long. Spain, America, Philippine ifles.
I34* V. elongated, wfith a broad aperture; lip a-ampla.
cute ; whirls of the fpire fcarcely vifible ; 1 inch long.
135- V. emarginated; covered wdth a brown cvaiv-neptuni.
cle, under which it is reddilh ; lip a little prominent ;
4 plaits in the pillar ; 4 whirls in the fpire; 8 inches
long ; nearly as broad. Perfian gulf.
136. V. emarginated ; lip a little prominent ; navicula.
4-plaited ; 2 inches long.
137. V. elongated, with a long tubeicle at the Up,papillaris.
which is fometimes oblique.
138. V. elongated, yellow, with 3 bands of brown indica.
dots ; 4 plaits in the pillar. India.
139. V. coarfe, clouded, with zig-zag brown Xxwts \fcapha.
lip lubulate, pillar blulftt with 4 plaits. Cape of Good
Hope. Very rare.
140. V. ovate, glabrous; whitifti with longitudinal
red lines ; whirls knotty; 3 plaits in the pillar; 2
inches long. Indian ocean.
141. V. fubovate, teftaceous, with reddilh baypraputium.
fpots, emarginated at the bafe ; 4 plaits in the pillar.
Coromandel coaft.
142. V. cylindrical, yellowilh, emarginated ; apex-glans.
ture effufe, fpreading ; 3 plaits in the pillar. Eaftern
fltores of Africa.
143. V. white, fmooth, reticulated with gold, e- reticulata,
marginated ; 4 plaits in the pillar ; fpire conic ; firft;
whirl cylindrical and ventricofe ; 2 inches long. Ja¬
va.
144. V. brownifh yellow, ftriated with brown; ^fpcftabilis.
plaits in the pillar ; 5J inches long. Straits of Magel¬
lan.
52
Gen. 24. Buccinum, Whelk. Buccinum.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax ; the ftiell uni¬
valve, fpiral, gibbous ; aperture ovate, terminating
in a ftiort canal, leaning to the right, with a retufe
beak or projedtion ; pillar lip expanded.
Species.
A. Inf a ted, rounded, thin, fubdiaphanous, and brittle.
1. B. roundiflh, furrounded with obtufe grooves, be- olearium.
tween which is an elevated line ; aperture without
teeth ; 4 inches long. Indian fea.
2. B. obovate, furrounded by grooves which axtgalea.
double on the fore-part ; aperture without teeth ; pil¬
lar umbilicated. Mediterranean and Adriatic feas.—
This ftiell is nearly as large as a man’s head.
* 3. B. ovate, inflated, flightly grooved, and undula-/>m/w.
ted with w'hite ; aperture without teeth; 6 inches long.
India. America, Weymouth.
4. B. ovate, furrounded with obtufe grooves ; apex-pomum.
tute toothed ; 2-’- inches long. Java, Amboyna, Mex¬
ico.
5. B. ovate, furrounded with remote obtufe grooves;
beak a little prominent. Sicily, Africa, India.
6. B. ovate, furrounded with rounded ribs; beak a caudatum.
little prominent; ^ inch long.
7. B.
433
Chap. IV. CONCH
niveum. 7. B. fnowy ribbed j outer whirls of the fpire fcarce-
ly prominent.
clathra- 8. B. ovate, longitudinally wrinkled and tranfverfe-
tum. ly plaited ; with a (hort recurved beak ; pillar lip ere-
nated and grooved within.
lineatum. * 9. B. pyramidal or (harp-pointed at bottom ; white
with dark brown fpiral lines $ very fmall. Cornwall.
breve. * 10. B. white, with 5 whirls, which are longitudi¬
nally ribbed, and tranfverfely ftriated. Pembrokefliire
coaft.
minimum. * 11. B. with 5 fpines, fpirally ftriated, and tranf¬
verfely ribbed j lefs than a pea. Norway, England.
obtufulum. * 12. B. white, opaque, with 3 fpires j aperture oval.
Faverlham creek, England. Minute and rare.
B. With a Jhort, exferted, reJleBed beak ; lip outwardly
unarmed.
minutum. * 13. B. white, opaque, with 3 whirls, which are lon¬
gitudinally ribbed 5 very minute. Pembrokelhire
coaft.
keve. * 14. B. fmooth, with 3 whirls and a long beak $ ve¬
ry fmall. Pembrokefliire coaft.
obtujijji- * 15. B. fmooth, with 3 whirls, and a long beak ;
mum. aperture contra&ed ; very minute. Pembrokelhire
coaft.
echinopho- 16. B. with 4 tuberculated belts and prominent
rum. beak. Adriatic and Mediterranean feas.
plicatum. 17. B. a little plaited forwards, marked with de-
culfated ftriae aperture toothed 5 beak recurved. Ja¬
maica.
cornutum. 18. B. Great fpiked cajket. Turbinated, or crowned
wTith fpines; aperture toothed, beak recurved; from 9
to 12 inches long. India.
rufum. 19. B. Red helmet. With decuflated ftriae, and
knotty belts, between which is a double line ; aperture
toothed ; beak recurved. America and India.
tuberofum. 20. B. Per/ian whelk. With two tuberculated belts,
and recurved beak ; 10 inches long. American ocean.
jlammeum. 21. B. (lightly plaited and crowned ; aperture tooth¬
ed ; beak recurved; 5 inches long. American o-
cean.
tejliculus. 22. B. obovate, with decuflated ftriae, and elevated
longitudinal ones; aperture toothed ; beak recurved ;
4 inches long. America and India.
decujfatum 23. B. with decuffated ftriae, and covered with fmall
fquare feales ; aperture toothed ; beak recurved. A-
frica, Mediterranean.
areola. 24. B. Small diced cajket. Subftriated and furround-
ed with 4 rows of fquare fpots ; aperture toothed ;
beak recurved ; 3 inches long; outer pillar lip with a
toothed inner margin. India, Mediterranean.
tigrinum. 25. B. ovate, fmooth, bluiftr, with tranfverfe yel¬
low bands; fpotted with brown, and intermediate
brown chara&ers. New Zealand.
undulatufn 26. B. with fometimes tranfverfe, ftriated, and wa¬
ved fpots; fpire obtufe ; inner lip glabrous.
cicatrico- 27. B. ovate, fmooth, and covered with hollow
Jam. punftures; fpire elongated ; lips toothed ; beaks re¬
curved. India.
tejfelatum. 28. B. thin, cinereous with white bands teflelated
with brown ; whirls with 5 rows of tubercles; 6 inches
long. South feas. Very rare.
pennatum. 29. B. white, with variegated yellowilh, chefnut,
and white bands; beaks recurved- India.
znaculofum 30. B. with 4 fpotted bands; whirls a little promi.
Vol. VI. Part I.
O L O G Y.
nent, and longitudinally ribbed ; the firft crowned
with tubercles ; 3^ inches long.
* 31. B. tranfverfely ftriated; fpire obtufe; whirlsbilineatum
with a fpotted band and 2 lines. Weymouth.
32. B. coarfe, tranfverfely ftriated and wave fyoX-gibbum.
ted ; fpire acute, pyramidal ; 2 inches long.
33. B. ventricofe, ftriated, pillar lip thin, beak ventrico.
(hort. Jum.
34. B. tranfverfely ftriated ; fpire acute ; the 2 firftJlrigoJum.
whirls crowned with fpines ; outer pillar lip fpotted
within, and emarginated without.
35. B. fmooth, with undulated fpots; fpire rugged rugofum.
and ftriated ; beak with 5 plaits ; outer pillar lip
ftrong and ftraight.
36. B. coarfe, and with a (lightly prominent, •Acwxtpondero.
fpire; firft whirl crowned with tubercles ; outer pillaryi/OT.
ribbed within.
37. B. fmooth, and marked with a band of xvS.o\xsrecurvi-
fpots ; fpire a little prominent; firft whirl inflected ; rojlrum.
2\ inches long. Barbadoes.
38. B. tranfverfely ftriated, and fpotted here zn&trifajcia*
there, with three equal bands ; aperture blui(h within ; turn.
outer pillar lip toothed ; inner with rows of tubercles;
3 inches long.
39. B. finely ftriated tranfverfely, and with xhretfenegalt-
fpotted bands; fecond whirl of the fpire furroundeda/xa.
with a turgid ring ; outer pillar lip crenated. Sene-
gah
40. B. ochraceous, tranfverfely ftriated ; (lift w\nv\ochroleu~
crowned with (pines; outer pillar lip toothed; inner cum.
repand ; 2^ inches long.
41. B. tranfverfely ftriated ; fpire depreffed ; oxxXexJlnatum.
whirl knotty at the ^nargin ; aperture toothed ; beak
recurved. America.
42. B. obovate, umbilicated, fulvous, with nume- caffis.
rous tranfverfe ftriae ; pillar lip membranaceous; unit¬
ed lip of the aperture acute. Mediterranean.
43. B. ovate, tranfverfely grooved, whitifh withJlrigatum.
reddifti bands, varicofe ; fpire conic, with decuflated
ftriae ; aperture oblong, toothed; inner pillar lip
plaited, granulated; lip of the aperture fringed, fpotted.
India.
44. B. globular, yellowift), grooved and ftriated;
fpire conic ; aperture white ; lip margined, and (light¬
ly toothed within. Seas round Tufcany.
45. B. ovate, white, tranfverfely ftriated, and gxoo-abbrevia»
ved ; fpire conic; lip of the aperture doubled, mAtum.
toothed within ; pillar lip reflefted and wrinkled ; beak
very (hort. India and America.
C. Lip prickly outwardly behind.
46. B. Small curled cafket. A little plaited, and erinaceus.
crowned with papillas. America, India.
47. B. Smooth gray cajket. Smooth, crowned WrCnglaucum.
papiilse ; 5 inches long. Indian fea.
48. B. Smooth Jpotted-lippedcaJket. Entirely fmooth, vibex.
with yellowifh, waved, brown fpots. America, India.
49. B. ventricofe ; whirls of the fpire with a band at tejjelatum.
the bafe, teffelated with black.
50. B. (lightly plaited and crowned with papillae ;no<////o/«OT.
lip fmooth, with two rows of (harp fpines behind y I
inch long.
51. B. grooved, with an acute fpire 3 whirls xviihjimbria,
rows of tubercles.
3 1 52,
434
papillofum
glans.
CONCH
52. B. Small bugle netted whelk Covered with tuber¬
cles, in rows} inches long. Indian fea. Rare,
53. B. fmooth, inner pillar lip with two teeth } 2
inches long. Indian ocean. Very rare.
D. Pillar lip dilated and thickened,
arcularia. 54. B. plaited and crowned with papillae. Indian
ocean. .
pullus. 55. B. Small coffer Jhell. Gibbous, obliquely unated
and tuberculated } aperture wrinkled } not an inch long.
Mediterranean and European coafts, Britain.
gibbofulum 56. B. gibbous, fmooth, fnowy, tinged or fpotted }
fmall. Mediterranean and Indian feas.
mutabile. 57. B. fmooth, rugged } fpire exferted } inner lip
extended forward, and thickith. Mediterranean.
neriteum. 58. B. convex, obtufe, imooth } inner pillar lip ob~
folete } lize of a pea. Mediterranean.
E. Pillar lip appearing as if worn f.at.
harpa. 59. B.'Mufical-harp Jhell. With equal, longitudinal,
diftindl mucronate veins , pillar lip fmootli } from 3 to
5 inches long. Indian fea.
cojlatum. 60. B. with equal, longitudinal, crowded mucronate
veins } pillar lip fmooth. Falkland iilands, \ ery
rare. , . .
perjicum. 61. B. flat, with the lip crenulated, and the pillar
flat-, 4 inches long. India, and Perfian gulf.
monodon. 62. B. rough with a crenulated lip } pillar flat, pro¬
truding obliquely a fubulate fpine } gray, white with-
patulum.
hcemajlo-
ma.
lapillus.
in.
America.
63. B. muricated } the lip crenated without} the
pillar falcated } 4 inches long. America and Ethxo-
P1364. B. flightly muticated } lip ftriated within } the
pillar rather flat} throat fulvous } 2 inches long. Me¬
diterranean and Ethiopic feas.
Purple whelk Ovate, acute, fpnally itriat-
ed, without protuberances} pillar flattilh } 1* inches
long. The colour is white, cinereous, or yellowilh }
the (hell is often tranfverfely bored or grooved } it is
fometimes thin and without teeth in the aperture, and
fometimes more folid, and the aperture toothed. Shores
of Europe, Britain.—This is one of the fpecies which
yields a fine purple dye. . ,
fmara°du- 66. B. ovate, acute and glabrous} pillar flattdh and
lus. ^ flightly plaited } grooved } ftiines with a green glofs,
and like mother-of-pearl. _ n r •
tuba. 67. B. fufiform, yellowifli browm ; the fpire can¬
cellated } fir 11 whirl fmooth, and three times longer
than the reft } ventricofe above. India. _
pyrum. 68. B. turbinated } aperture, red } pillar fmooth }
the fpire (hort j firft whirl ventricofe. India* Red fea.
Very rare.
fpadiceum. 69. B. oblong, turbinated } chefnut, with tranfverfe
undulated w'hite lines. ^
foffile. 70. B. convex, tranfverfely plaited } fpire Ihort}
pillar callous. Found foflil in Germany.
umbilica- 71. B. oblong, turbinated and plaited } fpire knot-
tum. ty } aperture grooved within } pillar flightly umbihca-
candidutn. 72. B. oblong, turbinated} folid, fmooth and
fcala. 73- B. oblong} aperture oval, emarginated, four-
' ‘ toothed ; bafe white } fpire acute } the whirls diftant}
the firft with four glabrous ribs.
o L O G Y. Chap. IV.
74. B. ventricofe, coarfe, gray, glabrous} aperture
oval} pillar callous } bafe with two callofities } fpire
fcarcely prominent } has 5 whirls.
75. B. fubglobular, glabrous} aperture oval, xapx-margina-
gined on each fide } lip toothed } pillar a little ftriat-Zawr.
ed } fpire fcarcely prominent. Found in a foflil ftate.
76. B. ponderous, convex, glabrous} whirls di- labynn-
ftant and margined } aperture oval, ample} oh-thus.
liquely plaited. Holland.
77. B. coarfe, ovate, oblong, white wdth tranfvetfe rtt/frcaw,
brown ftriae } aperture oval } beak prominent } firft
w’hirl ventricofe. India, Africa.
78. B. ovate, coarfe, yellow, with elevated knotty,
tranfverfe darker ribs } aperture oval, without teeth.
79. B. ovate, whitiih, furrounded with red threads fflofum.
fpire a little prominent} aperture oval 5 lip ftriated
with red } pillar flightly umbilicated.
80. B. ovate, ftriated, whitiftr with chefnut (hades } coronatum,
a white band in the middle, edged with brown fpots
on each fide } gibbous in the middle.
81. B. fubglobular } whitifh with leek-green nn&fqualidum.
lurid teflelated fpots in rows} 4 whirls in the fpire.
82. B. fubcylindrical, tranfverfely ftriated, reddifticr^w.
with chefnut bands } lip denticulated. Ceylon.
83. B. ftriated ; brown, fpotted and barred with/ornrca-
wdrite} whirls channelled wflth 4 rows of knots; x-^tum,
inch long.
F. Smooth, and not included in the former divijions.
84. B. Diced whelk. Smooth } whirls 6 or 7 in xhefpiratum.
fpire, feparated by a canal } pillar abrupt and perfor¬
ated } 2 inches long. India and China.
85. B. with tranfverfe plaits and undulated ftrise \ pyrozontas
the bafe and fpine a little prominent} each of the
whirls with a fulvous band ; the firft double.
86. B. oblong, finely ftriated, pale brown Withlceviufcu-
darker bands } aperture oval, terminating in a canal lum.
firft whirl, gibbous and large } whirls 5 or 6. India.
87. B. fmooth, black with rows of white fpots ocellatum.
dots } fpire prominent} firft whirl ventricofe.
88. B. obtufely pyramidal and tranfverfely ftriated }/>y/7W2r-
white with blackilh and brown clouds and ftripes.
Tranquebar. . .
89. B. quite glabrous and minute; fometimes withforrc-
a telfelated band on the two firft whirls. . mum.
90. B. minute, tranfverfely ftriated } toothed oxjlrigofum.
fpotted in the aperture.
91. B. glabrous ^vith 3 broad red bands within ;/ri/fl/cza-
firft whirl of the fpire ventricofe ; 1 inch long. turn.
9 2. B. glabrous, and marked with a white band and leucoKO-
chefnut lines. Minute. mas.
93. B. glabrous with decuffating bands and lines. cancellatum
94. B. glabrous, ochraceous; fpire with an obtufe obtufum.
blue tip ; firft whirl ventricofe ; 2 inches long.
9}. B. glabrous, with obtule whirls; the Xeo'wc.ft. glabi atum
flightly channelled and produced at the bale } 4 inciies
long. America, Africa. v .
96. B. glabrous } 5 or 6 whirls diftina ; lip proven-Jlromboi-
nent ; bafe obliquely ftriated. . ^es.
97. B. ovate, fmooth, black with a carious fpire -,prcerofum.
pillar glabrous; fize of a bean«$ crown jagged, abrupt.
Southern Europe.
98. B. oblong, fmooth, thin, banded; aperture o-aujlrale*
val, entire; 3 inches long. Rivers of New Zea¬
land. „
99. B.
435
Chap. IV. CONCH
orbitcu 99- B. ovate, thick, whitifh, tranfverfely ribbed
and grooved $ aperture oval 5 lip plaited within j pil¬
lar lip flat. Shores of New Zealand.
turgidum. 100. B. obovate, (lightly umbiiicated *, yellowifh
with rows of red fpots ; lip ilnuated. New Zealand.
G. Angular, and not enumerated in the former divifions.
undofum, 1 o I. B. ovate, with tranfverfe, elevated, glabrous
(hire j belly obtufely five-angular > lip flriated within j
2 inches long. Malacca.
affine. 102. B. ovate, with tranfverfe, elevated, glabrous
ftrias ; belly cylindrical $ lip ftriated within.
tranque- 103. B. ovate \ fpire with.4 2 angles and tranfverfe-
■baricum. ly ftriated j aperture toothed ; lip orange , pillar per¬
forated. Coromandel coaft.
verficolor. 104. B. coarfe, dirty brown, tranfverfely ftriated j
2 rows of black, dots in the interftices of the ftriae j 4
channelled whirls in the fpire. India.
tmenta- 105. B. tranfverfely ftriated with red parallelogram
turn. fpots.
fulcatum. 106. B. ovate j brown w ith fnowy fpots \ whirls of
the fpire grooved 5 lip crenulated j throat ftriated.
rumfffii. 107. B. thin, narrow, ventricofe $ fpire conic, de-
preffed ) firft and fecond whirls crowmed with fpines.
betzoar. 108. B. roundifh, wrinkled ; whirls lameliated on
the fore-part j pillar perforated. China.
glaciale. 109. B. ovate-oblong, fmooth, a little ftriated >
lower whirl (lightly keeled } 2 inches long. Northern
feas.
-undatum. * no. B. Waved vihelk. Oblong, coarfe, with deep,
tranfverfe, undulated ftrioej whirls 7, with many curved
angles j 3 to 4 inches long. India, Europe $ very com¬
mon on the fhores of Britain.—The fifhermen, from fup-
pofing that it is deftru&ive to the large fcallop, (oflrea
maxima}, by infinuating its tail, as they term it, into
the (hell, either ufe it for bait, or deftroy it when they
take it in dredging. The fpawn of this fpecies is of¬
ten found in clufters in many parts of the coaft.
Jlriatum. * 111. B. ovate oblong, with tranfverfe elevated ftrire,
which are undulated near the tip j 4 inches long.
Coafts of Britain.
ciliatum. 112. B. elongated, (lightly tailed •, angular j longi¬
tudinally ciliated •, pillar (lightly plaited ; whirls 5 }
6 inches long. Greenland feas.
viridulum. 113.6. oblong, pointed, glabrous; minutely ftri¬
ated tranfverfely, and longitudinally ribbed ; 4 lines
' long. Greenland feas.
£arinatum. 114. B. oblong, conic, and tranfverfely ftriated;
upper whirls with many oblique and obtufe angles,
lower ones with a fingle ridge. South fea.
folutum. 115.B. ovate with unequally diftant longitudinal
tubercles on the belly ; lip channelled and a little di-
ftinfl ; ribs 6 ; firft and fecond whirls broadeft ; fpire
obtufe. Shell whitifh mixed with yellow'.
tcenia. 116. B. oblong, glabrous, brown, with a yellow¬
ifh band in the middle of the firft whirl.
lineatum. 117. B. cinereous, with longitudinal, undulated, and
interrupted tranfverfe, brown ftri*; margin white,
fpotted with brown ; aperture white.
tnaclovi- 118. B. oblong, with waved fpots and clouds ;
<nfe. fpire fhort; firft whirl gibbous; tail narrow, promi¬
nent.
foiiorum. 119. B. thin, wuth a fhort, acute, (lightly ribbed
fpire; the firft: whirl a little globular; 1 inch long.
o 1. o g y.
India, among the leaves and branches of maritime
fhrubs.
1 20. B. ventricofe, cancellated ; whirls diftant; I textum.
inch long.
121. B. oblong; longitudinally plaited, and X.xzw[-Jlrigofum.
verfely ftriated ; the (trim brown and black, and ftri¬
ated with white, ventricofe ; aperture ribbed ; pillar
(lightly plaited ; 2 inches long.
* 122. B. oblong with tranfverfe elevated ftrire ; 6ang!icum.
brown whirls in the fpire ; a little ventricofe. Britain.
* 123. B. ventricofe, ribbed, brown; the firft wh'ulporcalunu
covering the next. Britain.
124. B. glabrous, w’hite ; fpire bluiftr at the tip, oh- /ceviffi-
tufe ; firft whirl largeft, ventricofe. mum.
125. B. oblong, narrow, glabrous; yellowifh with igneum.
red waved fpots and clouds ; outer whirls perpendicu¬
larly ftriated.
126. B. oblong, narrow', chefnut with darker belts ^plumatuvi^
throat narrow', black or blue, with ftriated teeth ;
lip ftriated within ; fpire acute. South American
iftands.
127. B, oblong, narrow, horizontally ribbed; ixhslyratum,
tranfverfely^Iriated ; pillar fmooth.
128. B. ovate, ventricofe, hoary ; longitudinally
ribbed, and tranfverlely plaited; lip grooved W'ithin ; frwz.
fpire acute ; beak fhort, recurved,
* 129. B. Reticulated whelk. Oblong, ovate, tranfverfe¬
ly ftriated, and longitudinally wrinkled; apertui'e tooth- reticula-.
ed, glofly; fize of a nut. European and Ethiopic feas,ta.w.
Britain.
* 130. B. with 5 whirls, fpirally ftriated and x.xzo!i-minutum*
verfely ribbed ; lefs than a pea. Norway, Britain,
131. B. ovate, cancellated, white; 5 whirls, fahniveum.
Ventricofe ; 1 inch long. Tranquebar.
132. B. yellow, with pale brown bands; fpire •w\\\\fcalare.
6 whirls cancellated ; whirls flat, diftant, the firft: a
little convex; aperture triangular; lip toothed; pillar
plaited, verrucofe, umbiiicated. A very rare (hell,
133. B. with decuflated ftrise, brown, within white, indie urn.
India.
134. B. white varied with brown ; tranfverfely fan- nodulofurtt.
ated ; here and there knotty. Shores of American
illands.
135. B. cancellated and nodulous in the angles oiffifeaton-
the feftion ; aperture toothed on each fide, and acute, um.
India. v
136. B, white, within yellowifti; lip 6-toothed; mauritii.
whirls crowned with fpines, the firft with 4 rows.
Mauritius.
137. B. oblong; aperture fimple, and without teeth;a/*W//<2-
each whirl crowned with a row of tubercles. turn.
138. B. oblong; perpendicularly plaited, and trani-/>licatulum>
verfely ftriated; with alternate white and brown bands;
violet within. India.
* 139. B. ventricofe, oblong; with longitudinal plah-vu/gatum,
like ftrise, croffed with fine undulated tranfverfe ones.
Mediterranean, Shores of England.
140. B. with party-coloured bands, tranfverfely ft.xi-folatum,
ated ; fpire horizontally ribbed, part of the firll whirl
glabrous. Tranquebar.
141. B. white, cancellated; fpire acute; minute, nanum.
142. B. narrow, cancellated ; aperture large, cxtx\z- exile.
ted and fpotted ; fmall.
143. B. cancellated; with perpendicular ribs; thechalys.
3 I 2 interftices
i
436
V
CONCH
interftices fmootli and flat-, aperture ovate j fpire hard¬
ly prominent ; a minute (hell.
verruca- 144. B. ftrice decuffated, knotted in the angles of
fttvi. fedlion j ventricofe j pale yellow, with a bluifh band
on each whirl \ li inches long.
alatum. 145. B. gibbous with decuffated ftrise, knotty in the
angles of feftion, the tranfverfe ftrise undulated ; lip
winged 1 inch long.
nigra- 146. B. narrow, rugged ; wrinkles tuberculated
pun£iatum.W\t\\ white, and dotted with black j \ inch long.
nitidulum 147* B. ovate, oblong, polifhed 5 barred and mark¬
ed with longitudinal rugged ftricej lip (lightly toothed
within. Mediterranean.
Icevigutum 148. B. ovate, oblong, polilhed, ftriated with brown
and fmooth ; aperture without teeth or pillar lip ; fpire
without plaits. Mediterranean.
lamellofum 149. B. (lightly plaited, tranfverfely ribbed, grooved,
tuberculated, lamellous barred with chefnut, brown,
and white. New Zealand.
fcutulatum 150. B. fmooth, chefnut-brown, veined, with flat-
tidi whirls, and obtufe beak. New Zealand.
haujlorium 151. B. ovate, ventricofe, black with a (hort fpire ;
pillar deprefled, white j throat white j lip ftriated and
crenulated within. New Zealand.
ventrico- 152. B. ovate, oblong j brown ftriated wuth white,
fum. and (lightly plaited.
te/ludine- 153- B. ovate, fmooth, with alternate whitifli and
um. brownifh fpots in interrupted rovvs. Shores of New
Zealand.
catarrhac- I54- B. ovate, rough, with crowded tranfverfe
ta, grooves and flame-coloured undulations. New Zea¬
land.
tahitenfe. 155. B. tapering ; tranfverfely ribbed and grooved;
with a nodulous fpiral ftria at the future of the whirls;
aperture ovate ; lip (lightly plaited. Otaheite.
lamella- 156. B. imperforated, lamellated; white, within
ium. purple ; lip white ; I-J- inches long.
H. Tapering, /ululate, fmooth.
maculatum 157. B. fomewhat fpindle (haped, with fmooth, un¬
divided, entire whirls ; fpire with 14 or more whirls.
Alia, Africa.
fubulatum. 158. B. fubulate, fmooth, undivided, very entire;
firft whirl not gibbous; 5 inches long. Indian ocean.
crcnula- 159. B. whirls of the fpire bifid, with a crenated
turn. margin ; 5 inches long. Africa and India.
heSlicum. 160. B. whirls of the fpire bifid; upper margin
comprefled, tapering ; 4 inches long. Africa.
vlttatum. 161. B. fubftriated, with a double crenated^ future
on each of the whirls ; 2 inches long. Africa and
India.
Jlrigilatum 162. B. whirls of the fpire 16 or 20, bifid and ob¬
liquely ftriated ; inches long. Southern feas of
Africa.
duplicatum 163. B. whirls of the fpire biparted and ftriated ; 4
inches long. India.
Jane eat um. 164. B. fmooth with entire whirls, and longitudinal
teftaceous lines ; thin ; fpire acute. India.
■dimidia- 165. B. whirls of the fpire bifid, fmooth; 4 inches
tum. long. Africa and India.
murinum. 166. B. whirls of the fpire fubangular, with 3 muri-
cated ftrise ; black; bafe gibbous; whirls white at the
bafe. Africa.
ii^rinum. 167. B. pellucid, white with reddifh dots; the whirls
O L O G Y. Chap. TV.
(lightly emarginated on the back ; a very minute
(hell.
168. B. acute, whitifh, with undulated horizontalArz/r.
lines; whirls bifid, crenuhted, and wrinkled ; pillar
fbirally twifted ; inch long.
169. B. fubulate, horizontally ftriated; whirls f\x\.)fuccinBus.
white or draw colour. Indian ocean.
170. B. fubulate, varied with yellow or reddifti cowwacw-
patches ; whirls flattifti, tranfverfely ftriated, and {\xx-latum.
rounded with an elevated belt.
171. B. ventricofe; whirls perpendicularly ftriated
with alternate brown and white bands; lx inches
long.
172. B. white with bvow-n bands of hollow dots. aciculatum
173. B. whirls of the fpire longitudinally ribbed, Hat.phallus.
bafe wdth a rugged future ; lip a little prominent and
emarginated above ; 9 whirls in the fpire; ribs a little
curved. India.
174. B. whirls of the fpire convex, diftant, \.xvc\{vtx[t-flumineum.
ly ftriated ; upper ones horizontally ribed; jx inches
long. Found in freflr waters.
175. B. whirls of the fpire ribbed, and tranfverfely
ftriated, the firft gibbous; beak a little prominent;
inch long.
176. B. reticulated, wrinkled, with an ix\c\irvz& mur'icinum
fpire ; aperture crenated ; pillar wrinkled ; lip thick¬
ened.
177. B. the whirls furrounded wdth a row of tnhtx- tuhercula-
cles ; minute. _ tum.
178. B. fubulate, pundlured, tranfverfely ftriated
aperture obovate ; whirls of the fpire furrounded with tum.
a band, the firft ventricofe; 1 inch long.
179. B. fubulate, fmooth, thin, and finely ftriated ac/cw/a.
tranfverfely; whirls of the fpire contiguous; tapering
to a point. In frelh waters.
180. B. aperture ovate, oblong; whirls ventricofe,/a/ao/tf-
diftant and horizontally ftriated; the (trite elevated and turn.
feparated by an intermediate band.
181. B. fubulate, fmooth, fnowy, with 2 bands; tf/wz/w.
whirls of the fpire contiguous.
182. B. a little ventricofe ; white with brown vin-tnucrona-
dulations ; aperture oval ; whirls 5 ; 3 inches long. turn.
183. B. coarfe, with a fubincurved obtufe lip; \digitellus.
inch long. India.
184. B. whirls of the fpire entire, with oblique obliquum.
cuffated ftrise; a finger’s length, thicknefs of a quill.
India.
185. B. fubangular, grooved; fteel-blue or &o\.tedichalybeum.
with white and black ; i-j inch long. India.
186. B. thin, with contiguous whirls ; beak {dight-fuviatile.
ly emarginated ; 4 to 5 inches long. India, in the
mouths of muddy rivers.
187. B. fubulate; whitilh with reddilh rays; vihuhradiatum.
convex, furrounded with granulated ftriae; firft largeft
and ventricofe.
188. B. whirls of the fpire longitudinally wrinkled,/zwtftt/ww.
and marked with tranfverfe granulated ftriae, the firft:
twice as large as the next; 1 inch long.
189. B. whirls fpotted; aperture long, without edentulum,
pillar plaited.
190. B. longitudinally ftriated, with puntlured fyot-pttgio.
ted bands between the whirls. . \Jatum.
191. B. fpotted with 17 grooved whirls. _ canalicu'-
102. B. whirls of the fpire convex, and twice varicofunu
crowned ;
«7
Chap. IV. CONCH
crowned j the firft with 3 rows of pun&uresj 34-inches
long.
cufpidatmn 193. B. Tubulate, fpotted; whirls convex, fubre-
mote.
cinsreum. 194. B. Tubulate, Tmooth, cinereous, with obfolete
bands j whirls undivided and longitudinally ftriated at
the Tuture ; whirls 14*, 2 inches long.
•uirgineum. 195. B. greenifh yellow with 2 red bands; whirls'of
the Tpire flattilh; aperture large, oval. Rivers ot Vir¬
ginia.
196. B. whirls of the fpire bifid; lower one fub-
ftriated, upper one filiform ; lubulate, gloily.
197. B. whirls of the Tpire bifid ; upper one groov¬
ed; lower one moniliform, Tubulate; yellowilh white.
cingulatum 198. B. with 3 elevated belts grooved above and
beneath ; fize of a cherry. Iceland.
geminum. 199. B. whirls of the Tpire bifid ; the lower one
fubilriated, upper one more protuberant; white; Tubu¬
late.
cbtufulum. * 200. B. white, gloffy, Temipellucid ; 5 whirls in
the Tpire ; aperture oval. Faverlham, England.
proxitna-
turn.
monile.
Gen. 25. Strom bus.
Strombiis. Qen^ Char.—The animal a Umax : the (hell univalve,
Tpiral ; aperture much dilated ; the lip expanding,
and produced into a groove leaning to the left (c).
Species.
A. The lip proje&'tng into linear divi/ions or claws.
fufus. 1. S. tapering, Tmooth, with a Tubulate beak and
toothed lip. Red Tea.
pes-pelica- * 2. S. Coruorant's Foot; lip with four palmated angu-
ni. lar claws ; mouth Tmooth ; whirls tuberculated ; 2
inches long. European and American Teas, flrores of
Britain.
chiragra. 3. S. lip with 6 curved claws, and recurved beak ;
lip ftriated; two hind claws divergent and bent
outwards ; beak tuberculated. Indian ocean. Rare
(hell.
fcorpius. 4. S. lip with 4 knotty claws; hinder one very long;
4 inches long.
lambis. 5. 3. lip with Teven ftraightifh claws; mouth fmooth.
Afia. A large (hell.
millepeda. 6. S. lip with 10 infle&ed claws; mouth fubftri-
ated ; back compreffed ; gibbous. Afia. Rare.
clavus. 7. S. tapering, fmooth, with a Tubulate beak, and
fimple lip.
B. Lobed.
lentigino- 8. S. lip thickened and 3-lobed on the fore-part ;
fus. back warty, and crowned with tubercles ; beak ob-
tufe ; 34 inches long. Afia, America.
fafeiatus. 9. S. lip entire ; back crowned with 3 rows of pro¬
tuberances, and rofy between them. Africa.
raninus. 10. S. lip thin, rugged, repand above; back orange,
tranfverfely ftriated, and crowned with tubercles ; a-
perture white, polilhed.
gallus. 11. S. lip mucronate on the fore-part, and very
O L O G V.
long ; back crowned with tubercles; beak ftraight;
6 inches long. Afia and America. . ,
12. S. lip projecting into a Tharp point; bzcV. auris-dia^
muvicated; beak ere£t and acute ; 3 inches long. nx.
Afia.
13. S. anterior lip prominent, rounded, fmooth;/>?/§
fpire (pinous; beak 3"l°hed, obtufe. South Ame-
rica.
14. S. anterior lip rounded, prominent,Tmooth; {iputalatus.
unarmed ; beak 3-lobed, obtufe.
13. S. lip a little prominent; beak entire; backmargina-
margined, fmooth. _ tus‘
16. S. lip a little prominent; back Tmooth; yrbiuhluhuanus,
rounded, equal; 24 inches long. Afia.
17. S. lip a little prominent; beak fmooth ; vib\x\sgibberulus
gibbous, unequal. Afia.
18. S. obovate, with knotty belts, and a Tubulate, ow/cw*
fmooth projection ; an inch long. South America.
C. Dilated.
19. S. lip rounded, entire on the fore-part; bellylucifer.
doubly ftriated ; Tpire crowned with tubercles ; upper
ones minute. South America.
20. S. lip rounded, and very large; (hell crowned ^grgas.
belly and fpire with conic expanded fpines ; gloffy
white; within, a rich rofe colour; 10 inches long.
South America.
21. S. lip rounded, very large; belly unarmed;
fpire a little knotty ; 14 inches long. Afia.
22. S. lip rounded, (hort; belly fmooth; Tpire a Yit-epidromis.
tie knotty ; 34 inches long. Southern Afia.
23. S. lip retufe, gibbous; belly and fpire with minimus.
knotty plaits; aperture 2-lipped, Tmooth; 14 inch
long. India.
24. S. fomewhat heart-(haped ; with a round, (hort, canarium.
retufe, fmooth lip ; pillar fmooth; 24 inches long.
Afia.
25. S. lip rounded, (hort; belly fmooth; fpire e-vittatus.
longated ; whirls divided by an elevated future ; 4
inches long.
26. S. lip rounded, retufe ; belly fmooth, with \fuccinElus.
pale, linear, pun&ured belts. Afia.
27. S. lip tapering, entire, (lightly plaited, zn&fpinofus.
crowned with fine fpines; fpire prickly. Hitherto
found in a foffil (late only.
28. S. lip continued into a longitudinal cleft ri^ge.JiJfurella.
India. Frequently found foffil in Campania.
29. S. lip tapering, retufe, (hort, ftriated; be\\yurceus.
and fpire with knotty plaits ; aperture 2-lipped, unar¬
med ; 24 inches long. Indian ocean.
30. S. thin, white, with orange fpots and clouds ; tridenta-
back fmooth, plaited ; whirls grooved; lip 3-toothed;/wr.
beak violet. Indian ocean.
31. S. lip tapering, (hort-toothed ; belly and fpire dentatus.
plaited ; 14 inch long.
32. S. very thick ; firft whirl crowned with \\Yatx~ cojlatus.
cles ; interftices of the tubercles plaited; the next
whirl tranfverfely ribbed; the reft tranfverfely ftriated;
6 inches long.
(c) It ought to be obferved, that thefe (hells, in their young (late, want the lip, and then have a thin tur¬
binated appearance ; from which circumftance they have been fometimes referred to a different genus.
/
43 S
CONCHOtOGY. Chap. IV.
bryoriia,
qffinis.
lotus.
Icevis.
vexillum.
norwegi-
cus.
33. S. conic, with a mucronate, 8-toothed lip >
fpire knotty ; 7 inches long; very rare. ,
34. S. tranfverfely ftriated, gibbous j fpire unarmed 5
firit whirl crowned with tubercles.
35. S. lip a little prominent, and twice emarginated
beneath ; firft whirl of the fpire fmooth in the middle,
and tranfverfely ftriated on each fide j the reft crowned
with obtufe knots.
36. S. fmooth, ftlvery, radiated with brown \ with
obfolete tranfverfe plaits j fpire elongated, with inflat¬
ed, rounded whirls; above 2 inches long.
37. S. folid, fubcylindrical, with alternate, reddifti
and ochraceous bands ; lip denticulated within j pillar
flat, glabrous, and emarginated at the bafe. Indian
ocean ; very rare.
38. S. oblong, fubulate, white, with round whirls ;
aperture fpreading ; ovate 5 beak a little afcending.
D. Tapering, with a very long fpire.
tubercula- 39. S. oblong, ovate, tuberculated ; lip thicken-
tus. ed.
palujlris. 40. S. fmoothilh •, lip feparated behind. Savannahs
of the Indian ocean.
ater. 41. S. fmooth ; lip feparated before and behind; 26
lines long. Fens of Amboyna.
lineatus. 42. S. fubulate, brown, with 7 fpiral, impreffed lines;
aperture ovate ; 11 lines long.
punSlatus. 43. S. (hell fubulate, yellowiftr, with a white band;
ftriated with red near the future ; leffer whirls groov¬
ed, 6 larger ones fmooth ; fpire with 12 or 13.
vibex. 44. S. fubulate, cinereous, tranfverfely ftriated ;
whirls 8 to 11 knotty, and marked with red ftreaks.
Coromandel, Friendly iflands.
auritus. 45. S. barred with brown 5 whirls 7, muricated ;
each with 7 yellow compreffed tubercles ; aperture
ovate ; 10 lines long. Africa.
aculeatus. 46. S. brown, tuberculated ; whirls 12, with 5 rows
of tubercles on each ; minute ; lip depreflcd, crenula-
ted ; 18 lines long. Marfhes of Africa.
agnatus. 47. S. fmooth; lip very prominent, and emarginated
behind.
dealbatus. 48. S. with black whirls tranfverfely ftriated ; outer
ones fmooth; margin of the lip and pillar white.
fufcus. 49. S. brown, with numerous tubercles and whirls ;
lip feparated before and behind ; within ftriated with
[Vi/r. brown.
viargina- 50. S. brown ; loweft whirl edged with white.
livuius. 51. S. fubangular, with fpinous knots; lip feparated
on the fore-part; brown, tranfverfely ftriated.
Jlriatus. 52. S. convex, ftriated, white, with a few fulvous
ftreaks ; pillar finuated, inflected, thin, pellucid ; 24
inches long.
finijler. 53. S. whirls reverfed, thin, longitudinally ftri¬
ated ; inch long, with 10 whirls. Hitherto found
in a foflil ftate only in Helvetia.
Gen. 26. Murex.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax ; the ftiell univalve,
fpiral, rough, with membranaceous futures; aperture
oval, terminating in an entire, ftraight, or flightly
afcending canal.
Species.
A. Spinous, with a produced beak,
haujlellutn. 1. M. ovate, tuberculated; with a long fubulate,
ftraight, muricated beak. Aha, America, Red fea.
54
Murex.
2. M. Thorny woodcock. Ovate, with a triple row trilulus.
of fetaceous fpines; beak elongated, fuhulate, with fimi-
lar fpines. Vai. 1. With fpines ihorter than the beak.
2. With fpines as long as the beak. This laft is rare.
Alia, America, Red fea.
3. M. roundifh, furrounded with fubulate, ahWcpcw ccrnutus.
fpines; beak long, fubulate, ftraight, with a few' ftiort
fpines; 8 inches long ; fpines 2 inches. Africa. Very
rare.
4. M. fubovate, furrounded with ftraight fpines ; brandaris.
beak fubulate, ftraight, obliquely furrounded with
fpines. Mediterranean, Adriatic.
5. M. ovate, knotty, and furrounded with fpines on trunculus,
the fore part ; beak ftiort, perforated, truncated. Me¬
diterranean, Jamaica.
6. M. ovate, knotty, with 3 to 7 protuberances ;pomum.
beak broad ; coarfe and ponderous. Eaftern fhores of
Africa.
7. M. ovate, tranfverfely grooved, with travitverfe decujjatus.
ribs crofted by perpendicular knots ; beak iinperforatt
ed ; 7 diftinft whirls in the fpire. Africa.
8. M. turgicj, knotty, tranfyerfely ftriated, with a triacan-
triple rowr of fpines. Found in a foflil ftate. thus.
9. M. tranfverfely ftriated, with 8 rows of hollow melana-
black fpines ; fpire a little knotty and prickly ; beak mathos.
fubulate.
10. M. white, with numerous rows of leafy, black, nn/A.
undulated fpines. A very rare (hell.
11. M. white, with rows of fpines, and very ftiovt candidus.
beak ; fome of the fpines black ; 2 inches long.
12. M. inflated, with rows of fpines, white fafeiatus*
with brown ; 4 diftinft turgid whirls in the fpire.
B. Suture expanding into crifped foliations ; beak abbre¬
viated. JP VRPVRjl. r
13. M. a triple row of foliations ; fpire contiguous ; ramofus. '
beak truncated. America, Afia, Red fea.
14. M. a triple row of foliations; aperture i-\.oo\h.-foliatus.
ed. North America.
15. M. 4 rows of foliations; fpire capitate; bczk/corpio.
truncated. Afia. Very rare.
16. M. 5 rows of foliations; fpire contiguous',faxatilis.
beak abbreviated. Mediterranean, Afia.
17. M. white, diaphanous; 6 rows of iotiations, diaphanus*
which are tipt with black.
18. M. ochraceous, tranfverfely ftriated, with numtr- cichoreum.
ous rows of foliations.
19. M. varied with white and red ; with flat acute verjicolor.
foliations; pointed with black.
* 20. M. fubangular; whirls crowned with tubular ennaceus.
and fubfpinous rays, feales or points; beak fhort and
covered ; 2 inches long. European feas, ftiores of
Britain.
21. M. 7 rows of foliations, white with elevated,y?nk/aj-.
tranfverfe, brown Arise; 7 whirls in the fpire. India.
22. M. {hell elongated, triangular, with membra- triptenus.
naceous foliations at the angles; 7 whirls in the fpire.
Found fofiil in Campania.
23. M. umbilicated with muricated ribs; vAtitisfacellutn.
flattifli above, with acute margins; lip crenated ; beak
ftraight, afcending. Nicobar.
24. M. triangular, knotty, tranfverfely grooved, motaci/hto
with a triple row of tubercles; beak long, fubulate,
ftraight; mouth white, India.
25. M.
t
Chap. IV. CONCH
triqueter. 25. M. long, fubulate, triangularribs reticulated j
beak ftraight, clofed ; fpire pyramidal, with 6 whirls.
iyratus.
ran a.
gyrinus.
ajjinis.
lampas.
alearium.
ft mar ale.
tutaceus.
C. With thick, protuberant, rounded futures.
26. M. protuberances crofled by fmooth belts ;
aperture ovate.
27. M. rough, with oppofite, impreffed protuber¬
ances, with one or two muricated belts. Afia.
28. M. protuberances oppofite, continued, and bar¬
red with tuberculated dots *, aperture orbicular. Me¬
diterranean, Atlantic, India.
29. M. turgid, with oppofite continued protuber¬
ances j fpire pointed 5 whirls i’urrounded with a crown
of tubercles ", the outermoft glabrous.
30. M. protuberances nearly oppofite, gibbous,
with longitudinal tuberculated protuberances", from 4
to 14 inches long. Indian ocean.
31. M. protuberances alternate, and numerous tu¬
bercles ", back unarmed and ftriated behind *, aperture
toothlefs. Mediterranean and African feas.
32. M. protuberances decuGfated, triangular, wrink¬
led and knotty on the fore-part j aperture ovate, tooth¬
lefs 5 from 5 to 7 inches long. Afia, Guinea, and A-
merica.
33. M. with a fingle protuberance j angular, and
a little wrinkled with knots ", pillar perforated j aper¬
ture toothed j 3 inches long. Barbary, Guinea, South
America.
htorium.
pileare.
bufonius.
pyrum.
caudatus.
rubecula.
fcrobicula-
ia.
reticularis.
I am ell of us.
nodatus.
anus.
miliaris.
fenegalen-
fis.
carinatus.
34. M. protuberances decuffated, angular, with
longitudinal tuberculous knots ; beak flexuous; aper¬
ture toothed. Mediterranean.
35. M. protuberances decuflated, and a little wrink¬
led with knots \ aperture toothed j beak fubafcending.
Mediterranean.
36. M. fix oppofite, continued, vaulted protuber¬
ances, and knotty belts j beak oblique. A rare (hell.
37. M. varicofe, ovate, tranfverfely grooved and
knotty ; beak long, flexuous, fubulate. Indian ocean.
38. M. thin, tranfverfely ftriated ; beak fubulate ;
fpire a little prominent, tipt with brown j whirls
grooved ; firft gibbous.
39. M. protuberances decuffated, obtufe, with knotty
wrinkles 5 belly equal ; aperture toothed. Africa,
India, South America. Rare.
40. M. protuberances hollowed, fmooth, nearly op¬
pofite ; aperture toothed. Mediterranean.
41. M. protuberances nearly oppofite, reticulated
with tuberculated fpots ", pillar almoft toothlefs ; beak
afcending ", 6 inches long. Mediterranean, America.
42. M. protuberances membranaceous, continued
though the fpire, and terminated with a fpine. Falk¬
land iflands.
43. M. whirls knotty; aperture violet; lip tooth¬
ed ; beak ftraight. New Holland.
44. M. protuberances and lips membranaceous, di¬
lated ; gibbous and reticulated with tubercles; aper¬
ture finuous; beak ereft: ; 3 inches long. Mediter¬
ranean and Afia.
45. M. varicofe with tuberculated belts; aperture
a little toothed ; beak elongated ; whirls ventricofe.
46. M. tranfverfely ftriated, with fpinous protuber¬
ances ; the fpines decreafing towards the head ; 2-5
inches long. Senegal.
* 47. M. ventricofe, with 5 or 6 whirls, forming an-
O L O G Y. 439
gular ridges; aperture femicircular ; beak a little re-
fleded ; 4 inches long. Europe, Britain.
D. More or lefs fpinous, and without manifefl beak.
48. M. obovate, with fubulate fpines in rotvs ; a-ricinus,
perture and lip toothed ; inch long. Afiatic ocean.
49. M. obovate with conic fpines; lip toothed
pillar fmooth, coloured ; 34 inches long.
50. M. knots in numerous rows ; lip with pointed nerttoidettS'
angles ; pillar flattiih. India.
51. M. coarfe, ventricofe, tranfverfely ftriated, vc\t\yfucus.\
4 rows of knots ; pillar impreffed; outmoft whirls flat-
tifh.
52. M. obovate and knotty on the fore part; aper-/oco.
ture fuborbicular, toothlefs ; 4 or 5 inches long. Chi-
nefc fhores. Yields a purple fluid.
53. M. fubovate, with acute fpines in 4 rows; aper-
ture toothlefs, rep and.
54. M. ovate, with obfolete fpines, which zvei Mananelld
blackifti; aperture toothlefs; pillar tranfverfely ftriat¬
ed.
55. M. ovate, ftriated, with 3 or 5 rows of ob'xife bippocafa-
fpine$ or tubercles; aperture tranfverfely ftriated. num.
Guinea, India.
56. M. Small prickly whelk. Tapering, longituAi-fenticofus.
nally ribbed, and tranfverfely cancellated; aperture ftri¬
ated ; ribs prickly ; 2 inches long. Indian ocean.
57. M. obovate, glaucous, with a fubfpinous whirl \,melongera,
fpire fomewhat prominent ; aperture fmooth ; 54 inches
long. India, America.
58. M. thick, ventricofe, tranfverfely grooved and ro«/«/.
knotted ; aperture repand, ovate ; lip finuous, in¬
wardly plaited and denticulated. India.
59. M. brown, fubovate, flightly beaked with/f^r;.
crowded, nodulous, paler belts. George’s bay.
E. With a long, f reight, fubalate, clofed beak, and un¬
armed with fpines.
60. M. without beak, flightly plaited, ovate, point-ear/o/kr.
ed ; lip carious. Found in the aqueduft at Seville.
61. M.tapering with acute fpotted belts, and ftraight
tail; lip cleft; 4 inches long. Indian and Ameri¬
can iflands.
62. M. tapering, with immaculate knotty belts; Yiyjavanus.
with a feparate fcoop. India.
63. M. ventricofe, point<*d with a cancellated, xt-fnenfs.
flefted beak; aperture oval; whirls with tranfverfe,
granulated ftriae ; bafe crowned with fpines. Senegal.
64. M. fpire with elevated rings; interftices hM-framitietif.
ed with ftiort, ftrawr-like projeftions ; whirls crowned
with tubercles at the bafe; 3 inches long. Southern
ocean.
65. M. ovate, longitudinally ftriated ; lip undulated ; auf rails,
whirls channelled ; firft turgid, and 4 plaited ; the
next 3 plaited ; 24 inches long. South fea.
66. M. fpire pointed, and tranfverfely ftriated ; 4uncinatuu
firft whirls with a callus, armed with hooks in the mid¬
dle, (; and 6 ribbed, the reft glabrous.
67. M. tapering; whirls crowned wflth tubercles,///rm.
and furrounded with a granulate belt; the firft finely
ftriated tranfverfely.
68. M. beak a little reflefted, and obliquely flriated ; cofatusi
3 firft whirls of the fpire ribbed ; other 4 cancellated ;
» firft
%
1
440 CONCH
firrt dbconic j pillar with a fingle plait. Found foffil
in Campania.
afpcr. 69. M. longitudinally plaited, and tranfverfely rib¬
bed 5 fpire a little prominent j aperture ovate j lip
crenulated.
tolus. 70. M. tapering, flriated, knotty; carinated, with a
long flraight beak; lip crenuiated ; beak 3 inches
long. Indian ocean.
ip.orio. 71. M. black, with a white band; beak dilated;
pillar wrinkled; whirls knotty ; 6 inches long. A-
frica.
cochlidium. 72. M. beak dilated ; whirls of the fpire flat above.
Indian ocean.
fpirillus. 73. M. beak long, fpire mucronated ; whirls convex
above. Tranquebar.
canalicula- 74. M. beak dilated ; whirls of the fpire feparated
tus. by a fmall canal. Canada, Frozen fea»
Jicus. 75. M. beak dilated ; whirls feparated by a fmall
canal; firft crowned with knobs at the bafe.
carica. 76. M. tranfverfely ftriated ; beak dilated ; fpire a
little prominent ; whirls crowned with fpines at the
bafe ; 8 inches long.
rapa. 77. M. folid, umbilicated, writh a triple row of
knots tranfverfely ftriated ; aperture largely ftriated.
India.
niveus. 78. M. beak dilated; whirls of the fpire feparated
by a fmall groove ; the firft with tranfverfe, carinated
ribs. Brazil.
granum. 79. M. hemifpherical, glabrous, diaphanous; beak
ftraight, fpreading; crown papillary. North Ame-
rica.
aruanus. 80. M. beak dilated; fpire crowned with fpines.
New Guniea.
perverjus. 81. M. beak dilated and repand ; fpire recurved
and llightly crowned. American ocean. Exceedingly
rare.
antiquus. * 82. M. beak dilated ; ftiell oblong ; 8 round whirls,
firft ventricofe ; 4 to 6 inches long. European feas,
Scotland.
defpeftus. * 83. M. oblong, ftriated, and fomewhat rugged;
beak dilated; whirls 8, with two elevated_lines ; 5
inches long. European feas, (hores of Britain.
fornicatus. 84. M. ovate oblong ; beak dilated ; whirls ventri¬
cofe ; a little angular and longitudinally ftriated ; 7
inches long. Greenland feas.
incrajfatus 85. M. oblong, tranfverfely wrinkled, and longi¬
tudinally ftriated ; lip denticulated within, and thick¬
ened without.
truncatut. * 86. M. oblong, longitudinally ribbed; beak a lit¬
tle refledted, emarginated and truncated : very mi¬
nute ; whirls 6. Coafts of Europe, and ftiores of Bri-
tain. _ .
acumina- * 87. M. narrow, oblong, ribbed; fpire pointed.
tus* Shores of England.
argus. 88. M. gibbous, with tranfverfe, tuberculated ribs ;
brown, with darker band; within white ; aperture
ovate.
maculofus. 89. M. cancellated, yellow, with alternate white
‘ bands, and chefnut patches ; 11 round whirls in the
fpire. India. Very rare.
magella- 90. M. ventricofe, umbilicated, tranfverfely ftriated ;
tiicus. whirls of the (pire with parallel nos ; the firft large.
Straits of Magellan.
cancellatus 91. M. ovate, folid, opaque, cmeieous; whirls of
the fpire cancellated, and teparated by a groove.
I
O I. O G Y.
Chap. IV.
92. M. whirls furrounded with grooves, and tu-fco/opaceut
bercles above; tip of the tubercles and aperture
white.
93. M. ventricofe, tapering, fpotted with black;/z/ertf/w.
beak ftiort; pillar with a fingle plait; fpire with 8
prickly whirls.
94. M. fubtriangular, cancellated; fpire with 7 m- trigonus*
flated, contiguous whirls; the firft with a large diftindl
tubercle ; 2 inches long. Senegal.
95. M. longitudinally ribbed, and finely ftriatedy£/Wz/z/tf-
tranfverfely ; fpire with flattifh diftant whirls, with ris.
rows of tubercles; aperture femilunar; 1 inch long.
Senegal.
96. M. rounded with annular grooves ; aperturefulcatus.
oval; firft whirl of the fpire turgid ; inch long.
Senegal.
97. M. ventricofe, oblong, fmooth, with rounded
whirls; aperture toothed; beak fliort ; 16 inches
long. India and the South feas.—This fhell is ufed by
the natives of New Zealand as a mufical inftrument,
and by the Africans and many nations of the Eaft, as a
military horn.
98. M. ventricofe, oblong, fmooth ; fpire ftriated/>«/fo.
with rounded whirls; aperture fmooth ; beak flrort;
inch long. Mediterranean and Africa. Rare.
99. M. ventricofe, oblong, fmooth ; whirls rounded/«/#>#.
with a double future ; pillar with two plaits ; beak di¬
lated, ftriated. South America.
1 go. M. oblong beak, and grooved with longitudi-
nal membranaceous plaits. Iceland.
101. M. folid, black or pale brown, with a white
fubdiaphanous band ; w’hirls knotty; pillar a little
plaited.
102. M. whirls of the fpire plaited and knotty. plicatus.
103. M. umbilicated with diftant, wedged, x‘ib-fca/a.
bed, and tranfverfely ftriated whirls; aperture heart-
fhaped.
104. M. angular, longitudinally plaited, and \xvnt-fifcellum.
verlely ftriated; lip toothed; mouth violet; beak
ftraight, fhort. China.
105. M. faftigiated with browm and yellowifh bands corona.
beak ftraight, entire. Mexico.
106. M, ovate, with a few7 elevated obtufe belts ondolarium.
the whirls ; fize of a walnut. The ocean.
* 107. M. oblong, flender, white; margins of xhtcorneus.
whirls complicated ; aperture toothlefs; 3 inches long.
Britifh and North feas.
108. M. oblong, coarfe, with obtufely knotty whirls; lignarius.
aperture toothlefs; beak fhort.
109. M. oblong, obtufely angular, with flightly
knotty whirls ; aperture toothed ; 6 inches long. In¬
dian ocean.
110. M. folid, ventricofe, fmooth, with an ob\ox\gvefpertiho.
oval aperture ; beak and crowned fpire ftriated ; 4 in¬
ches long. Indian ocean.
111. M. thin, diaphanous, ventricofe, and tranfverfe-yco/ywz/J-.
ly ftriated ; middle of the beak fmooth ; fpire with
obtufe, undulated knots; pillar 3 plaited.
112. M. ventricofe, longitudinally ribbed; ribs
tranfverfely ftriated; fpire a little prominent; whirls
diftant.
113. M. fufiform, tranfverfely ftriated ; white, vshbtuba.
a brown tip to the fpire, wdiich has^ whirls diftant, and
crowned at the bafe with knots. China.
114. M. oblong, with ftriated plaited whirls, co->/jTz7fzz/&-
vered nusK
Chap. IV. CONCH
vered with tuberculated ridges; aperture toothlels $
beak fliort. Mediterranean •, rare.
11 5. M. oblong, with rounded, plaited, and tianf-
verfely reticulated whirls 5 aperture toothed, llriated
within. Mediterranean.
116. M. nearly without beak j fufiform, fmooth,
pale, with longitudinal brown ftriae j lip toothed j ve¬
ry fmall. Mediterranean.
ternatanus 117. M. tranfverlely ftriated, with diftant undu-
lately tuberculated whirls; aperture oblong; beak
ftraight; 4 inches long ; yellow. Ternate illand.
118. M. umbilicated, undulately knotty; ftriae ele¬
vated, brown ; perforation funnel-ftiaped ; pillar two-
plaited ; 4 inches long ; very rare.
119. M. ventricofe, undulated with tubercles ; ftri¬
ated, grooved, and obtufely angled; black, with an
oval aperture, and fliort beak ; 34 inches long. ln-
craticula
ius.
fcriptus.
infundibu¬
lum.
polygonus.
icelandi-
cus.
Icevigatus.
fojjilis.
candidus.
anfatus.
undatus.
longi/Jimus
Jancea.
angujlus.
verfcolor,
verrucofus
flriatulus.
pardalis.
glgas.
lignofus.
giibulus.
dian ocean.
120. M. tranfverfely ftriated; fpire papillous at
the tip, with round whirls; firft large and ventrico'e ;
5 inches long. Iceland.
121. M. fufiform; fpire tranfverfely ftriated ; whirls
diftant, flattifli ; the firft: round, fmooth ; 34 inches
long. Found foflil in Campania.
122. M. fufiform, incancellated, with a long beak ;
14 inch long. Found foflil in Campania.
123. M. fnowy, tranfverfely ftriated ; fpire with
diftant whirls, keeled in the middle, and crowned with
tubercles; lip grooved within, and denticulated at the
margin ; 94 inches long.
124. M. brown, tranfverfely ftriated, fpire mucro-
nated ; whirls diftant, convex, and knotty at the bafe ;
beak long.
125. M. folid, ventricofe, w'ith waved angles, and
finely ftriated tranfverlely ; fpire mucronate ; whirls
knotty a,t the bafe ; lip denticulated ; 8' inches long ;
ponderous. India.
126. M. thin, ftriated, with an obtufe, knotty fpire,
and long ftraight beak ; 9 inches long. India.
127. M. narrowed ; whirls of the fpire tranfverfely
ribbed, and longitudinally crenated ; aperture ovate ;
ribbed with white within, and toothed at the margin ;
pillar 2-plaited. Amboyna.
128. M. narrowed ; firft whirl of the fpire longitudi¬
nally plaited, and tranfverfely ribbed ; the other fmooth
and round ; beak tranfverfely ftriated.
129. M. fubcylindrical; fpire obtufe; w’hirls round
and ftriated ; lower ones moftly glabrous. India.
130. M. umbilicated and furrounded with belts;
middle ones more raifed ; wdiirls crowned with tuber¬
cles, which are fpotted with brown. Red fea.
131. M. thin, tranfverfely ftriated , fpire aaucronate;
whirls round ; lip crenulated ; 4 inches long.
132. M. rounded, white, with violet fpots, lon¬
gitudinally ribbed, and tranfverfely ftriated ; fpire ob¬
tufe.
133. M. whirls of the fpire turgid, gibbous, nodu¬
lous and annulated ; lip denticulated beneath; 21 inches
long.
134. M. whitifti; fpire obtufe ; whirls (lightly crown¬
ed with wrinkled, unequal tubercles ; beak tranfverfe¬
ly ftriated ; 14 inch long.
135. M. tapering, orange; fpire obtufe; whirls
diftant, with longitudinal ribs, and flexuous tranfverfe
ftriae.
Yol. VI. Part II.
O L O G Y. 44*
136. M. tapering; fpire with contiguous whirls,
feparated by a fiexuous line ; firft ventricoie ; Adria-
tic.
137. M. tapering, tranfveifely ribbed ; whirls con- vexillum,
vex ; aperture oval ; lip denticulate^.
138. M. oblong, ventricofe; whirls with a ftriated
margin ; aperture glabrous ; beak fliort, and bent out¬
wards.
139. M. ovate, tranfverfely ftriated ; fpire with flat-tf/tr.
tifli whirls ; crowned with a row ot rounded tubercles;
14 inch long. Senegal.
140. M. ventricofe ; tpire obtufe, cancellated, \\\\.h campani-
carinated whirls'; firft ventricole and Imooth ; beak car.
long and fmooth ; three inches long. Found foflil in
Campania.
141. M. whirls of the fpir e with decuffated r\hs, arer.ofus.
the fiift large, three outermoft fmooth ; bp toothed
outw'ardly ; very final!. Sandy fliores of India.
142. M. narrow, tranfverlely ftriated ; fpire mucro-
nated ; whirls diftant, contrary, round, and longitudi-cf«/fr.
nally ribbed ; beak prominent ; 14 inch long. Shores
of Morocco.
143. M. oblong, whitifli, with tranfverfe, reddifh
ftrias ; beak fhort, ftraight. New Zealand.
I44* M. a little tapering ; whirls carinated above,/>frro//.
margined and flattened ; beak long and ftraight.
Southern ocean.
145. M. cylindrical ; fpire with a crenated cdWons larva.
belt; upper whirls with plaited knots, lower ones flat-
tifli; beak fliort, ftraight, emarginated.
146. M. folid, thick, coarfe ; fpire exferted ; whirls flere.Wi?-
tranfverfely ftriated ; aperture femiorbicular and ftri- us.
ated.
147. M. ovate, angular, iridefeent; longitudinally
grooved and plaited ; beak ftiort ; lip denticulated, cw.
India, and South feas.
148. M. ribs longitudinally plaited, and tranfverfely
grooved ; angular, fpinous, carinated ; alternately um.
varied with white and browm ; whirls fuddenly dimi-
niftiing ; beak fliort, ftraight. Pulo Condor.
149. M. ribbed, varied with brown, yellowr afperntnus
white ; whirls oblique, with a tuberculated margin,
and brown band in the middle ; beak fliort, dilated,
afeending; two inches long.
1 ;o. M. white, undulated with bay; with gvooxes undulatus.
marked with raifed ftriae ; whirls nodulous at the mar¬
gin ; beak ftraight; four inches long. Red fea.
F. Tapering, fubulale, with a very Jhort beak.
151. M. whirls of the fpire plaited above ; pillar verlagus.
plaited within; beak afeending; three inches long.
India.
152. M. whirls of the fpire tuberculated, with a al.tco.
fpinous ftreak in the middle ; pillar with a fingle plait;
beak afeending ; four inches long. Southern ocean,
Red fea, Atlantic.
153. M. whirls furrounded with belts longitudinally annularis.
ftriated ; firft whirl tranlverfely ftriated ; beak afeend-
ing
154. M. ventricofe; fpire tranfverfely ftiiated
whirls longitudinally plaited and knotty ; aperture
oval. . x
155. M. ventricofe, tranfverfely ftriated and crown fordidus.
ed with black knots.; lip dilated.
156. M. fpire tranfverfely ftriated and grooved-iringulatu:*
3 K whirls
442 CONCH
■whirls iiirrounded with three rows of granulations, the
firft a little knotty. Tranquebar.
fufcus. 157. M. rounded, brown ; firfl whirl of the fpire
gibbous j the others varicofe j the lall with numerous
fpines.
fafciatus. 158. M. tranfverfely llriated j fpire crowned. Rivers
of America.
jluviatilis. 159. M. brown ; firft whirls of the fpire crowned
with fpines, the others with knots \ aperture repand.
alatus. 160. M. reticulated j fpire mucronate*, firft whirl
grooved and tranfverfely ftriated j lip winged.
nodulofus. 161. M. tranfverfely ftriated, and alternately barred
with brown and white ; fpire mucronate ; whirls dif-
tant, with undulated knots.
tcrebella. 162. M. with a triple moniliform belt on each of the
whirls; aperture oval, with curved ftrioe within ; 1 to
2^ inches long.
fufcatus. 163. M. whirls crenulated ; the upper ftria denticu¬
lated. Mediterranean.
torulofus, 164. M. whirls of the fpire with a {lightly knotty
zone above ; beak ftiort.
radula. 165. M. whirls of the fpire tuberculated, with a
double row of pun&ured ftrias. Africa.
afper. 166. M. whirls of the fpire grooved, tranfverfely
ftriated and muricated. Guinea.
granulatus 167. M. rough, with decuflfated tubercles j beak
acute, afcending 5 2 inches long ; white. India.
decollatus. * 168. M. whirls of the fpire with longitudinal plaited
grooves, with the tip feemingly broken off. European
feas. Britain.
moluccan- 169. M. ftriated; whirls of the fpire tranfverfely
us. grooved with undulated, longitudinal plaits; lip dila¬
ted, crenulated. Marftres of Molucca iflands.
minimus. 170. M. with tranfverfe, undulated ftnaj, crofted by
longitudinal lines; aperture orbicular.
Jlrigilatus. 171. M. longitudinally ftriated; whirls undivided,
with a fnowy belt at the future, marked with reddifh
fpots.
tubercula- 172. M. tranfverfely ftriated, and furrounded with
tus. glabrous knots ; lip thickened.
gibbofus. 173. M. whirls of the fpire margined; belly gib¬
bous ; lip cleft, denticulated ; beak fhort.
atratus. 174. M. black; whirls tranfverfely ftriated and tu¬
berculated ; pillar with one plate.
eantrarius. 175. M. four contrary whirls marked with double
ftrioe ; beak dilated. European and North feas.
eburnea. 176. M. contrary, hyaline, with 6 finely crenulated
whirls.
conditus. 177. M. tapering, rough with granulations ; lip
doubled, emarginated on each fide, and toothed with¬
in ; aperture oval and ftriated.
clava. 178. M. tranfverfely ftriated and fpotted ; whirls
with plaited knots ; lip double, dilated. Pulo Con¬
dor.
hexagonus. 179. M. yellowifti, hexagonal, with tranfverfe, gra¬
nulated ftriae ; firft uftiirl tuberculatcd. South fea;
and is often found foflil.
mimitijji- * 180. M. with five whirls, fpirally ftriated, and re-
mus. mote ribs ; pellucid; a very minute and elegant Ihtll.
Coafts of Wales.
Xrochus. Gen- 27* Trochus.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax ; (hell univalve, fpi-
ral, more or lefs conic ; aperture fomewhat angular
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
or rounded ; the upper fide tranfverfe and con-
traffed ; pillar placed obliquely.
Species.
A. Erect, with the pillar perforated.
1. T. conic, fmooth, fomewhat umbilicated ; zniloticus,
large ponderous ftiell, with oblique, red, perpendicular
ftriae. Indian ocean.
2. T. conic, tuberculated, with an oblique pexioxv.- macula tus,
tion ; inner lip two-lobed. Afia, South America.
3. T. convex, obtufe, margined ; the umbilicus 'pe.x-perfpeEU-
vious and crenulated, 2^ inches long. Afia, Africa, tw.
This is a very beautiful (hell.
4. T. convex ; pillar 2 toothed ; perforation Qxzxxw-hybridus.
lated. Mediterranean.
5. T. convex, with callo-pundlured ftriae ; pillar l-cruciettus,
toothed. Mediterranean.
6. T. obovate, ftriated ; marked with concatenated,
globular dots ; aperture and pillar toothed ; umbilicus
crenated. European and Afiatic feas.
* 7. T. convex, obliquely umbilicated ; ridges of the magus.
whirls rifing into obtufe tubercles. European and
African coafts, Britain.
8. T. ftriated, plaited above, and more convex he- tnodulus,
neath ; aperture ovate and l-toothed. Red fea.
9. T. fubovate ; grooves moniliform and alternately/cdfor.
larger ; fhell black; aperture yellowdfh.
10. T. obliquely umbilicated; convex; whirlsfttf/mr.
flightly margined. Mediterranean.
* 11. T. ovate, obliquely umbilicated; whirls round-czwmim’.r*
ed ; fize of a pea. Shores of Europe. Britain.
12. T. ovate, fubumbilicated ; perforation nearly divarica-
fhut up ; loweft whirl more remote. Mediterranean/zzr.
and Greenland feas.
13. T. conico-convex ; perforation pervious, exactly umbilica-
cylindrical ; whirl {lightly emarginated. Shores ofm.
Europe.
14. T. convex, conic ; whirls fpinous and margined ^folaris.
aperture femi-heart-ftiaped ; 2 inches diameter. India
and America.
15. T. depreffed, oblique ; white with brown lines ; tedium.
fpire tranfverfely ftriated, and longitudinally ribbed ;
firft whirl ventricofe ; aperture orbicular ; firft whirl
large ; pillar brown.
16. T. conic, white fpotted with red ; w’hirls round, rw/a/.
with moniliform belts; firft whirl only perforated. India.
17. T. fubequal, mucronate; whirls 9, fpinous be-^/«o/w,f.
neath ; on each fide a linear band of white and black,
with a triple rowT of knots.
18. T. lateritious, fpotted with white; the bafe fatfujubinlis,
with concentric lines of concatenated dots; whirls
channelled, teffelated at the low7er margin with white
and chefnut. South America.
19. T. plaited with knots, tranfverfely ftriated,
writh belts of concatenated dots; perforation funnel-
fhaped ; pillar crenulated. India.
20. T.bafe and continued perforation funnel-ftiaped ^concavus.
whirls contiguous, undulated and plaited ; aperture
denticulated at the margin ; 2 inches broad. India.
21. T. furrounded with granulations and knots, twTZW.r.
green, and wbitilh towards the tip ; the tip varied with
black dots. India.
22. T. covered with white, greenifh, and buff-co-
loured fpots ; tip with red and black ones; bafe white
fpotted
443
Chap. IV. CONCH
fpotted with red; within pearly $ whirls with many
rows of knots ; lower margins glabrous. India.
tentorium. 23. T. wrinkled and plaited ; whirls knotty'beneath,
with concatenated dots in the middle ; whirls diftant j
perforation funnel-fhaped. India.
ochroleu- 24. T. wrinkled and plaited, obliquely crenated
cus. and tranfverfely ftriated 5 bafe flat; white with red dots.
India.
Jlellatus.
fpengleri.
cq/latus.
in ce quails.
regius.
verrucofus
cylindricus
radtatus.
viridis.
rujlicus.
nigerri-
tnus.
fanulum.
Jlrigofus.
pyramis.
capenjis.
(rgyptius.
deprejjus.
Javigatus.
grcenlandi-
cus.
rofeus.
patholatus.
viridulus.
25. T. plaited and wrinkled, fea-green 5 whirls
with concatenated dots ; upper ones with a radiated
fpinous margin. India.
26. T. furrounded with rows of ochraceous knots
and granulations, waved with red ; one part of the
bafe fmooth.
27. T. dots elevated, concatenated ; whirls with ob¬
long white knots beneath, and intermediate purple
grooves.
28. T. rough, with unequal knots and granulations j
many rows of knots on the whirls j tubercles larger on
the marginal row.
29. T. white with a rofy (hade ; tranfverfely ftriated,
with many rows of knots j margin of the whirls pro¬
minent ; perforation funnel-lhaped.
30. T. white, radiated with purple ; conic ; margin
of the whirls knotty ; perforation funnel-fhaped.
31. T. brownifti, cylindrical -, whirls convex, mark¬
ed with tranfverfe ftrise j perforation crenated. Very
rare.
32. T. radiated with red $ pyramidal ; whirls with
concatenated dots j perforation funnel-fhaped. South
America.
33. T. green ; firft: whirl with 5 rows of knots, fe-
cond with 4, the reft glabrous.
34. T. black-brown j obtufely pyramidal. China.
35. T. deep black ; whirls flattifti ; fpire tranfverfe¬
ly ftriated j pillar i-toothed. China.
36. T. whirls of the fpire ochraceous, with fpotted
tubercles ; and with an intermediate, fpotted, wrinkled
groove.
37. T. ochraceous, varied with black at the tip j
pyramidal and tranfverfely ftriated •, whirls of the fpire
flattifti} margin tumid and fpotted with red 5 very
fmall. Shores of Morocco.
38. T. pyramidal, with chefnut fpots and clouds j
margin of the whirls vaulted and nodulous $ to 2
inches long.
39. T. deprefled, varied with white and chefnut j
bafe convex, with a fcarlet ring marked with deeper
fpots. Cape.
40. T. deprefled, white fpotted with red j whirls
tranfverfely ftriated and plaited, diftant 5 pillar i-tooth-
ed ; inch long. Red fea.
41. T. whitifti, radiated with red, and red at the
tip ; deprefled ; whirls furrounded with a belt of mo-
niliform dots.
42. T. pale brown ; bafe fub-convex ; whirls fmooth,
obfoletely ftriated tranfverfely ; perforation white,
funnel-fhaped.
43. T. pellucid, flefti-colour ; bafe convex ; whirls
6, convex and finely ftriated tranfverfely.
44. T. convex, rofy, grooved ; perforation very mi¬
nute ; fhell fmall. Cape of Good Hope.
45. T. deprefled, brown with whitifti fpots ; very
minute.
46. T. greenifti, obliquely radiated with white;
O L O G Y.
whirls convex, with a belt of moniliforni granulations ;
pillar toothed.
47. T. convex, with numerous rows of granulations; urbanus.
perforation denticulated ; aperture crenulated.
48. T. clouded with brown and gray ; rows of grz.-guincen/is,
nulations numerous, with knots ; aperture crenated ;
perforation toothed ; 6 lines long. Guinea.
49. T. cinereous, with moniliform belts of granula-/W&7//.T.
tions) perforation white, toothed ; aperture crenated.
50. T. deprefled, pale flefti colour, with crowded carwe/zJ'.
moniliform belts of granulations j perforation large j
I-toothed,
51. T. tranfverfely ftriated ; whirls diftant ; numex- teflellatus*
ous fquare fpots on the fpire. European feas.
52. T. convex, chefnut 5 whirls of the fpire convex, m?ce«jv
the outer ones faffron-coloured. Africa.
53. T. depreflfed, convex ; with oblique violet rays \obliquatus.
whirls convex. Mediterranean.
54. T. convex, chefnut ; whirls with a fillet, varied vittatus.
with red and white at the upper margin.
55. T. deprefled, pyramidal j bafe concave; whirlsfehruteri.
tranfverfely ftriated and obliquely ribbed, the firft with
a keeled margin ; perforation funnel-lhaped. Found
foflil in Campania.
56. T. conic-convex; whirls unarmed; aperture femi-indicus.
heart-fhaped ; perforation fpiral; fcarcely 1 inch high.
India.
57. T. deprefled, chefnut; whirls tranfverfely ftria-
ted and crenated, with rows of granulations; perfora-///brz«z>.
tion pervious, crenulated.
58. T. ftraw-colour ; whirls convex, with decuflated^rzzznf/z^T
ftriae feparated by a groove ; perforation pervious.
Tranquebar.
59. T. white, marked with browniftt rays and erz-variegatus
nated ftriae ; perforation crenated, pervious.
60. T. convex, tranfverfely ftriated ; white, with areola.
fquare reddilh fpots ; perforation crenulated; whirls of
the fpire feparated by a white ftreak.
61. T. greenifh yellow, with longitudinal plaited rio%inermis.
terminated by a fpine ; aperture conaprefied ; perfora¬
tion wrinkled.
62. T. conic, olive, covered with rows of raifed vio-imperialis.
let feales; whirls inflated, with a fpinous radiate mar¬
gin ; Ipire with 7 whirls; large. South feas,
63. T. deprefled, ftraw colour, with darker ribs -^planus.
whirls of the fpire plaited ; perforation pervious.
64. T. conic; white, with oblique brown bands ;
whirls channelled near the future.
65. T. conic; bafe greenifn gray, fpotted wVthfufcatus.
brown ; wdiirls round, flattifti at the future.
66. T. conic ; red, dotted with white ; (lightly per corallinus,
forated ; whirls round, the firft with the next with
6 rows of tubercles ; 6 whirls in the fpire ; 4 lines
long. Senegal.
67. T. gray, wuth whitifti fpots; wftiirls flattifti, andgrifeus.
tranfverfely grooved. Senegal.
68. r. convex ; the whirls reverfed. Found ntciYferrugine-.
Scaphufia, converted into iron ore. us.
69. T. pyramidal, with contrary round whirls ; 3 novas.
of them with a quadruple trifarious row of tubercles,
the fourth very diftant.
70. T. very thin, and of a wax colour ; firft 'whuXfragilis.
large, with a brown band in the middle.
71. T. obtufely pyramidal ; 4 elevated contiguous
whirls, tumid at the margin, in the fpire.
3 K 2 72. T.
I
444
afer.
neritoideus
ferlatus.
terreftrit.
fufcus.
'vejliarius.
Jabio.
tuber.
Jlriatus.
conulus.
%iz,iphi-
nus.
obelifcus.
di/lortus.
virgatus.
fovcolatus,
d'laphanus,
iris.
rojlratus.
notatus.
elegans.
melanojlo-
ma.
erytbroleu-
cus. [tus.
■punElula-
imbricatus
amcnca-
nus..
cdlatus.
CONCH
72. T. convex, gray with whitifh fpots j whirls flat-
tidi 5 6 lines long. Senegal.
73. T. fub-ovate, convex, deprefled ; fraooth, red-
didi, glabrous $ 2 lines long. Greenland.
74. T. reddifh, with elevated dots •, unequally rib¬
bed } fpire depreffed : whirls convex.
* 75. T. conic 5 livid j minute. Mountains of Cum¬
berland.
* 76. T. opaque, brown, margined} aperture roundilh $
fpires 5. Sandwich.
B. Imperforated, erect ; umbilicus elofed.
'j’j. T. conic, convex, with a gibbous callous bafe j
aperture fomewhat heart-ihaped j very fmall. Mediter¬
ranean and Ada.
78. T. ovate, fub-ftriated 5 pillar 1-toothed. Ada,
Africa, New Zealand.
79. T. depreffed ; whirls fomewhat keeled, and knot¬
ted at the upper and lower margin j 2 inches diameter.
Mediterranean and South America,
O L O G Y.
* 80. T. conic •, aperture obovate ; laid whirl angular j
minute. Mediterranean ; Falmouth.
* 81. T. conic, fmooth ; whirls feparated by a promi*
nent line. European feas j Britain.
* 82. T. conic, livid, fmooth, tranfverfely ftriated j
whirls margined. European and African coails, fhores
of Britain.
83. T. conic ; furrounded with numerous rows of
white or green moniliform granulations; pillar 1-tooth¬
ed j 2 inches high. India.
84. T. folid, white, polifhed ; ftriated, diftorted, and
obtufe at the tip ; ftrft whirl gibbous j aperture com-
preffed, ovate.
85. T. pyramidal, with rofy and white ftripes, and
numerous rows of knots ; bafe with concentric white
and red circles. India.
86. T. cinereous, variegated with greenifh, whitifh,
and reddilh ; whirls 6f the fpire tuberculated at the
lower margin. Red fea.
87. T. thin, pellucid, with alternate chefnut and
white moniliform belts of granulations $ li inch
high. New' Zealand.
88. T. covered with a fmooth coat, under which it
is bluith and reddifh, ftiining with iridefeent. Southern
ocean.
89. T. pyramidal, tranfverfely ftriated 5 varied with
white and red*, tip green, pellucid 5 1 inch high. South
fea.
90. T. ftrise decuffated 5 grooved within ; tip deep
red.
91
fea.
92. T. obtufely pyramidal 'r fpotted with greenifh.
South fea.
93. T. pyramidal j ftriated with white and red.
Morocco.
94. T. red, pun£fulated ; very minute. Morocco.
95. T. pyramidal, obliquely grooved, plaited and
ribbed j whirls a little prominent at the margin. South
American feas.
96. T. ochraceous j longitudinally grooved •, whirls
tranfverfely ftriated } lip denticulated. South Ame¬
rica.
97. T. fea-g: r n, with protuberances and oblique
fcaly plaits $ whirls of the fpire tranfvtrfely ftriated
T. pyramidal, ftriated, brownifh purple. South
Chap. IV,
and grooved in the middle, concave fpines on the lower
margin of the firit whirl.
98.,T. purple, with plaited tuberculated whirls. purpureus.
99. T. fea-green, with numerous row's of tubercles cool’/r.
and oblique undulated plaits 5 4 inches long, as broad,
and covered with a horny lid. Cooke’s bay.
too. T. brownifh, with a convex bafe 5 whirls Wifii nodulofus.
a fingle row of tubercles, firft with 2. South leas.
101. T. pyramidal ; white, varied with reddifh xnAmaunti-
green j whirls fpinous } pillar emarginated, plaited.
Bourbon and Mauritius illands.
102. T. pyramidal ; white ; whirls of the fy\rt\or\fi-feneJ}ratus
tudinally ribbed, with tranfverfe moniliform belts of
green granulations: i j inch wide. Indian and South
feas.
103. T. convex on each fide, folid j fpire fmooth ^helicinus*
2 firft whirls obliquely ribbed. South feas.
104. T. ovate, with undulated ribs and tranfverfe
ftrire} whirls ventricofe j 2 inches broad and high. mus.
South fea.
105. T. obtufely pyramidal j black, with a purple/«<?«/£r.
band at the bafe j pillar wdiite. China.
ic6. T. black, with a fub-convex granulate bzfe \higuhris.
minute, with 5 whirls. South feas.
107. T. obtufe 5 whirls round, with many rows oiafper.
tubercles, grooved and tranfvtrfely ftriated ; pillar
toothed.
108. T. conic, convex, tranfverfely ftriated, vchhtejjelatus.
oblong fquare fpots difpofed in rows j pillar lip fpot¬
ted with black. Mediterranean, Africa.
109. T. conic, convex j citron, with angular blzckcitrinuf.
lines. Alia.
110. T. pyramidal, white, variegated with fcarlet
2 firft whirls very large 5 2 inches high. South feas.
HI. T. fmooth, conic, white with a faffron tip. crocatus.
1x2. T. whirls round, and obfoletely plaited j zyer-conchylio-
ture compreffed, brownifh; 2 inches high. South
America.
113. T. convex •, white, with green, brown, and ixA-pantheri-
vous fpots; 2 rows of tubercles on the whirls; 8 lines
long. Senegal.
114. T. rough, with concatenated globules; bdegrandina-
convex, with concentric, granulated ft rim ; lip double-/w.
toothed. Palmerfton ifland.
xi 5. T. depreffed, with belts dotted with white bt-inaqualis.
neath ; whirls crowned with fpines. Friendly iflands.
116. T. gray, with red ftripes, and tranfverfely ftri-//gr/.r.
ated with white. New Zealand.
117. T. conic, brown, obliquely ftriated with bb&ck.pu/iigo.
George’s bay.
* 118. T. conic, white ; whirls 4, tuberculated. Vem-parvus.
brokefhire coaft.
C. Tapering, with an exferted pdlar, and falling on the
fde when placed upon the bafe.
T. imperforated, ftriated; pillars fpiral : ^telefco-
119.
inches long. Indian ocean. pium.
120. T." umbilicated, glabrous ; pillar with recurved
twilled plaits. South America.
121. T. glabrous, imperforated ; whirls reverfed -,perverfus.
fmall. Mediterranean..
122. T. flat at the bafe ; finely ftriated tranfverfely
wrhirls reverfed ; -J inch long. Indian ieas.
123. T. flat at the bafe; longitudinally ribbed
whirls reverfed. Indian fltores.
1 2A. T.
445
Chap. IV. CONCH
124. T. cnncellated, glabrous at the bafe j whirls
reverfed j upper ones ventricofe -} very finall. Indian
fands.
annulatus. 125. T. aperture nearly fquare •, whirls reverfed, and
ribbed on each fide j fmall. Indian fands.
1 26. T. fub-pyramidal, umbilicated, fmooth ; white,
wdth a reddifh tip ; whirls feparated by a groove.
127. T. w'hirls wdth a triple row of prominent dots j
imperforated j fize of a barleycorn. Southern Europe,
Africa.
128. imperforated \ longitudinally and obliquely ftri-
ated } fmall. Mediterranean.
129. T. fub-ftriated, and marked with darker an¬
gular lines 5 whirls five or fix.
130. T. whirls 5, reverfed-, convex, fmooth, umbili¬
cated.
121. T. w'hite, with a reddifh band-, pyramidal,
nearly imperforated. In gardens in warmer climates.
Gen. 28. Turbo, the Wreath.
Gen. Char.—The animal a Umax ; the fhell univalve,
fpiral, folid j aperture contrafted, orbicular, entire.
Species.
A. Pillar margin of the aperture dilated and imper¬
forated.
ventrico-
fus.
fumineus.
punClatus.
Jlriatulus.
Zigzag.
lunaris.
bortenfis.
S«
Turbo.
tltufatus. 1. T. roundifh, fmooth, very obtufe j above ventri¬
cofe. North feas.
neritoides. 1. T. ovate, glabrous, obtufe j minute. Mediterra¬
nean, America.
littoreus. * 3. 'Y.periwinkle : fub-ovate, acute, ftriated ; i^inch
high finely llriated tranfverfely Shores of Europe ;
Britain. The animal of this fpecies is frequently eaten.
tumidus. * 4. T. pale red ; 5 diftinft, tumid, flriated whirls 5
firft ventricofe. England, in w-oods ; very rare.
rudix. * 5. T. fmooth-, whirls 5, diftinct, tumid. Weftern
fhores of England.
lineatus. * 6. T. fomewhat conic, cinereous j variegated wuth
fine zigzag black ftreaks. Weftern coafts of Eng¬
land.
tnuricatus. 7. T. umbilicated, fub-ovate, acute j furrounded
with ftriae of raifed dots j pillar margin a little obtufe j
an inch high. Europe, America.
lituus. 8. T. fub-ovate, fmooth ; aperture lateral, margined j
umbilicus covered. Pulo Condor.
punElula- 9. T. fub-ovate, fmooth, brown, with paler, flat,
tus. dotted belts.
B. Solid, imperforated.
cimex. * 10. T. oblong ovate; ftria decufiated and raifed with
dots; very minute. Shores of Europe, Britain.
pullus. * 11. T. ovate, fmooth ; variegated with red and
white; minute, tranfparent, gloffy. European feas,
fhores of Britain.
fafciatus. * 12. T. oblong, white, marbled, or banded with
black ; 6 tumid whirls in the fpire; i inch long. Coafts
of Wales.
perfonatus. 13. T. convex, fmooth ; aperture fomewhat angular.
India.
petholatui. 14. T. ovate, fmooth, glofly ; whirls fomewhat an¬
gular on the upper part. India, South America.
cochins. 15. T. ovate, ftriated, with one ftria thicker on the
back. India.
chryfojlo- 16. T. fub-ovate, wrinkled ; whirls furrounded with
mus.
o L o G Y.
two rows of vaulted fpines; yellowifli, radiated with
brown. India.
17. T. fub-ovate, -wrinkled, with obtufe vaulted fpines echinatus.
and whirls ; pillar lip expanded, crenated. South fea,
and Friendly iflands.
18. T. ovate ; fpines obtufe, depreffed ; beneath ya- te8um-per-
pillous. India. ficum.
19. T. conic"; fpines obtufe, concatenated ; ftriae pagodus.
pillous beneath : 3 inches high. India.
20. T. fub-conic ; variegated with black and gray,fulcatus,
and covered with hollow fcales. Friendly iilands.
21. T. nearly imperforated, deprefled ; whirls rough; calcar,
with comprefled hollow fpines above. India.
22. T. fubovate, ftriated ; whirls rugged d}ao\t.riigofus.
Mediterranean, New Zealand.
23. T. fub-ovate, fmooth ; 3 rows of protuberances wArwora-
in the whirls; beak dilated behind. South America, tus.
24. T. convex, obtufe ; whirls knotty above, and {t-farmaticus
parated by a canal. Afiatic and African feas.
25. T. convex, obtufe, fraooth, angular. India. oleanus.
26. T. w'hirls and fpire round, with decuffated ftriae
the firft with 3 rows of imbricated fpines; a large fliell.
China.
27. T. rugged ; whirls round, diftant, tranfverfely
ftriated, and armed with fmall imbricated fpines. Red
fea.
28. T. glabrous, gloffy green ; w’ithin fnow'y ; aper- imperiahs.
ture filvery ; pillar lip callous above ; whirls of the
fpire very convex.
29. T. wrinkled; white, wdth greenilh clouds; X.i'p coronatus,-
orange ; whirls crowned with fpines and knots; pillar
produced into a beak. Seas of Malacca. Very rare.
30. T. grooved and tranfverfely ftriated; w'hirls 6,canalicu-
very convex. India. latus.
31. T. whirls of the fpire cylindrical; grooved awAfetofus.
tranfverfely ftriated. India.
32. T. oblong, with broad, fmooth ftriae ; yellowiftifparverius0
fpotted with brown. India.
33. T. oblong, tranfverfely ftriated ; ftriae fpinous \fpinofus.
aperture filvery. India.
34. T. filvery gray, with tranfverfe orange and yt\- moltkianus
low bands ; whirls of moniliform belts of granula¬
tions.
35-T. variegated white and yellowifti; whirls roweiA,fpenglen*
tranfverfely ftriated, and feparated by a canal. Indian anus.
ocean. Very rare.
36. T. tranfverfely ftriated ; chefnut brown fpotted
with w'hite ; whirls 5, furrounded with rows of knots.
South America.
37. T. filvery gray, furrounded with many row’s oicrenulatus\
knots; aperture milk-white within.
38. T. ponderous, flightly depreffed ; fmoothifti &r\&fmaragdus
obliquely wrinkled;. 4 whirls in the fpire ; firft round
and larger ; 2 inches broad and high. New Zealand.
39. T. pellucid, thin and finely annulated ; firft/ta/qwi-
whirl large, the next with a band varied with red and ceus.
white.
40. T. tranfverfely grooved ; firft whirl black, finely ccthiops.
ftriated ; the reft filvery ; lips bordered with brown.
41. T. brownifh, reticulated ;- w'hirls furrounded nzroZ'rfrA
W'ith belts ; throat golden. Nicobar iflands. cus.
42. T. fmooth, with compreffed roundifh W'hirls
the firft round and very large ; aperture compreffed,
filvery ; pillar a little prominent, India, China.
43- T-
v
CONCH
446
nigernmus 43. T. fmooth, deep black ; whirls diftant, with a
hollowed margin. Southern ocean.
44. T. fmootb, nearly imperforated-; roundifh, with
contiguous convex whirls ; pillar thickened.
45. T. ovate, thick, with a mucronate fpire ; whirls
fmooth, flattilh ; the 2 firlf very large ; 6 lines long.
Senegal.
46. T. ovate, folid, glabrous ; whirls 6, flriated ; a-
perture margined, oval.
47. F. ovate, with convex-, tranfverfe grooves, and
rugged ftriae; whirls with a knotty belt. New Zea¬
land.
48. T. ovate, convex, with longitudinal, undulated
ftreaks ; fpire obtufe ; mouth filvery. New Zealand.
49. F. fpiral, lnowry, diaphanous, tranfverfely ftri-
ated ; whirls often ditlorted. Nicobar illands.
50. T. horny, fub-diaphanous, fmoothifh ; ribs 3 ;
whirls diftant, aperture triangular. Indian ocean.
* 51. T. fmooth, obtufe; whirls 4; aperture oval*
Pembrokefhire coaft.
* 52. T. fmooth, opaque ; whirls 3 ; with browm lines
refembling charafters ; aperture roundifti ; minute.
Pembrokefhire coaft.
* 53' r1* opaque; 4 whirls deeply ribbed longitudinally,
and finely ftriated tranfverfely. Devonftiire.
* 54. 7'. opaque ; 5 longitudinally ribbed whirls ; a-
perture rounded, margined ; minute. Pembrokefliire
coaft.
* 5S' T. opaque ; whirls 5, longitudinally ribbed ;
aperture roundifh ; not margined. Pembrokefhire
coaft.
reticulatus * 56. T. white, opaque ; whirls 4, reticulated. Pem¬
brokefhire coaft.
* 57. T. opaque, fmooth, with 5 whirls. Cornwall.
* 58. T. pellucid, fmooth ; wdrirls 5, finely ribbed.
Devonfhire.
* 59. T. pellucid, white ; whirls 5, feparated by a
fine rib. Plymouth.
* 60. T. pellucid, white, curved towards the tip ;
whirls 10, longitudinally ribbed. Pembrokefhire
coaft.
* 61. T. pellucid ; w-hirls longitudinally ribbed ; braf-
fy between the ribs. Pembrokefhire coaft.
* 62. T. pellucid ; whirls 6, fpirally ftriated; ribs re¬
mote. Pembrokefhire coaft.
* 63. T. pellucid, white, with 3 reticulated whirls.
Pembrokefhire coaft.
canalicula-* 64. T. pellucid, whitifh ; whirls 5, longitudinally
tus. grooved. Pembrokefhire coaft.
divifus. * 6$' T. pellucid, white ; whirls 4, each divided in¬
to 2 parts ; upper one fmooth, the lower one fpirally
ftriated. Pembrokefhire fands. »,
C. So/irf, perforated.
pica. 66. T. conic, rounded, fmooth ; a fmall tooth near
the umbilicus ; 3^ inches broad. In moft feas.
fanguineus 67. T. umhilicated, conic, convex, ftriated and
fmooth ; whirls (lightly grooved ; fize of a pea. A-
frica.
argyroflo- 68. T. fubovate, with tranfverfely ftriated lines on
mus. the back. India.
margari- 69. T. fubovate, with fmooth, elevated, dorfal lines.
taceus. Indian ocean.
yerfcolor. 70. T. glabrous ; finely ftriated tranfverfely, and
varied with green and white. South fea.
helicinus.
punElatus.
heemajlo-
mus.
torquatus.
undulatus.
tiiveus.
helicoides.
nitidus.
fcriptus.
cojlatus.
fubluteus.
albulus.
ruber.
interfinc~
tus.
Jlriatus.
fubarcua-
tus.
eereus.
elegans.
pellucidus.
O I, O G Y. Chap. IV.
qi. T. umbilicus rough; whirls with branchedddphinus.
fpines. India.
72. T. deprefled, knotty; an unequally tuberculat-Wic/o/icr.
ed ridge on the back of the firft whirl.
73. T. fubmucronate ; covered with fmooth fpines. difortus.
74. T. bafe convex ; whirls radiated with fpines fteilaris.
12 large ones on the firft ; fmall. South fea.
75. T. whirls crowned with laciniated fpines; theaculeatus.
firft with 9 large ones. Nicobar iflands.
76. T. bafe flattened ; whirls fpinulous at the low'zrfe/latus.
margin.
77. T. whirls convex, and feparated by a band, mefpilus.
felated wfith brown and white ; colour of a medlar.
South fea.
78. T. furrounded with knotty rings ; dirty gxztr\,granulatu$
with a reddiih tip. Indian and South feas.
79. T. fpire annulated ; fitft whirl very large ; ^zr-Indus.
foration fpoon-fhaped. South fea.
80. T. black, wuth double, alternate, black, zndi atratus.
cinereous moniliform belts of granulations; pillar 1-
toothed ; fize of a nut. Nicobar iflands.
81. T. depreffed, orbicular; white varied withdentatus.
brown ; lower margin of the pillar denticulated.
82. T. dirty green varied with brown; whirls ^.diadema,
firft large. New Zealand. A large {hell.
83. T. fmooth, roundifti, cinereous; whirls fubftri-czwmw.
ated, ventricofe, flattened at the future.
84. T. thin, diaphanous, white, round; 6-\izz\-carinatus.
fhaped whirls in the fpire ; perforations fpiral.
85. T. thin, fmooth ; whirls flattened ; 2 lines long. zT/ir.
Senegal.
86. T. deprefied, fmooth, opaque, brown; whirls/>/rtnor^z!f,
4 ; i-J line in diameter.
87. T. hyaline, fmooth, fubcarinated; whirls 6tmarginel^
rounded ; lip fringed, refle&ed. lus.
88. T. whirls rounded; perforation deep, wide, an&bclicoides.
funnel-ftiaped.
89. T. pyramidal, with foliaceous wrinkles; ^zxio-fo/iaceus.
ration large.
90. T. tranfverfely ftriated; within maxgaxltace-anguis.
ous.
91. T. granulated, (lightly umbilicated ; withmporphyri-
margaritaceous. New Caledonia. tes.
92. T. white, glabrous, ftriated green. New Zza-fmaragdus
land.
D. Cancellated.
93. T. navel flattilh, fpreading; whirls round, withmW/Ar.
crenated ftriae.
94. T. umbilicated, fomewhat oblong and obtufe
whirls round, fmooth ; 4 whirls. Minute. Frefli wa¬
ter near the baths in Tufcany.
95. H. wentle-trap; conic; whirls diftant, longitxx-fcalaris.
dinally ribbed. Var. r. perforated with 8 whirls.
2. Imperforated with xo whirls; 2 inches long. Bar¬
bary, Coromandel.—The wentle-trap is a very rare
(hell, and therefore greatly efteemed among colle&ors.
As a proof of this, in the year 1753, four fpecimens
which were difpofed of at the fale of Commodore Lille’s
(hells in London, brought 75I. 12s. Two were fold
at 16 guineas each; one at 18 guineas, and the fourth
at 23I. 2s.
* 96. T.fa/fe wcntle-trap; taper, not umbilicated
fpire with longitudinal ribs; whirls fmooth, ventricofe,
and feparated by a deep canal; from 1 to 2 inches
long.
Chap. IV. CONCH
tubercula-
tus.
ambiguus.
crenatus.
laBeus.
Jlriatulus.
uva.
cornens.
lincina.
limilatus.
labio.
(Iriatus.
rejlexus.
dubius.
limbatus.
long. Indian and European feas, Britain, Falmouth,
South Devon.
* 97. T. duiky, with 12 finely tuberculated whirls.
Northumberland coaft.
98. T. tapering, perforated j whirls contiguous $
fmootb, ribbed. Mediterranean.
99. T. taper, fubcancellated j whirls 8-ribbed, con¬
tiguous ; crenated above.
100. T. taper ; ftriae crowded, longitudinal, raifed 5
fize of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.
101. T. fubcancellated, taper j whirls contiguous}
belts interrupted, varicofe } fize of a barley-corn. Me¬
diterranean.
102. T. ovate, obtufe } whirls contiguous, imbrica¬
ted and longitudinally rtriated }' i-i inch long. South
America.
103. T. umbilicated, rounded, rather acute ; whirls
round, with decuffated ftriae } aperture refledled.
104. -T. oblong, obtufe, with wrinkled ftrise ; aper¬
ture with a dilated, flat, crenated border } 8 lines long.
Jamaica.
105. T. white, cylindrical, reticulated } aperture re¬
mote.
106. T. oblong, umbilicated, browm, ftriated with
convex dots} lip white, dilated} 15 lines long. Ja¬
maica.
* 107. T. ovate, imperforated, ventricofe ; finely ftri¬
ated fpirally } 6 lines long. Woods of Europe, Bri¬
tain.
108. T. umbilicated, convex, a little prominent;
whirls round, fubftriated } aperture refledled. South¬
ern Europe.
109. T. umbilicated, oblong} whirls equal} ftriae
decuffated } aperture dilated.
HO. T. fubovate, wrinkled, perforated. Coromandel.
imbricatus.
replica ties.
acutangu-
lus'.
duplicatus.
exoletus.
terebra.
Ice vis.
albus.
variegatus.
angulinus.
chryjlalli-
nus.
albulus.
ennulatus.
E. Tapering.
in. T. whirls of the fpire imbricated downwards J
4 inches long. American iflands.
112. T. imooth ; whirls imbricated upwards} 3
inches long. Tranquebar.
113. T. with a Angle prominent, acute, tranfverfe
rib} 4 inches long. Tranquebar.
* 114. T. whirls with 2 prominent, acute, tranfverfe
ribs } 5 inches long. Coromandel, (bores of Britain.
* 115. T. whirls with 2 prominent, obtufe, diftant,
tranfverfe ribs ; 2 inches long. Europe, Guinea, (bores
of Britain.
* 116. T. whirls 6, prominent, acutely ftriated } from
2 to 6 inches long. Shores of Europe, Africa and
China ; Britain.
* 117. T. with 8 fmooth whirls nearly obfolete. Mi¬
nute. Shores of Anglefea.
11 8. T. white, with 8 whirls tranfverfely ftriated.
119. T. whirls of the fpire flattiftr, with 7 obtufe
ftriae ; 2 to 3 inches long. South America, Barbary.
120. T. whirls of the fpire with 10 obfolete ftrioe }
2 to q-J inches long. European, Mediterranean feas.
121. T. whirls of the fpire ribbed } aperture ovate.
Denmark.
122. T. imperforated, glabrous} whirls rounded,
ftriated. Depths of the Greenland feas.
123. 7'. whirls with a prominent, margined future}
IJ inch long.
O L O G Y. 447
* 124. T. pellucid } whirls contrary ; futures fubere- bidehs.
nated 5 aperture 2 toothed behind } ij inch long.
Europe } roots of trees, Britain.
* 125. T. pellucid} whirls reverfed, not crenated
aperture 3-toothed } J inch long. Europe, Britain,
among mofs, and in old walls.
126. T. obtufe} grooves curved} whirls II ; ^fufulus.
lines long.
127. T. obtufe } groove ftraight; whirls 9} ^tx-fujus.
ture toothed.
128. T. obtufe, white } grooves oblique; ^tx\.mefulcatus,
nearly fquare } whirls 8 } 12 lines long.
129. T. whirls 9, recurved} aperture 4-toothed } y/WrvVifW
5 lines long. Bombay, Italy.
130. T. whitifli} whirls 7 ; aperture 3-toothed } $tridens.
lines long. Italy.
* 131. T. ovate, obtufe, pellucid; 4 to 6 whirls ; ffjw/con/m.
aperture toothlefs, oval} 1 line long. Among mofs,
Britain.
* 132. T. deep brown, fpires 4 } firft ventricofe ; z-ulvce.
perture oval ; fize of a grain of wheat. Britain.
* 133. T. imperforated, fmooth} whirls 5, nearly ob- trifafeiatus
folete 5 tranfverfely barred. Minute. Pembrokeftiire
coaft.
* 134. T. fmooth; whirls 5, obliquely barred; aper-fwm£zYr-
ture fuboval. Minute. Pembrokefliire coaft. naceus.
* 135* T. whirls 5, fubobtufe, roundiflr; minute, interrupt
Pembrokefliire coaft. tus.
* 136. T. fmooth; whirls 5, fomewhat angular n-fubrufus.
bove. Pembrokefliire coaft.
* I37« T. whirls 3 ; the firft with 3 tranfverfe ridges
minute. Seafalter, England.
* 138. T. whirls 7, ridged; aperture oval. Seafal-
ter. Rare.
* I39- T. carinated ; whirls 7 ; aperture contracted, carz/rata-
margined. Sandwich. Rare. lus.
* 140. T. whirls 6; aperture oval, margined; xd\. clathratu-
nute. Sandwich. Very rare. his.
* 141. T. thick, barred; whirls 5; aperture round, crq/fiis.
margined; minute. Sandwich, Rare.
* 142. T. nine whirls, dotted, reverfed ; aperture con-punBatus.
traded ; minute. Sandwich.
143* T. whirls 6, reticulated; aperture oval, [ub-Jheppeia-
margined ; minute. Sheppey ifland. nus.
144. T. whirls 3, elegantly reticulated; ^tiinvcfandvicen-
oval, toothed ; minute. Sandwich. /is.
145. T. whirls 5, diftind, tranfverfely ftriated, bar-obtufus.
red with white.
146. T. white, fmooth; aperture with a flattifli, zzzzn/W-
concave, obtufe, refleded lip. Mediterranean. pium.
147. T. imperforated, glabrous; aperture oval j/Wz/z/r.
fize of a barley-corn. Mediterranean.
148* P* flattifti ; whirls annulated, and ereded ondaBylius.
the back ; minute. In ftagnate waters in Europe.
149. T. two obtufe, approximate ridges on tbe obfo/etus.
whirls of the fpire.
T • fubumbilicated, whitifli; whirls 12; a.'pex-cpunqiie-
ture 5-toothed. . dentatus.
151. T. pyramidal, ventricofe, horny, pellucid ^pyramida-
aperture compreffed ; above one-fourth of an inch long. Jis.
Germany.
* 152. T. conic, fmooth, gloffy ; whirls 5 or 6; a-unidenla-
perture fuboval; pillar furnithed near the middle with tus.
1 tooth ; inch long. Salcomb bay.
Gen.
448
CONCHOLOGY,
57
-Helix.’ Gen. 29. Helix, Snail.
Gen. Char.—The animal a limax 5 (hell univalve, fpi-
ral, fubdiaphanous, brittle j aperture contracted, fe«
milunar, or roundifli.
Species.
A. Whirls with a heel-Jhaped acute margin.
fear ah ecus. 1. H. ovate, both edges keel fhaped •, aperture
toothed. Mountains of Afia, and the Friendly iflands.
lapicida. * 2. H. umbilicated •, convex on each fide ; aperture
tvaniverfe, margined, ovate j \ inch in diameter.
Rocks, woods, and hedges in Europe, Britain.
marginata. 3- H. fubumbilicated, a little depreffed j obliquely
ftriated ; aperture tranfverfe ; 9 lines in diameter.
cicatricofa. 4- H. umbilicated, deprefled and wrinkled j whirls
reverfed.
cegophthal- 5- H. umbilicated, depreffed, greenilh, immacu-
mos. " late ; whirls 7 j an inch acrofs. India, South Ame¬
rica.
oculus ca- 6. H. fubcarinated, umbilicated, convex ; aperture
bn, margined. Trees in Afia.
albula. * 7- H. umbilicated, flattilh ; gibbous beneath ; aper¬
ture fomewhat heart-lhaped. Europe, Britain, rocks
and dry banks.
maculata. 8. H. perforated, flattilh, fubcarinated j white, dot¬
ted with brown ; gibbous beneath, with linear bands;
5 lines acrofs.
afbina. 9- H. perforated, flattilh, white, gibbous beneath j
aperture quadrangular.
Jfriatula. to. H. fubcarinated, umbilicated, convex, ftriated j
more gibbous beneath ; aperture roundilh, lunated j
minute. Water-falls of Lombardy.
algira. 11. H. fubangular, umbilicated, convex 5 whirls 6 $
navel pervious.
leucas. 12- H. fubcarinated, umbilicated, convex, fmooth ;
beneath gibbous; navel very minute j aperture round-
i(h, lunate.
Javipes. 13. H. perforated, fubcarinated, contrary, convex,
pale with a rufous band, united to a white one ;
inch in diameter.
exilis. 14- H. perforated, deprelfed, fubcarinated ; pale
with a rufous band joined to a white one ; whirls ftri¬
ated ; 10 lines acrofs. Tranquebar.
vermiciila- 15. H. fubglobular, depreffed, rough, imperforat-
fQ' ed ; dotted with white *, lip reflected •, white. Italy
and Portugal.
Candida. 16. H. umbilicated, convex on each fide; aperture
not margined. _
fpadima. .17. H. perforated, umbilicated, chefnut ; whirls 5 ;
•7 lines high.
incarnata 18. H.' perforated, fubglobular, fubcarinated ; whirls
* 6 ; lip flefti-coloured ; 6 lines broad. Woods of Den¬
mark and Germany.
fericea. 19. H. perforated, fubglobular, convex on each
fide ; tomentofe. Denmark, in gardens.
coronulata. 20. H. perforated, globular, (ubcarinated and ftri¬
ated ; white, with a brown band; 3! lines wide.
Lyons.
planorbis. * 21. H. fubcarinated, umbilicated, flat ; above con¬
cave ; aperture oblique ; ovate and acute on each fide.
Ponds and rivers of Europe and B rbary, Biitain.
pomfilann- 22. H. carinated downwards, umbiheated, convex ;
Chap. IV,
flat beneath ; aperture femi-heart-fhaped. Ponds and
rivers of Europe.
23. H. fubcarinated, imperforated, convex, with ringens.
an inverted, ringent aperture ; lip 4-plaited behind ;
1^ inch wide. India.
24. H. imperforated, fubcarinated, reddiflr hrown,Jinuata.
with a white ridge ; aperture tranfverfe ; toothed and
3-plaited behind ; 9 lines in diameter. America.
25. H. imperforated, white ; flattifti above ; beneath
gibbous ; aperture tranfverfe, 2-toothed ; 13 lines
broad.
26. H. imperforated, flattifti above, beneath gib-lampas.
bous ; whirls feared. A rare {hell.
27. H. imperforated, a little convex on each {ite^carocolla.
with a white tranfverfe lip. India.
28. H. imperforated, top-ftiaped, white with ful- lychnuchus
vous bands ; aperture tranfverfe, 2-toothed.
29. H. fubglobular, umbilicated, fubcarinated ;
yellowiftr, with a whitiih band ; aperture tranfverfe,
2-toothed, and finuated behind.
30. H. fubcarinated, imperforated, convex; aper-cornu-milU
ture with a white margin. India. tare.
31. H. fubcarinated, with flame-colour, red, zndpellis-fer-
wftite bands ; beneath furrounded with 4 rows of dots \pentis.
aperture fringed. Warm parts of America.
* 32. H. flat, thin, concave above; aperture ov^vortex.
flat; 3 lines wide. Ponds and rivers of Europe, Bri-
tain.
33. H. fubcarinated, imperforated, ovate, pointed,
and ftriated.
34. H. convex on each fide; horny, with (\xbitxr\i-gothica.
ginous bands. Woods of Swreden.
23. H. imperforated, depreffed, with decuffated^wn/z^rr-
ftrise ; aperture acute on each fide. India. A land ana.
fpecies, very rare.
36. H. top-flraped, acuminated, wuth convex fpiral/ncantf-
ftriae, and triple ridge; aperture dilated; 11 linesa/tf.
wide.
37. H. browmift, deprefied ; firft whirl round; z-ifogonB-
perture contracted ; nearly triangular; 3-toothed and mojlamus*
margined. Virginia and Alface.
38. H. depreffed, umbilicated; whirls contiguous ;
the firft large ; aperture oblong, ovate. . munis.
39. H. umbilicated, convex on each fide; variega-
ted with white and chefnut; aperture winged and
{lightly margined. "
40- H. umbilicated, obliquely ftriated; convex z-margmella.
bove ; beneath a little depreffcfd ; firft whirl carinated;
14 inch broad.
41. H. fubcarinated, imperforated; convex on eachjfoyo/j.
fide, with hollow dots ; aperture tranfverfe; 7-tooth¬
ed ; whirls 6.
42. H. umbilicated, fubcarinated, obliquely ftriatedmaculoja.
and a little depreffed ; aperture lunated, with a mar-
^"43. H.*fubumbilicated, fubcarinated ; aperture tranf-/w«<57tfta.
verfe, oblong ; lip margined, 3-toothed.
44. H. ovate, glabrous; whirls 5 ; the firft g\b-vitrea.
bous, the reft carinated ; aperture oblong-ovate; 2
inches high.
45. H. umbilicated, depreffed, white; whirls 4,annulate.
the firft gibbous and doubly carinated ; aperture ovate ;
2 lines in diameter.
46. H. umbilicated, white, depreffed above ; whirls rhenana.
carinated
Z
Chap. IV. C O N C H
carinated and irregularly ftriated, the lafl brown.
Rhine.
tuevia. 47- H. depreffed, umbilicated ; white, with longi¬
tudinal black ipots above, and 5 bands beneath. Santa
corrugata.
faba.
crenata.
car mat a.
Cruz.
48. H. umbilicated, wrinkled, and obliquely ftri¬
ated 5 aperture lunated. Jamaica.
49. H. imperforated, fmooth, faffron with brown
margin, and bafe of the whirls \ aperture blue. Ota-
heite.
50. H. rounded, brown whirls carinated ; aper¬
ture finuous. New Zealand.
* 51. H. ftriated, carinated j whirls 3 •, aperture fut-
oval ; minute. Frefh water near Faverftiam, Eng¬
land.
B. Umbillcated; whirls rounded.
cornea.
Jpirorbis.
polygyra.
contorta.
nitida.
alba.
fanilis.
cornu-
arietis.
hifpida.
ampulla-
cea.
pifcinalis,
pujilla.
Jpherica.
pomatia.
glauca.
citrina.
cajlanea.
* 52. H. above umbilicated, flat, blackifti; whirls 4.
Frefh waters, Europe, Coromandel, Britain.
53- H. concave on each fide, flat, whitifh; whirls
5, rounded \ i-J line diameter. Stagnant waters, France,
Germany.
54. H. flattifh, orbicular ; aperture oval; lip frin¬
ged.
55. H. fubumbilicated, flat on each fide, equal; a-
perture linear, arched j 1 to 2 lines wide. Stagnant
waters of Europe.
56. H. polifhed, yellowifh, above convex, umbili¬
cated ; flat beneath, perforated j 1 to 3 lines in dia¬
meter. Ditches of Denmark.
57. H. white, umbilicated on each fide j aperture
dilated ; 1 to 2 lines wide. Denmark, aquatic plants.
58. H. pellucid, umbilicated above ; ftriated with
dots. Ditches in Denmark and Berlin.
59. H. umbilicated, flattifh j aperture oval j 12 to
16 lines in diameter. China.
* 60. H. umbilicated, convex, hifpid, diaphanous ;
whirls 5 5 aperture roundifh, lunated. Woods of Eu¬
rope, Britain.
61. H. fubumbilicated, fubglobular, glabrous; whirls
above more ventricofe ; aperture large, ovate, oblong j
j to 5 inches wide. Afia and America.
62. H. globular, perforated, reddifh brown j whirls
four. Fifh ponds of Denmark.
63. H. globular, perforated ; aperture rolled fpiral-
ly inwards. Lakes of Germany.
64. H. globular, horny, with an obtufe crown ; 1
to 2 lines wide. Seas of Denmark.
* 65. H. fubumbilicated, fubovate, obtufe j aperture
roundifh, femilunar •, reddifh brown, with obfolete,
paler bands. Woods of Europe, Britain.—This fpc-
cies was a favourite diflr among the Romans. It is ftill
ufed as an article of food in many parts of Europe, du¬
ring the feafon of Lent. It was introduced into Eng¬
land by Sir Kenelm Digby, as a cure for confump-
tion.
66. H. umbilicated, roundifh, pointed j lip margi¬
ned ; aperture oval.
67. H. fubumbilicated, convex, obtufe ; yellowifh,
with a brown band ; from 12 to 18 lines wide. Woods
of jamaica and China.
68. H. perforated, fubglobular, dull chefnut, with
a rufous band united to a white one j whirls 7, fili¬
ated.
Vol. VI. Part II.
O L O G Y. 449
69. H. perforated, fubglobular, with hollow cotsrapa.
and a red band ; firft whirl larger j 8 lines wide.
70. H. globular, fubumbilicated, white ; lip xeUcSl-globulus.
ed ; whirls 5.
71. H. imperforated, depreffed ; gray> with white lablea.
dots ; aperture red brown. Jamaica and Portugal.
72. H. depreffed, umbilicated, white, with a zxxtincifa.
margin.
* 73. H. umbilicated, convex, pointed j aperture {\da~arbujlo-
orbicular, a little refledted at the rim, brown, with zrum.
Angle black fpiral band $ 9! lines wide. Shrubberies
and hedges, Britain.
74. H. nearly imperforated, globular, pellucid \fulva.
fulvous, with a white lip j 1 to 3 lines wide. Woods
of Denmark.
75. H. fubimperforated, fubglobular, ftriated; whirls
7 j 12 lines in diameter.
76. H. fubimperforated j white, with rufous lip and
bands 5 whirls 5 ; 18 lines wide.
77. H. fubimperforated, fubglobular j white, with
rufous bands j w'hirls 44 14 lines wide. Italy.
78. H. fubimperforated, fubglobular; pale yellow,
with 4 rufous bands, interrupted with white fpots ;
whirls 4 ; 12 to 18 lines in diameter. Italy.
79. H. fubimperforated, fubglobular, pale, \vs\rai- extenfa.
culate ; aperture large •, whirls 4, diftant.
80. H. perforated, globular ; white, with fubinter-/>z/tfwtf.
rupted red bands ; lip rofy ; 5 to 74- lines wide. Bar¬
bary, Italy.
81. H. perforated, with a depreffed crorvn ; vi\<\tt,Jlrigata.
with rufous bands, and numerous lines j lip white on
each fide ; 10 lines wide.
82. H. perforated, globular, poliftied 5 white, \\\\\inemoren-
brown bands; 15 lines wdde. India. Jis.
* 83. H. umbilicated, convex, flightly depreffed ; a-zonaria.
perture rather oblong and margined ; whirls 5 ; firft
ventricofe ; 11 to 13 lines in diameter. Barbary, Eu¬
rope, Britain.
84. H. umbilicated ; fubdepreffed, ftriated, white -Jlriata.
6 lines wide. Italy.
* 85. H. umbilicated, deprefled, yellowifh, with aenceto-
brown band or bands ; 4 to 11 lines wide. Europe, rum.
Britain.
* 86. FI. umbilicated, fubdepreffed, fulvous, horny, nitens.
or yellowifh green ; fubftriated ; aperture large ; whirls
4 or 5 ; 1 to 4 lines wide. Wet woods of Europe,
Britain.
87. FI. umbilicated, cinereous ; whirls 4 ; rib tranf-cojlata.
verfely plaited ; aperture circular ; 1 line wide. High¬
lands of Denmark.
88. H. umbilicated, fubdepreffed *, aperture c\rc\-pulche/la.
nate ; lip white, reflefted ; whirls 4; 1 line wide.
Moift woods of Denmark.
89. H. umbilicated, fubdepreffed, with elevated, ro/ww/dta.
tranfverfe lines, and ferruginous fpots ; 2 j lines wade.
Moift places, and rotten wood, in ITance, Germany,
and Denmark. Common.
90. H. umbilicated, depreffed ; yellowifh, cel/aria.
white beneath ; aperture large; whirls 5 ; 3 J- lines
wide. Cellars in Germany.
91. FI. umbilicated, depreffed on both fides; -whixhobvoluia.
obvoluted. Var.l. Whitifh, glabrous, with a triangu¬
lar aperture. 2. Brown, hifpid, with a linear aper¬
ture ; 4 to 5 lines wide. Italy.
3 L
92. H,
45°
Jlrigofula.
vadiata.
cryjlallina.
imgulina.
varied.
fruHeum.
lucena.
vittata.
rofacea.
it ala.
lujitanica.
rnammela-
ris.
hi/p ana.
Intaria.
ova lis.
cblcnga.
flattime a.
pileus.
nucleata.
volvulus.
involvulus.
neritina.
turturum.
oliveto-
rutn.
CONCH
92. H. perforated, fubdepreffed, ftriated j white,
with a rufous band •, 5 lines wide. France.
93. H. perforated, ftriated j convex beneath ; ra¬
diated. France and Virginia.
94. H. perforated, depreffed, gloffy white, diapha¬
nous 5 4 to 5 whirls j 1 line wide. Denmark, among
mofs.
95. H. umbilicated, convex 5 aperture margined,
fuborbicular, and elongated above 5 of the lhape of an
apple j 16 lines w’ide. India.
96. H. globular, umbilicated, wdiitilh yellowy whirls
5, reverfed j the outermoft divaricated) 19 lines
wide.
97. H. umbilicated, globular; aperturevrithout pil¬
lar lip ; 74 lines wide. Fledges of Denmark.
98. H. fubglobular, umbilicated ; gibbous beneath;
lip refttcled, white ; whirls 5 ; the firft very convex.
99. H. fubglobular, fubumbilicated; w-hite, with
crowded chefnut bands and blue crown ; lip reflefted,
white ; 9 lines in diameter. Coromandel.
100. FI. fubglobuiar, fubumbilicated ; flefti colour,
and tranfverfely ftriated ; whirls 5 ; 19 lines wide.
101. H. umbilicated, convex, obtufe ; whirls 5,
round ; navel wide ; ftze of a nut. Southern Europe.
A land fpecies.
102. H. umbilicated, perforated, convex, obtufe ;
whirls 5, round, and yellowilh white; umbilicus
fpreading ; ftze of a fmall apple. Southern Europe.
A land fpecies.
103. FI. umbilicated, ovate; whirls 3, ftriated; a-
perture large, ovate, and united to the tip. Rivers of
Africa.
104. H. umbilicated, convex; whirls 5, round;
umbilicus thin, perforated ; aperture fuborbicular.
Southern Europe.
105. H. umbilicated, ovate, oblong ; finely ftriat¬
ed ; aperture white within.
106. FI. perforated, ovate, ventricofe, and ftreaked ;
tip ribbed and rofy ; lip of the fame colour; pillar
white ; whirls 6 ; 4 inches long.
107. FI. perforated, ovate, oblong, ftriated ; lip and
pillar rofy ; whirls 6 ; aperture oval; 3 inches long.
South America and India.
ic8. H. perforated, oblong-; white, with longitu¬
dinal, rufous bands; pillar reflefted, ftraight ; 18 to
20 lines long. Guinea.
109. H. top-draped, white with rufous bands ;
wrhirls 6 ; aperture tranfverfe, large ; 15 lines long.
110. H. top-ftiaped, umbilicated; convex on both
fides ; brown, with prickly ribs ; lip whitidr ; F line
wide. Woods of Denmark.
111. FT. top-fhaped, umbilicated, acuminated; a-
perture circinated ; 11 to 22 lines wide.
112. H. top ihaped, umbilicated, pointed; white,
w'ith fpiral, convex ftriae ; aperture circinate ; 13 lines
wide.
11 3. FI. glabrous, hardidr, umbilicated ; chefnut,
with white bands ; whirls tlat beneath ; aperture o-
vate, oblong ; I inch long.
* 114. H. umbilicated, rounded, thin; aperture fe-
milunar. Woods of Europe ; Britain.
115. H. umbilicated, a little deprefled, yellow; a-
perture comprefl’ed ; firft whirl flattifh, round. Olive
groves/ Florence.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
116. H. umbilicated, fubglobular, fnrooth ; aperture ZW/h.
linear ; 1 inch high.
1 17. H. fubumbilicated, fmooth ; whirls convex jrre/tfcvv?.
aperture lunated ; 10 lines high.
118. FI. fubumbilicated, conic, white, with chefnutpileata.
bands ; aperture femilunar ; tip obtufe.
119. H. rounded, fubumbilicated, thin; a^cxtnxe.flbiflcejcens.
femilunar. Thuringia.
120. H. umbilicated, wdth an obtufely mucronate
fpire ; firft whirl very large, the reft gradually decrea-
ling ; aperture margined, lemilunar ; whirls 6.
121. FI. rounded, umbilicated, thin, glofty white \nivea.
aperture femilunar.
122. H. flat on both fides, umbilicated ; whirls (t,media.
the firft round ; aperture fuborbicular. Germany.
123. El. umbilicated, very thin, flat, poliftied, znAtenella.
convex above; aperture comprefted, femilunar; whirls
5, contiguous.
124. H. umbilicated, deprefled, white; whirls 6,crepufcu-
round, 3d and 4th brown, the laft reddilh at the tip; laris.
perture lemilunar, fmooth. Guinea.
125. H. umbilicated, pellucid; beneath hemifpheri-
cal, white ; whirls reverfed. Shores of Guinea.
126. FI. umbilicated, obtufely fubtriangular, rough, avellana.
plaited and filvery within ; aperture Imooth, eared ;
firft whirl with an elevated circle; fize and colour of a
nut ; pillar lip wdrite. Southern ocean.
127. H. inflated, fubumbilicated, fragile; whirls 5 \rufefcens.
firrt very large ; aperture femilunar ; 6 lines wide.
Rivers of Hamburgh.
1 28. H. umbilicated, obtufely fubpyramidal; whishpervia.
4, convex ; the firft with an elevated circle ; the reft
furrounded with a groove ; aperture femilunar; mi¬
nute.
129. H. umbilicated, oblong; whirls round w&Lviflima>
fmooth ; aperture orbicular.
130. H. umbilicated, pellucid; whirls 3, dividedjfyCvbtf-
by a groove ; aperture orbicular and not margined./aw.
The animal, befides the two tentacula, is furniftied
with a creft. Waters of Stralburg and Paris. Very
rare.
131. H. umbilicated, deprefled; fiift whirl villous,Z>o/o/m-
flat; aperture triangular, margined; whirls 6; - inches,
w’ide. France and Switzerland.
132. H. thin, fragile, white, umbilicated; firftturgida.
whirl round, inflated ; whirls 6 ; \ inch wide. Wa¬
ters of Hamburgh.
133. H. umbilicated, pellucid, horny, tranfverfely tenuis.
ftriated, and convex ; whirls 6, gradually decreafing ;
aperture femilunar ; 4 to 5 lines in diameter.
134. H. cartilaginous, horny, pale yellow, fubpel-coriacca.
lucid, gibbous. Kurile iflands.
1 35. FI. deprefted, deeply umbilicated. Leaves -zuoicornu-ve-
branches of trees, Senegal. natonum.
136. H. pyramidal, white, umbilicated; whirls 6,elegans.
acute, flattifh, and margined. Barbary and Southern
Europe. A land fnail. .
137. H. pyramidal, fmooth, white, obtufe; bafe im cookiana.
perforated, convex. South fea iflands.
138. H. pyramidal, fubcarinated, very finely ftri- bidentata,
ated ; lip refiefted, 2-toothed. Botanic garden at
Strafburg.
139. FL pyramidal, fubimperforated, varied with turbo.
yellow and rufous. Coromandel.
140. FT.
45*
Chap. IV. ' CONCH
trfafciata. 140. H. conic, ovate, white, with 3 brownifh bands
in the firft whirl ; aperture fringed ; lip white, dila¬
ted. Tranquebar. A land fpecies.
bontia. J41. H. conic, ventricofe, perforated, pellucid, with
a black tip ; firft whirl with 3 yellowilh bands. Ben-
§aL
trochoides. 142. H. top-lhaped, perforated, polifhed ; longitu¬
dinally ftriated whirls reverfed, the firft keel-ihaped 5
aperture angular.
tomentofa. * 143. H. umbilicated j whirls 3, briftly ; aperture
roundifti ; minute. Boggy giound, Pembrokeftiire.
tubulata. * 144. H. whirls 3, longitudinally ftriated j tube at
the bafe margined j minute. Coaft of Pembrokdhire.
fafcuita. * 145. H. fubumbilicated, fmooth ; whirls 3, firft
more ventricofe ; aperture dilated 5 minute. Sand¬
wich and Tenbigh.
nitidijjlma. * 146. H. umbilicated 5 wdiirls 2, tranfverfely ftriated 5
minute. Pembrokeftiire coaft.
bicolor. * 147. H. {lightly umbilicated, fmooth ; whirls 2 }
minute. Pembrokeftiire coaft.
fpir.ofa. * 148. H. fubglobular, umbilicated ; mouth round-’
ifti ; margin thorny ; minute. Near Faverftram. Rare.
reticulata. * 149 H. fubumbilicated, reticulated •, mouth round¬
ed margined ; minute. Reculver. Very rare.
C. Rounded and imperforated.
perverfa.
dextra.
reBa.
inverfa.
interrupt a.
contrama.
Leva.
•areft aria.
jamaicen-
Jis.
rhodia.
labiofa.
pudica.
ianthina.
gigantea.
vivipara.
150. H. fubumbilicated, ovate, oblong; whirls 5
to 8 contrary ; 18 to 28 lines long. India.
151. H. conic, yellowr; lip refteiEled, white; whirls
6 to 7 ; aperture ovate ; 18 to 2 2 lines long.
152. H. conic, a little pointed ; whitifti with a ru¬
fous band and ftreaks ; lip reftedted ; whirls 7 ; 2%
inches long.
153. H. conic, pointed ; whirls 8, obliquely ftreak-
ed, contrary ; 2\ inches long. Mauritius, and Bour¬
bon iflands.
154. If. conic, pointed, white with fulvous ftreaks;
lip white, reflefted ; whirls 7 ; 22 lines long.
155. H. conic, pointed; whirls contrary; white,
wiih undulated, interrupted, browm ftreaks; 15 lines
long; very rare.
1 56. H. fubcylindrical, glabrous, contrary, barred;
pillar yellow; lip ilightly reftefted ; 12 to 16 lines
long ; very rare.
157. H. gloffy, whitifti, thin, longitudinally ftria¬
ted ; fpire contrary, hemilpherical ; minute. Arme¬
nian coaft.
158. H. globular, chefnut-brown, barred w’ith white ;
lip fringed, white; crown obtufe. Jamaica.
139. H. fubglobular, depreffed.; bafe concave; a-
perture lunated. Rhode iftand.
160. H. oblong, poliftied, white, diaphanous; whirls
8 ; aperture ovate, toothlefs ; ! 1 lines long. India.
161. H. oblong, a little wrinkled, roly ; whirls 6 ;
aperture toothlefs ; 20 lines long.
162. H. nearly imperforated, roundifh, obtufe, dia¬
phanous and very brittle; aperture dilated behind, with
an emarginated lip ; 1 inch broad and high. In moft
feas.—The animal which inhabits this {hell fhines in
the night, and {fains the hand with a violet or purple
dye.
163. H. imperforated, roundifh, folid, with a de-
preffed fpire ; whirls 6, contiguous.
* 164. H. imperforated, yentricofe, fubovate, obtufe;
whirls 5 to 6, very convex ; aperture nearly orbicu-
O L 0 G Y.
lar; xj- inches long. Stagnant waters of Europe,
Britain. This fpecies is viviparous.
165. H. ovate, ventricofe ; white with 3 (biningfafeiaia.
red bands ; whirls 5; fpire acute ; 9 to 15 lines long.
Italy.
166. H. fubovate, pointed, yellowilh white, with n di/Jimilis.
black lip ; whirls 6. Tranquebar.
* 167. H. perforated, roundifh, thin, pellucid, nemoralis.
marked with varioufly coloured tranfverle bands ;
whirls 5, from 9 to 11 lines wide. Woods of Europe,
Britain.
* 168. H. Garden Snail; imperforated, globular, yAe, hortenjis.
with broad interruped, brown bands; bp white ; 7 to
8 lines wide. Gardens and orchard--, Europe, Bri¬
tain.—This fpecies is exibemely deftruftive to the ten¬
der leaves of plants, and fruits. It is oviparous ; the
eggs are round, and about the fize of fmall peas.
169. H. imperforated roundifti, fmooth; whitifti lucorum.
with rufous ftreaks and bands. Southern parts of Eu¬
rope.
170. H. imperforated, fubovate, obtufe, gray with gri/e#.
twm pale bands; aperture rather oblong. Woods of
Europe. .
171. II. imperforated, roundifti, brown, with a \on-h&majlo-
gitudinal white band; whirls 5, round, firft large ; otu.
aperture pure purple ; 14 inch broad. Ceylon.
172. H. imperforated, fubovate, brown ftriped \pulla.
whirls 4; aperture oblique, margined, whitifti ; 2
inches broad.
173. H. imperforated, fubovate; fulphur with a venufa.
white band margined with red ; whirls 4 ; lip refleft-
ed, margined; 10 lines broad.
174. H. imperforated, fubglobular, glabrous; tvhirlspiBa.
4, round, firft ventricofe, the others deprefled ; aper¬
ture lunar. Italy.
175. H. imperforated, fubovate, covered with zvariegata,
brown cuticle, under which it is barred; aperture
white within. Italy.
176. H. imperforated, folid, ovate; whirls 6, round,folida.
contiguous ; pftlar thickened ; 1 inch long.
177. H. imperforated, fubglobular, finely ftriated <7/>£r/<7.
longitudinally; whirls 3, firft ventricofe ; aperture lu¬
nar ; pillar fpiral.
178. H. imperforated, roundifti, and tranfverfely WJ^fco/or.
ftriated ; whirls round, the ftrft ventricofe ; aperture
ovate.
179. JH. imperforated, ovate; wftiirls 6, ftattifti, con-afra.
tiguous; aperture unequal, 5 toothed ; 3 lines long.
Senegal.
180. H. imperforated, ovate, tranfverfely {iihted nucleus.
with black belts ; aperture iinuous. Otaheite.
181. H. impetlorated, ovate, fmooth, red; aperture coccinea.
pale yellow. New Zealand.
* 182. H. imperforated, fubpellucid, fmooth, with variegata.
red lines; whirls 4, the firft more ventricofe; minute.
Welch coaft.
* 183. H. whirls 3 ; aperture'rounded, margined ; md-fulgida.
nute. Weiih coaft.
* 184. H. ftriated ; aperture fuboval; whirls rede&LedJlriata.
on the back ; minute. Sandwich. Very rare.
D. Tapering.
* 185. H. imperforated, tapering ; fpire mutilated,decollata..
truncated ; whirls 4 to 7, firft large ; 6 to 15 lines
long. Europe, Afia, and Africa ; Britain.
3 L 2
186. IT
Chap. IV.
452
fcalaris-
circinata.
fubcyhn-
drica.
Jiagnorutn.
oflona.
tcnera.
columna.
pella.
plicaria.
undulata.
fufcata.
priapus.
folllcuhis.
fepium.
fplcndi-
dula.
mitra.
atra.
cufpidata.
crenata.
CONCH
186. H. conic, tapering, imperforated; whirls 5,
ventricofe, remote; Ipire obtufe ; aperture ovate.
187. H. hyaline, tranfverfely ribbed, perforated, and
a little tapering ; whirls dillant; aperture circular ; 6
lines high.
188. H. imperforated, tapering, fubcylindrical, ob¬
tufe; whirls 4; aperture ovate ; fize of a grain of rye.
Frefla waters, North of Europe.
189. H. fubperforated, and a little tapering; whirls
5 ; aperture ovate ; minute. Freflr waters.
* 190. H. fubperforated, tapering; whirls 8; aper¬
ture roundilh ; 4 lines* long. America, Europe, Bri¬
tain.
191. H. tapering, convex, flriated ; pillar finuated,
inflected ; whirls 7 to 8, with incumbent margins;
aperture ovate, oblong ; 2\ inches long.
192. H. tapering, white, rvith a fulvous tip; whirls
7 or 8, contrary, fpotted; aperture oblong; lines
long.
193. H. imperforated, ovate, pointed, tranfverfely
flriated ; brown, with yellow bands; band on the firft
whirl double, on the reft Angle. Iceland.
194. H. Tubulate, femipellucid, longitudinally plait¬
ed ; whirls 10, round ; aperture ovate.
19 y H. Tubulate, fmooth, finely ftriated tranfverfe¬
ly; whirls about 12, round; aperture ovate; pillar
glabrous.
196. H. Tubulate, fmooth, finely ftriated tranfverfe¬
ly ; whirls about 10, round; aperture ovate; pillar
fmooth.
197. H. imperforated, tapering, glabrous; pillar
fomewhat depreffed ; pillar infle&ed.
198. H. tapering, pellucid, glabrous; whirls 5 or
6, round, equal ; aperture ovate; pillar {lightly plait¬
ed ; fize of an oat. Barbary.
199. H. tapering, milk-white, longitudinally ftri¬
ated ; whirls 7, contiguous ; aperture ovate ; -*• inch
long. Mountains of Southern Europe.
200. H. thin, gloffy, pellucid ; whirls 6 ; aperture
oblong ; \ inch long. France.
201. H. (hell tapering ; whirls 8 or 9, diftant rib¬
bed ; firft round, the reft flattilh ; aperture ovate ; I
inch long.
202. FI. black, tapering, minutely ftriated; whirls
7, rather convex; aperture oblong, oval; 2 inches
long.
203. H. tapering, horny, finely ftriated tranfverfe¬
ly, and longitudinally plaited ; lip acute. Rivers of
India.
204. H. tapering, white, tranfverfely fubftriated,
and furrounded with a crenulated belt near the future.
cartnola.
crocea.
lanfchau-
rica.
obtufata.
purpurea.
Rivers of India.
205. H. white, tapering, fomewhat umbilica-
ted ; firft whirl a little keel-fhaped, with a blackiih
band.
206. H. cylindrical, glabrous, yellowifti orange ;
tip obtufe.
207. FI. tapering, very glabrous, chefnut-brown
with darker fpots ; throat whitifh. Frefli waters, Co¬
romandel. # .....
208. H. white, denfely ftriated, fubcylindrical ;
whirls a little convex ; lip margined; 3 inches long.
209. H. ovate, oblong, purplifh, teffelated with pur¬
ple ; within iridefccnt. New Zealand,
O L 0 G Y.
E. Ovate, imperforated.
210. H. coarfe, nearly imperforated, ovate, oblong ;/>*//£.
whirls 6 ; aperture oblong, lunated. Mauritania.
211. H. coarfe, oblong, imperforated; whirls \barbara.
aperture roundifh, lunated ; fize of a barley-corn.
Algiers.
212. H. oblong, imperforated; whirls toothed, {f\- amarula.
nous ; 10 lines long. Rivers of India.
* 213. H. tranfverfely grooved ; white ftriated with nccvia.
black ; whirls flattiftr, the firft large and round ; fpire
pointed ; an inch long. Southern ocean, Plymouth
dock.
2x4. H. pointed, cinereous, tranfverfely ftriated ;
whirls 7 to 8, toothed, marked with red ftreaks, and
armed with {harp fpines ; 5 to 8 lines long. Coro¬
mandel.
* 215.H. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point
fomewhat angular, by feveral longitudinal wrinkles ;
whirls 6 to 7, firft ventricofe ; aperture oblong,^ oval;
2 * inches long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.
* 21C. H. imperforated, ovate, tapering to a point •,fragility
fpire acute ; whirls 5 to 7 ; aperture oblong, oval ;
11 lines long. Still waters of Europe, Britain.
217. H. cylindrical, pointed, horny; aperture o-glabra.
vate ; whirls 8 ; four lines long. Moift meadows of
Denmark.
* 118. H. oblong, pointed, brown; aperture ovz\.f,paluJlris.
whirls 5 to 6. Meadows of Europe, Britain.
219. H. ovate, oblong; whirls 5, truncated uy-trunca-
wards ; aperture ovate ; 2 to 5 lines long. Greece, tula.
* 220. FI. fubconic, horny, with a {harp point; aper-peregra.
ture ovate ; 2 to 8 lines long. Stagnant waters of
Denmark, Britain.
* 221.H. ventricofe, diaphanous, with an obtufe pro-glutinofa,
jeftion ; 2 to 3 whirls ; aperture wide ; 2 to 4 lines
long. Denmark, chiefly on the leaves of nymphma
lutea. Marfhes at Deal.
* 222. H. imperforated, obtufe, ovate, yellow; whirls/w/m.
3, the firft large, the others minute ; aperture ovate ;
1 to 8 lines long. Ponds in Europe, Britain.
223. H. conic, pointed, white with a red band ; acuta.
whirls 7 ; aperture ovate, toothlefs ; 4 lines long. I-
taly.
224. H. conic, perforated ; ftriae rugged ; aperturepapt/la.
tranfverfe ; whirls 6 ; 10 lines wide.
225. FI. fubcylindrical; whirls 5 ; aperture tooth-minuta.
lefs, oval. Greece. Not a line long.
* 226. H. conic, white, with tranfverfe rufous lines ;detrita.
whirls 6; aperture ovate; 84- lines long. Saxony,
Britain.
227. H. conic, pale, ftriated ; whirls 7, the 4 out-xentneoja,
ermoft nearly of equal width ; Si lines long. Greece.
* 228. FI. conic, brown; whirls 6; aperture oval,obfeura.
toothlefs ; fnail white ; above dufley, eyes only black.
Roots of trees, Europe, Britain.
* 229. H. conic, fulvous, poliftred ; whirls 5 or 6lubnca.
aperture toothlefs; 2-1- lines long. Mofs and wet rot¬
ten wood, Britain. ^
* 230. H. imperforated, fomewhat oblong, pellucid ;
aperture ovate. Wet meadows of Europe, Sandwich,
river Avon.
231. H. turbinated, cinereous, nearly imperforated -,contortu*
crown truncated ; whirls 5 ; aperture circinated. plicata.
23.2.
Chap. IV. CONCH
vngularis. 232. H. imperforated, greenifh 5 whirls 5, fpiral-
ly angular ; throat white j 12 lines long. China.
teniacu- * 233. H. imperforated, ovate, obtufe, clouded with
lata. brown ; whirls 4 or 5 *, aperture fubovate ; 1—4 lines
long. Ponds and ftill waters of Europe, Britain.
auricu- * 234. H. imperforated, ovate, gibbous, with a de-
laria. preflion in the middle of the lip ; whirls 3—5 \ the
firft ventricofe j fpire acute, fhort •, aperture much
dilated ; 2—15 lines long. Ponds of Europe, Bri¬
tain.
Icevigata. * 235. H. whirls 2 ; firft ventricofe ; the other mi¬
nute, and placed, laterally 5 pale red, pellucid. Eu¬
rope, Devonlhire.
balthica. 236. H. imperforated, ovate, pointed j whirls 4 ;
wrinkles elevated j aperture ovate, dilated. Shores of
the Baltic.
neritoidea. 237. H. imperforated, convex, longitudinally ftria-
ted ; aperture roundifh.
perfpicua. 238. H. imperforated, convex, ovate ; without lip ;
aperture extending to the tip. Mediterranean.
hahotoidea 239. H., imperforated, depreffed, with waved ftrite ;
aperture oval; open all the way down •, whirls 4, la¬
teral. Mediterranean, Atlantic, Indian and North
feas.
muralh. 240. H. imperforated, fubdeprefled, white ; whirls
6 ; 6 lines wide. France.
vertigo. 241. H. cylindrical, glabrous •, whirls 4 or 5 j round,
reverfed ; aperture fquare, 6-toothed} 1 line long.
In decayed wmod, Denmark.
carychtum. 242. H. hyaline, fubconic, glabrous; whirls 5, round j
aperture ovate, with 3 teeth within.
ambigua. 243. H. fubimperforated, convex j grooves remote,
comprefled ; aperture femiorbicular. Mediterranean
corneus.
pyrum.
marmo-
rata.
achatina.
Iu°ubris.
o
minima.
infata.
albicans.
repanda.
opaca.
turgida.
ccerulef-
cens.
244. H. imperforated, ovate, black j aperture ovate.
Waters of Greece.
245. H. fubcyjindrical, with decuffated ftriae j whirls
7, reverfed ; 3 very large, depreffed in the middle.
Guinea.
246. H. marbled with white, cinereous and blue ;
whirls 5, round ; aperture ovate } ^ inch long. Ri¬
vers of Strafburg.
247. H. chefnut, pellucid, thin 5 whirls 4, narrow 5
aperture ovate.
248. H. ovate, pointed, pellucid, tranfveifely ftria-
ted } whirls 7, firft largeft j aperture oblong, ovate j
9 lines long.
249. H. ovate, conic, fubimperforated ; 2 laft
whirls in the centre of the firfl ; aperture orbicular ;
line long.
250. H. w’hite, folid, opaque *, firlt wdiirl twice as
large as the reil } aperture large, margined. River
Unflrut.
251. H. white, opaque, pointed j aperture oval.
Waters of Hamburg.
252. H. ovate, pointed, fubimperforated ; firfl whirl
ventricofe, large 5 aperture femicircular j 6 or 7 lines
long. Stagnant waters.
253. H. ovate, pointed ; whirls 5 , firft large 5 aper¬
ture ovate, oblong. Aquatic.
2 34. H. obtufe \ whirls 4, diftant, inflated in the
middle ; aperture orbicular, margined ; 2 lines long.
255. H. bluilh, ovate, pointed \ whirls 4, a lit¬
tle ventricofe 3 aperture oblong, rounded 3 2 lines
long.
O L O G Y. 4S3
256. H. inflated 3 wdiirls 4, {hort; two lower ones cinerea,
diftant 3 aperture orbicular, not margined 3 2 lines
long. Alface.
257. H. imperforated, oblong, white with longi-undata,
tudinal red undulations 3 whirls 6—-7, firft thrice as
large as the next; i~ inch long.
258. FI. imperforated, oblong, thin, brown 3 whirls Arrcj.
4 ; firft ovate, and thrice as large as the next 3 aper¬
ture ovate.
259. H. fubimperforated, oblong, finely ft.r\a\.t&fub/lriata,
with white 3 whirls 3 ; firft twice as large as the next 3
aperture oval, margined ; ^ inch long.
260. H. fmooth, brown 3 aperture triangular, mar- trigona-
gined 3 minute. Jloma.
261. H. ventricofe, pointed, cinereous 3 firft whirltumida.
large 3 aperture oval, large 3 margined on one fide 3
inch long.
262. H. oblong, pointed, longitudinally ribbed, acicula,
and tranfverfely ftraited ; wdnrls 10, equally decrea-
fing 3 aperture oval 3 ^ inch long. Coromandel.
263. H. ovate, imperforated 3 wdrirls 8—9, sonni,peregnna.
diftant, and equally decreafing 3 aperture oval 3 4- inch
long. American iilands.
264. H. oblong, imperforated ; whirls diftant, \ex\-danubia-
tricofe 3 aperture orbicular 5 24 inches long. Da-//j’.
nube.
265. H. oblong, imperforated, fmooth, pointed 3
wEirls inflated 3 the firft larger, the reft gradually de¬
creafing 3 aperture fuboval, margined ; 34 inches long.
Danube.
266. H. oblong, curved, fubimperforated 3 zyex-curvata,
ture oval, margined 3 2\ inches in diameter. Da¬
nube.
267. H. thin, fmooth, white, with chefnut bands ; ewf/zj'.
fpire obtufe 3 whirls flattifh 3 8 lines to one inch
long.
Gen. 30. Nerita, Nerite.
58
Ncrita.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a Umax 3 the (hell uni¬
valve, fpiral, gibbous, flattifh at bottom 3 aperture
femiorbicular, or femilunar ; pillar lip tranfverfely
truncated, flattilh.
Species.
A. Umbilicated.
1. N. fmooth 3 fpire flightly pointed; umbilicus rw/ZYTm.
gibbous, and bifid. India, Africa, America.
2. N. with decuffated ftriae, and impreffed dots \ cancel-
fpire fubclavate ; umbilicus gibbous, bifid. Ameri-/*?/#.
can iflands.
* 3. N. fmooth, gloffy, faintly wrinkled3 fpire r?i\.hetglaucina.
obtufe 3 umbilicus rather doled by the pillar lip,
which is gibbous, and two-coloured 3 2 inches long.
Barbary, Europe, Britain.
4. N. fubglobular ; umbilicus perforated, equal. In-vitellus.
dian ocean.
5. N. convex 3 umbilicus fomewhat heart-fhaped,r7/Z'zz/w«.
with a flattened lobe. Cape of Good Hope, Barbary,
Indian iflands. Extremely rare.
6. N. ovate, glabrous 3 umbilicus partly covered 3 mammilla*
whirls 4 or 5 ; aperture ovate.
7. N. fubglobular, folid, bay with white bands j/ez/cczc-
fpire fomewhat depreffed 3 whirls 4 or 5 3 an inch nias.
long.
8. N.
4i4 CONCH
fp&Jicea. 8. N. fubglobular, folid ; tip bluifli ; lateritious
bands'in the throat, and a white one on the beak. Mau¬
ritius ifland. Rather large.
riifa. 9. N. thin, rufous ; umbilicus darker, with a white
border j throat with a reddilh band. Mauritius ifland.
fulminea. 10. N. lubglobular, with angular, tawny lines,
and flattened lobe ; white or yellovvifh. Africa. Rare.
Jlercus- i t. N. fmooth, fno-vy, with rufous fpots and fpecks$
tnufcaf'um.nvahWicviS gibbous, bifid. Mediterranean, American
Teas.
orientalis. 12. N. fubglobular, polifhed very fmooth; bafe
of the Ipire a little W’rinkled ; pillar fnowy. Eaftern
feas.
cruentata. 13- N. fubglobular, white, with red fpots; lip ob-
tufe and bluifli ; umbilicus fpiral.
rugofa. 14. N. wrinkled; within glabrous; umbilicus bor¬
dered with w'hite. Ametican iflands.,
tnarochi- 15* N. fubglobular, fmooth, light green, brownifh
enjis. within ; livid at the tip ; wrinkled at the angle of the
whirls. Africa.
fulcata. 16. N. fubglobular, obliquely plaited ; fpire with 4
whirls, mucronate; umbilicus bifid.
arachnoi- 17- N. white, reticulated with reddilh lines, and
(fea. blackifli at the tip } umbilicus nearly covered ; whirls
convex.
vittata. N. fubglobular, brown, rvith a double white fil¬
let in the middle ; reticulated and denticulated on
each fide. Africa.
melano- 19. N. thin, pellucid, fmooth, oblong; firfl: whirl
Jioma. ventricofe, flat and large ; umbilicus half clofed ; 2
inches long. Indian fea.
pallidula. * 20. N. femitranfparent, horn-colour : whirls pro¬
minent ; aperture femilunar, and patulous; umbili¬
cus large ; a fmall (hell. Coafts of Kent and Dorfet.
papilla. 21. N. pellucid, thin, oblong, with decuflated ftrise;
dirty yellow ; whirls 4 ; aperture fuboval; pillar white;
umbilicus half clofed. Tranquebar.
clathrata. 22. N. deprefled, ovate, tranfverfely undulated and
longitudinally ribbed ; ribs flat, oblique, and femilunar ;
fpire papillary. Foflil in Campania.
•valvata. 23. N. flattilh, with a circinated aperture. N. feas.
icelandicct. 24. N. globular, fubacute, thick ; whirls 4, fepara-
ted by deep grooves. North feas.
qffinis. 25. N. globular, thick; fpire fubmucronated; whirls
3. New Zealand.
B. Imperforated \ Up toothlefs.
corona. 26. N. whirlsof the fpire crowned with (pines; minute.
India, America.
radula. 27. N. grooved, with equal, tuberculated ribs; fize
of a walnut. Indian iflands.
cornea. 28. N. obfoletely ftriated; white or pale violet.
Red fea.
Jluviatilis. * 29. N. rugged, fpotted, (freaked, or mottled with
white and purplilh brown or pink ; mouth clofed wuth
a teftaceous operculum ; 4 lines long. In flow rivers
of Barbary and Europe, Britain.
littoralis. * 30. N. imooth, with a carious crown ; whirls 4 or
5, firft larve ; fize of a horfe bean. Europe, Shores of
Britain. Common.
lacujlris. 3T. N. imoothifh, horny, or blackifli, ending in a
very fine point. Still waters and warm fprings of
Europe ; fuppofed to be only a variety of N. jluvia-
tdis.
tnagdaknv 32. N. grooves wide and black; within white;
2
O L O G Y. Chap. IV*
whirls 3 ; lip fmooth, 2 toothed ; 6 lines long. Mag¬
dalene iflands.
33. N. thin, with decuflated ftriae, tuberculated;
black with ochraceous fpots ; fubglobular; aperture nata.
margined outwardly.
34. N. thin, pellucid, ovate, polifhed; dull yellowdubia.
Varied with black ; outer lip acute ; inner glabrous;
crown prominent; very rare.
35. N. fmooth, pellucid; whirls 3 ; very minute ;pellucida.
Pembrokeflnre coaft.
* 36. N. fmooth, fomewhat pellucid ; whirls 2 ; alba.
minute. Pembrokefliire coaft.
C. Imperforated; lips toothed.
37. N. fmooth, coarfe, wuth an excavated eye-likepulltgera.
fmall fpire : inner lip fmooth, crenulated ; wdiirls 2,
one large, terminating in an acute tooth ; 14—16 lines
long. Rivers of India.
38. N. thin, fmooth, undulated, with an obtufe rWw/a/tf.
crown ; outer lip fubftriated, and toothlefs ; inner one
a little denticulated. India.
39. N. thick, opaque, globular ; deep black with co- aterrima,
loured lines ; outer lip glabrous ; inner lip tubercula¬
ted, W’rinkled.
40. N. fmooth, fubglobular; white, with yellowifh larva.
brown bands ; crown obtufe ; lip (lightly denticula¬
ted ; middle fized. Amboyna. Rare.
41. N. fmooth, roundifti, milk-white; whirls vi\\\\pitpa.
tranfverfe, parallel, black ftriae; lip flat; teeth fcarcely
vifible.
42. N. fmooth ; inner lip 2-toothed : fize of a pea. bidens.
43. N. fmooth, green ; inner lip crenulated in the viridis.
middle. Minorca and Jamaica.
44. N. fmooth, ovate ; inner lip denticulated ; 2 Xo virginea.
lo lines long, India, South America.
45. N. fmooth; crown obliterated ; lip toothed or\polita.
each fide ; brown. India, South feas.
46. N. ftriated ; lips toothed ; inner one flattifli andpeloronta.
wrinkled. American iflands.
47. N. ftriated ; lip (lightly toothed ; inner one X\x- albicilla.
berculated. Cape of Good Hope. Indian ocean.
48. N. grooved, tranfverfely ftriated ; inner lip tooth- hi/lrio.
ed ; ribs 30, unequal.
49. N. grooved; 17 to 20 tranfverfe ribs; ouXerplicata.
lip 5 or 6 teethed within ; inner convex, wrinkled,
with three long, ftrong teeth, befide leffer ones. In¬
dia.
50. N. grooved, lips toothed ; inner lip with a yd\-grojja.
low fpot, and 3 or 4 teeth ; convex and wrinkled.
Molucca iflands.
51. N. with 20 grooves, varied with undulated &\-chama-
'teinate black and white rays ; lips toothed ; inner one/eon.
wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian ocean.
52. N. grooves 30 ; ribs about 30, flattened ; X\^% undata.
toothed; inner one wrinkled and tuberculated. Indian feas.
53. N. grooved, wuth 15 to 19 ribs; lip toothed ; evzm’dr.
inner one tuberculated. India.
54. N. folid, thick, glabrous ; undulated with black maxima.
■and yellowifli rays; outer lip toothlefs ; inner one con¬
cave, 4-toothed ; a very large ftiell.
55. N. angular black lines ; with 16 crenated ribs textilis.
and grooves ; outer lip crenated without, and toothed
within ; inner lip wrinkled above, and tuberculated
beneath.
56. N. deep black, glabrous, and thinly ftriatedatrata.
above;
455
Chap. IV.
C O N C H O L O G Y.
above ; both lips white ; outer one finely grooved,
and llightly toothed within. Atlantic and South Teas.
afcenjionis. 57. N. with 16 white grooves ; ribs fpotted wdth
white ; crown a little prominent ; outer lip glabrous
on each fide ; inner one concave, yellowifii and tooth¬
ed. Afcenfion ifland ; a large (hell.
lineata. 58. N. mouth and lips white ; whirls round, fur-
rounded with black, parallel ftrue ; outer lip flriated
within. Malacca feas.
verjico/or. 59. N. with blackilh bluifti, red and white fquare
fpots, and bands, fpotted with red and white ; inner lip
ftriated within, and toothed on each fide. Antilles:flandc.
pica. 60. N. white, radiated with black without ; ftriar
tranfverfe, rounded, fmooth ; inner lip wrinkled and 4-
toothed. Indian feas.
cojlata. 61. N. yellowifii wfithin, fubglobular, furrounded
with thicker ftriae ; interftices fnowy ; lips white, tooth¬
ed ; outer one crenated without. Nicobar iflands.
quadri- 62. N. fubviolet with a yellowfifh tip ; white wfith-
color. in, wfith elevated black ftriae: lips toothed ; outer
one grooved within ; inner one wrinkled. Red fca.
malaccen- 63. N. grooved, yellowiftr within ; crown a little"
Jis. prominent ; outer lip unarmed and crenulated out-
W'ardly ; inner lip yellowifti, fmooth. Malacca.
antilla- 64. N. (ubglobular, black ; white within ; grooved
rum. and ftriated ; lips wrinkled and denticulated. Antil¬
les iflands.
Jiammea. 63. N. fubglobular, with crowded tranfverfe ftriae ;
white, with purpliih, undulated rays ; outer lip groov¬
ed within ; inner lip wrinkled above.
fulgorans. 66. N. fubglobular, w'ith crowded tranfverfe ftriae ;
deep black with ochraceous rays ; lip flightly denticu¬
lated ; inner one tuberculated in the middle. Ame¬
rican iflands.
tcjfelata. 67. N. obtufe, tranfverfely ftriated ; the ftriae mark¬
ed with nearly Iquare black and white fpots ; both
lips denticulated ; outer lip flightly ftriated within,
inner bp with one or two teeth ; concave, glabrous,
and denticulated beneath. Iflands between Africa and
America.
bifafciata. 68. N. blackilh with 2 gray bands j crown white.
India.
Uterata. 69. N. fubglobular, white, with various characters ;
inner lip crenulated, toothed. India.
’violacea. 70. N. ovate, folid, (inooth, violet dotted with white j
inner lip denticulated beneath.
fenega- 71. N. ovate, obtufe, deep black \ whirls 3, the
lenfis. firft with turgid 25—30 grooves; the two others very
minute ; 1 inch broad. Senegal.
promon- 72. N. black, ovate, pointed ; whorls 3, with 30
torn. grooves ; left lip wrinkled. Africa..
tricolor. 73. N. variegated with red, black and white ; right
lip with 10 teeth ;• left lip glabrous, with three large
emarginated teeth ; 9 lines long.
perverfa. 74. N. futrounded with belts ; fpire reverfed ; aper¬
ture 8-toothed. Found only in a foflrl ftate.
turrita. 75. N. bands alternately white and black ; within
white ; crown much elevated ; outer lip acute ; whirls
4. Freih waters in Antilles iflands.
aculeata. 76. N. blackiftr, tranfverfely ftriated ; the Arise fpi-
nous; inner lip flattifli, fmooth, and flightly toothed.
India.
59.
Haliotis.
Gen. 31. Haliotis, Sea-ear.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a Umax ; the fliell is uni¬
valve, dilated, ear-fhaped, with a longitudinal row of
orifices along the furface; fpire lateral and nearly con¬
cealed.
Species.
1. H. Midas' ear ; roundifh, both fides polifhed ; ori- midce.
fices from 8 to 10; 7 to 9 inches long. Indian ocean,
Cape of Good Hope.
2. FI. fubovate ; outfide tranfverfely grooved, xvL^-tubercu-
ged and tuberculated ; wrinkles on the outfide undula- lata,
ted. The inner margin of the (hell has a ridge the whole
length, wfliich terminates in one fpiral turn at the end.
This ridge is be(et with tubercles, the laft 6 of which,
or from 6 to 9, are open. The infide is open, con¬
cave, and of a beautiful mother-of pearl : the length is
from 3 to 4 inches; breadth from 2 to 3. It is found
on the ftrores in the South of England, after violent
ftornw. It is common in the ifland of Guernfey, ad--
hering to the rocks at the lowed ebb. The fifli is eat¬
en by the inhabitants, and the common people adorn
their houfes wfith the (hells, by (ticking them on the
outfide with plafter.
3. H. ovate, ferruginous, tranfverfely wrinkled, zr\djlriata>
longitudinally ftriated ; 4 or 5 orifices open. Afia,
Barbary.
4. H. ovate, longitudinally ftriated; larger ftrite^tf/vk.
tuberculated ; orifices 20 to 30 ; 4 to 5 open. India.
5. H. oval, longitudinally ftriated, with chtolztt marrno-.
tranlverfe ones; orifices about 30, 4 to 5 open ; 2 to errata.
inches long. Africa, India.
6. H. aj]es ear ; (moothiflr, oblong; margin [omz-qjinum.
what falcated ; nerves on the outfide elevated ; orifi¬
ces about 30, 5 to 7 open ; 3 inches long. India.
7. H. ovate, red, with an elevated angle on Cnzparva.
belly ; orifices 30, 4 or 5 open. Africa, India.
8. FI. ovate, greenilh, fpotted with brown; ik.x’we.bijiriata*
elevated, double, tranfverfe ; 6 orifices open. Africa.
9. H. varied with gray, bluifti, and red; ovate; aujlralis.
fpire prominent, inflated ; 7 to 9 orifices open ; 3.
inches long. New Zealand.
10. H. ovate, fomew’hat convex, folid, with dc-guineenjis,
cuflated ftriae ; orifices flattened ; 6 open ; 2-’- inches
long. Guinea.
it. H. ovate, imperforated, with prickly ribs; imperfo-
fpire exferted ; 1 inch long. India. Extremely xzxz.rata.
1 2. H. ovate, imperforated ; margin oblique above,perverja.
and tuberculated within ; fpire reverfed ; ^ inch long.
Foflil.
13. H. tranfverfely plaited on the outfide; marginplicata.
broad, thick, and finely ftriated longitudinally ; -I- inch
long. Foflil near Hildefia.
14. H. ovate, fmoothiflr, folid ; varied with vc\\\\.eglabra..
and green ; 6 orifices open ; inches long.
15. H. roundifli, varied with refy and white ; ovXexpulcher*
lip crenated; orifices 30, 6 pervious; 7 lines long.rima.
South fea iflands.
16. H. ovate, with decufiated, undulated ftriae; virgineaC-
under fide iridefeent; 6 orifices open 1 inch long.
New Zealand.
17. H. fuborbicular, deprefled, wrinkled; variedowW.
wfith white, chefnut, and yellowifli ; orifices in the
middle pervious.
18. H. oval, rugged, varied with white and red ^gigantea,.
fpotted ; inner lip with a very broad margin ; 3. to 7
orifices open.
19. FL-
456 CONCH
irit, 19. H. ear ventricofe, fulvid brown, with tranf-
verfe wrinkles, and longitudinal, tuberous plaits $
under fide iridefcent 5 4^ inches long. New Zealand.
Extremely rare.
Patella. Gen. 32. Patella, Limpet.
Gen. Char.—The animal is a limax j the {hell uni¬
valve, fubconic, (haped like a bafon, without fpire.
Species.
A. Having an internal lip; Jhell entire,
cquejlris. 1. P. orbicular, perfoliated outwardly ; lip vaulted,
perpendicular ; 1 inch wide. Indian and American
feas.
neritoi- 2. P. ovate 5 tip fubfpiral; lip lateral; fize of a
dea. cherry ; inhabitant red.
,/inenJis. * 3. P. fubconic, fmooth ; lip fomewhat lateral. Me¬
diterranean and Indian feas. On oyfters in Salcomb-
bay, Devonftiire.
porcellana. 4. P. oval ; tip recurved ; lip placed behind and
flattened. India and Goree.
fornicalo’. 5. P. oval, obliquely recurved behind ; lip placed
behind, and concave. Barbadoes, Mediterranean.
aculeata. 6. P. oval, brown, with prickly Ante } crown re¬
curved. American iflands.
trocbifur- 7. P. conic, longitudinally plaited ; internal lip
mis. lateral. Tranquebar and Falkland iflands.
auricula. 8. P. roufidilh, with radiated grooves, and ftriated $
crown recurved ; internal cavity ear-ftiaped. Borneo,
Santa Cruz.
rugofa. 9. P. ovate, thin, obfoletely wrinkled tranfverfely ;
margin unequal ; lip unequally repand ; above I inch
long. China. It is generally found on the huccinum
fpiratum.
goreenjis. 10. P. oval, flat, thin, white, glofly, lamellated on
the outfide ; 5 to 6 lines in diameter. Rocks at Goree.
contorta. li. P. granulated with white, and fine perpendicu¬
lar, oblique ribs j lip thin, oblique, and covering half
the cavity. Rare.
explanata. 12. P. white, finely ftriated ; crown inclining down¬
wards and dilated, behind which the (hell is depreffed.
13. P. conic, ochraceous, with ferruginous rays
within ; with longitudinal, tranfverfely ftriated plaits.
14. P. white, conic, ftriated ; grooves undulated ;
crowm a little lateral.
15. P. twifted, pellucid, with ferruginous fpots ;
thinly plaited and tranfverfely grooved above ; lip un¬
dulated, repand ; -§■ inch long.
16. P. conic, prickly; within glabrous. Found
foflil near Crignon.
B. Margin angular, or irregularly toothed.
plicata.
Jlriata.
folea.
echinata.
crepidula.
laciniofa.
faccha-
rina.
barbara.
granular is.
17. P. oval, flattifh, fmooth ; lip femilunar, flat be¬
hind. Mediterranean.
18. P. rays unequal, elevated ; thicker and obtufe
on the outfide. India.
19. P. angular, with 7 keel-fhaped, obtufe ribs. Ja¬
va and Barbadoes.
20. P. toothed, with 19 elevated, vaulted, and mu-
ricated rays. Falkland iflands.
21. P. toothed, w'ith elevated, angular, imbricated
ftriae ; 2 inches long. Southern Europe, and Cape of
Good Hope.
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
22. P. angular, with numerous muricated \ granatina.
li to 3 inches long, Jamaica, fouthern Europe.
* 23. P. with about 14 obfolete angles, and &\-vu!gata.
lated, acute, crenated margin ; crown central ; 2
inches high. Marine rocks of Europe and India, Bri¬
tain.
* 24. P. oblong with about 14 angles ; crowm lateral.
Rocks of Europe, Britain.
25. P. crenated, fubangular ; ftriae numerous, xm-cerulea.
equal; beneath blue ; blackifh on the outfide. Me¬
diterranean.
26. P. conic, tuberculated ; tubercles white, in tubercu-
rows ; (lightly toothed ; retufe behind. lata.
27. P. roundifti, pedlinated ; rays imbricated, \.w-lepas.
berculated, and tranfverfely ftriated ; crown incurved;
2\ inches long. Chili, Falkland iflands.
28. P. oval, three-ribbed, wThite j ftriated at x\\t tricojlata*
fides ; internal margin flattifli, a little jagged. Indian
ocean.
29. P. carinated, rounded on the fore-part, with mytilina.
undulated ftriae; browm and pearly within ; hinder
margin crenated ; I inch long. South America.
30. P. toothed, oval, conic, fomewhat comprefled ; ovata.
ribbed ; browm between the ribs; brown within, with
white grooves ; 9 lines long.
31. P. angular, ovate, deprefled ; rays 10, zlzvtiX-Jiellata.
ed, with ftiort, intermediate ribs ; 8 lines long.
32. P. folid, ovate, gibbous; unequally ribbtA •, icelandica,
glabrous within, with alternate, cinereous, and horny
rays ; margin crenated ; l-| inch long. Shores of Ice¬
land.
33. P. oval, fubpellucid ; ribs 16 to 20; tuberculat-ry/>n<7.
ed and foliaceous on the outfide; 1 to 3 inches long.
Shores of Cyprus.
34. P. ovate, a little gibbous, white; ribs 20 to cojlata.
40; keel-fliaped, crowded, unequal, tuberculated ; 2
inches long.
35. P. ovate, dufky ; ribs fmooth, unequal, white, leucopleu-
crowded ; crown ufually brown ; 1 inch long. ra.
36. P. a little rugged, white, with browm, flexuousJlnatula.
ftriae, branching outwards ; 2 browm fpots in the bottom
of the hollow.
37. P. convex; ribs 11 to 16; 8 larger, tubercu-0<5?or<7-
lated ; ij; inch long. American iflands. diata.
38. P. toothed; red under the browm (kin, With rubra,
elevated, rounded ftriae, and lefler imbricated ones; with¬
in white ; l-§- inch long.
39. P. ovate, gibbous, thin ; toothed, liver-colour ;
ftrue elevated, keel-ftiaped and obtufely fpined ; crowm
white ; 14 inch long.
40. P. fubconvex, browm; with \ 2 larger rays, badia.
each furrounded by a rib, and as many lefler ones;
2^ inches long.
41. P. flattifti, brown, with 10 elevated ftriae ; crown fufcefcens.
of a different colour ; bottom of a pale liver-colour ;
fpatulated fpot, edged with glaucous and gold ; inner
margin browm ; 2 to 3 inched long.
42. P. flattened; forepart narrow and rounUtdi',tnaculofa.
yellowifh fpotted with browm ; crown white; rays 10
or 11 equal, rounded, flat ; ^ to 1 inch long*
43. P. fuboval, flattened, varied with brown ; xihs rotundata.
flat, rounded ; crown and bottom differently coloured ;
I to 2 inches long.
44. P. ovate, obfcurely edged W’ith white; radiat-/^"*
ed,
...
Ciup. IV. CONCH
cor rug al a,
alboradi-
ata.
olivacea.
cerea.
imprejfa.
aurantia.
ed, flrite diftant, peflinated outwardly; crown gray j
1 to 2 inches long. North America.
45. P. ovate, wrinkled, chefnut 3 crown vdth a white
circle 3 inch long.
46. P. oval, brown, radiated with white on each
fide ; ftriae elevated, pedlinated ; crown white ; bottom
yellowifh ; ^ inch long.
47. P. ovate, olive-coloured 3 within brown varied
with white, with elevated unequal ftriae 3 margin with
2 rows of unequal fpines 3 brown, pale yellow 3
inch long.
48. P. ovate, wax-colour on both fides 3 perpendi¬
cularly ftriated 3 ribs 13, flattened 3 bottom white;
inch long.
49. P. ovate, with ftriae elevated, tranfverfe, brown-
i(h 3 fpotted with white, and reaching half way down 3
crown with a white, imprefled circumference ; and
3 brownifh fpots ; inch long.
50. P. ovate, folid, citron undulated with brown ;
ftriae elevated, crowded, wrinkled 3 bottom white 3 1
inch long.
cingulum. 51. P. ovate, denticulated, cinereous, with three
black belts; within milk-white, with elevated, unequal
ftriae, nodulous on the outfide, and fpinous at the
margin ; 1 inch long 3 crown acute, reddifh or whitifh.
cculata. 52. P. ovate, white ; ribs flattened, of unequal
lengths ; interftices brownilh ; crown obtufe, with a
brown belt 3 i inch long.
magellani- 53. P. thin, ovate 3 margin knotty ; within pearly,
ca. with elevated chefnut ftriae 3 crowm pointed, brown 3
i inch long. Straits of Magellan.
tcbroleuca 54. P. ochraceous, with three yellow bands, and
elevated, acute, unequal ftriae 3 crown white 3 1 inch
high.
ientata. 55. P. white, denticulated ; ftriae unequal, elevated,
acute ; crown furrounded with a double row of cinere¬
ous dots, and a dulky gray band ; 1 inch long.
nodo/a. 56. P. yellow, radiated with brown ; ftriae unequal,
elevated, knotty 3 crown and bottom white ; 1! inch
long.
cinerea. _ 57. P. toothed, cinereous 3 ftriae unequal, elevated ;
interftices brown and rugged ; crown pointed ; milk-
white or filvery.
cxalbida. 58. P. whitilh, rays brownilh, and ftriae unequal,
elevated, rounded 3 interftices rugged ; crown obtufe,
white, with a broad, interrupted brown band, and ano¬
ther marginal one 3 \ inch long.
cancellata. 59. P. cinereous and brown, with decuflated ftrice,
and 2 rows of tubercles 3 crown yellowilh ; bottom
with a fpatulated white fpot; ji inch long. Jamaica.
Uvis. 60. P. rounded, fmooth, yellowilh, with a broad,
citron, marginal band, fpotted with brown, and ano¬
ther narrower one; margin dilated, acute; crown va¬
ried with bluilh and white ; 1J inch long.
-argentea. 61. P. fmooth, thick, filvery; rays 11, brown 3
margin filvery : crown pale yellow 3 bottom ivory,
with a double white ring 3 2 inches long. Very rare.
<uprea. 62. P. white, with ftrong, rounded, brown ribs 3
pearly within ; crown and bottom copper-coloured 3 2
inches long.
rubida. 63. P. pale liver-colour on bofh fides 3 ribs keel-
fhaped, alternately larger and lefs 3 crown flat, white ;
1^- inch long.
glabra. 64. P. brown, glabrous above ; ftme beneath, ele-
Vol. VI. Part II,
o L O G Y. 457
vated, crowded, white; crown obtufe, white j border
fulvous ; bottom fulvous ; ij inch long.
65• yellowilh, varied with brown ; ribs unequal,yfowo/tf.
flattened ; crown obtufe 3 bottom varied reddifli and
white ; 1 inch long.
66. P. denticulated, comprefled on each fide; round- infundibu*
ed, yellow, perpendicularly ftriated ; ribs keel-fliaped ;///»*.
bottom varied, white and cinereous; i|- inch long.
Rare.
67. P. rounded, glabrous, white 3 a fmall Ihell. cyathus.
68. P. ovate, entirely yellow, with undulated grooves
perpendicularly ftriated within ; margin fcalloped here
and there ; 3 inches long. China.
69. P. roundilh, white, with many coloured dots ;punSlata,
radiated at the bafe, and furrounded with 2 brown
rings 3 margin flexuous.
70. P. ovate, with annular ftriae ; black, with ele- lugubris.
vated, unequal ftriae; margin crenated ; crown and
bottom white.
71. P. ovate, toothed, yellowilh, with elevated flat- ulyftpo-
tened ftriae 3 crown pointed, orange. Lilhon. nenfis.
72. P. oblong, red, with elevated, unequal, white «/w£(?/7<7.
ftnae ; margin crenated. Africa.
73* ^*3 tbin, pellucid, ftriated, blackilh with (Xwz. crenata.
rays 3^ within glaucous or cinereous ; crown pointed ;
margin crenated, bottom milk-white. Shores of Africa
Malaga, Lilhon.
74. P. ferruginous, with angular or undulated ruf-ferruginea s
fet lines and cinereous belts ; within milk-white, with
elevated, knotty ftrise 3 crown pointed ; margin plaited.
.75* oval, ochraceous, with elevated black ftriae;/wf/ano-
within filvery, fpotted ; crown pointed, white, Smooth,gramma.
bottom wdth a ftraw-coloured fpot.
^76. P. ovate, thin 3 margin flexuous ; within , repanda.
with brownilh rays, and thin, undulated Aria;, with
bay granulations. Seas of Magellan.
77* P* oval, w’hite, thinly ftriated, and varied W\dn angulofa.
red Ipots and dots; margin with 8 angles.
.78* P. oval, fmooth, polilhed, pellucid, ftriated
with 7 yellowilh ribs ; bluilh olive dotted with brown ;
margin with 7 angles.
79. P. oblong, flattilli; bay ftriated with white ; monopis.
within milk-white, with 11 elevated, unequal ftrne ;
crown rounded, white. American iflands.
.80. P. ovate, toothed, brown dotted w’ith green \chloroJlic-
with 11 elevated, hollow, broader ftriae, and as many ta.
narrower ones ; crown white.
81. P. thin, white, unequally ftriated, Wilhin margari-
pearly ; crown with an orange mark, furrounded with tacea.
a yellow ring : margin crenated. Iceland.
82. P. oval, thin, ochraceous, with angular chef- tenuifTtma.
nut lines, and 10 to 12 elevated, obtufe, hollow, un¬
equal ftriae.
83. P. folid, fubconic, tranfverfely plaited ; margin tmtrula.
flexuous. Barbadoes.
84. P. ovate, toothed, with 30 elevated, obtufe,/>//c77r/tf.
undulated, and tranfverfely wrinkled ftrice. Shores of
Magellan.
85. P. whitilh, obtufely pentangular 3 margin ext-pentagona.
nated, dilated 3 crown obtufe 3 bottom reddilh.
86. P. ovate, tender, pellucid 3 ftriae elevated 3 cenea.
crown and bottom copper-coloured, inch long.
Straits of Magellan. 6
87. P. thin, oblong, ovate, with fine undulated
3M ftme;
45 8
Qannea.
candidi/fi-
ma.
hungarica.
imbricata.
CONCH
{xr.se j yellowiih with elevated dark rays j crown re*
curved. South America.
88. P. ovate, filvery *, ftriae elevated, flattened •,
crown obtufe, copper colour ; bottom with an oval bay
mark ; margin flexuous •, I inch long.
89. P. fuborbicular •, ftriated ^ white with a brown-
ifh band j dotted with brown; margin tranfverfely
wrinkled.
C. IVith the tip or Crown pointed and recurved.
* 90. P. entire, conic, pointed, ftriated, with a hook¬
ed, revolute crown ; 2 inches high. America, Me¬
diterranean, and Afiatic feas; (bores of Britain.
91. P. entire, oblong, imbricated $ the crown placed
behind.
mammella- * 92. P. entire, conic, ftriated, fubdiaphanous, with
ris, a fmooth reflected crowm. Shores of the Mediter¬
ranean and Africa, Britain.
tricannata 93. P. fubftriated, with 3 ribs on the forepart ; 21-
inches high.
peElinata. 94. P. entire, ovate, with wrinkled, (lightly bran¬
ched ftrise; crown nearly central; 2 inches long.
Mediterranean.
lutea, 95. P. entire, oval, convex, ftriated, wuth a fub-
marginal, refle&ed, mucronate crown ; fize of a melon
feed. India.
cri/Iata. 96. P. crown revolute ; back crefted, keel-(haped.
lacujiris. 97. P. entire, oval, membranaceous, with a central,
mucionate, reflefted crown*, if to 2f lines long.
Frelh waters of Europe, Britain.
fuviatilis. 98. P. entire, oval, a little horny, with a marginal,
mucronate crown ; aperture oval ; 2^ lines long.
Rivers of Europe, Britain.
cceca* 99. P. entire, with elevated dots and ftriated ;
crown acute, ftraight. Bays of Norway, on ftones.
virginea. 100. P. entire, white, with 18 red bands. Bays of
Norway, on fuci.
tejjelata. 101. P. entire, whitifti, teffelated with red. Nor¬
way, on rocks and fuci.
fulva. 102. P. entire, orange, with a mucronate and nearly
" vertical crown. Norway.
fubfpirahs. 103* P* ovate, with an obtufe, nearly fpiral tip.
Norway. # .
amhigua. 104. P. ovate j margin (lightly toothed, point re-
fle&ed, fomewhat acute. Norway.
rubicunda. 105. P. entire, fubconic, fmoothifti, and reddilh ;
2-L lines long. Deeps of Greenland.
lorniana. 106. P. ovate, entire, finely ftriated longitudinally j
white with red veins ; 6 lines long.
ca/yptra. 107. P. entire ; ribs fomewhat imbricated ; crown
hooked ; margin finuated. North America.
melanoleu- 108. P. ftriated, entire, alternately black and white;
ca. r I inch long. #
peEluncu- 109. P. oblong, convex, (lightly toothed, within
lus. poliflied ; ftrise knotty, elevated ; crown bent for¬
wards ; I inch long. .
fafciata. HO. P. ovate, white, with a brown band; ftrise
elevated, acute ; margin dilated, crenated, and cinere¬
ous within ; I inch long. ^
elegant. in. P. with decuffated ftrise, white radiated with
red ; denticulated ; crown gray ; 2 inches long.
fquamofa. 112. P. ftrke elevated, and tranfverfely undulated
on the outfide ; brown, filvery towards the margin ;
crown hooked and bronzed ; 34 inches long.
fqualida. 113. P. entire brown, whitifti within ; margin bluilh,
o L O G Y. Chap. IV.
radiated with brown, with elevated, obfolete ftriae j
crown knotty.
114. P. fmooth, fubangular, yellow radiated vihhcrocea.
brown ; crown obtufe, white ; I inch long.
115. P. ovate, fmooth, white on both fides, with zcandida.
rofy belt on the outfide*, crown lateral; \ inch long.
1x6. P. compreffed, convex in the middle, cancel-
lated, white, with a brownilh band on the outfide, and
margined within ; crown marginal, obtufe ; f inch
long.
117. P. rounded, convex, thin ; whitifti with red fpots; minima.
crown obtufe, white, marginal ; £ inch long. Ferro
iflands.
118. P. ovate, thin, pellucid, with fine crowded rrtfwyac-
ftrise ; chefnut with white fcales; within milk-white
with a browm fpot at the bottom, and azure fpot on
the crowm. Tranquebar.
119. P. oblong, horny, very thin, pellucid, glabrous,/wwr/ir,
with a ferruginous bafe. Africa.
120. P. with deculfated grooves; thin, pale, fle(h-cfr«r/a.
colour ; aperture oblong.
121. P. entirely white, flat; point of the cxovraincurva.
twifted.
122. P. oval, depreffed, brownifti with green dots,f«/f’m//>/i3.-
difpofed in oblique, interrupted rays; crown with an
obtufe hook ; I inch long.
D. Entire, and not pointed at the tip or crown.
123. P. conic, ftriated, greenifti or pale brown ‘^afra^
within white ; crown glabrous, white, obtufe; margin
glabrous. Ifland of Goree.
124. P. conic, white, with brown rays marked Wwlcilujitanica*
ftrise granulated with black ; crown acute, furrounded
with a chefnut ring ; very fmall. Portugal, on the fea
rocks.
125. P. rounded, convex, gray with decuflated ftrise
crowm pointed, central, and marked wuth 12 orange,
radiated lines ; bottom horny. Jamaica.
126. P. pyramidal, reddifti gray, with thin, cwcxx-areolata*
lar ftiise croffed by longitudinal ones; crown violet.
127. P. ovate, with fine annulated ftrise, reddilh/fo/wmed.
gray, with undulated brown rays; crown acute, cen¬
tral ; white in the middle. _
128. P. reddifti gray, with radiated ftrise, glabrous,
narrower on one fide ; crown acute, fmooth, (urround-
ed with a reddifti ring ; 3! inches long. India. .
129. P. thick, fubovate, yellowifti, with black rays,yttrz«d-
and longitudinal, unequal ftrise ; and furrounded with tnenJtSo
knotty belts; crown obtufe, fmooth, white. Suri-
nam. . n.
130. P. ovate, yellow; bafe unequally ftriated
crown whitifti, obtufe. _ .
131. P. ovate, convex, white, folid, wfith ftexuousjangumo*
elevated, longitudinal ftrise, intermixed with capillary/es/tf.
ones ; crown lateral, furrounded with a broad ring,
dotted with red. Africa.
132. P. ovate, yellow*, within bluifti white ; with IwVigata.
oblique flattened ftrise alternately thicker and thinner ;
crown white, fmooth, poliftied.
133. P. rounded, white, with many-coloured do\.s,puntlulata
radiated towards the bafe, and furrounded with 2 brown
* 134. P. entire, obovate, gibbous, pellucid, with \pellucid<U
blue rays ; fize of a walnut. European and northern
feas, (hores of Britain.
135. P.
•Chap. IV.
CONCH
Indian
tejludina- 135. P. entire, acute, fmooth, glabrous,
ria. and North feas.
tejiudina- 136. P. entire, ovate, ftriated j crown obtufe, near-
lis. ly central ; 14 lines long. Greenland feas,
comprejja. 137. P. entire, oval, oblong, ftriated, fmooth j
compreffed on the back 5 14 inches long. India.
ruflica. 138. P. entire, conic, with 50 obtufe ftriae j three
inches long.
fufca. 139. P. entire, ovate, obtufe, with 39 cinereous, fi¬
liform, elevated Arise.
notata. I40. P. entire, ftriated, with a fubmucronate, ereft
crown ; within white, with a black, heart-lhaped fpot,
white in the middle ; minute. Mediterranean,
vruciata. 141. P. entire, oval, fub-convex ; brown, with a
white crofs; I inch long.
reticulata. 142. P. entire, conic, comprefled, with reticulated
veins.
deaurata. 143. P. oval, entire, gilded j within filvery, with
fomewhat imbricated ftriae ; margin with plaited teeth.
Straits of Magellan, and Falkland iflands.
Jlellifera. 144. P. oval, entire, ftriated $ black brown radiat¬
ed with white ; within filvery. Friendly iflands and
New Zealand.
radians, 145. P. entire, oval, pellucid, deprefled, ftriated,
horny, and radiated with black fpots. New Zealand.
rota, 146. P. roundifh } the infide filvery 5 the outfide
with reddifti ftreaks, and a yellowilh border. Indian
and American feas.
titnbellata, 147. P, entire, roundifh, diaphanous; deprefled
with yellowifh rays within ; crown pale yellow j mar¬
gin very acute ; 4 inches long. Indian ocean.
pujlulata. 148. P. thin, oval, depreffed, radiated, white dot¬
ted with red ; within fmooth ; 6 lines long.
fymmetri- 149. P. ovate, conic, folid ; browm divided into
ca. partitions, by perpendicular white lines; w’ithin fmooth,
white j margin cut archwife ; 6 lines long.
citrina. 150. P, ovate, convex, with fine decuflated ftrise 5
white, with two broad yellow bands; within whitifti,
with a milk-white bottom} crown brownifh j near 2
inches long.
capenjis. 151. P. oval, with decuflated ftriae, longitudinal
ones alternately brown and white ; within pearly, with
a white bottom ; 1inch long. Cape of Good Hope.
anomala. 152. P. coarfe brown, orbicular, with the crown
near the margin. Deeps of the feas of Norway.
guttata. 1 £3. P. finely ftriated and varied with dots of dif¬
ferent colours ; bottom dufky } inch long.
tnytilifor- 154. P. glabrous, lead-colour, with a white, horfe-
rms. fhoe-fhaped band within *, inch long. Ferro iflands.
fcutiformis 155. P, oval, thin, black, with white, perpendicu¬
lar, flattened ftrise ; crown gray ; bottom with a
brownifh fpot 5 not an inch long.
cochlearis. 156. P. white, flattifh 5 one part narrow, channel¬
led within, with a bluifh callus, fhaped like a horfe-
fhoe ; the other part rounded ; 1 to 2 inches long.
Waticulata 157. P. oval, thin, deprefled, cancellated, radiat¬
ed ; I to inch long.
■cruentata. 158. P. oval, convex, varied with red, and flightly
toothed, with elevated, unequal, rough ftriae ; 1 to 2
inches long.
papyracea. 139. P. deprefled, thin, hyaline, dotted with red,
with chefnut rays outwardly, and crowned thinner,
and granulated thicker ftriae ; an inch long.
sy/indrica. 160. P. oval, flat, with crowded longitudinal ftriae,
of unequal thicknefs, and all granulated j an inch long.
o L o G Y. 459
161. P. fomewhat convex ; white, with crowded xt&decujjata,
dots j within radiated with red and tvhite, with decui-
fated, glabrous ftriae, and a few longitudinal, thicker,
white ones ; inch long.
162. P. thin, deprefled, white dotted with ^hetnatojliC*
within brownifh, ftriated 5 crown varied with cinere-M.
ous and brownifh ; near an inch long.
163. P. flattifh, cancellated, cinereous, wnth a c\iz(-ajleroides,
nut ftar, and rays towards the margin *, crown fmooth,
gray, furrounded with brown dots 5 an inch long.
164. P. oval, fomewhat convex, thin} ftrise crowd-ow//V.
ed ; gray, with blackifh rays and fpots ; an inch
l°ng*
165. P. a little convex, ftriated, reddifh ; crown rubella.
whitifh, fpotted with red; bottom whitifh ; i-j inch
long. _
166. P. flattifh, a little wrinkled ; ftriated, reddiflij^f^w///..
white, with a chefnut band towards the crown, and
another bay one at the margin ; 3 inches long.
167. P. Iblid, flattifh, ftriated } black, with c\x\t-confpurca-
reous dots ; within bluifh ; crown dirty yellow } twota.
inches long. .
168. P^ folid, flattifh, ftriated 5 whitifh, with cine-
reous rays, and black dots, difpofed in 5 or 6 belts \ ta,
crown pointed and whitifh.
169. P. black, ftriated, with a paler crowm ; hot-atra.
tom with a brownifh mark, furrounded with a white
horfe-fhoe-fhaped band ; inch long.
170. P. oval, convex, folid, glabrous 5 liver co\o'Mfpecularis,
within, and the crown brownifh } the latter furround¬
ed with a white border, and interrupted, whitifti
band.
171. P. oval, black ; within bluifh, ftriated} thtcanefcens*
larger ftrise,flattened and gray ; crown obtufe, brown¬
ifh, with a whitifli area } 2 inches long.
172. P. oblong, flattifh, dilated on each fide zodvirefcens,
ftriated ; olivaceous, radiated, and fpotted wuth white }
within blue } inch long.
173. P. rounded, convex, longitudinally ftriated/tf//tf.
and tranfverfely w'rinkled, brownifh \ within ruflet
brown, with w’hitifh and brownifli rays, and two milk-
white bands above} inch long.
174. P. fuboval, crenated, ftriated, ochraceous, revo/uta,
with red fpots and rays, broader on one fide 5 margin
revolute } an inch long.
175. P. ovate, convex, ftriated } the ftrise {cAyJquamatai
varied with white and black } crown gray, nearly cen¬
tral } an inch long.
176. P. ovate, finely ftriated, teftaceous, with ^tejlacea.
tranfverfe brownifh rings} within pale yellow, with a
whitifh bottom } an inch long.
177. P. ovate, thin, brown, with darker bandscapillaris.
and paler ftrise ; within brownifh} crown and bottom
white } ^ inch long.
178. P. ovate, narrower on one fide, finely ftnal-glauca.
ed ; bluifh, with a white band towards the margin,
and another bluifti one } crown and margin white}
inch long.
179. P. ovate, flattifh, ftriated} varied with yt\-obfcw'a,
lowifh and brown, and dotted with green ; within
brown ; crown bay ; fcarcely inch long.
180. P. oval, fubconvex, unequally ftriated} whit-exoleta, .
ifli, with a few black lines, reaching half way } near
an inch long.
181. P. oval, flattifh, folid, with a few black xzys,ajfinis.
3 M s reaching
460
Totalis.
j'ufcata.
mellca.
anceps.
£uineenfis.
complana-
ta.
'virgata.
nivea.
grlfea.
navicula.
cingulata.
fcapha.
parva.
Mura.
fflurella.
pujlula.
grceca.
nimbofa.
nubecula.
piBa.
harbaden-
f1*'
CONCH
reaching half way j bottom with a fpatulated white
fpot ; inch long.
* 182. P. white, opaque, flat, round j margin regu¬
larly toothed. Sandwich. Rare.
183. P. ovate, convex, finely ftriated and varied
with brown.
184. P. rounded, folid, glabrous, honey-colour;
white within ; crown brownifh ; margin fpotted with
brown, and filvery within ; ^ inch long.
185. P. folid, glabrous, pointed, pale chefnut) pale
flefh-colour within.
186. P. ovate, convex, fmooth ; one fide broader,
and chefnut ; the other with the crown pale yellow ;
margin flefh-colour on each fide ; | inch long. Gui¬
nea. Rare.
187. P. depreffed, hemifpherical ; obfoletely can¬
cellated, varied with white and brownifh; margin
white on one fide.
188. P. ovate, longitudinally ftriated ; whitifh with
brown rays and crown ; pearly within,
189. P. fubconic, folid, glabrous, fnowy ; with 7
to 8 tranfverfe, concentric rings ; crown rounded ; 4
lines wide. Africa.
190 P. oval, with crowded, radiated grooves, po-
lithed within ; crown nearly central ; an inch long.
Africa.
191. P. narrow, with deculTated ftriae ; rofy, with a
wftutifh, callous belt on one fide in the middle ; mar¬
gin acute, revolute on each fide ; an inch long.
192. P. fomewhat oval, obfoletely ftriated, ferru¬
ginous, with two elevated, obfcurely barred belts;
crown nearly central.
193. P. clear white, with undulated ftriae, narrow;
broader fide with an acute callus ; narrower fide re-
pand ; crown towards the narrower fide ; inch
long*
* 194. P- fmall, entire, without glofs, whitifh, faint¬
ly radiated with red ; rather larger than a pea. De-
vonfhire coafts. Very rare.
E. With the crown or tip perforated.
* 195- P> oval, conic, with reticulated ftriae; cleft
on the fore-part ; crown recurved ; 4- inch long. Eu¬
ropean and Barbary coafts, Devonfhire.
* 196. P. grooved and perforated on the fore-part;
crown recurved; 3-I lines long. Iceland feas, Fal¬
mouth harbour.
197. P. oval, gibbous, convex, with reticulated
ftriae ; margin crenated ; perforation near the pofterior
margin. Mediterranean, and Indian feas.
* 198. P. ovate, convex, reticulated ; crown not
much elevated ; perforation oblong ; margin crenulat-
ed ; length ^ inch. Foreign fpecimens 1-^ inch. Eu¬
ropean feas, Sandwich.
199. P. ovate, ftriated, rugged, brown; perfora¬
tion oblong ; 2 inches long. Mediterranean and At¬
lantic.
200. P. fubovate, rugged, white radiated with red ;
perforation ovate. Mediterranean.
201. P. ovate, folid, clouded white and green, with
oblique, undulated, alternate, violet and white rays ;
31 inches long. Straits of Magellan.
202. P. oblong, unequally ftriated ; within fmooth;
milk-white with greenifh bands; margin crenated;
O L O G Y. Chap. IV,
perforation circular, and furrounded with a chefnut
ring. Barbadoes.
203. P. whitifh, tranfverfely annulated with longi-jamaicen*
tudinal ftriae ; covered with foliaceous tubercles; per-jfo.
foration oblong. Jamaica and Barbadoes.
204. P. ovate, comprefled, ftriated; finely annula-cw^rtf.
ted, and radiated with black; bottom milk-white ;
perforation nearly central.
205. P. a little convex, tranfverfely wrinkled perforata,
brownifh, with ftraw-coloured rays and fpots ; ftriae
longitudinal, and alternately larger and fcaly; x-|-
inch long.
206. P. oblong, compreffed, unequally ftriated ;/or/>/&yro»
white, with 5 purple, interrupted belts ; greenifh white %onias.
within ; perforation minute, furrounded on the infide
with a red circle. North America.
207. P. thinly ftriated with alternate rofy and white ro/etf.
rays ; perforation oval, and furrounded with a red
ring on the infide. Minute.
2c8. P. repand on each fide, comprefled ; 'pexiorz-fcutellum,
tion radiated with grooves ; from 1 to inch long.
209. P. thin, white, and finely ftriated; ^tvioxn-avellana.
tion oblong, and divided by a ligament.
210. P. ovate, convex, white ; ftriae elevated, thick-j^>/»o/a.
er towards the margin, and marked with four row's of
tubercles ; exterior tubercles fpinous ; perforation ob-
hmg.
211. P. ovate, gibbous; whitifh radiated with denticulate*
brown ; green within ; ftriae elevated, fomewhat rug¬
ged, and alternately larger ; margin denticulated ; cre¬
nated within ; perforation in form of a parallelogram.
212. P. ovate, convex; ftriae elevated, knotty,
crofting thinner tranfverfe ones ; within white ; crown
black.
213. P. depreffed, white; ftriae elevated, every 4th
of which is larger; perforation narrow', furrounded
with a chefnut band on the cutfide, and a green one
wdthin ; inch long.
214. P. ovate, convex; ftriae decuffated ; perfora-
tion furrounded with an elevated ring and red line ; 1
inch long.
215. P. oval, pyramidal, reddifh, with 12 elevated,/«z«y/y.
white ftrise ; bottom white ; perforation oval and near¬
ly central.
216. P. ovate, convex, ftriated; yellowifh, w'rCnconfperfa.
red dots and 3 oblique rays; crowm central; perfora¬
tion linear.
217. P. oval, ftriated, reddifh, with a white band raie/ce/z.r,
in the middle ; margin entire ; perforation linear ; 1
inch long.
218. P. oval, thin, red; w’ithin greenifh \fanguine a.
ftriae longitudinal, crofting finer tranfverfe ones, which
are rugged outwardly ; 4- inch long.
219. P. oval, ventricofe, with red decuffated ftriae ; wn/rzbo/a,
crown deprefled ; perforation orbicular ; an inch long.
220. P. oval, flattifh, ftriated; white wuth 3 hrovmtriradiata,
rays ; crown central; perforation linear ; inch long.
221. P. pellucid, oval, a little convex ; longitudi-Zeflyzir.
nally ftriated ; white, with 5 half browm rays; perfo¬
ration with a cinereous margin, not 4 inch long.
222. P. convex, rofy, with an interrupted black zzze/<z«oz<r-
band, and elevated, unequal, white ftriae; crownmaj.
pointed ; perforation orbicular, and furrounded within
with an elevated, gray ring ; inch long.
223. P.
LOGY.
461
Chap. IV. CONCH
fffufa. 223. P. convex, rofy, with elevated, knotty, white,
and alternately larger ftrise j perforation round and
larg<° ; inch long.
punlcea. 224. P. convex, chefnut; ftriae unequal, crowded,
decuffated ; within fmooth, with alternate green and
white bands j perforation round, furrounded with a
chefnut ring, and an elevated white one within ; above
an inch long.
rufefcens. 225. P. convex, white (haded with red ; here and
there ftriated with red } within fmooth, white ; perfo¬
ration oval.
dimidiata* 226. P. convex, above clear white, and cancellat¬
ed •, longitudinally ftriated towards the margin, with
a rofy band •, perforation orbicular j an inch long.
\aBea% 227. P. convex, wdnte ; ftriae glabrous, acute, un¬
equal •, crown rofy j perforation large, orbicular \ an
inch long.
pyramida- 228. P. convex, rofy, ftriated*, ribs 12, fmooth j
Us. within fmooth, and greenilh white ; one and one-fourth
of an inch long.
bicolor. 229. P. narrow, alternately radiated rvith chefnut
and white *, ftriae unequally thick, lamellated $ margin
inflefted 5 perforation oblong 5 inch long.
crythroce- 230. P. convex, white, wdth red lines outwardly,
phala. and elevated, rugged, contrary ftriaeto of them
larger *, margin repand, inflected j crown reddifh j
inch long.
verrucofa. 231. P. above brown, ftriated, terminated by a
knotty belt; beneath radiated with red, with acute,
knotty ribs \ perforation orbicular j three-fourths of an
inch long.
contami- 232. P. convex, with nodulous, unequal ribs j lar-
nata. ger ones yellowHh brown, and marked with black dots,
difpofed in interrupted circles *, crown cinereous j per¬
foration furrounded within with an elevated, grafs-co-
loured ring, and a brown circle.
strata. 233. P. a little convex, narrow, white, with red
lines $ outwardly fpotted with black, with elevated,
convex, unequal ftriae ; perforation oblong, with a
chefnut margin within, wdth a reddiftr ring; \ inch
lonS-
candicans. 234. P. white, chefnut towards the margin, with
20 alternately larger ribs; crown reddifh, with an ob¬
long perforation ; near an inch long.
fuccin&a. 235. P. ovate, pointed, w-hite ; above fmooth, with
an elevated belt in the middle ; dotted with ferrugi¬
nous towards the margin ; wdth elevated, unequal,
fmooth ftriae ; perforation narrow, orbicular ; \ inch
/ long*
pufilla. 236. P. flattifh, white, fuborbicular, wdth 20 ele¬
vated, alternately lefs and fhorter ftrite *, perforation
round, and furrounded on each fide with a reddilh cir¬
cle ; \ inch long.
Jlavefcens. 237. P. thin, effufe, pointed, finely ftriated, yel¬
low! fh, with 6 browm rays ; crown cinereous ; perfo¬
ration oblong.
antiquata. 238. P. convex, obfoletely ftriated, and furnifhed
with concentric, imbricated wrinkles ; perforation o-
val, or nearly round ; inch diameter.
galeata. 239. P. folid, ovate, compreffed ; within white ;
crown a little recurved, and obtufe ; perforation line¬
ar; 6 lines long.
pcrfonata, 240. P. convex, wdth decuflated lines and black
rays. Falkland iflands.
o
Gen. 33. Djentalium, Tooth-Jhell.
v
Gen. Char.—The animal a terebella ; ftiell univalve, Dentalium.
tubular, ftraight or (lightly curved, with an undi¬
vided cavity open at both ends.
Species.
1. D. with 10 ribs, (lightly curved and ftriated; ^.e/ephanli-
inches long. Indian and European feas. num.
2. D. wdth 10 ribs, fmooth, and (lightly curved, aprinum.
Indian feas.
3. D. ribbed, curved, fubulate, of one co\qmv, orcuatum,
greenifli.
4. D. with 8 ribs and 8 ftriae, pointed ; green u^-jlriatulum.
ped with white. Sicilian feas. yum.
5. D. ribs 6, ftriated. Found foflil at Loretto. fexangu-
6. D. with 20 ftriae, (lightly curved, interrupted -^dentalis.
red tipt with wdiite. Mediterranean.
7. D. finely ftriated, (lightly curved ; gray, of datum,
darker bands ; thicknefs of a crow quill. Sicily.
8. D. ftraight, doubly or triply ftriated, and annu-r^«w*
lated.
9. D. roundifli, fomewhat obtufe j finely and
qually ftriated. Foflil near Loretto.
10. D. round, obliquely ftriated. Found foflil. annulatum
j 1. D. (lightly curved, fomewhat obtufe ; ftriae de.radula.
cuffated, longitudinal ones granulated ; an inch long.
Found foflil in Piedmont.
1 2. D. ftriae decuflated, all of them fmooth ; longi-m/<?rr^-
tudinal ftriae with finer interrupted ones. Found foflil
in Piedmont.
[3. D. round, (lightly- curved, continued, withpolitum.
crowded, annular ftriae ; i-^- inch long. Indian and
European feas.
14. D. white, fmooth, round, (lightly curved, with eburneum*
remote rings. India.
*15. D. round, (lightly curved ; fmooth, glofly, \n.entalis.
pering to a fmall point ; pervious ; 14- inch long. In¬
dian and European (bores ; weftern coafts of Eng¬
land.
16. D. round, curved, continued and {mooth. arie/invm,
Scandinavia.
17. D. round, (lightly curved, interrupted, opaque ^corneum.
14 inch long. African ocean.
18. D. curved, very fmooth, white, with {\i[yo\xs nebu/ofnm.
clouds and fpots. Sicily.
19. D. horny, flexile, ftraightilh, round and fmooth
24 inches long. North feas.
20. D. hyaline, glabrous, (lightly curved, and tz-vitreurn.
pering gradually ; 4: long. Found foflil in Pied¬
mont.
21. D. round, ftraightifti, fmooth, minute; wotminutum.
larger than a bridle. Mediterranean.
* 22. D. white, opaque, tranfverfely ftriated and im- imperfora*
perforated ; minute. Sandwich, Falmouth harbour, turn.
* 23. D. (ubpellucid, fubarcuated, tapering to a imaWgadus.
point ; pervious, contrafting a little towards the larger
end; white, glofiy, and fmooth. Britifh channel;
called by the mariners hahe's-tooth. It is frequently
brought up with the founding line.
* 24. D. fubcylindrical, arcuated, marked with regu-
lar, ftrong, tranfverfe ftrite; aperture round, tapering
to
462
CONCH
to the other extremity, which is clofed ; inch long ;
refembles the trachea of an animal. Milton, Devon-
ftiire. Rare.
g/abrum. * 25. D. cylindric, arcuated, fmooth, gloffy, without
ftriae or wrinkles j aperture orbicular; the other end
clofed, rounded ; length one line. Devonlhire coaft.
Montagu, Tejl. Brit. p. 497.
Gen. 34. Serpula.
Serpula. Gen. Char.—-The animal a terebella; {hell univalve,
tubular, generally adhering to other fubftances j of¬
ten feparated internally by entire divifions at unequal
diftances.
Species.
nautiloides* 1. S. flattilh, minute, confluent, verrucofe, fpiral,
with very thin, internal, femilunar divifions. Seas of
Norway, and on the byflus of the pinna ingens on the
coafl: of Devonftiire.
eminulum 2. S. regular, oval, loofe, glabrous, not larger than
a grain of fand. Adriatic and Red feas; and is fome-
times found foflil.
planorbts. 3. S. orbicular, regular, flat, equal} refemblcs a
round fcale •, adheres to (hells.
fpirillum. * 4. S. regular, fpiral, orbicular} whirls round, gra¬
dually decreafing. Found in the ocean, on zoophytes,
on the corallina officinalis from Milton rocks, Devon-
fhire.
fpirorbis. * 5. S. regular, fpiral, orbicular} whirls {lightly
channelled above and inwardly, and ditniniftnng gra¬
dually towards the center. Found in mofl: feas, ad¬
hering to fuci. Shores of Britain.
triquetra. * 6. S. ftrong, opaque, irregularly twilled and con¬
torted } triangular *, ^ to 1 inch long. Found in the
ocean, adhering to marine fubftances, (tones, and the
bottoms of (hips. Coafts of Britain.
intricate. * 7. S. filiform, rough, and intricately twifted ; green-
iflr white, a little rugged and coarfe. European and
Indian feas; (bores o^ Britain, on (hells.
filograna. 8. S. capillary, fafciculated, unbranched complica¬
tions, and cancellated ; forms a beautiful kind of net¬
work ; 4 inches long. Mediterranean.
granulate. 9. S. round, fpiral, glomerated ; 3 elevated ribs on
the upper fide } fize of a coriander feed. North feas,
in maffes adhering to {hells and (tones.
contortu- * 10. S. angular, rugged, and irregularly entwined;
flicata. tranfverfely ftriated ; 3 to 4 inches long. European
and American feas; (bores of Britain.
glomerate. 11. S. round, glomerated, with decuflated wrinkles.
European and Atlantic feas.
lumbrice- 12. S. round, flexuous, vcith a fpiral, acute tip;
Us. tranfverfely ribbed, and longitudinally wrinkled ; 3 to
5 inches long. Atlantic and Indian feas, in large
mafles.
polythala- 13. S. round, diaphanous, fmooth, ftraightilh, with
tnia. numerous internal divifions. Mediterranean and In¬
dian feas, under the fands.
arenaria. 14. S. jointed, entire, diftinft, flattilh beneath. In¬
dia and Africa.
anguine. 1 5. S. roundifli, fomewhat fpiral, with a longitudi¬
nal, jointed cleft. Indian ocean.
vermicu- * 16. S. round, tapering, curved, wrinkled-, 2 to 3
laris. inches long. European feas ; coafts of Britain.— The
animal which inhabits this (hell is of a bright fcarlet
O L O G Y. Chap. IV.
colour, and is furniftied with elegant feathered tenta-
cula, from the midft of which arifes a trumpet-ftiaped
tube, and a lefler fimple one.
17. S. Watering-pot; round, ftraight, taper, with 2.penis.
dilated, radiated, larger extremity } the dife is cover¬
ed with cylindrical pores ; 3 to 5 inches long. Indian
ocean.
18. S. roundifti, flexuous, rofy, with numerous xoveEechinaUi.
of prickles, obtufe at the end ; aperture margined ; fize
of a crow quill.
19. S. brown, roundifti, ftriated. Indian ocean, zA-ocrea.
hering to corals.
20. S. poliflied, fmoothifh, wdth annulated plaits, zprotenfa.
little tapering towards the end ; fize of a quill. In¬
dian and American feas.
21. S. round, with decuffated ftrise, (lightly \xx\vI\e- decuffiata,
led, flexuous, red ; within fmooth, white.
22. S. fmooth, white, the broader part ftraight, ?ix\&probofei-
traniverfely plaited ; 2 to 4 inches long. dea.
23. S. fubftriated, yellowifti brown, round, twifted 4/rtf.
into 3 whirls, with a central tip.
24. S. long, narrow, round, fmooth, yellowifti} xnzxiy cereolus.
times twifted. America.
25. S. conic, fpirally twifted, yellowifti, with blown cornucopia
bands ; the middle round and twifted } aperture orbi¬
cular.
26. S. round, cancellated, yellow, within \10xx\y%goreenjis.
to 9 inches long. Goree.
27. S. triangular, twifted, tuberculated, with hollow intejlinalis.
dots ; 8 to 9 inches long. Africa.
28. S. round, white, tranfverfely ftriated, and 'Ctixict infundibu*
twifted ; the firft turn feemingly compofed of 5 fun- lum.
nels placed in each other. Indian ocean ; fixed to
(tones.
29. S. cinereous, convex above, beneath flat; yyr?i-pyramid**
midal, and many times twifted ; an inch long; open Us.
at the narower end. Indian fea.
30. S. white, round, fubulate, ftraight, and toothed denticula*
at the fides; with a longitudinal, glabrous rib in the ta.
middle ; tip glabrous, a little incurved } £ inch long.
Found in the lepas tintinnabulum.
31. S. roundifti, tuufted, umbilicated, wuth decuflated melitenjis.
Arise, and longitudinal, knotty ribs ; within fmootb,
with numerous divifions. Found foflil in Malta.
32. S. round, fmooth, incurved ; bafe nearly obio-norwegica*
lete, undulated ; mouth obliquely truncated. Nor-
%vay.
33. S. round, fmooth, poliftied, afeending in a fiexu-/>0rraf?tf.
ous manner from the fpire or bafe.
* 34. S. round, regular, fpiral, orbicular, wrinkled, wVrar.
with a thickened aperture. Greenland feas; (hores
of Britain.
35. S. fpiral, glomerated, wuth three grooves, cancellatas
lower interrupted by tranfverfe ribs ; aperture 2-tooth¬
ed. Greenland feas.
36. S. fub orbicular, umbilicated, convex, xzdiizttAJlellaris.
with wrinkles. Greenland feas.
37. S. fomewhat triangular, and a little ftcxx\oos,gigantea.
gradually tapering, violet j within fmooth and pale
yellow- ; aperture white, with undulated ftriie, and arm¬
ed w7ith a conic tooth ; a foot high, and as thick as the
little finger. Africa and America.
38. filiform, glabrous, conglomerated, perforated.rzWffl*
Shores of Maflilia.
39- S.
463
Chap. IV.
fulcata,
CONCH
39. S. whirls 2, deeply and fpirally grooved j green-
ifh, minute. Coaft of PembrokeHiire, on the roots of
fucus digitalis.
ovalis. # 40. S. fub-oval. with 2 bends, imperforated, minute.
Found at Denbigh.
rejltxa. * 41. S. regular, rounded ; margin reflefted at the a-
perture J minute. Pembrokelhire fands.
cornea. * 42. S. regular, rounded, pellucid, with 3 whirls j
horny. Pembrokelhire coaft.
licornzs. * 43. S. femilunar, ventricofe, white, opaque, gloffy j
minute. Sandwich and Reculver.
perforata. * 44. S. white, opaque, glofly ; .femilunar and perfo¬
rated j minute. Sandwich. Rare.
laBea. * 45. S. oval, thin, fmooth, pellucid, with milky veins j
minute. Sandwich j very rare.
lagena. * 46. S. round, ftriated, grooved with a narrow neck,
like an oil flafk ; minute. Sandwich and Sheppeyr
47. S. rounded, margined, with a flender recurved
retort a.
* 47. S. rounded,
neck. Sandwich ; rare.
incurvata. * 48. S. ftraight, with 3 clofe whirls at the fmaller end j
minute. Sandwich.
Gen. 35. Terfdo.
Teredo. Gen. Char.—The an:mal is a terebella, with two cal¬
careous, hemifpherical valves, cut off before, and
two lanceolate ones j the ftiell tapering, flexuous,
and penetrating wood.
Species.
ftavalis. I. T. Ship-worm'; {hell thin, cylindrical, fmooth;
more or lefs twilled ; rather obtufe at the tip ; 4 to 6
inches long.
At the fmaller end the {hell becomes thick and
flrong, and is furnilhed within with plaits or laminae,
which contraft that part, leaving a very fmall opening.
The anterior valves attached to the head of the animal,
are of a hemifpherical form, one half of the front pro-
jedfing in a {harp angle, and fomewhat pointed. The
infide of each valve is white, furnifhed with a long,
Sat, curved tooth, projefling inwards, under the hinge,
and a {hort lateral tooth at the extremity of the hinge,
correfponding in each valve. The margin oppofite the
hinge runs to an acute angle, at the point of which, in
each valve, is a fmall knob, which comes in conta£l when
the valves are brought together. Near the extremity
of the tail there are two valves, one on each fide ; a
little concave on the infide, and rounded at the end.
By their means the extremity of the tube at the thick¬
ened part is clofed. Thefe are properly to be confider-
ed as the {hell of the animal, becaufe they are attached
to it. The tube, or teftaceous {heath, which lines the
hole made in the wood, appears only to be formed as
an apartment, in which the animal may move with more
eafe ; for it is found that two tubes never come in im¬
mediate contafl with each other, although the fibres
of the wood between them are frequently no thicker
than paper. This tube it feldom fo long as the animal;
the internal part of the perforation is ufually not lined
with it for the fpace of 2 inches, and fometimes more;
but the fmaller end is always even with the furface of
the timber which is perforated ; but fo fmall, as not
eafily to be difcovered, yet it is fufficient to admit the
water, which is regulated by the pofterior valves of the
animal.
It is found in the fides and bottom of {hips, and even
o l o G Y.
the ftrongeft oak, which has been fome time under wa¬
ter. This teftaceous animal was originally a native of
the warmer climates, and was brought to Europe,
where it has been produced, and has proved extremely
deftru&ive to the bottoms of {hips, and to works con-
ftrudted of wood, which remains for fome time conftant-
ly under water. It appears, from fome piles of folid
oak which were examined in the dock yard of Ply¬
mouth, and which had remained under water for about 4
or 5 years, that the deftru&ive effects of thele animals are
very great in that time ; for thefe piles were found to
be greatly perforated, which rendered it neceffary to
remove them, and replace them with others. I he bot¬
toms of (hips which frequent warm climates, it is well
known, are fheathed with copper, to fecure them from
the effedts of thefe deftruftive animals. But the me¬
thod which is adopted about the dock-yards to preferve
the timbers which are conftantly under water, is to co¬
ver them with broad-headed nails ; which, by the ef¬
fects of the lea water are foon incrufted with a coating
of ruft, which is found to be impenetrable to the Ihip-
worm.
It has been obferved that the teredo navalis cuts a-
crofs the grain of the wood as feldom as poffible. After
it has penetrated a little way, it turns and continues
with the grain, till it meets with another fhell, or a
knot in the wood. The courfe which it then takes is
regulated by the nature of the obftruftion. If this be
confiderable, it makes a (hort turn back in the form of
a fyphon, rather than continue for any diftance acrofs
the grain.
2. T. folid, cylindrical, undulated; 7 inches long.utriculus.
In wood.
3. T. clavated at one end, incurved at the other jc/aw?.
narrower, obtufe and perforated in the middle; 2
inches3long. Found in the feed-veffels of the xylofteum
granatum.
Gen. 36. Sabella. - 64
Gen. Cv^ar.—The animal a neieis, wuth a ringent Sabeila*
mouth, and two thicker tentacula behind the head ;
{hell tubular, compofed of particles of fand, broken
{hells, and vegetable fubftances, united to a mem¬
brane by a glutinous cement.
Species.-
r. S. folitary,,loofe, curved with lentiform, gloffy gxz-fcrupofa.
nulations ; thicknefs of a fwan’s quill. India and A-
merican ifiands.
2. S. folitary, fixed by the bafe, fimple, curved, withfcabra.
radiated, rough granulations. America.
* 3. S. numerous, parallel tubes, communicating hy alveolata.
an aperture, forming in the mafs the appearance of
honey combs; 2 to 3 inches long. European coafts,
Britain.
* 4. S. folitary, fub-cylindrical, papyraceous, c\nci{y chryfodon.
compofed of fragments of fhells; thicknefs of a quill ;
2 to 6 inches long. European and Indian feas, ftiores
of Britain.
* 5. S. ftraight, conic, compofed of minute particles
of fand ; 2 to 3 inches long. European coafts, (hores
of Britain.
6. S. brown, with alternate white and black rings; reBangula
ftraight, with a rectangular, gibbous extremity; pinches
long.
7. S,
4f>4
capenjis.
nigra.
Jlagnalis.
conica.
uncinata.
fabulofa.
vegetabilis.
ammoniata
helicina.
dimidiata.
fixa.
clavata.
corticalis.
arundina-
cea.
aculeata.
marfupia-
lis.
norwcgica.
lumbrica-
lis.,
indica.
ar£naria.
fubcylin-
drica.
fetiformis.
CONCHO LOGY. Chap. IV,
pj. S. cylindrical, conic, open at both ends j membra¬
naceous j rough, with interrupted, tranfverfe ftriae.
Cape of Good Hope.
8. S. cylindrical, black, fmoothhh on the outlide'j
compofed of minute particles of fand ; inch long.
Rivulets of Thuringia.
9. S. ftraight, tapering, open at both ends ; fmooth,
with a margined aperture, compofed of very minute
particles of fand. Rivers of Thuringia.
10. S. narrow, conic, fmooth, ftraight, cinereous $
with a blackifti open tip, compofed of very minute par¬
ticles of fand ; not 4 inch long.
11. S. fmooth, round, tapering, with an open hooked
tip $ inch long. Rivers of Thuringia.
I 2. S. cylindrical, clofed at the tip, fubclavated, per¬
forated, and compoled of larger grains of fand j not an
inch long. Thuringia and Belgium.
13. S. depreffed, compofed of fragments of twigs,
items and bark, and broken pieces of the tellina cor¬
nea 5 an inch long. Waters of Thuringia.
14. S. polygono-cylindrical, within fmooth, compo-*
fed of fragments of cornu ammonis. Rivers.
15. S. round, within fmooth, compofed of fragments
of the helix pucilla.j an inch long. Stagnant waters of
Thuringia.
16. S. one part of the fhell compofed of fand or gra¬
vel, the other thicker, clavated, and compofed of frag¬
ments of ihells. Waters of Thuringia.
17. S. compofed of fmall ftones j tapering towards
the tip j an inch long; affixed to ftones in the water,
and open at the fide by which it is fixed. Thurin¬
gia.
18. S. compofed of fmall ftones, the open end cla¬
vated, and confifting of larger ftones ; folitary. Thu¬
ringia.
19. S. compofed of pieces of bark, towards the end
of broken ftems.
20. S. fubconic, open at both ends, compofed of frag¬
ments of the bark of reeds, placed on each other ; an
inch long.
* 21. S. compofed of fmall twigs, the points of which
projeft a little ; an inch long. Thuringia, Bri-
flat bits of ftones, cemented together at their edges; 3
to 4 inches long. Salcomb bay.—Some have been ob-
ferved with a lateral branch near the fmaller end, which
is fuppofed to be a young one. Montagm
* 29. S. fmall, fhort, compofed of fand and minute h\\scurta.
of dat ftones, agglutinated to a tough membrane ; fize
of a crow quill ; an inch long. Inlet near Kings-bridge.
This fabella is gregarious, covering the whole furface
of the fhore, appearing like bits of ftraw covered with
mud. Montagu.
* 30. S. ftiort, broad, and very flat, compofed ol largecomprejjd.
fragments of flat, bivalve fhells, placed with the con¬
cave fide inwards ; inch long. Deeps at Torcrofs,
Devonfhire.
65
Number of Species included under each Genus, in /£<? Enumera-
precedin? Clajfification. tI0n °f ^ie
fpecies.
I. Multivalves.
Genera. ^ Species.
1. Chiton, - - 29
2. Lepas. - - 33
3. Pholas, - - 12
— 74
II. Bivalves.
4. Mya,
5. Solen,
6. Tellina,
7. Cardium,
8. Maftra,
9. Donax,
10. Venus,
11. Spondylus,
I 2. Chama,
13. Area,
14. Oftrea,
15. Anomia,
16. Mytilus,
17. Pinna,
III. Univalves.
31
24
94
52
27
21
152
4
25
43
136
65
18
 743
tain.
22. S. black ; open end cylindrical and narrower, the
other part tinged and ovate \ 2 inches long.
23. S. roundilh, open at both ends, brittle, membra¬
naceous ; compofed of very minute grains of fand ; 4
inches long. Norway.
24. S. coarfe, creeping, fragile, open at both ends;
the animal not furnifhed with tentacula at the mouth ;
body prickly, jointed. Deeps of the Greenland leas ;
fixed to ft ones.
25. S. cylindrical, compofed of capillary, fub-
cylindrical, agglutinated cryftals of quartz. Indian 0-
cean.
* 26. S. ex’tremely fragile, cylindrical, compofed of
pure fand, flightly cemented together, without any in¬
ternal membrane ; fize of a raven’s quill ; from I to 2
inches long. Dorfetftiire coaft. Montagu.
* 27. S. long, fub-cylindric, flender, fragile, compofed
of fine fand, and minute bits of broken fhells, cemented
together on a fine membrane ; 3 inches long. Salcomb-
bay. Montagu.
* 28. S. long, flender, gradually tapering to the lower
end, compofed of fine fragments of fhells, and minute
18.
19.
20.
21.
'22.
23*
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
3°*
31-
32-
33-
34*
35-
36*
Argonauta,
Nautilus,
Conus,
Cyprea,
Bulla,
Voluta,
Buccinum,
Strombus,
Murex,
Trochus,
Turbo,
Helix,
Nerita,
Haliotis,
Patella,
Dentalium,
Serpula,
Teredo,
Sabella,
Total number of fpecies,
5
34
7i
120
57
144
200
53
180
131
152
267
76
19
240
25
48
3
3°
 1855
2672
Species
Chap. V. C 0 N C H O L O G Y.
Cfftit:rcr<tJ" Species of Shells which have been found in the FoJJil
Parts of State,
Shells, See. a r ‘c
. Lepas Anlenrera.
66 Cardium Lithocardium. Only found folTil.
Fomidloffil.VENus Caffina.
    Mercenaria. Mountains of Sweden.
i, Imbncata. France.
Chama Foliacea. Campania.
Arca FolTilis. Limbourg.
  — Nucleus.
Ostrea Diluviana. Sweden.
    Mytiloides. Alface.
 — Torta. Alface.
Anomia Craniolaris.
  Gryphus.
f  — Pe&en.
  Striatula. Exifts only fofiil.
   Reticularis.
   Plicatella. Only foflil.
  Crifpa. England and Switzerland.
  Lacunofa. Only foffil.
    Cufpidata. Derbylhire.
  — Farfta. Switzerland.
    Terebratula.
  Angulata.
  Hyllerita. Germany.
   Biloba. Only foil'd.
 Spinofa. England.
 Dorfata.
 Sandalium. Germany.
Nautilus Helicites.
    Lituus.
-   — Orthocera.
 Belemnita.
Voluta Foililis. Only fodil,
Buccinum Foffile. Germany.
 Marginatum.
Strom bus Spinofus. Only foffil.
_____ Fiffurella. Campania.
 Siniiler. Foil'd only. Helvetia.
Murex Triacanthus.
   Triptenus. Campania.
■ ' ■ Coftatus. Campania.
  Lsevigatus. Campania.
  Foffdis. Campania.
■ Campanicus. Campania.
Trochus Schroeteri. Campania.
Nerita Clathrata. Campania.
   Perverfa. Only foflil.
Haliotis Perverfa.
  -   Plicata.
Patella Echinata.
Dentalium Sexangulum. Loretto.
■   Foflile. Loretto.
  Annulatum.
   —. Radula. Piedmont.
■  -  Interruptum.
 — Vitreum. Piedmont,
Serpula Seminulum.
  — Melitenlis. Malta.
46s
Of the Con-
ftituent
Parts of
Shells, &c.
CHAP. V. OF THE CONSTITUENT PARTS OF SHELLS, &c.
HAVING in the former chapter enumerated, under
each genus, all the fpecies of teltaceous animals which
have been hitherto difeovered ; and having given the
chara&eriltic marks by which each is diftinguilhed,
which marks are derived from the (hell or teflaceous
Covering 5 we now propofe to inquire what is the na¬
ture of this fubflance } in what way it is produced by
the animal, and how it is enlarged as the animal in-
creafes in lize. Thefe topics {hall be the fubjedl of
the prefent chapter, which may be conveniently divid¬
ed into the following feftions. 1. Of the conftituent
parts of (hells. 2. Of their formation. 3. Of the
colours of {hells. 4. Of the formation of the umbilicus
&nd protuberances, &c. 5. Of the pearl.
Sect. I. Of the con flituent Parts of Shells.
The nature and component parts of teftaceous fub-
ftances have been particularly inveftigated by Mr Hat-
fhil ‘franf. chett, from whofe paper wre extraft the following ob-
I799- fervations.
67 In his examination of marine {hells, Mr Hatchett
Divifions °f founc^ from the nature of the fubflance of which they
their coral are compofed, that they might be arranged in two di-
ponent vifions. Under the firft are included thofe which have
parts. a porcellaneous appearance and enamelled furface, and
exhibit, when broken, fomething of a fibrous texture.
The other divifion is diftinguilhed, by having a ftrong
epidermis or covering, under wdiich is the fliell^ ccm-
pofed principally or entirely of mother-of-pearl. To
Vol. VI. Part II.
the firft diviuon belong different fpecies of voluta, cy-
prtea, and others. The (econd comprehends the oyf-
ter, the river muffel, and fome fpecies of haliotis and
turbo. ^
Porcellaneous Jhells.—'YXw (hells of this defeription Porcellant*
which were examined, were different fpecies of volu- ous.
ta and cypreea. When they were expofed to a red
heat for a quarter of an hour, they crackled, and loft
the colours of their enamelled furface. No apparent
fmoke, and no fmell, like that of burnt horn or carti¬
lage, were emitted during the procefs. The figure
remained the fame, excepting a few flaws 5 and they
became of an opaque white, partially tinged with pale
gray. When they were diffoived in acids, after being
burnt, they depoiited a fmall quantity of animal coal,
which proves that they contain fome portion of glu¬
ten. Shells which had not been expofed to the fire,
diffoived wfith great effervel’cence in the different acids;
and the folution remained tranfparent and colourlefs;
from which it appears, that the proportion of gluten
is fmall, fince it could not be traced in the folution of
the unburnt fhells.
In examining the different folutions of {hells, whe¬
ther burnt or unburnt, by chemical tefts, it was found,
that no trace of phofphate of lime, or of any other
combination of phofphoric acid, exifted in thefe fub-
ftances. And it appeared from many experiments, that
the component parts of porcellaneous fhells, are car¬
bonate of lime, cemented rvith a very fmall portion of
animal gluten.
Some
466 e O N C H O L O G Y, Chap. V.
Of the Con- Some fpecies of patella, which were brought from on pieces of mother-of-pearl as they are imported fromOt the Con-
ftituent Madeira, were alfo fubjefted to chemical examination, China, and with precifely the fame reiults. They ap- p^^£
Shells8 &c t^e ^arae P^^0^0P^er* When expofed to a red heat in peared to be compofed of the fame gelatinous matter and shells^Stc.
e a crucible, they emitted a perceptible fmell of horn or carbonate of lime. In all the (hells of this defcription  t- -
feathers j and by farther examination, by folution, the which were immerfed in acids, the membranaceous
proportion of carbonic matter depofited appeared to parts retained the exa£l figure of the (hell, and they
be greater, and the proportion of carbonate of lime appeared diftinftly to be compofed of fibres, arranged
lefs than what was indicated by the refult of the ex- in a parallel diredlion, correfponding to the configura-
periments on porcellaneous (hells. When unburnt
(hells belonging to the fame fpecies, were immerfed in
nitric acid very much diluted, the epidermis feparated,
and the whole of the carbonate of lime was diffolved.
A gelatinous fubftance, nearly in a liquid (late, remained,
but it did not retain the figure of the (hell, and exhi¬
bited no appearance of a fibrous (Irufture. Thefe (hells,
therefore, contain a larger portion of gelatinous matter
than the porcellaneous (hells, but the other component
part confirts entirely of carbonate of lime.
TMothtr of- Shells compofed of mother-of-pearl.—of this
*ear1, defcription, were fubje&ed to fimilar experiments with
the former. When the common oyller was expofed to
a red heat, the effe&s were the fame as thofe which
were produced by the fame procefs on the fpecies
of patella from Madeira. The folution of the un¬
burnt (hell was alfo fimilar, excepting only that the
gelatinous part was of a greater confiftency. When
the river muffel was burnt in a crucible, it emitted
much fmoke, with a ftrong fmell of burnt horn or
cartilage •, the (hell became of a dark gray colour, and
exfoliated. By folution in the acids, the proportion
of carbonic matter feparated was greater, and that of
carbonate of lime obtained was lefs, than from the
other (hells on which experiments were made.
When an unburnt (hell of this defcription was im-
merfed in diluted nitric acid, a rapid folution and ef-
fervefcence took place •, and at the end of two days, the
whole of the carbonate of lime was nearly diffolved.
A feries of membranes now only remained, of which
the epidermis conflituted the firft. Thefe membranes
dill retained the figure of the (hell. The carbonate
of lime was at firft readily diffolved, becaufe the acid
came eafily in contaft with it; but the procefs became
(lower, as it was more difficult for the acid to infinuate
itfelf between the different membranes of which the
(hell is compofed. The haliotis iris, and the turbo
olearius, were found to referable this muffel, except
that the membranaceous parts were more compad
and denfe.
When thefe (hells are deprived by an acid of the
carbonate of lime, which gives them their hardnefs,
they appear to be formed of different membranes, ap¬
plied ttratum fuper ftratum. Each membrane is fur-
niffied with a correfponding coat or cruft of carbonate
of lime, and it is fo fituated, that it is always between
every two membranes, beginning with the epidermis,
and ending with the internal membrane, which has
been laft formed. The animals wffiich inhabit thefe
ftratified (hells, increafe their habitation by the addi¬
tion of a ftratum of carbonate of lime, which is fe-
cured by a new membrane. And as every additional
ftratum exceeds in extent that which was previoufly
formed, the (hell becomes ftronger in proportion as it
is enlarged and thus the growth and age of the ani¬
mal may be denoted by the number of ftrata of which
.the (hell is compofed. Similar experiments were made
tion of the (hell.
Pearl.—The conftituent parts of pearl appear to be pearl.
fimilar to thofe of mother-of-pearl. They are compo¬
fed of concentric coats of membrane and carbonate of
lime, and referable in ftru&ure the globular, calcar¬
eous concretions which are known by the name of pi-
folithes. The iridefcence and undulated appearance of
pearl and mother-of-pearl, evidently depend on their
lamellated ftrmfture and femitranfparency.
From thefe experiments it appears, that (hells areComponenfi
compofed of carbonate of lime and gluten. In fome,Parts-
as in the porcellaneous (hells, the proportion of car¬
bonate of lime is great, while that of the animal mat¬
ter is fmall j and thefe may be regarded as the begin¬
ning of the feries 5 while (hells that come under the
defcription of mother-of-pearl are to be placed at the
other extremity, having a fmaller proportion of car¬
bonate of lime, and a greater proportion of membra¬
naceous fubftance. In the firft the carbonate of lime
is merely cemented by the animal matter} in the lat¬
ter the carbonate of lime ferves to harden the membra¬
naceous fubftance. But between thefe two extremes,
in the proportion of carbonate of lime and animal glu¬
ten, of which all teftaceous fubftances are compofed,
there are no doubt numerous intermediate gradations,
arifing from the nature of the animal to which they
form a covering, its peculiar habits, or mode of life.
Sect. II. Of the Formation of Shells*
The (hell or covering of teftaceous animals, ha&
been confidered as in fome meafure analogous to the
bones of other animals, although its formation and
growth are very different, fince it ferves as a bafe or
fupport to the mufcles, which are attached to its inter¬
nal furface. The principal ufe of the (hell, however,
is to ferve as a covering or defence to the animal.
Teftaceous animals are not only extremely different Teftaceouj
in external form, but alfo in the mode of their produc- animals
tion. Some are viviparous, as the mod of thofe which
inhabit bivalve (hells, multivalves, and even fome °f ^usV1Vip®1'
the univalves ; while the others, which form the far
greater proportion, are oviparous. In one point, how¬
ever, they all agree, that whatever be the mode of
produftion, whether from an egg, or diredfly from the
uterus of the mother, the (hell is formed on the body
of the young animal, and is proportioned to its bulk. ^
The beft obfervations which have yet been made, and Reaumurt,
the moft elaborate inveifigation which has hitherto ap- mveftiga-
peared, concerning the formation and developemtnt offt°n*
(hells, are thofe of the celebrated Reaumur, which w ere
publiftied in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences for
the year 1709. The fame lubjeft has been proiecuted
by other authors, but their reiults have been nearly
the fame as thofe of this diftinguiftied naturalift. Klein
is almoft the only author who has advanced a different
opinion. In his differtation concerning the formation
of
Chap. V.
CONCH
Of the Con-of {hells, he charges Reaumur with fupporting the opi-
Itituent nion> that tertaceous animals, when they proceed from
SheTls See eS§s> are not furn’^ie^ with {hell> but that it is
v,. C J ' ‘ formed after being hatched. This opinion indeed has
been aferibed to Reaumur by the hiftorian of the acade¬
my, who, in the analyfis of his excellent memoir on the
formation of (hells, has obferved, “ that hitherto the
Hh opinion curious have been ftruck with the prodigious variety,
miftaken. the exaft regularity of ftrufture, the Angular beauty
and fplendour of colour of (hells j but naturalifts have
been lefs attentive in ftudying atid invedigating the
mode of their formation. They feem to have thought
that although (hells, as well as the covering of crufta-
ceous animals, are bones placed externally to the ani¬
mals which they cover, it was neceflary to confider
them as part of their bodies, and to include this inex¬
plicable circumftance under that of the general forma¬
tion of animals, which is incomprehenfible to the hu¬
man mind. They have therefore fuppofed that the
animal and its (hell proceeded from the fame egg, and
were developed together •, and they have reded fatis-
jSed in admiring the economy of nature in providing
fo elaborate a covering for fo low an order of animals.
But this fuppofiticn, although probable, is not found¬
ed in truth. The animal only, not the {hell, is pro¬
duced from the egg. The difeovery of this fadl is
•wing to Reaumur.”
It mud feem very extraordinary, that fuch an error
fltould have crept into the abftraft of the memoir of
this celebrated philofopher, who in the courfe of it
has clearly exp reded a contrary opinion. “ I have fre¬
quently,” fays Reaumur, “ compared the (hells of
fnails which were juft hatched, and even with thofe
which I had taken from the eggs before they were
hatched, with other (hells of full grown fnails of the
fame fpecies, with which I had left only the fame
number of whirls of the fpire with the fmall (hells, and
then they appeared in all refpedls the fame.” He far¬
ther obferves, “ that what has been faid with regard
to the increafe of (hells, renders it unneceffary to en¬
ter into the detail of their original formation *, for it
is eafy to conceive, that when the body of a fmall
embryo which is one day to fill a large (hell, has ar¬
rived at a certain date, in which the different tegu¬
ments in which it is included have fufticient confidence
IS to fecrete from their pores the peculiar fluid which is
eus animals deftined to the formation of the (hell, this fluid may be de-
fur nfhed pofited on the furface, may thicken, and at laft become
firm and folid. And thus commences the formation
of the (hell, in the fame way as its rrcreafe is conti¬
nued. Snails do not proceed from the egg without
being previoufly furnifhed with this (hell, which then
has one turn and a little more of the fpire.
When the eggs of teftaceous animals are hatched,
the young appears with its {hell already formed, and
according to the obfervation of Reaumur, it has then
one complete turn of the fpire and a little more $ but
at that period the (hell is extremely thin. It feems
probable that the formation of the (hell is pofterior to
that of the principal organs of the animal, as the
bones in the foetus of other animals are formed after
the brain and heart.
Reaumur has fufpefled that the (hell is the laft
formed, and if proofs are wanting to eftablifti this fa£t,
it is certain that at particular periods, if the eggs of
with the
ftiell be¬
fore being
bitched.
>j6
Shell laft
formed.
O L 0 G Y. 467
teftaceous animals are opened, the external parts of the 0f
embryo are found already developed, without any ap- partsof
pearance of the (hell. But whatever may be the period shells,Sec.
of the formation of the (hell, it may be received as an  ^
eftabliftied faft, that the animal is turnilhed with it at
the time it leaves the egg. Leeuwenhoek firit ob¬
ferved this faft with regard to oyfters ; the lame ob¬
fervation wras afterwards made by Lifler, and extended
to others, both land and river {hells. This obfervation
has been confirmed by other naturalifts, and particular¬
ly by Rumphius, Swammerdam, Reaumur, and Adanfon.
From the inveftigations of the latter it appears, that
although there are many of the marine teftaceous ani¬
mals which are viviparous, they relemble thofe which
are oviparous, in being furnilhed with the (hell when
they are feparated from the parent. 57
Since then it appears, that the (hell of teftaceous Two cpinU
animals is completely formed previous to the develope-
ment of the animal, and that it may be confidcred as o° fjicps>
an effential part of its organization, let us now inquire
into the mode by which its growth is effefted. Ac¬
cording to the decifive experiments of Reaumur, the
enlargement of (hells is owing to juxta-pofition, or fuc-
ceflive additions of earthy and animal matter, indepen¬
dent of any organised ftrufture. Klein has fupported
a contrary opinion, and fuppofes that the growth of
(hells is effefted by intus-fufeeption, or a kind of circu¬
lation. The opinion of Reaumur, however, has mod
generally prevailed. Excepting Bonnet, few natural¬
ifts have adopted that of Klein j and it wull appear that
this celebrated naturalift wras led to entertain this opi¬
nion concerning the mode of the formation of (hells,
by the experiments of Heriffant on the generation of
bone and (hell. From thefe experiments it was clearly
demonftrated, that (hells are compofed of two fubftan-
ces, the one a membranaceous or animal fubftance, and
the other an earthy matter; but no fuch conclufion
can be drawn from them in fupport of the opinion, that
the (hell is a continuation of the body of the animal,
or that it is fo clofely conne&ed as the bones in the
bodies of other animals 5 or even that this connexion
is formed by means of fibres of the ligament which
attaches the animal to its fhell : for it has been fliown,
that thefe mufcular or ligamentous fibres, in all de-
feriptions of teftaceous animals, are fucceflively fepara¬
ted, in proportion to the increafe or enlarge ment of the
(hell. This could not poflibly take place, if the evolu¬
tion and formation ef the fhell, according to the opi¬
nion of Henffant, depended on ah internal circulation,
analogous to what happens in the body of the animal.
In this cafe the veffels which proceed from its body,
having no longer a communication with thofe which
are fuppofed to exift in the (hell, it would be deprived
of nourifhment, and confequently could not increale in
fize. And it is found, that this feparation takes place
in all (hells. It is gradually completed as the growth
of the (hell advances. _ 78
A body may increafe in volume in two different bodies of-
ways. Either the particles of which it is compofed ganized or
pafs through that body by means of circulation, and 1ze^>l5anl^’
undergo certain changes by which they are prepared
to form part of the body , or the particles of which a
body is compofed, may unite with it by juxta-pefition,
without any previous circulation or preparation within
the body, to the increafe of which they are deftined.
3 N 2 It
I
Reaumur’s
experi¬
ments.
468 CONCH
Of the Con-It is in the firft way that the growth of vegetables and
PartiTof an'ma^s accompliihed j the fecond is the mode by
^Shells, &c. w^ich fliells receive new additions of matter, and en-
>——-v— ■ ■' large in fize. The firtf is the mode of increafe peculiar
to living, organized fubftances j by the fecond, inor-
ganized fubftances receive new additions of matter,
and increafe in volume. Thefe indeed afford fufficient
chara&eriflic marks for a natural divifion of bodies in¬
to two claffes, namely organized and inorganized fub¬
ftances.
The experiments of Reaumur have decifively proved,
that the growth of {hells is owing to the latter mode
of increafe. Thefe experiments were made, not only
on fea (hells, but alfo on land and river fhells ; on uni¬
valves and bivalves; and in all the refult was invariably
the fame. In conducing thefe experiments, he inclo-
fed the fliells on the progrefs of which he made his
obfervations, in boxes pierced with fmall holes, fo as
to admit the water, but fo fmall as to prevent the egrefs
of the animal. Thefe boxes were funk into the fea,
or the river, and in this way he was enabled to watch
the procefs of the growth of the {hell. He firft obferved,
that when the animal which exaftly filled its (hell, began
to increafe its fize, the fhell in a fhort time, not being
fufficiently large to cover its whole body, part of it was
naked or unprotected. This part of the animal muft
always be towards the opening of the fhell, becaufe
the fhell being previoufly completely filled, it cannot
extend in any other direffion. All animals which inha¬
bit fhells of a fpiral form, fuch as the fnail and volute,
can only extend at the head, or the opening of the
fhell 5 whereas the animals in bivalve fhells, fuch as the
muffel and the oyfter, may enlarge in their whole cir¬
cumference. In all the fpecies of teftaceous animals,
it is this part which appears by the increafe of the ani¬
mal when it enlarges the {hell. This increafe takes
place, according to Reaumur, by the following me-
ehanifm.
It is a neceffary efFe£l of the laws of motion, when
liquids run in canals, that the fmall particles of thefe
fluids, or the fmall foreigtv bodies mixed with them,
which on account of their figure, or their lefs degree
of folidity in proportion to their furface, move flower
than the others, fly off from the centre of motion, and
approach towards the fides of thefe canals. It even
frequently happens, that thefe fmall particles attach
themfelves to the internal furface of thefe canals or
tubes, and form concretions of different degrees of
thicknefs. It is befides certain, that the fluids which
circulate in thefe tubes, prefs againft their fides on every
point of their interior furface ; fo that if they were
pierced with a number of fmall holes of fufficient dia¬
meter to give paflage to the fmall particles of matter
floating in thefe fluids, thefe particles would be depo-
fited on the external furface, where a cruft would be
formed, fimilar to that in the infide ; with this differ¬
ence, that it would become thicker and more folid, be¬
ing lefs expofed to the friftion of the fluid, than that
Sl which is depofited in the interior of the tube,
tionfrom To a fimilar mechanifm Reaumur aferibes the in-
the animal. crea^e fhells. The external iurface of that part of
the body of the animal which has extended beyond
the limits of the old fhell, is fu>-nifhed with a great
number of canals, in which circulate the neceffary fluids,
for the nutrition of the animal. A great many fmall
80
Procefs of
the forma¬
tion of
ihell.
O L O G Y. Chap. V.
particles of a vifeid and earthy matter are mixed with Of the Con-
thefe fluids. Now, as thefe particles are lefs fluid than ft’tuent
thofe of which the liquids themfelves are compofed, ghel'u'&fc
they approach the fides of the vtffels, which are them- - ’ >
felves furnifhed on that fide of the external furface of
the body of the animal, with a great number of pores,
which allow them to efcape from the veffels, fo that
they are depofited on the external furface of thefe
tubes, or rather in that of the body of the animal it-
felf, which is uncovered by the fhell.
Thefe particles of earthy and vifeid matter having
reached the furface of the body of the animal, readily
unite with each other, and with the extremity of the
old fhell, efpecially when the excefs of moiilure is dif-
fipated ; and thus by their union they compofe a fmall
folid body, which is the firft layer of the new addition.
Other particles of fimilar matter continuing to efcape
in the fame way from the excretory veflels of the ani¬
mal, form a fecond layer under the firft j afterwards a
third, and a fourth, or more, till the new part of the
fhell has acquired fufficient confiftence and thicknefs.
It is, however, obferved to continue thinner for a cer¬
tain time than the former opening, till the increafe of
the animal requires another enlargement of its cover-
ins-
When a teftaceous animal is going to enlarge its
fhell, as for xnftance the common fnail, the Body pro-
jefb from the opening. It is then feen to attach itfelf
to a wall ©r fome other folid fubftance, and the portion
of its body which is unprotected by the fliell, is foon
covered with the fluids which are excreted from its,
furface. The pellicle which they produce when the
fluid dries, is at firft thin and elaftic, but gradually af-
fumes more confiftence, and becomes at laft fimilar to
the old part of the fliell. If in this ftage of the pro¬
cefs a bit of the (hell is broken and removed, without
injuring the body of the fnail* the fkin of the animal is
foon covered with a fluid, which gradually thickens,
and becomes folid. Twenty-four hours after the opera- g2
tion, a fine cruft may be obferved, which conftitutesTimenecef-
the firft and external layer, for repairing the breachfary fo form
which was made. At the end of fome days this layer^IC^'
has become thicker, and in 10 or 12 days, the new
piece of fliell which is formed, has acquired the fame
thicknefs as that which was removed. In making this
experiment, certain precautions are neceflary, other-
wife there is forne rifk of its failure. If, after the bro¬
ken piece of the fliell has been removed, and particu¬
larly if the fra&ure is made near the edge of the open¬
ing, the animal is not fupplied with a fufficient quantity
of nouriffiment, its volume or bulk is foon ditniniftied j
and now finding that what remains of the ffiell is a
complete covering to its diminifhed body, no excretion
takes place for the produftion of a new portion. In
removing fnails from a wall to which they had attach¬
ed themfelves, for the purpofe of oblerving the progrefs
of the formation of the fliell, fome days will elapfe af¬
ter they are placed in the box, before the procefs com¬
mences, becaufe the teftaceous matter which had been .
already expended after fixing on the wall, muft be
fully fupplied before any new portion can be again
formed.
This experiment {hows clearly, that {hells are only
enlarged by receiving new additions of matter, after it
has been excreted from the body of the animal, and.
not
Chap. V. CONCH
Of the Con-not by intus-fufception, or a circulation through the
ilituent boc]y 0f tiie (bell itfelf. If this were the cafe, the pro-
P^lsts duftion of new matter to fill up the breach made in
. ' ' ^C' the fhell, would firft appear all round the edge of the
opening, and forming a kind of callus, fimilar to
what happens in the reproduftion of bony matter in
other animals, it would gradually extend till the whole
breach is filled up. But, on the contrary, this matter
firft appears on the body of the animal from which it
has exuded, and the whole extent of the opening is
clofed at once by the fluid which has been direftly fe-
creted from the furface of the body. Nor can it be
fuppofed, that the liquid has infenfibly exuded from
the Ihell, and failing on the body of the animal, is
there colle&ed in fufficient quantity for the formation
of the new piece of {hell. This is fully demonftra-
ted by the two following experiments of the fame na-
83 turalill.
Other expe- Reaumur broke feveral {hells of fnails; and, hay-
riments of Jng made a very large hole about the middle of the
Reaumin. (bell, and about an equal diftance between its fummit
and opening, he introduced between the body of the
animal and its (hell, through the hole, a piece of
{kin which was extremely fine, but of a very clofe tex¬
ture. He glued this fkin to the internal furface of
the (hell, fo that it fhut up accurately the artificial
opening which he had made. It mull then be obvi¬
ous, that if the reprodu&ion of the piece of Ihell w'hich
wras removed, depended on the excretion of a fluid
from the fhell itfelf, and not on that which proceeds
from the furface of the animal’s body, the new piece
of fhell would be formed on the external furface of the
piece of fkin which was introduced ; and it is not pof-
fible that it could be formed between the fkin and the
body of the animal. But the contrary of this has al¬
ways happened. The new teflaceous matter is always
depofited on the internal furface of the fkin ; that is,
on the fide which is in contail with the animal’s body;
and no matter whatever w^as depofited on the other
furface. This experiment has been repeated by others,
and has been invariably attended wdth the fame re-
fult.
The fecond experiment made by Reaumur is not
lefs decifive than the firfi. He took a number of
fnails, and broke the fhells, fo that he diminilhed the
number of the turns of the fpire about 4 p<nt. Hav¬
ing in this way rendered the ihells too fmall to cover
the body entirely, they wwre nearly in the fame fitua-
tion as when an increafe of the animal’s body requires
an augmentation of the fhell. He then took a bit of
fkin, as in the former experiment, fufficiently large
for the opening of the {hell, and introduced one of its
edges between the body of the animal and the fhell,
to the interior furface of which he glued it *, after
which having folded Back the other extremity of the
fkin on the external furface of the fhell, he glued it
in like manner, fo that the whole external opening was
completely covered wdth the fkin. The refults w7ere
exadfly the fame as before. The fhell grew, the fkin
remained in its place, and that part of it which w’as at¬
tached to the interior furface w-as fixed between the
new piece and the old (hell, which confequently could
not contribute to its formation.
From thefe experiments, which maybe eafily repeated,
it appears that the increafe of fhells is owing to the fee e-
O L O G Y.
469
tion of an earthy and vifeid animal matter which is pre- dw Con-
pared in the body of the animal, and which is fucceffively
formed by layers from the interior part of the fhel) to s’ne:is
the external furface. This formation is determined —— *
by the previous enlargement of the animal. rI he dif- S4
ferent ftrata or layers of which {hells are compofed,
can be eafily demonflrated by expofing them to the ^ |)ur^;nf.
aflion of fire, and removing them before their ftruc-
ture is entirely deflroyed. By this procefs the animal
matter is confumed, and the earthy fubflance remains,
exhibiting a laminated ffrufture. The fame flruclure
may be demonllrated, as has been already obferved,
in detailing Mr Hatchett’s experiments, by immerfing
a {hell of the defeription of mother-of-pearl in a dilu¬
ted acid. The earthy matter in this cafe is diffolved
by the acid, and the layers of animal matter which
are interpofed, refifting the adlion of the acid, re¬
main unchanged, and ifill retain the original figure of 0 ,
the fhell. . . Turns of
It is a neceflary confequence of the mode in which the fpire in«
the fhells of fnails are increafed, that they cannot crealcd.
enlarge in volume, but by the augmentation of the
turns of the fpire, and that the length of each turn of
the fhell already formed, remains always the fame.
This may be eafily put to the teft of experiment, by
reducing the fhell of a fnail which has reached its full
fize to the fame number of turns wfith thofe of younger
fhells of the fame fpecies. The two fhells do not then,
exhibit any other difference than in their thicknefs-;.
and it w'ould be the fame, by comparing the youngeft
fhells, thofe which have been juil feparated from the
egg, with the firlt turns of thole of the fame fpecies
W'hich have been reduced by breaking them to an
equal diameter. The number of turns or whirls of
which the fpire of a fhell is compofed, increafes very
confiderably the fize of the {hell in univalves, and one
turn more or lefs makes a great difference in their vo¬
lume. According to Reaumur, the diameter of each
turn of the fpire is in the fnail nearly double that of
the preceding one, and 4 of that which follows; but
in many other fhells, both marine and river, the Isft
whirls of the fpire, compared with the preceding ones,
greatly exceed this proportion. In fome, the external
opening is 12 times greater than the preceding one,
and in others, it is not more than eight times. This
depends entirely on the increafe of the animal’s body,
and the proportion of that increafe. The growth of
fome is lengthwife ; and in them the increafe of diame¬
ter is proportionally lefs, while others increafe more in
thicknefs than in length. Thofe teftaceous animals
which have only a few turns in the fpire of the fhel],
are of this defeription. To the former belong fuch as
have a greater number of turns in the fpire. So
Thofe w ho have adopted the opinion of Klein with annual
regard to the formation of (hells, have denied the js f1‘etachfd
paration of the animal from the fhell, which fuccefiive- ;j‘<'
ly takes place near the tip in univalves. It is indeed many cafes;
on this circumilance of the connexion of the animal
with the fhell, that the truth of this theory depends.
According to it, the animal is attached to the internal
furface of the tip of the fhell in univalves, and on this
connexion depend the increafe of the fhell, and even
the life of the animal. But it is a certain faft, that
the pofterior part of the body of the animal is entirely
detached from the tip of the fhell 5 and this holds,
notx
Paits of
Shells, &c.
470 CONCH
Of the Cor-not only with regard to all land and fea {hells which
ftituent have loll the fuit turns of the {pine, and confequently
thofe of the tip j but alfo in a great number of other
ne teftaceous animals. It feems not only cer¬
tain, but even neceffary, that this feparation between
the animal and the {hell fhould alfo take place in bi¬
valve fhells, if we take a diftindl and rational view of
their growth. Whether this feparation is fuddenly ef¬
fected, or by a gradual procefs, which is moil probable,
it feems to be fufHciently obvious, by examining the
internal furface of the valves. This is {till more
Itrongly confirmed by fawing univalve (hells, particu¬
larly thofe which are confiderably elongated, and have a
great number of turns in the fpire, in a direction per¬
pendicular to their axis. In old {hells, feveral of the
firfi: turns of the fpire will be found completely filled up
with teilaceous matter, fo that the tip of the (hell has
become quite folid, or at leaft it will appear to have
been long unoccupied by any part of the body of the
animal. But in tranfparent {hells, as in fome fpecies
of helix, it is feen that this attachment does not exift ;
and the H. planorbis can be preferved alive, although
the tip of the fpire is broken off.
Sect. III. Of the Colours of Shells.
Inquiry cu-
tious.
The infinite variety of the colours of {hells is one
of the moll ftriking parts of their hiftory 5 and it be¬
comes a curious and interefting objeCt of inveftigation
to inquire, w’hether thefe colours are uniform and con-
ftant in the fpecies, and from what proceed this regu¬
larity and uniformity. The experiments and obferva-
tions of Reaumur will affift us in this inveftigation.
When a hole is made in a fhell, nearly at an equal
diftance between its tip and opening, the newf piece of
fhell which is formed to (hut up the hole is ufually of
a white colour, and often very different from that of
the reft of the {hell. It would appear at firft that the
new7 piece is of a different nature, and that it is not
formed in the fame way as the reft of the {hell. To
meet this difficulty, it will be nectffary to explain
on what depends the regular variety of the colours
of certain fhells: the fame experiments which lead to
the difcovery of the caufe of the one, will ferve to un¬
fold the other.
88 This remarkable variety of colour is in no (hell more
Colon'sva- remarkable than in the helix nemoralis. The ground
ticu'ar'cir^ t^1’s fh-11 is white, citron or yellow, or of a com-
cumllances. pound of different (hades of theie colours. Different
coloured rays are traced on this ground, turning fpirally
with the (hell j in fome they are black, in others
brown, and fometimes reddifh. The breadth of each
of thefe rays gradually increafes as they approach to
the opening of the (hell. It even fometimes happens,
that two of theie bands are fo much extended in
breadth, that they meet together and form one. Some
individuals have five or fix of theie bands, w'hile others
have three or four, and even two, and lometimes only
one. Others again have none at all, although of the
fame fpecies; and among the individuals which are
marked with coloured bands, they are not always of
the lame breadth in the fame parts of the (hell ; Torn
which it appears, that no certain fpecific chareTiers
can be cleiived from the colour, fince it is iubjcdl to
fo much variety. According to Reaumur, the vilcid
O L O G Y. Chap. Ve
and earthy matter of which the {hell is compofed is fecre Ot the Con-
ted from the furface of the animal’s body ; but in certain ftituent
places of the furface, particles which produce a different shelisS&.c
colour are feparated ; and whether this depends on a pe- ^ T
culiar organization of thole places, or on the form of the
particles themfelves, it appears that theie particles, either
of a different nature or of a different figure, by uniting,
form bodies which refledl different rays of light ; that
is to fay, form parts of the (hell of different colours. g9
This feems to be a neceffary confequence of theC0l°uring
mode in which the growth of {hells is accompliffied.raat'®r fc‘
The w7hole external layer of the (hell is formed by
the neck of the animal, becaufe it is that part which
is neareff to the head, and coniequently as the animal
increafes in fize, this part ceafes to be covered with
the old (hell. It, therefore, depends on this part of
the animal to extend the (hell, and for this purpofe it
is fufficient that the neck be furnifhed with glands for
fecreting the different fluids, to form a (hell of differ¬
ent colours. If, for inffance, there are two or three
glandular bodies wffiich fecrete brown or black parti¬
cles, and that thefe glandular bodies are difpofed in a
parallel direftion to each othei, while the glands on
the reft of the furface only fecrete particles of matter
which refledt the light of a citron colour, the {hell
formed by thefe bodies will have a citron ground, with
black or brown bands, nearly parallel, or which gradu¬
ally approach to each other, and become larger in the
fame proportion as the external organs of the animal
increafe in fize.
If no fuch glandular ftrufture, or difference in the proved by
matter fecreted, could be traced on the neck of the experiment
helix nemoralist this explanation of the caufe of the
variety of colours in {hells would appear extremely
probable ; but this probability amounts to certainty,
from the adlual obfervation of the exiftence of this pe¬
culiarity of ftrudlure and effedl. When the helix ne-
mora/is is deprived of part of its (hell, the body ap¬
pears of a white colour, excepting towards the neck,
where the w7hite inclines to yellow7, and w here befides
there is a number of black or brown bands, equal to
that of the bands on the (hell, and arranged in the
fame direction. It has been obferved, too, that the
individuals which have only one black ftripe on the
(hell, have only one fingle black fpot on the neck ;
and thofe having four fpots on the neck, have four
ftripes of the fame colour on the {hell. Thefe rays
are placed immediately under thofe of the (hell; they
commence at the diftance of about a line from the
extremity of the neck, w hich is itfelf ufually fpotted
with black all round. The exiftence, therefore, of
thefe excretory organs can no longer be doubted.
The difference of colour feems to prove the difference
of ftrudlure. But to eftabliftr this beyond the poflibi-
lity of doubt, it is only neceflary to have recourle to
experiment, by obferving wbat happens in the new
piece of (hell which is renewed, in place of that portion
which has been removed ; and if it appear that that
part of the fhell which is formed oppofite to the black
rays of the animal, is black, and if that which is
formed between the ftripes be of a different colour
from that of the ftripes themfelves on the reft of the
body, no faither proof can be required. Now, it has
been obferved, that that part of the new {hell formed
on the neck oppofite to the black or brown ftripes on
Chap. V. CONCH
Of the Con- the animal’s body, is itfelf black or brown, that form-
ftituent e(j between the ftripes is white or citron, while the reft
Shells5 &.c t^le body is w7hite, bat different from that of the
. - neck, when it is of this colour.
9i It fometimes happens, that the part of the fhell
Seeming which has been renewed is of a different colour. This
exception, apparent deviation will appear lefs difficult to be re¬
conciled to the explanation of the procefs which has
now been given, if we attend to the circumftance that
the new (hell formed oppofite to the neck of the ani¬
mal is never different from that of the old ffiell, ex¬
cepting that the external furface is extremely rough,
and prefents numerous furrows or grooves, in place of
the fmoothnefs and fine poliffi of the old Ihell. In this
cafe, the inequality of furface is occafioned by the mo¬
tion of the animal retiring within its ffiell, before the
new piece has acquired fufficient confiffency and folidi-
ty ) and thus the new ffiell, having contracted on its
furface wrinkles or furrows, the light is very different¬
ly refteCled. But there is another caufe for this dif¬
ference of colour in thefe circumftances. When a
large piece of ffiell is removed, the firft layer which is
formed is ufually white. The particles of the fluid
which are neceffary for the formation of the Ihell of
this colour, feem to be more eafily excreted from the
furface of the body than the particles of fluid which
go to the formation of any other colour. It is ob-
ferved that the body of the animal is covered with this
fluid, long before there is any appearance of fecretion
about the neck. This liquid is extended to the neck,
and there produces a new layer of white ffiell 5 but
as this layer is extremely thin and tranfparent, it does
not prevent the ufual fecretion of the colouring matter
at the neck to appear. In this period of the procefs,
if the animal retire within its ffiell, the new layer, ftill
adhering in many points to its body, and not having
acquired fufficient folidity, will be diftorted and wrink¬
led ; and not only exhibit that inequality of furface
which generally appears in ffiells thus formed, but the
arrangement of the flripes or colours will alio be de~
ftroyed.
Caufes of ^ wouW be a very falfe conclufion from this account
this. of the mode of the formation of the ftripes which ap¬
pear on certain fpecies of {hells, that the external fur¬
face of all ffiells ffiould be marked with colours, or
fhould be uniformly of the fame colour ; and that
there ffiould be no (bells whofe external fuiface is
marked with different fpots, differently arranged, of
an irregular figure, and feparated from each other by
unequal intervals. For if it has been (bown, that
thefe colours are produced on the furtace-of the ffiell,
only by means of the fecretory organs, fituated on the
neck of the animal, it cannot be fuppofed that the
fame effects will follow, unlefs the animal is placed in
the fame circumftances. Thefe fecretory organs, there¬
fore, muft exift during the entire formation of the
0„ ffiell, to furniffi the fame quantity of colouring matter
Changes in during the whole of its progrefs. But if it happen on
the organs, the contrary, that thefe organs undergo any change ;
if the pores through which the liquid is poured out to
form a ffiell or part of a ffiell of a brown colour, be¬
come too large or too fmall, or in other relpeffs change
their form, after having poured out a certain quantity
of this fluid •, and that thofe which furniffi the fluid of
which the white part of the fhell is compofed, are alfo
O L O G Y. 471
changed, it muft happen that the fhell which is pro-Of the Con¬
duced is marked with different black and white fpots,
combined wdth a degree of irregularity correfponding shells,See.
to the change on the fecretory organs. This wull ap- v... , »
pear to be the cafe, by attending to the changes which
take place in the fecretory organs of fnails which pro¬
duce coloured ftiells •, for in them it may be obferved,
that the colours are diftinft and well marked in fome,
towards the opening, while they are fcarcely percepti¬
ble on the fiift turn of the fpire towards the tip of the
ffiell } and thefe changes of colour cannot be fuppofed
to exift without a correfponding change on the lecre-
tory organs. 94
The fluidity of the liquid fecreted for the formation D|ffei;ence
ef the fhell, has probably alfo fetae effeft in the regu-
lar diftribution of the colours which appear on fome ter fecret-
fpecies. It is eafy to imagine that fome animals may ed.
fecrete a fluid for the formation of the ffiell, of fuch a
degree of fluidity as to flow eafily from one place to
another, and thus produce irregular marks on the fhell.
But befides, if there are fecretory organs fituated on
the neck of the animal, which prepare fluids of dif- ^
ferent colours ; if the animal moves, or is difturbed by Motion of
any means, when thefe fluids are excreted on the fur- the animah
face, the colours will appear in a different place from‘!urinSt'ie
their original diftribution, or be mixed and blended t°-0f^e: mat-
gether, and thus occafion that irregularity which is ob- ter.
ferved in thofe parts of ihells which have been laft pro¬
duced, or renewed.
But it will be neceffary to have recourfe to the firft Secretory
of thefe caufes, namely to the change of ftrufture in crgans
the fecretory organs of the neck, to explain the regu-^'r“e^
lar diftribution of the round fpots, or of thofe of a1 e anima
fquare or reftangular figure, with which certain fhells
are marked, and to fuppofe that thofe veflels which are
arranged in a fquaie or redtangular manner, which
furniffi peculiar fluids, are ffiut or open at different
periods. It may happen that the developement of a
great part of the animal, occafioned by a more vigor¬
ous growth in certain fpecies than in others, may, in
fome cafes, be the only caufe of thofe regular fpots,
fometimes white on a coloured ground, and fometimes
coloured on a wffiite ground, which the ffiell exhibits,,
if the glands which fecrete the colouring matter cor-
relpond in their diftribution, to that of the divifions on
the ffiell} and if they occupy a greater fpace on the
neck than is ufual in other fpecies. In this w^ay may
be accounted for the regularity of thefe marks, and
the increafe of their fize, which is ufually proportion¬
ed to that of the turns of the fpire, from the confidera-
tion of the fecretory organs of the animal enlarging
in the fame proportion as the other parts of its body $
and their effects in the formation of the ffiell corre¬
fponding to the developement of thefe parts. Hence
it follows, that the largeft marks are obferved on the
external convolutions of the fhell. ^
According to Reaumur, the laft layer of the fhell Laft: formad
which is formed from a fluid fecreted from that part of layer ufu-
the furface of the animal’s body which does not reach
the neck, ffiould be white, and this is moft generally
the cafe. In thofe ffiells which are internally colour¬
ed, the fluids fecreted from the body of the animal
are of the fame colour, and they take the place of
thofe which are ufually white, or of a pearly nature, as
is obferved in many others. The nature of thefe in-
* ternai
472 CONCH
Of the Con-ternal layers Is always obvious; for if they are not
ram of w^‘te’ the7 ex^ibit everywhere a uniform colour, and
Shells,&e. never variegated, like what appears externally. By
- v- . ■ removing with a file any part of the external furface
of the {hell, the layers which appear immediately
under the furface, are thofe which have been furnifhed
by the body of the animal, while thofe on the furface
itfelf, ufually more variegated than the relf, owe their
formation to the vefiels about the neck, and have been
r8 formed in the wray already defcribed.
For nation The growth of fhells, being proportioned to that of
afltria;. the inhabitant, proceeds almoft imperceptibly. In
mod fhells, however, it is eafy to diftinguiih the dif¬
ferent additions which they have received ; for they
are marked on their convex furface with different emi¬
nences which are parallel to each other, fimilar to lines
of different degrees of depth, which give the fltell a
fibrous ftrufture. Thefe elevations are called ftricey
may be traced through the w’hole of the fhell in bi¬
valves, and in the longitudinal dire&ion of thofe which
have a fpiral form. From the flighted obfervation of
the manner in which fhells are formed, it is eafy to fee
that they can receive no addition, without leaving in
a greater or lefs degree, fome trace of thefe inequali¬
ties ; for every fmall addition of tedaceous matter
wdiich is made, mud be attached to the old part of the
fhell, which confequently mud be more elevated than
the former, whatever be its thicknefs, when the en-
^ . largement of the animal requires the formation of the
latter. Thus, the fhell will be marked wuth a great
number of thefe driae, parallel to each other, which
may be didinftly feen on many difl'erent fpecies.
Growth in- Every fhell has ufually fome of thefe eminences at
terrupted. greater didances, and more elevated than the others.
By thefe the different periods w'hen the fhell ceafed to
increafe, or rather thofe when its growth was inter¬
rupted, are marked ; and they have fome degree of
analogy with the different fhoots from the branch of a
tree. The heat of fummer or the cold of winter inter¬
rupting the growth of the animal, at lead among fuch
as are teflaceous, which live on the land, or inhabit
rivers in temperate regions, the fhell is not enlarged in
extent during thefe feafons. It is otherwife, however,
with regard to its thicknefs, for there is continually
exuded from the body of the animal, fmall quantities
of fluid, which increafe its thicknefs. Hence it is,
when the fhell begins to increafe in extent, the edge
to which the new portion is cemented, is much thicker
than wrhen the growth was gradual and imperceptible,
and confequently the place at which the growth com¬
mences after a long interruption is didinguifhed by a
more elevated ridge, than in the continued progreflive
additions which it receives. The numerous indances
of this interruption in the growth of {hells, wdll occur
to the attentive conchologifl in the progrefs of his
refearches. We have at prefent in our pofTeflion, a
Juample fine illudration of the fame thing, in a fpecimen of
of this. murex ramofus. The animal, it would appear fiom
th>. original part of the fhell, bad been for fome time in
a fickly or unhealthy date ; for it has undergone many
of the changes to which, dead fhells are fubjedl. It
has lod its enamel ; it feems to have undergone fome
degree of decompofition, and fome fpecies offerpula,
and other parafitical animals had made it their abode ;
bat from this lickly date it feems to have recovered,
2
O L O G Y. Chap. V.
and acquired great vigour ; for the next addition Of the Con-
which is made to the drell, is equal to its original bulk, fbtuent
It is clean, entire, and in perfect prefervation, forming shells^c
a Angular contrad with the old diell. ^ *.
The place at which fhells begin to increafe, after 10i
the growth has been for fome time interrupted, may Diftinguifli-
be didinguidred by a difference of colour in the dripes ec^ hy tne
with which the fhell is ufually marked. In thefe ^colour^
places, black or brown dripes exhibit more vivid
colours, and fometimes even little different from thofe
on the red of the fuperior furface of the diell. The
caufe of this change is not difficult to trace, if we re-
colietl: that the fecretory organs wffiich prepare the co¬
louring matter, at lead in the helix nemoralis, have
their origin at fome didance from the extremity of the
neck, from which we have feen that the fird layer of
diell which is traced to the extremity itfelf, diould be
of a different colour from that of the dripes; but as
the increafe of the animal occadons the dripes to be
formed under this fird fhell, during which it is dill
very thin, and confequently tranfpaient, it does not
prevent the fhell produced under it, of a black colour,
to appear fo. But when the animal has ceafed to
grow for fome time, it then increafes the thicknefs of
the diell lad formed, fo that the diell which is next
produced from the colouring matter, when the animal
begins to grow’, being laid on one part of the old fhell
much thicker and lefs tranfparent, the colour of thefe
dripes mud appear lefs bright, and therefore different
in thofe places, from the other parts of the diell. IOa
In taking a review of what has been faid concerning Colours
the produftion of the colours of fhells, it mud appear owing to
that thefe rays or coloured lines are owing to glands d16 glands
which fecrete the colouring fluid, and wffiich are ar- t^ie
ranged on the anterior edge of the neck, W'hile the
poflerior part furnifhes only a fluid of a different co¬
lour, and ufually lefs deep than the firfl. By means of
this principle it is not difficult to account for the ar¬
rangement of the different colours which are fo fplen-
didly exhibited among this clafs of natural objedls.
Thefe colours may be reduced to one or more, which
are more vivid on a lighter ground ; to coloured, cir¬
cular bands on a ground of a lefs vivid colour, or pure
white ; to longitudinal lines, round or fquare fpots,
and in a regular, or irregular, zig-zag form. All
thefe may be eafily explained, according to the princi¬
ples which have been laid down, the application of
which, from what has been faid, will not, we hope, be
found difficult.
But from this mode, which is the moft general in Colours of
the production of the colours of fhells, there are cer- por--lam
tain deviations. In that divifion of fhclls which is A'ells.
made by fome naturalifts, and which is diftinguiflied
by the name of porcelain fhellt, on account of the fine
enamel with which they are covered, there are two
fets of colours, which are difpofed in a parallel direc¬
tion to each other. The external, range of thefe co¬
lours is owing to a peculiarity of ftruCture in the animals
which inhabit them, different from that of other tefta-
ceous animals, and to an operation which does not
take place in other fhells. In thefe fbeUs, the colour¬
ing matter feems to be depofited in two different w’ays,
and at two different periods. In the firft procefs,
when the body of the fhell is formed, the colouring
matter is excreted from the glands, in the lame way
as
Chap. V. CONCH
Of the Con-as in other teftaceous animals; and it is arranged ac~
ftituent corc{Jng t0 the difpofition of the glands on the body of
Parts or , At tV.:.. • j tu r.. tU_ n. n •
O L O G Y.
473
"Shells, See.
194
An exter¬
nal layer
formed.
*°5
Proved.
the animals. At this period of the procefs, the (hell is
only of a moderate thicknefs, and much lefs than what
it afterwards acquires, when completely formed. On
the external furface of the fliell firft formed, another
layer is depofited, which is more compact than the
firll, in fome places thicker, and ufually variegated
with different colours. The external furface of the Ihell
being thus completely covered writh this fecond layer,
the original colours are concealed ; and if the fame
fliell w'ere examined at different periods of its forma¬
tion, it would appear like two diftinft fpecies. The
organs which are employed by the animal in the pro-
duftion of this fecond layer of fliell, and fet of colours,
are two foft, membranaceous wings, which being pro¬
truded from the opening of the fliell, completely cover
the whole of its external, convex furface. Thefe twm
wings, which are quite diftinct from the glandular
ftrufture about the neck of the animal, which is fitu-
ated a little lower, are alfo provided with glands,
which furnifli colouring matter, ufually different from
that which is furniflied by the glands of the neck ; and
it is the upper furface of the wings, which is alone
provided with this glandular ftrudture. This furface,
when this part of the animal is protruded from the
ihell, and extended over it, comes in contact with the
external furface of the latter. Hence it is, that thefe
membranaceous organs depofit on the firft formed and
coloured layers of the fliell, new layers of teftaceous
matter, which is differently coloured, and diverfified
with entire fpots, either circular, or in a waved direc¬
tion, which are fometimes of a more vivid tint than
that of the ground, or white upon a dark ground, or
brown upon a yellow ground; or are compofed of
flraight lines, or curved, cr interlaced with each other,
reddifli, brown, yellow or white, on different coloured
grounds, or in dots or points, whofe fhades and ar¬
rangement are not lefs diverfified.
1 his mode of the formation of the external layer of
porcelain fhells, has been proved by the aftual obferva-
tion of fome naturalifls. In fome fpecies, a longitudi¬
nal line of a paler colour is obferved on the convex fur¬
face of the fliell. This is aferibed to the jumElion of
the two wings of the animal, where a fmaller quantity
of colouring matter has been depofited, or where the
fhell has been lefs completely covered with the protrud¬
ed part of the animal. But the exillence of this fecond
layer is ftill more diftin&ly proved by mechanical
means. The external layer may be removed by means
of a file, and the fliell reflored to its original ftate j and
then the colours which it firft received are brought in¬
to view. This circumftance is ftill farther demonftra-
ted by an attentive examination of different fpecies of
ihells, and particularly the cyprxa argns. In examin¬
ing this fliell, there are obierved under the external
layer, which is of a yellow colour, fome flight traces of
four tranfverfe bands of a brown colour, which furround
the fliell, and which muft have been formed previous to
the more fuperficial yellow layer. By a more minute
examination, it will appear that the circular fpots with
which the external yellow layer is marked, have been
pofteriorly formed to this layer ; and finally, on the four
aims of the fpire forming a flight projection at the bafe
of the fhell, there are fome brown, circular fpots, which
Vox,. VI. Part IL
are quite fuperficial, and which fometimes include two Of the Con-
turns of the fpire, which could not happen if the yel- pltl^en^
low colour had not been prior in its formation to thefe ^‘r
circular fpots. If the colouring matter of which thefe ■ j--
fpots are compofed, had been depofited at the time that
the different parts of the fpire were formed, one fpot
could not have included two turns of the fpire at the
fame time. I0(f
This effeCI of communicating a new fet of colours Shell be-
to the external furface of the fliell, is not the only onecoiries
which is produced by the membranaceous ftruflure of^1^^
the animal which inhabits the porcelain and other fhells. falue CaUfe.
The form of the Ihell is alfo changed in a remarkable
manner, a great quantity of teftaceous matter being de¬
pofited on the furface of the opening, which then af-
fumes a confiderable thicknefs. The turns of the fpire
are incrufted, and fometimes difappear on the outfide
of the fhell; and wrinkles, furrows, and even tuber¬
cles, which exift on the furface of fome fpecies, are alfo
formed. The furface of cypraa pediculus exhibits circu¬
lar ftnas which did not originally exift, and which owe
their formation to this caufe. In other fpecies, the
fuiface is marked with projefting points or tubercles,
which are produced in the fame manner as the circular
ftriae of the former, and which alfo depend on the ftruc-
ture of the membranaceous wings of the animal, and
the teftaceous fubftance which is fecreted and depofited
from their furface. Thus, it appears that porcelain
fhells, and thofe of fome other fpecies, arc formed at
two diftinft periods. It is during the fecond period
of the procefs that the colour of the complete ftiell is
formed. In farther illuftration of this point, of the for¬
mation of fhells of this defeription at two different pe¬
riods, one or two examples may be given of the differ¬
ence which takes place, when the lafl: layer formed is To^
removed. In the cypnca exanthema, the fhell is ferru-External
ginous, with whitifh round fpots and eyes, but when iayer re¬
tire outer coat is worn off, it becomes barred or teffe-
lated with brown or blue. The cypreea arahica, as its colons ap-
name imports, exhibits charaders on its furface, having pear,
fome refemblance to Arabic letters. The ground on
which thefe charaders, which are of a brown colour, are
placed, is whitifli or bluiflr; but when the outer coat
is w'orn down, the fliell is fometimes bluiflr with brown
bands, or pale with darker angular fpots and lines j
brown, mixed with violet, or reddiflr blue. 108
But befides the caufes w-hich have been mentioned of
concerning the produdion and variety of the colours of on
fhells, arifing from the difference of ftrudure in the or- eUS*
gans which fecrete the colouring matter, and the chan¬
ges to which thefe organs are fubjeded in the growth
of the animal, the effeds of light and heat, altogether
independent of the animal itfelf, are probably very con¬
fiderable. Two individuals of the fame fpecies, the .
one from the Mediterranean or European feas, and the
other from the tropical regions, exhibit very different
fhades of colour. The colours of the inhabitant of the
torrid zone are always more bright and vivid thgji
thofe of the native of more temperate climates. The
two fhells, although fimilar in form, fize, and other
charaders, are uniformly different in the intenfity of
their colours. Thefe differences, which have led con-
chologifts to increafe the number of fpecies, obvioufly
depend on the adion of the climate, and particularly
of light, on nourifhmcnt, and other circumftances which
3 O have
474
Of the Con-
ftituent
Parts of
Shells, &c
109
Xower
valve co-
lourlefs,
no
and fhells
Included in
other be-
dies.
Ill
Pour claf-
fes of fpi-
la.l fheils.
CONCH
have hitherto eluded the obfervation of naturalifts, are
uniform and conftant, ns long as the caufes which o-
perate in their produclion, continue to a£h At firft
light it might be ftippofed that the didFerence of tem¬
perature is the caufe of the difference in the intenfity
of colour, in (hells produced in different climates. It
might be fuppofed too, that the different depths at which
(hells are found in the ocean, the medium in which they
live being thus very different, would occalion great di-
verfity in the colour. Near the furface, where the
heat is greateft, if the operation of this caufe were con-
liderable, the colours of (hells (hould be expefted to be
mod vivid, and as the depth increafed, at lead to a cer¬
tain extent, the intenfity of colour fhould be diminifii-
ed. But it has been obferved in bivalve (hells which
are found at great depths, fuch as fome fpecies of oyf-
ter and fpondylus, that the lower valve which is at¬
tached to the rock, is almod always white or colourlefs,
while the upper valve often exhibits bright and vivid
colours ; but this difference cannot be aferibed to the
difference of temperature, for in both valves it mud be
the fame •, the matter fecreted for their formation is
prepared by the fame organs, and is depofited in a fi-
railar manner •, and indeed they are altogether placed
in the fame circumdances, and have been expofed in
their produflion and growth to the operation of the
fame caufes, excepting that the upper valve is expofed
to the rays of light, and is therefore coloured, while the
lower valve is removed from the adlion of this caufe,
and is colourlefs.
The fame difference is obferved in the valves of o-
ther (hells, which are produced in fimilar circumdances.
The different fpecies of pholas which make their abode
in calcareous or coral rocks, and the teredo navahs or
(hip-worm, which pierces wood, and makes it its habi¬
tation, are ufually colourlefs. Thofe tedaceous ani¬
mals too, which live at great depths in the ocean, and
are thus far removed from the influence of light, are al-
fo didinguidred by very faint colours, or are entirely
white.
Sect. IV. Of the Formation of the Umbilicus, Pro--
tuberances, &c.
We have hitherto confidered only the general for¬
mation of flrells. In the prefent feefion we diall treat
of fome other circumdances which produce variations
in their external figure. Such, for indance, is the for¬
mation of the umbilicus, of fpines, tubercles, ribs, and
other protuberances.
Umbilicus. Univalve fliells, which are furniflied with
a regular fpire, may be divided with regard to their
form, into four claffes j namely, fliells having a dife, cy¬
lindrical fliells, turbinated, and ovoid or egg-fliaped
(hells. Thefe four forms are the mod common which
fpiral univalve (hells affume, and they depend on the
manner in which the turns of the fpire are applied to
the common axis, and the difference of their arrange¬
ment. They derive their primitive figure from the
fin all (hell while it is yet included in the egg, and pro¬
bably from that of the external organs of the animal
which h contained in it. But although all univalve
fliells may be referred to one or other of thefe four prin¬
cipal forms, they exhibit a great variety of flighter
(hades of difference. Let us noyr fee in what tvay
O L O G Y. Chap. Y.
it maybe conceived that the bodies of the animals Ot the Con-
wbich inhabit univalve fliells, give them a fpiral form.
If we can fuppofe that from the firfl production °f s}lcjiSj
thefe animals, when they begin to be developed, the
fibres of one part of the body, fuch as thofe of the ex- nz
ternal furface, are longer than thofe of the oppofite
furface, it is obvious that the body of the animal con-
tinuing to increafe, according to this original tendency, 0f the ani-
will affume a curved form, the concave part of which mal.
will be on that fide where the fibres are (horted ; and
if the long fibres on the external furface, and the fliort
fibres on the internal furface, continue to increafe in the
fame proportion, this mud give the body a (piral form j
but in this cafe, the different convolutions of which the
animal is compofed, will be in the fame plane, and can
only apply to a fmall number of fliells included in the
fird divifion, namely thole which are charafterized witb
having a dife.
The convolutions of the fpire which are deferibed by
the (bell of univalve teflaceous animals, and the body
which ferves as a mould for thefe, are difpofed in dif¬
ferent planes. Some other caufe, therefore, mud ope¬
rate in producing this deviation. Betw:een the two iur-
faces of the body of the animal, which is fuppofed to
be furniflied with fibres of different lengths, it is eafy
to conceive two other lurfaces directly oppofite to each
other, an upper and an under furface, each ox which is
included between the two preceding furfaces, but of
fmaller extent; and it is eafy to conceive farther,
that thefe two latter furfaces are fo formed, that the
fibres of the one are longer than the correfponding and
oppofite fibres of the other. According to this flruc-
the body of the animal will tend to that fur.ace
on which the fibres are flic-rtefl, and thus deferibe, du¬
ring its developement, a fpiral line in different planes,
in proportion to the difierence of tendon between the
fuperior and inferior furface of the body, as well as be¬
tween the lateral furfaces. 113
The form of the (hell depending on the external form Umbilicu?
of the body of the animal, the umbilicus which is a produced,
different cavity from that of the opening of the fliell in
which the animal is contained, and which is feen on
the inferior furface of fome (hells, in the centre of the
convolutions of the fpire, depends entirely on the plane
on which the animal has formed the additions to its
fliell. If the plane of thefe convolutions has been di¬
rected round a conical or elliptical axis, and eacn con¬
volution of the fpire be more or lefs diflant towards the
centre of the (hell, from this hollow point a (hell may¬
be thus formed, whofe umbilicus will be more or le(s
open, according to the greater or lets degiee of repara¬
tion which the animal mud give to the convolutions o.
the fpire, correfponding to its ftruCture. An oppofite
effeCt will be obferved, if the increafe of the convolu¬
tions of the fpire is (uppofed to take place round an
axis which is fo fmall as to permit them to come m
contaCt wfith each other. In this ca(e no cavity will
be formed in the centre, no appearance of umbilicus
will be feen. But if we conceive that the animal, m
enlarging itfelf, turns round a folid of a curved figure,
in place of the conic axis above alluded to, and that
the end of this folid is at the fummit of the (hell, it is
obvious that an opening or an umbilicus of the ffiape
of this folid, will be formed in the (hell.
Ribs. The longitudinal elevations which are ob¬
ferved
Chap. V.
CONCH
for.
Of the Con- ferved on univalve {hells, which run in a tranfverfe di-
ftituent reftion to the fucceffive growth of the convolutions of
SlTllT&c t^ie ^P're» ^ave 'jeen denominated varices, by Linnmus,
t ‘e in allufion to the dilated veins on the bodies of other
animals. They are compofed of one or more elev.a-
114 tions, ufually arranged in a line parallel to the axis of
Formation the {hell, and fometimes {lightly oblique. They con-
of ribs ac- 0f fame fubftance as. that of the reft of the {hell,
counted but are anci always more elevated than the fur-
face of the convolutions of the fpire on which they are
placed. To explain the manner in which thefe eleva¬
tions are formed, w’e may examine the opening of land
{hells which have arrived at the laft ftage of their
growth. This period is marked in thefe {hells by a
kind of margin of about a line in breadth, w’hich is
fometimes turned outwards, although the reft of the
{hell turns on a regular, fpiral line. This refledled
margin never appears in land {hells, but when they
have reached the laft period of their growth, and when
it is once formed, the animal of fome fpecies ceafes af¬
terwards to continue the convolutions of its fpire.
Having now arrived at that period of its grow'th, wThen
it is fit to perform the act of generation, it protrudes
itfelf more frequently from its {hell, and each time it
returns, a vifcid fluid which exudes from its neck, is
interrupted and depofited on the external margin of the
fhell. The bulk which the anterior parts of the body
have acquired in confequence of the evolution of the
generative organs which are contained in that part of
the body, caufes it to prefs more ftrongly than former¬
ly on the edges of the opening of the {hell, every time
it protrudes itfelf, and gradually forces the particles of
teftaceous matter which have been recently depofited,
to the external furface, and in a direflion quite differ¬
ent from that of the former plane of the fpire. A ftrort
time only is requifite for the complete formation of
this elevation $ but after it has been formed, if the ani¬
mal has the power of continuing the fpire on the for¬
mer plane, the fhell which had arrived at a larger
fize will exhibit from time to time, if the fame pro-
cefs be repeated, longitudinal proje&ing ribs, convex
or bent, exaCtly fimilar to the external fwelling of the
opening of the Ihell, and analogous to the varices which
are feen on fome fpecies of marine {hells.
This power of continuing the fpire, after the forma¬
tion of the eminence at the opening, is peculiar to fea-
Ihells. No farther increafe, after it is once formed in
land {hells takes place. The young of fome fea-fhells,
as fome fpecies of tnurex, alfo poffefs this faculty of
continuing the growth of the ihell after the formation
of fimilar elevations, even from the earlieft period of
their exiftence, and long before it can be fuppofed that
the organs of generation are evolved. This no doubt
depends on fome peculiar ftru&ure or organization of
the animal, and particularly on thofe of the anterior
parts of the body.
Tubercles. Many {hells are furniftied with tubercles,
, which are produced by the fame organs as the reft of
in^the fame 'p}le flefliy protuberances which are placed
on the external furface of the neck of the animals
which inhabit them, ferve as a mould, and according
as there are more or lefs of thefe tubercles, while the
animal enlarges the turn of the fpire, and increafes its
{hell fo much, there is the fame number of protuber¬
ances in the convolution. Thefe protuberances, while
1IS
Limited to
fea-fhells.
n6
Tubercles
produced
O L O G Y. 475
they remain on that part of the body of the animal on Of the C on*
which they were formed, are hollow, and during the
remaining part of its exiftence, as the body enlarges, shells, &c.
they are partly hollow, and partly folid, being filled up >, — v- —^
with teftaceous matter, excreted from the body of the
animal, and then the internal furface of the ftiell be¬
comes fmooth and even.
Spines, and fringed or irregular protuberances, with
which fome {hells are armed, have, according to all 1
appearance, the fame origin as the other inequalities
on the external furface of {hells. They are ufually
formed at the end of the different fucceflive periods of
the growth of the {hell. This wdll be fufficiently ob¬
vious, if wTe trace the whole feries of wrinkles or ftrice
which run parallel to the circumference of the open¬
ing. Thofe which arife immediately from the ribs or
varices, are produced by particular organs which fur-
round the extremity of the neck, and ftrctch out from
every part of its circumference, fecreting a teftaceous
matter, which partly forms a {heath around them, gra¬
dually increafes in thicknefs, and fucceflively affumes
the form of that part of the body which in fome mea-
fure ferves the purpofe of a mould. In all the fpecies
of murex, which are furniftied with fpines, the eleva¬
tions called varices or ribs, as well as the fpines with
which they are armed, are placed on the fhell at equal
diftances ; and the intermediate parts of the {hell, al¬
though frequently grooved or ftriated, are not furniih-
ed with fpines. This uniform oblervation, not only
in {hells belonging to this genus, but alfo in almoft all
fpinous {hells, proves, that the fpines as well as the
ribs, are to be confidered as formed by the margin of
the anterior parts of the body, which is renewed in
the fame proportion as the change in the pofition of
this part of the body takes place. It proves alfo, that
the formation of {hells is entirely owing to the fuccef¬
five and regular enlargement of the animal ; and that
it increafes every time it is difplaced from the whole
extent in breadth of the anterior part of the body, the Spines pro¬
margin of which only being furnilhed with long flelhy duced by
proceffes or fringed appendices, is in reality the only Pr0“
part which produces them on the {hell at each period
of its increafe. In the fame way is formed the beak
or prolongation of the {hell, which terminates the in¬
ferior extremity in the form of a canal. This canal is
produced in all {hells in which it exifts, by a cylindri¬
cal organ, fufceptible of extenfion and contradion, and
which, according to fome naturalifts, is employed by
the animal as a kind of feeler, and occafionally to at¬
tach itfelf to folid bodies. It excretes and depofits a
teftaceous layer which ferves it as a kind of theath, in
a fimilar manner to the produdion of fpines. irS
It is eafy to explain the formation of the grooves or I'?r_mat'on
elevated ribs which are found on the outer furface Ofoilibsan(*
other {hells j w7hile the whole of the internal furface is^roove§* .
fmooth and poliihed. In bivalve fhells, which exhibit
this ftrudure, the whole anterior furface of the animal
is grooved or channelled in the fame way j and from
this the {hell derives its ftiape and ftrudure. In thefe
{hells it may be obferved, that it is only the anterior
margin that is grooved on the internal furface 3 be-
caufe, in the progrefs of the growth of the animal,
that pait of the body which prefents a fmooth, equal
furface has advanced, and nearly filled the whole of
the {hell; and the teftaceous^matter fecreted from this
3 O 2 part
4.76 CONCH
Of the Con-part of the body being depofited on the grooves, chan-
Parts of ne^s> or ftnce> which were formed when the anterior
Shells, See. Part t^e body occupied that part of the Ihell, fills
-v— —1 them up completely, and leaves the furface quite fmooth
and polifhed. New additions being made to the Ihell
as the growth of the animal requires it, the fmooth
furface of the body advances forward, and fills up with
its fecretions what is now grooved ; while the new part
of the fhell, which correfponds to that part of the bo¬
dy which has an unequal furface, only prefents this
appearance. It is in this way that the ribs or grooves
are formed in different fpccies of oftrea, cardium, and
,T9 other bivalve {hells.
Formation Eut there is a peculiarity of llru&ure in a fpecies of
of hollow cockle, the white fluted or ribbed cockle, cardium
cq/iatum, which feems more difficult of explanation in
its mode of formation. The ribs of this fpecies are not
only of the ufual llru&ure of other fpecies of ribbed or
grooved {hells, but are particularly diftinguiffied by
having them hollow. The whole number of the ribs
amounts to about 18 on each valve, of which the 11 ex¬
terior ones are of a triangular form, of about three lines
high, and hollowed through their whole length, from
the beak to the margin of the valves. To have a di-
ftinft notion of the formation of thefe hollow, triangu¬
lar ribs, it is neceffary to conceive, that the margin of
the anterior part of the animal is deeply channelled or
grooved ; and when this part of the body is in contact
with the recent {hell, the ribs or elevations are formed,
and are then open to the internal furface of the {hell ;
but the poflerior part of the body being hard and
fmooth, never comes in contaft with the excavated
part of the ribs. On the contrary, as the teftaceous
matter is excreted from this part of the body, it is de¬
pofited on that part of the internal furface of the ffiell
which it touches, ftretches acrofs the deep grooves,
and forms the third and interior fide of the triangular
120 ribs.
and of Thus it appears, that fpines, tubercles, and all
ftria, &c. other protuberances on the furface of bivalve {hells,
owe the peculiarity of their form and ffiape to the pe¬
culiar ftrufrure of different organs fituated on the ante¬
rior margin of the body of the animal, and are com-
poied of the teftaceous matter which is excreted by
thefe organs. The nature of the procefs is the fame
as in univalve {hells of a fpiral form. The diverfity
only appears in the difference of the organs and ftruc-
ture of the animals which inhabit different ihells. To
a fimilar procefs may be aferibed the formation of ftrim,
of feales, and of various excavations which fometimes
accompany them..
Sect. V. Of the Production of Pearls.
Pearl found In treating of the conftituent parts of {hells, it was
in mother- obferved, that the compofition of the pearl appears,
ot-pearl from analyfis, to be precifely the fame as the mother-
of-pearl, or thofe {hells in which the pearl is ufually
found. From this we muft conclude, that the pearl,
and the mother-of-pearl, are produced by the fame fecre-
tion. It appears, from the obfervations of naturalifts,
and indeed it might have been expefled, from the fi-
milarity of compofition, that all teftaceous animals,
whofe ftiells come under the defcription of mother-of-
pearl, occafionally produce pearls.
O L O G Y. Chap. V.
Different opinions have been entertained with regard Of the Con*
to the caufe of the formation of this precious produc- ft‘tuent.
tion. According to fome, it is merely a morbid con-shelh5Se ¬
cretion, formed within fome part of the body of the . ‘ ~ 1
animal, or at leaft within the Ihell, without any ap¬
parent external injury •, while others fuppofe that it is
only owing to wounds which the {hell, or the animal, or
both, have received from accidental caufes, or from the
aftion of infedls, or fome teftaceous animal, making
perforations in the {hell. It is not improbable that
pearls may be formed in both ways. I22
Every day’s experience informs us, that fimilar con-Suppofed
cretions are formed in different cavities of the bodiest0 be mor-
of other animals; but without any obvious caufe or ex- ^ con-
ternal injury. The formation of fuch concretions, as,cretl0ns;
for inftance, biliary and uiinary calculi, producing the
moft excruciating diforders in the human body, are too
fatally known. Thefe concretions, no doubt, owe
their origin to the difeafed or unhealthy adlion of the
veffels fecreting the fluids in which they are formed.
By this difeafed aftion producing a fuperabundance of
the matter which enters into the compofition of the
concretion j or this matter in the fluid ftate meeting
with fome folid body, which becomes a nucleus, is at¬
tracted by it, and depofited in concentric layers, till
the concretion acquires a larger or fmaller fize, ac¬
cording to the duration and quantity of the fecretion
and depofition. In the fame way, it feems extremely
probable the pearl may be frequently formed; the
matter of which it is compofed being conllantly fecreted
by the animal for the production of the new part of
the fhell. If then this matter ftiould at any time be
produced in greater quantity than what is neceffary to
form the inner layers of the {hell, and particularly if it
fhould meet with a folid particle of any body, it will
be attracted by it, and thus conftitute the rudiments of
a pearl, which will receive conftant additions of con¬
centric layers, and increale in fize in proportion to the
age of the animal and the quantity of matter depofited.
Pearls, it is faid, have been found within the body of
the animal. If this be true, the pearly matter, in its
paffage through the veffels of the body, muft have met
with fome nucleus, around which the concentric lay¬
ers have been formed. In moft cafes, however, the
pearl is found loofe in the {hell, entirely detached from
the animal. It muft then have been formed of the
matter which was thrown out of the body ; but it is
not unlikely that pearls are formed both ways, or that
the fame peail may be partly formed within the body
of the animal, and be afterwards excluded, and arrive
at its utmoft fize, while it remains loofe in the {hell. ^
But, according to others, the pearl owes its forma-or formed
tion to fome external injury. The following feems to horn ex-
be a pretty diftinCI view of this opinion. When Fau-terna^n*
jas de St Fond vifited Loch Tay, he was led to make^ul^‘
fome inquiries concerning the pearl-fiftiery, which had
been carried on in feveral parts of the river Tay for
fome years. Shells were brought to him ; and in thefe
fhells the fiffiermen pretended to find pearls, which
they expeCled to fell at a higher rate, as they were
found in the prefence of the traveller. But he informs
us, that they attempted to impofe on him, by intro¬
ducing a pearl fecretly into the {hells as they opened
them. Obferving this circumftance, he told them that
he could know at once, by examining the outfide of
the
Chap. V. • C O N G «
Of the Ha- the (hell, before opening it, whether it contained any
bitation of pearl. He mentions this to introduce fome Ipecula-
Shells, Sec. ^jons concerning its formation. When no perforation
Sl '_v or callofity appeared on the outfide, he concluded that
there was no pearl in the fhell. The pearl-fifh, he
fuppofes, is attacked by two claflfes of enemies. One
is what he calls the auger-worm, wrhich penetrates in¬
to the infide near the edge of the valve, by making a
longitudinal pallage between the layers of the fhell.
The length of the channel is one inch, or one inch
and a half when it doubles back in a line parallel to
the firft. At the inner extremity there is a fmall cir¬
cular portion, formed by the worm in turning round.
Thefe excavations are in the pearly part of the (hell.
The pearly juice, extravafating, forms protuberances
in the fame dire&ion •, and the cylindrical bodies which
are thus formed, may be conlidered as elongated pearls
adhering to the internal furface. When feveral worms
of this kind unite their labours by penetrating near
each other, the refult is a kind of pearly w'en with ir¬
regular protuberances.
Another fea-worm, which he fays belongs to the
multivalves, a fpecies of pholas, alfo attacks the pearl
{hells. The (hell of this fpecies of pholas has a hinge
in the form of a crooked bill, as he faw in fome fpe¬
cies of oyller, which he examined, from the coaft of
Guinea. The hole was of the ihape of a pear. Pearls
of this Ihape have been found, and have been held in
great eftimation. Obferving this circumftance, artifi¬
cial perforations are made in the {hell, and this forces
the animal to produce pearls. In lome fhells brought
from China, this artificial hole has been obferved filled
up with brafs wire, rivetted on the outfide like a nail,
and the inner extremity of the wire was covered w'ith
a well-formed pearl, which feemed as if foldered to its
* Trav. extremity *.
vol. ii. * Pearls are alfo produced by another artificial pro-
cefs. The thell is opened with great care to avoid in¬
juring the animal, and a fmall portion of the internal
furface of the ihell is feraped off. In its place is infert-
O L 0 G Y. 477
ed a fpherical piece of mother -of-pearl, about the fize Of the Ha-
of a fmall grain of lead fliot. This ferves as a nu'j^ers^Suf
cleus, on which is depofited the pearly fluid, and in  J
time forms a pearl. Experiments of this kind have
been made in Finland, and have been repeated in other
countries. 124
A remarkable difeovery has been aferibed to Lin- Difcovery
naeus refpedting the generation of pearls. This was a°^^niisea54
method which he found out, of putting the pearl muf-
fel (mya margaritifera) into a ftate of producing pearls
at his pleafure. It was fome years before the final ef-
febl could take place ; but, in five or fix years after
the operation, the pearl, it is faid, had acquired the
fize of a vetch. But it does not feem to be known in
what this operation confifted. Whether it confided in
imitating the procefs of infers, by wounding the flrell
from the outfide, or by following the other procefs, by
feraping away part of the inner layer •, nor is it much
known what have been the effects of this operation, or
whether it has turned to any account, or indeed is at
all prablifed in Sweden or any of the northern Hates,
w'here it muft have been originally known. For this
difcovery, however, the Sw’edrflr naturalift, it is faid,
was raifed to the rank of nobility, and otherwife libe¬
rally rewarded by the ftates of the kingdom.
The value which is put on the pearl depends on its
fize, colour, flrape, and purity. The larged pearls
are always held in the highed edimation, wThen their
other qualities are in any degree of perfedtion. The
fined drape of the pearl mud be quite globular j it
mud be of a clear brilliant white, fmooth and glofly,
and entirely free from fpot or dain. Pearls were great¬
ly edeemed and much fought after by the Romans.
Servilia, the mother of Marcus Brutus, we are inform¬
ed, prefented a pearl to Cajfar, which was valued at
50,000!. llerling j and Cleopatra diffblved one, which
is faid to have been worth 250,000!. dealing, in vine¬
gar, which fire drank at a fupper with Mark An¬
tony.
CHAP. VI. OF THF, HABITATION OF TESTACEOUS ANIMALS, METHODS
OF FISHING, COLLECTING, &c.
TO the detailed account which we have now given
of the natural hifiory of tedaceous animals, and parti¬
cularly of the formation and growth of the flrell, we
have only to add a few obfervations concerning their
habitation, the methods of fiflring, colledding, and pre-
ferving them. Thefe topics flrall be the lubjedl of the
following fedlions.
Sect. I. Of the Habitation of Tejlaceous Animals.
Found'on Testaceous animals are found on every part of the
every part furface of the globe. Some are inhabitants of the land,
of the while others only frequent rivers and lakes, and a third
gIobe- and numerous clafs live in the ocean. From this a clafli-
fication of fhells has been formed, and they have been
divided into land, fre{h-w7ater, and fea {hells. But
whatever difference might exid in the habits and eco¬
nomy of tedaceous animals winch are produced in
2
places fo different, it affords few marks of diferimina-
tion for the purpofe of claffification. I2(j
Land flrells are fpread over the whole furface of the Land fhells
earth, and although more acceffible, are perhaps lefs very nume-
known than thofe which inhabit the ocean. From the rous'
fmall number of land fliells which have been collefted,
it would appear at fird fight that they are lefs nume¬
rous than marine fhells. This, horvever, feems not to
be the cafe, with regard to the number of fpecies 5 and
it is well known, that the number of individuals of land
fliells, in fome indances, far exceeds that of fea fhells.
The fea fhells of the Mediterranean have been obferved
by naturalids, to be nearly the fame from the draits of
Gibraltar to the ifland of Sicily ; but the land fhells of
Languedoc are different from thofe of Provence, of
Dauphiny, Piedmont, and different parts of Italy.
Some are found in Spain, in Corfica, in Sardinia and
Sicily, which are not to be met v/ith in other places;
I27
Shells moft
beautiful
within the
tropics.
128
Shells
found in
Afia.
478 C -O N C H
Ot the Ha- and from the great variety and number of land {hells,
it feems probable that many of them are yet unknown.
l But let us now take a general view of thofe places of
the world where different teftaceous animals are molt
frequently found.
It has been already obferved, that light and heat have
very conliderable influence in adding to the fplendour of
the colours of {hells. The moft beautiful {hells are found
in countries between the tropics, where they are more
immediately fubjedt to the diredt rays of the fun, and
a higher temperature. From thefe caufes, the {hells
produced in thefe countries have a luftre and brillian¬
cy, which thofe of colder climates never poffefs.'
The fhores of Afia furnifh us with the pearl-oyfters
and fcallops in great perfedtion. About Amboyna are
found the moft beautiful fpecimens of the cabbage-fliell,
the arrofoir, the ducal mantle, and the coral-oyfters, or
echinated oyfters. Here alfo are found a great variety
of extremely beautiful muffels, tellinae, and volutae ;
fome fine buccinums, and the Ihell called the Ethiopian
crown, in its greateft perfedHon. The dolia, the mu-
rices, and the calfandrae, are alfo found on thefe coafts
in great beauty. Many elegant fnails and fcrew-lhells
are alfo brought from thence ; and finally, the fcorpion
and fpider {hells. The Maidive and Philippine iflands,
Bengal, and the coaft of Malabar, abound with the moft
elegant of all the fpecies of fnails, and furnifh many other
kinds of {hells in great abundance and perfedlion. China
abounds in the fineft fpecies of porcelain {hells, and has
alfo a great variety of beautiful fnails. Japan furnifties
us with all the thicker and larger bivalves; and the ille
of Cyprus is famous above all other parts of the world
for the beauty and variety of the patella or limpet
found there.
America affords many very elegant {hells, but neither
in fo great abundance nor beauty as the fhores of Afia.
Panama is famous for the cylinders or rhombi, and we
have befide, from the fame place, fome good porcelains
and a very fine fpecies of db/zz/vz, ox concha globofa, call¬
ed from this place the Panama purple Jloell. One of the
moft beautiful of the cylinders is alfo known among our
naturalifts under the name of the Panama Jhell. About
Brafil, and in the gulf of Mexico, there are found mu-
rices and dolia of extreme beauty $ and alfo a great va¬
riety of porcelains, purpurae, pedlens, neritse, bucardiae
or heart-fhells, and elegant limpets. The ifle of Cay¬
enne affords one of the moft beautiful of the buccinum
kind, and the Midas ear is found principally about this
place. Jamaica and the ifland of Barbadoes have their
fhores covered with porcelains, chamae, and buccina 5
and at St Domingo there are found almoft all the fame
fpecies of (hells that we have from the Eaft Indies; only
they are lefs beautiful, and the colours more pale and
dead. The pearl-oyfter is found alfo on this coaft, but
fmaller than in the Perfian gulf. At Martinico there
are found in general the fame fhells as at St Domingo,
bnt yet lefs beautiful. About Canada are found the
violet chamae ; and the lakes of that country abound
with mufcles of very elegant pale blue and pale
red colours. Some fpecies of thefe are remarkably
light and thin ; others are very thick and heavy. The
Great Bank of Newfoundland is very barren in {hells;
the principal kind found there are muffels of feveral
fpecies, fome of which are of confiderable beauty. A-
bout Carthagena there are many mother-of-pearl {hells,
l
129
In Ame¬
rica.
O L O G Y. - Chap. VI.
but they are not of fo brilliant colours as thofe of the Of the Ha-
Perfian gulf. The ifland of Magellan, at the fouthern Citation of
point of America, furniflies us with a very remarkable ,eutl’
fpecies of muffel called by its name ; and feveral very
elegant fpecies of limpets are found there, particularly
the pyramidal. I;?0
In Africa, on the coaft of Guinea, there is a prodi-In AfricaS
gious quantity of that fmall fpecies of porcelain which
is ufed there as money ; and there is another fpecies of
porcelain on the fame coaft which is all over white :
the women make bracelets of the latter, and the people
of the Levant adorn their hair with them. The coaft of
Zanguebar is very rich in {hells : we find there a vaft
variety of the large porcelains, many of them of great
beauty ; and the mix maris or fea-nut is very frequent
there. Befide thefe, and many other {hells, there are
found on this coaft all the fpecies of nautili, many of
which are very beautiful. The Canary ifles abound
with a vaft variety of the murices, and fome other
good {hells; and we have from Madeira great va¬
riety of the echini or fea-eggs, different from thofe of
the Eiffopean feas. Several fpecies of mufi’els are alfo
common there, and the fea-ears are nowhere more
abundant. The Red fea is beyond all other parts of
the w orld abundant in {hells, fcarcely any kind is want¬
ing there ; but what we principally have from thence
are the purpura, porcelains, and echini marini. r,t
The Mediterranean and Northern ocean. contain a In the
great variety of {hells, and many of very remarkable ele-diterra-
gance and beauty ; they are upon the whole, however,nean*
greatly inferior to thole of the Eaft Indies. The Me¬
diterranean abounds much more in {hells than the o-
cean. The gulf of Tarentum affords great variety of
purpurae, of porcelains, nautili, and elegant oyfters; the
coafts of Naples and Sardinia afford alfo the fame, and
with them a vaft number of the folens of all the known
fpecies. The ifland of Sicily is famous for a very ele¬
gant kind of oyfter which is entirely white; pinnae ma-
rinse and porcelains are alfo found in great plenty there,
with tellinae and chamae of many fpecies, and a great
variety of other beautiful {hells. Corfica is famous,
beyond all other places, for vaft quantities of the pinnaa
marinae; and many other very beautiful fliells are found
there. About Syracufe are found the gondola {hell,
the alated murex, and a great variety of elegant fnails,
with fome of the dolia and neritae. The Adriatic fea,
or gulf of Venice, is lefs furnifhed with fhells than al¬
moft any of the feas thereabout. Muffels and oyfters
of feveral fpecies are howrever found there, and fome
of the cordiform or heart fhells; there are alfo fome
tellinae. About Ancona there are vaft numbers of
the pholades buried in ftone ; and the fea-ears are par¬
ticularly frequent about Puzzoli. (Eonani Recreate
Ment. et Ocul). i^2
The ports of Marfeilles, Toulon, and Antibes, are On the
full of pinnae marinae, mufcles, tellinae, and chamae. coaft °f
The coafts of Bretagne afford great numbers of theFrance^
conchae anatiferae and pouffe-pieds; they are found on
old rotten boards, on fea fubftances, and among clu-
fters of fponges. The other ports of France, as
Rochelle, Dunkirk, Breft, St Maloes, and others, fur-
nifh oyfters excellent for the table, but of the com¬
mon kind, and of no beauty in their fhells ; great
numbers of muffels are alfo found there ; and the com¬
mon tellinae, the onion-peel oyfters, the folens, and
conchas
Chap. VI.
CONCH
133
«f Britain,
134
of Spain
Of the Ha conchx anatiferoe, are alfo frequent there. At Gran-
bitation of vJ]qej Jn Lower Normandy, there are found very beau-
Shells .kc. tj£uj pe(^enSj an(j fome of the cordiform or heart-
fhells. ^ .
Our own Englifh coafts are not the lead fruitiul in
fliells, though they do not produce fuch elegantly
painted ones as the Indies. About Plymouth are
found oyfters, muffels, and folens, in great abun¬
dance 5 and there, and on moil of our (bores, are
numbers of the aures marinae and dentalia, with pec-
tens, which are excellent food ; and many elegant
fpecies of the chamae and tellinse are fidied up in the
fea about Scarborough and other places. Ireland af¬
fords us great numbers of mufiels, and fome very ele¬
gant fcallop-(hells in great abundance, and the pholades
are frequent on moil of our (hores. e have alfo
great variety of the buccina and cochleae, fome volu-
tm j and, on the Guernfay coaft, a peculiarly beautiful
fnail, called thence the Guernfey-fnail.
ot s )ain The coafts of Spain and Portugal aflord much the
andVortu- fame fpecies of (hells with the Eaft Indies, but they are
gal, &c. of much fainter colours, and greatly inferior in beauty.
There are, according to Tavernier and others, fome ri¬
vers in Bavaria in which there are found pearls of a fine
water. About Cadiz there are found very large pinnae
marinse, and fome fine buccina. The Hies of Majorca
and Minorca afford great variety of extremely elegant
(hells. The pinnm marinae are alfo very numerous
there, and their filk is wrought into gloves, (lockings,
and other things. The Baltic affords a great many
beautiful fpecies, but particularly an orange-coloured
peften, or fcallop (hell, which is not found in any other
part of the world.
The frefh-water (hells are found much more fre¬
quently, and in much greater plenty than the fea-
kinds ; there is fcarce a pond, a ditch, or a river of
frefh water in any part of the world, in which there
are not found vaft numbers of thefe (hells with the
fifii living in them. All thefe (hells are fmall, and
they are of very little beauty, being ufually of a plain
grayilh or brownifh colour. Our ditches aftord us
chamae, buccina, neritae, and fome patellae ; but the
Nile, and fome other rivers, furniihed the ancients with
a fpecies of tellina which was large and eatable, and fo
much fuperior to the common lea tellina in flavour,
that it is qommonly known by the name of telhria regia,
“ the royal, tellina.” We have a fmall fpecies of bucci-
num commqn in our frefh waters, which is very ele¬
gant, and always has its operculum in the manner of
the larger buccina •, a fmall kind of muffel is alfo very
common, which is fo extremely thin and tender, that it
can hardly be handled without breaking to pieces. I he
large freffi-water muffel, commonly called in England
the horfe-miiffel, mya ?nargaritifcra, is too well known
to need a description ^ and the fize fufficiently diftin-
guilhes it from all other frelh-water (hells.
Sect. II. Of the Methods of Fijhing and GolleEling
Shells.
LaiKUhells. Land (hells are immediately within the reach of the
hand of the colleftor, as well as many fea and river
(hells, which inhabit (hallow.waters, or attach them-
felves to rocks or marine plants on the (bores of the
ocean. Thofe (hells which are at moderate depths in
i3S
Frefli wa¬
ter fhells.
O L O G Y. 4-9
the fea, are to be collected by dredging. But in what- 9^tn^
ever w-ay (hells are found, thofe are always to be Pre* shel^'H&c,
ferred which dill contain the living animal; for then, .—
not only fome information may be obtained with regard
to its ftrufture and natural hidory, but the diells them-
felves are in all their natural beauty, and the full glow t^
of their colours. Thofe (hells too dmuld be preferred, 5ea (hells,
which are procured from the deeper parts of the ocean,
becaufe they have then arrived at the larged fize, and
are in the greated perfeffion. But thefe are beyond
the reach of man, and are only accidentally found on
the drores after dorms, or attached to fea-weeds wBich
have been tou from the rocks by the agitation of the
wraves. _ r3s
When (hells are found with the animal alive \ the Method of
method recommended to dedroy it and feparate it en‘1 lff
tirely from the (hell, is to boil it in water for a very
drort time, and after allowing it to cool gradually, to
lay it in cold water till it is cleaned. By this procefs,
the attachment between the diell and animal is de-
droyed, and the latter, which has become hard and
contracted, is eafily picked out from its covering.
The diell, after this treatment, is ready to be placed
in the cabinet, or to be polidied in the way we diall
prefently defcribe, according to the date in which it
is found, or the views of the colleftor. < 139
As the pearl has been held in high edimation in all Pearl-fifli-
ages of the world, and as it is an important objeft of
commerce in many parts of it, the hidory of the pearl
fidiery, or of thofe diell fidr which produce the pearl,
cannot fail to be intereding. x^0
Indifferent parts of Britain the pearl-fidiery has in Britain,
been carried on to a confiderable extent ”, and in fome
places it has been reckoned of fuch value, that go¬
vernment have granted the right of (idling to indivi¬
duals by patent. By a grant of this kind. Sir John
Hawkins obtained the privilege of (idling for pearls in
the river Irt in Cumberland ; and Buchan of Auch-
macoy feems to have held, by a fimilar right, the (ole
privilege of the pearl fidiery near the mouth of the ri¬
ver Ythan in Aberdeendiire •, for it appears that this
grant was refumed by government in i633> ^ hrd
parliament of Charles I. In the fame river, at the di¬
dance of 10 miles from the fea, a fuccefsful fidiery
of pearls has been frequently carried on ; and a
few years ago, in the river Cluny in the fame county,
a Jew' employed a number of people to colleft the muf¬
fels which contained them, and fome large and valu- '
able pearls were found. Some years ago, in the river
Teath in Perthdrire, the pearls which were got brought
about 100I. derling to thofe employed in fearching for
them, in the courfe of one feafon. It was obferved,
that thofe muffels only which were crooked and didort-
ed, yielded pearls. The method which has been prac-
tifed in this river for (idling the pearl muffel, is the
following. The fidierman provides himfelf with an
indrument formed of two iron plates or fpoons, having
fomething of the diape of the muffel. Each of thefe
is attached to an eladic handle of the fame metal, ter¬
minating in an open tube, which is fixed to the end of
a long wooden handle. The concave fides of the plates
approach other, and are kept in clofe contact by the
eladicity of the handles. With this indrument the fidi-
erman enters the water, and direfts his courfe to thofe
plac.es which he fuppofes are reforted to by the muf-
4S0 CONCH
Of the Ha-fels. Thefe he difcovers with his feet, and having
Shehs10*®^ f°und one, he preffes the inftrument upon it, the plates
■ " \ or valves of which, in confequence of the elaflicity of
the handles, feparate, and then grafp it firmly. In
this way he can detach it from the place to which it
adheres, and bring it to the furface of the water. The
pearl-muffel is a native of many other of the rivers of
Scotland, as of the Elk in Forfarlhire, where a pearl
was found of the fize of a pillol bullet, and fold for 4I.
Iterling •, of the Devon in Clackmannanlhire, the
Clyde, and of Loch Ken in Galloway, where it is faid
great numbers of pearls ate filhed in dry fummers, ma¬
ny of which fell from one Hulling to onef guinea. But
the greateft pearl-fifhery which has ever been eftablifh-
ed in Scotland, of which there is any record, is that
of the river Tay, about 30 years ago. The pearl-
muflel is found in every part of this river, from its
fource in Loch Tay, to its junftion with the fea. In
different parts of the river, but particularly in the vi¬
cinity of Perth, we are informed, that not lefs than
x 1 ,oOol. worth of pearls were fent to London between
the years 1761 and 1764. They w'ere fold from 10s.
to il. 16®. per ounce. About this time one pearl was
found which weighed 33 grs. This filhery, however,
as tvell as the pearl-filhery in the other rivers of Scot¬
land, feems to be greatly exhaufted, and very proba¬
bly, as it has been fuppofed, from the improvident
avarice of the undertakers, not allowing the animal to
arrive at that age which feems to be neceffary for the
produ&ion of pearl.
But the pearl-fifhery of the warmer climates, in dif¬
ferent places of the Eaft Indies, in the gulf of Perfia,
and the R ed fea, and particularly that which is annual-
141 ly, carried on in the bay of Condatchy, in the ifland of
in Ceylon. Ceylon, is by far the moft extenfive and moft import¬
ant of any in the world. The latter, of which we have
given a detailed account in the defcription of Ceylon,
and to which we refer our readers, has been under the
infpeftion of government fince it fell into the hands of
the Britifh, as it was under that of the Portuguefe and
Dutch, its former mailers. To the Dutch, it is faid,
while they were in poffeffion of the ifland, this fifhery
brought an annual tribute of 20,000!. To the ac¬
count which has been already given of this fifhery, we
may add the following, from the Afiatic Annual Re-
g!fter for the year 1S00.
The perfon who farmed the pearl-fifhery at Cey¬
lon, lafl year, was a Tamu merchant, w'ho for the
privilege of filhing with more than the ufual number
of denies or boats, paid between two and three hun¬
dred thoufand Porto Novo pagodas (d), a fum nearly
double the ufual rent. His excellency the honourable
Mr North, by the laft {hips from Ceylon, has tranf-
mitted a very minute detail of the fifhexy in all its
flages, fome of which are truly fingular and remarka¬
ble. It appears that the fear of fharks is the caufe of
a great deal of interruption to the fifhery, the divers
being extremely timid and fuperflitious; every one of
.them, even the mofl expert, entertain a dread of fharks,
and will not on any account defeend until the conjuror
has performed his ceremonies. This prejudice is fo
O L O G Y. Chap. VI.
deeply rooted in their minds, that the government was Of the Ha-
oblieed to keep two fuch coniurors in their pay, to re- Citation of
6 r r j- J wu c Shells, &c.
move the rears or the divers. 1 he manner or en-,
chanting confifts of a number of prayers learned by
heart, that nobody, probably not even the conjuror
himfelf, underflands, which he, {landing on the flrore,
continues muttering and grumbling from funrife until
the boats return. During this period, they are obli¬
ged to abftain from food and deep, otherwife their
prayers would be of no avail; they are, however, al¬
lowed to drink, which privilege they indulge in a high
degree, and are frequently fo giddy as to be rendered
very unfit for devotion. Some of thefe conjurors ac¬
company the divers in their boats, which pleafes them
very much, as they have their proteflors near at hand.
Neverthelefs, I was told, faid Mr North, that in one
of the preceding fiflieries, a diver loft his leg by a
fhark ; and when the head conjuror was called to an
account for the accident, he replied, that an old witch
had juft come from the coaft, who, from envy and
malice, had caufed this difafter by a counter-conjura¬
tion, which made fruitlefs his fkill, and which he was
informed of too late 5 but he afterwards fhewed his
fuperiority, by enchanting the fharks fo effedlually,
that, though they appeared to moft of the divers, they
were unable to open their mouths. During my flay,
continues Mr North, at Condatchy, no accident of
this kind happened. If a fhark is feen, the divers in-
flantly make a fignal, which on perceiving all the
boats return immediately. A diver wdio trod upon a
hammer oyfter, and was fomewhat wounded, thought
he was bit by a fharkconfequentiy made the ufual
fignal, which caufed all the boats to return j for which
miftake he was afterwards punifhed. The largeft and
moft perfedl pearl taken laft feafon, was about the fize
of a fmall piftol bullet.”
Sect. III. Of the Methods of Polfhwg Shells.
The art of polifhing fhells has but lately reached its
prefent ftate of perfe£tion j and as the admiration of
fea fhells has become fo general, it may be expefted
that we fhould give fome inftrudions in the means of
adding to their natural beauty.
Among the immenfe variety of fhells with which we Methods
are acquainted, fome are taken up out of the fea, or employed
found on its fhores, in all their perfeftion and beauty j
their colours being all difpofed by nature upon the fur-
face, and their natural polifh fuperior to any thing that
art could give. Where nature is in herfelf thus per-
fe6l, it were madnefs to attempt to add any thing to
her charms : but in others, where the beauties are la¬
tent and covered with a coarfer outer ikin, art is to be
called in 5 and the outer veil being taken off, all the
internal beauties appear.
Among the fhells which are found naturally polifhed
are the porcelains, or cowries ; the caffanders; the do-
lia, orconchae globofae, or tuns; fome buccina, the vo¬
lutes and the cylinders, or olives, or, as they are gene¬
rally though improperly called, the rhombi; excepting
only two or three, as the tiara, the plumb, and the
butter-tub
(n) Perhaps near ioo,oool, fterling. The pagoda is from 7s. to 8s. 6d. fterling.
Chap. VI. CONCH
Gf the Ha- butter-tub rhombus, where there is an unpromifing
bitation of on t|ie furfacej hiding a very great lhare of beau-
Shells, &tc. within. Though the generality of the (hells of
^ thefe genera are taken out of the fea in all their beau¬
ty, and in their utmoft natural polilh, there are feve-
ral other genera, in which all or moft of the fpecies
are taken up naturally rough and foul, and covered
with an epidermis, or coarfe outer (kin, which is in
many rough and downy or hairy. The tellinse, the
muffels, the cochleae, and many others, are of this
kind. The more nice colleftors, as naturalifts, infill
upon having all their Ihells in their native and genuine
appearance, as they are found when living at fea j but
others who make colleflions, hate the difagreeable
outfides, and will have all fuch polilhed. It would be
very advifable, however, for both kinds of colleftors to
have the fame Ihells in different fpecimens both rough
and polilhed : the naturalill would by this means, be-
fides knowing the outfide of the (hell, be better ac¬
quainted with its internal charadlers than he otherwife
could be $ while thofe who wifh to have them polifhed,
might compare the beauties of the Ihell, in its wrought
ftate, to its coarfe appearance as nature gives it. How
many elegancies in this part of the creation mull be
wholly loft to us, if it were not for the affiltance of an
art of this kind! Many Ihells in their native Hate are
like rough diamonds ; and we can form' no juft idea of
their beauties till they have been polilhed and wrought
into form.
Though the art of polilhing Ihells is a very valuable
one, yet it is very dangerous to the Ihells j for without
the utmoft care, the means ufed to polilh and beautify
a Ihell often wholly deftroy it. When a Ihell is to be
polilhed, the firll thing to be examined, is whether it
have naturally a fmooth furface, or be covered with tu¬
bercles and prominences.
With lea- A which has a fmooth furface, and a natural
ther. dull polilh, need only be rubbed writh the hand, or with
a piece of chamoy leather, with fome tripoli, or fine
rotten Hone, and it will become of a perfe&ly bright and
fine polilh. Emery is not to be ufed on this occafion,
becaufe it wears away too much of the Ihell. This
operation requires the hand of an experienced perfon,
that knows how fuperficial the work mull be, and where
he is to Hop ; for in many of thefe Ihells the lines are
only on the furface, and the wearing away ever fo little
of the Ihell defaces them. A Ihell that is rough, foul,
and crufty, or covered writh a tartareous coat, mull be
left a whole day lleeping in hot water: when it has im¬
bibed a large quantity of this, it is to be rubbed with
rough emery on a Hick, or with the blade of a knife,
in order to get off the coat. After this, it may be
dipped in diluted aquafortis, fpirit of fait, or any other
acid; and after remaining a few moments in it, be again
plunged into common water. This will add greatly to
the fpeed of the work. After this it is to be well
rubbed with linen cloths, impregnated with common
foapj and when by thefe feveral means it is made per-
feflly clean, the polilhing is to be finilhed with fine
emery and a hair-brulh. If after this the Ihell when
dry appears not to have fo good a polilh as was defired,
U mull be rubbed over with a folution of gum arabic ;
and this will add greatly to its glofs, without doing it
the fmalleft injury. The gum-water mull not be too
thick, and then it gives no fenfible coat, only heighten-
Vou VI. Part II.
O L O G Y. 481
ing the colours. The white of an egg anfwers this the Ha-
purpofe alfo very well ; but it is fubjeft to turn yellow,
If the Ihell has an epidermis, which will by no meansT—
admit the polilhing of it, it is to be dipped feveral times
in diluted aquafortis, that this may be eaten off j and
then the Ihell is to be polilhed in the ufual way with
putty, fine emery, or tripoli, on the hair of a fine brufn.
When it is only a pellicle that hides the colours, the
Ihells mull be lleeped in hot water, and after that the
Ikin worked off by degrees with an old file. This is
the cafe with feveral of the cylinders, which have not
the natural polilh of the reft.
When a Ihell is covered with a thick and fatty epi¬
dermis, as is the cafe with feveral of the muffels and
tellinse j in this cafe aquafortis will do no fervice, as it
will not touch the Ikin: then a rough brulh and coarfe
emery are to be ufed 5 and if this does not fucceed, With pu-
feal-lkin, or, as the workmen call it, jifh-fkin and pu- mice-ftone,
mice-flone, are to be employed.
When a Ihell has a thick cruft, which will not give
way to any of thefe means, the only way left is to
plunge it feveral times into ilrong aquafortis, till the
llubborn cruft is wholly eroded. The limpets, auris
marina, the helmet-lhells, and feveral other fpecies of
this kind, mull have this fort of management ; but as
the defign is to Ihow the hidden beauties under the
cruft, and not to deftroy the natural beauty and pohlh
of the infide of the Ihell, the aquafortis mull be ufed in
this manner: A long piece of wax mull be pro¬
vided, and one end of it made perfeflly to cover the
whole mouth of the fhellj the other end will then ferve
as a handle, and the mouth being Hopped by the wax,
the liquor cannot get in to the infide to fpoil it j then
there mull be placed on a table a veffel full of aquafortis,
and another full of common water.
The Ihell is to be plunged into the aquafortis 5 and W.th acids,
after remaining a few minutes in it, is to be taken &-c*
out, and plunged into the common water. The pro-
grefs the aquafortis makes in eroding the furface is
thus to be carefully obferved every time it is taken
out: the point of the Ihell, and any other tender parts,
are to be covered with wax, to prevent the aquafortis
from eating them away $ and if there be any worm-
holes, they alfo mull be Hopped up with wax, other-
wife the aquafortis would loon eat through in thofe
places. When the repeated dippings into the aqua¬
fortis Ihow that the coat is fufficiently eaten away,
then the Ihell is to be wrought carefully with fine
emery and a brulh j and when it is polilhed as high as
can be by this means, it mull be wiped clean, and
rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg.
In this fort of work the operator mull always have the
caution to wear gloves; otherwife the leaft touch of the
aquafortis will burn the fingers, and turn them yellow;
and often, if it be not regarded, will eat off the Ikin
and the nails.
Thefe are the methods to be ufed with Ihells which
require but a moderate quantity of the furface to be
taken off; but there are others which require to have a
larger quantity removed, and to be uncovered deeper:
this is called entirely fealing a Ihell. This is done by
means of a horizontal w'heel of lead or tin, impreg¬
nated with rough emery; and the Ihell is wrought down
in the fame manner in which Hones are wrought by the
lapidary. Nothing is more difficult, however, than the
3 P performing
4S2 conch
Of the Ha- performing this work with nicety: very often (hells are
bitation of cut down too far by it, and wholly fpoiled ; and to
Soelis, avoj[j this, a coarfe vein mu(l be often left Handing in
feme place, and taken down afterwards with the file,
when the cutting it down at the wheel would have
fpoiled the adjacent parts.
After the (hell is thus cut down to a proper degree,
it is to be polilhed with fine emery, tripoli, or rotten
Hone, with a wooden wheel turned by the fame machine
as the leaden one, or by the common method of work¬
ing with the hand with the fame ingredients. When a
(hell is full of tubercles, or protuberances, which muft
be preferved, it is then impofiible toufe the wheel: and
if the common way of dipping into aquafortis be at¬
tempted, the tubercles being harder than the reft of
the (hell, will be corroded before the reft is fuffici-
ently fealed, and the (hell avill be fpoiled. In this cafe,
induftry and patience are the only means of effe&ing a
polifti. A camels-hair pencil muft be dipped in aqua¬
fortis; and with this the intermediate parts of the fnell
muft be wetted, leaving the protuberances dry: this is
to be often repeated; and after a few moments the (hell
is always to be plunged into water to flop the erofion
of the acid, which would otherwife eat too deep, and
deftroy the beauty of the (hell. When this has fuffici-
ently taken off the foulnefs of the (hell, it is to be po¬
lilhed with emery of the fined kind, or with tripoli, by
means of a fmall ftick; or the common polifhing-ftone
ufed by the goldfmiths may be ufed.
This is a very tedious and troublefome thing, efpe-
cially when the echinated oyfters and murices, and
fome other fuch (hells, are to be wrought: and what is
worft of all is, that when all this labour has been em¬
ployed, the bufinefs is not well done; for there (fill
remain feveral places which could not be reached by
any inftrument, fo that the (hell muft neceffarily be
rubbed over with gum-water or the white of an egg
afterwards, in order to bring out the colours and give
a glofs; in fome cafes it is even neceflary to give a coat
145 of varnifh.
Some fliells Thefe are the means ufed by artifts to brighten the
are dif- colours and add to the beauty of (hells; and the
^ by changes produced by poliftiing in this manner are fo
as1"’ great, that the (hell can fcarcely be known afterwards
to be the fame it was; and hence we hear of new (hells
in the cabinets of collettors, which have no real exif-
tence as feparate fpecies, but are (hells well known,
difguifed by poliftxing. To caution the reader a-
gainft errors of this kind, it may be proper to add the
147 moft remarkable fpecies thus ufually altered.
Tlie onyx- The onyx fliell or volute, called the purple or
flieil. violet-tip, which in its natural ftate is of a fimple pale
brown, when it is wrought (lightly, or polilhed with
juft the fuperficies taken off, is of a fine bright yellow;
and when it is eaten away deeper, it appears of a fine
milk-white, with the lower part bluifti: it is in this
ftate that it is called the onyx [hell; and it is preferved
in many cabinets in its rough ftate, and in its yellow
148 appearance, as different fpecies of (hells.
'Violet Vhe violet [hells fo common among the curious, is
a fpecies of porcelain, or common cowry, which does
not appear in that elegance till it has been polilhed ;
and the common fea-ear (hows itfelf in two or
three different forms, as it is more or lefs deeply
wrought. In its rough ftate it is dulky and coarfe, of
O L O G Y. Chap. VI.
a pale brown on the outfide, and pearly within ; when Of the Ha¬
lt is eaten down a little way below the furface, it (hows of^
variegations of black and green; and when ftill farther . c C1
eroded, it appears of a fine pearly hue within and
■without. T49
The nautilus, when it is polifhed down, appears allNautilusr
over of a fine pearly colour; but when it is eaten
away but to a fmall depth, it appears of a fine yellowifti
colour with dulky hairs. The burgau, when entirely
cleared of its coat, is of the mod beautiful pearl co¬
lour : but when (lightly eroded, it appears of a
variegated mixture of green and red ; whence it has
been called ihe parroquet Jhell. The common helmet-
fliell, when wrought, is of the colour of the fined
agate; and the muffels, in general, though very plain
(hells in their common appearance, become very beauti¬
ful when polilhed, and (how large veins of the moft ele¬
gant colours. The Perfian (hell, in its natural date* is
all over white, and covered with tubercles; but when it
has been ground down on a wheel, and poliftied, it
appears of a gray colour, with fpots and veins of.a
very bright and highly pohftied white. The limpets, in
general, become very different when polilhed, moft of
them (howing very elegant colours ; among thefe the
tortoife (liell limpet is the principal; it does not appear
at all of that colour or tranfparence till it has been
wrought. _ j50
That elegant fpecies of (hell called the jonquil-chama, jonq^ii_
which has deceived fo many judges of thefe things in-chama,
to an opinion of its being a new fpecies, is only a white
chama with a reticulated furface ; but when this is po¬
lilhed, it lofes at once its reticular work and its colour,
and becomes perfe&ly fmooth, and of a fine bright
yellow'. The violet-coloured chama of New Eng¬
land, when worked down and polifhed, is of a fine
milk-white, with a great number of blue veins, difpo-
fed like the variegations in agates. . 15I,
The aj[es-ear Jhell, when poliftied after working it The afles*.
down wuth the file, becomes extremely gloffy, and ob-ear (hell,
tains a fine role-colour all about the mouth. Thefe are
fome of the moft frequent among an endlefs variety of
changes wrought on (hells by polilhing ; and we find
there are many of the very greateft beauties of this part
of the creation wdiich muft have been loft but for this
method of fearching deep in the fubftance of the (hell
for them. I52
The Dutch are very fond of (hells, and are very Dutc}, me=
nice in their manner of working them; they are under thod of po«
no reftraint, however, in their works; but uie the moftijfhing
violent methods, fo as often to deftroy all the beauty offliells*
the (hell. They file them down on all fides, and often
take them to the wheel, when it muft deftroy the very
charafters of the fpecies. Nor do they flop here :
but determined to have beauty at any rate, they are
for improving upon nature, and frequently add fome
lines and colours with a pencil, afterwards covering
them with a fine coat of varnifti, fo that they (eem the
natural lineations of the (hell : the Dutch cabinets are
by thefe means made very beautiful, but they are .by no
means to be regarded as inftruflors in natural hiftory.
There are fome artificers of this nation who have a way
of covering (hells all over with a different tinge fiom
that which nature gives them ; and the curious are of¬
ten enticed by thefe tricks to purchafe them for new
fpecies.
1 There
Chap. VI. CONCH
Of the Ha- There is another kind of work beftowed on certain
bitationot fpecies of (hells, particularly the nautilus j namely, the
Shells, &-c. engrav;ng on it lines and circles, and figures of ftars,
v and other things. This is too obvious a work of art
to fuffer any one to fuppofe it natural. Buonani has
figured feveral of thefe wrought (hells at the end of his
work ; but this was applying his labour to very lit¬
tle purpofe •, the (hells are fpoiled as objefts of natural
hiftory by it.—They are principally done in the Eaft
j., Indies.
Imperfec- Shells are fubjeft to feveral imperfeftions ; iome of
tionsof which are natural and others accidental. The natural
fliclls na- defe#,, are the eflfea of age, or ficknefs in the fi(h. The
Sdenul greatefi mifchief happens to (hells by the fi(h dying in
them. The curious in thefe things pretend to be al¬
ways able to diftingui(h a (hell taken up wuth the fi(h
alive from one found on the (hores! they call the fiifl
a living, the fecond a dead (hell j and fay that the co¬
lours are always much fainter in the dead (hells. When
the (hells have lain long dead on the (bores, they
are fubjeft to many injuries, of which the being eaten
by fea-worms is not the lead ; age renders the fined
Ihells livid or dead in their colours.
O L O G Y. 483
Befides the imperfeaions arifing from age and fick- the Ha-
nefs in the fi(h, diells are fubjeft to other deformities, ^
fuch as morbid cavities, or protuberances, in parts ....w
where there diould be none. When the diell is va¬
luable, thefe faults may be hid, and much added to the
beauty of the fpecimen, without at all injuring it as
an objeft of natural hidory, which diould always be the
great end of collefting thefe things. The cavities may
be filled up with madic, diifolved in fpirit of wine, or
with ifinglafs: thefe fubdances mud be either coloured
to the tinge of the (hell, or elfe a pencil dipped in wa¬
ter-colours mud finidi them up to the refemblance of
the red j and then the whole (hell being rubbed over
with gum-Water, or with the white of an egg, fcarce
any eye can perceive the artifice : the fame fubdances
may alfo be ufed to repair the battered edge of a diell,
provided the pieces chipped off be not too large. And
when the excrefcences of a (hell are faulty, they are to
be taken down with a fine file. If the lip of a (hell be
fo battered that it will not admit of repairing by any ce¬
ment, the whole mud be filed down or ground on the
wheel till it become even.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate CLII. Animals inhabiting Shells.
Tig. 1. Chiton aculeatus. Under part (hewing the
bridly fringe. ‘
Fig. 2. Animal inhabiting Lepas tintinnahulum.
Fig. 3. Lepas balanus.
Fig. 4. Lepas anatifera.
Fig. 5. Animal inhabiting the genus Pholas.
Fig. 6. Animal inhabiting the Mya.
Fig. 7. Animal inhabiting the Solen.
Fig. 8. Animal of the Lelhna.
Fig. 9. Animal of the Cardium.
Fig. 10. Animal of the Maftra.
Fig. 11. Animal inhabiting the Donax.
Fig. 12. Animal inhabiting the Venus.
Fig. 13. Animal of the OJlrea.
Fig. 14. Chiton aculeatus. Shell with 8 valves j a,
a, the valves longitudinally arranged, and incumbent
on the back; b, b, the rounded (ides.
Fig. 15. Lepas anatifera. Shell having 5 valves j
ez, the larger valves nearly quadrangular ; b, the leffer
valves nearly triangular, at the apex of the (hell} c,
the folitary valve, rounded, acute.
Fig. 16. Pholas da&ylus. The (hell is bivalve, with
a, a, a, three fublidiary valves ; b, b, the upper extre¬
mity dotted like net-work; c, ci the fuperior tranfverfe-
ly driated.
Plate CLIII.
Fig. 17. Mya margaritifera, the pearl-bearing
muffel.
Fig. 18. Solen radiatUs, radiated folen.
Fig. 19. Lellina radiata, radiated tellina.
Fig. 20. Cardium cardifla, Venus heart cockle 5 n,
<J, beaks approaching to each other.
Fig. 21. MaSlraJlultorum, Ample ma&ra.
Fig. 22. Donax denticulata, denticulated donax.
Fig, 23. Venusfmbriata, bordered Venus (hell.
Fig. 24. Spondylus geedaropui, dilt fpondylus.
Fig. 2 5. Cbatna gigas, giant chama, or gaping
cockle.—This is the larged diell known.
Plate CLIV.
Fig. 26. Jrca Note, Noah’s ark.
Fig. 27. OJlrea pallium, the ducal-mantle pe&en.
Fig. 28. fnomia ephippium.
Fig. 29. Mytilus margaritiferus, pearl-bearing muf¬
fel, or pearl-oyfter of the Ead Indies.
Fig. 30. Pinna muricata, muricated fea-wing.
Fig. 31. Argonauta argo, paper nautilus j a, a, the
(bell*, b, b, b, b, b, the animal protruded from the diell
as it moves on the furface of the water.
Plate CLV.
Fig. 32. Nautilus beccarii, chambered nautilus. A
fe&ion of the (hell ; a, a, a, the genicula; b, b, b, the
articulations ; d, d, the lateral fyphon.
Fig. 33. Cyprcea lynx ; a, a, the lips turned in and
toothed •, b, the linear aperture.
Fig. 34. Cyprcea moneta, cowrie j a, a, knobbed
margin 5 b, back gibbous ; e, e, prominences indead
of a fpire.
Fig. 35. Bulla ampullacea j a, back without fpire $
b, vertex umbilicated.
Fig. 36. Valuta mujica; a, venter, marked with in¬
terrupted lines ; b, bafe emarginated $ c, c, wreaths
crowned at the futures with obtufe fpines j d, d, colu¬
mella or pillar, plaited; e, e, outer lip, fmooth.
Fig. 37. Buccinum harpa, mufical harp-diell; a,
dilated venter ; b, b, b, longitudinal varices, crowned
with c, c, c, (harp fpines.
Fig. 38. Buccinum undatum.
Fig. 39. Strombus fcorpio, fcorpion drombus ; a, a,
a, back with knobby cingula and waved drise; b, fpire
conical; c, c, elevated futures ; d, d, waved margin of
the lip ; e, e, caudal digitus ; /,/, lateral digiti.
3 P 2 Fig, 40’
484 CONCH
Explan a- Fig. 40. Murex tnbulus, thorny woodcock.
' Plates/2 4C. * * * * * 1, Trochus telefcopium, telefcope-top (hellj a,
> —t- ■ the bale ; b, pillar proje&ing, fpiral 5 c, outer lip di¬
lated.
Fig. 42. Turbo fcalaris, wentle-trap ; a, a, cancel¬
lated wreaths j b, membranaceous cingula 5 c, fpire
acute, papillary ; //, aperture circular ; e, e, lip re¬
flexed.
Fig-43* Helix litfttanica; a, umbilicus 5 b, bt bt
round venter j ct doled, femilunar aperture.
Fig. 44. Helix decollata.
Fig* 45* Nerita canrena; a, umbilicus gibbous,
O L O G Y. Chap. VI,
deep ; b, b, outer lip, dilated, arched, entire j «•, lip of iixplana-
the pillar, tranfverfe, truncated. tionofthe
Fig. 46. Haliotis varia ; a, a, ribs acute, and ftri- PIates‘ ,
ated crolswife j b, lateral fpire, with its margin den- v
tated.
Fig. 47. Patella faccharina; a, a, feven ridged
acute ribs j b, obtufe vertex.
Fig. 48. Dentalium arcuatum, arched tooth-lhell.
Fig. 49. Serpu/a glomerata.
Fig. 50. Teredo navalis, Ihip-wortn.
Fig. 51. Sabella alveolate.
INDEX of the Genera, Jhewing the page
on which the Clarification of each Genus begins.
A.
Anomia, - p. 419
Area, - 413
Argonauta, 422
B.
Buccinum, 402
Bulla, - 428
C.
Cardium, - 406
Chama, - 412
Chiton, - 401
Conus, - 424
Cypraea, - 425
D.
Dentalium, p. 461
Donax, - 408
H.
Haliotis, - 45 £
Helix, - 448
L.
Lepas, - 402
M.
Maftra, - 407
Murex, - 438
Mya, - 403
Mytilus, - 420
N.
Nautilus,
Nerita,
O.
Oftrea,
P.
Patella,
Pholas,
Pinna,
S.
Sabella,
Serpula,
Solen, - p. 404
p.423 Spondylus, 412
453 Strombus, 437
T.
414 Tellina, - 404
Teredo, - 463
Trochus, - 442
456 Turbo, - 44J
453
422 V.
Venus, - 40
463 Voluta, - 429
462
INDEX.
y^CORN-Jhell, fpecies of, N° 25
Jldanfon, his fyftem of Ihells, 11
jimphitrite. generic charafter of, 15
Ancients profecute the ftudy of Ihells, 3
Animal gives form to the Ihell, 112
method of killing, 139
Anemia^ fpecies of, 43
Area, fpecies of, 36
Argonauta. 46
Ark [hell, fee Area, 36
Afcidia, generic chara&er of, 15
B.
Bivalves, terms of. defined, 18
generic characters of, 22
Breynius. his fyftem of Ihells, 7
Buccinum, fpecies of, 52
Bulla, fpecies of, 50
C.
Card'um, fpecies of, 30
Chama, fpecies of, 35
CharaSers, generic of teftaceous ani¬
mals, 15
Chiton, fpecies of, 24
Claffification of Ihells, 20
Clio, generic character of, 15
Cockle, fee Cardium, 30
Colours of fhells vary, N° 88
Colouring matter fecreted from the
neck, 89
proved, 90
feeming exceptions, 91
caufes of thefe, 92
changes in the or-
_ gans of, 93
difference of fluidi¬
ty in the matter, 94
motion of the ani¬
mal, 95
of porcelain ftiells, 103
affedted by light, 108
Conchology introduction, 1
importance of, 2
cultivated by the ancients, 3
moderns, 4
Concretions, pearls fuppofed to be
morbid, 122
Cone-(hell, fee Conus, 48
Conus, fpecies of, ib.
Cowrie, fee Cyprcea, 49
Cypreca, fpecies of, ib.
D.
Da-Cofla, his fyftem of {hells, 14
DArgenville, his fyftem of {hells, 9
Dentalium, fpecies of, N° 61
Dipper, fee Bulla, 50
Donax, fpecies of, 31
Doris, generic character of, 15
Dutch method of polifhing (hells, 153
Fifhery, pearl,
F.
in Britain,
in Ceylon,
G.
Haliotis, fpecies of,
Helix, fpecies of,
H.
K.
L.
Land (hells very numerous,
140
141
142
Gaping cockle, fee Chama, 35
Geojfroy, his fyftem of (hells, 12
Grooves, formation of, 118
Growth of (hells, 80
interrupted, 99
59
57
Klein, his fyftem of (hells, ic
opinion of the formation
of (hells, 77
126
Land
c o nc no iio c; v
r{/rt,// //„/}, Sr
(
&<3.
Plate CLXII.
Qo.
y 2/.
C one HOX, O < VY.
7 0
. .//,//?. Att/fifn,-' /rr//.
c on ciio 1.0 c; v.
riutf* ci.tv.
Index. (
Land ihells, method of collecting, N° 137
Langius, his fyftem of (hells, 6
Layer of (hells, laft formed, white, 97
I+ef>as, fpecies of, 25
LAghty effedts of, on (hells, 108
Limax, generic charadter of, 15
Limpety fee Patella, 60
Lift er, his fyflem of (hells, 5
Mr
Mattra, fpecies of, 31
Modernsy progrefs of, in conchology, 4
Muller, his fyftem of (hells, T 3
Multivalves, terms of, defined, 17
Mur ex, fpecies of, 54
Muffely fee Mytilusy 44
Myat fpecies of, 27
margaritifera yields pearl and
mother-of-pearl, ib.
Mytilusy fpecies of, 44
margaritiferus produces pearls, ib,
N.
NautiluSy fpecies of, 47
Nereis, generic charadter of, 15
Nerita, fpecies of, 58
o.
Organs fecreting colouring matter,
enlarge, 96
OJlrea, fpecies of, 37
Oyfter, fee OJlrea edulis, 37
employed as food, 38
of different kinds, 39
[grows on trees in warm cli¬
mates, 40
in Jamaica, ill
the Britilh noted among the
Romans, m
retains its fuperi-
ority, 40
management of, 41
liquid of, feen by the micro-
fcope, 42
P.
Patella, fpecies of, 60
Pearl, component parts of, 70
found in mother-of-pearl (hells, 121
fuppofed to be a morbid con¬
cretion, 122
from external injury, 123
difcovery of its formation by
Linnaeus, 124
fifhery, 140
in Britain, 141
in Ceylon, 142
ONCHOLOG
PhoLSy fpecies of, N° 26
ftriata perforates wood acrofs
the fibre, in
Pihrims vifiting the Holy Land,
wear the fcallop, 37
Pinna, ipecies of, 43
Polijhing (hells, 143
with leather, 144
pumice-ftone, 145
Dutch method, 153
Porcelain (hells, colours of, 103
have an external
layer formed, 104
proved, 105
become thicker, 106
R.
Raxor-fheathy fee Bolen, 26
Reaumur's inveftigation of the for¬
mation of (hells, 73
opinion miftaken 74
controverted, 77
experiments, 79
Ribs of (hells, formation of, 114
only on fea-fhells, 1 > 5
hollow, 119
S.
Sabella, fpecies of, 64
Scallop, fee OJlrea maxima, 37
worn by pilgrims, 111
Sea-ear, fee Haliotis, 59
Sea-wing, lee Pinna, 4 9
Sepia, generic charadter of, 15
Serpula, fpecies of, 62
Shells, conftituent parts of, 71
porcellaneous, 68
mother-of-pearl, 69
formed in the egg, 75
laft formed, 76
procefs of their formation, 80
formed by fecretion from the
animal, 81
time neceffary, 82
layers feen by burning, 84
growth of, interrupted, 99
diftinguiflied by
colour, 101
lower valve colourlefs, 109
fpiral, four claffes, 111
derive their form from the
animal, 112
found on every part of the
globe, 125
land, numerous, 126
tropical, moft beautiful, 127
fea, methods of filhing, 138
Ship-worm, natural hiftory of, 63
Y. 4S
Snails, fee Helix, N® 66
Solen, fpecies of, 26
Species of (hells enumerated, 63
found foffil, 66
Spines, produced, 117
Spio, generic charadter of, 15
Spires of the (hell, turns increafed, 85
Spondylus, fpecies of, 34
Sprat's, Biftiop, hiftory of the oyfter, 41
Strice, formation of, 98
Strombus, fpecies of, 53
Syjlems of conchology, 4
Lifter’s, 5
Langius’s, 6
Breynius’s, 7
Tournefort’s, 8
D’Argenville’s, 9
Klein’s, 10
Adanfon’s, 11
Geoffrey’s, 12
Muller’s, 13
Da Cofta’s, 14
T‘
Tellma, fpecies of, 29
Teredo, fpecies of, 63
Terebella, generic charadter of, 15
Terms explained, 16
in multivalves, 17
bivalves, 18
univalves, 19
Tejlaceous animals both oviparous
and viviparous, 72
detached from
the (hell, 86
Tethys, generic charadter of, 13
Tooth-Jbeil, fee Dentalium, 61
Tournefort's fyftem of (hells, 8
Triton, generic charadter of, 15
Trochus, fpecies of, 3^
Tropical (hells moft beautiful, 1 27
Tubercles on (hells, formation of, 116
Turbo, fpecies of, 56
U.
Umbilicus, formation of, 111
Univalves, terms of, defined, 19
generic charadter of, 23
V.
Valve, lower, of (hells, colourlefs, 109
Venus, fpecies of, 33
Valuta, fpecies of, 31
Volute, fee Valuta, ib.
w.
IVedge-Jlsell, fee Donax, 32
Whelk, fee Buccinum, 52
Wreath, fee Turbo, 56
CONCHY LI A,
CON
f 4S6 ]
e o n
Conclufion.
Conchylia CONCHYLIA, a general name for all petrified
Ihells, as limpets, cochlete, nautili, conchae, lepades,
&c.
CONCIATOR, in the glafs art, is, for the cryftal-
glafs, what the founder is at the green-glafs houfes.
He is the perfon that weighs and proportions the fait
on allies and fand, and works them with a ftrong fire
till they run into lumps and become white 5 and if
the metal be too hard, and confetjuently brittle, he
adds fait or allies, and if too foft, fand ; ftill mixing
them to a fit temper, which is only known by the
working.
CONCINNOUS intervals, in Mufic, are fuch as
are fit for mufic, next to, and in combination with,
concords *, being neither very agreeable nor difagree-
able in themfelves} but having a good effefl, as by
their oppofition they heighten the more effential prin¬
ciples of pleafure: or as, by their mixture and combi¬
nation with them, they produce a variety neceffary
to our being better pleafed.
Conciknous Syjiem, in Mujtc. A fyllem Is faid
to be concinnous, or divided concinnoufly, when its
parts, confidered as fimple intervals, are concinnous ^
and are befides placed in fuch an order between the
extremes, as that the fucceflion of founds, from one ex*
treme to the other, may have an agreeable efifefl.
CONCLAMATIO, in antiquity, a fhout raifed
by thofe prefent at burning the dead, before they fet
fire to the funeral pile. See Shout. The word was
alfo applied to the fignal given to the Roman foldiers
to decamp, whence the exprefiion conclamare vafa;
and conclamare armay was a fignal for battle. It was
likewife ufed for a praftice of calling to a perfon de-
ceafed three times by his name •, and when no reply
was returned, they thus exprefied his deceafe, concla-
tnatum ejl. Whence the fame term was afterwards ap¬
plied to the ceflfation of the Roman empire.
CONCLAVE, the place in which the cardinals of
the Romifh church meet, and are Unit up, in order to
the election of a pope.
The conclave is a range of fmall cells, 10 feet fquare,
made of wainfcot: thefe are numbeied, and drawn
for by lot. They Hand in a line along the galleries
and hall of the Vatican, with a fmall fpace between
each. Every cell has the arms of the cardinal over it.
The conclave is not fixed to any one determinate place,
for the conftitutions of the church allow the cardinals
to make choice of fuch a place for the conclave as
they think molt convenient j yet it is generally held in
the Vatican.
The conclave is very ftriflly guarded by troops ;
neither the cardinals, nor any perfon (hut up in the
conclave, are fpoken to, but at the hours allowed of,
and then in Italian or Latin : even the provifions for
the conclave are examined, that no letters be convey¬
ed by that means from the minifters of foreign powders,
or other perfons who may have an intereft in the elec¬
tion of the pontiff.
Conclave is alfo ufed for the aflembly, or meeting,
of the cardinals (hut up for the ele&ion of a pope.
CONCLUSION, in Logic, the confequences or
judgment drawn from what was alferted in the pre-
mifi-s i or the previous judgments in reafoning, gain¬
ed ‘rom combining the extreme ideas between them-
fclves.
ance.
-V  
CONCOCTION, in Medicine, the change which Conco&io*
the food undergoes in the ftomach, &c. to become „ II ,
, , o ^ 0 Concord-
chyle. bee Lhyle.
CONCOMITANT, fomething that accompanies or u.
goes along with another.
CONCORD, in Grammar, that part of conllruc-
tion called fyntax, in which the words of a 1’entence
agree j that is, in which nouns are put in the fame
gender, number, and cafe ", and verbs in the fame
number and perfon with nouns and pronouns. See
Grammar.
Concord, in Mujtc, the relation of tivo founds that
are always agreeable to the ear, whether applied in
fucceflion or confonance.
Form of Concord, in ecclefiaftical hi'ftory, a ftandard-
book among the Lutherans compofed at Torgaw, in
1576, and thence called the book of Torgaw’, and re¬
viewed at Berg by fix Lutheran dodtors of Germany,
the principal of whom was James Andreae. This
book contains in two parts, a fyllem of dodlrine, the
lubfcription of which was a condition of Communion,
and a formal and very fevere condemnation of all wTho
differed from the compilers of it, particularly with re-
fpedl to the majefty and omniprefence of Chrift’s body,
and the real manducation of his flelh and blood in the
eucharift. It was firfl impofed on the Saxons by Au-
guftus, and occafioned great oppofition and difturbance.
The difpute about it was revived in Switzerland in
1718, when the magiifrates of Bern publilhed an order
for adopting it as the rule of faith ; the confequence
of which was a conteft, that reduced its credit and au¬
thority.
CONCORDANCE, a didlionary or index to the
Bible, wherein all the leading words, ufed in the courfe
of the infpired writings, are ranged alphabetically J
and the various places where they occur referred to 5
to aflirt in finding out paffages, and comparing the fe-
veral fignifications of the fame word.
Cardinal Hugo de St Charo, is faid to have employ¬
ed 500 monks at the fame time in compiling a Latin
concordance } befides which, we have feveral other
concordances in the fame language ; one, in particu¬
lar, called the concordance of England, compiled by J.
Darlington, of the order of Predicants; another more
accurate one, by the Jefuit de Zamora.
R. Mordecai Nathan has furnifhed us with a He¬
brew concordance, firft printed at Venice in I523»
containing all the Hebrew roots branched into their
various fighifications, and under each fignification all
the places in fcripture wherein it occurs: but the beft
and mofl: ufeful Hebrew concordance is that of Bux-
torf, printed at Bafil in 1632.
Dr Taylor publifhed, in 1754, a Hebrew concord¬
ance in two volumes folio, adapted to the Englifh
Bible, and difpofed after the manner of Buxtorf.
The Greek concordances are only for the New
Teftament: indeed wTe have one of Conr. K’rcher s on
the Old ; but this is rather a concordantial diftionary
than a concordance; containing all the Hebrew woids
in an alphabetical order; and underneath all the inter¬
pretations or fenfes the LXX. give them; and in eich
interpretation, all the places where they occur in that
verfion. .
In 1718, Trommius publilhed his Greek concord-,
ance foi the Septuagint at Amfterdam, in two volumes
folio ^
CON [ 487 ] CON
Concordant folio; and Schmidius improving on a iimilar work of
tl H. Stephen, has given an excellent Greek concordance
Concordia. ^ ^ New Teftament, the beft edition of which is
that of Leipfic, an. 1717.
Calafius, an Italian Cordelier, has given us concord¬
ances of the Hebrew, Latin, and Greek, in two co¬
lumns: the firft, which is Hebrew, is that of R. Mor-
decai Nathan, word for word, and according to the
order of the books and chapters : in the other column
is a Latin interpretation of each paffage of fcripture
quoted by R. Mordecai; this interpretation is Cala-
flus’s owrn $ but in the margin he adds that of the
LXX. and the Vulgate, when different from his. The
work is in 4 vols folio, printed at Rome in 1621.
We have feveral very copious concordances in Eng-
lifh, as Newunann’s, &c. but the laft and beft efteem-
ed is that in 410 by Alex. Cruden.
CONCORDANT verses, fuch as have feveral
words in common; but which, by the addition of other
words, convey an oppoftte, at leaft a different meaning,-
Such are thofe.
—C nisi ■ ri Kvenatiir~\ „ . t fervat.
Et 1 K \ in Jilva . V et omnia n „
iuf>us j ^ Inutritur \ f vajlat.
CONCORDAT, in the canon law, denotes a
covenant or agreement concerning fome beneficiary
matter, as a refignation, permutation, promotion, or
the like.
The council of Trent, feff. vi. de reform, cap. 4.
fpeaking of concordats made without the authority
and approbation of the pope, calls them concardias quce
tantum fuos obligant auSores, non ficcejjbres. And the
congregation of cardinals, who have explained this
decree, declares alfo that a concordat cannot be va¬
lid fo as to bind fucceffors, unlefs confirmed by the
pope.
Concordat is alfo ufed, abfolutely, among the
French, for an agreement concluded at Bologna in
1516, between Pope Leo X. and Francis I. of France,
for regulating the manner of nominating to benefices.
The concordat ferves in lieu of the pragmatic fanc-
tion, which has been abrogated ; or, rather, it is the
pragmatic fanftion foftened and reformed. The con¬
cordat between the pope and the republic of Venice
refembles the former.
There is alfo a German concordat, made between
the emperor Frederic III. and the princes of Germa¬
ny, in 1448, relating to beneficiary matters, confirmed
by Pone Nicholas V.
CONCORDIA, a town of Italy, in the duchy of
Mirandola ; feated on the river Sechia, 5 miles weft
of Mirandola, and 15 miles fouth-eaft of Mantua;
fubjeff to the houfe of Auftria. E. Long. 11. 13.
N. L?.t. 44. 52.
Concordia, in Ancient Geography, a town of the Ve-
neti, fituated at the confluence of the rivers Romatinus
M.'.jor and Minor, 31 miles to the weft of Aquileia,
(Pliny, Ptolemy, Antonine) ; a colony furnamed
Its ruins ftill go by the name of Concordia.—Another
Concordia (Ptolemy), of Lufitania, to the north-weft
of Trajan’s bridge, on the Tagus.—A third of the
Nemetes in Belgica, on the weft fide of the Rhine ; a
Roman fortrefs, fituated between Brocomagus and No-
viomagus. Now Drufenheirn, in Alface. E. Lon?.
8. N. Lat. 48. 40,
Concordia, a Pagan divinity of the Romans. She Concordia
had a temple on the declivity of the Capitol ; another Qon|!u^j
in the Portico of Livia ; and a third on Mount Pala- na^e. *
tine, built of brafs by Cn. Flavius, on account of y — J
a vow made for reconciling the fenate and people. She
was piftured with a cup in her right hand ; in her
left was fometimes a fceptre, and fometimes a cornu-
copia. Her fymbols were two hands joined, as is feen
in a coin ot Aurelius Venus, and another of Nero ; alfo
two ferpents twilling about a Caduceus. She was ad-
dreffed to promote the peace and union of families and
citizens.
CONCOU, in Botany, a name given by the people
of Guinea to an herb, which isin great elteem among
them for killing that troublefome fort of worm called
the Guinea-worm, that breeds in their flelh. They
bruife the leaves, and mixing them with oil apply
them in form of a cataplafm.
CONCRE TE, in the fchool-philofophy, an alfem-
blage or compound.
Concrete, in Natural Philofophy and Chemiftry,
fignifies a body made up of different principles, or any
mixed body : thus, foap is a faftitious concrete, mix¬
ed together by art ; and antimony is a natural con¬
crete, or a mixed body compounded in the bowels of
the earth.
CONCRETION, the uniting feveral fmall particles
of a natural body into fenfible m ifl’es or concretes,
whereby it becomes fo and lo figured and determined,
and is endued with fuch and fuch properties.
Concretion is alfo the a£f whereby foft bodies are
rendered hard ; or an infenfible motion of the particles
of a fluid or foft body, whereby they come to a con-
fiftence. It is indifferently ufed for induration, conden-
fation, congelation, and coagulation.
CONCUBINAGE fometimes expreffes a criminal
or prohibited commerce between the two fexes ; in
which fenfe it comprehends adultery, inceft, and-Ample
fornication.
In its more reftrained fenfe, concubinage is ufed for
a man’s and a woman’s cohabiting together in the way
of marriage, without having pafi'ed the ceremony
thereof.
Concubinage was anciently tolerated : the Roman
law calls it an allowed cuftom, licita confuetudo. When
this expreflion occurs in the conrtitutions of the
Chriftian emperors, it lignifies what we now call a
marriage in confcience.
The concubinage tolerated among the Romans in
the time of the republic, and of the heathen emperors,
was that between perfons not capable of contradfing
marriage together; nor did they even refufe to let in¬
heritances defcend to children which fprung from fuch
a tolerated cohabitance. Concubinage between fuch
perfons they looked on as a kind of marriage, and even
allowed it feveral privileges; but then this concubinage
was confined to a fingle perfon, and was of perpetual
obligation as much as marriage itfelf. Hottoman ob*
ferves, that the Roman laws had allowed of concubi¬
nage long before Julius Caefar made that law whereby
every one was allowed to marry as many wives as he
pleafed. The emperor Valentinian, Socrates tell us,
allowed every man two.
Concubinage is alfo ufed for a marriage performed
with lefs folemnity than the formal marriage : or a
1 marriage
CON [ 488 ] CON
Concubi- marriage rvlcli a woman of inferior condition, and to
na£e» whom the hufband does not convey his rank or qua-
C oncubme. Cujas obferves, that the ancient laws allowed a
man to efpoufe, under the title of concubine, certain
perfons, fuch as were efteemed unequal him, on ac¬
count of the want of fome qualities requihte to fuftain
the full honour of marriage. He adds, that though
concubinage was beneath marriage, both as to dignity
and civil effefts •, yet was concubine a reputable title,
very different from that of miftrefs among us. The
commerce w7as efleemed fo lawful, that the concubine
might be accufed of adultery in the fame manner as a
wife.
This kind of concubinage is ftill in ‘ufe in fome
countries, particularly in Germany, under the title of
a half marriage, morgingabic marriage ox marriage with
the left-hand; alluding to the manner of its being con-
trafted, viz. by the man’s giving the woman his left
hand indead of the right. This is a real marriage, though
without folemnity : the parties are both bound for
ever ; though the w'oman be thus excluded from the
common rights of a wife for want of quality or for¬
tune.
The children of concubines were not reputed either
legitimate or baftards, but natural children, and were
capable only of donations. They were deemed to
retain the low rank of the mother ; and w7ere on this
ground unqualified for inheriting the effects of the
father.
Concubinage, in a legal fenfe, is ufed as an excep¬
tion againft her that fueth for dower, alleging there¬
by, that Ihe was not a wife lawfully married to the
party, in whofe lands ihe feeks to be endowed, but his
* concubine.
CONCUBINE, a woman whom a perfon takes to
cohabit with him, in the manner, and under the cha-
ra&er, of a wife, without being authorifed thereto by
a legal marriage.
Concubine is alfo ufed for a real, legitimate, and
only wife, diftinguiihed by no other circumftance but
a difparity of birth or condition between her and the
-hufband. Du Cange obferves, that one may gather
from feveral paffages in the epiftles of the popes, that
they anciently allowed of fuch concubines. The fe-
venteenth canon of the firft council of Toledo declares,
that he who, with a faithful wife, keeps a concubine,
is excommunicated ; but that if the concubine ferved
him as a wife, fo that he had only one woman, under
the title of concubine, he fhould not be reje&ed from
communion : which fhow’S that there were legitimate
wives under the title of concubines.
In effect, the Roman laws did not allow7 a man to
cfpoufe whom he pleafed ; there was required a kind
of parity, or proportion, between the conditions of the
contra&ing parties : but a woman of inferior condi¬
tion, who could not be efpoufed as a wife, might be
kept as a concubine ; and the law’s allowed of it, pro¬
vided the man had no other wife.
It is certain the patriarchs had a great number of
wives, and that thefe did not all hold the fame rank j
fome being fubaltern to the principal wife ; which
were what w7e call concubines or half-wives. The Ro¬
mans prohibited a plurality of concubines, and only
bad regard to the children iffuing from a lingle concu¬
bine, becaufe fhe might become a legitimate wife.
I
Solomon had 700 wives and 300 conbubines; the Cohetipif.
emperor of China has fometimes two or three thoufand ce,I|lcc
concubines in his palace. Qj_ Curtius obferves, that cmuie,
Darius was followed in his army by 365 concubines, y—<
all in the equipage of queens.
CONCUPISCENCE, according to divines, an ir¬
regular appetite, or luft after carnal things, inherent in
the nature of man ever fince the fall.
COND, Con, or Conn, in fea-language, fignifies to
guide or conduft a ihip in her right courfe. He that
cons her, ftands aloft with a compafs before him, and
gives the word of direftion to the man at the helm
how he is to fleer. If the fliip go before the wind,
or, as they call it, betwixt the Iheets, the wmrd is either
ftarboard, or port the helm 5 according as the conder
would have the helm put to the right or left fide of
the fliip, upon which the ftiip always goes the contrary
way. If he fays, helm a midfliip, he would have the
fhip to go right before the wind, or direflly betw’een
her two flieets. If the fliip fail by a wind, or on a
quarter wind, the word is, aloof, keep your luff, fall
not off, veer no more, keep her to, touch the w’ind,
have a care of the lee-latch : all which expreflions are
of the fame import, and imply that the fteerfman
fhould keep the fhip near the wind. On the contrary,
if he would have her fail more large, or more before
the w'ind, the word is, eafe the helm, no near, bear
up. If he cries fteady, it means, keep her from go¬
ing in and out, or making yaw's ^asthey call it), how-
foever fhe fails, whether large or before a wind : and
when he would have her go juft as {he does, he cries,
keep her thus, thus, &c.
COND ATE, in Ancient Geography, a town of Ar¬
morica in Gaul : called Civitas Rhedonutn, in the No-
titia ; afterw’ards Redona ; Redonica Regio, the diftridh
Hence the modern navntRcnnes, in Britanny. W. Long.
I. 45. Lat. 48. 5. Another Condate of Britain (Anto-
nine) 5 now thought to be Congleton in Yorkfhirej
others fay in Lancaftiire.
CONDE, Lewis de Bourbon prince of, was born
at Paris Sept. 7. 1621. He was ftyled Duke d’En-
guien, till he fucceeded to the title of Prince of Conde
by his father’s death in 1646. As he w7as of a tender
and delicate conftitution, the prince fent him to the
caftle of Montrond in Berry, that he might breathe a
more pure and falutary air. Here he was educated in
his infancy by fome experienced and prudent citi¬
zens wives. When he was of a proper ag£> the
prince took upon himfelf the talk of governor, and
appointed for his aiTsflant M. de la Bouflieres, a pri¬
vate gentleman, a man of honour, fidelity, and good
nature, and who made it a rule to obferve inviolably
the orders that were given him. Two Jefuits diftin-
guifhed for their genius and knowdedge were alfo gi¬
ven him for preceptors. He formed him a houfehold
of 15 or 20 officers, all men of the greateft virtue and
diferetion.
W7ith thefe attendants the duke d’Enguien w7ent to
fettle at Bourges, where he frequented the college of
Jefuits. Here, befides the ordinary ftudies,. he was
taught ancient and modern hiftory, mathematics, geo¬
graphy, declamation ; alfo riding and dancing, in
which laft he foon excelled. He made fuch a furpri-
flng progrefs, that before the age of 13 he defended
in public fome queftions in philofop.hy with incredible
r applaufe.
CON [ 4^9 ] CON
Conde. applaufe. At his return from Montrond, he had for
his tutor M. de Merille 5 a man deeply vcrfed in the
knowledge of common law, of ancient and modern
laws, of the holy fcriptures, and of the mathematics.
Under his direction the duke went through that new
courfe with prodigious fuccefs. He acquired a criti¬
cal tafte in the arts and fciences, which he retained all
his life *, he never fuffered a day to pafs without de¬
dicating two or three hours at leaft to reading ; his
third: for knowledge was univerfal, and he endeavour¬
ed to fearch every thing to the bottom. His chief in¬
clination, however, lay towards the military art ; and
at the age of 18 he obtained permiffion to make his
firft campaign as a volunteer in the army commanded
by M. de-la Meilleraye. This campaign wTas unfortu¬
nate •, and the duke d’Enguien was onlv a witnefs of
the marlhal’s imprudence and difgrace. Neveithelefs,
in this campaign he laid the foundation of that renown
which made him afterwards confidered as the greatell
general of his age.
On his return to Paris, the duke waited upon Car¬
dinal Richelieu at Ruel. That minilier was fo pleafed
with his converfation, that he foon after made pro-
pofals of an alliance with the prince of Conde, by
marrying the duke d’Enguien to Claire Clemence
de Maille Breza, the cardinal’s niece. The duke
confented to this match out of obedience to his fa¬
ther 5 but the force he put upon himfelf by yield¬
ing to it was fo great, that he fell dangeroufiy ill. It
was long before he got the better of his dillemper;
but at length he not only recovered, but became fo
ftrong as afterwards to bear the greateft fatigues with
eafe.
The duke made two more campaigns as a volun¬
teer ; the one under the marfhal de la Meilleraye, the
other in the army of Louis XIII. which conquered
Rcuflillon, In 1643, at ^ age of 22, he obtained
from the king, at the perfuafion of Cardinal Mazarin,
the command of the army deftined to cover Cham¬
pagne and Picardy j which command was confirmed
to him after the king’s death by the queen regent,
Anne of Auftria, to whofe intereft he was ftrongly
devoted. In this ftation, though he never had been
prefent at any battle, he foon gave fuch a fpecimen of
his abilities as crowned him with glory. The Spa¬
niards, who threatened France wdth an invafion, were
defeated by him at Rocroi; and this fignal vi&ory
made him from that time confidered as the guardian
genius of his country. He next formed the projeft
of befieging Thionville, and propofed it to the coun¬
cil of regency. They confented with fear and dif*
tru 1 ; but the duke carried it into execution with
luch fkill, activity, and courage, that he became juftly
the fubjeft of general admiration. In tw-o months
time Thionville furrendered. At length, having co¬
vered Allace and Lorrain from the enterprifes of the
Imperialifts, the duke returned to Paris, where he ob¬
tained the government of Champagne, and of the
-city of Stenai.
The three following years were little more than a
feries of military operations. The three battles of
Fribourg, in which the duke d’Enguien triumphed
over Veit Marfhal count de Mercy, the greateft gene¬
ral m all Germany ; the taking of Philipfbourg, and a
great number of other places, which rendered him
Vol. VI. Part II. '
mafter of the palatinate, a d of the whole courfe of C°n
the Rhine ; the vi£fory of Nortlingue, by which ht re- M
venged the vifeount du Turenne’s defeat at Mariendal ;
the fiege and conquelt of Dunkiik , the good and bad
fuccefs of his arms in Catalonia, where, though he wras
forced to raife the fiege of Lerida, he kept the Spa¬
niards in awe, and cut to pieces their rear guard j thefe
are the principal events which diftinguilh tiie campaigns
of 1644, 1645, and 1646.
The victories of the duke d’Enguien, his great re¬
putation and efteem with the people, began now t«
give umbrage to Mazarin. The cardinal’s diflike to
him appeared on the death of the duke de Breze, ad¬
miral of France. The prince of Conde earneftly de¬
manded for his Ion the duke de Breze’s places. But
Mazarin, afraid of increafing the wealth and power
of a prince whom his victories and the love and con¬
fidence of the people and the army had already ren¬
dered too formidable to him, evaded his requeft, by
perfuading the queen to take the admiralty tq herfelf.
On the death of his father, the minifter’s diflike to the
young prince of Conde became ftill more apparent.
By the minifter’s perfuafion he had accepted of the
command of the army in Catalonia j but, on his arri¬
val at Barcelona, he found neither troops, money, ar¬
tillery, provifions, nor ammunition. Enraged at this
deception, he vented his refentment in bitter com¬
plaints and fevere threats ; but by the refources that
he found in this dilemma, the prince added new luftre
to his glory.
The campaign of 1648 was as glorious to Conde as
thofe which preceded it had been. To difconcert at
once the projefts of the arch-duke Leopold, the prince
refolved to attack him even in the heart of the Low
Countries; and nbtvvithftanding the confiderable dif¬
ficulties which he had to furmount, he befieged the
important city of Ypres, and took it in fight of all the
enemy’s forces.
Notwithftanding this fuccefs, Conde faw himfelf at
the point of experiencing the greateft: reverfe of for¬
tune. His army was a prey to fcarcity, to naked-
nefs, contagious diftempers, and defertion. For eight
months it received no fuppiy from the minifter, but half
a mufter. Every thing was fupplied by the prince
himfelf; he laviihed his money, and borrowed more
to fuppiy his troops. When it was reprefented to
him that he was in danger of ruining himfelf by fuch
an enormous expence, he replied, that “ fince he every
day ventured his life for the fervice of his country, he
could very well facrifice his fortune to it. Let but the
government exit! (added he), and I ftiall want for no¬
thing.”
The French army having been reinforced by 400®
of the troops of Weimar, Conde attacked the Spa¬
niards advantageoufly encamped near Lens, and gained
a complete viifory over them, which difabled them
from attempting any thing more, and even from fup-
porting themfelves. Afterwards he befieged Furnes,
the garrifon of which, 50c men, furrendered themlelves
prifoners of war. But the prince was wounded there
in the trenches by a mufket-fhot above the right hip ;
and the contufion was fo great, that he was forced to
fubmit to feveral incifions.
The French court, animated with the viftory at
Lens, thought this a proper time to take vengeance
3 Qw
CON
Cohde. on the fa£tions which for fome time had violently
"■'"'v “11 ' agitated the kingdom $ and accordingly imprifoned
Brouffel and Blancmenil, two of the principal leaders
of the country party. This vigorous proceeding, how¬
ever, occafioned a general revolt. Two hundred thou-
fand men took arms in Paris, barricaded the ftreets,
inverted the palais-royal, and demanded the prifoners.
It was neceflary to releafe them $ but from that time
the regal authority was annihilated ; the queen was
expofed to a thoufand infults, and Mazarin dared no
longer venture out of the palais-royal. In this em-
barraffment the queen recalled the prince of Conde,
as the only one from whom (he could hope for fup-
port. He retired to Ruel, whither the regent had
gone with the young king and Mazarin. Anne of
Auftria propofed to him the reducing of Paris by force
of arms : but he calmed the refentments of that prin-
cefs j and iflftead of being acceffory to her vengeance,
he diredled aR his views to pacify the kingdom, and
at length brought about an accommodation between
the parties, who defired it with equal ardour. But
new incidents foon rekindled the combuftion. The
treachery of Mazarin, and the artifices of the leaders
of the country party, occafioned new cabals and frerti
troubles. Conde was careffed by the leaders of both
parties j but at laft, enraged at the arrogance of the
malecontents, who every day formed new pretenlions,
he took part openly with the court, though he thought
it ungrateful, and protected the minifter, though he
did not efteem him.
The royal family, the duke of Orleans, Conde, and
Mazarin, left Paris privately in the night between the
jth and 6th of January 1646, and went to St Ger¬
mains. The parliament fent deputies to learn from
the queen herfelf the reafons of her departure, and
to beg her to name the citizens whom (Ire fufpe&ed,
that they might be tried. Mazarin had the impru¬
dence to difmifs them without any anfwer. Exafpe-
rated at this, the people again took up arms in order
to defend themfelves againft the enterprifes of the
court, who had determined to block up and to ftarve
the capital, in order to fupprefs the party of malecon¬
tents. With 7 or 8000 men, the broken relics of the
laft campaign, the prince of Conde formed a defign of
reducing above 500,000 intrenched behind walls. He
had neither money nor magazines j he faw himfelf in
the depth of a moft fevere winter •, neverthelefs he
triumphed over Paris, and this great fuccefs completed
his glory. It did him fo much the more honour,
as during the fiege he conftantly defeated the troops
of the malecontents; he prevailed on the army that
marched to their afliftance under Turenne, to aban¬
don that general; he flopped the progrefs of the duke
de Longueville, who had caufed an infurreftion in
Normandy ; and got the ftart of the Spaniards, who
were advancing to give him battle.
Condi de Retz, coadjutor of Paris, and afterwards
cardinal, was the life and foul of the revolters, and
directed all their motions. He had taken Catiline
for his model; and was equally intrepid and capable
of the greateft aftions ; of an exalted genius, but go¬
verned by his ambition. He diftinguiflred his hatred
to Mazarin by arming the malecontents; and he him¬
felf raifed at his own expence a regiment which he
called the regiment of Corinth : as foon as this corps
CON
took the field during the blockade of Paris, it was de- Conde.
feated and difperfed. This check was called the JirJl —y—
to the Corinthians. The peace was figned at St Ger¬
mains ; but neither party carried its point, and fcarce
any one but Conde acquired glory by this war. After
the conclufion ot the treaty, the prince repaired to the
capital, and traverfed all the ftreets in his coach alone.
All perfons of any confequence paid their compli¬
ments to him, anS the parliament lent a folemn depu¬
tation to thank him for the peace to which he had fo
powerfully contributed. The people, however, made
loud complaints on account of the king’s abfence (for
the court was not yet returned to Paris), and the
malecontents gave reafon to apprehend a new infurrec-
tion. Conde encouraged the king and queen to re-
turji ; and at length brought them to Paris, amidft the
acclamations and bleflings of the public.
The important fervice which Conde had juft done
the court entitled him to the acknowledgments of the
queen, and efpecially of Mazarin ; but the dark foul
of that cardinal only remembered it to punilh a too
fortunate and too powerful proteftor. He privately
fw'ore the prince’s deftruftion ; at lead that he ftrould
give the whole kingdom a pattern of fubmiflion and
dependence on his will. However, not to excite the
public indignation, he ftill kept up appearances with
the prince, while he fecretly fpread about him difgufts,
fufpicions, fnares of every kind, and the moft heinous
calumnies. The ungrateful minifter deceived the
prince by making him the moft flattering propofals ;
and with the moft alluring promifes which he always
found means to avoid fulfilling. The enraged prince
defpifed the minifter, and treated him with difdain.
After this they w^ere reconciled again only to be again
at variance. Each of them in their turn courted the
country party, in order to made it fubfervient to their
defigns. At laft Mazarin thought of an expedient,
which but too effedlually anfw’ered his purpofe, of ma¬
king an irreconcileable quarrel between that party
and the piince. Among the malecontents the mar¬
quis de la Boulaie, a man of an infamous charafter,
had obtained the confidence of the party by falfe ap¬
pearances of hatred to the cardinal, but fecretly kept
up a correfpondence wuth him. It is pretended that
he made him an offer of privately killing Conde.
Mazarin wras charmed with the propofal; yet he only
required Boulaie to exhibit all the proofs of an affaf-
fination, and to aft in fuch a manner that every thing
might concur to render the country party fulpefted of
that crime. He was punftually obeyed ; the coach
was flopped ; fome piftols were fired at it ; by which
two of the footmen were dangeroufly wounded ; and,
after that (hameful exploit, la Boulaie took refuge in
the hotel of the duke of Beaufort, who was the hero
of the party, in order no doubt to countenance the
prince’s fufpicion of the malecontents. Luckily Conde
was not in his coach wrhen it wTes flopped ; the car¬
dinal had fpread the report of his intended affaflina-
tion ; and in concert wfith the queen and the prince
he had prevailed to have the coach fent away empty,
to prove the reality of the attempt. Mazarin counter¬
feited a zeal for the prince’s life ; he furioufly declaim¬
ed againft the malecontents, who, he pretended, had
made an attempt on a life fo precious to the ftate ; and
he inflamed Conde’s refentment againft the duke of
Beaufort
[ 49° 1
CON [ 49i ] CO N
Conde. Beaufort and the coadjutor, whom he luppofed to
be t!ie authors of this heinous outrage. The prince
was fo ftrongly prejudiced, that he refufed to hear
them when they appeared before him to juftify them-
felves. He demanded juttice againft them of the king:
he formally accufed them before the parliament, and
remained inflexible in fpite of the pains which the
leaders of the party took to demonftrate to him that
he had been impofed upon. However, the affair was
brought before the parliament} the accufed defended
themfelves, and the coadjutor, who had difcovered
the cardinal’s fecret, unmalked him fo well, that the
prince agreed to a private negociation with the male-
contents 5 he required nothing more than the coad¬
jutor’s leaving Paris, but with the rank of ambaffador
to Rome or Vienna. That prelate would have con-
fented to it, to fatisfy Conde, if Mazarin, fame days
after, had not given him the choice of any recom-
penfe, in order to engage his concurrence in the
prince’s deftru&ion. Affairs were now in fuch a dan¬
gerous fituation, that the cardinal faw clearly it was
neceflary to haften to the winding up of the plot.
Mafter of the queen’s mind, which he guided as he
pleafed 5 and fure of having inflamed againfl Conde
all the refentment of the malecontents $ he fought and
obtained, by means of the duchefs Chevreufe, the fup-
port of that powerful faction, which connefted itfelf
the more readily with him, in hopes that the princess
fall would foon enable it tocrufb without difficulty the
cardinal himfelf. The coadjutor had private confe*
rences with the queen and the minifter. Conde had
notice of it ; and in order to difcover if it were true,
he endeavoured to furprife it from Mazarin’s own
mouth. “ Cardinal (laid he, one day), it is publicly
reported that you have nightly meetings with the co¬
adjutor, difguifed like a trooper.” He accompanied
this fpeech with a quick and penetrating look : but
the cardinal, who was a perfecff mafter of diffimulation,
anfwered him in fuch a free, artlefs-like manner, that
he entirely removed Conde’s apprehenfions; and he
flighted the information he had received, of the plot
forming againft him.
Mazarin wanted nothing but the fupport of the duke
of Orleans *, and at laft found means, by the duchefs of
Chevreufe, to inflame the jealoufy of that fickle and
inconftant prince, and to engage him to confent to the
imprifonment of Conde. Having thus united all par¬
ties, and fearing no other obftacle, this ungrateful and
perfidious minifter made preparations for privately ar-
refting the prince : the order for it was ftgned [anuary
18th 1650. Conde having that day repaired as ufual
to the palais-royal, to affift at council with the prince
of Conti and the duke of Longueville, the queen gave
orders to arreft them all three, and convey them with¬
out any noife to the caftle of Vincennes. She was in-
ftantly obeyed, and the princes were ftri&ly guarded
in that prifon.
In this unexpefted reverfe of fortune, the fortitude
and greatnefs of Conde’s mind appeared only the more
remarkable. Confined with the other two princes in
the tower of Vincennes, where neither fupper, furni¬
ture, nor beds, were provided, he contented himfelf
with two new laid eggs, and threw himfelf in his
clothes, on a trufs of ftraw, where he flept 12 hours
without waking. He ftill retained his cheerfulnefs,
and dedicated the greateft part of his time to reading, Comte,
the reft to converfation, playing at battle-door and —v~~"
fhuttle-cock, to bodily exercifes, and the cultivation of
flowers.
Mazarin triumphed at the dilgrace of the princes,
profcribed all thofe who were attached to Conde, and
behaved in the moft infolent and arbitrary manner.
The prince’s friends, however, notwithftanding their
being ftriftly watched, found means to keep up a punc¬
tual correfpondence with him. They made various at¬
tempts to releafe him : they raifed troops $ in particu¬
lar, the dukes of Bouillon and Rochefoucault, and the
vifcount de Turenne. The princefs of Conde engaged
the province of Guienne to declare in his favour ; fhe
made w7ar, in order to force the court to releafe him j
at length the partizans of the prince figned a treaty
with the Spaniards, to labour in concert for his en¬
largement, But all thefe efforts would, perhaps, have
been ineffeflual, if other more powerful refources had
not been employed.
In that gallant and warlike age, every thing was
managed by the paffions and intrigues of five or fix
women, who poffeffed the confidence of the leaders ol
the ftate, and of the various parties. The princefs of
Mantua, wufe to one of the fons of the elector Pala¬
tine, king of Bohemia, principally dire&ed the coun-
fels in the party of the princes. She found means to
reconcile the duke of Orleans, the coadjutor, and the
malecontents, with the friends ofthe prince, and united
their efforts againft the cardinal. The parliament, on
the other fide, loudly demanded the releafe of the pri-
foners. All the orders of the ftate united in foliciting
it, infomuch that the queen was at laft prevailed on to
give her confent. At this new?s, Mazarin wras fo con¬
founded, that he fled in the difguife of a trooper, and
arrived at the gates of Richlieu, where a body of horfe
waited for him. The parliament, informed by the
queen of his flight, thundered forth an arret, by which
he was obliged to leave the kingdom, with his family
and foreign fervants, in the fpace of 15 days, under
the penalty of being expofed to a criminal profecu-
tion. The queen defired to follow him w'ith the king ;
but the nobles and burghers inverted the palais royal,
and prevented the execution of this projeft, wffiich
would have kindled a civil war. Mazarin, therefore,
perceiving that it was impoffible for the queen to join
him, determined to go himfelf to reftore the princes
to their liberty, and to get the ftart of*the deputies
who were coming to acquaint them with it. On his
arrival at Havre, he informed the princes that they
were free •, he entreated Conde’s friendfhip ; and was
fo abjedrt as to proftrate himfelf at the feet of him
whom he had fo bafely opprefled. Conde gave him
a polite reception, and fpoke to him in a free and
cheerful tone 5 but tired with the mean fubmiffions
which the cardinal laviflied upon him, he left him
without making any promife, and fet out on his re¬
turn to Paris, which he entered as it were in triumph,
amidft the acclamations of all orders of men, and the
demonftrations of a moft fincere and general joy.
After this a civil war enfued, in which the prince
of Conde fided with the malecontents. Being preffed
by the king’s army, he retired into the fuburbs of
St Anthony, where he behaved with the utmoft bra¬
very ; when the citizens opened their gates and re-
3 0^2 ceived
CON [ 492 ] CON
•Condemna- cexved him in $ and a peace enfued foon after. His
t,°n hatred of the cardinal, however, made him quit Pa-
Condenfer r‘s> anc^ ta^e refuge among the Spaniards, who made
fc——Y——* him generaliffimo of their forces 5 and he took Ro-
cioi. The peace of the Pyrenees reftored him to
his country 5 and he again fignalized himfelf at the
head of the king’s armies. Being afflifted with the
gout, he refufed the command of the army in 1676,
and retired to Chantilly, where he was as much
eftcemed for the virtues of peace, as he had been be¬
fore for his military talents. He died in 1686, at Fon-
tainbleau.
Conde, a town of the French Netherlands, in the
province of Hainault, with the title of a principali¬
ty, and a caftle. It is one of the ftrongeft towns in
this country, and feated near the continence of the
rivers Haifne and Scheldt. It was taken by the allies
in 1793, and retaken by the French in 1794. Its
name by the convention wras changed to Noid Libre.
E. Long. 3. 39. N. Lat. 50. 27.
Conde, a town of France, in the department of
Calvados, which carries on a conliderable trade j feat¬
ed on the river Nereau, 15 miles well of Paris. W.Long.
o. 37. N. Lat. 48. 50.
CONDEMNATION, the a6t of giving judgment,
palling or pronouncing fentence againft a perfon who
is thus fubjefted to fome penalty or punilhment, either
in refpeft of life, reputation, or fortune.
CONDENSATION, the aft whereby a body is
rendered more denfe, compaft, and heavy. The word
is commonly applied to the converfion of vapour into
water, by diftillation, or naturally in the clouds. The
way in which vapour commonly condenfes, is by the
application of fome cold fubrtance. On touching it,
the vapour parts with its heat which it had before ab-
forbed 5 and on doing fo, it immediately lofes the pro¬
per charadteriftics of vapour, and becomes water. But
though this is the molt common and ufual way in which
xve obferve vapour to be condenfed, nature certainly
proceeds after another method ; fince we often obferve
the vapours moll plentifully condenfed when the wea¬
ther is really warmer than at other times. See the ar¬
ticles Cloud, Evaporation, &c.
CONDENSER, a pneumatic engine, or fyringe,
with which a greater quantity of air may be crowded
into a given fpace ; fo that fometimes ten atmofpheres,
or ten times as much air as there is at the fame time in
the fame fpace, under the ufual preffure, may be thrown
in by means of it, and its egrefs prevented by valves
properly difpofed.
It confifts of a brafs cylinder, wherein is a moveable
piilon ; which being drawn out, the air rulhes into the
cylinder through a hole provided on purpofe ; and
when the piilon is again forced into the cylinder, the
air is driven into the receiver through an orifice, fut-
nilhed with a valve to hinder its getting out.
The receiver or velfel containing the condenfed air,
Ihould be made very llrong, to bear the force of the
air’s fpring thus increafed ; for which reafon they are
generally made of brafs j its orifice is fitted with a fe¬
male fcrew to receive the male fcrew at the end of the
condenfer.
If glafs be ufed for a cotidenfer, it will not fuffer fo
great a degree of condenfation 3 but the experiment
will be more entertaining, lince the fubjeft may be Condition
viewed in the condenfed air. il
_ CONDITION, in the civil law, a claufe of obliga- ,Coi,dorce:
tion llipulated as an article of a treaty or a contradl ;
or in a donation of a tellament, legacy, &c. in which
laft cafe a donee does not lofe his donative if it be char¬
ged with any dilhonell or impoflible conditions.
CONDITIONAL, fomething not abfolute, but
fubjedl to conditions.
Conditional Conjunctions, in Grammar, are thofe
which ferve to make propofitions conditional ; as if,
unlefs, provided, &c.
Conditional Propq/itions, in Logic, fuch as confill
of two parts connedleci together by a conditional par¬
ticle.
Conditional Syllogifm, a fyllogifm where the major
is a conditional propolition. Thus,
If there is a God, he ought to be worlhipped.
But there is a God ;
Therefore he ought to be worlhipped.
CONDIVICNUM, in Ancient Geography, the ca¬
pital of the Namnetes, in Armorica. No%v Nantes in
Brittany, on the Loire, from its name Civitas Natnne-
tum. W. Long. t. 30. Lat. 47. 15.
CONDOM, a town of Gafcony in France, ca¬
pital of the Condomois, with a bilhop’s fee. It is
but a poor place, and the trade is very fmall. It
is feated on the river Geliffe, in E. Long. o. 22.
N. Lat. 44.
CONDOR, or Contor. See Vultur, Ornitho¬
logy Index.
CONpORCET, John-Antony Nicholas Cari-
tat, marquis of, a French writer, and political cha-
rafter of confiderable eminence, defcended from an an¬
cient family from the principality of Orange, and born ,
at Ribemont in Picardy, in 1743. He received his
education at the college of Navarre, where he was
dillinguilhed at an early period of life for his llrong
attachment to the lludy of phyfics and mathematics.
On .his entrance into public life, he eftablilheda friend¬
ly intercourfe with'Voltaire, D’Alembert, and other
literary charadlers, who profeffed opinions analogous to
his own, and formed a very powerful party among the
French literati, whofe united efforts to propagate their
idejts of religion and politics, have been applauded or
condemned, according to the principles of their dif¬
ferent judges. Condorcet full attracted the attention
of the public as a mathematician, obtaining their ap¬
probation for his treatife on integral calculations,
which he compofed at the age of 22. In the year
1767, his folution of the problem of the Three Bodies
made its appearance, and in the following year the
firfl. part of his “ Effay on Analylis.” In the year
1769 he was received a member of the Academy of Sci¬
ences, the memoirs of which were greatly enriched by
him with different papers on the moll abftrufe branches
of mathematical fcience. His jullly merited reputation
pointed him out as a fit perfon to cooperate with
D’Alembert and Bolfut, in alfifting M. Turgot, that
celebrated miniller and able financier, with arithmeti¬
cal calculations. In the mean time he laboured inde-
fa tig ably in the Hudy of politics and metaphyfics, and
defended, in an anonymous publication, the fe£l of
philofaphers, to which he. had attached himfelf, from
an
CON [ 493 j CON
Condorcet. an attack made upon them in the Trois Siecles; and
 a/~~" 1' replied to M. Necker’s effay on Corn Laws. He was
appointed fecretavy to the Academy of Sciences in the
year 1773, when he employed much of his time in
writing eulogies on fuch of its deceafed members as
Fontenelle had pafl'ed over in hlence. Like D’Alem¬
bert and fome others, Condorcet having united in him-
felf the characters of an elegant writer and a man of
profound refearch, was admitted into the French aca¬
demy in 1783, when he pronounced an oration on the
intluence of philafophy, which was ordered to be print¬
ed. From the time of D’Alembert’s death, which
happened this year, he filled the iiation of fecretary to
that academy, rendering his name confpicuous by the
publication of eulogies on different eminent charadiers.
His panegyric on D’Alembert, to whom he was molt
fincerely attached, is a very elaborate performance, not-
withHanding of which it is effeemed by judges as a
candid account of the genuine merits of that .great phi-
lofopher. His encomium beftowed on that very able ma¬
thematician F.uler, furnifhed him with a favourable op¬
portunity of giving a circumftantial account of the fpe-
cific improvements and inventions conferred on a pe¬
culiar branch of fcience by the labours of an indivi¬
dual ; a talent in a biographical writer which Condor¬
cet appears to have poffeffed in an eminent degree.
His eulogy on the minifter Turgot rvas read with avi¬
dity, and admired by all thofe who approved of Tur¬
got’s plans of government and fyftem of finance. In
the year 1787 he g ive the public his “ Life of Vol¬
taire,” which was highly elaborate, and replete with
lofty panegyric, on the merits of which mankind were
confequently much divided, according to their fenti-
ments of that author’s philofophy. The laft of his bio¬
graphical works was an eulogy on the celebrated
Dr Frankin, publifhed in 1790, all of which will be
read writh fome degree of prejudice by thofe who
are inimical to the fchool of philofophy to which he
belonged.
The memorable event of the French revolution,
which the writings of Condorcet and his affociates un-
queftionably accelerated, naturally interefted his feel¬
ings, and called forth his exertions. But the conduct
of the political parties and their leaders, during this
tumultuous period, is painted in colours fo diametrical¬
ly oppofite to each other, that a proper eftimate of it
is fcarcely. poffible. In this part of Condorcet’s life,
therefore, we muff confine ourfelves to fuch fadts as are
univerfally acknowledged, leaving it to our readers to
draw inferences for themfelves.
At an early period he employed his talents to pro¬
mote thofe reforms, (for fuch they appeared in his
judgment) which were to pave the way to a new order
of things. A work entitled “ La Bibliotheque
de 1’Homme Public,” to contain an analyfis of the
writings of the moft eminent politicians, was chiefly
conduced by him, as was alfo a newfpaper called “ La
Chronique de Paris,” filled with declamation again-fl
royaltv. He had likewife a fliare in the “ Journal de
Paris,” a p aper conduced on fimilar principles. About
the time when the unfortunate king fled to Varennes
he propofed a paper called “ Le Repub/icctin, the ob¬
vious intention of which is clearly deducible from its
title. He was an indefatigable member of the Jaco¬
bin club, and fpoke frequently, though not forcibly,
in it. He was chofen a reprefentative for Pans when .Condoreet.
the conitituent aflembly was diffolved, and followed the '
general political courfe of the Briffotine pirty. A
plan for public inflruction was now to exercife his abi¬
lities, which he finiibed in two elaborate memoirs, al¬
lowed to contain fome exalted and enlarged ideas, but
perhaps rather extenfive to be reduced to practice.
Fie was likewife author of the manifeflo addreffed to
the European powers by the people of France, on the
approach of a war. He wrote a letter of expoftulation
to the king while he was prefident of the affembly,
which fome have confidered as by far too fevere, and
defiitute of that ceremony to which the fovefeign was
entitled. When the king was infulted by the popu¬
lace at the Thuilleries, in being offered the red cap, it
is faid that he vindicated their proceedings. We are
alfo informed, that while he was degrading royalty in
this manner, he was fecretly foliciting the office of tutor
to the dauphin j a propofition which the king utterly
rejected, on account of his avowed infidelity. Attempts
have been made to fix upon his character the molt
abominable ingratitude, by making him acceffory to
the murder of the duke de la Rochefoucault, to whom
he was under the ftrongeit obligations, and from whofe
family he had received a 'moft accomplifhed wife with
a fortune j but we fincerely hope that this calumny
entirely originated from the malevolence of party
fpirit. When the trial of the king came to be agitated,
Condorcet gave it as his opinion that he could not be
brought to judgment in a legal manner j yet it muft
be confeffed that his conduct in regard to the fentence,
was rather of an ambiguous nature, and betrayed that
timidity and want of relolution which formed the molt
prominent features of his political career. The judg¬
ment of Madame Roland concerning the moral confti-
tution of this wonderful man has all the air of impar¬
tiality. “ The genius of Condorcet,” fays that lady,
“ is equal to the comprehenfron of the greateft truths j
but he has no other charadteriftic befides fear. It may
be faid of bis underftanding, combined with his perfon,
that it is a fine effence abforbed in cotton. The timi¬
dity which forms the bafis of his charadter, and which
he difplays even in company, does not refult from
his frame alone, but feems to be inherent in his foul,
and his talents furniftr him with no means of fubduing
it. Thus, after having deduced a principle or demon-
ftrated a fadf in the affembly, he would give a vote
decidedly oppofite, overawed by the thunder of the tri¬
bunes, armed with infults, and laviftr of menaces. The
propereft place for him was the iecretaryftiip of the
academy. Such men ftrould be employed to write,
but never permitted to adl.” The Gironde party,
after the execution of the king, employed him to frame
a new conftitution, the plan of which was prefented to
the convention, and obtained their approbation. It
was not thus efteenred by the people at large ; and it
has, perhaps not without reafon, been confidered as
“ a mafs of metaphyfical abfurdities.” During the
violent ftruggle between the Gironde and Mountain
parties, Conclorcet took no decided part with either,
which feems to have been owing to the native timidity
of his mind, and his abhorrence of the ftate of public
affairs. Fie was not comprehended among the number
of thofe who were facrificed with their leader Briffot ;
but having employed his pen againtl the victorious par-
CON
[ 494 ]
CON
‘Condorcet. ty, he fell under the invincible difpleafure of that in-
J human, blood-thirtty tyrant, Robefpierre, who iflued
a decree of accufation againft him in July, 1793*
found means to effeft his efcape from the arreft, and
during nine months concealed himfelf in Paris. Dread¬
ing at length that the tyrant would order a domiciliary
vifit for the purpofe of difcovering the place of his re¬
treat, he paffed through the barriers without being ta¬
ken notice of, and went to the houfe of a perfon in
whom he could confide, on the plain of Mont-Rouge,
who unfortunately for Condorcet was at that time in
the metropolis. He was of confequence under the ne-
celfity of palling two dreary nights in the open fields,
a melancholy prey to hunger and cold. On the third
day he obtained an interview with his friend, who un¬
happily durft not venture to afford him (belter under
his roof, fo that he was once more compelled to wander
in the fields. Worn out at length by hunger and fa¬
tigue, and life being no longer fupportable without
fuftenance, he applied at a public houfe for an ome¬
lette, which he devoured with greedinefs. His cada¬
verous appearance and uncommonly keen appetite,
roufed the fufpicion of a municipal officer who happen¬
ed to be -prefent, and by whom he was interrogated.
The ambiguity and hefitation which characterized his
anfwers, made the officer conclude that it would be
proper to apprehend him. He was accordingly con¬
signed to a dungeon, to be next day conduced to
Paris, but his melancholy fate rendered fuch a meafure
unneceffary. He was found dead in the morning ; and
as it was generally underftood that he conftantly car¬
ried with him a dofe of poifon, to this caufe his melan¬
choly exit was very properly afcribed. Thus termina¬
ted the career of Condorcet on the 28th of March,
1794, who for many years fuftained a brilliant and
honourable reputation in the republic of letters. His
manners were replete with urbanity, and as well quali¬
fied to pleafe in company as could be expefted in a
man who was conceived as deflitute of a heart. He
was certainly bleffed with domeflic felicity, and had one
daughter by his wife. Soon after his death appeared his
“ fketch of a hirtorical draught of the progrefs of the
human mind,” a methodical performance, and evincing
the profoundeft refearch, in which he ftrongly recom¬
mends his favourite idea of gradually bringing human
nature to a ftate of perfection, by confidering what
man has been, now is, and may be. This treatife will
no doubt be viewed by fome as rather fanciful, but it
is clearly the effort of a very fuperior genius, and muff
be peculiarly interefting to the feeling man, when it is
known that it was compofed while its author was in
circumftances of danger and diftrefs. The idea of
man’s progreffive advancement towards perfection and
happinefs, infpired him with confolation under his com¬
plicated misfortunes. Befides the works which we
have enumerated in this Iketch of his life, he publifhed
« letters to the King of Pruffia,” with whom he kept
up a correfpondence, as well as with Catharine, em-
prefs of Ruffia. A treatife on calculation, and an ele¬
mentary treatifc on arithmetic, were left behind him
in manufcript. Although he was an enemy to reveal¬
ed religion, he was certainly a man of virtue and inte¬
grity •, yet all his philofophy could never infpire him
with that heroic fortitude and contempt of death in a
Cone.
juft caufe, for which the fincere votaries of Chriftiani- Conformi¬
ty have ever been fo confpicuous. ernes
CONDORMIEN FES, in church hiffory, religious
feftaries, who take their name from lying all together,
men and women, young and old. They arofe in the
13th century, near Cologne; where they are faid to
have worftripped an image of Lucifer, and to have re¬
ceived anfwers and oracles from him.
CONDRIEU, a town of Lyonnois in France, re¬
markable for its excellent wines. It is feated at the
foot of a hill near the river Rhone. E. Long. 4. 33.
N. Lat. 45. 28.
CONDRUSII, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Belgica, originally Germans, dwelling about the
Maefe. Their country is now called Condrot%, in
in the biftiopric of Liege, between Luxemburg and the
Maefe.
CONDUCTOR, in Surgery, an inftrument which
ferves to conduft the knife in the operation of cut¬
ting for the ftone, and in laying up finufes and fiftu-
las.
Conductors, in ele&rical experiments, are thofe
bodies that receive and communicate eledricity ; and
thofe that repel it are called non-condu£lors. See E«
LECTRICITY.
CONDUIT, a canal or pipe fof the conveyance of
water, or other ftuid.
There are feveral fubterraneous conduits through
which the waters pafs that form fprings. Artificial
conduits for water are made of lead, ftone, call-iron,
potter’s earth, timber, &c.
CONDYLOID and CoronoiD proceffes. See
Anatomy Index.
CONDYLOMA, in Medicine, a tubercle, or cal¬
lous eminence, which arifes in the folds of the anus; or
rather a fwelling or hardening of the wrinkles of that
part.
CONDYLUS, a name given by anatomifts to a
knot in any of the joints, formed by the epiphyfis of a
bone.
CONE, in Geometry, a folid figure, having a circle
for its bafe, and its top terminated in a point or ver¬
tex. See Conic Sections.
Melting Cone, in Chemijlry, is a hollow cone form¬
ed of copper or brafs, with a handle, and with a flat
bottom adjoining to the apex of the cone, upon which
it is intended to reft. Its ufe is to receive a mafs of
one or more metals melted together, and call into it.
This mafs, when cold, may be eafily lhaken out of the
veffel, from its figure. Alfo, if a melted mafs confift-
ing of two or more metals, or other fubftances not
combined together, be poured into this veffel, the co¬
nical figure facilitates the feparation of thefe fubftances
according to their refpeflive denfities. The cone ought
to be well heated before the melted mafs is thrown
into it ; that it may not contain any moifture, which
would occafion a dangerous explofion. It ought alfo
to be greafed internally with tallow, to prevent the ad-
hefion of the fluid matter.
Cone of Rays, in Optics, includes all the feveral rays
which fall from any radiant point upon the furface of
a glafs.
Cone, in Botany. S je Conus.
Coke-Shell. See Conus, Conchology Index.
CONESSI,
CON [ 495 j CON
ConefiL CONESS^, a fort of bark of a tree, which grows
II on the Coromandel coaft in the Ealt Indies. It is re-
commencjecj jn a letter to Dr Monro, in the Medical
Effays, as a fpecific in diarrhoeas. It is to be finely
pulverized, and made into an eledluary with fyrup of
oranges. The bark Ihould be frelh, and the eledua-
ry new made every day, or fecond day, otherwife it
lofes its auftere but grateful bitternefs on the palate,
and its proper effefts on the inteilines.
CONFARREATION, a ceremony among the
ancient Romans, ufed in the marriage of perfons
whofe children were deftined for the honour of the
priefthood.
Confarreation was the moft facred of the three
modes of contracting marriage among that people $
and confided, according to Servius, in this, that the
pontifex tnaxtmus and flamen dialis joined and contract¬
ed the man and wToman, by making them eat of the
fame cake of falted bread j whence the term jfar, fig-
nifying meal or flour.
Ulpian fays, it confifted in the offering up of fome
pure wheaten bread ; rehearfing, withal, a certain
formula, in prefence of ten W'itneffes. Dionyfius
Halicarnafl’eus adds, that the hulband and wife did
eat of the fame wheaten bread, and threw part on the
victims.
CONFECTION, in Pharmacy, fignifies, in general,
any thing prepared wdth iugar j in particular it im¬
ports fomething preferved, efpecially dry fubftances.
It alfo fignifies a liquid or foft eleCtuary, of w’hich
there are various forts direCted in difpenfatories. See
Pharmacy.
CONFECTOR, among the ancient Romans, a fort
of gladiator, hired to fight in the .amphitheatre againft
beads 5 thence alfo denominated bejharius.
The confeSlores were thus called a conficicndis befliis,
from their difpatching and killing beafls.
The Greeks called them q. d. daring, rafl),
defperate; whence the Latins borrowed the appellations
parabolani and parabolarii. The Chriftians were fome-
times condemned to this fort of combat.
CONFECTS, a denomination given to fruits, flow¬
ers, herbs, roots, &c. when boiled or prepared with
fugar or honey, to difpofe them to keep, and render
th em more agreeable to the tafte.
CONFEDERACY, in Laix>. is when two or more
perfons combine to do any damage to another, or to
commit any unlawful aft. Confederacy is punifhable,
though nothing be put in execution ; but then it muff
have thefe four incidents j I. That it be declared by
lome matter of proiecution, as by making of bonds or
promifes to one another j 2. That it be malicious, as
for unjuft revenge j 3. That it be falfe, i. e. againft
the innocent 5 and, laftly, That it be out of court vo¬
luntary.
CONFERVA. See Botany Index.
CONFESSION, in a civil lenfe, a declaration or
acknowledgement of fome truth, though againft the
intereft of the party wrho makes it ; whether it be in
a court of juftice or out of it. It is a maxim, that
m civil matters, the confeflion is never to be divided,
but always taken entire. A criminal is never condemned
on his Ample confeflion, without other collateral proofs ;
nor is a voluntary extrajudicial confeflion admitted as
any proof. A perfon is not admitted to accufe him-
felf, according to that rule in law, PI on auditur perire Confeflkni
volens. See Arraignment. .11
Confession, among divines, the verbal acknowledge-
ment which a Chriftian makes of his fins. , ‘ ' ,
Among the Jews it was the cuftom, on the annual
feaft of expiation, for the high-prieft to make confef-
fion of fins to God in the name of the whole people :
befidcs this general confeflion, the Jews wmre enjoined,
if their fins V’ere a breach of the firft table of the law,
to make confeflion of them to God ; but violations of
the fecond table w’ere to be acknowledged to their
brethren. The confeflions of the primitive Chriftians
were all voluntary, and not impofed on them by any
laws of the church ; yet private confeflion was not on¬
ly allowed, but encouraged.
The Romifh church requires confeflion not only as
a duty, but has advanced it to the dignity of a facra-
ment : this confeflion is made to the prieft, and is
private and auricular ; and the prieft is not to reveal
them under pain @f the higheft punifhment.
Confession of Faith, a lift of the feveral articles of
beli' f in any church.
CONFESSIONAL, or Confessionary, a place
in churches under the great altar, w'here the bodies
of deceafed faints, martyrs, and confeffors, were depo-
fited. <
This wrord is alfo ufed by the Romanifts for a defk
in the church where the confeflbr takes the confeflions
of the penitents.
CONFESSOR, a Chiiftian who has made a folemn.
and refolute proteflion of the faith, and has endured
torments in its defence. A mere laint is called a confef-
for, to diftinguilh him from the roll of dignified faints j
fuch as apoftles, martyrs, &c. In ecclefiaftical hiftory,
we frequently find the word confeffors ufed for mar¬
tyrs : in after-times, it was confined to thofe who, after
having been tormented by the tyrants, were permitted
to live and die in peace. And at laft it was alfo ufed
for thofe who, after having lived a good life, died
under an opinion of fanftity. According to St Cy¬
prian, he who prefented himfelf to torture, or even to
martyrdom, without being called to it, was not called
a confeffor but a profefj'or: and if any out of a want of
courage abandoned his country, and became a volun¬
tary exile for the fake of the faith, he was called ex
terns.
Confessor is alfo a prieft, in the Romifli church,
who has a power to hear finners in the facrament of
penance, ana to give them abfolution. The church
calls him in Latin confeffarius, to diftinguifh him from
confeflbr, which is a name confecrated to faints. The
confeffors of the kings of FTance, from the time of
Henry IV. have been conftantly Jefuits : before him
the Dominicans and Cordeliers {hared the office be¬
tween them. The conteffors of the houfe of Auftria
have alfo, ordinarily, been Dominicans and Cordeliers j
but the later emperors have all taken Jefuits.
CONFIGURATION, the outward figure which
bounds bodies, and gives them their external appear¬
ance ; being that which, in a great nnafure, confli-
tutes the fpecific difference between bodies.
CONFIRMATION, in a general fenfe, the aft of
ratifying or rendering a title, claim, report, or the like,
more fure and indifputable.
Confirmation, in Law, a conveyance of an eftate,
. I ©t
CON
•Contlfca- or right in ejje, from one man to another, whereby
tion, ^ ’ *iii
Conflagra
[ 496 ]
CON
v o  W 7     # ^
t,on* voidable eftate is made fare and unavoidable, or a par-
tion.
ticular eftate is increafed, or a pofieflion made perfeft.
Contirmation, in Theology, the ceremony of lay¬
ing on of hands, for the conveyance of the Holy
Ghoft.
The antiquity of this ceremony is, by all ancient
writers, carried as high as the apoftles, and founded
upon their example and praftice. In the primitive
church-, it ufed to be given to Chriftians immediately
after baptifm, if the biftiop happened to be prefent at
the folemnity. Among the Greeks, and throughout
the Eaft, it ftill accompanies baptiim ; but the Roma-
.nifts make it a diftinCi independent facrament. Seven
years is the ftated time for confirmation ; however,
they are fometimes confirmed before, and fometimes
after, that age. The perfon to be confirmed has a
godfather and godmother appointed him, as in bap-
til’ra. The order of confirmation in the church of
England does not determine the precife age of the
perfons to be confirmed.
CONFISCATION, in Law, the adjudication of
goods or effedls to the public treafury ; as the bodies
and effects of criminals, traitors, &c.
CONFLAGRATION, the general burning of a
city or other confiderable place.
This word is commonly applied to that grand pe¬
riod or cataftrophe of our world, when the face of na¬
ture is to be changed by fire, as formerly it was by
water. The ancient Pythagoreans, Platonifts, Epi¬
cureans, and Stoics, appear to have had a notion of
the conflagration ; though whence they fhould derive
it, unlefs from the facred books, is difficult to con¬
ceive except, perhaps, from the Phoenicians, wdio
themfelves had it from the Jews. Seneca fays ex-
prefsly, Temf>us advenerit quo fidera Jideribus incurrent,
et omni flagrante materia uno igne, quicquid nunc ex
depoflto Iucet. ardebit. This general diflblution the
Stoics call ix.TrvQMTii, eccypyrofis. Mention of the con-
ilagration is alfo made in the books of the Sibyls, So¬
phocles, Hyftafpes, Ovid, Lucan, &c. Dr Burnet,
after F. Tachard and others, relates that the Siamefe
believe that the earth will at laft be parched up with
heat •, the mountains milted down *, the earth’s whole
•furface reduced to a level, and then confumed with
fire. And the Bramins of Siam do not only hold
that the world flrall be deftroyed by fire, but alfo
that a new earth fhall be made out of the cinders of
the old.
Various are the fentiments of authors on the fubjeft
of the conflagration ; the caufe whence it is to arife,
and the effefts it is to produce. Divines ordinarily
account for it metaphyfically ; and will have it take
its rife from a miracle, as a fire from heaven. Phi-
lofoohers contend for its being produced from natural
caufes; and will have it tffe&ed according to the laws
of mechanics. Some think an eruption of the central
fire fufficient for the purpofe, and add, that this may
be occafioned feveral ways, viz. either by having its
intenfity increafed •, which again may be effefted ei¬
ther by being driven into lefs fpace by the encroach¬
ments of the fuperficial cold, or by an increafe of the
inflammability of the fuel whereon it is fed-, or by
having the refiftance of the imprifoning earth weak¬
ened, which may happen either from the diminu¬
tion of its matter, by the confumption of its central Confluent
parts, or by weakening the cohefion of the conftitu- (-cn^lc;ut
ent part of the mafs by the excefs or the defeft of
moifture. Others look for the caufe of the conflagra¬
tion in the atmofphere, and fuppofe, that fome of the
meteors there engendered in unufual quantities, and
exploded with unufual vehemence, from the concur¬
rence of various circumftances, may effedt it, with¬
out feeking any further. The aftrologers account for
it from a conjundlion of all the planets in the fign
Cancer ; as the deluge, fay they, w^as occafioned by
their conjunftion in Capricorn. Laftly, others have
recourfe to a ftill more effeftual and flaming machine,
and conclude the world is to undergo its conflagration
from the near approach of a comet in its return from
the iun.
CONFLUENT, among phyficians, &c. an appel¬
lation given to that kind of Small-pox wherein the
puftules run into each other.
CONFLUENTES, in Ancient Geography, a place
at the confluence of the Rhine and Molelle, luppofLd to
be one of the 50 forts erefted by Drufus on the Rhine,
in Gallia Belgica : Now Coklent%, a town of Triers.
E. Long. 7. 15. N. Lat. 50. 30.
CONFORMATION, the particular confiftence and
texture of the parts of any body, and their difpofition
to compofe a whole.
Conformation, in Medicine, that make and con- #
ftrudfion of the human body which is peculiar to
every individual. Hence a mala conflormatio fignifies
fome fault in the firft rudiments 5 whereby a perfon
comes into the world crooked, or with fome of the
vifeera or cavities unduly framed or proportioned.
Many are fubjedf to incurable afthmas, from a too
fmall capacity of the thorax, and the like yicious con¬
formations.
CONFORMITY, in the fchools, is the congruency
or relation of agreement between one thing and ano¬
ther -, as between the meafure and the thing meafured,
the objeft and the underftanding, the thing and the
divifion thereof, &c.
CONFRONTATION, the a& of bringing two
perfons in prefence of each other, todilcover the truth
of fome fa£t which they relate differently.
The word is chiefly ufed in criminal matters, where
the witneffes are confronted with the accufed, the
accufed with one another, or the witneffes with one
another.
CONFUCIUS, or Cong-fu-tse, the moft eminent,^
and moft juftly venerated of all the philofophers of
China, a defeendant of the imperial family of the dy-
nafty of Chang, was born in the kingdom of Lit, now
called the province of Chang-tong, about 550 years
before the commencement of the Chriftian rera. I his
makes him to have been cotemporary with Pythagoras
and Solon, and prior to the days of Socrates. He gave
{hiking proofs of very uncommon talents at an early
period of life, which were cultivated and improved
with great afliduity under the tuition of the ableft
mafters. Scarcely had he attained to the years of
ntflturity, when he evinced himfelr acquainted \vith all
the literature of that period, poffefling, m particular, a
comprehenfive knowledge of the canonical and claffical
books, aferibed to the legiflators Yao and Chun, which
the Chinefe emphatically denominate the Jive volumes,
CON
Confucius, as containing the efience of all their fcience and mora-
' v Hty. Nature had bellowed upon him a mod amiable
temper, and his moral deportment was altogether un¬
exceptionable. He acquired a dillinguiflied reputation
for humility, fincerity, the government of his appetites,
a difinterefted heart, and a fovereign contempt of
wealth. Fhefe rare qualities pointed him out as a pro¬
per perfon to fill offices of importance and trull in the
government of his country, which he did with honour
to himfelf and advantage to the empire. Thefe public
llations afforded him excellent opportunities of eltima-
ting with accuracy the true Hate of morals among his
countrymen, which at this time were diffolute and vi¬
cious in the extreme. He conceived the godlike idea
of attempting a general reformation both in morals and
in politics, and his efforts for fome time were attended
with fuch remarkable effedls, that he infpired his coun¬
trymen with a jult veneration for his excellent charac¬
ter, and gratitude for his exertions, being raifed to a
llation of the laft importance in the kingdom of Lu.
Here his counfels and advice were produdlive of the
moll beneficial confequences, in ellablilhing good or¬
der, the due exercife of jullice, concord, and decorum
through the whole kingdom. As it thus very natural¬
ly became an objedl of admiration, fo, likewife, neigh¬
bouring princes beheld with envy, its growing happi-
nefs and profperity ; to dellroy which, they contrived
a fatal and effeclual expedient. The king of Tfi being
apprehenfive, that if the king of Lu continued to be
directed by the wifdom and found policy of Confucius,
he would foon become by far too powerful, fent him
and his nobility a prefent of the molt beautiful young
women, trained up from their infancy in all the arts of
fedu&ion, who were but too fuccefsful in plunging the
whole court into voluptuoufnefs and diffipation. This
demoliffied in a ffiort time, the whole of that beautiful
fabric which had been eredted by Confucius. Finding
it a hopelefs attempt to Hem the univerfal torrent of
corruption and depravity, he refolved to exert his ta¬
lents in fome diltant kingdom, in the philanthropic
caufe of moral reformation, in hopes of better fuccefs.
Eut he had the mortification to diicover, that vice was
everywhere triumphant, while virtue, that darling of
his foul, was compelled to hide her head. This in¬
duced him to adopt the more humble, although
not the lefs interelling employment, of a teacher of
youth, in which he made great and rapid progrefs.
About 600 of his fcholars were fent into different
parts of the empire, to carry on his favourite work of
moral reformation. Among his difciples, 72 were re¬
markably dillinguilhed above the reft for their mental
acquifitions, and 10 others were deemed fuperior, even
to thefe, as having a thorough comprehenfion of their
mailer’s whole fyllem. Thefe were divided by him in¬
to four claffes 5 the firft being dellined to the fludy of
the moral virtues 5 the fecond to the arts of logic "and
public fpeaking ; the third clafs ftudied junfprudence
and the duties of the civil magiftrate; and public fpeak-
ing, or the -delivery of popular difcourfes on moral
topics. Indefatigable, however, as his labours were,
the talk was too mighty to be accompliflied by human
exertions. During his Lft illnefs, he declared to his
pupils, that the grief of his mind occafioned by the
profligacy of human nature was become infupportable;
aiu >h a melancholy voice, he exclaimed “ Immenfe
Vox.. VI. Part II.
[ 497 I
CON
mountain, how art thou fallen ? The grand machine is Confucius.
demoliflied, and the wife and the virtuous are no more. ' " v 1 *
I he kings will not follow my maxims j I am no long¬
er ufeful on earth ; it is, therefore, time that I fliould
quit it.” On uttering thefe words he was ftized with
a lethargy, which brought him to the grave. He fi-
nilhed his honourable career in the 721! year ot his age,
in his native kingdom, to which he had returned iu
company with his difciples. It is frequently the fate
of illuflrious charaflers, never to be properly valued
till they are cut off by death, which was the cafe with
Confucius. The whole empire of China bewailed the
lofs of him, and erefled innumerable edifices to per¬
petuate his memory, adorned with fuch honourable in-
fcriptions as the following : “ To the great mafter •’*
“ To the chief dodlor j” “ To the faint “To the
wife king of literature j” “ To the inllrudlor of em¬
perors and kings.” All his defendants, even to
the prefent day, enjoy the honourable title and of¬
fice of mandarins, and are exempted from the pay¬
ment of taxes to the emperor, as well as the princes of
the blood. The man who applies for the title of dodlor,
mull previoufiy have made a prefent to a mandarin de¬
fended in a diredl line from Confucius. The w ritings
of this great man are elleemed by the Chinef as of the
higheft authority, next to the five volumes, to which
he modeftly acknowTedges himf If to have been much
indebted. His works are, 1. The Tay hio; “ The Grand
Science, or School of Adults,” chiefly intended for the
information of princes and magiftrates, recommending
the duties of f If government, and uniform obedience
to the laws of right reafon. 2. The Chong-yon?, or
♦‘Immutable Medium”, in which hefliews its importance
in the government of the paffions by a variety of ex¬
amples, and points out the method of arriving at per-
fedlion in virtue. 3. Lung-yu, or moral and fententious
dif outfes, which exhibit a lively picture of the opinions,
condudl, and maxims of Confucius-and his follow-eis.
4. Meng-tfe, the book of Mencius, which derived its
name from one of that great philofophet’s difiples.
Thefe are all defervedly efteemed by the Chinefe, be¬
ing held next in importance to the five volumes. 5.
The Hyau-king, or diflertation on the duty and refpeiT
w hich children owe their parents j and, 6. The Syan-hyo,
or f ience for children, being a judicious colledlion of
moral fentences from ancient and modern writers.
If a fair and impartial eflimate of the religion of
Confucius be made, it cannot be viewed in any other
light than as uncorrupted deifm, although he has fome-
times been accufed of befriending and fecretly propa¬
gating atheiftical fentiments ; but fuch an accufation is
as cruel as it is unjuft, fince the purity of his moral pre¬
cepts, and the acknowledged redlitude of his whole de¬
portment, are utterly incompatible with fuch a fuppofi-
tion. He confidered the Tyen or Deity as the pureft
and moft perfett effence, principle, and fource of all
things in the boundlefs univerfe, who is abfolutely in¬
dependent, omnipotent, the governor and guardian of
every thing ; poffeffed of infinite wifdom which nothing
can deceive ; holy, without partiality, of unlimited
goodnefs and jullice. We are at a lofs to form any
adequate opinion of his fentimrnts relative to the foul
of man and the dodlrine of futurity, having no well au¬
thenticated data, on which to proceed. His morality is
in many inftances fuperior to that of Greece and Rome,
3 & and
CON [ 498 1 CON
Confufion. and yields to none upon earth, except to that of divine fore, as made them fpeak it very differently •, fo that Confufiofi,
\r-—' revelation. The religion of Confucius, notwithftand- by the various inflexions, terminations, and pronun- '
ing the eflimation in which he is held, is adopted as a ciations of divers diakas, they could no more under¬
model by none of his countrymen, the literati except- ftand one another, than they who underfland Latin
ed. Their prevailing fyftem is a medley of pagan can underfland thofe who fpeak French, Italian, or
idolatry and the fabulous fuperllition of the Indians, Spanifh, though all thefe languages arife out of it.
introduced into China by Fo, in the firft century of the This opinion is adopted by Cafaubon, and by Bifhop
Chrifli'in era. Patrick in his Commentary in loc. and is certainly much
CONFUSION, in a general fenfe, is oppofed to more probable than either of the former. And Mr
orders in a perturbation whereof confufion conflfls : Shuckford maintains, that the confufion arofe front
e. <?r. when things prior in nature do not precede, or fmall beginnings, by the invention of new words in ei-
pofterior do not follow, &c. ther of the three families of Shem, Ham, and Japhet,
In a logic il fenfe, confufion is oppofed to diflimflnefs which might contribute to feparate them from one ano-
or perfpicuity : and may happen either in words, as ther : and that in each family new differences of fpeech
when mifcontrived or mifapplied •, or in ideas, as when might gradually arife, io that each of thefe families
the idea of any thing prefents fomething along with it, went on to divide and fubdmde among themfelves.
which does not properly belong to that thing. See Others, again, as Mr Jof. Mede and Dr Wotton, &c.
Idea and Notion. not fatisfied with either of the foregoing methods of
In a phyfical fenfe, confufion is a fort of union or accounting for the diverfity of languages among man-
mixture by mere contiguity. Such is that between kind, have recourfe to an extraordinary interpofitiom
fluids of contrary nature, as'oil and vinegar, &c. of divine power, by which new languages were framed
Confusion in Scots Lciw^ is a method of (ufpend- and communicated to different families by a fuperna*
ing and extinguifhing obligations. For the illuflration tural infufion or infpiration; which languages have been
of this fee Law Index. the roots and originals from which the feveral diale&s
Confusion of Tongues, in the hiftory of mankind, is that are, or have been, or will be fpoken, as long as
a memorable event, which happened in the one hundred this earth fliall lall, have arifen, and to which they
and firft year according to the Hebrew chronology, may with eafe be reduced. As to the number ol lan-
and the four hundred and firft year by the Samaritan, guuges thus introduced, many opinions have been
after the flood, at the overthrow of Babel; and which adopted. If there w’ere no more than there were na-
wras providentially brought about in order to facilitate tions or heads of nations, then the number would be
the difperfion of mankind and the population of the feven for Japhet, four for Ham, and five for Shem
earth. Until this period there had been one common but if there were as many as there were families, which
language, which formed a bond of union that prevent- is the more probable opinion, their number cannot be
ed the feparation of mankind into diftinft nations; and certainly afligned. However, the Hebrews fancy they
fome have fuppofed, that the tower of Babel was erec- were 70, becaufe the defeendants^ from the Ions of
ted as a kind of fortrefs, by which the people intended Noah, enumerated Genefis x. were juft fo many. Al¬
to defend themfelves againft that feparation which lowing, then, the languages of the chief families to
Noah had proie&ed. have been fundamentally different from each other, the
There has been a confiderable difference of opinion fub languages and dialedls within each branch would
as to the nature of this confufion, and the manner in probably have had a mutual affinity, greater or lefi> as
which it was effeaed. Some learned men, prepoffeffed they fettled nearer or farther from each other. But
with the notion that all the different idioms now in the whichfoever of thefe hypotheles is adopted, the primary
world did at nrft arife from one original language to objefl of the confufion at Babel was the feparation and
which they may be reduced, and that the variety dilperfion of mankind.
among them is no more than muft naturally have hap- Dr Bryant, in the third volume of his Analyfis of
pened in a long courfe of time by the mere feparation Ancient Mythology, has advanced a fingular hypothe-
of the builders of Babel, have maintained, that there fis, both with refpea to the confufion of tongues and
were no new languages formed at the confufion •, but, the difperfion. He fuppoles that the confufion of lan-
that this event was accompliftied by creating a mifun- guage was local and partial, and limited to Babel only,
derftanding and variance among the builders without By jnxnhD, Gen. xi. 1. and 8. which our tranllators
any immediate influence on their language. But this xen&tx the whole earth, hzunfer&an&s every region ;a.x\&
opinion, advanced by Le Clerc, &c. feems to be di- by the lame words in ver. 9. the whole region or pro-
reflly contrary to the obvious meaning of the word vince. This confufion was occafioned, as he fuppofes,
nsir, floapha, “ lip,” ufed by the facred hiftorian.— by a labial failure *, fo that the people could not arti-
Others have imagined, that this was brought about by culate. Thus their fpeech was confounded, but not
a temporary confufion of their fpeech, or rather of their altered ; for as foon as they feparated, they recovered
apprehenfions, caufing them, whilft they continued to- their true tenor of pronunciation, and the language of
pether and fpoke the fame language, to underfbnd the the earth continued lor fome ages nearly the fame,
words differently. Scaliger is of this opinion. Others, The interviews between the Hebrews and other na-
again, account for this event by the privation of all tions, recorded in Scripture, were conduced without
language, and by fuppofing that mankind were under a an interpreter •, and he farther obferves, that the vari-
neceffity of affociating together, and of impofing new ous languages which fubfiil at this day retain fufficient
names on things by common confent. Another opi- relation to Ihow, that they were once dialers from the
nion aferibes the confufion to fuch an indiftindl remem- fame matrix, and that their variety was the effect of
trance of the original language which they fpoke be- time. See Dispersion.
CONFUTATION,
Confutation
[
Is always
attended
with an
part of an
arguments
destroying
CON
CONFUTATION, in Rhetoric^ &c. a
oration, wherein the orator Seconds his own
and Strengthens his caufe, by refelling and
the oppolite arguments of the antagonist. This is done
by denying what is apparently falfe, by detecting feme
flaw in the reafoning of the adverfe party, by granting
their argument, and Showing its invalidity, or retorting
it upon the adverfary.
CONGE, in the French law, a licenfe, or permif-
fion, granted by a Superior to an inferior, which gives
him a difpenfation from Some duty to which he was
before obliged. A woman cannot obligate herfelf
without the conge or licenfe of her huSband ; a monk
cannot go out of his convent, without the conge of his
Superiors.
Conge' d'elire, in ecclefiaflical policy, the king’s
permiSTion royal to a dean and chapter in the time of a
vacancy, tochoofe a biShop j or to an abbey, or priory,
of his own foundation, to choofe their abbot or prior.
The king of England, as Sovereign patron of all
archbilhoprics, bishoprics, and other ecclefiaftical be¬
nefices, had of ancient time free appointment of all
ecclefiaflical dignities, whenfoever they chanced to be
void ; investing them firft per bacculum et annu/um,
and afterwards by his letters patent ; and in courfe of
time he made the eleftion over to others, under cer¬
tain forms and limitations, as that they Should at eve¬
ry vacation, before they choofe, demand the king’s
conge d’elire, and after the eleftion crave his royal af-
fent, &c.
Cong s', in Architecture y a mould in form of a
quarter round, or a cavetto, which ferves to Separate
two members from one another ; fuch as that which
joins the Shaft of the column to the cinfture, called al-
fo apophyge.
Conges are alfo rings crferrels formerly ufed in the
extremities of wooden pillars, to keep them from Split¬
ting, afterwards imitated in ftone-work.
CONGELATION, fignifies the pafling of any
body from a fluid to a folid ftate : fo that the term is
thus applicable to metals when they refume their folid
form after being heated, to water when it freezes,
to wax, Spermaceti, &c. when they become folid after
having been rendered fluid by heat; and in general to
all procefles, where the whole fubftance of the fluid is
converted into a folid : but it differs from crystalliza¬
tion ; becaufe in the latter procefs, though the fait
paffes from a fluid to a folid ftate, a considerable
quantity of liquid is always left, fo that the term con¬
gelation is never applied in this cafe.
The procefs of congelation in all cafes depends upon,
or at leaft is accompanied with, the emiffion of heat, as
has been evinced by experiments made not only on wa¬
ter, but on fpermaceti, wax, &c. for in all of thefe,
though the thermometer immerfed in them while fluid
continued to defeend gradually till a certain period,
Congela¬
tion.
miffion of ^et was as conftant;ly obferved to remain Stationary,
heat.
See
or even to afeend while the congelation went on.
Chemistry.
It is not known whether all kinds of fluids are na¬
turally capable of congelation or not ; though we are
certain that there are very great differences among
them in this refpeft. The moft difficult of all thofe of
<511 kf w^,ch the congelation has been actually afeertained is
wer. quicksilver. This was long thought capable of refift-
2
Congela
tion or
499 ] CON
ing any degree of cold whatever ; and it is only within
a few years that its congelation by artificial means was 
known, and Still more lately that fome climates were v
found to be fo fevere as to congeal this Sluid by the cold
of the atmofphere. -
The congelation of quicksilver was firft afeertained Experi-
by M. Jofeph Adam Braun, profeSfor of philofophy at ments
Petersburg. He had been employed in making theimo- ^ ^raun’
metrical experiments, not with a view to make the dif-
covery he actually did, but to fee how many degrees of
cold he could produce. An excellent opportunity for
this occurred on the 14th of December 1759, when the
mercury flood naturally at -—34, which is now known
to be only five or fix degrees above its point of conge¬
lation. M. Braun, having determined to avail himfelf
of this great degree of natural cold, prepared a freez¬
ing mixture of nitric acid and pounded ice, by means
of which his thermometer was reduced to —69. Part
of the quickfilver had now really congealed ; yet fo far
was M. Braun from entertaining any fufpicion of the
truth, that he had almoft defifted from further at¬
tempts, being fatisfied with having fo far exceeded all
the philofophers who went before him. Animated,
however, by the hopes of producing a Still greater de¬
gree of cold, he renewed the experiment $ but having
expended all his pounded ice, he was obliged to fub-
ftitute fnow in its place. With this frelh mixture the
mercury funk to —100, 240, and 3520. Pie then
fuppofed that the thermometer was broken j but on
taking it out to obferve whether it was fo or not, he
found the quickfilver fixed, and continuing fo for 12
minutes. On repeating the fame experiment with an¬
other thermometer which had been graduated no lower
than —120, all the mercury funk into the ball, and
became folid as before, not beginning to reafeend till
after a Still longer interval of time. Hence the profef-
for concluded that the quickfilver was really frozen,
and prepared for making a decisive experiment. This
w'as accomplished on the 25th of the Same month, and
the bulb of the thermometer broken as foon as the
metal vvas congealed. The mercury u'as now' convert¬
ed into a folid and Shining metallic mafs, which extend¬
ed under the Strokes of a peftle, in hardnefs rather in¬
ferior to lead, and yielding a dull found like that me¬
tal. ProfeSTor Atpinus made Similar experiments at
the fame time, employing both thermometers and
tubes of a larger bore : in w'hich laft he remarked, that
the quickfilver fell fenfibly on being frozen, affuming
a concave furface, and likewife that the congealed
pieces funk in fluid mercury.
The fa£t being thus established, and fluidity no
longer to be considered as an efiential property of
quickfilver, M. Braun communicated an account of
his experiments to the Petersburg Academy, on the
6th of September 17605 of which a large extraft was
inferted in the Philofophical Tranfadtions, vol. lii.
p. 156. Five years afterwards he published another
treatife on the fame fubjedt, under the title of Supple¬
ment to his former differtation. In thefe he declared,
that, Since his former publication, he had never fuffer-
ed any wfinter to elapfe without repeating the experi¬
ment of congealing quickfilver, and never failed of
fuccefs when the natural cold was of a fufficient
Strength for the purpofe. This degree of natural cold
he fuppofes to be —10 of Fahrenheit, though fome
3 R 2 commencement
CON
[ S00 1
CON
Congela- commencement of the congelation might be percei-
tion. ve(j when the temperature of the air was as high
v as -j-2. The refults of all his experiments were, that
with the above-mentioned frigorific mixtures, and once
with re&ified fpirits and fnow, when the natural cold
was at 28°, he congealed the quickfilver, and difco-
vered that it is a real metal which melts with a very
fmall degree of heat. Not perceiving, however, the
nectffary confequence of its great contraction in freez¬
ing, he, in this work, as well as in the former, con¬
founded its point of congelation with that of its
greateft contraction in freezing, and thus marked the
former a great deal too low j though the point of con¬
gelation was very uncertain according to him, various
difficulties having occurred to his attempts of finding
the greateft point of contraction while freezing.
The experiments of M. Braun were not repeated
by any perfon till the year 1774, when Mr John Fre-
Btumenbach, then a itudent of phyfic at Got-
Con gela¬
tion.
Of Mr Blu- deric
meabach. t;ngen> performed them to more advantage than it ap¬
pears M. Braun had ever done. He was encouraged
to make the attempt by the cxceffive cold of the win¬
ter that year. “ I put (fays he), at five in the even¬
ing of January 1 ith, three drachms of quickfilver into
a fmali fugar-glafs, and covered it with a mixture of
fnow and Egyptian fal-ammoniac. This mixture was
put loofe into the glafs, fo that the quickfilver lay per-
feCtly free, being only covered with it as by pieces
of ice ) the whole, together with the glafs, weighed
fomewhat above an ounce. It was hung out at a
window in fuch a pofition as to expofe it freely to
the north-weft j and two drachms more of fal-ammo-
niac mixed with the fnow on which it flood. I he
fnow and fah ammoniac, in the open air, foon froze
into a mafs like ice ; no fenfible change, howTever, ap¬
peared in the quickfilver that evening j but at one in
the morning it was found frozen fohd. It had divided
into two large and four fmaller pieces : one of the
former was hemifphetical, the other cylindrical, each
feeming’ly rather above a drachm in weight; the four
fmall bits might amount to halt a fcruple. I hey were
all with their flat fide frozen hard to the glafs, and no¬
where immediately touched by the mixture ; their co¬
lour was a dull pale white with a bluith call, like zinc,
very different from the natural appearance of quickfil¬
ver. Next morning, about eleven o’clock, I found that
the larger hernifphere began to melt, perhaps because
it was moft expofed to the air, and not fo near as the
others to the fal-ammoniac mixture which lay be¬
neath. In this ftate it refembled an amalgam, finking
to that fide on which the glafs was inclined •, but with¬
out quitting the furface of the glafs, to which it was
yet firmly congealed : the five other pieces had not
yet undergone any alteration, but retnained frozen hard.
Toward eight o’clock the cylindrical piece began to
foften in the fame manner, and the other four foon
followed. About eight they fell from the furface of
the glafs, and divided into many fluid fhining globules,
which were foon loft in the interftices of the frozen
mixture, and reunited in part at the bottom, being
now exaftly like common quickfilver.” At the time
this experiment was made, the thermometer flood at
-—to0 in the open air.
The circumftances attending this experiment are ftill
unaccountable ; for, in the firft place, the natural cold
was fcarcely fufficient, along with that of the artificial
mixture, which produces 320 more, to have congealed 'r~
the quickfilver ; which yet appears to have been very
effeftually done by the length of time it continued
folid. 2. It is not eafy to account for the length of
time required lor congealing the quickiilver in this ex¬
periment, fince other frigorific mixtures begin to aift
almoft immediately j and, 3. There was not at laft
even the appearance of a£hon, which confifts in a lo-
lution of the fnow, and not in its freezing into a mafs.
“ The whole experiment (fays Dr Blagden*) remains*-M/A
involved in fuch obfcurity, that fome perfons have fup-
pofed the quickfilver itfelf was not frozen, but onlyV0,HI*
covered over with ice 5 to which opinion, however,
there are great objedlions. It is worthy of remark,
that Gottingen, though fituated in the fame latitude as
London, and enjoying a temperate climate in general,
becomes fubjedt at times to a great feverity of cold.
This of nth of January 1774 is one inftance : I find
others there where the thermometer funk to—12°,
 16°, or—190; and at Cattlenburg, a fmall town about
two German miles diftant, to —30°. By watching iuch
extraordinary occafions, experiments on the freezing
of quickfilver might eafily be performed in many
places, where the poffibility of them is at prefent lit¬
tle fufpedled. The cold obferved at Glafgow in 1780
would have been fully fufficient for that purpofe.”
In confequence ,cf the publication of M. Braun’s
Experiments, the Royal Society defired their late fe-
cretary Dr Maty to make the neceffary application to
the Hudfon’s Bay Company, in order to repeat the
experiment in that country. Mr Hutchins, who was
then at London, and going out with a conimiffion as
governor of Albany fort, offered to undertake the ex¬
periments, and executed them very completely, freezing
quickfilver twice in the months of January and Fe¬
bruary 1775* The account of his lucceis was read
before the Royal Society at the commencement of the
fevereft w'inter that had been known for many years in
Europe ; and at this time the experiment w as repeated
by two gentlemen of different countries. One was
Dr Lambert Bicker, fecretary to the Batavian fociety
at Rotterdam ; who, on the 28th of January 1776, at
eight in the morning, made an experiment to try how
low he could bring the thermometer by artificial cold,
the temperature of the atmolphere being then -j- 2°.
He could not, however, bring it lower than —940, at
which point it flood immoveable: and on breaking
the thermometer, part of the quickfilver was found to
have loft its fluidity, and was thickened to the con¬
fidence of an amalgam. It fell out of the tube, in
little bits, which bore to be flattened by preffure, with¬
out running into globules like the inner fluid part.
The experiment was repeated next day, when the
thermometer flood at -J- 8°, but the mercury would not
then defeend below —-8o°, and as the thermometer
wTas not broken, it could not be known whether the
mercury had congealed or not. All that could be in¬
ferred from thefe experiments therefore was, that the
congealing point of mercury was not below —940 of
Fahrenheit’s thermometer. The other who attempt¬
ed the congelation of this fluid was the late Dr An-
thonv Fothergill j but it could not be
determined
whether
CON F 501 ] CON
Congela- whether he fucceeded pr not. An account of his ex-
|fe tion. periment is inferted in the Philofophical Tranfa&ions,
vq^ jxyj.
No other attempts were made to congeal quickfilver
until the year 1781, when Mr Hutchins refumed the
fubjeft with great fuccefs, infomuch that from his ex¬
periments the freezing point of mercury is now almoft
as well fettled as that of water. Preceding philofo-
phers, indeed, had not been altogether inattentive to
this fubjeft. Profeffor Braun himfelf had taken great
pains to inveftigate it; but for want of paying the re-
quifite attention to the difference betwixt the contrac¬
tion of the fluid mercury by cold and that of the
congealing metal by freezing, he could determine no¬
thing certain concerning it. Others declared it as
their opinion, that nothing certain could be determi¬
ned by merely freezing mercury in a thermometer
filled with that fluid. Mr Cavendifli and Dr Black
5 firft fuggefted the proper method of obviating the dif-
Ds Black's ficulties on this fubjedl. Dr Black, in a letter to Mr
directions Hutchins, dated O&ober 5. 1779, gave the following
the'ex^rf ^ire^i°ns f°r making the experiment with accuracy :
ment^en “ Provide a few wide and fhort tubes of thin glafs,
fealed at one end and open at the other : the widenefs
of thefe tubes may be from half to three quarters of
an inch, and the length of them about three inches.
Put an inch or an inch and a half depth of mercury
into one of thefe tubes, and plunging the bulb of the
thermometer into the mercury, fet the tube with the
mercury and the thermometer in it into a freezing mix¬
ture, which ftiould be made for this purpofe in a com¬
mon tumbler or water glafs: and, N. B. in making a
freezing mixture with fnow and nitric acid, the quantity
of the acid fhould never be fo great as to diflblve
the whole of the fnow, and only enough to reduce
it to the confiflence of panada. When the mer¬
cury in the wide tube is thus fet in the freezing
mixture, it muft be ftirred gently and frequently with
the bulb of the thermometer j and if the cold be fuf-
ficiently ftrong, it will congeal by becoming thick
like an amalgam. As foon as this is obferved, the
thermometer Ihould be examined without lifting it out
of the congealing mercury •, and I have no doubt that
in every experiment thus made, with the fame mer¬
cury, the inftrnment will ahvays point to the fame
degree, provided it has been made and graduated with
6 accuracy.”
Apparatus The apparatus recommended by Mr Cavendifli, and
recom- which Mr Hutchins made ufe of, confifted of a fmall
MrCaven* mercur‘a^ thermometer, the bulb of which reaches
diflj. about 2i inches below the fcale, and was inclofed in
a glafs cylinder fwelled at the bottom into a ball, which
when ufed was filled with quickfilver, fo that the bulb
of the thermometer was entirely covered with it. If
this cylinder be immerfed in a freezing mixture till
great part of the quickfilver in it is frozen, it is evi¬
dent that the degree fliown at that time by the inclo¬
fed thermometer is the precife point at which mercury
freezes ; for as in this cafe the ball of the thermome¬
ter muft be furrounded for fome time with quickfilver,
part of which is adlually frozen, it feems impoflible
that the thermometer fhould be fenfibly above that
point; and while any of the quickfilver in the cylin¬
der remains fluid, it is impoflible that it Ihould fink
fenfibly below it. The diameter of the bulb of the Congela-
thermometer was rather lefs than a quarter of an inch, tl0n'||j
that of the fwelled part of the cylinder two-thirds j
and as it was eafy to keep the thermometer conftantly
in the middle oi the cylinder, the thicknefs of quick¬
filver betwixt it and the glafs could never be much lefs
than the fixth part of an inch. The bulb of the ther¬
mometer was purpofely made as fmall as it convenient¬
ly could, in order to leave a fufficient fpace between
it and the cylinder, without making the iwelled part
larger than neceffary, which would have cauftd more
difficulty in freezing the mercury in it.
The firft experiment with this apparatus was made
on the 15th of December 1781 j the thermometer had
flood the evening before at —180. A bottle of fpiri- *
tus nitri fortis was put on the houfe-top, in order to
cool it to the fame temperature. The thermome¬
ters made ufe of had been hung up in the open air for
three weeks, to compare their fcales. On the morn¬
ing of the experiment they were about 230 below
o.—In making it, the thermometer of the appa¬
ratus was fufpended in the bulb of the cylinder by
means of fome red worfted wound about the upper
part of its ftem, to a fufficient thicknefs to fill the up¬
per part of its orifice ; and a fpace of near half an
inch was left empty between the quickfilver and worft-
ed.
The apparatus was placed in the open air, on the
top of the fort, with only a few deer {kins fewed to¬
gether for a {belter j the fnow lay 18 inches deep on
the works, and the apparatus was ftuck into the fnow,
in order to bring it the fooner to the temperature of
the air. The inftruments were afterwards placed in
three frelh freezing mixtures, in hopes of being able
by their means to produce a greater degree of cold,
but without effe& •, nor was any greater cold produ¬
ced by adding more nitric acid. The mercury, how¬
ever, was very completely frozen, that in the ther¬
mometer defcending to 448°. On plunging the mer¬
cury into the freezing mixture, it defcended in lefs than
one minute to 40° below o.
The fecond experiment was made the day follow¬
ing ; and the fame quantity of quickfilver employed
that had been ufed in the former. As too fmall a
quantity of the freezing mixture, however, had been
originally made, it was neceffary to add more during
the operation of congelation $ by which means the
fpirit of nitre, in pouring it upon the fnow, fometimes
touched the bulb of the thermometer, and inftantly
raifed it much higher ; nor did the mercury ever de-
fcend below 206°, which was not half as far as it had
done the day before, thoughi the temperature of the
atmofphere had been this day at —340 before the
commencement of the operation. That in the appa¬
ratus, however, funk to —950. The apparatus was
taken out of the mixture for half a minute, in order
to examine whether the mercury was perfe&iy congeal¬
ed or not, and during that time it {bowed no fign oi
liquefaftion.
The third experiment was made the fame day, and
with the freezing mixture ufed in the lart. By it
the point of congelation was determined to be not be¬
low 40°.
The fourth experiment was made January 7th 1782?
and.
CON [ 502 ] CON
Congela- and in it he obferved, that the mercury in the appara-
, tIon‘ , tus thermometer, after (landing at 42 and 41!- fora
* confiderable time, fell to 77, not gradually, but at once
as a weight falls.
In the fifth experiment the weather was exceffively
fevere, fo that it ought to have frozen the metal in the
open air *, but this did not then happen.
At the time of making the fixth experiment, the
quickfilver in the open air flood at 44 below o *, and
Mr Hutchins refolved to make ufe of this opportunity
to obferve how far it was poflible to make it defcend
by means of cold, obferving the degrees at the fame
time with a fpirit thermometer made by Nairne and
Blount, with which he had been furniftied by the
"Royal Society in 1774. In this, however, he did not
fucce'ed ; for the mercury never fell below 438, nor
the ftandard 48. It flood at l,]\ at the beginning
of the experiment. The reafon of this was fuppofed
to be, that the atmofphere was too cold for making
this kind of experiment, by reafon of its freezing the
thread of quickfilver in the ftem of the thermometer,
fo that it became incapable of contradtion along with
that in the bulb. In other experiments, though the
metal in the bulb became folid, yet that in the ftem
always remained fluid j and thus was enabled to fub-
fide to a great degree by the diminution of bulk in
the folid mercury. That this was really the cafe, ap¬
peared from the quickfilver falling at once from —86
to—434, when the cold of the freezing mixture di-
miniflied, and the temperature of the air becoming
about the fame time fomewhat milder, melted the con¬
gealed part in the ftem, which thus had liberty to de-
mend to that point.
In this experiment, alfo, the mixtures were made in
double quantity to thofe of the former ; thefe being
only in common tumblers, but the mixtures for this
experiment in pint-bafons. It was obferved that they
liquefied fafter than in other experiments. He had
ufually made them of the confidence of pap $ but
though he added fnow at different times, it had very
little effeft in augmenting the cold, but rather decreaf-
ed it. The congealed pieces of the metal fell to the
bottom, as might naturally have been expelled from its
great contradlion in becoming folid.
From this experiment Mr Hutchins concluded, that
the nearer the temperature of the atmofphere ap¬
proached to the congealing point of mercury (fo that
a great degree of cold might be communicated to the
. bulb of a thermometer, and yet the quickfilver in the
tube remain fluid), he might make the experiment of
afcertaining the greateft contraflion of mercury to
more advantage. With this view, he made another ex¬
periment, when the temperature of fome of his ther¬
mometers flood as low as —37° J and after an hour’s
attendance, he perceived the mercury had fallen to
1367 ; but the thermometer unluckily was broken,
and its bulb thrown away with the mixture. Profef-
fer Braun had likewife obferved, that his thermometers
were always broken when the mercury defcended be¬
low 600.
The eighth experiment was made with a view to
try whether quickfilver would congeal when in con-
ta6l with the freezing mixture. For this purpofe, he
did not ufe the apparatus provided for other experi¬
ments, but filled a gallipot made of flint (lone (as be- Congela-
ing thinner than the common fort), containing about t‘on-
an ounce,, half full of quickfilver, into which he in- ^ 'J
ferted a mercurial thermometer, employing another
as an index. Thus he hoped to determine exaftly
when the quickfilver was congealed, as he had free
accefs to it at all times, which was not the cafe when
it was inclofed in the cylindrical glafs, the worded
wound round the tube of the thermometer to exclude
the air being equally effedlual in excluding any in-
ftrument from being introduced to touch the quickfil¬
ver. He then made a kind of (kewer, with a flat
blunt point, of dried cedar-wood, on account of its
lightnefs, which he found would remain in the gela¬
tinous freezing mixture at any depth he chofe *, but,
when inferted into the quickfilver, the great difference
betwixt the fpecific gravity of it and that ponderous
fluid, made it always rebound upward •, and by the
degree of refiftance, he could always know whether
it proceeded from fluid or folid metal. At this time,
however, the experiment did not fucceed •, but, at
another trial, having employed about •l-ths of a pound
of metal, and let it remain a confiderable time immerfed
in the fame mixture which had juft now been fuppofed
to fail, he found that part of it wras congealed j and,
on pouring off the fluid part, no lefs than two-thirds
remained fixed at the bottom. ^
The laft experiment which has been publiflied con- Mr Caven»
cerning the congelation of quickfilver by means ofdfli’sex-
fnow, is that of Mr Cavendiftr, and of which he gives P6™11611**'
an account in the Phil. Tranfa6l. vol. Ixxiii. p. 325.
Here, fpeakin^ of the cold of freezing mixtures, he
fays. “ There is the utmoft reafon to think that Mr
Hutchins would have obtained a greater degree of cold
by ufing a weaker nitrous' acid than he did. I found
(fays he) by adding fnow gradually to fome of this
acid, that the addition of a fmall quantity produced
heat inftead of cold ; and it was not until fo much was
added as to increafe the heat from 28 to 510, that
the addition of more fnow began to produce cold ; the
quantity of fnow required for this purpofe being pret¬
ty exadtly one quarter of the weight of the fpirit of
nitre, and the heat of the fnow, and air of the room,
as well as of the acid, being 28°. The reafon of this
is, that a great deal of heat is produced by mixing wa¬
ter with fpirit of nitre ; and the ftronger the fpirit is,
the greater is the heat produced. Now it appears
from this experiment, that before the acid was di¬
luted, the heat produced by its union with the w^a-
ter formed from the melting fnow, was greater than
the cold produced by the fame $ and it was not un¬
til it was diluted by the addition of one quarter of
its weight of that fubftance, that the cold, generated
by the latter caufe, began to exceed the heat generated
by the former. From what has been faid, it is evi¬
dent, that a freezing mixture made with undiluted
acid will not begin to generate cold until fo much
fnow is diffolved as to increafe its heat from 28 to 5l0i
fo that no greater cold will be produced than would
be obtained by mixing the diluted acid heated to 510
with fnow of the heat of 28®. This method of add¬
ing fnow gradually is much the bed way I know of
finding what ftrength it ought to be of, in order to
produce the greateft effefl poflible. By means of this
CON [ I CON
Congela- acid diluted in the above-mentioned proportion, I froze
tion. quickfilver in the thermometer called G (a) by Mr
Hutchins, on the 26th of February 1782. I did not
indeed break the thermometer to examine the ftate of
the quickdlver therein ; for, as it funk to —no0, it
certainly muft have been in part frozen •, but immedi¬
ately took it out, and put the fpirit thermometer in
its room, in order to find the cold of the mixture. It
funk only to —30° ; but by making allowance of the
fpirit in the tube being not fo cold as that in the
ball, it appears, that if it had not been for this caufe, it
would have funk to—350 (b) ; which is 6° below
the point of freezing, and is within one degree of as
great a cold as that produced by Mr Hutchins.
“ In this experiment the thermometer G lunk very
rapidly ; and, as far as I could perceive, without flop¬
ping at any intermediate point till it came to the above
mentioned degree of —no0, where it ftuck. The
materials ufed in making the mixture were previoufly
cooled, by means of fait and fnow, to near o; and
the temperature of the air was between 20° and 250;
the quantity of acid ufed was 4^ oz. j and the glafs in
which the mixture was made, was furrounded with
wool, and placed in a wooden box, to prevent its lofing
its cold fo faft as it would otherwife have done. Some
weeks before this I made a freezing mixture with fome
fpirit of nitre much ftronger than that ufed in the fore¬
going experiment, though not quite fo ftrong as the un¬
diluted acid, in which the cold was lefs intenfe by 44;°.
It is true the temper of the air was much lefs cold,
namely 350, but the fpirit of nitre was at leaft as cold,
and the fnow not much lefs fo.
“ The cold produced by mixing fulphuric acid, pro¬
perly diluted with fnow7, is not fo great as that produ¬
ced by fpirit of nitre, though it does not differ from
it by fo much as 8°$ for a freezing mixture, prepared
with diluted fulphuric acid, whofe fpecific gravity, at
6o° of heat,was 1,5642, funk in the thermometer G to
—370, the experiment being tried at the fame time,
and with the fame precautions, as the foregoing. It
was previoufly found, by adding fnow gradually to fome
of this acid, as was done by the nitrous acid, that it
was a little, but not much ftronger, than it ought to
be, in order to produce the greateft effect.,T
The experiment made by Mr Walker, in which he
congealed quickfilver by means of nitric acid and
Glauber’s fait, without any fnow, concludes the hifto-
ry of the artificial congelation of mercury. It now
remains that we fay fomething of the congelation of it
by the natural cold of the atmofphere.
r , Hr Blagden, from whofe paper in the Philofophical
tion of Tranfaftions, vol. Ixxiii. this account is taken, obferves,
quickfilver that it was not till near the year 1730 that thermo-
by natural meters were made with any degree of accuracy ; and
co^‘ in four or five years after this, the firft obfervations
were made which prove the freezing of quickfilver.
O the acceflion of the emprefs Anne Ivanouna to the
throne of Ruffia, three profeffors of the Imperial
academy were chofen to explore and defcribe the dif¬
ferent parts of her Afiatic dominions, and to inquire Congehu.
into the communication betwixt Afia and America., tl°n* .
Thefe were Dr John George Gmelin, in the depart¬
ment of natural hiftory and chemiftry ; M. Gerard
Frederic Muller, as general hiftoriographer j and M,
Louis de 1’Ifle de la Croyere, for the department of
aftronomy 5 draughtfmen and .other proper afliftants
being appointed to attend them. They departed from
Peterfburgh in 1733 and fuch as furvived did not re¬
turn till ten years after. The thermometrical obferva¬
tions were communicated by Profeffor Gmelin, who
firft publifhed them in his Flora Sibirica, and after¬
wards more fully in the Journal of his Travels. Art
abftraft of them was likewife inferted in the Peterfburg
Commentaries for the years 1756 and 1765, taken,
after the profeffor’s death, from his original difpatches
in poffeflion of the Imperial academy.
In the winter of 1734 and 1735, Mr Gmelin being
at Yenefeilk in 584-0 N. Lat. and 92® E. Long, from
Greenwich, firft obferved fuch a defcent of the mercu¬
ry, as we know muft have been attended with conge- 9
lation. “ Here (fays he) we firft experienced theExceffive
truth of what various travellers have related with re-co1^ °fSi-
fpeft to the extreme cold of Siberia j for, about theberia*
middle of December, fuch fevere weather fet in, as we
were fure had never been known in our time at Pe¬
terfburg. The air feemed as if it were frozen, with
the appearance of a fog, which did not fuffer the
fmcke to afcend as it iffued from the chimneys. Birds
fell down out of the air as dead, and froze immediate¬
ly, unlefs they were brought into a warm room.
Whenever the door was opened, a fog fuddenly form¬
ed round it. During the day, ftiort as it was, parhe¬
lia and haloes round the fun were frequently feen ; and
in the night mock-moons, and haloes about the moon.
Finally, our thermometer, not fubjeft to the fame de¬
ception as the fenfes, left us no doubt of the exceflive
cold j for the quickfilver in it was reduced on the 5th
of January O. S. to —-T20° of Fahrenheit’s fcale, low¬
er than it had ever hitherto been obfeived in na¬
ture.”
The next inftance of congelation happened at Ya-
kutfk, in N. Lat. 62. and E. Long. 130. The wea¬
ther here was unufually mild for the climate, yet the
thermometer fell to —72° $ and one perfon informed
the profeffor by a note, that the mercury in his baro¬
meter was frozen. He haftened immediately to his
houfe to behold fuch a furprifing phenomenon •, but
though he was witnefs to the faft, the prejudice he en¬
tertained againft the poflibility of the congelation,
w7ould not allow him to believe it. “ Not feeling
(fays he), by the way, the fame effefts of cold as I
had experienced at other times in lefs diftances, I be¬
gan, before my arrival, to entertain fufpicions about
the congelation of his quickfilver. In faft, I faw that
it did not continue in one column, but was divided in
different places as into little cylinders, which appear¬
ed frozen ; and, in fome of thefe divifions between the
quickfilver, I perceived like the appearance of frozen
moifture.
(a) This was a fmall mercurial thermometer, made by Nairne and Blount, on an ivory fcale, divided at
every five degrees, and reaching from 2150 above to 250° below the cipher.
(b) This is to be underftood of a fpirit thermometer, whofe—290 =740° of Fahrenheit’s mercurial.
1
CON r 504 ] CON
Congela- moiflure. It immediately occurred to me, that the
t‘°11, , mercury might have been cleaned with vinegar and
~ v fait, and not fufficiently dried. The perfon acknow¬
ledged it had been purified in that manner. This fame
qui'ckfilver, taken out of the barometer, and well
dried, would not freeze again, though expofed to a
much greater degree of cold, as fliown by the thermo¬
meter.”
Another fet of obfervations, in the courfe of which
the mercury frequently congealed, were made by Pro-
feflbr Gmelin at Kirenga fort in 57^ N. Lat. 108.
E. Long.; his thermometer, at different times, hand¬
ing at —1080, —86°, —IOO*, —I 130, and many o-
ther intermediate degrees. This happened in the win¬
ter of 1737 and 1738. On the 27th of November,
after the thermometer had been handing for two days
at —46°, he found it funk at noon to ic8°. Sufpeft-
ing fome mihake, after he had noted down the obfer-
vation, he inhantly ran back, and found it at 102°;
but afcending with fuch rapidity, that in the fpace of
half an hour it had rifen to —190. This phenome¬
non, which appeared fo furprifing, undoubtedly de¬
pended on the expanfion of the mercury frozen in the
bulb of the thermometer, and which now melting,
forced upwards the fmall thread in the hem.
A fimilar appearance was obferved at the fame fort
a few days after ; and on the 29th of December, O. S.
he found the mercury, which had been handing at
-—40° in the morning, funk to —ioo° at four in the
afternoon. At this time, he fays, he “ faw fome air
in the thermometer feparating the quickfilver for the
fpace of about fix degrees.” He had taken notice of
a fimilar appearance the preceding evening, excepting
that the air> as he fuppofed it to be, was not then col¬
lected into one place, but lay fcattered in feveral.
Thefe appearances undoubtedly proceeded from a
congelation of the mercury, though the prejudice en¬
tertained againh the poflibility of this phenomenon
vrould not allow the profeffor even to inquire into it at
all. Several other obfervations were made 5 fome of
which were loh, and the reft contain no farther infor¬
mation.
The fecond inftance where a natural congelation of
mercury has certainly been obferved, is recorded in the
TranfaClions of the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Stockholm. The weather, in January 1760, was re¬
markably cold in Lapland } fo that, on the 5th of that
month, the thermometers fell to —76°, -—128°, or
lower ; on the 23d and following days they fell to
— 580, —79®, —92°, and below' —238® entirely into
the ball. This was obferved at Tornea, Sombio, Ja-
kafierf, ancf Utfioki, four places in Lapland, fituated
between the 65th and 78th degrees of N. Lat. and the
2ift and 28th of E. Long. The perfon who obfer¬
ved them was M. Andrew Hellant, who makes the
following remarks, of themfelves fufficient to (how
that the quickfilver w-as frozen. “ During the cold
weather at Sombio (favs he), as it was clear funfhine,
though fcarcely the whole body of the fun appeared
ftbove the low woods that covered our horizon, I took
a thermometer which w^as hanging before in the (hade,
and expofed it to the rifing fun about eleven in the
forenoon, to fee whether, when that luminary was fo
low7, it wmuld have any effedl upon the inftrument.
$ut to my great furptife, upon looking at it about
2
noon, I found that the mercury had entirely fubfided Cengela.
into the ball, though it was Handing as high as —6i° |jon’
at 11 o’clock, and the fcale reached down to 238° be-
low o.” On bringing the inftrument near a fire, it
prefently rofe to its ufual height ; and the reafon of its
fubfiding before was its being fomewhat warmed by
the rays of the fun j which, feeble as they were, had
yet fufficient power to melt the fmall thread of con¬
gealed mercury in the ftem of the thermometer, and
allow it to fubfide along with the reft. Mr Hellant,
however, fo little underftood the reafon of this pheno¬
menon, that he frequently attempted to repeat it by
bringing the thermometer near a fire, when the cold
was only a few degrees below the freezing point of
water, but could never fucceed until it fell to —58°,
or lower, that is, until the cold was fufficiently intenfe
to congeal the metal. The only feeming difficulty in
his whole account is, that when the mercury had fub¬
fided entirely into the ball of the thermometer, a va¬
cuum or empty fpot appeared, which run round the
cavity like an air bubble, on turning the inftrument $
but this proceeded from a partial liquefa£Hon of the
mercury, which muft neceffarily melt firft on the out-
fide, and thus exhibit the appearance juft mentioned. I#
The moft remarkable congelation of mercury, which Rema k-
has ever yet been obferved, was that related by Dr able exPeri*
Peter Simon Pallas, who had been fent by the emPrefs-Or^Ilas.
of Ruffia, with fome other gentlemen, on an expedition
fimilar to that of Dr Gmelin. He did not, however,
fpend the winters in which he was in Siberia in the
coldeft parts of that country $ that is, about the middle
of the northern part. Twice indeed he refided at
Krafnoyarfk, in N. Lat. 564®, E. Long. 930 ; where,
in the year 1772, he had an opportunity of obferving
the phenomenon wre fpeak of. “ The winter (fays
he) let in early this year, and was felt with uncommon
feverity in December. On the 6th and 7th of that
month happened the greateft cold I have ever experi¬
enced in Siberia $ the air was calm at the time, and
feemingly thickened 5 fo that, though the fky was in
other refpe&s clear, the fun appeared as through a
fog. I had only one fmall thermometer left, in which
the fcale w^ent no lower than —70 } and on the 6th in
the morning, I remarked that the quickfilver in it
funk' into the ball, except fome fmall columns which
ftuck faft in the tube. When the ball of the thermo¬
meter, as it hung in the open air, was warmed by
being touched with the finger, the quickfilver rofe;
and it could plainly be feen, that the folid columns
ftuck and refilled a good while, and were at length
puffied upward with a fort of violence. In the mean
time I placed upon the gallery, on the north fide of
my houfe, about a quarter of a pound of clean and dry
quickfilver in an open bowl. Within an hour I found
the edges and furface of it frozen folid, and feme mi¬
nutes afterwards tjie whole was condenfed by the natu¬
ral cold into a foft mafs very much like tin. While
the inner part was ftill fluid, the frozen furface exhi¬
bited a great variety of branched wrinkles $ but in ge¬
neral it remained pretty fmooth in freezing, as did al-
fo a larger quantity which I afterwards expofed to the
cold. The congealed mercury was more flexible than
lead j but on being bent ftiort, it was found more
brittle than tin j and when hammered out thin, it
feemed fomewhat granulated. If the hammer had not
been
CON
[ s°s
Congela- been perfeftly cooled, the quickfilyer melted away tui¬
tion. der it in drops j and the fame thing happened when
the metal was touched with the finger, by wdiich alfo
the finger was immediately benumbed. In our warm
room it thawed on its furface gradually, by drops, like
wax on the fire, and did not melt all at once. When
the frozen mafs was broken to pieces in the cold, the
fragments adhered to each other and to the bowl on
which they lay. Although the froft feemed to abate
a little towards night, yet the congealed quickfilver
remained unaltered, and the experiment with the ther¬
mometer could flill be repeated. On the 7th of De¬
cember, I had an opportunity of making the fame ob-
fervations all day j but fome hours after funfet, a north-
wTeft wind fprung up, which raifed the thermometer to
—46°, w'hen the mafs of quickfilver began to melt.”
I9 In the beginning of the year 1780 M. Von Elter-
Von Elter-lein, of Vytegra, a town of Ruffia, in Lat. 61. E.
lein’s expe- Long. 36. froze quickfilver by natural cold ; of which
Timent. gives the following account. “ On the 4th of Ja¬
nuary 1780, the cold having increafed to —340 that
evening at Vytegra, I expofed to the open air three
ounces of very pure quickfilver in a china tea-cup, co¬
vered with paper, pierced full of holes. Next day, at
eight in the morning, I found it folid, and looking
like a piece of caft lead, with a confiderable depreflion
in the middle. On attempting to loofen it in the cup,
my knife raifed (havings from it as if it had been lead,
which remained flicking up; and at length the metal
feparated from the bottom of the cup in one mafs. I
then took it in my hand to try if it would bend : it
was fliff like glue, and broke into two pieces ; but my
fingers immediately loft all feeling, and could fcarcely
be reftored in an hour and a half by rubbing with
fnow. At eight o’clock a thermometer, made by Mr
Lexmann of the academy, flood at —570 j by half
after nine it was rifen to —40® ; and then the two
pieces of mercury which lay in the cup had loft fo
much of their hardnefs, that they could no longer be
broken, or cut into (havings, but refembled a thick
amalgam, which, though it became fluid when preffed
by the fingers, immediately afterwards refumed the
CON
G a mercurial one formerly defcribed, and a fpirit Congela-
thermometer ; the former of which became ftationary , tl^)n' .
at 40° and the latter at 30°. I then decanted the fluid v
quickfilver, to examine the internal furface of the fro¬
zen metal, which proved very uneven, with many ra¬
dii going acrofs, fome of which refembled pin-heads.
Urgent bufinefs called me away an hour. On my re¬
turn I found a fmall portion only had liquefied in my
abfence. I then brol^e the phial entirely, and with a
hammer repeatedly ftruck the quickfilver. It beat out
flat, yielded a deadifh found, and became fluid in lefs
than a minute afterwards. It may be worth remark¬
ing, that the quickfilver in one of the thermometers,
which had funk to very near 500, and was then at
444, very readily run up and down the tube by el.va-
ting either end of the inftrument.”
Thefe are all the well authenticated accounts of the
congelation of mercury by the natural cold of the at-
mofphere. Some others have been publifhed ; but be¬
ing either lefs important, or not fo well authenticated,
we forbear to mention them. A very confiderable con¬
firmation is obtained from the above hiftory, of the
theory of congelation delivered by Dr Black, and
which is fully explained under the article Chemistry.
On Mr Hutchins’s experiments, and on congelation
in general, Mr Cavendifh makes many valuable re¬
marks 5 the fubftance of w'hich is as follows :
“ If a veffel of water, with a thermometer in it, be 2t
expofed to the cold, the thermometer will fmk feveral M,-Cavetl-
degrees below the freezing point, efpecially if the wa-difti’sre-
ter be covered up fo as to be defended from the wind, marks on
and care taken not to agitate it $ and then on drop-
ping in a bit of ice, Or on mere agitation, fpiculae of
ice (hoot fuddenly through the water, and the inclo-
fed thermometer rifes quickly to the freezing point,
where it remains ftationary. In a note he fays, that
though in conformity to the common opinion he has
allowed that “ mere agitation may fet the water a
freezing, yet fome experiments lately made by Dr
Blagden feem to fhow, that it has not much, if any,
effeft of that kind, otherwife than by bringing the
water in contadl with fome fubftance colder than it-
confiftence of pap. With the thermometer at ^—390, \ felf. Though in general alfo the ice (hoots rapidly,
the quickfilver became fluid. The cold was never lefs
on the 5th than 28°, and by nine in the evening it
had increafed again to —SS0-1’
An inftance of the natural congelation of quickfilver
alfo occurred in Jemtland, one of the provinces of
Sweden, on the id of January 1782 j and laftly, on
the 26th of the fame month, Mr Hutchins obferved
ao t^e ^ame effe& °f the cold at Hudfon’s bay. “ The
Experi- fubjedl of this curious phenomenon (fays he), was
ment of Mr quickfilver put into a common tu?o-ounce phial, and
Hutchins, corked. The phial was about a third part full, and
had conftantly been (landing by the thermometer for a
month paft. At eight o’clock this morning I obferv¬
ed it was frozen rather more than a quarter of an inch
thick round the fides and bottom of the phial, the
middle part continuing fluid. As this was a certain
method of finding the point of congelation, I intro¬
duced a mercurial and a fpirit thermometer into the
fluid part, after breaking off the top of the phial, and
they rofe direflly and became ftationary ; the former
at 40° or 404°, the latter at 29^°, both below the cy¬
pher. Having taken thefe out, I put in two others,
Vol. VI. Part II.
and the inclofed thermometer rifes very quick ; yet
he once obferved it to rife very (lowly, taking up not
lefs than half a minute, before it afcended to the
freezing point; but in this experiment the water was
cooled not more than one or two degrees below free¬
zing ; and it (hould feem, that the more the w’ater is
cooled below the freezing point, the more rapidly the
ice (hoots and the inclofed thermometer rifes.”
Mr Cavendifh then obferves, that from the fore¬
going experiments we learn that water is capable of be¬
ing cooled confiderably below the freezing point, with¬
out any congelation taking place, ; and that, as foon
as by any means a fmall part of it is made to freeze,
the ice fpreads rapidly through the whole of the wa¬
ter. The caufe of this rife of the thermometer is,
that all, or almoft all bodies, by changing from a fluid
to a folid date, or from the ftate of an elaftic to that
of an unelaftic fluid, generate heat j and that cold is
produced by the contrary procefs. Thus all the cir-
cutnftances of the phenomenon may be perfe£lly well
explained j for, as foon as any part of the water free¬
zes, heat will be generated thereby in confequence of .
3 S the
CON [ 506 ] CON
fcngela- the above-mentioned law, fo that the new formed Ice
. tl°n’ . and remaining water will be warmed, and muft con¬
tinue to receive heat by the freezing of frefti portions
of water, till it is heated exaftly to the freezing point,
unlefs the rvater could become quite folid before a fuf-
ficient quantity of heat was generated to raife it to
that point, which is not the cafe : and it is evident,
that it cannot be heated above the freezing point : for
as foon as it comes thereto, no more water will freeze,
and confequently no more heat will be generated.—
The reafon why the ice fpreads all over the water, in-
ftead of forming a folid lump in one part, is, that, as
foon as any fmall portion of ice is formed, the water
in contaft with it will be fo much warmed as to be pre¬
vented from freezing, but the water at a little diftance
from it wTill ftill be below the freezing point, and will
Confequently begin to freeze.
“ Were it not for this generation of heat, the w'hole
of any quantity of water would freeze as foon as the
procefs of congelation began j and in like manner the
cold is generated by the melting of ice $ which is the
caufe of the long time required to thaw ice and fnow.
It was formerly found that, by adding fnow to warm
water, and ftirring it about until all was melted, the
water wTas as much cooled as it would have been by
the addition of the fame quantity of w7ater rather more
than 150° degrees colder than the fnow ; or, in other
words, fomewhat more than 150° of cold are genera¬
ted by the thawing of the fnow $ and there is great
xeafon to believe that juft as much heat is produced by
the freezing of wrater. The cold generated in the ex¬
periment juft mentioned was the fame w’hether ice or
22 fnow was ufed.
©n metals “ A thermometer kept in melted tin or lead till
when be- they become folid, remains perfedtly ftationary from
turnfolid. t^ie t*me t^le meta^ begins to harden round the fides of
the pot till it is entirely folid j but it cannot be per¬
ceived at all to fink below that point, and rife up to
it when the metal begins to harden. It is not unlike¬
ly, however, that the great difference of heat between
the air and melted metal might prevent this effefl from
taking place $ fo that though it was not perceived in
thefe experiments, it is not unlikely that thofe metals,
as well as water and quickfilver, may bear being cool¬
ed a little below the freezing or hardening point (for
the hardening of melted metals, and freezing of water,
feems exactly the fame procefs,) without beginning to
lofe their fluidity.
“ The experiments of Mr Hutchins prove, that
quickfilver contra&s or diminilhes in bulk by freezing,
and that the very low degrees to which the thermo¬
meters have been made to fink, is owing to this con-
traftion, and not to the cold having been in any de¬
gree equal to that ftiown by the thermometer. In the
fourth experiment, one of the thermometers funk to
450°, though it appeared, by the fpirit thermome¬
ters, that the cold of the mixture was not more than
five or fix degrees below the point of freezing quick- Congela-
filver. In the firft experiment alfo, it funk to 448°, tion.
at a time when the cold of the mixture was only 2^° be- ' v 1
low that point ; fo that it appears that the contrac¬
tion of quickfilver by freezing muft be at leaft equal
to its expanfion by 404 degrees of heat (a). This
however, is not the whole contraftion that it fuffers j
for it appears by an extraft from a meteorological
journal kept by Mr Hutchins at Albany fort, that his
thermometer once funk to 490° below o; though
it was known by a fpirit thermometer that the cold
fcarcely exceeded the point of freezing quickfilver.
There are two experiments alfo of Profeffor Braun,
in which the thermometer funk to 544 and 556° be¬
low o $ which is the greateft defeent he ever ob-
ferved without the ball being cracked. It is not
indeed known how cold his mixtures were 5 but from
Mr Hutchins’s experiments, there is great reafon to
think they could not be many degrees below 40°. If
fo, the contradlion which quickfilver fuffers in freezing,
is not much lefs than its expanfion by 500° or 510° of
heat, that is, almoft of its whole bulk ; and in all
probability is never much more than that, though it
is probable that this contradb'on is not always deter¬
minate ; for a confiderable variation may frequently
be obferved in the fpecific gravity of the fame piece of
metal call different times over j and almoft all call me- 2^.
tals become heavier by hammering. Mr Cavendilh ob-Variation
ferved, that on calling the fame piece of tin three the denv
times over, its denfity varied from 7.252 to 7-294>^Ifrg“
though there was great reafon to think that no hoi-
lows were left in it, and that only a fmall part of thising.
difference could proceed from the error of the experi¬
ment. This variation of denfity is as much as is pro¬
duced in quickfilver by an alteration of 66° of heat:
and it is not unlikely, that the defeent of a thermome¬
ter, on account of the contradlion of the quickfilver in
its ball by freezing, may vary as much in different trials,
though the whole mafs of quickfiiver is frozen without
any vacuities.
“ The cold pi^duced by mixing fpirit of nitre of freezing
with fnow is entirely owing to the melting of the mixtures,
fnow. Now, in all probability, there is a certain de¬
gree of cold, in which the fpirit of nitre, fo far from
diffolving fnow, will yield part of its own water, and
fuffer that to freeze, as is the cafe wdth folutions of
common fait $ fo that if the cold of the materials be¬
fore mixing is equal to this, no additional cold can be
produced. If the cold of the materials is lefs, fome
increafe of cold will be produced ; but the total cold
will be lefs than in the former cafe, fince the additional
cold cannot be generated without fome of the fnow
being diffolved, and thereby weakening the acid, and
making it lefs able to diffolve more fnow ; but yet the
lefs the cold of the materials is, the greater will be the
additional cold produced. This is conformable to Mr
Hutchins’s experiments j for in the fifth experiment,
(a) The numbers here given are thofe ftiown by the thermometer without any correction ; but if a proper
allowance is made for the error of that inftrument, it will appear, that the true contraction was 250 lefs than
here fet down j and from the manner in which thermometers have been ufually adjufted, it is likely that in the
5th experiment of Mr Hutchins, as well as in thofe of Profeffor Braun, the true contraction might equally fall
fbort of that by obfervation.
85
Congela¬
tion of ful-
jphuric acid.
25
Mr Keir’s
experi¬
ments.
CON
in which the cold of the materials was —-40*
ditional cold produced was only 50. In the firft expe¬
riment, in which the cold of the materials was only
—23°, an addition of at lead: 19^ of cold was obtained ;
and by mixing fome of the fame fpirit of nitre with
fnow in this climate, when the heat of the materials
was -f-260, Mr Cavendtfh was able to fink the thermo¬
meter to —290, fo that an addition of 55 degrees of
cold was produced.
“ It is remarkable that in none of Mr Hutchins’s
experiments the cold of the mixture was more than 6°
of the fpirit thermometer below the freezing point of
quickfilver j which is fo little, that it might incline
one to think that the fpirit of nitre ufed by him was
weak. This, however, was not the cafe; as its fpe-
cific gravity at 58° of heat was 1,4923. It was able
to diffolve —-— its weight of marble, and contained
1.42 &
very little mixture of fulphuric or muriatic acid ; as
Well as could be judged from an examination of it, it
was as little phlogifticated as acid of that ftrength
ufually is.”
Acids, efpecially thofe of the mineral kind, power¬
fully refill congelation. There is, however, a peculi¬
arity with regard to that of vitriol. M. Chaptal, a
foreign chemift, obferved, that it condenfed by the
cold of the atmofphere, and the cryftals began to melt
only at -j-700 of his thermometer $ which, if Reau¬
mur’s, correfponds to about 470 of Fahrenheit. The
cryftals were undluous from the melting acid, and they
felt warmer than the neighbouring bodies : the form
was that of a prifm of fix fides, flatted and terminated
by a pyramid of fix fides j but the pyramid appeared
on one end only ; on the other, the cryftal was loft in
the general mafs. The pyramid refulted from an a fi¬
fe mbl age of fix ifofceles triangles; the oil, when the
cryftal was melted was of a yellowifh black ; on re*
diftilling it in a proper apparatus, no peculiar gas came
over. M. Chaptal repeated his experiments with the
highly concentrated acid, but found that it did not
freeze *, that the denfity of the acid which he thought
froze moft eafily was to the oil, of the ufual ftrength
for fale, as from 63 and 65 to 66 5 and the neceflary
degree of cold about 19 of Fahrenheit. Sulphuric
acid once melted will not cryftallize again with the
fame degree of cold.
In the experiments which had been made on the
freezing of fulphuric acid, Mr Cavendifh found fome
uncertainty in determining the point at which it
freezes moft readily ; neither could he determine
whether the cold neceffary for congelation does not
increafe without any limitation in proportion to the
ftrength of the acid. A new fet of experiments
were therefore made by Mr Keir to determine this
point. He had obferved, after a fevere froft at the
end of the year 1784 and beginning of 1785, that
fome fulphuric acid, contained in a corked phial, had
congealed, while other bottles containing the fame,
fome ftronger and fome weaker, retained their fluidity.
As the congelation was naturally imputed to the ex¬
tremity of the cold, he was afterwards furprifed to
find, when the froft ceafed, that the acid remained
congealed for many days, when the temperature of the
atmofphere was fometimes above 40° of Fahrenheit j
and when the congealed acid was brought into a warm
[ 507 ] CON
the ad- room on purpofe to thaw it, a thermometer placed in Cotigela-
contact with it during its thawing continued ftationary . tl°n’ ,
at 450. Hence he concluded, that the freezing and
thawing poiht of this acid was nearly at 450 ; and ac¬
cordingly, on expofing the liquor which had been thaw¬
ed to the air at the temperature of 30°, the congelation
again took place in a few hours. From the circum-
ftance of other parcels of the fame acid, but of different
ftrengths, remaining fluid, though they had been ex-
pofed to a much greater degree of cold, he was led to
believe that there muft be fome certain ftrength at which
the acid is more difpofed to congeal than at any other.
The fpecific gravity of the acid which had frozen was
to that of water nearly as 1800 to 1000, and that of
the ftronger acid which had not frozen was as 1846
to 1000, which is the common denfity of that ufually
fold in England ; and there was not the leaft differ¬
ence, excepting in point of ftrength, between the acid
which had frozen and that which had not j Mr Keir
having taken the acid fome weeks before with his own
hands from the bottle which contained the latter, and
diluted it with water, till it became of the fpecific gra¬
vity of 1800.
To render the experiment complete, Mr Keir im-
merfed feveral acids of different ftrengths in melting
fnow, inftead of expofing them to the air $ the tem¬
perature of which was variable, whereas that of melt¬
ing fnow was certain and invariable. Thofe which
would not freeze in melting fnow w’ere afterwards im-
merfed in a mixture of common fait, fnow, and wa¬
ter $ the temperature of which, though not fo con-
ftant and determinate as that of melting fnow’, gene¬
rally remained for feveral hours at 18®, and was fome¬
times feveral degrees lower. The intention of adding
water to the fnow and fait was to leffen the intenfity
of the cold of this mixture, and to render it more
permanent than if the fnow and fait alone were mixed.
The acids which had frozen in melting fnow were five
in number $ which being thawed and brought to the
temperature of 6o°, were found on examination to
have the following fpecific gravities, viz. 1786, 1784,
1780, 1778, 1775. Thofe which had not congealed
with the melting fnow, but which did fo with the mix¬
ture of fnow, fait, and water, were found, when
brought to the temperature of 6o°, to be of the fol¬
lowing fpecific gravities, viz. 1814. 1810, 1804. 1794,
1790, 1770, 1759, 1750. Thule which remained,
and would freeze neither in melting fnow nor in the
mixture of fnow, fait, and water, were of the gra¬
vities 1864, 1839, 1815, 1745, 1720, 1700, 1610,
1551. From the firft of thefe it appears, that the
medium denfity of the acids which froze with the na¬
tural cold was 1780$ and from the fecond, that at the
denfities of 1790 and 1770 the acid had been incapa¬
ble of freezing with that degree of cold. Hence it
follows, that 1780 is nearly the degree of ftr ngth of
eafieft freezing, and that an increafe or diminution of
that denfity equal to T-irg-th of the whole, renders the
acid incapable of freezing with the cold of melting
fnow, though this cold is fomething above the freezing
point of the moft congealable acid. From the fecond
it appears, that by applying a more intenfe cold, viz.
that produced by a mixture of fnow, fait, and w^ater,
the limits of the denfities of acids capable of congela¬
tion were extended to about x^g-th above or below the
3 S 2 point
CON
€«ngela- point of eafieft freezing: and there feems little reafon
. t‘on• to doubt, that, by greater augmentations of cold,
'' * thefe limits may be further extended 5 but in what ra¬
tio thefe augmentations and extenfions proceed, can¬
not be determined, without many obfervations made in
different temperatures.
“ But (fays Mr Keir) though it is probable that
the mod concentrated acids may be frozen, provided
the cold be fuificiently intenfe, yet there feems reafon
to believe, that fome of the congelations which have
been obferved in highly concentrated acids, have been
effe&ed in confequence of the denfity of thefe acids
being reduced nearly to the point of eafy freezing by
their having abforbed moifture from the air: for the
Duke d’Ayen and M. de Morveau expofed their acids
to the air in cups or open veffels •, and the latter even
acquaints us, that on examining the fpecific gravity
of the acid which had frozen, he found it to that of
water as 129 to 74’, which denfity being lefs than
that of eafieft freezing, proves that the acid he em¬
ployed, and which he had previoufly concentrated,
had been a&ually weakened during the experiment.
I have feveral times expofed concentrated fulphuric acid
in open veffels in frofty weather ; and I have fome-
times, but not always, obferved a congelation to take
place. Upon feparating the congealed part, and on
examining the fpecific gravity of the latter after it
had thawed, I found that it had been reduced to the
point of eafieft freezing. When the congealed acid
was kept longer expofed it gradually thawed, even
when the cold of the air increafed •, the reafon of which
is not to be imputed to the heat produced by the
moifture of the air mixing with the acid, but princi¬
pally to the diminution below the point of eafieft free¬
zing, which was occafioned by the continued abforp-
tion of moifture from the air, and which rendered the
acid incapable of continuing frozen without a great
iucreafe of cold.
“ It appears, then, that the concentration of M. de
Morveau’s acid, at the time of its congelation, from
which circumftance Mr Cavendifh infers generally that
fulphuric acid freezes more eafily as it is more denfe,
is not a true premife; and that therefore the inference,
though juftly deduced, is invalid. On the contrary,
there feems every reafon to believe, that as the denfity
of the acids increafes beyond the point of eafieft free¬
zing, the facility of the congelation diminifhes; at
leaft to as great denfity as we have ever been able to
obtain fulphuric acid : for if it were poflible to diveft
it entirely of water, it would probably affume a folid
form in anv temperature of the air.
“ The cryftallization of fulphuric acid is more or
lefs diftinft, according to the flownefs of the forma¬
tion of the cryftals and other favourable cirrumftances.
Sometimes they are very large, diftinftly flnped, and
hard. Their (hape is like thofe of the common mi¬
neral alkali and felenite fpar, but with angles different
in dimenfions from either of thefe. They are folid,
confifting of ten faces j of which the two large^ are
equal, parallel, and oppofite to each other j and are
oblique-angled parallelograms or rhomboids, whofe
angles are, as near as could be meafured, of 105 and
75 degrees. Between thefe two rhomboidal faces are
placed eight of the form of trapeziums j and thus each
508 ] CON
cryftal may be fuppofed to be compounded of two Congela-
equal and fimilar fruftums of pyramids joined together tlon-
by their rhomboidal bafes. They always funk in the
fluid acid to the bottom of the veffel, which fhowed
that their denfity was increafed by congelation. It
was attempted to determine their fpecific gravity by
adding to this fluid fome concentrated acid, which
fhould make them float in the liquor, the examination
of whofe fpecific gravity fhould afcertain that of the
floating cryftals j but they w'ere found to fink even in
the moft concentrated acid, and were confequently den-
fer. Some of the congealable acid previoufly brought
to the freezing temperature was then poured into a
graduated narrow cylindrical glafs, up to a certain
mark, which indicated a fpace equal to that occupied
by 200 grains of water. The glafs was placed in a
mixture of fnow, fait, and water; and when the acid
was frozen, a mark was made on the part of the glafs
to which it had funk. Having thawed the acid and
emptied the glafs, it was filled with water to the mark '
to which it had funk by freezing*, and it was then found
that 15 grains more of water were required to raife it
to the mark expreffing 200 grains } which ftiows, that
the diminution of bulk fuftained by the acid in freezing
had been equal to —^ -■ of the whole. Computing from
this datum, we ftiould eftimate the fpecific gravity of
the congealed acid to have been 1924 5 but as it evi¬
dently contained a great number of bubbles, its real
fpecific gravity mull have been confiderably greater
than the above calculation, and cannot eafily be deter¬
mined on account of thefe bubbles. By way of com¬
panion, Mr Keir obferved the alteration of bulk which
water contained in the fame cylindrical veffel would
fuffer by freezing; and found that its expanfion was
equal to about -^th °f hs bulk. The water had been
previoufly boiled, but neverthelefs contained a great
number of air bubbles ; fo that in this refpeft there is
a confiderable difference between the congelations of
water and fulphuric acid ; though perhaps it may
arife principally from the bubbles of elaftic fluid
being in greater proportion in the one than the
other.
“ Greater cold is produced by mixing fnow or
pounded ice with the congealed than with the fluid
fulphuric acid, though the quantity is not yet deter¬
mined. The greateft cold produced by Mr M’Nab at
Hudfon’s Bav, was effedled by mixing fnow with a
fulphuric acid which had been previoufly congealed ;
and to this circumftance Mr Cavendifh imputes the in-
tenfity of the cold, as the liquefaftion both of the
acid and the fnow had concurred in producing the
fame effect j while in mixing fluid acids with fnow,
the thawing of the fnow is probably the only produc¬
tive caufe.
“To compare the times requifite for the liquefac¬
tions of ice and of congealed fulphuric acid, two equal
and fimilar glaffes were filled, one with the congealable
fulphuric acid, the other with water; and after having
imraerfed them in a freezing mixture, till both were
congealed and reduced to the temperature of 28°, the
glaffes were withdrawn, wiped dry, and placed in a
room where the thermometer flood at 62°. The ice
thawed in 40 minutes, and the acid in 95 ; at the
end
CON [ 509 ] CON
C<ynge!a- end of which time the thermometer, which flood near
tion. the glaffes, had rifen to 64°. Hence it appears that
““"V " '' the congealed acid requires more than twice the time
for its liquefaftion that ice does, though it cannot
thence be fairly inferred, that the cold generated by
the liquefaction of the ice and of congealed acid are in
the above proportions of the times, from the following
Confiderations, viz. that as, during the liquef.ftion of
the ice, its temperature remains ftationary at 320, and
during the liquefaftion of the acid, its temperature re¬
mains about 44 or 450, it appears, that the ice being
confiderably colder than the acid, will take the heat
from the contiguous air much fader. By this experi¬
ment, however, we know that a confiderable quantity
of cold is generated by the liquefa&ion of the acid •,
and hence it appears probable, that in producing cold
artificially, by mixing fnow with acids in very cold
temperatures, it would probably be ufeful to employ a
fulphuric acid of the proper denfity for congelation, and
to freeze it previoufly to its mixture with fnow. It
mud not, however, be imagined, that the cold gene¬
rated bv the mixture of thefe two frozen fubdances is
nearly equal to the fums of the colds generated by the
feparate liquefa£lions of the congealed acid and ice,
when fingly expofed to a thawing temperature •, for
the mixture refulting from the liquefa&ion, confiding
of fulphuric acid and the water of the fnow, appears
from the generation of heat which occurs from the
mixture of thefe ingredients in a fluid date, to be fub-
je6l to different laws than thofe which rule either of
the ingredients feparately. , '
“ The fulphuric acid, like water and other fluids, is
capable of retaining its fluidity when cooled confider
ablv below its freezing point. A phial containing
fome congealable fulphuric acid being placed in a mix¬
ture of fait, fnow, and watery a thermometer was foon
afterwards immerfed in it while the acid was yet fluid,
on which it quickly funk from 50 to 290. On moving
the thermometer in the fluid, to make it acquire the
exafl temperature, the mercury was obferved fuddenly
to rife •, and on looking at the acid, numbc-lefs fmall
crydals were obferved floating in it, which had been
fu'denly formed. The degree to which the mercury
then rofe was 46^°; and at another time, while the
acid was freezing, it flood at 45°»”
From thefe experiments our author infers, “1. That
fulphuric acid has a point of eafiefl freezing, and
' that this is when the fpecific gravity is to that of water
as 1780 to 1000. 2. That the greater or lefs difpo-
fition to congelation does not depend on any ot^er
circumflance than the flrength of the acid. 3. That
the freezing and thawing degree of the moft congeal¬
able acid is about 450 of Fahrenheit’s fcale. It is,
however, to be observed, that this degree is inferred
from the temperature indicated by the thermometers
imm-rfed in the freezing and thawing acids ; but the
congelation of the fluid acid could never be accom-
pliflied without expofing it to a greater degree of cold,
either by expnfing it to the air in frofly weather or to
the cold of melting fnow. 4. Like water, this acid
poffefles the property of retaining its fluidity when
cooled fever ;.l degrees below the freezing point ; <and
of rifing fuddenly to it when its congelation is pro¬
moted by agitation, or by contact even with a wanner
theimometer. 5. That, like water and other congeal- Congela.
able fluids, fulphuric acid generates cold by its lique- ll°n
faflion, and heat during its congelation, though theConCTgft;on>
quantity of this heat and cold remains to be deter- ^ y - 1
mined by future experiments. 6. That the acid, by
congelation, when the circumflances for diflindl cry-
flallization are favourable, affumes a regular cry-
flalline form, a confiderable folidity and hardnefs,
and a denfity much greater than it poflefied in its fluid
flate.”
Befides this fpecies of congelation, fulphuric acid
is fubjeft to another, probably the fame defcribed by
Bafil Valentine and fome of the older chemifls. This
is effefled in the ordinary temperature of the air, even
in fummer ; and, according to Mr Keir*, is' peculiar*/>£/7.
to that foecies of fulphuric acid rvhich is diflilled from
green vitriol, and which is pofll-fled of a fmoking qua-vo1'1XXV1::'
lity in a high degree} “for not only the authors^’a6/’
(fays Mr Keir) by whom this congelation has been
obferved, have given this defcription of the acid em¬
ployed, but alfo the late experiments of Mr Dolfufs,
feem to fliow th-'t this fmoking quality is eflential to
the phenomenon : for neither the acid obtained from
vitriol, when deprived by rectification of its fmoking
quality, nor the Englifh lulphuric acid, which is known
to be obtained by burning fulphur, and ivhich does
not Imoke, were found by his trials to be fufceptible of
this fpecies of congelation. It may, however, be
worth the attention of thofe chemifls who have an op¬
portunity of feeing this icy fu/phuric acid, as it is called,
to obferve more accurately than has yet been done, the
freezing temperature and the denfity of the congealable
acids} and to examine whether the denfity of this
fmoking acid alfo is connefted with the glacial pro¬
perty. It feems alfo further deferving of inveftiga-
tion, whether there be not fome analogy between the
congelation of the fmoking fulphuric acid and the very
curious cryflallization which Dr Prieflley obferved in
a concentrated fulphuric acid faturated with nitrous acid
vapours } and whether this fmoking quality does not
proceed from fome marine or other volatile acid, which
may be contained in the martial vitriol whence the ful¬
phuric acid is obtained.”
Mr Keir alfo obferves, that M. Cornatter has ef¬
fected the cryftallization of fulphuric acid, by diflilling
it with nitrous acid and charcoal } and we can add
from our own experience, that a cryflallization in-
flantly takes place on allowing the fumes of the ni¬
trous and fulphuric acids to mix together ; and this,
whether the former be procured from martial vitriol or
fulphur, and whether it be in a phlogifticated Rate or
not, concentration in both adds is here the only re¬
quisite.
CONGER, in Zoology. See Murjena, Ichthyo¬
logy Index.
CONGERIES, a Latin word, fometimes ufed in
our language for a colleClion or heap of feveral par¬
ticle*'' of bodies united into one mafs or aggregate.
CONGESTION, in Medicine, a mafs or colleClion
of humours, crowded together and hardened in any
part of the body, and there forming a preternatural
tumor.
Congeflion is effefled by little and little ; in which
it differs from defluBion, which is more hidden.
CONGIARIUM,
Congo.
# See Pa¬
nicle'
CON [5
Congiarium CONGIARIUM, Congiary, among medalifts, a
gift or donative reprefented on a medal. The word
comes from the Latin congius; becaufe the firft pre-
fents made to the people of Rome confided in wine
and oil, which were meafured out to them in congiu
The congiary was properly a prefent made by the em¬
perors to the people of Rome. Thofe made to the
foldiers were not called congiaries but donatives. The
legend on medals reprefenting congiaries, is, Congiarium
or Liberalitas. Tiberius gave a congiary of three hun¬
dred pieces of money to each citizen: Caligula twice
gave three hundred fefterces a head: Nero, whofe con¬
giaries are the firft that we find reprefented on medals,
gave four hundred.
CONGIUS, a liquid meafure of the ancient Ro¬
mans, containing the eighth part of the amphora, or the
fourth of the urna, or fix fextarii. The congius in
Englilh meafure contains 2.070,676 folid inches j that
is, feven pints, 4,942 folid inches.
CONGLOBATE gland. See Anatomy Index.
CONGLOMERATE gland. See Anatomy
Index.
Conglomf.kate Flowers, are thofe growing on a
branching foot-ftalk, to wdiich they are irregularly
but clofely conhefted. This mode of inflorefcence, as
Linnaeus terms it, is oppofed to that in which the
flowers are irregularly and loofely fupported on their
foot-ftalks, hence termed a diffufe panicle *. The
term is exemplified in Ceveral of the graffes, particu-
larv in fome fpecies of the poa, fefcue grafs, and
agroftis.
CONGLUTINATION, the glueing or faftening
any two bodies together by the intromiflion of a third,
whofe parts are undluous and tenacious, in the nature
of glue. See Glue.
CONGO, a kingdom of Africa, bounded on the
north by the river Zair, or Zar ih, which divides it
from Loanga; on the fouth by the river Danda, which
feparates it from Angola ; on the eaft by the king¬
doms of Fungono and Metamba, and the burnt moun¬
tains of the fun, thole of cryftal or fait petre and fil-
ver, or (according to Anthony Cavazzi, a travel¬
ler into thofe parts) by the mountains of Coanza, Ber-
bela, and the great mountains of Chilandria or Aqui-
londa ; and on the weft by that part of the Atlantic
ocean called the Ethiopia fea, or the fea of Congo. Ac¬
cording to thefe limits, Congo Proper extends about
three degrees from north to fouth ; lying between
the line and 180 S. Lat. ; but widens in its breadth
inland, by the courfe of the river Zair, which runs
winding above two degrees more to the north. Its
length from eaft to weft is very uncertain, as no obfer-
vations have been taken of the exa6! fituation of thofe
mountains which bound it.
The hiftory of this kingdom affords but few inte-
certain and refting particulars. Before its difcovery by the Por-
fabuious tuguefe, the hiftory is altogether uncertain and fabu¬
lous, as the inhabitants were totally unacquainted with
letters and learning. So little were they acquainted
with chronology, that it is faid they did not even di-
ftinguilh between dav and nighf, much lers could they
compute their time by moons or years,; and therefore
could remember paft tranfaflions only by 'aying they
happened in fuch a king’s reign.
The country tvas difcovered by the Portuguefe in
Extent.
Hiftory un-
10 1 CON
1484. The difcoverer was named Diego Cant, an Congo,
expert and bold foldier. He was very well received ~ v
by the natives, and fent fome of his men with Pie-xhecoun
fents to the king ; but they being detained by unex- try dif-
peeled accidents beyond the promiled time of their covered by-
return, Cam w^as obliged to fail away without them, fhe Portu-
and took with him four young Congoefe, as holtages Sue^e*
for the fafety of his countrymen. Thefe he taught
the Portuguefe language, in which they made fuch
progrefs that King John was highly plealed, and fent
them back next year to Congo with rich prefents ;
charging them to exhort their moHarch, in his name,
to become a convert to the Chriftian religion, and to
permit it to be propagated through his dominions. A
firm alliance was concluded between the two monarchs,
which continues to this day, though not without fome
interruptions, to which the Portuguefe themlelves have
given occafion more than the natives.
Any particular account we have of this ^nS^om> Cavazzi’-
refts almoft entirely on the credit of Anthony Cavaz- account of
zi, the traveller above mentioned. He was a capu-Congo,
chin friar, a native of the duchy of Modena, and wras
fent miflionary into thofe parts de propaganda fde, in
the year 1654, and arrived at Congo the fame year.
During his ftay there, his zeal to make converts made
him travel through all thefe different kingdoms; and
the credit he gained, as well as the great employments
he was intrufted with, gave him an opportunity of in¬
forming himfelf of every thing relating to them with
great exaftnefs. The extent and fituation, however,
he could not poflibly afcertain, for want of inftruments;
nor hath this defeft been fince fupplied. According
to him the dominions of Congo extended a great dealExtept jef<i
further eaftward and fouthwards before the introduc- fened fince
tion of Chriftianity than afterwards ; a great number the intro-
of the ftates that were under the Congoefe monarchs,
either as fubje&s, or tributary, having withdrawn tjr>
their allegiance out of diflike to them on that account.
Not content with oppofing the officers and troops
that came annually to raife the tribute impofed by
the king, they made fuch frequent and powerful in-
curfions into his dominions, that they obliged him to
draw his forces nearer the centre of Congo to pre¬
vent an invafion; by which means the kingdom, from
an extent of 600 leagues, was reduced to lefs than one
half. 6
Congo Proper being fituated within the torrid zone, Account of
is liable to exceffive heats : as it lies on the fouthern the climate
fide of the equino£lial, the feafons are of courfe oppo-and feafons,
fite to ours. They reckon only two principal feafons,
the fummer and winter; the former begins in O&ober,
and continues till February or March ; during which
time the fun’s rays dart with fuch force, that the at-
mofpbere appears to an European to be in a flame.
The exceffive heat, however, is mitigated by the equal
length of the days and nights, as well as by the winds,
breezes, rains, and dews. The winter takes up the
other part of the year ; and is faid by the natives to
be proportionally cbld, though to an European it would
appear hot. Thefe two feafons they divide into fix
leffer ones, viz. Maffanza, Neafu, Ecundi, Quitombo,
Quibifo, and Quibangala.
Maffanza begins with the month of Oftober, which
is the beginning of their fpring. The rains begin to
fall at that time, and continue during the next two
and
CON [5
Congo, and fometimes three, months. When this happens, the
s w—low lands are commonly overflowed with extraor¬
dinary floods, and all their corn carried off. A dif-
after of this kind is commonly followed by a famine j
for the lazy inhabitants take no care to lay up any
provifions, although fuch misfortunes happen very fre¬
quently. This firfl: feafon they reckon commences at
the time the plants begin to fpring.
The fecond feafon, Neafu, begins about the end of
January, when the produce of their lands has arrived
at its full height, and wants but a few days of being
ripened for harveft. This firft crop is no fooner ga¬
thered in, than they fow their fields afrefh, their land
commonly yielding them two harvefts.
The third and fourth feafons, called Ecundi and
^uitombo, are frequently blended together towards
the middle of March, when the more gentle rains
begin to fall, and continue till the month of
May. Thefe two feafons are dillinguilhed by the
greater or lefler quantity of rain that falls during that
interval. During the reft of the time, the air is ei¬
ther very clear, hot, and dry •, or the clouds being
overcharged with ele&ric matter, burft out into the
moft terrible thunders and lightnings, without yield¬
ing the leaft drop of rain, though they feem loaded
with it.
The two laft, viz. the Quibifo and Quibangala,
make up their ftiort winter, which confifts not in froft
or fnow, but in dry, blafting winds, which ftrip the
earth of all its verdure, till the next Maffanza begins
to reftore them to their former bloom.
They now divide their year into twelve lunar
months, and begin it in September. They have alfo
weeks confifting of four days only, the laft of which
7 is their fabbath; and on it they religioufly abftain from
Natives ex. every kind of work. This praflice, the compilers of
y m'the Univerfal Hiftory conjedlure to have arifen from
the extreme lazinefs for which this people, and in¬
deed all the African nations, are fo remarkable. To
this ftiameful indolence alfo is to be aferibed the little
produce they reap from their lands, while the Portu-
guefe fettled among them, who are at more pains in
the cultivation of theirs, enjoy all manner of plenty.
The natives, however, had rather run the rifk of the
moft terrible famines, than be at the tenth part of the
labour they fee the Portuguefe take. They feem to
think it below them to ufe any other exercifes than
thofe of dancing, leaping, hunting, (hooting, &c.; the
reft of their time they fpend in fmoking, and down¬
right idlenefs, committing the laborious part of their
houfehold affairs to their {laves, or, in want of them,
to their wives. Nothing is more common than to fee
thefe poor creatures toiling in the fields and woods
with a child tied to their backs, and fainting under
their exceflive labowr and heavy burdens, or (which
is ftill worfe) hunger and third. What is yet more
furprifingly (hameful is, that though they have plenty
of domeftic animals which they might eafily make ufe
of for cultivating their grounds, and for other labori¬
ous fervices, and though they fee the Portuguefe do it
every day to great advantage j yet they will rather fee
tneir tender females fink under their toil and labour,
than be at the trouble of breeding up any of thefe ufe-
ful creatures to their afliftance.
The ground produces variety of grain, but no corn
1
CON
or rice except what is cultivated by the Portuguefe. Congo.
Their maize, or Indian wheat, grows very ftrong, and ' " 'g ^
is well laden. This being well ground, they make Vegetables
into bread, or boil with water into a kind of pap. Of produced in
this they have four kinds 5 one of which, refembling Congo,
what we call French wheat, is produced in plenty,
and makes fome amends for the want of induftry in
the people. They cultivate alfo a variety of the peafe
and bean kind : but what they chiefly live upon, as
moft fuitable to their lazy difpofition, is a kind of nut,
like our filberts, w'bich fall to the ground of them-
felves, and are to be found everywhere j every nut
that falls to the ground producing a new fhrub next
year. They have fcarcely any fruit-trees but nhat
have been brought hither by the Portuguefe. They
have various forts of palm-trees, ufeful both by their
fruit, leaves, and their juice, which is eafily converted
into wine ; alfo by affording a kind of oil with which
they dreis their victuals, though the Europeans uie it
only to burn in their lamps. They have alfo a vaft:
number of plants and ftirubs, which it would be im-
poflible to deferibe or enumerate. Wheat is the only
thing that the ground will not produce. It pufhes
forth, indeed, the ftraw and the ear 5 the former of
which grows high enough we are told, to hide a man
on borfeback, but the latter is empty, without one grain
fit for ufe. Father Labat, however, who had lived a
confiderable time in fome of the American iflands,
where he had obferved the fame thing, tells us, that
he had the curiofity to examine thofe ears more care¬
fully, and had found fome few grains; and that, ha¬
ving fowed them afrefh, they produced very long ears,
full of large heavy grain. Whence he conjeflureSj
that if the Portuguefe had tried the fame experiment
in their African fettlements, it might perhaps have
been attended with the fame fuccefs. ^
In the low lands the grafs grows fo high, rank, Hazardous
and thick, that it becomes one of the moft dangerous travelftnS*
receptacles for wild beafts, ferpents, and other venom¬
ous infedfs: on this account travelling is exceeding¬
ly hazardous, as there are few beaten roads in the
whole country, and travellers are obliged to march
over it through vaft plains, in continual danger of be¬
ing devoured or flung to death ; to fay nothing of
the manifold difeafes produced by the unwholefome
dews with which the grafs is covered during fome part
of the day. The only method of guarding againfl:
all thefe evils effedtually, is by fetting fire to the grafs
in the hot weather, when it is quite parched by the
heat of the fun : but even this cannot be done with¬
out the greateft danger ; becaufe both the wild beafts
and venomous reptiles, being roufed out of their
places of retirement, will fly furioufly at thofe who
happen to be in the way. In this cafe there is no
pofhbility of efcaping, but by climbing up the higheft
trees, or defending one’s felf with fire-arms or other
weapons. In fuch emergencies, the natives have a
much better chance than the Europeans; the former
being able to climb trees with furprifing fwiftnefs j
while the latter muft be aflifted with rope-ladders,
which they commonly caufe their blacks to carry about
with them, and to go up and faften to one of the
branches.
The flowers are here exceedingly beautiful and nu- Great va-
merouSt Almoft every field and grove yields a much riety of
j nobler
Conga.
II
Animals of
different
kinds.
CON [ 51
nobler profpect than the European gardens can boaft
of, notwithftanding the pains bellowed on their culti¬
vation. The flowers are remarkable, not only lor
the prodigious variety of their colours, but the vail
quantity of heads which grow upon one ftalk. In
the day-time, indeed, they feem to have loft their na¬
tural fragrancy } that being in fome meafure exha e
by the heat of the fun : but this is amply compenfated
after its fetting, and more efpecially a little before its
riling, when their fweetnefs is again condenftd, an
revived by the coldnefs and dews of the night, after
which they exhale their various refrelhing fcents in a
much higher degree than ours. The lilies, which there
grow naturally in the fields, valleys, and woods, excel
thofe of our gardens, not only in their extreme white-
nefs, but much more in a delightful fragrancy, without
offending the head, as the European lilies do by their
faintilh fweetnefs. The tulips which there grow wild,
though generally called Perfic, have fomething fo iur-
prifingly charming in the variety and combination o
their colours, that they dazzle the eyes of an intenie
beholder: neither do their flowers grow fingly as
with us, but ten or twelve upon one ftalk •, and with
this double advantage, that they diffufe a very revi¬
ving and agreeable fweetnefs, and continue much long¬
er in their full bloom. Of the fame nature are their
tuberofes, hyacinths, and other native flowers ; which
fpring up in vaft groups of 100 and 200 from one
root, though fomewhat fmaller than ours *, lome ox
them finely variegated, and all of them yielding an
agreeable fmell. The rofes, jeffamines, and other
exotics brought hither from Europe or America, come
up likewife in great perfeaion, but require a con-
ftant fupply of w’ater, and diligent attendance, to
prevent them from degenerating. The American
effamine, in particular, inftead of Angle flowers, will
grow up by dozens in a bunch •, lome of them of an
exquifite white, and others of the colour of the moft
vivid fire. „ , • 1
A vaft variety of animals of different kinds are
found in the kingdom of Congo the chiel of which
is the elephant. This creature is moftly found in the
province of Bamba, which abounds with woods pa-
fture, and plenty of water ; the elephants delighting
much to bathe themfelves during the heat ol the day.
They commonly go in troops of an hundred or more ;
and 'fome of them are of fuch a monftrous fize, that
we are told the print of their hoof hath meafured
four, nay feven, fpans in diameter. From the hair of
their tails, and that of fome other animals the na¬
tives, efpecially the women, weave themfelves col¬
lars, bracelets, girdles, &c. with variety of devices
and figures, which denote their quality •, and are m
fuch efteem. that the hair of two elephants tails is
fufficient to buy a flave. The reafon ot this is, that
the natives have not the art of taming them, but are
obliged to fend fome of the braved and ftouteft men
to hunt them in the woods ; which is not done with¬
out great labour and danger, they being heie ex¬
ceedingly fierce. The moft common way of hunting
them is by digging deep holes in the ground, the top
of which they cover with branches and leaves, as is
praffifed in moft Darts ot x\fia. , , n r
Lions, leopards, tigers, wolves, and other beafts of
prey, abound here in great plenty, and do much da-
1 ] CON
mage. Here are alfo a vaft variety of monkeys of all
Cengo-
fizes and ftiapes. The zebra, well known for its ex- v
treme beauty and fwiftneis, is alfo met with in this coun¬
try. They have alfo a variety of buffaloes and wild
afles ; but the dante feems to be an animal peculiar to
this kingdom. It is ihaped and coloured much like an
ox, though not fo large. Its {kin is commonly bought
by the Portuguefe, and fent into Germany to be tan¬
ned and made into targets, which are then called dantes.
The natives make ufe of their raw hide dried to
make their ftiields ; which are fo tough that no arrow
or dart can pierce them \ and they are alfo large enough
to cover the whole body. The creature is vatlly fv\ilt $
and when wounded, will follow the (cent or fmoke ol
the gunpowder with fuch fury, that the hunter is ob¬
liged to climb up a tree with all poffible fpeed ; and
this retreat he always takes care to fecure before he
ventures to fire. The wounded beaft finding its enemy
out of its reach, flays for him at the foot of the tree,
and will not ftir £[pm it ; of which the hunter taking
the advantage, difpatcbes it with repeated (hots. The
forefts of Congo alfo fwarm with wild dogs, who, like
the wolves, prey upon the tame cattle, and are lo
fierce that they will attack armed men. Their teeth
are exceeding keen and {harp ; they never bark, but
make a dreadful howling when famiftied or in purimt
of their prey. #
This country alfo abounds with all the binerent Birds,
kinds of birds that are to be found in other warm cli¬
mates. One fort, which they call birds of mtlfci ^
greatly efteemed, infomuch that perfons of the highelt
rank have from time immemorial taken the greateft
delight in keeping them in cages and aviaries for the
fake of their furprifing melody. On the other hand, as
the Congoefe are fuperftitious to the laft degree, there
are feveral kinds of birds which they look upon as
ominous, and are fo terrified at the fight or hearing ot
them, that if they were going to enter upon ever io
momentous an expedition, if they were met in coun¬
cil, or going to engage an enemy with ever fo great
an advantage, the flight or cry of fuch birds would
throw them into a general panic, and difperfe them in
the utmoft hafte and confufion. The moft dreadful ot
the ominous kind are the crows, ravens, bats, and owls.
The great owl is the moft terrible of all, and to him they
give the name of kariam pemba, by which words they
likewife denote the devil. r, r r-
Fifh of different kinds abound on the coafts ot '-on*
go in great numbers ; but the inland parts are infefted
with fuch numbers of ferpents, fcorpions, and other
venomous infers, as are perhaps fufficient to overba¬
lance every natural advantage we have yet mentioned. I3
The moft pernicious and dangerous kind are the ants j Ants very
of Which they reckon no lefs than fix feveraHpec.es ot dangerous,
different colours and fizes *, all of them formidable on
accourtt of their prodigious numbers, and the mr t le
they do not only to the fruits of the earth, but to men
and beafts; whom they will furround in the night time,
and devour even to the very bone. It is a common
pradice, we are told, to condemn perfons ^gudty of
fome atrocious crimes to be ftnpped naked, tied E nd
and foot, and thrown into a hole where thefe mfi ds
fwarm; where they are fure to be devoured by them
in lefs than 24 hours to the very bones. But crimi¬
nals are not the only perfons who are in danger from
1
Con <ro.
CON [51
tlie jaws of thefe little devouring infers. People may
' be attacked by them, as we have already hinted, in the
night-time, and while they are fleeping in their beds.
This obliges the natives to be careful where they
lie down, and to kindle a fmall fire, or at lealt to have
a circle of burning hot embers round their beds. This
caution is flill more neceffary in the country villages
and hamlets, w'here perfons are otherwife in danger of
being attacked by millions of them in the dead of the
night. In fuch a cafe the only expedient to fave one’s
fell is to jump up as foon as one feels the bite, to brufh
them off with all poflible fpeed, and then at once to fet
the houfe on fire. The danger is ftill greater in tra¬
velling through the country, where a perfon is often
obliged to take up his lodging on the bare ground ;
and may be overtaken durtng the heat of the day wdth
fuch profound fleep, as not to be aw7akened by thefe di¬
minutive animals till they have made their way through
the fkin 5 and in fuch a cafe nothing will prevent their
devouring a man alive, though there w7ere ever fo
many hands to affift him : in fuch incredible quantities
do thefe creatures abound, notwithftanding the great
numbers of monkeys who are continually ferreting the
ants out of their retreats, and feed upon them with
the utmoft avidity. This can only be afcribed to the
natural lazinefs and indolence of the inhabitants $
which is fuch, that they not only negledt to rid their
lands of them by proper cultivation, but will fuffer their
houfes, nay, even their very churches, to be undermined
by them. Another kind of thefe deftru£!ive vermin lie
fo thick upon the paths and highways, that a perfon
cannot walk without treading upon, and having his
legs and thighs almoft devoured by them. A third fort
of a w7hite and red colour, but very fmall, will gnaw
their way through the hardeft wood, penetrate into a
ftrong chell, and in a little while devour all the
clothes, linen, and every thing that is in it. A fourth
fort, fmali and black, leave a molt intolerable flench
tipon every thing they touch or crawl over, whe¬
ther clothes or houfehold Huff, which are not eafily
fweetened again j or if they pafs over victuals, they
are entirely Ipoiled. A fifth fort harbour chiefly on
the leaves and branches of trees ; and if a man chance
to climb up thither to fave himfelf from a wild beaft,
he is fo tormented by them, that nothing but the fear
of the jaws of the one could make him endure the
flings of the other. A fixth fort is of the flying
kind j and is probably one of the former kinds, that
live wholly under ground, till nature furnifhes them with
wings. After this, they rife in fuch fwaimis as darken
the air, and would make terrible havock among all
kinds of vegetables, did not the natives come out
againft them in whole companies, and by dint of flaps,
and other flat weapons, knock them down by myriads,
and then laying them in heaps, fet fire to their wings,
which half broils them for food. Amidll all this va¬
riety of pernicious infefls, however, they have one
fpecies of a more friendly and profitable kind, viz.
the indullrious bee, which furnilhes the inhabitants w'ith
honey and w-ax in fuch plenty, that there is fcarce a hol-
"auulou^r^ ^°W-tree’ a roc^> or choPof the earth, in which
*0?U ous‘ their combs are not found in great quantities.
With refpefl to the populoufnefs of the kingdom of
Congo, fome authors, writing either from mere conjec¬
ture, or at heft precarious inferences, have reprefented
Vol, VI, Part II.
*4
3 ] CON
it as thinly peopled. The accounts of the miffionaries Congo,
and Portuguefe, how’ever, are directly oppofite to ’"'v
thefe. They found the country for the moll part co¬
vered with towns and villages, and thefe fwarming with
inhabitants ; the cities well filled with people, parti¬
cularly the metropolis, which is faid to contain above
50,000 louls. The provinces, though not equally
populous, yet in the whole make up fuch an amount
as plainly proves, that what is wanting in the one is
amply made up by the other. We are told that the
duchy of Bamba is ftill able to raife aoo,oco fighting
men, and was formerly in a condition to raife double
that number ; and that the army of the king of Congo,
in the year 1665, confifted of 900,000 fighting men,
who were attended by an infinite number of women,
children, and flaves. The numbers of the Congoefe
will appear the more credible, when we confider the
extreme fecundity of their women, the hardinefs with
which they bring up their children, and the ftoutnefs
and healthinefs of their men. In fome villages, if the
miflionaries are to be credited, the number of children
is fo great, that a father will part with one or two, for
any commodity he wants, or even for fome trifling baw-
ble he fancies j fo that the number of flaves they fell
abroad feldom amounts, communibus antiify to lefs than
15,000 or 16;ooo. t ,x
There is icarcely a nation on earth that have a high- Ccrngoefe
er opinion of themfelves or their country than the Con- ^ ve. a l'igh
goefe, or that is more hardened againrt all convidion ^emfelvea
to the contrary, from reafon, experience, or the molt'
impartial comparifon with other countries in Europe
or Alia. Indeed it is impoflible they fhould think
otherwife, when it is one of the fundamentals of their
belief, that the reft of the world was the work of an¬
gels, but that the kingdom of Congo, in its full and
ancient extent, was the handywork of the Supreme
Architedl j and muft of courfe have vaft prerogatives
and advantages over all others. When told of the
magnificence of the European and Afiatic courts, their
immenfe revenues, the grandeur of their palaces and
edifices, the richnefs and happinefs of their fubje£ts, the
great progrefs they have made in the arts and fciences
to which their country is wholly a ftranger, they cool¬
ly anfwer, that all this comes valtly fhort of the dig¬
nity and fplendor of the kings and kingdom of Congo $
and that there can be but one Congo in the world, to
the happinefs of whole monarch and people all the
reft were created to contribute, and to whofe treafury
the fea and rivers pay their conllant tribute of zim-
bis (or (hells, which are their current coin)-, whilft other
princes muft condefcend to enrich themlelves by dig¬
ging through rocks and mountains, to come at the ex¬
crements of the earth, fo they ftyle. gold and filver
which are in fuch requeft among other nations. Ac¬
cordingly, they imagine, that the nations which come
to traffic with them, are forced to that fervile employ-
ment by their poverty and the badnefs of their coun- Their floth,
try, rather than induced to it by luxury or avarice ; pride, Stc.
whilft they themfelves can indulge their natural indo¬
lence or floth, though attended with the moft pinching
poverty, rather than difgrace the dignity of their blood
by the leaft effort of induftry, which, how laudable
and beneficial foever, is looked upon by them as only
a leffer degree of flavery. But though they generally
efteem it lo much below their dignity to apply to any
3 T ufeful
CON [5M-] CON
17 .
Complexi¬
on, charac¬
ter,cuftoms,
See.
18
If.eligion.
19
Govern¬
ment.
ufeful work, they think it no difgrnce to beg or fteal.
With refpeil to the firft, they are faid to be the moft
fhamelefs and importunate beggars in the world, '{'hey
will take no denial, fpare no crouching, lying, prayers,
to obtain what they want, nor curfes and ill language
when Tent away without it. With regard to the laft,
they deem no theft unlawful or fcandalous, except it
be committed in a private manner, without the know¬
ledge of the perfon wronged. It is efteemed a piece
of bravery and gallantry to wreneb any thing from
another by violence 5 and this kind of theft is lo com¬
mon, not only among the vulgar, but alfo among the
great ones, that they make no fcruple, in their travels
from place to place, to feize not only upon all the
proviiions they meet with in towns and villages, but
upon every thing elle that falls in their way. Thele
violences oblige the poor people to conceal the few valu¬
ables they have, inlome fecret place out of the knowledge
and reach of thole harpies ; and they think themlelves
well olF if they can efcape a fevere baftinading, or other
cruel ufage, frequently inflicled upon them, in order to
make them difeover the place of their concealment.
The complexion of the natives, both men and wo¬
men, is black, though not in the fame degree ; feme
being of a much deeper black than others. 1 heir
hair is black and finely curled ; feme have it alfo of a
dark fandy colour : their eyes are moftly of a fine
lively black •, but feme are of a dark fea-colour. They
have neither fiat nofes nor thick lips like the Nubians
and other negroes. Their ftature is moiily of the
middle fize ; and, excepting their black complexion,
they much referable the Portuguefe. In their temper
they are miftruftful, envious, jealous, and treacherous;
and where they once take a difialte or affront, will
fpare no pains, and flick at no means, however bale,
to be avenged of, and crufh their enemy under their
feet. There is no fuch thing among them as natural
affeaion. A huffand, if a Heathen, may take as
many wives as he pleafes; and il a Chriflian, may have
any number of concubines, whom he may divorce at
pleafure, or even fell them though with child. So
little regard have they for their children, that there is
fcarce one among them wTho will not fell a ion cr a
daughter, or perhaps both, for a piece of cloth, a col¬
lar or girdle of coral or beads, and often for 3 bottle of
wine or brandy.
The religion of the Congoefe in many parts is down¬
right idolatry, accompanied with the moft ridiculous
fuperflitions, and the mofl abfurd and deteftable rites
invented by their gangas or priefts ; and even in thofe
parts where Chriftianity is profefied, it is fo darkened
by fuperflitions of one kind or other, that we may
juftly queftion whether the people are any gainers by
the exchange.
The government of this kingdom is monarchical,
and as defpotic as any in Afia or Africa. The kings
are the foie proprietors of all the lands within their
dominions; and thefe they can difpofe of to whom
they pleafe, upon condition they pay a certain tribute
out of them : upon failure of the payment of which,
or any other negleft, they turn them out. Even the
princes of the blood are fubjefted to the fame law ; fo
that there is no perfon of any rank or quality what¬
ever that can bequeath a foot or land to his heirs or
fucceffors ; and when thefe owners under the crown
2
die, the lands immediately return to it again, whether Cong®,
they were in their poffeffion, or had been lelt to ever ^ongrega-
fo many tenants under them ; fo that it entirely de- . tl°R' .
pends on the prince whether thefe lands fliall be conti¬
nued in the fame, or be difpofed into other hands.
The Portuguefe, however, fince their fettling in thefe
part*, have prevailed upon the monarchs to permit the
heirs and fuccefibrs to continue in the quiet poffeffion
of fuch lands, in order to avoid the confufions, or even
rebellions, which the alienation and deprival of them
frequently occafioned, and to oblige the tenants of
them to pay their tribute more exactly and readily
than they did before. 20
St Salvador is the chief place of trade in this conn- Commerce,
try belonging to the Portuguefe and other Europeans.
There are thought to be about 4000 of them fettled
here, who trade wdth moft parts of the kingdom.
The chief commodities they bring hither are either
the producl of Brazil or European manufactures.
The former confift chiefly of grains, fruits, plants,
&c. ; the latter of Turkey carpets, Engfifh cloth, and
other fluffs; copper, brafs veffels, lome kinds of blue
earthen ware, rings, and ornaments of gold, filver,
and ether bafer metals; coral, glafs-beads, bugles, and
other trinkets; light fluffs made of cotton, woollen,
and linen, for clothing ; and a great variety of tools
and other utenfils. In return for thefe, they carry off
a great number of (laves, amounting to 15,000 or
16,000 annually, as we have already obferved. For¬
merly they ufed alfo to carry away elephants teeth,
furs, and other commodities of the country ; but thefe
branches of commerce are now greatly decayed, and
the llave-trade is what the Portuguefe merchants prin¬
cipally depend on.
Congo, a term applied to tea of the fecond quality.
CONGREGATION, an affembly of feveral eccle-
fiaflics, united fo as to conftitute a body.
The term is principally ufed for aflemblies of cardi¬
nals appointed by the pope, and diftributed into feve¬
ral chambers, for the difeharge of certain functions
and iurifdidlioiw, after the manner of our offices and
courts. The firft is the congregation ol the holy of¬
fice, or the inquifitioii : the fecond, that of jurifdic-
tion over bilhops and regulars ; the third, that of coun¬
cils ; this has power to interpret the council of Trent:
the fourth, that of cuftoms, ceremonies, precedencies,
canonizations, called the congregation of rites : the filth,
that of St Peter’s fabric, which takes cognizance of
all caufes relating to piety and charity, part whereof
is due to the church of St Peter : the fixth, that of
waters, rivers, roads : the feventb, of fountains and
ftreets : the eighth, that of the index, which examines
the books to be printed or corrcdled : the ninth, that
of the council of ftate, for the management of the
territories belonging to the pope and church (lee
Camerlingo) : xhztenxh, de bono regwiine ; of which
two laft the cardinal-nephew is chief: the eleventh,
that of money : the twelfth, that of bifliops, wherein
thofe who are to be promoted to bidioprics in Italy
are examined ; this is held before tire pope : tl e thir¬
teenth, that of confiflorial matters; the chief w hereof
is the cardinal-dean : the fourteenth, a congregation
for propagating the faith (lee Collegej : and the
fifteenth, that of ecclefiaftical immunity, for fettling
fuits agqinft churchmen. There is alfo a congrega¬
tion
Ccmgvega-
tion
Congreve.
CON [5
tion of alms, which takes care of every thing that re¬
lates to the fubfntence of Rome and the date of the
church.
Congregation is alfo ufed for a company or fo-
ciety of religious cantoned out of this or that order j
and making, as it were, an inferior order, or a fubdi-
vifion of the order itfelf. Such are the congregations
of the oratory, and thofe of Cluny, &c. among the
Benedictines.
The word is alfo ufed for affemblies of pious perfons
in manner of fraternities, frequent among the Jefuits
in honour of the Virgin, &c. It is likewite applied
to the audience in a church, particularly as confiding
of the inhabitants of the fame parifh.
CONGREGATIONALISTS, in church-hiftory,
a fed of Protedants who rejeft all church-government,
except that of a tingle congregation under the direc¬
tion of one pador.
CONGRESS, in political affairs, an affembly of
commiffioners, envoys, deputies, &c. from feveral
courts meeting to concert matters for their common
good.
Congress, in America, is the affembly of delegates
from the United States. See America.
Congress, in a judicial fenfe, the trial made by
appointment of a judge before furgeons and matrons, in
order to prove whether or not a man be impotent, be¬
fore fentence is paffed for the diffolution of a marriage
folicited upon fuch a complaint.
Neither the civil nor canon law makes any mention
of the trial of virility by congrefs. It had its origin
in France from the boldnefs of a young fellow, who, in
open court, having been hard preffed by his wife, de¬
manded the congrefs. The judge, furprifed with the
novelty of the demand, found it could not be denied,
as being the fured evidence that the cafe could admit
of. In time it became a branch in the French jurifpru-
dence, and was authorized by decreets and arrets. It
obtained for about I 20 years; and was annulled by an
arret of parliament in 1677, as being found precarious j
feme having failed under the experiment out of mere
modedy and fhame, which is found to have the fame
effeft with aftual impotcncy.
CONGREVE, William, a younger brother of an
ancient family in St afford (hi re. His father was employ¬
ed in the dewardfhip of the great edate of the earl of
Burlington in Ireland, where he redded many years 5 and
our author was born there in 1672. Mr Congreve en¬
tered into the Middle-Temple when he came to Eng¬
land, and began to dudy the law; but his bias was
toward polite literature and poetry. His fird perfor¬
mance was a novel, entitled, Incognita, or Love and
Duty reconciled. He foon after began his comedy of
the Old Bachelor ; which was the amufement of fome
leifure hours during a flow recovery from a dt of illnefs
foon after his return to England ; yet was in itfelf fo
perfect, that Mr Dryden, on its being diown to him,
declared he had never in his life feen fuch a drd play.
.When brought on the dage in 1693, it met with fuch
univerfal approbation, that Mr Congreve, though he
was but 19 years old at the time of his writing it, be¬
came now conddered as a prop to the declining dage,
and a ridng genius in dramatic poetry. The next year
he produced the Double Dealer ; which, for what rea¬
son is not obvious, did not meet with fo much fuccefs
5 ] CON
as the former. The merit of his drd play, however Congreve,
had obtained him the favour and patronage of Lord v J
Halifax, and fome peculiar mark of diltindtion horn
Queen Mary •, on whofe death, which happened in the
dole of this year, he wrote a very elegant elegiac pa-
doral. In 1695, when Betterton opened the new
houfe in Lincoln’s-Inn delds, Mr Congreve joining
with him, gave him his comedy of Love for Love, with
which the company opened their campaign, and which
met with fuch fuccefs, that they immediately offered
the author a daare in the management of the houfe, on
condition of his furnilhing them with one play yearly.
This offer he accepted ; but whether through indo¬
lence, or that corvedtnefs which he looked upon as ne-
ceffary to his works, his Mourning Bride did not come
out till 1697, nor his IVay of the World till two years
after that. The indifferent fuccefs this lad mentioned
play, though an exceeding good one, met with from,
the" public, completed that difgud to the theatre,
which a long conted with Jeremy Collier, who had
attacked the immoralities of the Englifh dage, and
more efpecially fome of his pieces, had begun, and he
determined never more to write for the dage. How¬
ever, though he quitted dramatic writing, he did not
lay down the pen entirely ; but occafionally wrote
many little pieces both in prole and verfe, all of which
dand on the records of literary fame. It is very pof-
fible, however, that he might not fo foon have given,
way to this difgud, had not the eafinefs of his cir-
cumdances rendered any fubfervience to the opinions
and caprice of the town abfolutely unneceffary to him.
For his abilities having very early in life raifed him to
the acquaintance of the earl of Halifax, who was
then the Mecmnasof the age ; that nobleman, defirous
of raifing lo promifing a genius above the neceffity of
too hady produftions, made him one of the commif-
fioners for licenfing hackney-coaches 5 or, according to
Coxeter, a commiffioner of the wine-licenfe. He loon
after bedowed on him a place in the pipe-office $ and
not long after gave him a ped in the cudoms worth
600I. per annum. In the year 17x8, he was appoint¬
ed fecretary of Jamaica j fo that the whole of his in¬
come towards the latter part of his life was upwards
of 1200I. a-year.
The greated part of the lad 20 years of his life
was fpent in eafe and retirement ; and he either did
not, or affe&ed not to give himfelf any trouble about
reputation. Yet fome part of that conduft might pro¬
ceed from a degree of pride } to which purpofe, 1 .
Cibber, in his Lives of the Poets, vol. iv. p. 93. re¬
lates the following anecdote of him : “ When the ce¬
lebrated Voltaire was in England, he waited upon Mr
Congreve, and paffed fome compliments upon the me¬
rit and reputation of his works. Congreve thanked
him ; but at the fame time told that ingenious fo¬
reigner, that he did not choofe to be confidered as an
author, but only as a private gentleman, and in that
light expedfed to be vifited. Voltaire anfvvered, that
if he had never been any thing but a private gentle¬
man, in all probability he had never been troubled with
that vifit.” He obferves, in his own account of the
tranfaftion, that he was not a little dilgulted with io
unfeafonable a piece of vanity.
Towards the clofe of his life he w7as much afflidled
with the gout j and making a tour to Bath for the be~
3 T 2 nefit
CON [ 516 ] CON
Gongruity. ncfit of the waters, was unfortunately overturned in
  v  his chariot : by which, it is fuppofed, he got fome
inward bruife, as he ever after complained of a pain
in his fide j and, on his return to London, continu¬
ed gradually declining in his health, till the 19th of
January 1729, when he died, aged 57 ; and, on the
26th following, was buried in Weilminfter Abbey,
the pall being fupported by perfons of the firft di-
ftin&ion.
CONGRUITY, a fuitablenefs or relation of agree¬
ment between things.
The terms con^ruity and propriety are not applicable
to any fingle objeft : they imply a plurality, and ob-
vioufiy fignify a particular relation between different
obje£ts. Thus we currently fay, that a decent garb is
fuitable or proper for a judge *, modeft behaviour for a
young woman ; and a lofty ftyle for an epic poem :
and on the other hand, that it is unfuitable or incon¬
gruous to fee a little woman funk in an overgrown far¬
thingale, a coat richly embroidered covering coarfe and
dirty linen, a mean fubjedl in an elevated fiyle, an ele¬
vated fubjeft in a mean ftyle, a firft minifter darning
his wife’s flocking, or a reverend prelate in lawn ileeves
dancing a hornpipe.
The perception we have of this relation, which
feems peculiar to man, cannot proceed from any other
caufe, but from a fenfe of congruity or propriety •, for,
fuppofing us deftitute of that fenfe, the terms would
be to us unintelligible.
It is a matter of experience, that congruity or pro¬
priety, wherever perceived, is agreeable ; and that in¬
congruity, or impropriety, wherever perceived, is dif-
agreeable. The only difficulty is, to afeertain what are
the particular obje&s that in conjundlion fuggeft thefe
relations ; for there are many objefts that do not : the
fea, for example, viewed in conjunflion with a pic¬
ture, or a man viewed in conjun&ion with a moun¬
tain, fuggeft not either congruity or incongruity. .It
feems natural to infer, what will be found true by in¬
duction, that we never perceive congruity or incon¬
gruity but among things that are conne&ed together
by fome relation \ fuch as a man and his a&ions, a
principal and his acceffories, a fubjedt and its orna¬
ments. We are indeed fo framed by nature, as, among
things fo connefted, to require a certain fuitablenefs
or correfpondence, termed congruity or propriety ; and
to be difpleafed when we find the oppofite relation of
■incongruity or impropriety.
If things conne&ed be the fubjeft of congruity, it
is reafonable before hand to expedd, that a degree of
congruity ffiould be required proportioned to the de¬
gree of the connexion. And upon examination w’e
find this to hold in fa£t : where the relation is inti¬
mate, as between a caufe and its effeft, a whole and
its parts, we require the ftri&eft congruity ; but
where the relation is flight, or accidental, as among
things jumbled together in the fame place, we require
little or no congruity : the ftriddeft propriety is re-
ejuired in behaviour and manner of living ; becaufe a
man is connetted with thefe by the relation of caufe
and eflFedl : the relation between an edifice and the
ground it (lands upon, is of the moft intimate kind :
and therefore the fituation of a great houfe ought to be
v lofty ; its relation to neighbouring hills, rivers, plains,
being that of propinquity only, demands but a fmall
(hare of congruity ; among members of the fame club, Congruity.
the congruity ought to be confiderable, as well as
among things placed for (how in the fame niche :
among paflengers in a ftage coach, we require very
little congruity \ and lefs Hill at a public fpedlacle.
Congruity is fo nearly allied to beauty, as com¬
monly to be held a fpecies of it j and yet they differ
fo effentially as never to coincide : beauty, like colour,
is placed upon a fingle (ubjedl ; congruity upon a plu¬
rality : further, a thing beautiful in itfelf, may, with
relation to other things, produce the ftrongeft fenfe of
incongruity.
Congruity and propriety are commonly reckoned
fynonymous terms j but they are diftinguifhable, and
the precife meaning of each muft be afeertained. Con¬
gruity is the genus of which propriety is a fpecies•, for
we call nothing propriety, but that congruity or fuita¬
blenefs which ought to lubfift between fenfible beings
and their thoughts, words, and adtions.
In order to give a full viewT of thefe fecondary rela¬
tions, we (hall trace them through fome of the moft
confiderable primary relations^ The relation of apart
to the whole, being extremely intimate, demands the
utmoft degree of congruity j even the flighteft devia¬
tion is difguftful.
Examples of congruity and incongruity are furniflr-
ed in plenty by the relation between a fubjedt and its
ornaments. A literary performance intended merely
for amufement, is fufceptible of much ornament, as
well as a mufic-room or a play-houfe ; for in gaiety,
the mind hath a peculiar reliffi for (how and decora¬
tion. The moft; gorgeous apparel, however improper
in tragedy, is not unfuitable to opera-aftors ; the truth
is, an opera, in its prefent form, is a mighty fine
thing’, but as it deviates from nature in its capital cir-
cumftances, we look not for nature or propriety in
thofe which are acceffory. On the other hand, a ferious
and important fubjedt admits not much ornament: nor
a fubjedt that of itfelf is extremely beautiful: and a
fubjedl that fills the mind with its loftinefs and gran¬
deur, appears beft in a drefs altogether plain.
To a perfon of a mean appearance, gorgeous appa¬
rel is unfuitable ; which, befides the incongruity, has a
bad effedl j for by contraft it (hows the meannefs of
appearance in the ftrongeft light. Sw!eetnefs of look
and manner requires fimplicity of drefs, joined with
the greateft elegance. A (lately and majeftic air re¬
quires fumptuous apparel, which ought not to be
gaudy, nor crowded with little ornaments. A w’oman
of confummate beauty can bear to be highly adorned,
and yet (hows beft in a plain drefs :
   — For lovelinefs
Needs not the foreign aid of ornament,
But is when unadorn’d, adorn’d the moft.
Thomfon's Autumn, 208.
Congruity regulates not only the quantity of orna¬
ment, but alfo the kind. The ornaments that em-
bellifh a dancing room ought to be all of them gay.
No piflure is proper for a church but what has reli¬
gion for its fubjeft. All the ornaments upon a fliield
ought to relate to war ; and Virgil, with great judg¬
ment, confines the carvings upon the (hield of /Eneas
to the military hiftory of the Romans : but this beau¬
ty is overlooked by Homer} for the bulk of the fculp-
ture
CON [5]
Gongruity. ture upon the fliield of Achilles, is of the arts of peace
u—~v in general, and of joy and feftivity in particular : the
author of Telemachus betrays the lame inattention, in
defcribing that young hero.
In judging of propriety with regard to ornaments,
we muft attend, not only to the nature of the fubjeft
that is to be adorned, but alfo to the circumftances in
which it is placed : the ornaments that arc proper for
a bail, will appear not altogether fo decent at public
worlhipj and the fame perfon ought to drefs differently
for a marriage feaft and for a burial.
Nothing is more intimately related to a man, than
his fentiments, wmrds, and aftioas ; and therefore we
require here the ftri£teft conformity. When we find
what we thus require, we have a lively fenfe.of pro¬
priety : when we find the contrary, our fenfe of im¬
propriety is not lefs lively. Hence the univerfal dif-
tafte of affe&ation, which confifts in making alhow of
greater delicacy and refinement than is failed either to
the charafter or circumftance of the perfon.
Congruity and propriety, wherever perceived, ap¬
pear agreeable ; and every agreeable object produces
in the mind a pleafant emotion : incongruity and im¬
propriety, on the other hand, are difagreeable 5 and
of coutfe produce painful emotions. Thefe emo¬
tions, whether pleafant or painful, fometimes vanilh
wuthout any confequence j but more frequently oc-
cafion other emotions, which we proceed to exem-
When any flight incongruity is perceived in an ac¬
cidental combination of perfons or things, as of paf-
fengers in a ftage-coach, or of individuals dining at
an ordinary ; the painful emotion of incongruity, after
a momentary exiftence, vanilheth without producing
any effeiff. But this is not the cafe of propriety and
impropriety : voluntary a£ts, whether wwds or deeds,
are imputed to the author 5 when proper, wre reward
him with our efteem *, when improper, we punifh him
with our contempt. Let us fuppofe, for example, a
generous a£lion fuited to the character of the author,
which raifes in him and in every fpe&ator the pleafant
emotion of propriety •, this emotion generates' in the
author both felf-efteem and joy 5 the former when he
confiders the relation to the aftion, and the latter when
he confiders the good opinion that others wull entertain
of him : the fame emotion of propriety produceth in
the fpe&ators efteem for the author of the a£tion : and
when they think of themfelves, it alfo produceth, by
means of contraft, an emotion of humility. To difco-
ver the effefts of an unfuitable aftion, we muft invert
each of thefe circumftances : the painful emotion of
impropriety generates in the author of the aftion both
humility and ftiame ; the former when he confiders
his relation to the action, and the latter when he con-
fiders what others will think of him : the fame emo¬
tion of impropriety produceth in the fpe£tators con¬
tempt for the author of the aftion ; and it alfo pro¬
duceth, by means of contrail, when they think of
themfelves, an emotion of felf-efteem. Here then are
many different emotions, derived from the fame a£lion,
confidered in different views by different perfons ; a
machine provided with many fprings, and not a little
complicated. Propriety of action, it wmuld feem, is
a chief favourite of nature, when fuch care and foli-
citude is bellowed upon it. It is not left to our
7 ] CON
own choice; but, like juftice, is required at our Congruity.
hands 5 and, like juftice, is enforced by natural re-
wards and punifhments: a man cannot, with impunity,
do any thing unbecoming or improper ; he fuffers the
chaftifement of contempt inflidled by others, and of
ftiame inflifted by himfelf. An apparatus fo compli¬
cated, and fo fingular, ought to roufe our attention :
for nature doth nothing in vain ) and we may con¬
clude with great certainty, that this curious branch of
the human conftitution is intended for fome valuable
purpofe.
A grofs impropriety is puniftied with contempt and
indignation, which are vented againft the offender by
cotrefponding external expreflions j nor is even the
flighteft impropriety fuffered to pafs without fome de¬
gree of contempt. But there are improprieties, of
the flighter kind, that provoke laughter •, of which
wTe have examples without end, in the blunders and
abfurdities of our own fpecies : fuch improprieties re¬
ceive a different punifhment, as wdll appear by whar
follows. The emotions of contempt and of laughter
occafioned by an impropriety of this kind, uniting in¬
timately in the mind of the fpedtator, are expreffed
externally by a peculiar fort of laugh, termed a laugh
of derijion or /corn. An Impropriety that thus moves
not only contempt, but laughter, is diftinguiftied by
the epithet of ridiculous ; and a laugh of derifion or
fcorn is the puniftlment provided for it by nature. Nor
ought it to efcape obfervation, that W’e are fo fond of
inflifting this punilhment, as fometimes to exert it even
againft creatures of an inferior fpecies j witnefs a tur¬
key-cock fwelling with pride, and ftrutting with dif-
played feathers 5 a ridiculous objeft, which in a gay
mood is apt to provoke a laugh of derifion.
We muft not expe£l, that thefe different impro¬
prieties are feparated by diftin6l boundaries; for of
irhproprieties, from the flightell to the moft grofs,
from the moft rifible to the moft ferious, there are de¬
grees without end. Hence it is, that in viewing fomc
unbecoming adlions, too rifible for anger, and too fe¬
rious for derifion, the fpedlator feels a fort of mixt
emotion, partaking both of derifion and of anger y
which accounts for an expreftion, common with refpett
to the impropriety of fome aftions, that we know not
whether to laugh or be angry.
It cannot fail to be obferved, that in the cafe of a
rifible impropriety, which is always flight, the contempt
we have for the offender is extremely faint, though
derifion, its gratification, is extremely pleafant. This
difproportion between a paffion and its gratification,
feems not conformable to the analogy of nature. In
looking about for a folution, we muft refleft upon
what is laid down above, that an improper aftion not
only moves our contempt for the author, but alfo, by
means of contraft, fwells the good opinion we have of
ourfelves. This contributes, more than any other ar¬
ticle, to the pleafure we have in ridiculing follies and
abfurdities *, and accordingly, it is well known, that
they who put the greateft value upon themfelves are
tjie moft prone to laugh at others. Pride, which is a
vivid pafiion, pleafant in itfelf, and not lefs fo in its
gratification, would fingly be fuflicient to account for
the pleafure of ridicule, without borrowing any aid
from contempt. Hence appears the reafon of a noted
obfervation, That we are the moft difpofed to ridicule
CON [ 518 1 CON
Congmity. the blunders and abfurdities of others, when we are in
v high fpirits ; for in high fpirits, felf-conceit difplays
itfelf with more than ordinary vigour.
With regard to the final caufes of congruity and im¬
propriety } one, regarding congruity, is pretty obvious,
that the fenfe of congruity, as one principle of the fine
arts, contributes in a remarkable degree to our enter¬
tainment. Congruity, indeed, with refpedl to quantity
coincides with proportion : when the parts of a build¬
ing are nicely adjuited to each other, it may be laid in¬
differently, that it is agreeable by the congruity of its
parts, or by the proportion of its parts. But propriety,
which regards voluntary agents only, can never be the
fame with proportion; a very long nofe is difpropor-
tioned, but cannot be termed improper. In fome in-
flances, it is true, impropriety coincides with difpro-
portion in the fame fubjeft, but never in the fame re-
fpefl ; for example, a very littl.e man buckled to a long
toledo ; confidering the man and the fword with re-
fpe<fl to fize, we perceive a difproportion •, confidering
the fword as the choice of the man, we perceive an im¬
propriety.
The fenfe of impropriety with refpefl to miflakes,
blunders, and abfurdities, is happily contrived for the
good of mankind. In the fpedtators, it is produ£live
of mirth and laughter, excellent recreation in an inter¬
val from bufinefs. But this is a trifle in refpeft of what
follows. It is painful to be the fubjeft of ridicule) and
to punifh with ridicule the man who is guilty of an ab-
furdity, tends to put him more upon his guard in time
coming. Thus even the mort innocent blunder is not
committed with impunity; becaufe, were errors licenfed
■where they do not hurt* inattention would grow into a
habit, aad be the occafion of much hurt.
The final caufe of propriety as to moral duties, is
of all the moft illuftrious. To have a juft notion of
it, the moral duties that refpe£t others muft be diftin-
guifhed from thefe that refpefl ourfelves. Fidelity,
gratitude, and the forbearing injury, are examples of
the firft fort ; temperance, modefty, firmnefs of mind,
are examples of the other : the former are made duties
by the fenfe of juftice ; the latter by the fenfe of pro¬
priety. Here is a final caufe of the fenfe of pro¬
priety, that muft roufe our attention. It is undoubt¬
edly the intereft of every man, to fuit his behaviour
to the dignity of his nature, and to the ftation allotted
him by Providence ; for fuch rational conduct con¬
tributes in every refpedl to happinefs, by preferving
health, by procuring plenty, by gaining the efteem of
others, and, which of all is the greateft blefiing, by
gaining a juftly-founded felf-efteem. But in a matter
fo effential to our well-being, even felf-intereft is not
relied on : the porverful authority of duty is fuperadd-
ed to the motive of intereft. The God of nature, in
all things flential to cm happinefs, hath obferved one
uniform :thod ; to keep us fteady in out conduft, he
hath fortified us with natural laws and principles,
which prevent many aberrations, that would daily hap- Congruity,
pen were we totally furrenuered to fo fallible a guide as Com.
human reafon. Propriety cannot rightly be conlidered v ^
in another light, than as the natural law that regulates
our condu£t with relpeft to ourfelves ; as juftice is the
natural law that regulates our conduft with relpedft to
others. We call propriety a law, not lefs than juftice ;
becaule both are equally rules of conduft that ought
to be obeyed : propriety includes this obligation ; for
to fay an a£lion is proper, is, in other words, to fay,
that it ought to be performed ; and to fay it is impro¬
per, is, in other words, to fay that it ought to be for¬
borne. It is this very charaifter of ought and fhou/d
that makes juftice a law to us ; and the fame charac¬
ter is applicable to propriety, though perhaps more
faintly^.han to juftice : but the difference is in degree
only, not in kind ; and we ought, without hefitation
or relu£!ance, to fubmit equally to the government of
both.
ddut it muft, in the next place, be obferved, that to
the fenfe of piopriety, as well as of juftice, are annexed
the famftions of rewards and punilhments ; which evi¬
dently prove the one to be a law as well as the other.
The fatisfaftion a man hath in doing his duty, joined
with the efteem and good will of others, is the reward
that belongs to both equally. The puniftunents alfo,
though not the fame, are nearly allied ; and dift'er in
degree more than in quality. Difobedience to the law
of juftice, is punifhed with remorfe ; difobedience to
the law of propriety, with ftiame, which is remorfe in
a lower degree. Every tranfgrefiion of the law of ju¬
ftice raifes indignation in the beholder ; and fo doth
every flagrant tranfgreflion of the law7 of propriety.
Slighter improprieties receive a milder punifliment :
they are always rebuked with fome degree of con¬
tempt, and frequently with derifion. In general, it is
true, that the rewards and puniftiments annexed to the
fenfe of propriety, are {lighter in degree than thofe
annexed to the fenfe of juftice : which is wifely or¬
dered, becaufe duty to others is ftill more eflential to
fociety than duty to ourfelves; for fociety could not
fubfift a moment were individuals not prote&ed from
the headftrong and turbulent paifton of their neigh¬
bours.
CONI, a ftrong town of Italy in Piedmont, and ca¬
pital of a territory of that name, with a good citadel.
The town being divided into two factions, it furren-
dered to the French in 1641 ; but whs reftored to the
duke of Savoy foon after. It is feated at the con¬
fluence of the rivers GreiTe and Sture. Its trade is
confiderable, being the repofitory of all merchandife
from Turin and Nice, defigned for Lombardy, Swit¬
zerland and Germany. It contains about 10,000
people befides the garrifon. It w7as taken by the
French in April 1796. E. Long. 7. 45. N. Lat.
44. 30.
CONIC
[ 5*9
]
CONIC SECTIONS.
INTRODUCTION.
IN treating of fo confiderable a branch of the mathe-
-*■ matical fciences as the Conic Se&ions, it would be
improper to pafs over in total lilence the hi dory of
thofe remarkable curves. But this topic will not require
any long detail. None of the works of the more
early Greek geometers have reached our time ; nor
have we any work of antiquity profeffediy written on
the fubjeft of our inquiry. Our curiofity mud there¬
fore red fatisded with the knowledge of a few inci¬
dental notices and fafts, gleaned from different au¬
thors.
The difeovery of the conic fe&ions feems to have
originated in the fchool of Plato, in which geometry
was highly refpedled, and much cultivated. It is
probable that the followers of that philofopher were
led to the difeovery of thefe curves, and to the invef-
tigation of many of their properties, in feeking to re-
folve the two famous problems of the duplication of
the cube, and the trife&ion of an angle, for which the
artifices of the ordinary or plane geometry were in-
fufneient. Two foluiions of the former problem, by
the h Ip of the conic i'eclions, are preferved by Eu!q-
« In Ard.civs *, and arc attributed by him to Meiutchtnus, the
IT. ii. tic fcholar of Eudoxus, who lived not much poderior to
Sph. et fly',
time of Tlato : and this circumdance, added to a
f Ibid. ^ew wor(^s m an epigram of EraioJIhenes f, has been
thought fufficient authority, by fome authors, to a-
feribe the honour of the difeovery of the conic fec-
tions to Metuechmus. We may at lead infer- that, at
this epoch, geometers had made fome progrefs in deve¬
loping the properties of thefe curves.
The writings of Archimedes that have reached us
explicitly drew, that the geometers before bis time
had advanced a great length in invedigating the pro-
perties of the conic fedtions. This author expreisly
mentions many principal propofitions to have been de-
mondrated by preceding writers; and he often refers
to properties of the conic Rctions, as truths commonly
divulged, and known to mathematicians. His own
difeoveries in this branch of fcience are worthy of the
mod profound and inventive genius of antiquity. In
the quadrature of the parabola he gave the drd, and
the mod remarkable indance that has -yet been difeo-
vered, of the exadt equality of a curvilineal to a recti¬
lineal fpace. He determined the proportion of the
elliptic fpaces to the circle ; and he invented many
propofitions refpedting the menfuration of the folids
formed by the revolution of the conic fedtions about
their axes.
It is chiefly from the writings of Apollonius of
Perga, a town in Pamphylia, on the fubjedt of the
conic fedtions, that we know how far the ancient ma¬
thematicians carried their fpeculations concerning thefe
curves. Apollonius flourifhed under Ptolemy Philopa-
tor, about forty years later than Archimedes. He
formed Ins tade for geometry, and acquired that fupe-
rior fkill in the fcience to winch he is indebted for his
fame, in the fchool of Alexandria, under the fuceef-
fors of Euclid.' Befidcs his great work on the conic
fedtions, he was the author of many fmaller treatifes,
relating chiedy to the geometrical analyfis, the origi¬
nals of winch have all perifhed, and are only known to
modern mathematicians by the account given of them
by Pappus of Alexandria, in the feventh. book of his
Mathematical C o Heel ions.
• The work of Apollonius oh the conic fedtions,
written in eight books, was held in fuch high edima-
tion by the ancients, as to procure for him the name
of the Great Geometer. The drd four books of this
treatife only have come down to us in the original
Greek. It is thepurpofe of thefe four books, as we are
informed in the prefatory epiitle to Eudetnus, to de¬
liver the elements of the fcience ; and in this part of
his labour, the author claims no farther merit than
that of having coliedled, amplified, and reduced to
order, the difeoveries of preceding mathematicians.
One improvement introduced by Apollonius is too re-
markable to be paffed over without notice. The geo¬
meters wno preceded him derived each curve from a
ripht cone, which they conceived to be cut by a plane
perpendicular to its flant fide. It will readily be per¬
ceived, from what is fhewn in the fird fedtion of the
fourth part of the following treattfe, that the feftiou
would be a parabola when the vertical angle of the
cone was a right angle ; an ellipfe when it was acute ;
and a hyperbola when it was obtufe. Thus each
curve was derived from a different fort of cone. Apol-
lon\us was the fird to drew that all the curves are pro¬
duced from any fort of cone, whether right or oblique,
according to the different inclinations of the cutting
plane. This fadl is one remarkable indance of the
adherence of the mind to its drd conceptions, and of
the flownefs and difficulty with which it generalizes.
The original of the fird four books of the treatife
of Apollonius is lod; nor is it eafy to afeertain in what
age it difappeared. In the year 1658 Borel/i difeo-
vered at Florence an Arabic manufeript, entitled
Apollonil Pergtei Gonicorum Libri Oclo. By the libe¬
rality of the Duke of fufeany, he was permitted to
carry the manufeript to Rome, and, with the aid of an
Arabic fcholar, Abraham Ecchellenjis, he publidied in
1661 a Latin tranflation of it. The manufeript, al¬
though from its title it was expedted to be a complete
tranflation of all the eight books, was yet found to
contain only the fird feven books : and it is remark¬
able, that another manufeript, brought from the ead
by Golius, the learned profelfor of Leyden, fo early as
1664, as well as a third, of which Ravins publiihed a
trandation in 1669, have the fame defeft : all the
three mannferipts agreeing in the want of the eighth
book, we may now confider that part of the work of
Apollonius as irrecoverably lod. Fortunately, in the
Colletliones Mathematica of Pappus, in whofe time the
entire ireatife of Apollonius was extant, there is pier
fervedi
520
Part L
CONIC SECTIONS.
fcrved fome account of the fubjefta treated in each
book, and all the Lemmata required in the inveftiga-
tions of the propofitions they contain. Dr Halley,
who in 1710 gave a correct edition of the Conics of
Apollonius, guided in his rcfearches by the lights de¬
rived from Pappus, has reftored the eighth book with
fo much ability as to leave little room to regret the
original.
The four laft books of the Conics of Apollonius,
containing the higher or more recondite parts of the
fcieuce, are generally fuppofed to be the fruit of the
author’s own refearches ; and they do much honour to
the geometrical Ikill and invention of the Great Geo¬
meter. Even in our times the whole treatife mull be
regarded as a very extenfive, if not a complete work
on the conic feftions. Modern mathematicians make
important applications of thefe curves, with which the
ancients were unacquainted ; and they have been thus
led to confider the fubjeft in particular points of view',
fuited to their purpofes: but they have made few dif-
coveries, of which there are not fome traces to be
found in the work of the illuftrious ancient.
The geometers who followed Apollonius feem to
have contented themfelves wdth the humble talk of
commenting on his treatife, and of rendering it of
more eafy accefs to the bulk of mathematicians. 1 ill
about the middle of the 16th century, the hiftory of
this branch of mathematical fcience prefents nothing
remarkable. The ftudy of it was then revived; and Cnee
that time this part of mathematics has been more cul¬
tivated, or has been illuftrated by a greater variety of
ingenious writings.
Among the ancients, the ftudy of the conic feftions
was a fubjeft of pure intellectual fpeculation. The
applications of the properties of thefe curves in natural
philofophy have, in modern times, given to this part
of the mathematics a degree of importance that it did
not formerly poftefs. That which, in former times,
might be confidered as interefting only to the learned
theorift and profound mathematician, is now a nccefta-
ry attainment to him who would not be ignorant of
thofe difeoveries in nature, that do the greateft honour
to the prefent age.
It is curious to remark the progrefs of difeovery,
and the connexion that fubhfts between the different
branches of human knowdedge ; and it excites fome
degree of admiration, to refleCt, that the aftronomical
difeoveries of Kepler, and the fublimc theory of
Newton, depend on the feemingly barren fpeculations
of the Greek geometers concerning the fedtions of
the cone.
Apollonius, and all the writers on conic fe&ions be¬
fore Dr Wallis, derived the elementary properties of
the curves from the nature of the cone. In the fe-
cond part of his treatife De Scttionibus Comcis, pub-
lifhed in 1655, Dr Wallis laid afide the confideration
of the cone, deriving the properties of the curves from
a defeription in piano. Since his time authors have
been much divided as to the belt method of defining
thofe curves, and demonitrating their elementary pro¬
perties ; many of them preferring that of the ancient
geometers, while others, and fome of great note, have
followed the example of Dr Wallis.
In fupport of the innovation made by Dr Wallis,
it is urged, that in the ancient manner of treating the
conic fedtions, young ftudents are perplexed, and dif-
couraged by the previous matter to be learnt refpedf-
ing the generation and properties of the cone ; and
that they find it no eafy matter to conceive lleadily,
and to underftand diagrams rendered confufed bylines
drawn in different planes : all which difficulties are
avoided by defining the curves in piano from one of
their effential properties. It is not our intention par¬
ticularly to dlfcufs this point ; and we have only to
add, that, in the following treatife, we have chofen to
deduce the properties of the conic fe&ions from their
defeription in piano, as better adapted to the nature of
a work defigned for general readers.
A geometrical treatife on the conic fedtions muff
neceffarily be founded upon the elements of geometry.
As Euclid’s Elements of Geometry are generally ftu-
died, and in every one’s hands, wc have chofen to re¬
fer to it in the demonftrations. The edition we have
ufed is that lately publilhed by Profeffor Playfair of
Edinburgh. Although the references are made to
Euclid’s Elements, yet they will alfo apply to the
treatife on Geometry given in this Work ; for a table
is there given, indicating the particular propofition of
our treatife that correfponds to each of the molt ma¬
terial propofitions in Euclid’s Elements.
The references are to be thus underftood : (20. i.E.)
means the 20th prop, of the ill book of Euclid’s Ele¬
ments : (2 cor. 20. 6. E.) means the 2d corollary
to the 30th prop, of the fixth book of the fame work;
and fo of others. Again, (7.) means the feventh
propofition of that part of the following treatife in
which fuch reference happens to occur: (cor. 1.)
means the corollary to the firft propofition : (2 cor. 3.)
means the 2d corollary to the third propofition, &c.
—fuch references being all made to the propofitions in
the divifion of the treatife in which they are found.
PART I. OF THE PARABOLA.
Plate
CLVI.
Definitions.
Fig. I. I. Iy a ftraight line BC, and a point without it F,
be given by pofition in a plane, and a point D be fup¬
pofed to move in fuch a manner that DF, its didance
from the given point, is equal to DB, its dittance
from the given line, the point D will deferibe a line
DAD, called a Parabola.
Corollary. The lines DF, DB, may become
greater than any given line ; therefore the parabola
extends to a greater diftance from the point F, and
the line BC, than any that can be affigned.
II. The ftraight line BC, which is given by pofi¬
tion, is called the DireBrix of the parabola.
III. The given point F is called the Focus.
IV. A ftraight line perpendicular to the dire&rix,
terminated at one extremity by the parabola, and pro¬
duced indefinitely within it, is called a Diameter.
V. The point in which a diameter meets the para¬
bola is called its Vertex.
VI. The
<
Bart I.
Of the
Parabola.
,Fi£. 2.
Fig. 2.
CONIC S
VI. The diameter which paffes through the focus
is called the Axis of the parabola ; and the vertex of
the axis is called the Principal Vertex.
Cor. A perpendicular drawn from the focus to the
direftrix is bife&ed at the vertex of the axis.
VII. A ftraight line terminated both ways by the
parabola, and bifefted by a diameter, is called an Or¬
dinate to that diameter.
VIII. The fegment of a diameter between its ver¬
tex, and aft ordinate, is called an Abfcifs.
IX. A ftraight line quadruple the diftance between
the vertex of a diameter and the direftrix, is called the
Parameter, alfo the Latus ReEtum of that diameter.
X. A ftraight line meeting the parabola only in one
point, and which everywhere elfe falls without it, is
faid to touch the parabola at that point, and is called a
‘Tangent to the parabola.
Proposition I.
The diftance of any point without the parabola
from the focus is greater than its diftance from
the dire&rix; and the diftance of any point
within the parabola from the focus is lefs than
its diftance from the dire&rix.
Let DA be a parabola, of which F is the fo¬
cus, GC the directrix, and P a point without the
curve, that is, on the fame fide of the curve with the
direftrix ; PF, a line drawn to the focus, will be
greater than PG, a perpendicular to the directrix
For, as PF muft neceffarily cut the curve, let D be
the point of interfeftion ; draw DB perpendicular tc
the directrix, and join PB. Becaufe D is a point in
the parabola, DB—DF (Definition i.), therefore
PF=PD-j-DB ; but PD-f-DB is greater than PE
(20. 1. E.), and therefore ttill greater than PG (19,
I. E.), therefore PF is greater than PG.
Again, let Qbe a point within the parabola, QF.
a line drawn to the focus, is lefs than QB, a perpen¬
dicular to the dire&rix. The perpendicular QB nc-
cefiarily cuts the curve ; let D be the point of inter-
fe&ion ; join DF. Then DF=DB (Def. 1.), and
QD-}-DF^=QB; but QF is lefs than QD + DF.
therefore QF is lefs than QB.
Corollary, A point is without or within the
parabola, according as its diftance from the focus is
greater or lefs than its diftance from the direarix.
Prop, II.
Every ftraight; line perpendicular to the dircdlrix
meets the parabola, and every diameter falls
wholly within it.
Let the ftraight line BQ^be perpendicular to the
direarix at B, BQ_fhall meet the parabola. Draw
BF to the focus, and make the angle BFP equal to
FBQj then, becaufe QBC is a right angle, QBF
and PFB are each lefs than a right angle, therefore
QB and PF interfea each other ; let D be the point
of interfeaion, then DB—DF (5. 1. E.j ; therefore,
D is a point in the parabola. Again, the diameter
DQ^falls wholly within the parabola ; for take Qany
point in the diameter, and draw FQ to the focus.
Vox.. VI. Part II.
E C T I O N S,
521
then QB or QD-f-DF is greater than QF, therefore
Q^is within the parabola (Cor. 1.).
Cor. The parabola continually recedes from the
axis, and a point may be found in the curve that
fhall be at a greater diftance from the axis than any
afligned line.
Of the
Parabola.
Prop. III.
The ftraight line which bifedls the angle contain¬
ed by two ftraight lines drawn from any point
in the parabola, the one to the focus, and the
other perpendicular to the diredtrix, is a tan¬
gent to the curve in that point.
Let D be any point in the curve; let DF be Fig. 3.
drawn to the focus, and DB perpendicular to the di-
reftrix ; the ftraight line DE, which bife&s the angle
FDB, is a tangent to the curve. Join BF meeting
DE in I, take H any other point in DE, join HF,
HB, and draw HG perpendicular to the dire&rix.
Becaufe DFrrDB, and DI is common to the triangles
DFI, DBI, and the angles FDI, BDI, are equal,
thefe triangles are equal, and FIrrIB, and hence
FHrrHB (4. 1. E.) : but HB is greater than HG
(19. 1. E.) ; therefore the diftance of the point H
from the focus is greater than its diftance from the
direftrix, hence that point is without the parabola
(Cor. 1.), and therefore HDI is a tangent to the
curve atD (Def. 10.).
Cor. 1. There cannot be more than one tangent to Fig. 4.
the parabola at the fame point. For let any other
line DK, except a diameter, be drawn through D ;
draw FK perpendicular to DK ; on D for a centre,
with a radius equal to DB, or DF, deferibe a circle,
cutting FK in N ; draw NL parallel to the axis,
meeting DK in L, and join FL. Then FKrrKN
(3* 3* E.) and therefore FLnLN. Now BD being
perpendicular to the direftrix, the circle FBN touches
the direftrix at B (16. 3. E.) ; and hence N, any
other point in the circumference, is without the di¬
reftrix, and on the fame fide of it as the parabola,
therefore the point L is nearer to the focus than to the
direftrix, and coufequently is within the parabola.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the axis at its vertex Fig. 3,
is a tangent to the curve. Let AM be perpendicular
to the axis at the vertex A, then RS, the diftance of
any point in AM from the direftrix, is equal to CA,
that is to AF, and therefore is lefs than RF, the di¬
ftance of the fame point from the focus.
Cor. 3. A ftraight line drawn from the focus of a
parabola perpendicular to a tangent, and produced to
meet the direftrix, is bifefted by the tangent. For
it has been fhewn that FB, which is perpendicular
to the tangent DI, is bifefted at I.
Cor. 4. A tangent to the parabola makes equal Fig. 3.
angles with the diameter which paffes through the
point of contaft, and a ftraight line drawn from that
point to the focus. For BD being produced to Q,
DQ_is a diameter, and the angle HDQ is equal to
BDE, that is, to EDF.
Cor. 5. The axis is the only diameter which is per¬
pendicular to a tangent at its vertex. F'or the angle
HDQ, or BDE, is the half of BDF, and therefore
lefs than a right angle, except when BD and DF lie
3 U in
522 CONICS
Of the in a ftraight line, which happens when D falls at the
Parabola. vertex.
' ' SCHQLIUM.
From the property of tangents to the parabola de-
monftrated in Cor. 4. the point F takes the name of
the Focus. For rays of light proceeding parallel to
the axis of a parabola, and falling upon a polifhed
furface whofe figure is that produced by the revolution
of the parabola about its axis, are refle&ed to the
focus.
Peop. IV.
A llraight line drawn from the focus of a para¬
bola to the interfedlion of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with ftraight
lines drawn from the focus to the points of
contaft.
tfig- 5- Let HP, be tangents to a parabola at the
points P, /> ; let a ftraight line be drawn from H,
their interfe&ion, to F the focus, and let FP, Yp be
drawn to the points of contadf, the lines PF and pY
make equal angles with HF.
Draw PK, pk perpendicular to the diredlrix; join
flK, H/’, join alfo FK, Fi, meeting the tangents in
G and g. The triangles FPH, KPH have PF equal
to PK, and PH common to both, alfo the angle
FPH equal to KPH (3.), therefore FH is equal to
KH, and the angle HFP is equal to the angle HKP.
In like manner it may be fhewn that FH is equal to
^H, and that the angle HF/ is equal to the angle
Yikp ; therefore HK is equal to Hi, and hence the
angle HKi is equal to HiK: now the angles PKi,
/iK are right angles, therefore the angle HKP is
equal to Hi/ ; but thefe angles have been fhewn to
be equal to HFP and HF/ refpe&ively, therefore the
lines PF and pY make equal angles with HF.
Prop. V.
Two tangents to a parabola, which are limited
by their mutual interfe£Hon and the points in
which they touch the curve, are to each other
reciprocally as the fines of the angles they
contain with ftraight lines drawn from the
points of contaft to the focus.
^g* 6- Let HP, H/, which interfeft each other at H, be
tangents to a parabola at the points P, / ; and let
PF, /F be drawn to the focus : then
HP : H/ :: fine H/F : fine PIPF.
Join PIF; and in FP take FQ^equal to Yp, and join
HQj then, the angles at F being equal (4.), the tri¬
angles HFQ^HF/ are equal, therefore HQ^ is equal
to H/, and the angle pIQF is equal to H/F. Now,
in the triangle HPQ^
HP : HQj: fine HQP or fine HQF : fine HPF (by
Trigon.)
therefore PIP : H/ :: fine H/F : fine HPF.
Prop. VI.
Any ftraight line terminated both ways by a
parabola, and parallel to a tangent, is bifedted
by the diameter that pafles through the point of
contact j or is an ordinate to that diameter.
E C T I O N S. Part I.
The ftraight line D</, terminated by the parabola, Of the
and parallel to the tangent HP£, is bifedted at E by PE Parab°la'
the diameter that pafies through P the point of contadt. 1 r.
Let KD, K</, tangents at the points D, d, meet Fl^‘
the tangent at the vertex in H and h; draw DL, d lr
parallel to EP, meeting H £ in L and /, and draw
DF, dY, PF to the focus.
Becaufe Ylh is parallel to Y)d,
HD xhd:: KD : YLd.
But KD, Yd being tangents to the parabola,
Sine hdY : fine HDF :: KD : Yd (5.),
Therefore, fine hdY : fine HDF :: HD : hd
Now fine >6PF : fine hdY :i h d : hY (5.),
Therefore, (23.5.E.) fine APF : fineHDF:: HD : /5P;
but fine HPF, or fine ^PF : fine HDF :: HD : HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to ZP is the fame as that of
HD to HP, wherefore HP~P^.
Again, becaufe the angles HDF and hdY are re-
fpedtively equal to HDL and hdl, (3.)
DH : dh :: fine hdl : fine HDL,
Now HL :DH:: fine HDL: fine HLD, or fine hid (by
Trigon.)
therefore (23.5.E.) HL: </£:: fine hdl: fine hid::hl:dht
wherefore HL, and hi, have the fame ratio to dh, hence
HL:=i6/; and finceit has been Ihewn that HP—P^, it
it follows that LPrrP/, and therefore DErzrEJ.
Cor. j. Straight lines which touch a parabola at . -
the extremities of an ordinate to a diameter interfed!
each other in that diameter. For Y>d and Yih being
fimilarly divided at E and P, the ftraight line which
joins the points-E, P, will pafs through K the vertex
of the triangle DIL/.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a diameter is parallel to
a tangent at its vertex. For, if not, let a tangent be
drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the diameter drawn
through the point of contadf would bifedt the ordinate,
and thus the fame line would be bifedted in two differ¬
ent points, which is abfurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the fame diameter are
parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bifedls two parallel
chords, and terminates in the curve, is a diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the axis are perpendicu¬
lar to it, and no other diameter is perpendicular to its
ordinates. This is evident from 2 cor. and 5 cor. to
Prop. III.
Cor. 6. Hence the axis divides the parabola into
two parts which are fimilar to each other.
Prop. VII.
If a tangent to any point in a parabola meet a dia¬
meter, and from the point of contadb an ordi¬
nate be drawn to that diameter, the fegment of
the diameter between the vertex and the tan¬
gent is equal to the fegment between the vertex
and the ordinate.
Let DK, a tangent to the curve at D, meet theyig.
diameter EP in K, and let DE</ be an ordinate to that
diameter, PK is equal to PE.
Through P, the vertex of the diameter, draw the
tangent PH, meeting KD in H ; draw DL parallel
to EP, meeting PH in L, and draw DF, PF to the
focus: then
PH
Part I,
ol: the PH : HD :: fine HDF : fine HPF (c.)
.Parabola. ]3ut ^ an„]e HDF is equal to HDL, and HPF is
equal to HPK (3-)’ t^at *s (becaufe of the parallel
lines DL, PK) to HLD, therefore
PH : HD :: fine HDL : fine HLD :: HL : HD,
wherefore PPIrrHL, and confequeutly PK=DL ;
but PL is parallel to DE, by laft propofition, and
therefore DLrrPE, therefore PKrzPE.
Prop. VIII.
If an ordinate to any diameter pafs through the
focus, the abfcifs is equal to one fourth of the
parameter of that diameter, and the ordinate is
equal to the whole parameter.
I'lg. Let DE*/, a ftraight line palling through the fo¬
cus, be an ordinate to the diameter PE ; the abfcifs
PE is equal to the parameter, and the ordinate Dd
is equal to the whole parameter of the diameter PE.
Let DK, PI be tangents at D and P; let DK
meet the diameter in K ; draw PF to the focus, and
DL parallel to EP. The angles KPI, IPF being
equal (3.), and Pi-parallel to EF (2 cor. 6.), the
angles PEF, PFE are alfo equal (29. 1. E.), and
PE—PF—£ the parameter (Def. 9. and Def. 1.).
Again, the angle KDE is equal to LDK (3.), and
therefore equal to DKE ; confequently ED is equal
to EK, or to twice EP (7.) : therefore DJ is equal
to 4EP, or to 4PF, that is, to the parameter of the
diameter.
Prop. IX.
If any two diameters of a parabola be produced
to meet a tangent to the curve, the fegments
of the diameters between their vertices and the
tangent are to one another as the fquares of the
fegments of the tangent intercepted between
each diameter and the point of contadt.
Let QH, RK, any two diameters, be produced to
meet PI, a tangent to the curve at P, in the points
G, I; then
HG : KI :: PG* : PP.
Let PN, a femi-ordinate to the diameter HQ^, meet
KR in O, and let PR, a femi-ordinate to the diame-
, ter KO, meet HN in R ; from H draw parallels -to
NO and QR, meeting KR in L and M, thus HL is
a tangent to the curve, and HM a femi-ordinatc to
KR.
Now KI=KR, and KL—KM (7.)
Therefore, by fubtra&ion, L I=rMR=HQ ,
But LOmHN-HG (7.}
Therefore by addition, 10—
The triangles PGN, PIO are fimilar, as alfo
PGQ^, PIR,
Therefore GN : 10, or 2 GH : 10 t: PG : PI,
And GQj IR, or 10 : 2IK :: PG : PI,
Hence, taking the redangles of the correfponding
terms,
2GH • 10 : 2IO • IK :: PG* : PP,
"i Therefore GH : IK :: PG* : PI*.
$ig. to- Cor. The fquares of femi-ordinates, and of ordinates
to any diameter, are to one another as their correfpond-
jng abfeiffes. Let HE/&, KN/6 be ordinates to the Uia-
5^5.
meter PN ; draw PG a tangent to the curve at the Of the
vertex of the diameter, and complete the parallelo- rarab(>lru.
grams PEHG, PNKI ; then PG, PI are equal to ^
EH, NK, and GH, IK to PE, PN, refpedively j
therefore HE* : KN* :: PE : PN.
Prop. X.
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of a pa-<
rabola, the redfangle under the abfcifs and the
parameter of the diameter is equal to the fquare
of the femi-ordinate.
Let HB^ be an ordinate to the diameter PK, the Fig. 1, «
redangle contained by PB and the parameter of the
diameter is equal to the fquare of FIB, the femi-
ordinate.
Let DE d be that ordinate to the diameter which
pafies through the focus. The femi-ordinates DE,E</
are each half of the parameter, and the abfcifs EP is
one fourth of the parameter (8.),
Therefore D</i DE :: DE : PE,
and D d • PE—DE%
But DJ-PE: D*/-PB, or PE: PB:: DE1: HBZ (cor.9.},
Therefore D</ • PB=HB*.
Scholium.
It was on account of the equality of the fquare of
the femi-ordinate to a redangle contained by the pa¬
rameter of the diameter and the abfcifs, that Apol¬
lonius called the curve line to which the property be¬
longed a Parabola.
Prop. XI.
A ftfaight line drawn from the focus of a para¬
bola, perpendicular to a tangent, is a mean
proportional between the ftraight line drawn
from the focus to the point of contaft, and one
fourth the parameter of the axis.
Let FB be a perpendicular from the focusuponFig.il,
the tangent PB, and FP a firaight line drawn to the
point of contad ; let A be the principal vertex, and
therefore FA equal to one fourth of the parameter of
the axis; FB is a mean proportional between FP and
FA.
Produce FB and FA to meet the diredrix in D
and C, and join AB. The lines FC, FD are bifeded
at A and B (3 cor. 3.) therefore (2. 6. E.) AB is
parallel to CD, or perpendicular to CF, and confe-
quently a tangent to the curve at A (2 cor. 3.) ; now
BP is a tangent at P, therefore the angle AFB is
equal to BFP (4.), and fince the angles FAB, FBP
are right angles, the triangles FAB, FBP are equi-
angular ; hence
FP : FB :: FB : FA.
Cor. 1. The common interfedion of a tangent,
and a perpendicular from the focus to the tangent, is
in a ftraight line touching the parabola at its vertex.
Cor. 2. If PH be drawn perpendicular to the tan¬
gent meeting the axis in H, and HK be drawn per¬
pendicular to PF, PK ftiall be equal to half the para¬
meter of the axis. For the triangles HPK, PFB are
manifeftly equiangular, therefore
HP ; PKPF; FB FB ; FA :: ED : FC,
3 U a B(lt
CONIC SECTIONS.
CONIC SECTIONS.
. .. ,
Of the But if TT> be joined, the line PD is evidently per-
Parabola, pendicular to the direftrjx ($•), therefore the figure
1—^   HPDF is a parallelogram, and HP=FD, therefore
PK—FC=rhalf the parameter of the axis.
Prop. XIII. Problem.
The dire&rix and focus of a parabola being given
by pofition, to defcribe the parabola.
Part 1*
Of the
Parabola.
Prop. XII.
If any ordinate and abfcifs of a parabola be com¬
pleted into a parallelogram, the area of the
parabola, included between the ordinate and
the curve, is two thirds of the parallelo¬
gram.
Let AN be any diameter of a parabola, and PQ__
an ordinate to that diameter. Let BC be drawn
through A, parallel to PQj and let PB, QC be
drawn parallel to NA ; the area comprehended by the
curve line PAQjnd ordinate PQJe two thirds of the
parallelogram PBCQ^ Join PA, QA, and draw the
tangents PT, QT, meeting the diameter NA in T,
and BC in E and G ; through E and G draw the
diameters EFD, GHK, which will bifeifc PA, QA
in D and K, (i cor. 6.), and through F and H, the
vertices, draw the tangents RL, MV ; join PF, AF,
alfo QH, AH. Becaufe NA=AT (7.), and there¬
fore PQrzz EG, the triangle PAQJs double the tri¬
angle ETG. For the fame reafon the triangles
PFA, QHA are double the triangles REL, VGM
refpe&ively, therefore the inferibed figure PFAHQis
double the external figure TRLMV If diameters were
drawn through the points R, L, M, V, and llraight
lines were drawn joining the vertices of every two adja¬
cent diameters, alfo tangents at the vertices of the dia-
sneters which pafs through the points R, L, M,V, there
would thus be inferibed in the parabola a new figure
which would have the fame bafe PQ^as the former,
but the number of the remaining fides double that of
the former ; and correfponding to it there would be a
new external figure formed by the tangents at the
vertices of the diameters, but Hill the fame proportion
between the two figures would hold, or the former
would be double the latter, and this would evidently
be the cafe, if the operation of inferibing and circum-
feribing a new figure were repeated continually. Now
it is evident that by thus increafing continually the
number of fides of the inferibed figure, it approaches
nearer and nearer to the area of the parabola, which is
its limit; alfo that the external figure approaches to
the area contained by the two tangents TP, TQ^and
the parabolic arch PAQj which fpace is its limit;
and fince the limits of any two quantities which have
a conftant ratio muft have the fame proportion to each
other as the quantities themfelves, the area contained
by the parabolic arch PAQjmd the ordinate PQjnuft
be double the area contained by the fame arch and the
two tangents TP, TQj and therefore muft be two
thirds of the area of the triangle TPQ_, which
triangle is evidently equal to the parallelogram
PBCQ^
First Method. By Mechanical Defcription.
Let AB be the given dire&rix, and F the focus.Fig-
Place the edge of a ruler ABKH along the direftrix
AB, and keep it fixed in that pofition. Let LCG be
another ruler of fuch a form that the part LC may
Aide along AB the edge of the fixed ruler ABKH,
and the part CG may have its edge CD conftantly
perpendicular to AB. Let GDF be a firing of the
fame length as GC the edge of the moveable ruler j
let one end of the firing be fixed at F, and the other
fattened to G, a point in the moveable ruler. By
means of the pin D let the firing be ftrctched, fo
that the part of it between G and D may be applied
clofe to the edge of the moveable ruler, while, at the
fame time the ruler Hides along AB the edge of the
fixed ruler ; the pin D will thus be conftrained to
move along CG the edge of the ruler, and its point
will trace upon the plane in which the direftrix and
focus are fituated a curve line DE, which is the para¬
bola required. For the firing GDF being equal in
length to GDC, if GD be taken from both, there re- *
mains DF equal to DC ; that is, the diftance of the
moving point D from the focus is equal to its diftance
from the diredrix, therefore the point D deferibes a
parabola.
Secokd Method. By Jinding any number of pointt in
the curve.
Through the focus F draw EFC perpendicular to Fig. 141
the diredrix, and EC will be the axis. Draw any
ftraight line HEA parallel to the diredrix, meeting
the axis in E any point below the vertex, and on F
as a centre, with a radius equal to CE, deferibe a
circle cutting H A in D and d; thefe will be points in
the parabola required, as is fufficicntly evident.
Prop. XIV. Problem.
A parabola being given by pofition, to find its
diredrix and focus.
Let DP*/ be the given parabola ; draw any two Fig. 15.
parallel chords D*/, Ee, and bifed them at H and Kj
join KH, meeting the parabola in P, the ftraight line
PHK is a diameter (4 cor. 6.), the point P is its ver-
tex, and D*/, Ee are ordinates to it. In HP produ¬
ced take PL equal to one fourth part of a third pro¬
portional to PFI and HD, and draw LN perpendicu¬
lar to PL, the line LN will evidently be the diredrix
( 10. & Def. 9.). Draw PM parallel to the ordinates
to the diameter PK, then PM will be a tangent to the
curve at P (2 cor. 6.). Draw LM perpendicular to
PM, and take MF=:ML, and the point F will be the
focus of the parabola (3 cor. 3.).
f
PART
Part II
CONIC
SECTIONS.
Fig. iC.
Fig. 17.
525
PART II. OF THE ELLIPSE.
Definitions.
I. If two points F and /be given in a plane, and a
point D be conceived to move around them in fuch a
manner that D/+DF, the fum of its diftances from
them, is always the fame, the point D will deferibe
upon the plane a line A B a £, which is called an
Ellipfe.
II. The given points F,/ are called the Foci of the
ellipfe.
III. The point C, which bifedls the ftraight line
between the foci, is called the Centre.
IV. The diftance of cither focus from the centre
is called the Excentncity.
V. A ftraight line palling through the centre, and
terminated both ways by the ellipfe, is called a Dia¬
meter.
VI. The extremities of a diameter are called its
Vertices.
VII. The diameter which pafles through the foci
is called the Franfverfe Axis, alfo the Greater Axis.
VIII. The diameter which is perpendicular to the
tranfverfe axis is called the Conjugate Axis, alfo the
Le/fer Axis.
IX. Any ftraight line not palling through the
centre, but terminated both ways by the ellipfe, and
bifefted by a diameter, is called an Ordinate to that
diameter.
X. Each of the fegments of a diameter intercept¬
ed between its vertices and an ordinate, is called an
Alfcifs.
XI. A ftraight line which meets the ellipfe in one
point only, and everywhere elfe falls without it, is faid
to touch the ellipfe in that point, and is called a Tan¬
gent to the ellipfe.
Prop. I.
If from any point in an ellipfe two ftraight lines
be drawn to the foci, their fum is equal to the
tranfverfe axis.
Let AB ab be an ellipfe, of which F, / are the
foci, and Aa the tranfverfe axis; letD be any point
in the curve, and DF, D/ lines drawn to the foci,
D/+DF=Afl.
Becaufe A, a are points in the ellipfe,.
A/--!-AF=r«F-j-«/ (Def. i.)
therefore F/-}-2 AF=rF/-f-2 a f ;
Hence 2 AF=:2 af, and AFrra/
and A/-|-AF=:Af-\-af~Aa.
But D and A being points in the ellipfe
D/+DF=A/+AF,
therefore D/-f-DF=A a.
Cor. 1. The fum of two ftraight lines drawn from
a point without the ellipfe to the foci is greater than
the tranfverfe axis. And the fum of two ftraight lines
drawn from a point within the ellipfe to the foci is
lefs than the tranfrerfe axis.
1
Let PF, P/be drawn from a point without the el-fig- I7‘
lipfe to the foci ; let Pf meet the ellipfe in D ; join
FD ; then P/-J-PF is greater than D/-f-DF (21.
1. E.), that is, than Aa. Again, let QF, Q/ be
drawn from a point within the ellipfe, let Q/ meet
the curve in D, and join FD ; Q/-}-QF is leTs than
D/-J-DF (21.1. E.), that is, than A a.
Cor. 2. A point is without or within the ellipfe,
according as the fum of two lines drawn from it to the
foci is greater or lefs than the tranfverfe axis.
Cor. 3. The tranfverfe axis isbifedled in the centre.
Let C be the centre, then CF—C/ (Def. 3.), and
YA—f a, therefore CA~Ca.
Cor. 4. The diftance of either extremity of the
conjugate axis from either of the foci is equal to half
the tranfverfe axis. Let B £ be the conjugate axis ;
join Yb,fb. Becaufe CF=C/, and C 3 is common
to the triangles CF£, Cfb, alfo tile angles at C are
right angles, thefe triangles are equal ; hence F b-=zf b,
and fince F b-\-bfzzAa, F b~AC.
Cor. $. The conjugate axis is bifefted in the cen¬
tre. Join fb,/Y>. By the laft corollary Y>f—hf,
therefore the angles fY>C,fbC are equal ; now/C is
common to the triangles/CB,/C£, and the angles at
G are right angles, therefore (26. 1. E.) CBrcrC^.
Prop. IL-
Erery diameter of an ellipfe is bife£tcd in the
centre.
Prop. Ill,
The fquare of half the conjugate axis of an ellipfe
is equal to the rectangle contained by the feg¬
ments into which the tranfverfe axis is divided
by either focus.
Draw a ftraight line from /, either of the foci, to Fig. 17.
B, either of the extremities of the conjugate axis.
Then BC* + C/2—Bf*—Ca* (4 cor. 1.),
But becaufe Aa is bifefted at C,
Ca^Af-fa + Cf1,
therefore BCl-|-C/1=rA/,/fl-FC/3,
and ECz.=kA/*/<*.
Let Yp be a diameter, it is bife£ted in C. For if Fig. 18.
Cp be not equal to CP, take CQ^equal to CP, and
from the points P,/>, Q^draw lines to Y,f the foci.
The triangles FCP,/CQ^having FCzrC/", PCzrCQ^
and the angles at C equal, are in all refpe&s equals
therefore FPrr/Qj in like manner it appears that
/PzrFQ^ therefore FQ_-}-/Q_ is equal to FP-f-/Pi
or, (Def. 1.), to F/-j-/p, which i* abfurd (21. 1. E.),
therefore CPrrCy>.
Cor. 1. Every diameter meets the ellipfe in two
points only.
Cor. 2. Every diameter divides the ellipfe into two
parts which are equal and fimilar, the like parts of th&
curve being at oppolite extremities of the diameter.
Prop,
CONIC SECTIONS.
526
Of^ths
Ellipfe.
-Prop. IV.
Prop. V.
Part II.
Of the
Eliipfe.
' ^'
The ftraight line which bife£ts the angle adjacent
to that which is contained by two ftraight lines
drawn from any point in the eliipfe to the foci
is a tangent to the curve in that point.
fig- Let D be any point in the curve ; let DF, D/ be
ftraight lines drawn to the foci, the ftraight hne DE
which bife&s the angle /DG adjacent to /DF, is a
tangent to the curve at D.
Take H any other point in DE, take DGrrD/i
and join Hy, HF, HG,yG ; let fG meet DE in I.
Becaufe D DG, and DI is common to the triangles
D/I, DGI and the angles/DI, GDI are equal,
thefe triangles are equal, and yirrlG, and hence
/HrzHG (4. 1. E.), fo that FH+/H=FH+HG;
but FH-J-HG is greater than FG, that is, greater
than FD-j-/D or Aa, therefore FH-f-/hI is greater
than A#, hence the point H is without the ellipfe
(2 cor. 1.), and therefore DHI is a tangent to the
curve at D (Dcf. 11.).
Cor. 1. There cannot be more than one tangent at
the fame point. For D is fuch a point in the line
DE that the fum of DF, D/, the diftances of that
point from the foci, is evidently lefs than the fum of
HF, H/, the diftances of H any other point in that
line ; and if another line KDL be drawn through
D, there is in like manner a point K in that line,
which will be different from D, fuch that the fum of
FK,/K is lefs than the fum of the diftances of any
other point in KL, and therefore lefs than FD-f-yD;
therefore the point K will be within the ellipfe
(2 cor. 1.), and the line KL will cut the curve.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at
cither of its extremities is a tangent to the curve.
The demonftration is the fame as for the propofition,
-if it be confidered that when D falls at either extre¬
mity of the axis, the point I falls alfo at the extremity
of the axis, and thus the tangent DE, which is al¬
ways perpendicular .to yi, is perpendicular to the
axis.
Cor. 3. A perpendicular to the conjugate axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve. For
the perpendicular evidently bife&s the angle adjacent
to that which is contained by lines drawn from the
extremity to the foci.
Cor. 4. A tangent to the ellipfe makes equal
angles With ftraight lines drawn from the point of
contact to the foci. For the angle yDE being equal
to GDE, is alfo equal to FDM, which is vertical to
GDE.
Scholium.
From the property of the ellipfe, which forms this
laft corollary, the points F and f take the name of
Foci. For writers on optics fhew that if a polifhed
furface be formed, whofe figure is that produced by the
revolution of an ellipfe about its tranfverfe axis, rays
of light which flow from one focus, and fall upon that
furface, are refltfted to the other focus, fo that if a lu¬
minous point be placed in one focus, there is formed
t>y refle&ion an image of it in the other focus.
The tangents at the vertices of any diameter of an
ellipfe are parallel.
Let Vp be a diameter, HPK, hp & tangents at its Fig. rl.v,
vertices ; draw ftraight lines from P and to F and f
the foci. The triangles FCP,yC^, having FC=yc,
CPnC/’ (2.), and the angles at C equal, are in all
refpedts equal; and becaufe the angle FPC is equal to
Cpfy FP is parallel to fp (27. 1. E.), therefore Py
is equal and parallel toy>F (33. 1. E.) ; thus FPy/ is
a parallelogram, of which the oppofite angles P and p-
are equal (34. 1. E.). Now the angles FPH,yy>£
are evidently half the fupplements of thefe angles
(4 cor. 4.) therefore the angles FPH,y/>£, and hence
CPH, Cph are alfo equal, and confequently HP is
parallel to hp.
Cor. 1. If tangents be drawn to an ellipfe at the
vertices of a diameter, ftraight lines drawn from either
focus to the points of contact make equal angles
with thefe tangents. For the angle F/i is equal to
FPH.
Cor. 2. The axes of an ellipfe are the only diame¬
ters which are perpendicular to tangents at their ver¬
tices. For let Yp be any other diameter, then PF
and pY are neceffarily unequal, and therefore the angles
F/ P, FPp are alfo unequal; to thefe add the equal
angles F/^, FPH, and the angles Cy> £, CPH are
unequal, therefore neither of them can be a right
angle (29. 1. E.).
Prop. VI.
A ftraight line drawn from either focus of an
ellipfe to the interfe&ion of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with ftraight
lines drawn from the fame focus to the points
of contact.
Let HP, H/> be tangents to an ellipfe at thcFfg.
points P, />; let a ftraight line be drawn from H,
their interfedlion, to F, either of the foci, and let
FP, F/> be drawn to the points of contaft, the lines
PF and p F make equal angles with HF.
Draw Yf,pf to the other focus ; in FP, Yp pro¬
duced take PKzrPy, andpk=pf-, join HK, H£, and
let fYL,fk be drawn, meeting the tangents at G and
g. The triangles yPH, KPH, have Py=PK, by
conftru&ion, and PH common to both, alfo the angle
yPH equal to KPH (4.), therefore yH is equal to
KH. In like manner it may be ihewn that yH is
equal to £ H, therefore HK is equal to HZ-; now
FK is equal to F£, for each is equal to FP-fPy, or
Yp-\-pf, that is, to the tranfverfe axis; therefore the
triangles FKH, Fi H are in all refpe&s equal, and
hence the angle KFH is equal to k FH j therefore
PF and/F make equal angles with HF.
Prop. VII.
Two tangents to an ellipfe, which are limited by
their mutual interfedion, and the points in
which
Part II.
Of the
Ellipfe.
Fig. 41*
CONIC SECTIONS.
which they tduch the curve, are to each other
reciprocally as the fines of the angles they con¬
tain with ftraight lines drawn from the points
of contact to either focus.
Let the ftraight lines HP, H/>, which interfe^ each
Other at H, be tangents to an ellipfe at the points P,/>,
and let PF, />F be drawn to either focus; then
HP : H/> :: fine H/»F : fine HPF.
Join HF, and in FP take FQ^equal to F/, and join
FIQj. then the angles at F being equal (6.) the tri¬
angles HFQ^ HF/ are equal, therefore HQ^is equal
to H/>, and the angle HQF is equal to H/.F. Now,
in the triangle HPQ^
HP : HQ^:: fine HQP or fine HQF : fine HPF (Trigon.)
therefore HP ; Up :: fine H/F : fine HPF.
S27
Of the
Ellipfe.
Fig. 23.
Lemma.
Let KL/ be a triangle, having its bafe L/ bife&ed
at /, and let Uh, any ftraigbt line parallel to
the bafe, and terminated by the Tides, be bi-
fecled at P } then P, /, the points of bife&ion,
and K, the vertex of the triangle, are in the
fame ftraight line, and that line bifedts Dd,
any other ftraight line parallel to the bafe.
Complete the parallelograms KHPM, KL/N. The
triangles KH6, KL/ being fimilar, and Uh, L/ fimilar-
ly divided at P and /,
KH : KL :: Ub : L/ :: HP : L/r
hence the parallelograms KHPM, KL/N are fimilar.
Now they have a common angle at K, therefore they
are about the fame diameter, that is the points K, P, p
are in the fame ftraight line (26. 6. E.).
Next, let T)d meet K/ in E, then
HP : DE (:: KP: KE) :: P/j : E</,
therefore DE is equal to E</.
Prop. VIII.
Any ftraight line not palling through the centre,
but terminated both ways by an ellipfe, and
parallel to a tangent, is bifedted by the diame¬
ter that palfes through the point of contadf ; or
is an ordinate to that diameter.
through K, and bife&'s T>d, which is parallel tolif
or L/, at E.
Cor. 1. Straight lines which touch an ellipfe at
the extremities of an ordinate to any diameter intcrfeft
each other in that diameter.-
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a diameter is parallel to
a tangent at its vertex. For if not, let a tangent be
drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the diameter
drawn through the point of contaft would bifea the
ordinate, and thus the fame line would be bifcded iiv
two different points, which is abfurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the fame diameter are
parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bifeas two parallel
chords and terminates in the curve is a diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to either axis are perpendi¬
cular to that axis; and no other diameter is perpendi¬
cular to its ordinates. This follows evidently from 2
and 3 cor. to prop. 4. and 2 cor. to prop. 5.
Cor. 6. Hence each axis divides the ellipfe into
two parts which are fimilar and equal.
Prop. IX.
If a tangent to an ellipfe meet a diameter, and
from the point of contaft an ordinate be drawn
to that diameter, the femi-diameter will be a
mean proportional between the fegments of the
diameter intercepted between the centre and'the
ordinate, and between the centre and the tan-
The ftraight line DJ, terminated by the ellipfe,
and parallel to the tangent HP/>, is bifefted at E, by
P/> the diameter that paffes through the point of con¬
tact.
Let L// be a tangent at the other extremity cf the
diameter, and let KD, K d, tangents at the points D, d,
meet the parallel tangents HP h, L/> / in the points
H, L, Z>, /, and draw DF, dY, PF, / F to either
focus. Becaufe HA is parallel to T) dt
HD: hd :: KD : K d.
But, KD, K d being tangents to the ellipfe,
Sine hdY fine HDF :: KD : Yd (7.)
therefore fine hdY •. fine HDF :: HD : h d.
Now, fine h PF : fine hdY :: hd\ AP (7.)
therefore ( 23.5. E.) fine APF : fine HDF :: HD : AP:
but fine HPF or fine A PF : fine HDF :: HD : HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to A P is the fame as that of
HD to HP, wherefore PHrrPA. In the fame man¬
ner it may be demonftrated that /L=:/> /, therefore
(Lemma) the diameter />P when produced paffes
gent.
Let DK, a tangent to the curve at D, meet theFJ&-23*
diameter p P, produced in K, and let DE d be an or¬
dinate to that diameter.
Then CE : CP :: CP : CK.
- -  me uiameter, draw
the tangents PH and/L, meeting KD in FI and L •
thefe tangents are parallel to each other (5.) and to
DE, the ordinate, by the laft propofition. Draw PF
/F, DF to either of the foci, Then
DH : PH :: fine HPF : fine HDF7 , x
and DL : / L :: fine L/F : fine LDFJ v7*/
Now the angles HPF, L/Fare equal (cor. c.) and
the fine of HDF is the fame as that of LDF, therefore
DH ; PH DL : p L,
and by alternation,
DH : DL :: PH:/,Lj
therefore, becaufe of the parallel lines PH, ED, /L,
EP ; E/PK :/K.
Take
CONIC
Take CGsrCE, then by divifion
EG ; EP :: Vp : PK,
and taking the halves of the antecedents,
€E : EP :: CP : PK ;
hence, by compofition, CE : CP :: CP : CK.
SECTIONS.
Part II.
Cor. i. The re&angle contained by PE and E/>
equal to the re&angle contained by KE and CE.
For PC*=KC-CE=KE-EC+EC* (3.2.E.)
alfo PC*=PE-E/)+EC*(5. 2. E.)
therefore KE-EC + EC*=PE-E/)-f-EC*}
and KE*EC=PE*E/).
is
Of the
EiJipfe.
Cor. 2. The reftangle contained by PK and K/> is equal to the re&angle contained by KE and KC.
For KC*=PK*K/>-j-CP* (6. 2. E.)
alfo KC^EK-KC + EC-KCrrEK-KC + CP* (1. 2. E. and by the prop.)
therefore PK-K/i+CP^EK-KC + CP*,
and PK-K/>=EK*KC.
Prop. X.
If a diameter of an ellipfe be parallel to the or¬
dinates to another diameter, the latter diameter
fhall be parallel to the ordinates to the former.
f ig. 24. Let P/», a diameter of an ellipfe, be parallel to DE</
any ordinate to the diameter Qf, the diameter Q? (hall
be parallel to the ordinates to the diameter Vp.
Draw the diameter d CG through one extremity of
the ordinate </D, and join G and D, the other extre¬
mity, meeting P/> in H. Becaufe G is bife&ed at
C, and CH is parallel to d D, the line DG is bifefted
at H, therefore DG is an ordinate to the diameter P/>.
And becaufe dG and </D are bifefted at C and E,
the diameter Q? is parallel to DG (2. 6. E.) there¬
fore Q? is parallel to any ordinate to the diameter P/>.
Definitions.
XII. Two diameters are faid to be conjugate to one
another when each is parallel to the ordinates to the
other diameter.
Cor. Diameters which are conjugate to one ano¬
ther are parallel to tangents at the vertices of each
other.
XIII. A third proportional to any diameter and its
conjugate is called the Para?netery alfo the Latus rec¬
tum of that diameter.
Prop. XI.
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of an
ellipfe, the re&angle under the abfcifles of the
diameter will be to the fquare of the femi-ordi-
nate as the fquare of the diameter to the fquare
of its conjugate.
Let DE</ be an ordinate to the diameter P/, and
let Qf be its conjugate, then
PE*E/> : DE* :: P/»s : Q?*.
Let KDL a tangent at D meet the diameter in K,
and its conjugate in L ; draw DG parallel to Pp, meet-
ing Qf in G. Becaufe CP is a mean proportional
between CE and CK (9.) v
CP* : CE* :: CK : CE (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
and by divifion CP* : PE*E/> :: CK : KE.
But, becaufe ED is parallel to CL,
CK : KE CL : PE or CG,
and becaufe CQ^is a mean proportional between CG
and CL (9.)
CL : CG :: CQ^: CG* or EDl}
therefore CP*: PE • E/> :: C(> : DE*,
and by inverfion and alternation,
PE • E/> : DE* :: CP* : CQ^:: P/>* : Qf».
Cor. 1. The fquares of femi-ordinates and of ordi¬
nates to any diameter of an ellipfe are to one another
as the reftangles contained by the correfponding ab-
fciffes.
Cor. 2. The ordinates to any diameter, which in¬
tercept equal fegments of that diameter from the cen¬
tre, are equal to one another, and, converfely, equal or¬
dinates intercept equal fegments of the diameter from
the centre.
Cor. 3. If a circle be defcribed upon A a, either ofFig. tf.
the axes of an ellipfe, &s a diameter, and DE, de, any
two femi-ordinates to the axis meet the circle in H and
h, DE fhall be to as HE to h e. For
DE* : dei :: AE'Ea : Ae.ea :: HE* : h e\
therefore DE ‘.de w HE : he.
Cor. 4. If a circle be defcribed on A a the tranf-
verfe axis as a diameter, and DE, any ordinate to the
axis, be produced to meet the circle in H, HE fhall
be to DE as the tranfverfe axis A a to the conjugate
axis B b. For, produce the conjugate axis to meet
the circle in K, then, by laft corollary,
HE : DE :: KC, or AC : BC :: Aa ; Bb.
Cor. 5. And if HE be divided at D, fo that HE
is to DE, as the tranfverfe axis to the conjugate axis,
D is a point in the ellipfe, and DE a femi-ordinate to %
the axis A a.
Prop. XII.
The tranfverfe axis of an ellipfe is the greateft of
all its diameters, and the conjugate axis is the
lead of all its diameters.
Let A a be the tranfverfe axis, B£ the conjugate
axis, and CD any femi-diameter. Draw DE perpen¬
dicular to A a, and DL perpendicular to B b.
Becaufe Aa* : B &* :: AE • E a : DE* (ll.)
and Aa* is greater than B £*,
therefore AE • E a is greater than DE* ;
and AE* Ea-f-EC* is greater than DE*-fEC*,
that is AC* is greater than DC*,
therefore AC is greater than DC.
By
Part II.
CONIC SECTION
Of the By the fame manner of reafoning it may be ftiewn that
E11,Pfe-_. becaufe B b* is lefs than A a*,
BL • L^-f-CL* is lefs than DL*-f-CL*j
that is, BC* is lefs than DC1,
and BC lefs than DC.
Prop. XIII.
If an ordinate be drawn to any diameter of an
ellipfe, the redlangle under the abfcifles of the
diameter is to the fquare of the femi-ordinate
as the diameter to its parameter.
s.
Prop. XIV.
Fig. 47.
Fig. 29.
Let DE be a femi-ordinate to the diameter P/, let
PG be the parameter of the diameter, and Q? the con¬
jugate diameter. By the definition of the parameter
(Def. I3.)
P/> : Q? :: Q? : PG,
therefore P/>: PG :: P/>z : Q?* (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But P/>* : Qf :: PE • E/> : DE*, (11.)
therefore PE • E/> ; DE* :: P/> : PG.
Cor. Let the parameter PG be perpendicular to
the diameter P/>; join />G, and from E draw EM pa¬
rallel to PG, meeting />G in M. The fquare of DE,
the femi-ordinate, is equal to the redtangle contained
by PE and EM.
For PE • Ep : DE* :: P/> : PG,
and Vp : PG :: Ep : EM :: PE • Ep : PE-EM,
therefore DE*=PE • EM.
Scholium.
If the re£fangles PGL^, HGKM be completed, it
will appear that the fquare of ED is equal to the rec¬
tangle MP, which rectangle is lefs than the re&angle
KP, contained by the abfcifs PE and parameter PG,
by a reftangle KH fimilar and fimilarly fituated to LP,
the reftangle contained by the diameter and parame¬
ter. It was on account of the deficiency of the fquare
or(^nate froni t^e reftangle contained by the
ablcifs and parameter that Apollonius called the curve
bne to which the property belonged an Ellipfe.
If from the vertices of two conjugate diameters of
an ellipfe there be drawn ordinates to any third
diameter, the fquare of the fegment of that di¬
ameter intercepted between either ordinate and
the centre is equal to the rectangle contained
by the fegments between the other ordinate and
the vertices of the fame diameter.
Let P/>, Q? be two conjugate diameters, and PE, Fig. 2!
QG femi-ordinates to any third diameter Rr, then
CG*=RE-Er, and CE*rrRG • Gr.
Draw the tangents PH, QK meeting Rr in H and
K. The re&angles HC * CE and KC • CG are equal,
for each is equal CR* (9.), therefore
HC : CK :: CG : CE.
But the triangles HPC, CQK are evidently fimilar
(cor. def. 1 2.) and PE being parallel to QG their bafes
CH, KC are fimilarly divided at E and G, therefore
HC : CK :: HE : CG,
wherefore CG : CE :: HE : CG,
confequently CG*=CE • EH= (1 cor. 9.) RE • Er.
In like manner it may be iliewnthat CE*zrRG* Gr.
Cor. 1. Let Sr be the diameter that is conjugate
to Rr, then Rr is to Sr as CG to PE, or as CE to
QG.
For Rr* : S r» :: RE • Er, or CG* : PE*,
therefore Rr : Sr :: CG : PE.
In like manner Rr : Sr :: CE : QG.
Cor. 2. The fum of the fquares of CE, CG, the
fegments of the diameter to which the femi-ordinates
PE, QG are drawn, is equal to the Iquare of CR the
lemi-diameter.
For CE*-f CG*=CE*-f-RE • EGrrCR*.
Cor. 3. The fum of the fquares of any two conju¬
gate diameters is equal to the fum of the fquares of
the axes.
Let Rr, Sr be the axes, and P/>, Qy any two con¬
jugate diameters; draw PE, QG perpendicular to R r,
and PL, QM perpendicular to S r. Then
529
Of the
Ellipfe.
CE*-fCG*=CR*, and CM*-fCL\ or GQ^-f PE*=CS*:
therefore CE* -f PE* -f CG* -f-GQV=: CR* -j-CS*,
that is (47. 1. E.), CP*+CQ^—CR*-f CS%
therefore P/>*-f.Q?*=:Rr*-j-S r*.
Prop. XV.
If four ftraight lines be drawn touching an ellipfe
at the vertices of any two conjugate diameters,
the parallelogram formed by thefe lines is equal
to the reftangle contained by the tranfverfe and
conjugate axes.
Let Pp, Qg be any two conjugate diameters, a pa¬
rallelogram DEGH formed by tangents to the curve
at their vertices is equal to the re&angle contained by
A a, is £ the two axes.
Produce Aa, one of the axes, to meet the tangent
la7tonAa. J°ln ^ and draW ^ ^ PerPendicu-
Vol. VI, Part I,
Becaufe CK : CA :: CA : CL (o.)
and CA : CB :: CL : QM (1 cor. 14.)
ex aeq. CK : CB :: CA : QM.
therefore CK • QMrrCB • CA.
But CK • QMrrtwice trian. CKQrr paral. CPEQ,
therefore the parallelogram CPEQrrCB • CA,
and taking the quadruples of thefe, the parahogram
DEGH is equal to the reftangle contained by Ad!
and B £.
Prop. XVI.
If two tangents at the vertices of any diameter of Plate
an ellipfe meet a third tangent, the redangle CLVllfc
contained by their fegments between the points
3X ' * of
CONIC SECTIONS.
of contaA and the points of interfe<5Hon is equal
to the fquare of the femi-diameter to which
they are parallel. And the redangle contained
by the fegments of the third tangent between
its point of contad and the parallel tangents is
equal to the fquare of the femi-diameter to
which it is parallel.
Let PH, p hy tangents at the vertices of a diame¬
ter P/> meet HDA, a tangent to the curve at any point
D, in H and h ; let CQJ>e the femi-diameter to which
the tangents PH, p h are parallel, and CR that to
which iih is parallel, then,
PH *phzzCQlz and DH • D^zrCR*.
If the tangent HD h be parallel to P/> the propor¬
tion is manifefl. If it is not parallel, let it meet the
femi-diameters CP, CQ^in L and K. Draw DE,
RM parallel to CQ^and DG parallel to CP.
Becaufe LP* L/>~LE • LC (z cor. p.),
LP : LE :: LC : L/>,
hence, and becaufe of the parallels PH, ED, CK, pht
PH : ED :: CK : p h,
wherefore PH • y>/>=rED • CK,
but ED*CK=:CG-CK=CQ^(9.)
therefore PH 'p A“CQ^.
Again, the triangles LED, CMR are evidently fimi-
lar, and LE, LD fimilarly divided at H and P, alfo at
h and />,
therefore PE : HD :: (LE : LD ::) CM : CR,
alfo E : M) :: (LE : LD ::) CM : CR,
hence, taking the redangles of the correfponding terms,
PE ■ />E : HD • hT> :: CM* : CR\
But if CD be joined, the points D and R are evidently
the vertices of two conjugate diameters (cor. Def. 12.)
and therefore PE •/>£—CM* (14.)
therefore HD * ADrrrCR*.
Cor. The redangle contained by LD and DK, the
fegments of a tangent intercepted between D the point
of contad and P/>, Q?, any two conjugate diameters,
is equal to the fquare of CR, the femi-diameter to
which the tangent is parallel.
Let the parallel tangents PH, p h meet LK in H and
b, and draw DE a fernli-ordinate to P^. Becaufe of
the parallels PH, ED, CK, ph,
LE : LD :: EP : DH,
and EC : DK Ey» : D/f>,
therefore LE • EC : LD • DK :: EP • E/>: DH • D/;.
But LE • EC=EP •£/»(! cor. 9.)
therefore LP * DKzrDH • D-6=r(by this prop.) CR*.
Prop. XVII.
If two ftraight lines be drawn from the foci of an
ellipfe perpendicular to a tangent, ftraight lines
drawn from the centre to the points in which
they meet the tangent will each be equal to half
the tranfverfe axis.
Part II
Let DP</ be a tangent to the curve at P, and FD, Of the
fd perpendiculars to the tangent from the foci, the EillPfe,j.
ftraight lines joining the points C, D, and C, </, arep-
each equal to AC half the tranfverfe axis. s' 3 *
Join FP,/P, and produce FD,/P till they interfed
in E. The triangles FDP, EDP, have the angles at D
right angles, and the angles FPD, EPD equal (4.^) and
the fide DP common to both, they are therefore equal,
and confequently have EDmDF, and EPrrrPF,
wherefore E/=FP-J-P/= Aa. Now the ftraight lines
FE, F/ being bifeded at D and C, the line DC is
parallel to E/, and thus the triangles F/E, FCD are
fimilar,
therefore Yf : fY. or Ac :: FC : CD,
but FC is half of F/, therefore CD is half of Ka. In
like manner it may be fhewn that C is half of A a>
Cor. If the diameter Q? be drawn parallel to the
tangent D d, it will cut off from PF, P/the fegments
PG, P g-> each equal to AC half the tranfverfe axis.
For’c</PG, CD P^ are parallelograms, therefore
YQ—d CrrAC, and P^DCrrAC.
Prop. XVIII.
The re&angle contained by perpendiculars drawn
from the foci of an ellipfe to a tangent is equal
to the fquare of half the conjugate axis.
Let DP </ be a tangent, and FD, fd perpendicu-Fig. 3^
lars from the foci, the redangle contained by FD and
fd is equal to the fquare of CB half the conjugate axis.
It is evident from the laft propofition that the points
D, d are in the circumference of a circle whofe cen¬
tre is the centre of the ellipfe, and radius CA, half the
tranfverfe axis ; now FD</ being a right angle, if ^ C
be joined, the lines DF, d C when produced will meet
at H, a point in the circumference j and fince IC=
/C, and CH=C </, and the angles FCH, /C d are
equal, FH is equal to/V, therefore
DF-<//=DF-FH=AF*F<7 (35. 3.E.)=CB* (3.).
Cor. If PF, P/ be drawn from the point of con-
tad to the foci, the fquare of FD is a fourth propor¬
tional to /P, FP and BC*. For the lines /P, FP
make equal angles with the tangent (4cor. 4;) and
fdYt FDP are right angles, therefore the triangles
fYd, FPD are fimilar, and
/P : FP :: fd : FD :: f d' FD or CB* : FD*.
Prop. XIX.
If from C the centre of an ellipfe a ftraight line Fig. 3*
CL be drawn perpendicular to a tangent LD,
and from D the point of contact a perpendicu¬
lar be drawn to the tangent, meeting the tranf¬
verfe axis in H and the conjugate axis in the
redangle contained by CL and DH is equal to
the fquare of CB, the femi-conjugate axis •, and
the redangle contained by CL and D ^ is equal
to the fquare of CA, the femi-tranfverfe axis.
Produce the axes to meet the tangent in IVL and
m, and from D draw the femi-ordinates DE, Df,
which will be perpendicular to the axes.
Part IL
Of the The triangles DEH, CL m are evidently equi-an-
, £'1'^)le- , gular, therefore
DH : DE :: Cm : CL,
hence CL • DH=rDE • C m;
but DE • C w, or C e • C »2r=BC*,
therefore CL-DH=BC'.
In the fame way it is (hewn that CL • D^rrAC*.
Cor. I. If a perpendicular be drawn to a tangent at
the point of contaft, the fegments intercepted between
the point of contaft, and the axes, are to each other
53*
reciprocally as the fquares of the axes by which they 9^.the
are terminated. . f
For AC* : BC* :: CL • D £ : CL • DH :: DA : DH.
Cor. 2. If DF be drawn to either focus, and HK
be drawn perpendicular to DF, the ftraight line DK
(hall be equal to half the parameter of the tranfverffr
axis.
Draw CG parallel to the tangent at D, meeting
DH in N, and DF in G. The triangles GDN,
HDK are limilar, therefore
CONIC SECTIONS.
GD : DN :: HD : DK, and hence GD DKmHD DN.
But GDcrAC (cor. 17.) and NDnrCL,
therefore AC*DK=:HD • CL=:(by the prop.) CB*.
wherefore AC : BC :: BC : DK, hence DK is half the parameter of A a (Def. 13.).
Definition.
’Fig* .33* XIV. If s point G be taken in the tranfverfe axis
of an ellipfe produced, fo that the diftance of G from
the centre may be a third proportional to CF the ex-
centricity, and CA the femi-tranfverfe axis, a ftraight
line HG /6, drawn through G perpendicular to the ax¬
is, is called the DireBrix of the ellipfe.
Cor. I. If MF/», an ordinate to the axis, be
drawn through the focus, tangents to the ellipfe at the
extremities of the ordinate will meet the axis at the
point G. (9.^
Cor. 2. The ellipfe has two directrices, for the
point G may be taken on either fide of the centre.
Prop. XX.
The diftance of any point in an ellipfe from either
directrix is to its diftance from the focus near-
eft that diredtrix in the conftant ratio of the fe-
mi^tranfverfe axis to the excentricity.
Fig. 33. Let D be any point in the ellipfe, let DK be drawn
perpendicular to the direftrix, and let DF be drawn
to the focus neareft the diredtrix j DK is to DF as
CA, half the tranfverfe axis, to CF, the excentricity.
Draw D/to the other focus, and DE perpendicu¬
lar to A tf, take L a point in the axis, fo that ALir:
FD, and confequently L tfrrrD./ then CL is evidently
half the difference between AL and a L, or FD and
/D, and CE half the difference between/E and FE,
and becaufe
D/-f DF :/F ::/E —FE : D/—DF (Trigon.)
By taking the halves of the terms of the proportion
CA : CF :: CE : CL,
But CA : CF :: CG : CA (Def. 14.)
therefore CG : CA :: CE : CL,
hence (20. 5. E) EG : AL :: CG : CA :: CA : CF»
that is, DK : DF :: CA : CF.
Cor. I. If the tangent GMN be drawn through
M, the extremity of the ordinate paffmg through the
focus, and ED be produced to meet GM in N, EN
ftiall be equal to DF. For draw MO perpendicular
to the diredtrix, then, becaufe M and D are points in
the ellipfe, and from fimilar triangles,
M ; FD :: MO : DK :: GF : GE FM : EN,
therefore FD =: EN.
Coa. 2. If AI and a i be drawn perpendicular to
the tranfverfe axis at its extremities, meeting the tan¬
gent GM in I, and /, then AI AF and a i zz. a F.
This follows evidently from laft corollary.
Prop. XXI.
Let Ac, be the tranfverfe and conjugate axtsFig.34^
of an ellipfe; from K any point in the conju¬
gate axis let a ftraight line KH, which is equal
to the fum or difference of the femi-axes CA,
CB, be placed fo as to meet the tranfverfe axis
in H, and in KH, produced beyond H when
KH is the difference of the femi-axes, let HD
be taken equal to CB \ the point D is in the
ellipfe.
Draw DE perpendicular to A and through C
draw CG parallel to KD, meeting ED in G, then
CGrrKDrrAC by conftrudHon, hence G is in the
circumference of a circle of which C is the centre, and
CA the radius j and becaufe the triangles CEG, HED
are fimilar,
GE : DE :: CG : HD :: CA : CB,
therefore DE is a femi-ordinate, and D a point in the
ellipfe (5 Cor. 11.).
Scholium.
The inftrument called the trammels, alfo the elliptic
cofnpajjes, which workmen ufe for defcribihg elliptic
curves, is conftrudted on the property of the curve
demonftrated in this propofition, (See Compasses.)
Upon the fame principle lathes are conftrudted for
turning pidture frames, &c. of an oval form.
Prop. XXII.
If a circle be defcribed on the tranfverfe axis of an
ellipfe as a diameter, the area of the circle will
be. to the area of the ellipfe as the tranfverfe
axis to the conjugate axis.
Let A d be the tranfverfe axis of the ellipfe, which Fig. £5.
is alfo the diameter of the circle. Draw DE, D'E',
D^E" any number of perpendiculars to the axis, meet¬
ing the ellipfe in D, D', D", and the circle in d, d’
d", and join AD, DD', D'D", D"« 3 alfo A / del'
3X2 Jd\
-32 C O N I C S E
Of the (I'd”, d"a, and draw DG, dg parallel to A meeting
Hypeibola. £/ jn G and g.
The triangle A J E is to the triangle ADE as d E
to DE, that is (4. cor. 11.) as the tranfverfe axis to
the conjugate axis. Again, becaufe d'YJ and <iE are
fimilarly divided at D' and D (3. cor. 11.)
</E : DE :: (^E'—a'E : D'E'—DE d'g : D'G,
But, triangle dg d' : triangle DGD' :: drg : D'G,
therefore the triangles dgd1, DGD' as well as the
re&angles */E', DE' are to each other as E to DE,
or as the tranfverfe axis to the conjugate axis, and
confequently the trapezoids </EEV, DEE'D' are to
each other in the fame ratio. In like manner it may¬
be (hewn, that the trapezoids </'E'E"</", D'E'E"D",
alfo the triangles </"E"a, D"E" a are to each other as
the tranfverfe to the conjugate axis, and therefore the
whole reftilineal figure A dd'd" a infcribed in the fe-
micircle to the whole figure ADD'D" a infcribed in
the femiellipfe in the fame ratio, which ratio is con-
llant, and altogether independent of the number, of
the (ides of each figure. But, the bafe A a remaining
common to both figures, if we fupp.ofe the number of
perpendiculars </DE, f/'D'E', &c. indefinitely increaf-
ed, it is evident that the polygons Kd d! d" ay
ADD'D" will approach nearer and nearer to the
femicircle and femiellipfe, which are their refpeaive
limits, therefore, the femicircle is to the. femiellip e,
and confequently the circle is to the ellipfe, as the
tranfverfe to the conjugate axis.
Cor. The area of an ellipfe is equal to the area ol
a circle, wh.ofe diameter is a mean proportional be¬
tween the axes.
Prop. XXIII. Problem.
Two unequal ftraight lines which bife£I each other
at right angles being given by pofition, to de-
fcribe an elhpfe of which thefe may be the two
axes.
F/Jwr Method. By a Mechanical Defcriptwn.
Let A a, B & be the tranfverfe and conjugate axes,
36' and C the centre. On B, one extremity of the con¬
jugate axis, as a centre, with a radius equal to AC,
half the tranfverfe axis, let a circle be defcribed, cut¬
ting the tranfverfe axis in F andyV thefe points will
be the foci of the ellipfe (4 cor. 1.).
C T I O N S. Part III.
Let the ends of a firing, equal in length to ha, be Of the
faftened at the points F,/, and let the firing be flretch-
ed by a pin D, and while it is kept uniformly tenfe, ^
let the point of the pin be carried round in the plane
in which the lines A d, B £ are fituated, till, it return
to the place from which it fet out 5 by this motion
the point of the pin will trace upon the plane a curve
line which is the ellipfe required, as is evident from
the definition of the Ellipfe.
Second Method. By Finding any Number of Points
in the Curve.
Find F either of the foci as before ; draw HAK, Fig. 37.
h ak, perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at its extre¬
mities, and take AH and AK on each fide of the ver¬
tex equal to AF, alfo a h and a k each equal to *7 Ft
join H h and K £, take E any point in Ac, and
through E draw NE« parallel to HK, meeting H h
and K £ in N and n. On F as a centre with a radius
equal to EN or E « let a circle be defcribed,. meeting
N « in D and </, thefe will be two. points in the. el¬
lipfe, and in the fame way may any number, of points
be found. The reafon of this conflru&ion is obvious
from cor. 1. and 2. to prop. 20.
Prop. XXIV. Problem.
An ellipfe being given by pofition, to find its axes.
Let AB c & be the given ellipfe. Draw two pa-Fig. 38,
rallel chords H £, K £, and bifeft them at L and M 5
join LM, and produce it to meet the ellipfe in P and
p, then, P/> is a diameter (4. cor. 8.). Bifedt P/> in
C, the point C is the centre of the ellipfe (2.).
Take D any point in the ellipfe, and on C as a
centre with the diflance CD defcnbe a circle. If this
circle fall wholly without the curve, then CD mull
be half the tranfverfe axis j and if it fall wholly with¬
in the curve, then CD mull be half the conjugate ax¬
is (12.). If the circle neither falls wholly without
the curve, nor wholly within it, let the circle meet it
again in dy join D </, and bileft D in E, join CE,
which produce to meet the ellipfe in A and. a, then
A a will be one of the axes (5- cor. 8.), for it is per¬
pendicular to D 7/(3. 3. E.) which is an ordinate to A a.
The other axis B b will be found by drawing a flraight
line through the centre perpendicular to A a.
PART III. OF THE HYPERBOLA.
39-
Definitions.
I. If two points F, / be given in a plane, and a
point D be conceived to move in fuch a manner that
D /1-DF the difference of its diftances from them is
always the fame, the point D will defcribe upon the
plane a line DAD' called an Hyperbola. By affirming
firft one of the given points F, and then the other / as
that to which the moving point is neareft, the. ditter-
ence of the lines DF and D/ in both cafes being the
fame, there will be two hyperbolas DAD', da dy de¬
fcribed, oppofite to one another, which are therefore
called Oppofite Hyperbolas.
Cor. The lines DF, D/ may become greater
than any given line, therefore the hyperbolas extend
to a greater diftance from the given points F, / than
any which can be affigned. t • x 1.
II. The given points F, /are called the toci of the
^iT^The point C, which bifefts the ftraight line
between the foci, is called the Centre.
IV. A ftraight line paffing through the centre, and
' terminated
Part III.
CONIC S
Of the terminated by the oppofite hyperbolas, is called a
Hyperbola. Tranfut-rfe Diameter. It is alfo fometimes called, fim-
V y ply, a Diameter.
V. The extremities of a diameter are called its Ver¬
tices.
VI. The diameter which paffes through the foci, is
called the Tranfuerfe Axis.
Cor. The vertices of the tranfverfe axis lie be¬
tween the foci. Let A be either of the vertices, then,
becaufe any fide of a triangle is greater than the differ¬
ence between the other two fides, is greater than
fD—DF which is equal to f A—FA (Def. i.). Now
this can only take place when A is between F and/
VII. A ftraight line B b pafling through the centre,
perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis, and limited at B
and 6 by a circle deferibed on one extremity of that
axis, with a radius equal to the diflance of either fo¬
cus from the centre, is called the Conjugate Axis. It
is alfo called the Second Axis.
Cor. The conjugate axis is bifefled in the centre.
This appears from 3. 3. E.
VIII. Any ftraight line terminated both wrays by
the hyperbola, and bifefted by a tranfverfe diameter
produced, is called an Ordinate to that diameter.
IX. Each of the fegments of a tranfverfe diameter
produced, intercepted by its vertices, and an ordinate,
is called an Abfcifs.
X. A ftraight line whicli meets the hyperbola in
one point only, and which everywhere elfe falls with¬
out the oppofite hyperbolas, is faid to touch the hyper¬
bola in that point, and is called a Tangent to the hy¬
perbola.
Prop. I.
E C T I O N S. 533
ceffarily meet the curve ; let D be the point of inter- Of the
feftion, join FD j QF is lefs than QD-f-DF, andBypevbola^
therefore Q/—QF is greater than Q/—(QD-j-DF), ^ " *
that is, greater than Df—DF or A a.
Cor. 2. A point is without, or within the hyper¬
bolas, according as the difference of two lines drawn
from that point to the foci is lefs or greater than the
tranfverfe axis.
Cor. 3. The tranfverfe axis is bife£led in the centre.
Let C be the centre ; then CFrrC/(Def. 3.), and
FAzr/'tf, therefore CA=C <7.
Lemma I.
Two triangles ABC, ADC on the fame bafe, and Fig. 41.
on the fame fide of it, having AB, AD, the
greater of the two fides of each ending in the
fame extremity of the bafe, and having their
vertical angles B, D without each other, cannot
have the difference of the fides of the one equal
to the difference of the fides of the other.
Let AD meet EC in E. Becaufe AE-f-EB is
greater than AB, (AE-fEB)—BC=AE—EC is
greater than AB—BC. Again, becaufe DC is lefs
than DE-j-EC, AD—DC is greater than AD—<
(DEq-EC)=:AE—EC much more therefore is AD
—DC greater than AB—BC. Therefore AD—DC
cannot be equal to AB—BC.
Prop. II.
Every tranfverfe diameter of an hyperbola is bi~ plate
fedfed in the centre. CLIX,
If from any point in an hyperbola two ftraight
lines be drawn to the foci, their difference is
equal to the tranfverfe axis.
Tig. 39. Let DAD', da d' be oppofite hyperbolas, of which
F, / are the foci, and A a the tranfverfe axis ; let D
be any point in the curve, and DF, D/ lines drawn
to the foci, D f-—DF—A a.
Becaufe A and a are points in the hyperbola,
Af—AT—a Y—a f (Def. 1.)
therefore F/—2AF—Ff-—2 a f ;
Hence 2AF=:2 af and AF—<7/
and Af—AY-A f—af~A a.
But D and A being points in the hyperbola,
D/—DF—A/—AF, therefore D f-—DFzzA a.
Cor. i. The difference of two ftraight lines drawn
from a point without the oppofite hyperbolas to the
foci is lefs than the tranfverfe axis, and the difference
of two ftraight lines drawn from a point within either
of them to the foci is greater than the tranfverfe axis.
Fig. 40. Let P/ PF be lines drawn from a point without
the hyperbolas, that is, between the curve and its
conjugate axis. The line PF muft neceffarily meet
the curve, let D be the point of interfedfion ; P/ is
lefs than PD + D/(20. I. E.), therefore P/—PF is
lefs than (PD-f D/)~PF, that is, lefs than D/—DF,
or Ac. Again, let Q/, QF be lines drawn from a
point within either of the hyperbolas, Q/ muft ne~
Let Y p be a tranfverfe diameter, it is bifedfed in Fig-4**
C j for if Cy> be not equal to CP, take CQ^equal to
CP; from the points P, />, Qjlraw ftraight lines to F
and / the foci j draw /D perpendicular to C/>, and
FE parallel to PD, meeting/D in E ; join E/>, EQ.
Becaufe/Cz=CF, and CD is parallel to EF, f D~
DE (2. 6. E.). Now />D is common to the triangles
/D/>, ED/>, and the angles at D are equal, being
right angles, therefore the triangles are equal, and
pf—P E. In like manner it appears that Q/—QE.
Again, the triangles FCP, /CQ^having FC=Cf
PC=CQ^and the angles at C equal, are in all re-
fpedts equal, therefore FPrr/Q^ In like manner it
appears that P/=QF, therefore FQ—/QJs equal to
/P—FP, or (Def. 1.) to Yp—f p; that is, FQ—-
QE is equal to Fp—p E, which by the preceding
lemma is abfurd j therefore CP=:Cp.
Cor. r. Every tranfverfe diameter meets the op¬
pofite hyperbolas each in one point only, and being
produced falls within them.
Cor. 2. Every tranfverfe diameter divides the op¬
pofite hyperbolas into parts which are equal and fimi-
lar j the like parts of the curve being at oppofite ex¬
tremities of the diameter, and on contrary fides of it.
Prop. III.
The fquare of half the conjugate axis of an hyper¬
bola is equal to the re&angle contained by the
ftraight lines between either focus and the ex¬
tremities of the tranfverfe. axis.
1
Draw
534 CONICS
Of the Draw a ftralght line from a, either of the extremi-
HyperWa. tjes 0£ t;jle tranfverfe axis, to B, either of the extremi-
Plate t‘es t^ie conjugate axis.
CLVI1I. Then BC*+C a*=C f (Def. 7.)
F v>9‘ But becaufe A is bifefted at C, and produced tof,
Cf>=Affa + Ca> (6. a. E.)
therefore BC^-f-C^zr: 0*,
and BC*=A f/a.
E C T I O N S. Part III.
Of the
Scholium. Hyperbola.
From the property of the hyperbola which forms this
proposition, the points F and f are called Foci. For
rays of light proceeding from one focus, and falling
Upon a polilbed furface whofe figure is that formed by
the revolution of the curve about the tranfverfe axis,
are refleded in lines palling through the other focus.
Prop. IV.
The ftraight line which bife£ts the angle contained
by two ftraight lines drawn from any point in
the hyperbola to the foci is a tangent to the
-curve at that point.
Plate ^,ET ^ ke any point in the curve, let DF, Dy* be
CLIX. ftraight lines drawn to the foci, the ftraight line DE
Fig. 43. which bife&s the angle f DF is a tangent to the
curve.
Take H any other point in DE, take DGsrDyj
and join H/, HF, HG, /G j let/G meet DE in I.
Becaufe Dy~:DG and DI is common to the triangles
D/I, DGI, and the angles y'DI, GDI are equal,
thefe triangles are equal, and yizrrIG, and henceyH
=HG (4. 1. E.), fo that FH—/HrrFH—HG ; but
fince FH is lefs than FG+GH, FH—HG is lefs than
FG, that is lefs than FD^-yD or A 0, therefore
fh—yn is lefs than A 0 •, hence the point H is
without the hyperbola (2 cor. 1.), and confequently
DHI is a tangent to the curve at D (Def. 10.).
Cor. I. There cannot be more than one tangent
to the hyperbola at the fame point. For D is fuch a
point in the line DE, that the difference of the lines
DF, Dy, the diftances of that point from the foci, is
evidently greater than the difference of FH, yH the
the diftances of H any other point in that line j and
if another line KD be drawn through D, there is in
like manner a point K in that line, which will be dif¬
ferent from D, fuch, that the difference of FK, yK
is greater than the difference of the diftances of any
other point in KD, and therefore greater than FD—
therefore the point K will be within the hyper¬
bola (2 cor. I.), and the line KD will cut the
curve.
Cor. 2. A perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at
either of its extremities is a tangent to the curve.
The deraonftration is the fame as for the propofition,
if it be confidered that when D falls at either extre¬
mity of the axis, the point I falls alfo at the extremi¬
ty of the axis, and thus the tangent DE, which is al¬
ways perpendicular to yi, is perpendicular to the
axis.
Cor. 3. Every tangent to either of the oppofite
hyperbolas paffes between that hyperbola and the cen¬
tre. Let the tangent DI meet the axis in E. Be¬
caufe DE bifefts the angle FDy
FD :yD :: FE .-yE (3. 6. E.)
But FD is greater than yD (Def. 1.), therefore
FE is greater than yE, and hence E is between C and
the vertex of the hyperbola to which DE is a tan¬
gent.
Prop. V.
The tangents at the vertices of any tranfverfe dia¬
meter of an hyperbola are parallel.
Let P/» be a diameter, HP, hp tangents at its ver-p- ^
tices $ draw ftraight lines from P and /» to F and f the
foci. The triangles FCP, yC^ft, having FC=yC,
CPrsC/> (2.). and the angles at C equal, are in all
refpedfts equal, and becaufe the angle FPC is equal to
Cy>y, FP is parallel \.o fp (27. 1. E.), therefore Py
is equal and parallel to /> F (33. 1. E.) : thus FP fp
is a parallelogram of which the oppofite angles P and
p are equal (34. 1. E.) ; now the angles FPH, fph
are the halves of thefe angles (4.); therefore the
angles YVFl,fph, and hence CPH, Cpb, are alfo
equal, and confequently HP is parallel to hp.
Cor. I. If tangents be drawn to an hyperbola at
the vertices of a tranfverfe diameter, ftraight lines
drawn from either focus to the points of contaift make
equal angles with thefe tangents. For the angle Ypb
is equal to FPH.
Cor. 2. The tranfverfe axis is the only diameter
which is perpendicular to tangents at its vertices. For
let Vp be any other diameter. The angle CPH is
lefs than FPH, that is, lefs than the half of FPy,
therefore CPH is lefs than a right angle.
Prop. VI.
A ftraight line drawn from either focus of an hy*
perbola to the interfe&ion of two tangents to
the curve, will make equal angles with ftraight
lines drawn from the fame focus to the points
of contadt.
Let HP, Hp be tangents to an hyperbola at the ^
points P, p ; let a ftraight line be drawn from H their 46.
interfe&ion to F either of the foci •, and let FP, Fp
be drawn to the points of coiitaft j the lines PF, p F
make equal angles with HF.
Draw Py pf to the other focus. In PF and p F
take PK^rPy and pb-zzpf; join HK, H and let
fYL, fk be drawn, meeting the tangents in G and g.
The triangles yPH, KPH have PyirPK, by con-
ftruftion, and PH common to both, alfo the angle
yPH equal to KPH (4.) ; therefore yH is equal to
KH. In like manner it may be Ihewn that yH is
equal to k H, therefore HK is equal to H £ y now FK,
is equal to F k. for each is equal to the difterence be¬
tween FP and yP, or Fp and yp, that is, to the tranf¬
verfe axis ; therefore the triangles FKH, F £ H are in
all refpe&s equal, and hence the angle KFH is equal
to k FH, therefore PF and p F make equal angles
with HF.
t
Prof.
Part HI. CONIC
Of the
Hyperbola. PROP. VII.
Two tangents to an hyperbola, or oppofite hyper¬
bolas, which are limited by their mutual inter-
fe£tion and the points in which they touch the
curve, are to each other, reciprocally, as the fines
of the angles they contain with ftraight lines
drawn from the points of contact to either
focus.
rig. 47 and Let HP, H/>, which interfeft each other at H, be
4S. tangents to an hyperbola, or oppofite hyperbolas, at
the points P, p ; and let PF, /> F be drawn to either
focus,
HP : H/> :: fine HF : fine HPF.
Join HF, and in FP take FQjqual to Fp, and join
HQj then, the angles at F being equal (6.), the tri¬
angles HFQ^HFp are equal, therefore HQJs equal
to H/>, and the angle HQF is equal to H/> F. Now
in the triangle HPQ^
HP : HQj,: fine HQP, or fine HQF : fine HPF (Trig.)
therefore HP : H/> :: fine H/> F : fine HPF.
•Lemma II.
Tig- 49. Let KL / be a triangle, having its bafe L t bife&-
ed at p, and let H h, any ftraight line parallel
to the bafe, and terminated by the fides produ¬
ced, be bife£ted at P, then P, p the points of
bife£Uon, and K the vertex of the triangle, are
in the fame ftraight line, and that line bife£ts
D d any other line parallel to the bafe.
fois KP, K*. The triangles KH A, KL / being
fimilar, and H L / fitnilarly divided at P, />,
KH : KL :: (H A : L / ::) HP : L/>.
Now the angles at H and L are equal, therefore the
triangles KHP, KLp are fimilar, and the angle PKH
is equal to p KL •, to both add the angle HK/>, and
the angles PKH, HK/> are equal to /> KL, HK/>,
that is, to two right angles j therefore KP, Kp lie in
the fame ftraight line (14. I. E.).
Next let D d meet K/> in E, then
HP : DE (:: PK : EK) :: P: E</,
therefore DE is equal to E d.
Prop. VIII.
Any ftraight line terminated both ways by an hy¬
perbola, and parallel to a tangent, is bife&ed
by the tranfverfe diameter produced, that pafles
through the point of contact, or is an ordinate
to that diameter.
Fig. 50. The ftraight line D */, terminated by the hyperbo¬
la, and parallel to the tangent HP h, is bifefted at E
by P/i the tranfverfe diameter produced, which pafles
through P, the point of contaft.
Let L /> / be a tangent at the other extremity of the
diameter, and let KD, K </, tangents at the points
D, d, meet the parallel tangents HP b7 ~L p l in the
SECTIONS. 535
points H, L, h, /, and draw DF, d¥t PF to either fo-
cus. Becaufe H & is parallel to D d. Hyper o a.^
HD \ hd w KD : K d.
But KD, K d being tangents to the hyperbola,
fine hd¥ : fine HDF :: KD :Kd
therefore fine b d¥ : fine HDF :: HD : b d,
now, fine h PF : fine h d¥ :: h d : P (7.)
therefore, (23*5. E.) fine Z>PF : fine HDF:: HD : A P;
but fine HPF or fine h PF : fine HDF :: HD : HP,
therefore the ratio of HD to £ P is the fame as the ra¬
tio of HD to HP, wherefore PHrrPA. In the fame
manner it may be demonftrated that p ~L~p /, there¬
fore (lemma 2.) the diameter P/> when produced paf-
fes through K, and bifedts D d, which is parallel to
HA, or L /, at E.
Cor. 1. Straight lines which touch an hyperbola
at the extremities of an ordinate to any tranfverfe dia¬
meter, interfeft each other in that diameter.
Cor. 2. Every ordinate to a tranfverfe diameter
is parallel to a tangent at its vertex. For if not, let a
tangent be drawn parallel to the ordinate, then the
diameter drawn through the point of contaft would
bifeeft the ordinate, and thus the fame line would be
bifefled in two different points, which is abfurd.
Cor. 3. All the ordinates to the fame tranfverfe
diameter are parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bife&s two parallel
chords, and terminates in the oppofite hyperbola, is si
tranfverfe diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the tranfverfe axis are
perpendicular to it, and no other tranfverfe diameter
has its ordinates perpendicular to it. This follows from
2. cor. 4. and 2. cor. 5.
Cor. 6. The tranfverfe axis, indefinitely produced,
divides each of the oppofite hyperbolas into two parts
which are fimilar to one another.
Prop. IX.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet a tranfverfe dia¬
meter, and from the point of contact an ordi¬
nate be drawn to that diameter, the femidia-
meter will be a mean proportional between the
fegments of the diameter intercepted between
the centre and the ordinate, and between the
centre and the tangent.
Let DK a tangent to the curve at D meet the Fig. 50,
tranfverfe diameter P/> in K, and let DE d be an or¬
dinate to that diameter.
Then CE : CP :: CP : CK.
Through P and p, the vertices of the diameter, draw
the tangents PH and p L, meeting KD in H and L,
thefe tangents are parallel to each other (5.), and to
DE, the ordinate, by laft propofition. Draw PF,
p F, DF to either of the foci. Then,
DH:HP:: fine HPF; fine HDF, .
and DL:L/>:: fine L/>F: fine LDF,or fine HDF jL?-}
Now the angles HPF, L <> F are equal (1. cor. 5.) j
therefore,
536
Of the therefore,
Hyperbola.
CONIC S E C T IONS,
DH : PH :: DI. : / L,
and by alternation
DH : DL :: PH : /> L; j
therefore, becaufe of the parallel lines PH, ED, p L,
EP : E/> :: PK : />K.
Take CG=CE, then PG=E/>, and by compofition
EG : EP :: Vp : PK,
and taking the halves of the antecedents
Part III.
Of the
CE : EP :: CP : PK ; Hyperbola,
hence, by divifion, CE : CP :: CP : CK. ^
Cor. i. The reflangle contained by PE and E^
is equal to the re&angle contained by KE and CE.
For CP’rrKC-CErrEC*—KE-EC (2. 2. E.)
alfo CP^EC1—PE-E/> (6. 2. E.)
therefore EC1—KE*EC= EC2—PE\E
and KE'EC—PE*Ep.
Cor. 2. The re&angle contained by PK and Kp
is equal to the reftangle contained by KE and KC.
For KC*=:CP*—PK*K/> (5. 2. E.)
alfo KC*—EC*KC—EK'KCzrCP1—EK-KC (3. 2. E. and by the prop.)
therefore CP*—PK‘K/>=CP*—EK-KC,
and PK-K/>=EK-KC.
Prop. X.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet the conjugate
axis, and from the point of contaft a perpendi¬
cular be drawn to that axis, the femiaxis will
be a mean proportional between the fegments
of the axis intercepted between the centre and*
the perpendicular, and between the centre and
the tangent.
Let DH, a tangent to the hyperbola at D, meet
the conjugate axis B £ in H, and let DG be perpen¬
dicular to that axis, then
CG : CB :: CB : CH.
Let DH meet the tranfverfe axis in K, draw DE
perpendicular to that axis, draw DF, D/ to the foci,
and deferibe a circle about the triangle D/F j the
conjugate axis will evidently pafs through the centre
of the circle, and becaufe the angle FD./ is bife&ed
by the tangent DK, the line DK will pafs through
one extremity of the diameter ; therefore the circle
paffes through H. Draw DL to the other extremity
of the diameter. The triangles LGD, KCH are fi-
milar, for each is funilar to the right-angled triangle
LDH, therefore,
LG : GD (=rCE) :: CK : CH 5
hence LG-CH=CE-CK= (by laft prop.) CA\
Now LC-CH=CF* (35. 3. E.)
therefore LC-CH—LG*CH=CF*—CA%
that is, CG-CHrrCB* (Def. 7.)
wherefore CG : CB :: CB : CH.
Definition.
XL If through A, one of the vertices of the tranf¬
verfe axis, a ftraight line HA A be drawn, equal and
parallel to B & the conjugate axis, and bife&ed at A
by the tranfverfe axis, the ftraight lines CHM, Q,h m
drawn through the centre, and the extremities of that
parallel, are called Afymptotes.
Cor. 1. The afymptotes of two oppofite hyperbo¬
las are common to both. Through the other ex¬
tremity of the axis, draw H a h'•> parallel to B by and
meeting the afyraptotes of the hyperbola DAD in H'
and fy. Becaufe o C is equal to AC, a H' is equal to
A b, or to BC ; alfo a h' is equal to AH, or to BC j
hence, by the definition, CH' and C h' are afymp¬
totes of the oppolite hyperbola dad.
Cor. 2. The afymptotes are diagonals of a rec¬
tangle formed by drawing perpendiculars to the axes
at their vertices. For the lines AH, CB, a H' being
equal and parallel, the points Hj B, H' are in a
ftraight line paffing through B parallel to A a 5 the
fame is true of the points h, £, h'.
Prop. XI.
The afymptotes do not meet the hyperbola ; and
if from any point in the curve a flraight line be
drawn parallel to the conjugate axis, and ter¬
minated by the afymptotes, the redlangle con¬
tained by its fegments from that point is equal
to the fquare of half that axis.
Through D any point in the hyperbola draw a Fig. 53.
ftraight line parallel to the conjugate axis, meeting
the tranfverfe axis in E, and the afymptotes in M
and m ; the points M and m (hall be without the hy¬
perbola, and the reftangle MD*D m is equal to the
fquare of BC.
Draw DG perpendicular to B £ the conjugate axis,
let a tangent to the curve at D meet the tranfverfe
axis in K, and the conjugate axis in L, and let a per¬
pendicular at the vertex A meet the afymptote in H.
Becaufe DK is a tangent, and DE an ordinate to the
axis, CA is a mean proportional between CK and
CE (9.), and therefore
CK : CE :: CA* : CE* (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But CK : CE :: LC : LG,
and CA* : CE* :: AFP : EM* ;
therefore LC : LG :: AH* : EM*.
Again, CB being a mean proportional between CL
and CG (10.)
LC : CG :: CB* : CG*,
and therefore
LC : LG :: CB* :: CB*-fCG*, or CB*4.ED*i
wherefore AH* : EM* :: CB* ; Cli*-f- ED*.
Now AH*=CB* (Def. 11.)
therefore EM*=CB*-}-ED\
confequently EM* is greater than ED*, and EM
greater
Part III. CONIC S
Of the greater than ED, therefore M is without the hyper-
Hyperbola. bola. In like manner it appears that m is without the
v hyperbola ; therefore every point in both the afymp-
totes is without the hyperbola. Again, the ftraight
line M m terminated by the afymptotes, being mani-
feftly bife&ed by the axis at E,
ME*=MD-D/«+DE*j
but it has been (hewn that
ME*=BC*+DE%
therefore MD*D
Cor. T. Hence, if in a ftraight line M m, termi¬
nated by the afymptotes, and parallel to the conju¬
gate axis, there be taken a point D fuch that the rec¬
tangle MD-D m is equal to the fquare of that axis, the
point D is in the hyperbola.
Cor. 2. If ftraight lines MD m, NR «, be drawn
through D and R, any points in the hyperbola, or
oppofite hyperbolas, parallel to the conjugate axis,
and meeting the afymptotes in M, m, and N, n, the
re6tangles MD’D m, NR'R n are equal.
Prop. XII.
The hyperbola and its afymptote when produced
continually approach to each other, and the
diftance between them becomes lefs than any
given line.
E C T I O N S.
Scholium.
517
Of the
Hyperbola.
The name afymptotes [non concurrevtn') has been
given to the lines CH, Cj6, becaule of the property
they have of continually approaching to the hyper¬
bola without meeting it, as has been proved in this
propofition.
Prop. XIII.
If from two points in a hyperbola, or oppofite by- Hate CIX
perbolas, two parallel llraight lines be drawn
to meet the afymptotes, the redlangles contained
by their fegments between the points and the
afymptotes are equal.
Let D and G be two points in the hyperbola, or Fig. 54. anj
oppofite hyperbolas, let parallel lines ED<?, HGA be 55*
drawn to meet the afymptotes in E, e, and H, hy the
rectangles ED • D?, HG * GH are equal.
Through D and G draw ftraight lines parallel to
the conjugate axis, meeting the afymptotes in the
points L, /, and M, m. The triangles HGM, EDL
are fimilar, as alfo the triangles />Gwz, /,
therefore DL : DE : : GM : GH,
and D/ : D<? : : Qm : G/6;
hence, taking the reftangles of the correfponding terms
of the proportions,
Dg- 53. Take two points E and O in the tranfverfe axis
produced, and through thefe points draw ftraight
lines parallel to the conjugate axis, meeting the hy¬
perbola in D, R, and the afymptotes in M, m and
N,».
Becaufe NO* is greater than ME*,
and NR • R« r= MD • Dw, (2-Cor. 11.)
therefore NO*—NR *R« is greater than M E*~MD’Dw,
that is RO* is greater than DE*,
and RO is greater than DE j
now On is greater than Ew,
therefore R« is greater than Dw,
and fince Rw : T>m :: DM : RN, (2. Cor. 11.)
DM is greater than RN,
therefore the point R is nearer to the afymptote than D,
that is, the hyperbola when produced approaches to the
afymptote.
Let S be any line lefs than half the conjugate axis j
then, becaufe Dw, a ftraight line drawn from a point
in the hyperbola, parallel to the conjugate axis, and ter¬
minated by the afymptote on the other fide of the tranf¬
verfe axis, may evidently be of any magnitude greater
than Ah, which is equal to half the conjugate axis,
T)m may be a third proportional to S and BC j and
fince Dm is alfo a third proportional to DM (the feg-
ment between D and the other afymptote) and BC,
DM may be equal to S; but the diftance of D from
the afymptote is lefs than DM, therefore that diftance
may become lefs than S, and confequently lefs than
any given line.
Cor. Every ftraight line pafling through the centre,
within the angles contained by the afymptotes through
which the tranfverfe axis pafies, meets the hyperbola,
and therefore is a tranfverfe diameter j and every
ftraight line pafling through the centre within the ad¬
jacent angles falls entirely without the hyperbola.
Vol. VI. Part II.
LD • D/ : ED • D e :: MG • Gm: HG • Gh.
But LD • D/rrMG • Gm (2. Cor. 11.)
therefore ED • De zr HG • Gh.
Cor. I. If a ftraight line be drawn through D, </, Fig. sq.an*
two points in the fame or oppofite hyperbolas, the leg- 55*
ments DE, de between tbofe points and the afymp¬
totes are equal. For in the fame manner that the
reftangles ED • De, HG • Gh have been proved to be
equal, it may be Ihewn that the re&angles \Ld’dey
HG • Gh are equal, therefore ED • De = Y.d • d e.
Let Ee be bifefled in O. then ED* De ~ EO*— OD*,
and E^’de zz EO* — Or/*, therefore EO* — OD* ==
EO* — Or/* j hence OD~Or/, and EE—e d.
Cor. 2. When the points D and d are in the fame Fig. 54*
hyperbola, by fuppofing them to approach till they
coincide at P, the line Ee will thus become a tangent
to the curve at P. Therefore any tangent KPj£, which
is terminated by the afymptotes, is bifedled at P, the
point of contadt.
Cor. 3. And if any ftraight line KP£, limited byp;
the afymptotes, be bife£ted at P a point in the curve, ^
that line is tangent at P. For it is evident that only
one line can be drawn through P which fhall be limited
by the afymptotes, and bifetted at P.
Cor. 4. If a ftraight line be drawn through D, Fig. 54.
any point in the hyperbola, parallel to a tangent KP£,
and terminated by the afymptotes at E and e, the rect¬
angle ED * De is equal to the fquare of PK, the feg-
ment of the tangent between the point of contact and
either afymptote. The demonftration is the fame as in
the propofition.
Cor. 5. If from any point D in a hyperbola a ftraight Fig. 55.
line be drawn parallel to Vp any diameter, meeting the
afymptotes in E and e, the reCtangie ED • De is equal
to the fquare of half the diameter. The demonftra¬
tion is the fame as in the propofition.
3 Y
Prop.
53^
Of the
Hyperbola.^ PrOP. XIV.
If two ftraight lines be drawn from any point In
an hyperbola to the afymptotes, and from any
other point in the fame, or oppofite hyperbolas,
two other lines be drawn parallel to the former,
the re&angle contained by the firft two lines
will be equal to the retfangle contained by
the other two lines.
F*g- 56. From D any point in the hyperbola draw DH and
DK to the afymptotes, and from any other point d
draw dh and dk parallel to DH and DK. The rect¬
angles HD • DK, h d' d k are equal.
Join D, d meeting the afymptotes in E, e. From
fimilar trangles
ED : DH :: 'Ed: dh,
and e D : DK ed-.dk,
therefore, taking the reCtangles of correfponding terms,
ED • D<? : HD ’DK :: Ed' d e \ h d - d k
but ED • D<? = E.d' de (13.),
therefore HD • DK — hd'dk.
Cotu I. If the lines D'K', D'H\ d k\ d' h', be pa¬
rallel to the afymptotes, and thus form the parallelo¬
grams D'K'CH', (P k' Q h\ thefe are equal to one an¬
other (16. and 14. 6. E.) And if D'C, ^/'C be join¬
ed, the halves of the parallelograms, or the triangles
D' K' C, d' k' C are alfo equal.
Cor. 2. If from D\<//, any two points in an hyper¬
bola, ftraight lines D'K', d' k' be drawn parallel to one
afymptote, meeting the other in K' and k\ thefe lines are
to each other reciprocally as their dillances from the
centre, or D' K' : :: C /£' : CK'. This appears
from laft cor. and 14. 6. E.
Definitions.
Tig- 57- XII. If Aa be the tranfverfe axis, and Bh the con¬
jugate axis of two oppofite hyperbolas DAD, dad,
and if B £ be the tranfverfe axis, and Aa the conju¬
gate axis of other two oppofite hyperbolas EBE, e b e,
thefe hyperbolas are faid to be conjugate to the former.
When all the four hyperbolas are mentioned they are
called conjugate hyperbolas.
Cor. The afymptotes of the hyperbolas DAD, dad
are alfo the afymptotes of the hyperbolas EBE, e b e.
This is evident from Cor. 2. to Definition 11.
XIII. Any diameter of the conjugate hyperbolas
is called a fecond diameter of the other hyperbolas.
Cor. Every ftraight line palling through the centre,
within the angle through which the conjugate or
fecond axis paffes, is a fecond diameter of the hyper¬
bola.
XIV. Any ftraight line not palling through the
centre, but terminated both ways by the oppofite hy¬
perbolas, and bife&ed by a fecond diameter, is called
an Ordinate to that diameter.
Prop. XV.
Any flraight line not palling through the centre,
but terminated by the oppofite hyperbolas, and
parallel to a tangent to either of the conjugate
hyperbolas, is bife&ed by the fecond diameter
Part Til.
that pafies through the point of contact, or is of
an ordinate to that diameter. Hyperbola.
The ftraight line T) d terminated by the oppofite Fig. 58.
hyperbolas, and parallel to the tangent KQi, is bifeft-
ed at E by Qjj the diameter that pafles through the
point of contact.
Let D d meet the afymptotes in G and g, and let
the tangent meet them in K and k. The ftraight lines
G^, K k are evidently limilarly divided at E and Q« and
fince KQjz:(2 cor. 13.) therefore GE^rE^;
now DG — gd (j cor. 13.), therefore DE — Ed.
Cor. I. Every ordinate to a fecond diameter is pa¬
rallel to a tangent at its vertex. The demonftration
is the fame as in Cor. 2. Prop.
Cor. 2. All the ordinates to the fame fecond dia¬
meter are parallel to each other.
Cor. 4. A ftraight line that bife&s two parallel
ftraight lines which terminate in the oppofite hyperbolas
is a fecond diameter.
Cor. 5. The ordinates to the conjugate or fecond
axis are perpendicular to it, and no other fecond dia¬
meter is perpendicular to its ordinates.
Cor. 6. The oppofite hyperbolas are fimilar to one
another, and like portions of them are, in all refpefts,
equal.
Prop. XVI.
If a tranfverfe diameter of an hyperbola be parallel
to the ordinates to a fecond diameter, the latter
(hall be parallel to the ordinates to the former.
Let Bp, a tranfverfe diameter of an hyperbola, be Fig. 5$,
parallel to DE//, any ordinate to the fecond diameter
Qjq the fecond diameter Qjjr Ihall be parallel to the
ordinates to the diameter Bp.
Draw the diameter d CG through one extremity of
the ordinate dE), and join G and D, the other ex¬
tremity, meeting P/> in H. Becaufe </G is bifecied
at C, and CH is parallel to dD, the line DG is bi-
fefted at H, therefore DG is an ordinate to the dia¬
meter P^. And becaufe dG and dE) are bifefled at
C and E, the diameter is parallel to DG ( 2. 6. E.),
therefore Qj? is parallel to any ordinate to the diame¬
ter Bp.
Definitions.
XV. Two diameters are faid be conjugate to one an¬
other when each is parallel to the ordinates to the other
diameter.
Cor. Diameters which are conjugate to one ano¬
ther are parallel to tangents at the vertices of each
other.
XVI. A third proportional to any diameter and its
conjugate is called the Parameter, allb the Lotus reftum
of that diameter.
Prop. XVII.
The tangent at the vertex of any tranfverfe diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, which is terminated by the
afymptotes, is equal to the diameter that is con¬
jugate to that diameter.
Let PC/> be any tranfverfe diameter of an hyper-Fig. 6©.
bola, HP£ a tangent at its vertex, meeting the afymp¬
totes
CONIC SECTIONS.
Part III,
Of the totes in H and A, and QjJ the diameter which is con-
Hyperbola. jUgate to P/>; the tangent H/?> is equal to the diame-
v- t ' " ' ter Q,^.
Through D, any point in the hyperbola, draw a
ftraight line parallel to the tangent and diameter,
cutting either of the conjugate hyperbolas in */, and
the afymptotes in E and e, and through D and d
draw lines parallel to the conjugate axis, meet¬
ing the afymptotes in the points K, k, and L, /. The
triangles i)EK, d EL are fimilar, as alfo eD i, e dl^
therefore
KD : DE :: L«h </E,
and £D:D* :: ld : dei
therefore, taking the re&angles of the correfponding
terms,
KD • Dl : ED • D<? t : 1, d' dl \ d' de.
But KD*D^=BC*( n.) and BC*=L</-r/ / (5 cor. 13.)
therefore ED • V> e ~ Kd ' de.
Now ED * D e = HP* (4 cor. 13.),
and E </* (5 cor. 13.)
therefore HP* = QC*, and HP rc QC,
and confequently H A zz Q^.
Cor. I. If another tangent be drawn to the curve at
meeting the afymptotes in H' and h\ the ftraight
lines which join the points H, H', alfo h, h\ are tan¬
gents to the conjugate hyperbolas at Q^and q. For
p H' as well as PH is equal and parallel to CQrthere-
fore the points H, Q>_H' are in a ftraight line parallel
to P/>, and HQj= H' 0^33- E), therefore HQH'
is a tangent to the curve at In like manner it ap¬
pears that h qb* ii a tangent at q.
$59
Cor. 2. If tangents be drawn at the vertices of two 0f
conjugate diameters, they will meet in the afymptotes,, -vPer 0 a>,
and form a parallelogram of which the afymptotes are
diagonals.
Prop. XVIII.
If a tangent to an hyperbola meet a fecond diame"
ter, and from the point of contact an ordinate
be drawn to that diameter, half the fecond dia¬
meter will be a mean proportional between
the fegments of the diameter intercepted be¬
tween the centre and the ordinate, and between
the centre and the tangent.
Let DL a tangent to the curve at D meet the fe-^S-
cond diameter in L, and let DG^ be an ordinate
to that diameter, then
CG : CQ^.i CQj CL.
Let P/> be the diameter that is conjugate to Q#,
let HP b be a tangent at the vertex, terminated by the
afymptotes; through D draw the ordinate DE</ to the
diameter P^, meeting the afymptotes in M and m;
let K be the interfe&ion of DL and Pp. Becaufe
DK is a tangent at D, and DE</ an ordinate to Pp,
CP is a mean proportional between CE and CK (9.)
and therefore
CE* : CP* :: CE : CK.
Now, the lines CQ^ PH, EM being parallel (8. and
Def. 15.), from fimilar triangles,
EM*: PH4,
LG : LCj
LG : LC,
CG : LC :: CG* t CG • LC.
CE* : CP*
and CE, or DG CK
therefore EM* : PH*
and by divifion, &c. EM*—PH* : PH*
But fince PH*=MD • D m (4 cor. 13.), EM*—PH*=ED*=CG*,
therefore PH*=:CG • LC j
wherefore, and fince PHrrCQ^iy.^'
CG : CQj: CQj CL.
CONIC SECTIONS.
Kop. xix.
If an ordinate be drawn to any tranfverfe diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, the re&angle under the ab-
feifles of the diameter will be to the fquare of
the femi-ordinate as the fquare of the diameter
to the fquare of its conjugate.
<52. Let DE*/be an ordinate to the tranfverfe diameter
pa and let Qf be its conjugate diameter,
PE • E/> : DE* :: P/>*: Q?*.
Let DKL a tangent at D meet the diameter in K,
and its conjugate in L. Draw DG parallel to Pp,
meeting Qy in G. Becaufe CP is a mean proportion¬
al between CE and CK (9.)
CP* : CE* :: CK : CE,
and by divifion CP* : PE •£/>:: CK : KE.
But, becaufe ED is parallel to CL,
CK : KE :: CL : DE, or CG,
CL : CG :! CCP : CG*, or DE*,
therefore CP* : PE • E/> :: CQ^: DE*,
and by inverfion and alternation,
PE*E/> : DE* :: CP* : CQ^:: P/* : Qf.
Cor. 1. If an ordinate be drawn to any fecond di¬
ameter of an hyperbqla, the fum of the fquares of half
the fecond diameter and its fegment intercepted by the
ordinate from the centre is to the fquare of the femi-
ordinate, as the fquare of the fecond diameter to the
fquare of its conjugate.
Let DG be a femi-ordinate to the fecond diameter
Qj. It has been (hewn that
CG* : CQ^:: PE • E/ : CP*,
therefore, by comp.
CQl+CG* : CQ^:: CE* or DG* : CP*,
and by alter.
CQL+CG* : CE* :: C(£: CP* : Pp\
Cor. 2. The fquares of femi-ordinates, and of or~
dinates to any tranfverfe diameter, are to one another
as the reflangles contained by the correfponding ab-
feiffes $ and the fquares of femi-ordinates, and of ordi-
- 3 Y 2 nates,
and becaufe CQJis a mean proportional between CG
and CL (18.)
540 CONIC SI
0t ^ na*es to any fecpnd diameter are to one another as the
, yper )° a.^ furas 0£ fqUares 0f half that diameter and the feg-
ments intercepted by the ordinate from the centre.
Cor. 3. The ordinates to any tranfverfe diameter,
which intercept equal fegments of that diameter from
the centre, are equal to one another, and, converfcly,
equal ordinates intercept equal fegments of the diame¬
ter from the centre. <
Trop. XX.
I
Kate CLXI. The tranfverfe axis of an hyperbola is the leaft of
all its tranfverfe diameters, and the conjugate
axis is the leaft of all its fecond diameters.
Fig. <54. I_EX R be the tranfverfe axis, any other tranf¬
verfe diameter, draw PE perpendicular to R r ; then
CE being greater than CR, and CP greater than
CE, much more is CP greater than CR, therefore P/>
is greater than R r. In like manner it is (hewn that
if Sr be the conjugate axis, and any other fecond
diameter, Q? is greater than S r.
Trop. XXI.
Plate CLX. If an ordinate be drawn to any tranfverfe diame¬
ter of an hyperbola, the re&angle under the
abfeifles of the diameter is to the fquare of the
, femi-ordinate as the diameter to its parameter.
fig. 53. Let DE be a femi-ordinate to the tranfverfe dia¬
meter P/> ; let PG be the parameter of the diameter,
and Q? the conjugate diameter. By the definition of
the parameter (Def. 16.)
P/> : Q? :: Q? : PG,
therefore Vp : PG :: P/>* : Q?% (2 cor. 20. 6. E.)
But P/ : Q/ :: PE • E> : DE1, (19.)
therefore PE • Y.p : DE* :: Vp : PG.
Cor. Let the parameter PG be perpendicular to
the diameter Vp ; join pG, and from E draw EM
parallel to PG, meeting pG in M. The fquare of
DE the femi-ordinate is equal to the re&angle con¬
tained by PE and EM.
For PE • E/> : DE1 :: Vp : PG,
*nd Vp : PG :: E/> : EM :: PE • E/> : PE • EM,
therefore DEJ=PE • EM.
Scholium.
If the reftangles PGL/>, HGKM be completed, it
will appear that the fquare of ED is equal to the rec¬
tangle MP, which rectangle is greater than the rec¬
tangle KP, contained by the abfeifs PE, and the pa-
xametei GP, by a reftangle KH fimilar and fimilar-
ly fituated to LP, the reftangle contained by the pa¬
rameter and diameter. It was on account of the ex-
? cefs of the Iquare of the ordinate above the reftangle
contained by the ablcifs and parameter that Apolloni¬
us gave the curve to which the property belonged the
name of Hyperbola.
Prop. XXII.
PlateCLXI.Jf from the vertices of two conjugate diameters
of an hyperbola there be drawn, ordinates to
C T I O N S. part m.
any third tranfverfe diameter, the fquare of the Of the
fegment of that diameter, intercepted between HyPerb°la-
the ordinate from the vertex of the fecond dia- *
meter, and the centre, is equal to the redangle
contained by the fegments between the other
ordinate and the vertices of the third traafverfe
diameter. And the fquare of the fegment in¬
tercepted between the ordinate from the vertex
of the tranfverfe diameter and the centre is
equal to the fquare of the fegment between the
other ordinate, and the centre, together with
the fquare of half the third tranfverfe diameter.
Let Vp, Q? be two conjugate diameters, of which Fig. 64,
Vp is a tranfverfe, and Q? a fecond diameter ; let PE,
QG be femi-ordinates to any third tranfverfe diameter
Rr, then CG^RE * E r, and CE1—CG2-f CR1.
Draw the tangents PH, QK, meeting R r in H and
K. The rectangles HC • CE and KC • CG are equal,
for each is equal to CR1 (9.) therefore,
HC : CK :: CG : CE.
But the triangles HPC, CQK are evidently firnilar
(cor. Def. 15.) and fince PE, QG are parallel, their
bafes CH, KC fimilarly divided at E and G, there¬
fore
HC : CK :: HE : CG,
wherefore CG : CE :: HE : CG,
confequently CG2=CE * EH= (1 cor. 9.) RE • E r.
Again, from the fimilar triangles HPC, CQK,
HC : CK :: CE : KG.
Now it was {hewn that HC : CK :: CG : CE,
therefore CG : CE :: CE : KG,
confequently
CE!=rCG • GK= (3. 2. E.) CG’+GC • CK.
But GC • CKrrCR2 (18.)
therefore CE1—CG2-f-CR*.
Cor. 1. Let S j- be the diameter that Is conjugate
to R r, then R r is to S j as CG to PE, or as CE to
QG.
For R r* : S P :: RE * E r, or CG1 : PE%
therefore Rr : Sj- :: CG : PE.
In like manner Rr : Sj- :: CE : QG.
Cor. 2. The difference between the fquares of CE,
CG the fegments of the tranfverfe diameter to which
the femi-ordinates PE, QG are drawn, is equal to the
fquare of CR the femi-diameter. For it has been
{hewn that CE^CG^CR1;
therefore CE2—CGl=CRx.
Cor. 3. The difference of the fquares of any two
conjugate diameters is equal to the difference of the
fquares of the axes. Let R r, S j- be the axes, and
Vp, Q? any two conjugate diameters; draw PE,
QG perpendicular to R r, and PL, QM perpendicm-
lar to Sj. Then
CE*—CG2=CR*,
‘ and CM*—CL1, or GCP—PE*r=CS*,
therefore CE* -f PE*— (CG1 -f GQ^) =CR*_CS*,
that is (47. I. E.) CP*—CQ^rrCR*—CS*,
therefore Vp7,—Q7*=zRr*—S A.
Prop. XXIIL
Part III.
CONIC SECTIONS.
54 J
Of the
Hyperbola.
Prop. XXIII.
If four ftraight lines be drawn touching conjugate
hyperbolas at the vertices of any two conjugate
diameters, the parallelogram formed by thefe
lines is equal to the re6tangle contained by the
tranfverfe and conjugate axes.
Let P/>, Q? be any two conjugate diameters, a
parallelogram LEGH formed by tangents to the con¬
jugate hyperbolas at their vertices is equal to the reft-
angle contained by Art, B tbe two axes.
Let A a, one of tbe axes meet the tangent PE in K;
join QK, and draw PL, QJVI perpendicular to Art.
Becaufe CK : CA :: CA : CL (9.)
and CA : CB :: CL : QM (1 cor. 22.)
ex aeq. CK : CB :: CA : QM,
therefore CK • QMr=CB * CA.
But CK • QJVI—twice trian. CKQr=paral. CPEQ^
therefore the parallelogram CPEQrrCB’ CA;
and, taking the quadruples of thefe, the parallelogram
DEGH is equal to the redlangle contained by A <3
and B b.
Prop. XXIV.
If two tangents at the vertex of any tranfverfe dia¬
meter of an hyperbola meet a third tangent,
the re£Iangle contained by their fegments be¬
tween the points of contact, and the points of
interie£hon, is equal to the fquare of the femi-
diameter to which they are parallel. And the
re£Iangle contained by the fegments of the third
tangent between its points of contadb and the
parallel tangents, is equal to the fquare of the
femi-diameter to which it is parallel.
Fig. 66. PET PH, p tangents at the vertices of a tranfverfe
diameter Py>, meet DPI <6, a tangent to the curve at
any point 13, in H and h ; let CQjie the lemi-diame-
ter to which the tangents PH, p b are parallel, and
CR that to which H £ is parallel; then
But, if CD be joined, the points D and R are evi- the
deiitly the vertices of two conjugate diameters (cor. Hyperboi;;.^
def. 15.) and therefore PE ‘p E=:CMJ (22.)
therefore HD • h D=CRJ.
Cor. The reftangle contained by LD and DK, the
fegments of a tangent intercepted between D the point
of contaft, and Pp, Q^. any two conjugate diameters,
is equal to the fquare of CR, the femi-diameter to which
the tangent is parallel.
Let the parallel tangents PH, ph meet LK in H
and h, and draw DE a femi-ordinate to Vp. Becaufe
of the parallels ED, PH, CK, ph,
LE : LD :: EP : DH,
and E C : DK :: E /> : D
therefore
LE-EC : LD -DK :: EP-E/» : DPI - D h.
But LE • EC=EP- Ey> (1 cor. 9.)
therefore LD -DKrrDH * D /6=:(by this prop.)CRb
Prop. XXV.
If two ftraight lines be drawn from the foci of an
hyperbola perpendicular to a tangent, ftraight
lines drawn from the centre, to the points in
which they meet the tangent, will each be
equal to half the tranfverfe axis.
Let P</D be a tangent to the curve at P, and FD*Hg. 67.
fd perpendiculars to the tangent from the foci, the
ftraight lines joining the points C, D and C, are each
equal to AC, half the tranfverfe axis.
Join FP,/P, and produce FD, P/ till they inter-
feft in E. The triangles FDP, EDP have the an¬
gles at D right angles, and the angles FPD, EPD
equal (4.) and the fide DP common to both they are
therefore equal, and confequently have EDrrDF, and
EP—PF, wherefore E/z=FP—P/—Ao. Now the
ftraight lines FE, F/being bifefted at D and C, the
line DC is parallel to E/, and thus the triangles
F/E, FCD are ftmilar,
PH and DH -D A=CR\
Let H6 meet the iemi-diameters CP, CQjn L and
K. Draw DE, RM parallel to CQ. and DG paral¬
lel to CP.
Becaufe LP-L/—LE*LC (2 cor. 9.)
LP : LE :: LC : \.p ;
hence, and becaufe of the parallels PH, ED, CK,
PH : ED CK : ph, "
wherefo-> PH ■ p /?>—ED • CK.
But ED CK=CG • CK=CQl(i8.)
therefore PH 'p ^=CQb
Again, the triangles LED, CMR are evidently
fimilar, and I.E, LD are fimdarly divided at H and
P, alfo at h and p,
therefore PE : FID :: (LE : LD ::) CM : CR.
alfo /> E : /j D :: (LE : LD ::) CM : CR,
hence, taking the reftangles of the correfponding
terms,
PE ’/-E : HD -AD:: CM* : CR\
therefore F/ :/E, or A rr :: FC : CD ;
but FC is half ~Yf, therefore CD is half of Ka.
Cor. If a ftraight line Qj be drawn through the
centre parallel to the tangent D </, it will cut off
from PF, P/the fegments PG, P^. each equal to AC
half the tranfverfe axis. For Ct/PG, CDP^ are pa¬
rallelograms, therefore PG=)/Czr AC, and P^—DC=
AC.
Prop. XXVI.
The reftangle contained by perpendiculars drawn
from the foci of an hyperbola to a tangent is
equal to the fquare of half the conjugate axis.
Let Pc/D be a tangent, and FD, /d perpendicu-F;„ $-
lars from the foci, the rectangle contained by FD and
f d is equal to the fquare of BC half the conjugate
axis.
It is evident from laft propofition that the points
D, </ are in the circumference of a circle, whofe centre
542 C O N I C S E C T I O N S. Part III.
^iej *s the centre of the hyperbola, and radius CA half the
T H>ia', tranfverfe axis j nbw FD d being a right angle, if </C
be joined, and produced, it will meet DF in H, a
point in the circumference*, and fince FC=y*C, and
CH=C</, and the angles YCii,fCd are equal, FH is
equal to f dt therefore
DF • ^/=:DF • FH=AF • a F (36. 3.E.)=:GB* (3.).
Cor. If PF, Py* be drawn from the point of con¬
tact to the foci, the fquare of FD is a fourth propor¬
tional to /P, FP and CB*. For the angles
FPD are equal (4.) and FDP, f dY are right angles,
therefore the triangles FDP, f dY are limilar, and
/P : FP ::/</: FD :: fd- FD or BC4 : FD*.
Prop. XXVII.
Fig. 6t. if from Q the centre of an hyperbola a ftraight
line CL be drawn perpendicular to a tangent
LD, and from D the point of contaft a perpen¬
dicular be drawn to the tangent, meeting the
tranfverfe axis in H, and the conjugate axis in
h, the re&angle contained by CL and DH is
equal to the fquare of CB, the femi-conjugate
axis; and the rectangle contained by CL and
is equal to the fquare of CA, the femi-
tranfverfe axis.
Let the axes meet the tangent in M and m, and
from D draw the femi-ordinates D£, D e, which will
be perpendicular to the axes.
The triangles DEH, CL m are evidently equiangu¬
lar, therefore
DH : DE :: Cw : CL,
hence CL * DHrrDE * C m,
but DE * C or C <? * C m=BC2 (10.)
therefore CL * DHr=BC*.
In the fame way it may be Ihewn that CL ’ D
AC*.
Cor. I. If a perpendicular be drawn to a tangent
at the point of contadf, the fegments intercepted be¬
tween the point of contafi and the axes are to each
other reciprocally as the fquares of the axes by which
they are terminated.
For AC* : BC* j: CL * D A : CL • DH:: D £ j DH.
Cor. 2. If DF be drawn to either focus, and HK
,be drawn perpendicular to DF ; the ftraight line DK
ihall be equal to half the parameter of the tranfverfe
axis.
Draw CG parallel to the tangent at D, meeting
DH in N, and DF in G. The triangles GDN, HDK.
are ftmilar, therefore
GD : DN :t HD : DK;
and hence GD • DK=HD * DN.
But GDrrAC (cor. 25.) and NDrzCL,
therefore AC • DK=HD * CL= (by the prop.) CB*,
wherefore AC : BC :: BC : DK,
hence DK is half the parameter of A a (def. 16.)
Definition.
Fis- <9- XVII. If a point G be taken in the tranfverfe axis
of an hyperbola, fo that the diftancc of G from the
1
centre may be a third proportional to CF, the di- Of the
ftance of either focus from the centre, and CA the HyPerboIa»
femi-tranfverfe axis, a ftraight line HG h drawn
through G, perpendicular to the axis, is called the
Dire&rix of the hyperbola.
Cor. i. If MF tn, an ordinate to the axis, be drawn
through the focus, tangents to the hyperbola at the ex¬
tremities of the ordinate will meet the axis at the point
G (9.).
Cor. 2. The hyperbola has two dire&rices, for the
point G may be taken on either fide of the centre.
Prop. XXVIII.
The diftance of any point in an hyperbola from
either diredtrix is to its diftance from the focus
neareft that diredtrix, in the conftant ratio of
the femi-tranfverfe axis to the diftance of the fo¬
cus from the centre.
Let D be any point in the hyperbola } let DK be Fig. 6$.
drawn perpendicular to the direftrix, and DF to the
focus neareft the diredlrix ; DK is to DF as CA, half
the tranfverfe axis, to CF, the diftance of the focus
from the centre.
Draw D/ to the other focus, and DE perpendicu¬
lar to A a ; take L a point in the axis fo that AL=
FD, and confequently L o“D f; then CL is evident¬
ly half the lum of AL and a L, or of FD and ,/D,
and CE half the fum of FE and /"E, and becaufe
D/~DF : F/::/E + FE : D/+DF (Trig.)
by taking the halves of the terms of the proportion,
CA : CF :: CE : CL.
But CA : CF :: CG : CA (def. 17.)
therefore, CG : CA :: CE : CL,
hence (19. 5. E.) EG : AL :: CG : CA :: CA : CF,
that is, DK : DF :: CA : CF.
Cor. 1. If the tangent GMN be drawn through M,
the extremity of the ordinate palling through the focus,
and ED be produced to meet GM in N, EN Ihall be
equal to DF. For draw MO perpendicular to the
direftrix, then, becaufe M and D are points in the hy¬
perbola, and from fimilar triangles,
FM : FD :: MO ; DK :: GF: GE :: MF j EN,
therefore FDrrEN.
Cor. 2. If AI and a i be drawn perpendicular to
the tranfverfe axis at its extremities, meeting the tan¬
gent GM in I and /, then AIrrAF and ai—aY.
Prop. XXIX.
If through P and Q the vertices of two femi-dia-Fig. 70.-
meters of an hyperbola there be drawn ftraight
lines PD, QE parallel to one of the afymptotes
CN, meeting the other afymptote in I) and E,
the hyperbolic fe£tor PCO is equal to the hyper¬
bolic trapezium PDEQ.
Let CQ^meet PD in G. The triangles CDP,
CEQjire equal (1 cor. 14.) therefore, taking the tri¬
angle CDG from both, the triangle CGP is equal to
the quadrilateral DEQG ; to thele add the figure
PGQi
I
Part III. CONIC S E
Of the PGQ*_ and the hyperbolic fe&or PCQ_is equal to the
Hyperbola, hyperbolic trapezium PDEQ^
Prop. XXX.
Fig. 71. If from the centre of an hyperbola the fegments
CD, CE, CH be taken in continued propor¬
tion, in one of the afymptotes, and the llraight
lines DP, EQ, HR be drawn parallel to the
other afymptote, meeting the hyperbola in P,
Q> R> the hyperbolic areas PDEQ, QEHR are
equal.
Through Q^draw a tangent to the curve, meeting
the afymptotes in iv and L j join PR meeting the
afymptotes in M and N; draw the femi-diameters CP,
CQj, CR, let CQjneet PR in G.
Becaufe QE is parallel to CM, and KQJs equal to
QL (2 cor. 13.) CE is equal to EL ; and becaufe
MC, PD, RH, are parallel, and MP is equal to
RN (1 cor. 13.) CD is equal to HN. Now, by hy-
pothefis,
CD : CE :: CE : CH,
therefore NH : LE :: CE : CH;
but CE : CH :: HR : EQJzcor.n.)
therefore NH : LE :: HR : ECL
and by alternation NH : HR :: LE : EQ^
Now the angles at H and E are equal, therefore
the triangles NHR, LEQ^are equiangular, and NR
is parallel to LQ^, confequently RP is an ordinate to
the diameter CQ^(8.) and is bifedted by it at G ; and
as CQ^bifedls all lines which are parallel to KL, and
are terminated by the hyperbola, it will bifeft the
area PQR. Let the equal areas PQG, RQG be
taken from the equal triangles PCG, RCG, and there
will remain the hyperbolic fedlors PCQ^ RCQ^equal
to each other. Therefore (29.) the areas DPQE,
EQRH are alfo equal.
Cor. Hence if CD, CE, CH, &c. any number of
fegments of the afymptote be taken in continued pro¬
portion, the areas DPQE, DPQRH, &c. reckoned
from the firft line DP, will be in arithmetical progref-
fion.
Prop. XXXL Problem.
Fig-72» 73-Two ftraight lines A a, B b, which bife& each
other at right angles in C, being given by po-
fition1 to defcribe an hyperbola, of which A a
(hall be the tranfverfe and the conjugate
axis.
First Method. By a Mechanical Defcription.
Fig- 7?- Join AB. and in A 0, produced, take CF, Cf each
equal to AB j the points F, / will be the foci of the
hyperbola.
Let one end of a firing be fattened at F, and the
other to G the extremity of a ruler/DG, and let the
C T I o N S. ^43
difference between the length of the rufer an£ the Of ihe
firing be equal to A a. Let the other end of the Hyperbola-,
ruler be fixed to the point fy and let the ruler be made
to revolve about f zs 2. centre in the plane in which
the axes are fituated, while the firing is ftretched by
means of a pin D, fo that the part of it between G
and D is applied clofe to the edge of the ruler j the
point of the pin will by its motion trace a curve line
DAD upon the plane which is one of the hyperbolas
required.
If the ruler be now made to revolve about the other
focus F, while the end of the firing is faftened to fy
the oppofite hyperbola will be defcribed by the
moving point D j for in either cafe G f-—(GD-f-DF),
that is, D^—DF is by hypothefis equal to A o the
tranfverfe axis.
Second Method. By finding any number of points in
the Curve.
Find F, either of the foci as before, draw HAK, Fig.73^
hah perpendicular to the tranfverfe axis at its extre¬
mities, and AH and AK on each fide of the vertex
equal to AF, alfo a h and a k each equal to a F j
join H h and K k; take E any point in A a, and
though E draw NE n parallel to HK, meeting H h
#nd K £ in N and n. On F as a centre^with a radius
equal to EN or E n> let a circle be defcribed meeting
N » in D and d, thefe will be two points in the hy¬
perbola } and in the fame way may any number of
points in the hyperbola, or oppofite hyperbolas, be
found. The reafon of this confirudion is obvious from
cor. 1. and 2. to Prop. 28.
Prop. XXXII. Problem.
An hyperbola being given by pofition, to find its Plate
axes.
CLXIL
Let HA h be the given hyperbola. Draw two p;g#
parallel ftraight lines H h, K h terminating in either
of the oppofite hyperbolas, and bifeft them at L and
M ; join LM, and produce it to meet the hyperbola in
P ; then LP will be a tranfverfe diameter (4 cor. 8.)
Let p be the point in which it meets the oppolite hy¬
perbola, bifeft Yp in C, the point G is the centre (2.)
Take D any point in the hyperbola, and on C as a
centre with the difiance CD defcribe a circle 5 if this
circle lie wholly without the oppofite hyperbolas, then
CD muft be half the tranfverfe axis (20.), but if not,
let the circle meet the hyperbola again in d, join
D </, and bife£l it in E, join CE, meeting the oppofite
hyperbolas in A and a, then A a will be the tranlverfe
axis (5 cor. 8;) for it is perpendicular to D</(3. 3.
EQwvhich is an ordinate to A a. The other axis will
be found by drawing B £ a ftraight line through the
centre perpendicular to A 0, and taking CB fo that
CB1 may be a fourth proportional to the reftangle
AE • E and the fquares of DE and CA, thus CB
is half the conjugate axis (19-).
PART-
CONIC SECTIONS.
/
544
Of the Cone
and its
Sedtions.
PART IV.
Part IV.
Of the Cone
and its
Sedlions.
SECT. I.
OF THE CONE AND ITS SECTIONS.
Definitions.
75- . I. If through the point V, without the plane of the
circle ADB, a llraight line AVE be drawn, and pro¬
duced indefinitely both ways, and if the point V re¬
main fixed while the llraight line AV E is moved
round, the whole circumference of the circle, two fu-
perficies will be generated by its motion, each of which
is called a Conical Snpei'jiciesy and thefe mentioned to¬
gether are called Oppojite Conical Superficies.
II. The folid contained by the conical fupcrficies,
and the circle ADB is called a Cone.
III. The fixed point V is called the Vertex of the
• cone.
IV. The circle ADB is called the Bafie of the cone.
.V. Any ftraight line drawn from the vertex to the
circumference of the bafe is called a Side of the cone.
VI. A ftraight line VC drawn through the vertex
of the cone, and the centre of the bafe, is called the
Axis of the cone.
VII. If the axis of the cone be perpendicular to the
bafe it is called a Right cone.
VIII. If the axis of the cone be not perpendicular
to the bafe, it is called a Scalene cone.
Prop. I.
If a cone be cut by a plane palling through the
vertex, the fe&ion will be a triangle.
J51 Eet ADBV be a cone of which VC is the axis j
let AD be the common fettion of the bafe of the cone
and the cutting plane \ join VA, VD. When the ge¬
nerating line comes to the points A and D, it is evi¬
dent that it will coincide with the ftraight lines VA,
VD, they are therefore in the furface of the cone, and
they are in the plane which paffes through the points
V, A, D, therefore the triangle VAD is the common
feftion of the cone and the plane which paffes through
its vertex.
Prop. II.
If a cone be cut by a plane parallel to its bafe, the
fedion will be a circle, the centre of which is
in the axis.
75* Let EFG be the fe&ion made by a plane parallel
to the bafe of the cone, and VAB, VCD two feaions
of the cone made by any two planes palling through
the axis \ C j let EG, HF be the common fe6fions
of the plane EFG, and the triangles VAB, VCD.
Becaufe the planes EFG, ADB are parallel, HE
HF wall be parallel to CA, CD, and
AC : EH :: (VC : VH CD : HF,
2
but AC=rCD, therefore EHrrHF. For the fame
re a (bn GHrrHF, therefore EFG is a circle of which
H is the centre and EG the diameter.
Prop. III.
If a fealene cone ADBV be cut through the axis Fig. 76.;
by a plane perpendicular to the bafe, making
the triangle VAB, and from any point H, in
the llraight line AV, a llraight line HK be
drawn in the plane of the triangle VAB, fo that
the angle VHK may be equal to the angle VBA,
and the cone be cut by another plane palling
through HK perpendicular to the plane of the
triangle ABC, the common fedion HFKM of
this plane and the cone will be a circle.
Take any point L in the ftraight line HK, and
through L draw EG parallel to AB, and let EFGM
be a fedlion parallel to the bafe, palling through EG j
then the two planes HFKM, EFG1VI being perpendi¬
cular to the plane VAB, their common f'e&ion FLM
is perpendicular to ELG, and fince EFGM is a circle
(by laft prop.) and EG its diameter, the fquare of FL
is equal to the re&angle contained by EL and LG
(35- 3- L-) 5 but fince the angle VHK is equal to
^ L A, or VG E, the angles EHK, EGK are equal,
therefore the points E, H, G, K, are in the circum¬
ference of a circle (21. 3. E.), and HL*LK=EL-LG
(35- 3- F.) —FL% therefore the feaion HFKM is a
circle of which HLK is a diameter (35. 3. £.).
This fedion is called a Subcontrary Se&iott.
Prop. IV.
If a cone be cut by a plane which does not pafs
through the vertex, and which is neither paral¬
lel to the bafe, nor to the plane of a fubcontra-
ry fe£lion, the common feftion of the plane and
the furface of the cone will be an ellipfe, a pa¬
rabola, or an hyperbola, according as the plane
pa fling through the vertex parallel to the cut¬
ting plane falls without the cone, touches it, or
falls within it. *
Let ADBV be any cone, and let ONP be ttie Fig. 77,7?.
common fedion of a plane palling through its vertex 79.
and the plane of the bafe, which wall fall without the
bafe, will touch it, or will fall within it.
Let FKM be a fedion of the cone parallel to VPO j
through C the centre of the bafe draw CN perpendi¬
cular to OP, meeting the circumference of the bafe in
A and B j let a plane pafs through V, A and B,
meeting the plane OVP in the line NV, the furface
of the cone in VA, VB, and the plane of the fedion
FKM in LK 5 then, becaufe the planes OVP, MKF
are parallel, KL will be parallel to VN, and will
meet VB one fide of the cone in K j it will meet VA
the
Part IV.- CONIC SE
Of the Cone the other fide in H, fig. 77. within the cone 5 it will
and its be parallel to VA in fig. 78. and it will meet VA,
^Seftions. procluce(} beyond the vertex, in H, fig. 79.
v Let EFGM be a fe&ion of the cone parallel to the
bafe, meeting the plane VAB in EG, and the plane
FKM in FM, and let L be the interfe&ion of EG
and FM, then EG will be parallel to BN, and FM
will be parallel to PO, and therefore will make the
fame angle with LK wherever the lines FM, LK cut
each other, and fince BN is perpendicular to PO, EG
is perpendicular to FM. Now the feftion EFGM is a
circle of which EG is the diameter (2.) ; therefore
FM is bife&ed at L, and FIZ—EL’LG.
v. m Case I. Let the line PNO be without the bafe of
the cone. Through K and H draw KR and HQ^ pa¬
rallel to AB. The triangles KLG, KHQ^are fimi-
lar, as alfo HLE, HKR } therefore
KL : LG :: KH : HCb
and HL : LE :: KH : KR ;
therefore KL-HL : LG-LE or LP :: KhP : HQ^R.
Now the ratio of KIT to HQJKR is the fame where-
ever the fe&ions HFKM, EFGM interfeft each other,
therefore KL’HL has a conftant ratio to LF1, confe-
quently (1 cor. 11. Part II.) the feftion HFKM is an
ellipfe, of which HK is a diameter and MF an ordi¬
nate.
Fig. 78. Ca se II. Next, fuppofe the line ONP to touch
the circumference of the bafe in A. Let DIS be the
common fedlion of the bafe and the plane FKM, the
line DIS is evidently parallel to FLM and perpendi¬
cular to AB, therefore DI*—AI*IB,
hence DT : FL1 :: AHB : EL-LG.
But fince EG is parallel to AB, and IK parallel to
AV, AI is equal to EL, and
IB : LG :: KI : KL $
therefore DP : FLJ :: KI : KL.
Hence it appears (cor. 9. Part L), that the fedlion
DFKMS is a parabola, of which KLI is a diameter
and DIS, FLM ordinates to that diameter.
Fig. 7$. Case III. Laftly, Let the line PNO fall within the
bafe 5 draw VT through the vertex parallel to EG. The
triangles HVT, HEL are fimilar, as alfo the triangles
KVT, KGL, therefore
HT : TV :: HL : LE,
and KT : TV :: KL : LG,
therefore HT-KT : TV* :: HL-LK : LE LGor LF*.
Hence it appears, that HL*LK has to LF1 a conftant
ratio, therefore the feiflion DFKMS is an hyperbola,
of which KH is a tranfverfe diameter, and FM an or¬
dinate to that diameter (2 cor. 19. Part III.).
Scholium.
From the four preceding propofitions it appears,
that the only lines which can be formed by the com¬
mon feftion of a plane and the furface of a cone, are
thefe five. I. A ftraight line, or rather two ftraight
lines interfering each other in the vertex of the cone,
and forming with the ftraight line which joins the
points in which they meet the bafe a triangle. II. A
circle. III. An ellipfe. IV. A parabola. V. An
hyperbola. The two firft of thefe, however, viz. the
Vol. VI. Part II.
C T I O N S. 545
triangle and circle, may be referred to the hyperbola Of the Cur-
and the ellipfe, for if the axes of an hyperbola be fup- ^conk
pofed to retain a conftant ratio to each other, and, at <}e(qions.
the fame time to diminifti continually, till at laft the ^ —1
vertices coincide ; the oppofite hyperbolas will evi¬
dently become two ftraight lines interfering each
other in a point *, and a circle may be confidered as an
ellipfe, whole axes are equal, or whofe foci coincide
with the centre } fo that the only three ferions which
require to be feparately confidered, are the cllipfe, the
parabola, and the hyperbola.
SECT. II.
OF THE CURVATURE OF THE CONIC
SECTIONS.
Definitions.
I. A circle is faid to touch a conic ferion in any
point, when the circle and conic fedtion have a com¬
mon tangent in that point.
II. If a circle touch a conic ferion in any point, fo
that no other circle touching it in the fame point can
pafs between it and the conic ferion on either fide of
the point of contar, it is faid to have the fame curva*
ture with the conic ferion in the point of contar, and
it is called the Circle of Curvature.
Lemma.
Let PL be any chord in a circle, PX a tangent at Fig-s®*
one of its extremities, and LK a diameter paf-
fing through the other extremity: draw any
chord Gg parallel to the tangent PX, meeting
PL in E, and from its extremities draw GH,
gh perpendicular to the diameter, meeting PL
in N and n; the fquare of GE is equal to the
rectangle contained by PE and LN, and the
fquare of g E is equal to the redtangle contain¬
ed by PE and L n.
From G and g draw the ftraight lines GP, ,g P,
GL, g L, and let LM a perpendicular to the diame¬
ter, and therefore a tangent to the circle at L, meet
the tangent PX in M. The triangle NGE is evi¬
dently fimilar to the triangle LMP, and LM=MP,
therefore NG—GE; hence the angles GNL, GEP
are equal. Now the angle PGE is equal to the alter¬
nate angle GPX, that is, to the angle GLN in the al¬
ternate fegment of the circle (32. 3. E.), therefore
the triangles PGE, GLN are fimilar, and
PE : EG :: GN or EG : NL,
therefore GE*n:PE*NL.
In the fame way it may be demonftrated that « g—g E,
and that the triangles P^E, ^Ltz are fimilar, and
therefore that
PE : E^ ‘'-gn or L<? : « L,
and hence ^ E2r=PE*« L.
Prop. I.
If a circle be defcribed touching a conic fe£Hon,
and cutting off from the diameter that paffes
3 7a through
546
Ox the Cur.
vature of
the Conic
Sections.
through the point of contact a fegment greater
than the parameter of that diameter, a part of
the circumference on each fide of the point of
contaift will be wholly without the conic fec-
tion ; but if it cuts off from the diameter a feg¬
ment lefs than the parameter, a part of the cir¬
cumference on each fide of the point of contact
will be wholly within the conic fexftion.
CONIC SECTIONS.
Part IV.
Sr, S2,
S3, 84.
Let P/> be the diameter of a conic feftion ; let a
ciicxe G Pjr touch the feftion in P the vertex of the
cuameter, and cut oil from it a fegment PL, which is
either greater or lefs than the parameter of the diame¬
ter 5 in the former cafe a part GP^y of the circumfe¬
rence of the circle on each fide of P the point of con¬
tact will be wholly without the conic feflion, as in
fig. 81. and fig. 82. and in the latter a partGP^ of the
circumference on each fide of P will be wholly within
the fedtion, as in fig. 83. and fig. 84.
1 nrough L draw LK a diameter of the circle 5 let
DE</ an ordinate to the diameter ot the fedlipn meet
the circle in G and fo that the points G, P,^ may
be on the fame fide of LK the diameter of the circle,
and draw GH, g b, PO perpendicular to LK, the two
former lines meeting L,? in N and n. From L to¬
wards P place LR in the diameter equal to its para¬
meter ; then in the former cafe the point R will fall
between L and P, as in fig. 81. and 82. ; and in the
latter it will fall in LP produced, as in fig. 82. and
83-
Case I. Firft, let the fedtion be a parabola (fig.
81. 83.)
Then DE*, alfo (/E*—PE-RL (Cor. prop. 9. of Part I.)
Now GFdzrrPE-LN 1 T
and g E2—PE-L n j (Lem™)-
Therefore DEJ : GE1 :: LR : LN, Of the Curt
and dYJ \ ^E2 :: LR : L */. vature cf
Now if the ordinate I) d be fuppofed to approach to Sedlions.
the tangent at the vertex, the points G, g will ap-
proach, to P, the lines GH, g b to the line PO, and
the points N, n to the vertex P, where they will at
lafi coincide ; hence it is evident, that the ordinate
N E d may be at fuch a diftance from the tangent
that the points N, //, and the vertex P, may be all on
the fame fide of the point R ; in this pofition of the
ordinate if the fegment cut off by the circle be greater
than the parameter, as in fig. 81. then LR will be
lefs than either LN, or L and therefore I)E2 lefs
than GE2, alfo d E2 lefs than g E2, fo that the points
G,£- are both without the parabola. If the ordinate
be.luppofed to approach nearer to the tangent, as the
points N, n will alfo approach nearer to P, the line
LR will-ftill be lefs than either LN, or Land
therefore DE2 lefs than GE2, and d'E2 lefs than
g E\ Hence it follows, that every point in the arch
GTy, which lies,on each fide of the point of contadl
is without the parabola.
If the fegment cut off by the circle be lefs than the
parameter (fig. 83.), and therefore LR greater than
either LN or L /?, then, reafoning a»\ before, it will
appear that DE* is greater than GE2, and </E2 great¬
er than g E2, fo that the points G, g are within the
parabola j and as the fame will hold for every other
pofition of the ordinate nearer to the tangent, the
arch GP^- which litjs on each fide of the point of con-
tadl is wholly within the parabola.
Case II. Next, let the fedlion be an ellipfe, or an
hyperbola (fig. 82. 84.) (a). Take V a point in LR,
fo that
/>P E :: LR : LV,
and therefore P/> : LR :: E : LV :: /> E:EP : LV-EP.
But P/ : LR :: />E-EP : DE2, or </E2 (13. Part II. and 21. Part III.),
therefore DE2, alfo </E2=LV-EP.
Now GE2—LN-EP1 ,T .
and g E*=L»-EP, LLemn”.)
therefore DE2 : GE2 :: LV : LN,
and r/E2 : o E2 :: LV : L*.
Now- as Vp and RL are iimilarly divided at E and V,
if the point E approach to P, the point V will ap¬
proach to R, and as E may come nearer to P than
any aflignable line, fo V may come nearer to R than
any affignable line ; but as in the fame circumftances
GH and g h approach to PO, and N and n approach
to P, it is evident that the- ordinate D r/ may have
fuch a pofition that the points N, n, and the vertex P,
may be all on tne fame fide of V, and the fame thing
have place for every other pofition of the ordinate
nearer to the tangent j therefore, in thefe circumftan¬
ces, when LP the fegment cut cff from the diameter
is greater than LR the parameter (fig. 82.), LV will
be lefs than either LN or L «, and confequently DE2
lefs than GE2, alfo r/E2 lefs than g E2 5 thus the points
G, as well as every other point in the arch GP jr
vhich lies on both fides of the vertex are without the
elliofe or hyperbola.
On the contrary, when LP is lefs than LR the pa¬
rameter (fig. 84.), LV will be greater than either
LN or L/?, and therefore DE2 greater than GE2, al¬
fo dE2 greater than £ E2; and therefore the points
G, as well as every other point in the arch GP^,
are within the ellipfe or hyperbola.
Cor. 1. If a circle touch a conic feflion, and cut
off from the diameter that pafles through the point of
contafl a fegment equal to its parameter, it will have
the fame curvature with the conic feflion in the point
of
(a) As the reafoning applies alike to the ellipfe and hyperbola, to avoid a number of figures, thofe fpr the
hyperbola are omitted. ' ! •
Part IV. G O N I C S E
Of the Cur-of contaft. For if a greater circle be defcribed it will
th^cT cut off from the diameter a fegment greater than its
Se6tion's parameter, therefore a part of its circumference on
■ t - each fide of the point of conta£l will be wholly with¬
out the conic feclion j and as it will alfo be without the
former circle, it will not pafs between that circle and
the conic feftion at the point of contaft. If, on the
other hand, a Ids circle be defcribed, it will cut off
from the diameter a fegment lefs than its parameter,
therefore a part of its circumference on each fide of
the point of contact will fall within the conic feftion $
and as it will be within the former circle, it will not
pafs between that circle and the conic feflion at the
point of contad. Hence (Def. 2.), the circle which
cuts off a fegment equal to the parameter is the circle
of curvature.
Cor. 2. Only one circle can have the fame curva¬
ture with a conic fedion in a given point.
Prop. II.
Plate The circle of curvature at the vertex of the axis of
CLXIII. a parabola, or at the vertex of the tranfverfe
axis of an ellipfe or hyperbola, falls wholly with¬
in the conic fe£Hon ; but the circle of curvature
at the vertex of the conjugate axis of an eilipfe
falls wholly without the conic fettion.
Fig. 85, S5, Let ¥p be the axis of a parabola (fig. 85.), and
87,88. PGLjf the circle of curvature at its vertex, which
therefore cuts off from the axis a fegment PL equal to
the parameter of the axis j becaufe the tangent at the
vertex is common to the parabola and circle, the cen¬
tre of the circle is in ¥p. Let DE d an ordinate to
the axis meet the circle in G and g ; it may be fhewn
as in laft propofition that
DE* : GE* :: LP : LE.
But in every pofition of the ordinate LP is greater
than LE, therefore DE1 is always greater than GE1,
and </E* greater than £ E* •, therefore the circle'is
wholly within the parabola. Next let P/> be the
tranfverfe axis of an ellipfe or hyperbola (fig. 86. 87.),
or the conjugate axis of an ellipfe (fig. 88.), and
PGL^- the circle of curvature, then as in the para¬
bola the centre of the circle will be in the axis. Draw
T) d an ordinate to the axis meeting the circle in G,
and take a point V in PL, fo that
/> P : /> E :: LP : LV 5
then it will appear as in laft prop, that
DE1 : GE* :: LV : LE.
Now, when Pp is the tranfverfe axis of an ellipfe,
(fig. 86.) as ¥p is greater than LP, and ¥p : PL ::
PE : PV, therefore PE is greater than PV, and
hence LV is always greater than LE, therefore DE*
is greater than GE*, alfo r/E* greater than E% fo
that the circle falls wholly within the ellipfe.
Again, when Pis the tranfverfe axis of an hy¬
perbola (fig. 87.), as /> E'is greater than p¥, there-
lore LV is greater than LP, and confequently great¬
er alio than LE ; hence DE* is greater than GE*, and
d E® is greater than g E*, and the circle is wholly
within the hyperbola.
Laftly, When ¥p is the conjugate axis of an el-
c T 1 o N S. ^7
lipfe (fig. 88.), as P^ is lefs than LP, and ¥p : LP :: Of the Cur-
PE : PV, therefore PE is lefs than PV j hence LV vatl,r-of
is lei's than LE, and confequently DE* is lefs ihan
GE*, alfo d Yd lefs than g E*, therefore the circle is •
wholly without the ellipfe.
Prop. III.
The circle of curvature at the vertex of any dia-Fig. 89,
meter of a conic fe£Hon, which is not an axis,
meets the conic fe£fion again in one point on¬
ly ; and between that point and the vertex of
the diameter the circle falls wholly within the
conic lection on the one fide, and wholly with¬
out it on the other.
Case I. Let the conic feftion be a parabola, of
which ¥p is a diameter (fig. 89.) and PLK the cir¬
cle of curvature at the vertex, cutting off from the dia¬
meter a fegment PL equal to its parameter. Draw
LK a diameter of the circle, and draw PQ perpendi¬
cular to LK, this line will neceffarily meet the circle
again, let it meet the circle in I ; draw IS parallel to
the tangent at P, meeting the chord PL in S } then,
becauie IP is perpendicular to LK,
ISI~PS'PL (Lemma) 5
hence (Cor. Prop. 9. Part I.) I is a point in the parabola.
Let DE d an ordinate to the diameter Pp meet the
arch PLI anywhere in G j draw GH perpendicular
to LK, meeting PL in N, then, becaufe LP is equal
to the parameter, as in Prop. I. Cafe I.
DE* : GE* :: LP : LN :: LO : LH.
But wherever the point G be taken in the arch PLI,
LO is greater than LH, therefore DE* is allb great¬
er than GE* j thus the arch PGLI falls wholly within
the parabola.
Let the ordinate DE d now meet the arch PKI
anywhere, as at g, draw gb perpendicular to LK,
meeting LP in /?, then it will appear as before that
d E* : £• E* :: LP : L « LO \Yh\
but LO is lefs than Yh, and therefore d Y1 lefs than
E*, thus the arch KI falls wholly without the
parabola.
Case II. Let the conic feftion be either an el¬
lipfe or hyperbola (fig. 90.) of which Py> is a diame¬
ter, and PLK the circle of curvature at its vertex,
cutting oft' PL equal to its parameter. Draw LK the
diameter of the circle and LQ^perpendicular to LK,
and let p Cb a tangent to the conic fi clion in meet
LQAn Join PQ^this line will neceffarily meet
the circle again ; let it meet the circle in I 5 and
draw IS, IT parallel to Q/, QL, meeting PL in S, T.
Becauie of the parallels,
/< P : /> S :: QP : QJ. :: LP : LT,
hencs p ¥ : LP ^ S : LT :: p S;SP : LT-SP j
but LT-SP=IS* (Lemma),
therefore p P : />.S :: p S*SP : SI* j
hence I is a point in the elfipfe or hyperbola (i3- Pn>p.
Part II. and 2 1. Prop. Part III.).
Let DE J an ordinate to the diameter ¥p meet the
arch PLI anywhere in G, if the point L is between
3^2 P
54?
CONIC SECTIONS.
Part IV.
Of the Cur- P and or the arch PFL, if L is in produced,
vature of Y) d meet PI in Y, draw GH perpendicular to
SectionsC rneetinS in N, and PI in Z, and draw YV
i parallel to GN meeting LP in V. Becaufe EY,
are parallel, alfo VY, LQ»_
P^ : / E :: (QP : QY ::) LP : LV •
now LP being the parameter, we have, as in Cafe II.
Prop. I.
DE1 : GE8 :: LV : LN :: QY : QZ j
but wherever the point G be taken in the arch PGI,
QY is greater than QZ, therefore alfo DE8 is greater
than GE8 j thus the arch PGI falls wholly within the
conic fedtion.
Let the ordinate DE d now meet the other arch
P^ I anywhere in £ ; draw gh perpendicular to LK
meeting LP in w, and IP in then it will in like
manner appear that
</E8 : g E8 :: LV : L « QY : Qjs •,
and fince in this cafe QY is lefs than Qjs, therefore
</E8 is lefs than g E8 \ hence the arch P^I is wholly
without the conic fedlion.
Prop. IV.
Fig. 91. The chord of the circle of curvature which is
drawn from the point of contadl through the
focus of a parabola is equal to that which is cut
off from the diameter ; and half the radius of
the circle is a third proportional to the perpen¬
dicular from the focus upon the tangent, and
the diftance of the point of contact from the
focus.
Let PL be the chord cut off from the diameter,
and PFH the chord paffing through F the focus j
draw PM the diameter of the circle, join HL, HM,
and draw FK perpendicular to the tangent at P. Be¬
caufe the lines PFH, PL make equal angles with the
tangent at P (3. Part I.), the angles PHL, PLH are
equal (32. 3. E), hence PHrzPL. Secondly, the
triangles FKP, PHM, being manifeflly fimilar,
FK : FP :: PH, or 4PF : PM,
hence FK : FP :: FP : \ PM, or ^ the radius.
2FP8 *
Cor. 1. Hence the radius is equal to
2FKj
Cor. 2. The radius is alfo equal to where
AF is the diftance of the focus from the vertex of the
FK8
parabola } for FP:cr —— (11. Part I.)
Cor. 2. Hence alfo the radius is equal to
*, L-FPs
where L denotes the parameter of the axis,
FK*
Prop. V.
The radius of the circle of curvature at the vertex
of any diameter of an ellipfe, or hyperbola, is Fig. 92.
a third proportional to the perpendicular drawn
from the centre upon the tangent, and half the
conjugate diameter ; and the chord which is
drawn from the point of contact through the
focus is a third proportional to the tranfverfe
axis, and conjugate diameter.
Let PL be the chord cut off from the diameter,
and PFH the chord paffing through F the focus •, draw
PM the diameter of the circle, and from the centre O
draw OR perpendicular to PL, which will bifeft PL
in R j join HM, and draw the conjugate diameter
QC q meeting PH in N and PM in S, then PS is
equal to the perpendicular from the centre C upon the
tangent. The triangles PSC, PRO are fimilar, there¬
fore,
PS : PC
but PC : CQ_
therefore PS : CQ^
PR : PO,
CQ: PR (Def. of param,
CQ_: PO.
Secondly, the triangles PSN, PHM are fimilar,
therefore PN: PS
but PS : CQ^
therefore PN: CQ^_
PM : PH j
(CCL: PO ::) Q_f : PM,
Q. ? : PH,
or, fince PNrrAC (18. Part II. and 25. Part III.),
A a : Qj7 :: Qjp ; PH.
Cor. I. Hence the radius of curvature is equal to
CQ8
-~=-, and the chord paffing through the focus is equal
J. o
to
2 CQ8
AC *
2 FP8 2 AF-FP* 4 L-FP3
ior FK “ AF-FP-FK ~ FK* *
Cor. 2. The radius of curvature is alfo equal to
for PS=:—(14. Part II. and 23. Part
III.).
Cor. 3. Draw FK from the focus perpendicular
to the tangent, and let L denote the parameter of the
tranfverfe axis j the radius of curvature is alfo equal to
i I y. TT PS
-—|'~3 . For the triangles PFK, NPS are mani-
feftly fimilar, therefore
FK : FP :: PS : PN, or AC :: EC : CQj
FP
hence CQ=r|pg-X BC,
. CQ* FP* BC8 FP* rT
and AC-BC- FK* X AC~ FK* XtL'
This expreffion for the radius of curvature is the fame
for all the three conic fe&ions.
CONIC HTHYODONTES,
CO^flC
SECTIONS
//■Sr// . //„/>,
CONIC SECTIONS
, ji„a a,//,/,,,/:,;'/
con tr srioxs
.Plate CLV1H
1j
i “i>Y
i r. / \
r
./■
Y i
ji 
i'j
N
JEs^. \
/ /
/ "A''
/ \
K
/
ft
A"' —  
|H
C 'v •
23 /
i>
—
i
/
Zj
AJ
h
rtf
F P
I. c
  y ]'
4
CONIC SECTIONS.
PI ate Cl.x.
S'
Plate ClLiXIT
C O N TC SLE C TLO Nr S.
\
\
Platt* CliXUT.
'y././r// . // ,
4
CON [ 549 1 CON
Conichthy- CONICHTHYODONTES, or Plectronit^-,
odontes jn }JaturaI Hi/lory, a name by which the foffil teeth
Con’ura- ^^ies are Sometimes diftinguiflied.
tion. CONIFERiE, in Botany, an order of plants in the
... Yragmenla mcthodi naturalis Linnaeus, containing the
following genera, viz. cupreffus, ephedra, equifetum,
juniperus, pinus, taxus, thuja. See Botany Index.
CONIFEROUS trees, fuch as bear hard dry feed-
vefTels of a conical figure ; confiding of feveral woody
parts, being moftly fcaly, adhering clofely together, and
feparating when ripe.
CONIMBRICA, in Ancient -Geography, a town
of Lufitania, on the fouth fide of the river Monda ;
from the ruins of which arofe Coimbra, in its neigh¬
bourhood, a city of Portugal. W. Long. 9. 5. N. Lat.
40. 16.
CONINGSECK, a town of Suabia in Germany,
and capital of a county of the fame name, 20 miles
north of Conftance. E. Long. 9. 20. N. Lat. 47. 50.
CONJOINT, in a general lenfe, fignifies united or
connefted.
Conjoint Degrees, in Mu/ic, two notes .which fol¬
low each other immediately in the order of the fcale,
as nt and re.
Conjoint Tetrachords, two tetrachords, or fourths,
where the fame chord is the higheft of one and the
lowed of the other.
CONISSAL./E, an old term in natural hidory, fig-
nifying a clafs of foffils, which were faid to be natu¬
rally and effentially compounded, not inflammable,
nor foluble in water, found in detached maffes, and
formed of cryflalline matter debafed by earth. It in¬
cluded fand and gritty fubfl:ances.
CONJUGATE diameter, or Axis of an Ellipjis,
the fhorteft of the two diameters, or that bife&ing the
axis.
CONJUGATION, in Grammar, a regular diflri-
bution of the feveral inflexions of verbs in their diffe¬
rent voices, moods, tenfes, numbers, and perfons, fo as
to diflinguilh them from one another. See Grammar
and Language.
CONIUM. hemlock. See Botany Index.
CONJUNC F, in a general fenfe, fignifies conjoin¬
ed, concurrent, or united.
Conjunct Rights, in Scots Law, fuch as are grant¬
ed to two or more perfons. See Law Index.
Conjunct, or Confdant Perfons, in Scots Law, fuch
as are about the perfon of another, or employed by him.
See Law Index.
CONJUNCTION, in Afronomy, the meeting of
twro or more ftars or planets in the fame degree of the
zodiac.
Conjunction, in Grammar, an indeclinable word
or particle, which ferves to join words and fentences
together, and thereby (hows their relation or depend¬
ence upon one another. See Grammar.
CONJURATION, magic words, charaXers, or
ceremonies, whereby evil fpirits, tempefts, &c. are
fuppofed to be raifed, or driven away. The Romifli
priefts pretend to expel devils, by preparing holy wa¬
ter in a particular manner, and fprinkling it over the
poffeffed, with a number of conjurations and exor-
cifms.
Some authors make the difference between conju¬
ration and witchcraft to confift in this$ that the for¬
mer effeXs its end by prayers and invocation of God’s £onn
name, &c. to compel the devil to do what is defired ; ^ Jj^.
fo that the conjuror is fuppofed to be at war with the J cut#
devil, and that evil fpirit to aX merely out of con-y—
ftraint: whereas the latter attains its end by an im¬
mediate application to the devil himfelf: and the de¬
vil’s complaifance is fuppofed to be the confequence of
fome compaX between them, fo that the devil and the
witch have a good underftanding together. Both thefe,
again, differ from inchantment and fbreery ; in that
thefe latter operate fecretly and flowly by fpells, charms,
&.c. without ever calling on the devil, or having any
conference with him.
Conn. SeeCoND.
CONNAUGHT, one of the four provinces of Ire¬
land, bounded on the eaft by that of Leinfter, on the
weft by the ocean, on the north and north-w’eft by
part of the ocean and province of Ulfter, and on the
fouth and eaft by Munfter. It is about 130 miles in
length, and 84 in breadth. It has no rivers of any
great note befides the Shannon. It has feveral con¬
venient bays and creeks, and is fertile in many places.
It had feveral dangerous bogs, overrun wfith woods,
which are now in fome meafure cleared away. This
province produces abundance of cattle, (beep, deer,
hawks, and honey , but the inhabitants being lazy, it
is the leaft cultivated of all the four provinces. It
contains 1 archbiftiopric, 5 bifhoprics, 6 counties, 7
market-towns, 8 places of trade, 10 boroughs that fend
members to parliament, 47,256 houfes, 24 old caftles,
befides fortrefles that have been ereXed of late, and
330 parifties. The principal town is Galway.
CONNARUS, Ceylon sumach. See Botany
Index.
CONNECTICUT, a large river in New England,
which gives name to one of the five colonies of that
province (fee the next article). It rifes in a fwamp
on the height of land, in N. Lat. 45. 10. W. Long. 71.
After a fleepy courfe of eight or ten miles, it tumbles
over four feparate falls, and turning w’eft keeps clofe
under the hills which form the northern boundary of
the vale through which it runs. The Amonoofuck
and Ifrael rivers, two principal branches of ConneXi.
cut river, fall into it from the eaft, between the lati¬
tudes 440 and 450. Between the towns of Walpole
on the eaft, and Weftminfter on the weft fide of the
river, are the great falls. The whole river, compref-
fed between two rocks fcarcely 30 feet afunder, (hoots
wuth amazing rapidity into a broad bafon below’. Over
thefe falls, a bridge 160 feet in length was built in
1784, under which the higheft floods may pafs with¬
out detriment. This is the firft bridge that was ever
ereXed over this noble river. Above Deerfield in Maf-
fachufets it receives Deerfield river from the weft,
and Miller’s river from the eaft, after which it turns
wefterly in a finuous courfe to Fighting-falls, and a
little after tumbles over Deerfield falls, which are im-
paflable by boats. At Windfor in ConneXicut it re¬
ceives Farmington river from the weft, and at Hart¬
ford meets the tide. From Hartford it paffes on in a
crooked courfe, pntil it falls into Long Ifland found
between Saybrook and Lyme.
The length of this river, in a ftraight line, is near¬
ly 300 miles. Its general courfe is feveral degrees weft
of fouth. It is from 80 to xoo roods wide, 130 miles
l from.-
CON [ 55
Connefti- from its mouth. At its mouth is a bar of fand whicn
cue ^ confiderably obflrufts the navigation. Ten feet water
1 at fun tides |s found on this bar, and the fame depth
.to Middleton. The difhnce of the bar from this
place, as the river runs, is 36 miles. Above Middle-
ton are leveral Ihoals which ftretch quite acrofs the ri¬
ver. Only fix feet water is found on the Ihoal at high
tide, and here the tide ebbs and flows but about eight
inches. About three miles below Middleton the river
is contratfed to about 40 roods in breadth by two high
mountains. Almoft everywhere elfe the banks are
low, and fpread into fine extenfive meadows. In the
Ip ring floods, which generally happen in May, thefe
meadows are covered with water. At Hartford the
w’ater fometimes rifes 20 feet above the common fur-
face of the river, and having all to pafs through the
above-mentioned flrait, it is fometimes two or three
weeks before it returns to its ufual bed. Thefe floods
add nothing to the depth of water on the bar at the
mouth of the river : this bar lying too far off in the
found to be affefted by them.
On this beautiful river, whofe banks are fettled al¬
moft to its fource, are many pleafant, neat, well-built
towns. On its weftern bank, from its mouth north¬
ward, are the towns of Saybrook, Haddam, Middle-
ton, Weathersfield, Hartford, Windfor, and Suffield,
in Conne&icut; Weft Springfield, Northampton, Hat¬
field, and Deerfield, in Maffachufets; Guilford, Brat-
tleborough, in which is Tort Dummer, Weftminfler,
Windfor, Hartford, Fairlee, Newbury, Brunfwjck,
and many others in Vermont. Crofling the river into
New Hamplhire, and travelling on the eaftern bank,
-vou pafs through Woodbury nearly oppofite to Brunf-
wick, Northumberland, the Coos country, Lyman,
Orford, Lyme, Hanover, in which is Dartmouth Col¬
lege, Lebanon, Cornilh, Clermont, Charlefton, or
N° 4, Chefterfield, and many others in New Hamp-
flrirei Sunderland, Hadley, Springfield, Long Meadow',
in Maffachufets •, and in Conne&icut, Enfield, Eaft
Windfor, Eaft Hartford, Glaftenbury, Eaft Haddam,
and Lyme.
This river is navigable to Hartford, upwards of 50
miles from its mouth, and the produce of the country
for 2CO miles above is brought thither in boats. The
boats which are u!ed in this bufinefs are flat-bottomed,
long and narrow, for the convenience of going up
ftream, and of fo light a make as to be portable in
carts. They are taken out of the river at three dif¬
ferent carrying-places, all of which make 15 miles.
Sturgeon, falmon, and {had, are caught 'in plenty
in their feafon, from the mouth of the river upwards,
excepting fturgeon, which do not alcend the upper
falls-, befides a variety of fmall fifti, fuch as pike, carp,
perch, &c.
From this river are employed three brigs of 180
tons each, in the European trade; and about 60 iail
from 60 to 150 tons, in the Weft India trade; be-
jfides a few fithermen, and 40 or 50 coafting veffels.
Connecticut, one of the five ftates of New Eng¬
land in America ; bounded on the north by Maffachu¬
fets, on the eaft by Rhode Ifland ; on the fouth by the
found, which divides it from Long Ifiand ; and on the
weft by the province of New \ ork.
The divifional line between Conne&icut and Maf-
JaphufetSj as fettled in 1728, was found to be about
*
o ] CON
72 miles in length. The line dividing Conne&icut Conrse&i.
from Rhode Ifland was fettled in 1728, and found to be , c^'
about 45 miles. The fea coaft, from the mouth of
Paukatuk river, which forms a part of the eaftern
boundary of Conne&icut, in a dire& fouthweftwardly
line to the mouth of Bryam river, is reckoned at about
90 miles. The line betvveen Conne&icut and New
York runs from latitude 41. O. to latitude 42. 2.; 72
miles. Conne&icut contains about 4674 fquare miles;
equal to about 2,960,000 acres. _ 1
This ftate is watered by feveral fine rivers, the prin-Rivers,
cipal of which are, ConneBicut deferibed in the pre¬
ceding article, Houfatonik, and the 1 hames. One
branch of the Houfatonik rifes in Lanefborough, the
other in Windfor, both in Berkftrire county in Maf¬
fachufets. It paffes through a number of pleafant
towns, and empties into the found between Stratford
and Milford. It is navigable 12 miles, to Derby. A
bar of fhells, at its mouth, obftru&s its navigation for
large veffels. In this river, between Sahfbury and Ca¬
naan, is a catara&, where the water of the whole river,
which is 150 yards wide, falls about 60 feet perpendi¬
cularly, in a perfe&ly white {beet. A copious mift
arifes, in which floating rainbows are feen in various
places at the fame time, exhibiting a feene exceeding¬
ly grand and beautiful.
The Thames empties into Long Ifland found at
New London. It is navigable 14 miles, to Norwich
Landing. Here it lofes its name, and branches into
Shetucket on the eaft, and Norwich or Little river on
the weft. The city of Norwich Hands on the tongue
of land betvveen thefe rivers. Little river, about a
mile from its mouth, has a remarkable and very ro¬
mantic catara&. A rock 10 or 12 feet in perpendi¬
cular height, extends quite acrofs the channel of the
river. Over this the w-hole river pitches, in one entire
fheet, upon a bed of rocks below. Llere the river is
compreffed into a very narrow channel between two
craggy cliffs, one of which towers to a confiderable
height. The channel defeends gradually, is very crook¬
ed, and covered with pointed rocks. Upon thefe the
water fwiftly tumbles, foaming with the moft violent
agitation, 15 or 20 rods, into a broad bafon which
fpreads before it. At the bottom of the perpendicu-
lar falls, the rocks are curioufly excavated by the con-
ftant pouring of the water. Some of the cavities, which
are all of a circular form, are five or fix feet deep. The
fmoothnefs of the water above its defeent, the .eguia-
rity and beauty of the perpendicular fall, the trtmen-
' dous roughnefs of the other, and the craggy, towering
cliff which impends the whole, prefent to the view of
the fpe&ator a feene indefcribably delightful and ma-
jeflic. On this river are fome of the fineft mill feats
in New England, and thofe immediately below the
falls, occupied by Lathrop’s mill, are perhaps not ex¬
ceeded by any in the wmrld. Acrofs the mouth of
this river is a broad, commodious bridge, in the foim
of a wharf, built at a great expence.
Shetucket river, the other branen of the 1 hames,
four miles from its mouth, receives Quinnabog, which
has its fource in Brimfield in Maffachufets ; thence
palling through Sturbridge and Dudley in Maffachu-
fets, it croffes into Conne&icut, and divides Pomfiet
from Killingly, Canterbury from Plainfield, and Lilbon
from Prefton, and then mingles with Shetucket. In
palling
CON [ «
Connecli- pafflng through this hilly country, it tumbles over
, cut~ many falls, and affords a vaft number of mill feats.
v The fource of the Shetucket is not far from that of
Quinnabog. It has the name of Willamantik while
puffing through Stafford, and between Tolland and
Willir.gton, Coventry and Mansfield. Below Wind¬
ham it takes the name of Shetucket, and empties as
above. Thefe rivers are fed by numberlefs brooks
from every part of the adjacent country. At the
mouth of Shetucket is a bridge of timber I 24 feet in
length, fupported at each end by pillars, and held up
in the middle by braces on the top, in the nature of an
2 arch;
Harbours. The two principal harbours are at New London and
New’ Haven. The former opens to the fouth. From
the light-houfe, which Hands at the mouth of the har¬
bour, to the town, is about three miles j the breadth is
three quarters of a mile, and in fome places more. The
harbour has from five to fix fathoms water, a clear
bottom, tough ooze, and as far as one mile above the
town is entirely fecure and commodious for large
fln'ps. New’ Haven harbour is greatly inferior to that
of New London. It is a bay w’hich fets up northerly
from the found about four miles. Its entrance is about
half a mile w ide. It has very good anchorage, and two
and an half fathoms at low w'ater, and three fathoms and
four feet at common tides. The whole of the fea
coaft is indented with harbours, many of which are fafe
and commodious, but are not fufhciently ufed to merit
^ a defcription.
Climate, Connetfhcut, though fubjeft to the extremes of heat
foil,_ and and cold in their feafons, and to frequent fudden
tions!,lC" change:> is 7ei7 healthful. As many as one in 46
of the inhabitants or Conne<flicut, w;ho were living in
J774, were upwards of 70 years old. From accurate
calculation it is found, that about one in eight live
to the age of 70 years and upwards; one in 13 to
the age of 80 years, and one in about 30 to the age
of 90. 6
In the maritime towns the weather is variable, ac¬
cording as the wind blows from the fea or land. As
you advance into the country, the fea breezes have lefs
eifecft upon the air, and confequentiy the w’eather is
Jefs variable. The fhorteft day is 8 hours and 58
minutes, and the longeft 15 hours. The north-well
winds, in the winter-feafon, are often extremely fevere
and piercing, occafioned by the great body of fnow
which lies concealed from the djffolving influence of the
fun in the immenfe forefts north and north-weft. The
clear and ferene temperature of the Iky, however,
makes amends for the feverity of the weather, and is
favourable to health and longevity. Connefticut is Ge¬
nerally broken land, made up of mountains, hills, and
valleys; and is exceedingly well watered. Some fmall
parts of it are thin and barren. It lies in the fifth and
fixth northern climates, and has a ftrong fertile foil.
Its principal produ£lions are Indian corn, rye, wheat
in many parts of the ftate, oats and barley, which are
heavy and good, and of late buck-wheat, flax in large
quantities, fome hemp, potatoes of feveral kinds, pump¬
kins, turnips, peafe, beans, &c. &c. fruits of all kinds,
which are common to the climate. The foil is very
well calculated for pafture and mou’ing, which enables
the farmers to feed large numbers of neat cattle and
51 1 CON
horfes. Actual calculation has evinced, that any given Con
quantity of the beft mowing land in Conneflicut, pro- v c
duces, about twice as much clear profit as the fame
quantity of the beft wheat land in the ftate of New
^ 01k. Many farmers, in the eaftcrn part of the ftate,
have lately found their advantage in raffing mules,
which are carried from the ports of Norwich and New
London to the Weft India iflands, and yield a hand-
fome profit. The beef, pork, butter, and cheefe, of
Conne&icut, are equal to any in the world.
The trade of Conne&icut is principally with the TradL
Weft India iflands, and is carried on in vefiels from Go
to 140 tons. The exports ccnfift of horfe's, mules,
oxen, oak ftaves, hoops, pine boards, oak planks, bean-’
Indian corn,.fifb, beef, pork, &c. Horfes, live cattle
and lumber, are permitted in the Dutch, Danilh, and
brench ports. Beef and fifh are liable to fuch heavy
duties in the French iflands, as that little profit arifes
to the merchant who fends them to their ports. Pork
and flour are prohibited. As the ordinance making
free ports in the French Weft India iflarids extends to
all foreigners, .the price of molafles and other articles
has been greatly enhanced by the Englifh purchafers
for Canada and Nova Scotia; fo that the trade of Con-
nedlicut with the French Weft India iflands is not pro¬
fitable. Cotton, cocoa, indigo, and fugars, are not
permitted to be brought away by Americans. The
feyerity wdth which thefe prohibitory laws are ad-
mmiftered is fuch, as that thefe articles cannot be
fmuggled.
Connecticut has a large number of coafting veffels
employed in carrying the produce of the ttate to other
ftates.— lo Rhode Ifland, Maflfachufets, and New
Hampfliire, they carry pork, wheat, corn, and rye.
o North and South Carolinas and Georgia, butter,
cbetfe, faked beef, cyder, apples, potatoes, hay, &c.
and receive in return rice, indigo, and money. But
as New York is nearer, and the ftate of the markets
always well known, much of the produce of Connec¬
ticut, efpecially of the weftern parts, is carried there ;
particularly pot and pearl afhes, flax-feed, beef, pork’
cheefe, and butter in large quantities. Moft of the
produce of Connefticut river, from the parts of Maf-
fachufetfj New Hampfliire, and \ ermont, as well as
of Connefticut, which are adjacent, goes to the fame
market. Confiderable quantities of the produce of the
eaftern parts of the ftate are marketed at Bofton and
Providence.
1 he value of the whole exported produce and com¬
modities from this ftate, before the year 1774, was
then eftrmated at about 2oo,ocol. lawful money an¬
nually.. Since this time no accurate eftimate has been
made, fo tnat it is impoffible to tell whether the amount
has fince been increafed or diminilhed.
In 17 74j the number of ftripping in Conneflicut
was 189; their tonnage 10.3 17; fea fa ting men 1162;
befides upwards of 20 fail of coafling veffels, which
employed about 90 leamen. This ftate is not yet fully
recovered -irom tne confufion in which it was involved
by the late war ; fo that the number of Hupping, &.c.
has not,'at any period fince 1774, .been afeertained
with accuracy. It is probable, however, confidering
the Ioffes fuftained by the w’ar, the decay of the fliip-
building bufinefs, and the number of unfortunate ftrip-
w recks,
CON [ 552
• wrecks, and lofles by hurricanes in the Weft Indies,
, that the (hipping and Teamen are not now To numerous
as in 1774.
The number of (hipping from the port of New Lon¬
don employed in 1788 in the European and Weft India
trade, was four (hips, one fnow, 54 brigantines, 32
fchooners, and 45 (loops. The number of horfes and
cattle exported from the diftridft round New London,
from the 10th of January 1787, to the 10th of Janu¬
ary 1788, was 6917 ; befides jack-affes imported and
exported, not included. From 1786 to 1787, the
number was 6671 ; To that the laft year exceeded the
other 246. From March 1787 to January 1788, 14^4
horfes, 780 oxen, and 23 cows, were exported from the
port of Middleton.
The farmers in Conne&icut and their families are
moftly clothed in plain, decent, homefpun cloth. Their
If‘lens and woollens are manufactured in the family-
way ; and although they are generally of a coarfer
kind, they are of a (Longer texture, and much more
durable than thofe imported from France and Great
Britain. Many of their cloths are fine and hand-
fome.
In New Haven is a linen manufaClory which flou-
lifties, and one for cotton is about to be eftablilhed.
In Eaft Hartford is a glafs-work, a fnuft" and powder
mill, and an iron-work and flitting mill. Iron works
are eftabliftied alfo at Salifbury, Norwich, and other
parts of the (late. At Stafford is a furnafce at which
are made large quantities of hollow' ware and other iron¬
mongery, fufticient to- fupply the w'hole (late. Paper
is manufactured at Norwich, Hartford, Hew Haven,
and in Litchfield county. Nails of every fize are made
in almoft every town and village in Connecticut; fo
that confiderable quantities can be exported to the
neighbouring dates, and at a better rate than they can
be had from Europe. Ironmongery, 'hats of the bed
kinds, candles, leather, (hoes, and boots, are manu¬
factured in this ftate. We mult not omit to mention
wooden difties and other wooden ware, which are
made in vaft quantities in Suffield and Tome few other
places, and fold in almoft every part of the eaftern
dates. Oil mills, of a new and very ingenious con-
UruCtion, have been ereCted in feveral parts of the
ftate.
It appears from experiments made formerly in this
ftate, that a buftiel of fun-flow'er feed yields a gallon
of oil; and that an acre of ground planted with the
feed at three feet apart, will yield between forty and
fifty buftiels of the feed. This oil is as mild as fw'eet
oil, and is equally agreeable with (alads, and as a me¬
dicine. It may, moreover, be ufed with advantage in
paints, varnilhes, and ointments. From its being ma¬
nufactured in our own country, it may always be pro¬
cured and ufed in a frefti ftate. The oil is prefled from
the feed in the fame manner that cold drawn linfeed
oil is drawn from flax-feed, and with as little trouble.
Sweet olive oil fells for fix (hillings a quart. Should
the oil of the fun-flower fell for only two-thirds of that
price, the produce of an acre of ground, fuppofing it
to yield only 40 buftiels of the feed, will be 32I.
a fum far beyond the produCt of an acre of ground in
any kind of grain. The feed is raifed with very little
trouble, and grows in land of moderate fertility. It
CON
may be gathered and (helled, fit for the extra&ion of Connefti.
the oil, by women and children. cut.
Connecticut is divided into eight counties, viz. Hart- y-™—^
ford, New Haven, New London, Fairfield, Windham, civii
Litchfield, Middlefex, and Tolland. The countiesfions and"
are fubdivided into upwards of 80 townflrips j each of population,
which is a corporation, inverted with power to hold
lands, choofe their own towm-officers, to make pru¬
dential laws, the penalty of tranfgreflion not to ex¬
ceed 20s. and to choofe their own reprefentatives to
the. general affembly. The townftiips are generally
divided into tw'o or more parifties, in each of which is
one or more places of public worlhip.
Connecticut is the moft populous, in proportion to j
its extent, of any of the thirteen (tales. It is laid out
in fmall farms from 50 to 300 or 400 acres each, which
are held by the farmers in fee-fimple ; and are gene¬
rally cultivated as well as the nature of the foil will
admit. The date is chequered with innumerable roads
or highways, crofting each other in every direction.
A traveller in any of thefe roads, even in the moft un¬
fettled parts of the ftate, will fcldom pafs more than
two or three miles without finding a heufe or cottage,
and a farm under fuch improvements as to afford the
neceffaries for the fupport of a family. The whole
ftate refembles a well-cultivated garden ; which, with
that degree of induftry that is requifite for happinefs,
produces the neceflaries and conveniences of life in
great plenty.
In 1759, the number of inhabitants in ConneClicut
was 130,611 j in 1774, there were 197,856 fouls. In
18 years, the incieafe was 67,245 ; from 1774 to
1782, the increafe was but 11,294 perfons. This
comparatively fmall increafe of inhabitants may be fatis-
fa&orily accounted for from the deftruCHon of the war,
and the numerous emigrations to Vermont, the weftern
parts of New Hamplhire, and other dates.
The inhabitants are almoft entirely of Englilh de-
feent. There are , no Dutch, French, or Germans,
and very few Scotch or Irifli people, in any part of
New England. ^
In addition to what has been already faid on thefe Character,
particulars under New England, it may be obferved, u^nners,
that the people of Conne£Hcut are remarkably fond of^c"
having all their difputes, even thofe of the moft tri¬
vial kind, fettled according to law. The prevalence
of this litigious fpirit affords employment and fupport
for a numerous body of lawyers. The number of ac¬
tions entered annually upon the feveral dockets in the
ftate, juftifies the above obfervations. That party
fpirit, however, which is the bane of political happi¬
nefs, has not raged with fuch violence in this ftate as
in Maffachufets and Rhode Ifland. Public proceed¬
ings have been conduced, generally, and efpecially
of late, w'ith much calmnefs and candour. The
people are well informed in regard to their rights,
and judicious in the methods they adopt to fecure
them.
The clergy, who are numerous, and, as a body,
very refpe&able, have hitherto preferved a kind of
ariftocratical balance in the very democratical govern¬
ment of the ftate j which has happily operated as a
check upon the overbearing fpirit of republicanifm.
It has been lamented that the unhappy religious dif¬
putes
Religion.
Chief
towns.
10
Colleges,
academic?,
and fchools.
c ° N [ 553 1
- pules which have too much prevailed among fome of vernor Hopkins,
the clergy, and the too great attention that others
have paid to their temporal concerns, to the negle6l
of their flocks, and an inattention to the qualifica¬
tions of thofe who have been admitted to the facred
office, have, heretofore, confiderably diminilhed their
influence. It is a pleafing circumftance that the rage
for theological difputation is abating ; and greater
ifriclnefs is obferved in the admiffion of candidates to
the mintftry. Their influence is on the increafe ; and
it is no doubt to be attributed, in part, to their in-
creafing influence, that an evident reformation in the
manners of the people of this ftate has taken place
fince the peace. In regard to learning and abilities,
the clergy, at the prefent day, are equal to their pre-
deceflbrs at any former period.
As to ecclefiaftical government and difcipline, each
church is a feparate jurifdiction, and claims authority
to choofe their own minifter, to exercife government,
and to enjoy gofpel ordinances within itfelf. The
churches, however, are not independent of each other;
they are aflociated for mutual benefit and convenience.
The aflbciations have power to licen'e candidates for
the miniftry, to confult for the general welfare, and
to recommend meafures to be adopted by the churches,
but have no authority to enforce them. When dil-
putes arile in churches, councils are called, by the par¬
ties, to fettle them ; but their power is only advifory.
There are as many afibciations in the fiate as there
are counties ; and they meet twice in a year. Thefe
are all combined in one general aflbciation, who meet
annually.
All religions that are confident with the peace of
fociety are tolerated in Connefticut ; and a fpirit of
liberality and catholicilm is increafing. There are
very few religious fefts in this date ; the bulk of the
people are Congregationalids. Befides thefe there
are Epifcopalians and Baptids ; and formerly there was
a fociety of Sandimanians at New-Haven ; hut they
arc now reduced to a very fmall number. The Epif-
copalian churches are refpe&able, and are under the
fuperintendance of a bifliop. There were 29 con¬
gregations of the Baptids in 1784. Thefe congrega¬
tions, with thofe in the neighbouring dates, meet in
aflbciations, by delegation, annually.
1 here are a great number of very pleafant towns,
both maritime and inland, in Connefficut. It con¬
tains five incorporated towns or cities. Two of thefe
Hartford and New-Haven, are the capitals of the
date. The general aflembly is holden at the former
in ivlay, and at the latter in October, annually. See
Hartford and New-Hjpen.
In no part of the world is the education of all ranks
of people more attended to than in Connefticut. Ai¬
med every town in the date is divided into didri&s,
and each didrift has a public fchool kept in it a greater
or lefs part of every year. Somewhat more than one
third of the money arifing from a tax on the polls and
rateable edate of the inhabitants, is appropriated to the
fupport of fchools, in the feveral towns, for the educa¬
tion of children and youth. The law direfts that a
grammar fchoo! (hall be kept in every country town
throughout the date.
I here is a grammar fchool at Hartford, and ano¬
ther at New-Haven, fupported by a donation of Go-
Vol. VI. Part II.
CON
This venerable and benevolent gen- Connefti-
tleman, in. his lad will, dated 16^7, left in the hands cut’
of 1 heophilus Eaton, Efq; and three others, a legacy
of 1324I. “ as an encouragement, in thefe foreign
plantations, of breeding up hopeful youths both at
the grammar fchool and college.” In' 1664, this le¬
gacy vvas equally divided betw’een New-Haven and
Hartford ; and grammar fchools were erefted, which
have been fupported ever fince.
At Greenfield there is a refpeftable academy, un¬
der the care and indruftion of |the Rev. Dr Dwight.
At Plainfield is another, under the care of the Rev.
Mr Btnedift. This academy has flourilhed for feve¬
ral years, and furnidied a number of dudents for Yale
and Dartmouth colleges. At Norwich and Windham,
likf v, ile, are academies furndhed wuth able indruftors;
each ot thele academies has 60 or 70 fcholars.
bale College was. founded in I7°0, and remained
at Killing worth until 1707—then at Saybrook until
1716, w hen it was removed and fixed at New-Haven.
See New-HuirEN.
On the bank of Connefticut river, two miles from Min” mi-
Middjeton, is a lead mine, which was wrought during nerals and
tne w ar, at the expence of the date, and w’as produc- Edd5,
live. It is too expenfive to work in time of peace.
Copper mines have been dilcovered and opened in fe¬
veral parts of the date, but have proved unprofitable,
and are much neglefted. Iron mines are numerous
and productive. Steel ore has been found in the
mountains between Woodbury and New Milford.
I ales of various kinds, white, brown, and chocolate
coloured cryflals, zinc or fpeltzer, a femimetal, and
feveial other foffils and metals, have been found in Con¬
nefticut.
# -AT freeholders in the date are required, by law to Mode of
give in lids of their polls and rateable edate, to per-Ievying
Ions appointed in the reipeftive towns to receive them,taxes’
on or before the 20th of Augud annually. Thefe are
valued according to lawr, arranged in proper order, and
fent to the general affembly annually in May.
The fum total of the lid of the polls and rateable
edate of the inhabitants, of Connefticut, as brought
into the general aflfembly in May 1787, were as fol¬
lows :
Sum total of the Angle lid L.
Affcflments
One quarter of the fourfolds
Total L.
1,484,901
47 79°
1,176
4t
9
4
1 533 867
fo much
18
Si
On this fum taxes are levied, fo much on the
pound, according to the fum propofed to be railed.
A tax of tw'o-pence on the pound would raife 12,7821.
4s- t
Tne ordinary annual expences of government be¬
fore the war amounted to near-4.GO0I. derling, ex-
clufive of that which w'as appropriated to the fupport
of fchools. I he expences have fince increafed.
At Stafford is a medicinal fpring, w’hich is faid to Minenil
be a fovereign remedy for fcorbutic, cutaneous, and fprings!
other diforders. At Guilford is a fpaing, whofe wa¬
ter, it is faid, when feparated from the fountain, will
evaporate even when put into a bottle and tightly
corked.
It is difficult to fay what is the conditution of this
4 A date.'
H
Conft tu-
tion and
cour; s of
j uftice.
CON
ftate. Contented with the form of government which
originated from the charter of Charles II. granted in
1662, the people have not been difpofed to run the
hazard of framing a new con dilution fince the decla¬
ration of independence. They have tacitly adopt¬
ed their old charter as the ground of civil govern¬
ment, fo far as it is applicable to an independent
people.
Agreeable to this charter, the fupreme legiflative
authority of the date is veiled in a governor, deputy-
governor, twelve afliftants or counfellors, and the re¬
presentatives of the people, ftyled the General AJftmbly.
The governor, deputy-governor, and affillants are an¬
nually chofen by the freemen in the month of May.
The reprefentatives (their number not to exceed two
from each town) are chofen by the freemen twice
a-year, to attend the two annual fellions, on the Second
ThurSday of May and October. This affembly has
power to ereft judicatories, for the trial of cauSes civil
and criminal, and to ordain and ellablilh laws for Settling
the forms and ceremonies of government. By thefe
laws the general affembly is divided into two branches,
called the upper and lower houfes. The upper houfe
is compofed of the governor, deputy-governor, and af-
lillants; the lower houSe, of the reprefentatives of the
people. No law can pafs without the concurrence of both
houfes. The judges of the Superior court hold theiroffices
during the pleafure of the general affembly. The judges
of the county courts, and juftices, are annually ap¬
pointed. Sheriffs are appointed by the governor and
council, without limitation of time. The governor
is captain general of the militia, the deputy-governor
lieutenant-general. All other military officers are ap¬
pointed by the affembly, and commiffioned by the go¬
vernor.
The mode of elefting the governor, deputy-gover¬
nor, affiitants, treafurer, and lecretary, is as follows :
The freemen in the Several towns meet on the Monday
next after the fir ft Tuefday in April, annually, and
give in their votes for the perfons they choofe for the
laid offices refpe&ively, rvith their names written on a
piece of paper, which are received and Sealed up by a
conftable in open meeting, the votes for each office by
themfelves, with the name of the town and office writ¬
ten on the outfide. Thefe votes, thus Sealed, are Sent
to the general affembly in May, and there counted by
a committee from both houfes. All freemen are eli¬
gible to any office in government. In choofing aflift¬
ants, twenty perfons are nominated, by the vote of
each freemen, at the freemen’s meeting for choofing
representatives in September annually. Thefe votes
are Sealed up, and Sent to the general affembly in Oc¬
tober, and are there counted by a committee of both
houfes, and the twenty perfons who have the moft
votes ftand in nomination 5 out of which number the
twelve who have the greateft number of votes, given
by the freemen at their meeting in April, are in May
declared affiftants in the manner above mentioned.
The qualifications of freemen are, maturity in years,
quiet and peaceable behaviour, a civil converfation, and
fieehold eftate to the value of forty Shillings per annum,
or forty pounds perfonal eftate in the lift, certified by
the feledl men of the town ; it is neceffary alfo that
they take the oath of fidelity to the ftate. Their
names are enrolled in the town clerk’s office, and they
554 1 ,c 0 N .
continue freemen for life, unlefs disfranchifed by fen-
tence of the Superior court, on conviction of mifde-
meanor.
The courts are as follows: The juftices of the
peace, of wrhom a number are annually appointed in
each town by the general affembly, have authority to
hear and determine civil adlions, where the demand
does not exceed four pounds. If the demand exceeds
forty (hillings, an appeal to the county is allowed.
They have cognizance of fmall offences, and may pu-
nilh by fine not exceeding forty (hillings, or whip,
ping not exceeding ten (tripes, or fitting in the flocks.
There are eight county courts in the ftate, held in
the feveral counties by one judge and four juftices of
the quorum, w ho have jurisdiction of all criminal cafes,
arifing within their reipective counties, where the pu-
niffiment does not extend to life, limb, or banilhment.
They have original juriidiCtion ot all civil aCtions
which exceed the jurifdiCtion of a juftice. Either
party may appeal to the Superior court, if the demand
exceeds twenty pounds, except on bonds or notes
vouched by two w’itneffes.
There are feveral courts of probate in .each county,
confiding of one judge. The peculiar province of
this court, is, the probate of wills, granting administra¬
tion of inteftate eftates, ordering diftribution of them,
and appointing guardians for minots, &c. An appeal
lies from any decree of this court to the Superior
court.
The fuperior court confifts of five judges. It has
authority in all criminal cafes extending to life, limb
or baniffiment, and other high crimes and mildemea-
nors, to grant divorces, and to hear and determine all
civil a£tions brought by appeal from the county courts,
or the court of probate, and to correft the errors of all
inferior courts. This is a circuit court, and has tw o
dated feffions in each county annually. The fuperior
and county courts try matters of fa6I by a jury, or
without if the parties will agree.
There is a fupreme court of errors, confiding of the
deputy-governor and the twelve affiftants. Their foie
bufinefs is to determine writs of error brought on
judgments of the fuperior court, where the error com¬
plained of appears on the record. They have two
dated feffions annually, viz. on the Tuefdays of the
wrecks preceding the ftated feffions of the general af¬
fembly.
The county court is a court of chancery, empowered
to hear and determine cafes in equity, where the
matter in demand does not exceed one hundred pounds.
The fuperior court has cognizance of all cafes where
the demand exceeds that fum. Error may be brought
from the county to the fuperior court, and from the
fuperior court to the fupreme court of errors, on
judgment in cafes of equity as w’ell as of law.
The general affembly only have power to grant par¬
dons and reprieves, to grant commiflions of bankruptcy,
or protect the perfons and eftates of unfortunate
debtors.
The common law of England, fo far as it is appli¬
cable to this country, is confidered as the common
law of this ftate. The reports of adjudication in the
courts of king’s bench, common pleas, and chancery,
are read in the courts of this ftate as authorities \ yet
the judges do not confxder them as concluffvely bind¬
ing?
CON
■Conne&i-
Cut.
*S
Praftice of
kwr.
ing, Unlefs founded on folid reafons which will apply
^ in this ftate* or fan&ioned by concurrent adjudications
of their own courts.
T he feudal fyftem of defcents was never adopted in
this ftate. All the real eftate of inteftates is divided
equally among the children, males and females, except
that the eldelt fan has a double portion. And all
eftates given in tail muft be given to fome perfon then
in being, or to their immediate ilTue, and Hull become
fee-fimple eftates to the iffue of the firft donee in
tail. The widow of an inteftate is entitled to a third
part of the perfonal eftate for ever, and to her dower,
or third part of the houfes and lands belonging to the
inteftate at the time of his death, during her life.
The practice of law in this ftate has more fimplicity,
but lefs precifion, than in England. Afliftants and
judges are empowered to iffue writs through the ftate,
and juftices through their refpeftive counties. In
thefe writs, the fubftance of the complaints or the de.
clarations muft be contained ; and if neither of the
parties ftiow good reafon for delay, the caufes are
heard and determined the fame term to which the writs
are returnable. Few of the fiftions of law, fo com¬
mon in the Englifti practice, are known in this ftate.
The plaintiff always has his ele&ion to attach or fum-
mon the defendant. Attorneys are admitted and qua¬
lified by the county courts. Previous to their ad-
miffion to the bar, they muft ftudy two years with a
pra&ifing attorney in the ftate, if they have had a col¬
lege education, and three years if they have nof, their
morals muft be good, and their charafters unblemiflied ;
and they muft fuftain an examination by the attorneys
of the court of the county where they are admitted,
and be by them recommended to the court. When
admitted to the county court, they can pra&ife, with¬
out other qualifications, in any court in the ftate.
There are upon an average about thirteen attorneys to
each county, one hundred and four in the ftate j a very
great proportion for the real exigencies of the people.
Yet from the litigious fpirit of the citizens, the moft
of them find employment and fupport. There is no
attorney general, but there is one attorney to the ftate
j5 in each county.
Kiftory. The prefent territory of Conne£Hcut, at the time
of the firft arrival of the Englifh, was poffeffed by the
Pequot, the Mohegan, Podunk, and many other fmall-
cr tribes of Indians.
The Pequots were numerous and warlike. Their
country extended along the fea-coaft from Paukatuk
to Connefticut river. About the year 1630, this
powerful tribe extended their conquefts over a confi-
derable part of Connecticut, over all Long Ifiand, and
part of Narraganfett. Saffacus, who was the grand
monarch of the whole corntry, was king of this na¬
tion. The feat of his dominions was at New-Londonj
the ancient Indian name of which was Pequot.
The Mohegans were a numerous tribe, and their
territory extenfive. Their ancient claim, which was
furveved and fettled by commiftioners from Queen Anne
in 1705, comprehended all New London county, ex¬
cept a narrow ftrip of about eight miles wide, on the
fea-coaft, almoft the whole of the county of Windham,
and a part of the counties of Tolland and Hartford.
Uncas, diftinguiftied for his friendlhip to the Engliflr,
was the fachem of this tribe.
I SSS ]
CON
The Podunks inhabited Eaft Hartford, and the cir¬
cumjacent country. The firft fachem of this tribe,
of whom the Englifh had any knowledge was T;t-
tanimoo. He was able to bring into the field more
than 200 fighting men.
The firft grant of Connecticut was made by the
Plymouth council to the earl of Warwick, in 1630,
and confirmed by his majefty in council the fame year.
This grant comprehended all that part of New Eng.
land which lies weft from Narraganfett river, 120 miles
on the fea-coaft, from thence, in latitude and breadth
aforefaid, to the South fea. The year following, the
earl aftigned this grant to Lord Say and Seal, Lord
Brook, and nine others.
No Englifh fettlements w^ere attempted in Connec¬
ticut until the year 1633, when a number of Indian
traders, having purchafed of Zequnffon and Natawa-
nute, two principal fachems, a trad of land at the
mouth of Little river in Windfor, built a houfe and
fortified it, and ever after maintained their right of
foil upon the river.
The fame year, a little before the arrival of the
Englifti, a company of Dutch traders came to Hart¬
ford, and built a houfe which they called the ftir/e of
Good Rope, and creCIed a fmall fort, in which they
planted two cannon. The remains of this fettlement
are ftill vifible on the bank of ConneCIicut river. This
was the only fettlement of the Dutch in Connecticut
in thefe ancient times. The Dutch, and after them
the province of New York, for a long time claimed as
far eaft as the w’eftern bar k of Connecticut river. It
belongs to the profeffed hiftorian to prove or difprove
the juftice of this claim. Douglas fays, “ The par¬
tition line between New York and Connecticut, as
eftablifhed December I. 1664, runs from the mouth
of Memoroncok river, a little w-eft from Byram river,
N. N. W. and w’as the ancient eafterly limits of New
York, until November 23. 1683, when the line was
run nearly the fame as it is now lettled.'” If Douglas
is right, the New York claim could not have been well
founded.
In 1634, Lord Say and Seal, &c. fent over a fmall
number of men, who built a fort at Saybrook, and held
a treaty with the Pequot Indians, who in a formal
manner gave to the Englilh their right to Connecticut
river and the adjacent country.
In 1635, the Plymouth council granted to the duke
of Hamilton, all lands between Narraganfett and Con¬
necticut rivers, and back into the country as far
as Maffachufets fouth line. This covered a part of
the earl of Warwick’s patent, and occafioned fome
difputes in the colony. There were feveral attempts to
revive the Hamilton claim, but were never profecuted.
In OCtober of this year, about fixty perfons from
Newton, Dorchefter, and Watertown, in Maffachu¬
fets, came and fettled at Hartford, Wethersfield, and
Windfor, in Connecticut £ and the June following the
famous Mr Hooker and his company came and fettled
at Hartford, and was a friend and father to the colony
to the day of his death.
The firft court held in Connecticut was at Hartford,
April 26. 1636.
The year 1637 was diftinguiftied by the w^ar with
the Pequots. This warlike nation had, for fome time,
been troublefome neighbours. They folicited the Nar-
4 A 2 xaganfetts
«
CON [ 55
ConneAI- raganfetts to join them in extirpating the Englifh.
cu • They had furpriied and killed feveral of the Englifti
upon Conne6ficut river. Thefe threatening appearan¬
ces and actual hoftilities induced the three colonies
of MafTachufets, Plymouth, and Connecticut, to com¬
bi,.e their forces, to carry the war into their country,
and to attempt the entire deftrudtion of the whole
tribe. Myantonomo, the Narraganfett fachem, and
Uncas, fachem of the Mohegans, lent to the Englifh
and offered their lervice to join with them againft tire
Pequots. Forces were accordingly railed in all the
colonies ; hut thofe of Connecticut, on account of
their vicinity to the enemy, were fiift in aftion. Cap¬
tain Mafon, with 80 Englifh and 100 Indians from
Connecticut river, proceeded by water to the Narra-
gaufetts country, where 2CO of that tribe joined him.
On the 24th of May, they began their march for Saf-
facus fort on Pequot, now Thames river. They af¬
terwards determined Hrft to afTault Myitic fort, which
was fituated between them and Pequot river. On the
morning of the 26th of May the attack was made.
The Indians, after a midnight revel, were buried in a
deep ilcep. At the moment of their approach, the
centinel happened to be gone into a wigwam to light
bis pipe. The barking of a dog gave the alaim. The
Indians awoke, feized their arrows and began their
hideous yelk They were joined in their tremendous
noife by the Indians in the Engliih army, who were
in the rear and afraid to approach. The battle was
warm and bloody, and the viflory complete. The
fort was taken—about 70 wigwams burnt—50 or 60
of the Indians were killed—many w7ere wounded and
taken, and the reft elcaped. Sailhcus and his warriors
at Pequot, flruck with terror at the news of this de¬
feat, demolifhed their principal fort, burnt their wug-
wams, and fled to the weflward. Capt. Stoughton,
with 160 men from Mafl'achufets, had by this time
arrived at Saybrook. He with his forces joined Cap¬
tain Mafon and purlued the Indians, and overtook and
furrounded them in a great fwamp near Fairfield. A
fachem and 99 women and children came out and
delivered themfelves up to their purfuers. Terms
of peace were offered to the reft : but after a fhort
parley they determined, that as they had lived they
would die together. There tvere about 80 who
made this refolution. Part of thefe efcaped by means
of the darknefs of the night. The reft were either
killed or taken. In this aClion the Indians had guns,
which is the firft account of their having ufed them.
Saffacus ded to the Mohawks, by whom it is reported
he was murdered but it is more probable that he and
his company incorporated with them. Many of the
Indian captives were unjuftifiably ient to Bermudas and
fold for Haves. The Pequot tribe was wholly extin-
guifhed. This fuccefsful expedition ftruck the Indi¬
ans that remained with fuch terror, as reftrained them
from open hoftilities for near forty years after.
The Englifh thus obtained the country eaft of the
Dutch fettlements, by right oTconqueft. The por-
f’uit of the Indians led to an acquaintance with the
lands on the fea-coaft from Saybrook to Fairfield. It
was reported to be a very fine country. This favour¬
able report induced Meffrs Eaton and Hopkins, twTo
very refpe£table London merchants, and Mr Daven¬
port, a man of diftinguiihed piety and abilities, with
6 ] CON
their company, who arrived this year (1637) from Conne<fH.
London, to think of this part of the country as the cut>
place'of their fettlement. Their friends in Maffachu- ' " v "
lets, lorry to part with fo valuable a company, dif-
fuaded them from their purpofe. Influenced, how¬
ever, by the promifing prolpefts which the country af¬
forded, and flattering themielves that they fhould be
out of the jurifdiflion of a general governor, with
which the country was from time to time threatened,
they determined to proceed. Accordingly, in March
1638, with the confent of their friends on Connefti-
cut river, they fettled at New Haven, and laid the
foundation of a flourifhing colony, of which Quinni-
piak, now New Haven, was the chief town. The
fiift public worfhip, in this new plantation, was at¬
tended on Lord’s day, April 18. 1638, under a large
fpreading oak. The Rev. Mr Davenport preached
from Mat. iii. J. on the temptations of the wildernefs.
Both colonies, by voluntary compaG, formed them¬
felves into diflindt commonwealths, and remained fo
until their union in 1665.
In 1639, the three towns on Conne61icut river, al¬
ready mentioned, finding themfelves without the li¬
mits of any jurifdiction, formed tbemfelves into a body
politic, and agreed upon articles of civil government.
Thefe articles were the foundation of Connecticut
charter, which was granted in 1662. The fubftance
of the articles, fo far as they refpedf the holding of
afftmblies, the time and manner of electing magiftrates
and other civil officers (except that in the old con¬
federation no perfon was to be chofen governor more
than once in two years), and the extent of legiflative
powers, was transferred into, and eftabliflted in laid
charter.
The firft church tvas gathered in New Haven this
year, and confifted of feven members. Thefe were
chofen by the fettlers after Mr Davenport had preach¬
ed from the words of Solomon, ‘ Wifdom hath build-
ed her houfe, (he hath hewed out her feven pillais.’
Thefe men were indeed the pillars of the church, to
whom the reft were added as they became qualified.
They were alfo the court to try all civil aclions.
The firft fettlers in New Haven had all things com¬
mon ; all purchafes were made in the name and for the
ufe of the whole plantation ; and the lands were ap¬
portioned out to each family according to their num¬
ber and original ftock.
At their firft election, in O&ober 1639, Mr Theo-
philus Eaton was chofen governor for the firft year.
Their elections, by agreement, were to be annual j
and the word of God their only rule in conducing
the affairs of government in the plantation.
In 1643, the articles of confederation between the
four New7 England colonies, mentioned under the ar¬
ticle New England, were unanimoufly adopted by
the colonies of New Haven and Connecticut.
The Englifti fettlement on Delaware, which was
under the jurifdiClion of New Haven, was furprifed
by the Swedes, and the people put in irons, under a
falfe pretence that they were entering into a confpi-
racy with the Indians to extirpate the Swedes.
The general court of New Haven, this year, efta-
bliffied it as a fundamental article not to be dTputed,
That none be admitted as free burgeffes but church
members, and that none but fuch fhould vote at elec¬
tions.
CON 557 ] CON
Cormedti- tions. They alfo ordained, That each town choofe
cat- from among themfelves judges (church members) to be
v a court, to have cognizance of all civil a£Hons not ex¬
ceeding twenty pounds,; and of criminal caufes, where
the pun ills me nt was fitting in the flocks, whipping,
and fining not exceeding five pounds. There was li¬
berty of appeal from this to the court of magiflrates.
The court of magiftrates confifted of all the magi¬
flrates throughout the colony, who were to meet twice
a-year at New Haven, for the trial of a-31 capital cau¬
fes. Six made a quorum. The general court was to
confift of the governor, deputy-governor, magiflrates,
and two reprefentatives from each town. The annual
eletlion of officers ol government was at this time efla-
bliihed, and has ever fince continued.
The unfettled flate of the colony had hitherto pre¬
vented their ettablilhing a code of laws. To fupp'y
this defedi, the general court ordered, ‘ That the ju¬
dicial laws of God, as they were delivered to Moles,
and as they are a fence to the moral, being neither
’ typical nor ceremonial, nor having any reference to
Canaan, fhall be accounted of moral equity, and gene¬
rally bind all offenders, and be a rule to all the courts
in this jurifdidfion in their proceedings againft offen¬
ders, until they be branched out into particulars here¬
after.’
About this time a war broke out between the Mo-
hegan and Narraganlett Indians. A peilonal quarrel
between Myantonomo iachem of the Narr'ganletts,
and Uncas fachem oi the Mohegans, was the founda¬
tion of the w'ar. Mvantonomo railed an army of 900
warriors, and marched towards the Mohegan country.
Uncas by his fpies received timely notice of their ap¬
proach. His feat of refidence was in fome part of
Norwich. He quickly colledftcl 600 of his braveft
warriors, and told them, ‘ The Narraganfetts muff
not come into our town ; we muft meet the n.’ They
accordingly marched about three miles to a i irge plain,
where the two armies met, and halted within bow (hot
of each other. A parley was propofed by Uncas, and
agreed to by Myantonomo. The fachems met, and
Uncas addrefled his enemy as follow's. ‘ You have a
great many brave men : io have I. You and I have
quarrelled ; but thefe wrarriors, what have they done ?
Shall they die to avenge a private quarrel between us ?
No. Come like a brave man, as you pretend to be,
and let us fight. If you kill me, my men fhall be
your’s ; if I kill you, your men lhall be mine.’ Myan¬
tonomo replied : ‘ My men came to fight, and they
fhall fight.’ Uncas, like an experienced warrior,
aware of the relult of the conference from the fuperior
force of his enemy, had previoufly fignified to hi.s men,
that if Myantonomo refufed to fight him in fingle
combat, he would immediately fall, which was to be
the fignal for them to begin the attack. As foon
therefore as Mvantonomo had finifhed his laconic
fpeech, Uncas dropped : his men inftantly obeyed the
fignal, and poured in a fhower of arrows upon the un-
fufpect'ng Narraeaufetts, and rufhing on with their
horrid yells and favage fiercenefs, put them to flight.
Many were killed on the Ipot, the reft were clofely
purfued, and fome rvere precipitately driven down
cra£gy precipices, and dallied in pieces. At a place
called, from this event, Sdchevi's plain, Uncas over¬
took and feized Myantonomo by the fhoulder. They
fat down together 5 and Uncas with a hoop called in Conne&i.
his men, and the battle ceafed. Doubtful what to do cut-
with the royal prifoner, Uncas and his warriors, in
council, determined to carry him to the governor and
council at Hartford, and be advifed by them. Thither
he was accordingly conducled. The governor having
advifed with his council, told Uncas, that the Englifh
were not then at war with the Narraganfetts, and of
courfe that it was not proper for them to intermeddle
in the matter. Uncas was left to do with him as he
plealed. Myantonomo was conduced back to the plain
where he was taken, and put to dea,th by Uncas him-
felf. The tragic fcene did not end with his death.
Uncas, after the manner of the Indians, with his toma¬
hawk cut off a large piece of fltlh from the fhoulder of
his flaughtered enemy, broiled and ate it, faying, with
an air of favage triumph, ‘ It is the fweeteft meat I
ever ate. It makes me have a flout heart.’ His body
was afterwards buried, and a pillar ere61ed over it,
the remains of which are vifible to this day.
The Narraganfetts were greatly enraged at the death
of their prince, and refolved to take vengeance on the
Mohegans. The united colonies interpofed to pre¬
vent a war between them, but in vain. The Narra-
ganletts refolutely declared, they would continue the
war until they had Uncas’s head. But as Uncas had.
ever been a friend to the Englifh, they joined him
againft his enemies^ and were victorious. Such, how¬
ever, was the enmr^y of the Narraganfetts to the Eng-
lifti, that they afterwards lent fome of their men to
Uncas, with large prefents, to induce him to join with
them in a war with the colonies. Uncas replied,
“ Go tell your king, that I will go to Norwich, and
advife with Major John Mafon and Mr Fitch ; if they
tell me to join him and fight againft the Englifh, I
will join him.” In the war that happened foon after,
Uncas afiuted the Englifh, and the Narraganfetts were
fubdued, and never after were formidable.
In confideration of the fuccefs and increafe of the
New England colonies, and that they had been of no
charge to the nation, and in profpedl of their being
in future very ierviceable to it, the Englifh parlia¬
ment, March 10. 1643, granted them an exemption
from all cuftoms, fubhdies, and other duties, until fur¬
ther order.
In 1644, the Conneclicut adventurers purchafed of
Mr Fenwick, agent for Lord Say and Seal, and Lord
Brook, their right to the colony of Connedficut, for
1600I.
The hiftory of Connedlicut is marked with traces
of the fame fpirit which has been mentioned as
charadleriftic of the Maffachuffets, in different ftages
of their hiftory. Indeed, as Maffachufets was the
flock whence Conneclicut proceeded, this is to be ex¬
pected.
The colonies of Connecticut and New Haven, from
their firft fettlement, increafed rapidly : tracts of land
were purchafed of the Indians, and new towns fettled
from Stamford to Stonington, and far back into the
country, when, in 1661, Major John Mafon, as agent
for the colony, bought of the natives all lands which
had not before been purchafed by particular towns,
and made a public furrender of them to the colony, in
the prefence of the general affembly. Having done
thefe things, the colonies petitioned King Charles II.
for
Qkmne&i-
cut.
^ - "u— I
CON f
for a charter, and their petition was granted,
majefty, on the 23d of April 1662, iffued his letters
patent under the great feal, ordaining that the colony
of Connecticut fhould for «ver hereafter be one body
corporate and politic, in fa£t and in name, confirming to
them their ancient grant and purchafe, and fixing their
boundaries as follows, viz. “ All that part of his Ma-
jetty’s dominions in New England, in America, bound-
ed call by Narraganfett river, commonly called Narra-
ganfett bay, where the river falleth into the fea ; and
on the north by the line of Maffachufets plantation,
and on the fouth by the fea, and in longitude as the
line of the Maffachufets colony, running from eaft to
weft, that is to fay, from the laid Narraganfett bay on
the eaft, to the South fea on the weft part, with the
iflands thereunto belonging.” This charter has ever
fince remained the bafis of the government of Con¬
necticut.
Such wras the ignorance of the Europeans refpeCt-
ing the geography of America, when they firft affumed
the right of giving away lands which the God of na¬
ture had long before given to the Indians, that their
patents extended they knew not where ; many of them
wrere of doubtful conftruCtion, and very often covered
each other in part, and have produced innumerable
difputes and mifchiefs in the colonies, fome of which
are not fettled to this day. Connecticut conftrued her
charter literally, and pafting over New York, which
was then in poffeflion of the fubjefts of a Chriftian
prince, claimed, in latitude and breadth mentioned
therein, to the South fea. Accordingly purchafes
were made of the Indians, on the Delaware river, weft
of the wefttrn bounds of New York, and within the
fuppofed limits of Connecticut charter, and fettle-
ments were made thereon by people from, and under
the jurifdiCtion of, Connecticut. The charter of Penn-
fylvania, granted to William Penn, in 1681, covered
thefe fettlements. This laid the foundation for a dif-
pute, which for a long time was maintained with
warmth on both fides. The matter was at laft fub-
mitted to gentlemen chofen for the purpofe, who de¬
cided the difpute in favour of Pennfylvania. Many,
however, ftill affert the juftice of the Connecticut
claim. The ftate of Connecticut has lately ceded to
Congrefs all their lands weft of Pennfylvania, except a
referve of 20 miles fquare. Thisceftion Congrefs have
accepted, and thereby indubitably eftabliftred the right
of Connecticut to the referve.
The colony of New Haven, though unconnect¬
ed with the colony of Connecticut, was compre¬
hended within the limits of their charter, and, as
they concluded, within their jurifdiCtion. But New
Haven remonftrated againft their claim, and refufed to
unite W'ith them until they Ihould hear from Eng.
Hnd. It was not until the year 1665, when it was be¬
lieved that the king’s commiffioners had a defign upon
the New England charters, that thefe two colonies
formed a union, which has ever fince amicably fubfift-
ed between them.
In 1672, the laws of the colony were revifed, and
the general court ordered them to be printed ; and al-
fo, that “ every family Ihould buy one of the law
books j fuch as pay in filver, to have a bock for izd.
fuch as pay in wheat, to pay a peck and a half a book :
and fuch as pay in peafe, to pay as. a book, the peafe
I
Ji8 ] CON
His at 3s. the bulhel.” Perhaps it is owing to this early Connect.
and univerfal fpread of law books, that the people of cut‘
Connecticut are to this day fo fond of the lawr. In ——v—*'
175°, the laws of Connecticut w’ere again revifed and
publiftied in a fmail folio volume of 258 pages. Dr
Douglas obferves, that they were the molt natural,
equitable, plain, and Concife code of laws for planta¬
tions hitherto extant. There has been a revifion of
them fince the peace, in which they were greatly and
very judicioufty fimplified.
The years 1675 and 1676 were diftinguilhed by
the wars with Philip and his Indians, and with the
Narraganfetts, by which the colony was thrown into
great diftrefs and confufion. The inroads of the en«
raged favages were marked with cruel murders, and
with fire and devaftation.
In 1684, the charter of Maffachufets bay and Ply¬
mouth were taken away, in conlequence of Quo
warrantos which had been iffued againft them. The
charter of Connecticut would have fhared the fame fate
had it not been for ——■ Wadfworth, Efq; who,
having very artfully procured it when it wras on the
point of being delivered up, buried it under an oak
tree in Hartford, where it remained until all danger
was over, and then was dug up and reaffumed.
Connecticut has ever made rapid advances in popu¬
lation. There have been more emigrations from this
than from any of the other ftates, and yet it is at pre-
fent full of inhabitants. This increafe, under the di¬
vine benediction, may be afcribed to feveral caufes.
The bulk of the inhabitants are induftrious, fugacious
hufbandmen. Their farms furnifh them with all the
neceffaries, moft of the conveniences, and but few of
the luxuries, of life. They of courfe are generally tem¬
perate, and, if they choofe, can fubfift with as much
independence as is confident with happinefs. The fub-
fiftence of the farmer is fubftantial, and does not de¬
pend on incidental circumftances, like that of moft
other profeflions, There is no neceflity of ferving an
apprenticeftiip to the bufinefs, nor of a large ftock of
money to commence it to advantage. Farmers, who
deal much in barter, have lefs need of money than any
other clafs of people. The eafe with which a com¬
fortable fubfiftence is obtained, induces the hulhand*
man to marry young. The cultivation of his farm
makes him ftrong and healthful. He toils cheerfully
through the day—eats the fruit of his owTn labour with
a gladfome heart—at night devoutly thanks his boun¬
teous God for his daily blefiings—retires to reft, and
his fleep is fw7eet. Such circumftances as thefe have
greatly contributed to the amazing increafe of inhabi¬
tants in this ftate.
Befides, the people live under a free government,
and have no fear of a tyrant. There are no overgrown
eftates, with rich and ambitious landlords, to have an
Undue and pernicious influence in the eleCUon of civil
officers. Property is equally enough divided, and muft
continue to be fo as long as eftates defcend as they now
do. No peifon is prohibited from voting, or from be¬
ing eledled into office, on account of his poverty. He
who has the moft merit, not he w'ho has the moft mo-
ney, is generally chofen into public office. As inftances
of this, it is to be obferved, that many of the citizens
of Connefticut, from the humble w alks of life, have
arifen to the firft offices in the ftate, and filled them
with
CON
Connexion with dignity and reputation.
Connor ele&i°neer,'ng5 which is fo dire&ly calculated to intro-
' , duce wicked and defigning men into office, is yet but
little known in Conne&icut. A man who withes to be
chofen into office, a&s wifely for that end, when he
keeps his defires to himfelf.
A third: for learning prevails among all ranks of
people in the date. More of the young men in Con¬
necticut, in proportion to their numbers, receive a
public education, than any of the dates. Dr Frank¬
lin and other literary charadters have honoured this date
by faying, that it is the Athens of America.
The revolution, which fo effentially affefted the go¬
vernments of mod of the colonies, produced no very
perceptible alteration in the government of Connecti¬
cut. While under the jurifdiftion of Great Britain,
they elefted their own governors, and all fubordinate
civil officers, and made their own laws in the fame
manner and with as little controul as they now do.
Connecticut has ever been a republic, and perhaps as
perfect and as happy a republic as has ever exided.
While other dates, more monarchical in their govern¬
ment and manners, have been under a neceffity of un¬
dertaking the difficult talk of altering their old, or
forming new conditutions, and of changing their mo¬
narchical for republican manners, Conne6iicut has unin¬
terruptedly proceeded in her old track, both as to go¬
vernment and manners j and by thefe means has avoid¬
ed thofe convulfions which have rent other dates into
violent parties.
CONNECTION, or Connexion, the relation or
dependence of one thing upon another.
Connection, or Continuity, in the drama, confids in
the joining of the feveral fcenes together.
The connexion is faid to be obferved, when the
fcenes of an aid fucceed one another immediately,
and are fo joined as that the dage is never left
empty.
CONNECTIVES, in Grammar, one of the four
fpecies under which, according to Mr Harris, all
words may be included. They are of two kinds :
and as they connect fentences or words, are called by
the different names of conjundions and prepoftions. See
Grammar.
CONNIVENT VALVES, in Anatomy, thofe wrin¬
kles, cellules, and vafcules, which are found in the in-
fide of the two intedines ilium and jejunum. See A-
Natomv, N° 93, et feq.
CONNOISSEUR, a French term, of late ufed in
Englifh : it literally denotes a perfon well verfed in any
thing ; being formed of the verb connoitre, “ to know,
underdand.” Hence it comes to be ufed in our lan¬
guage for a critic, or perfon who is a thorough judge
or mader in any way, particularly in matters of paint¬
ing and fculpture.
CONNOR, Bernard, a learned phyfician, was
born in the county of Kerry, in Ireland, about the
year 1666. Having determined to apply himfelf to
the dudy of phyfic, he went to France, and refided
fome time in the univerfity of Montpelier. After¬
wards he went to Paris j where he obtained great fkill
in medicine, anatomy, and chemidry. From thence
he travelled to Venice, with the two fons of the high-
chancellor of Poland j and then taking a tour through
great part of Germany, went to Warfaw, where he
[ SS9 ] CON
That bafe bufinefs of was made phyfician to King John Sobiefki. In l6g^, Connor
he came to England, read a courfe of leflures in Lon- II
don. and Oxford, and became member of the Royal c:on(lliefl:^i
Society and College of Phyficians : afterwards, being
invited to Cambridge, he read public ledlures there,
and made various experiments in chemidry. He has
rendered himfelf memorable for a philofophical and
medical treatife in Latin, entitled Evange/ium Medi¬
ci, i. e. “ the Phyfician’s Gofpel j” tending to ex¬
plain the miracles performed by Chrid as natural
events, upon the principles of natural philofophy.
He wrote alio a hidory of Poland j and died in 1698,
aged 32.
. Ccnnor, a city of Ireland, in the county of An¬
trim, and province of Ulder. W. Long. 6. 30. N.
Lat. 54. 50.
CONOCARPUS, button-wood. See Botan?
Index.
CONOID, in Geometry, a folid body, generated by
the revolution of a conic fe&ion about its axis. See
Conic SeCiions.
CONOIDES, in Anatomy, a gland found in thfe
third ventricle of the brain, called pinealis, from
its refemblance to a pine apple. See Anatom*
Index.
CONON, the renowned Athenian general and ad¬
miral, fiourifhed 394 years before Chrid. See At¬
tica, N° 162, 163. After his defeat by Lyfander, he
fled to Evagoras king of Cyprus : after which he put
himfelf under the proteftion of Artaxerxes king of
Perfia; with whofe army he delivered Athens from
the oppreffion of drangers, and rebuilt its walls. In
the 360th year of Rome, he beat the Lacedemonians
in a fea-fight near Cnidus upon the coad of Afia, de*
prived them of the fovereign rule they had on fea ever
fince the taking of Athens, and had fome other confi-
derable advantage over them : but falling into the
hands of Teribazus a Perfian, who envied his glory, he
was put to death.
CONOPS, in Zoology : a genus of infers belong-*
ing to the order diptera. See Entomology Index.
CONO\ IUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of the
Ordovices, in Britain. From its ruins arofe, at the
didance of four miles, Aberconwey, the mouth of the
Conwey, in Caernarvonfhire j and on the fpot where
Conovium dood is an hamlet, called Caerhean, the old
town (Camden).
CONQUEST, in civil jurifprudence, is the ac-
quifition or property in common by a number of per¬
fon s.
In fome countries they confound acquifition with
conqued j but, according to the mod general accep¬
tation, acquifition is the gaining of unappropriated
goods before the edabhdiment of a community :
whereas by the term conqueji, is ordinarily intended
whatever is acquired by a number of perfons in com¬
munity j or by fome one for all the others. As it is
more efpecially in the union of perfons by marriage
that a community of property takes place ; fo it is in
reference to them that w7e frequently ufe the word
conquejl. There are neverthelefs conqueds alfo among*
other perfons who are in a tacit community or fociety ;
fuch as obtain by particular local cudoms. Accord¬
ing to this fenfe of the word, it has been contended by
feveral, that William L claimed this kingdom j that
is.
CON
'Conqucft, is, not by right of arms, but by right of conqueft or
Conrad. aCqUeft ; under promife of fucceffion made by Edward
' ”~v the Confeffor, and a contract entered into by Harold
to fupport his pretenfions to that fuccefiion ; and by
old writers, conquejlus, acqvijitw, and perquijitw, are
frequently ufed as fynonymous terms.
Conquest, in the law of nations, is the acquifi-
tion of fovereignty by force of arms, by fome foreign
prince } who reduces the vanquifhed under his empire.
The right of conquell is derived from the laws of war j
and when a people is fubjefted, the conduft of the
conqueror is regulated by lour kinds of law. bird,
the law of nature, which dictates whatever tends to
felf-prefervation j fetondiy, our reafon, which teaches
us to ufe others as we would be treated ourltlves j
third’y, the laws of political fociety, to which nature
has not afligned any precife boundary *, laftly, the law
which is derived from the particular circumilances at¬
tending the conqueft. Thus, a ftate conquered by ano¬
ther will be treated in one of the four methods follow¬
ing : Either the conqueror will continue it under its
own law’s, and wdll only claim the exercife of civil and
ecclefiaftical fovereignty; or he will impofe a new form
of government ; or he will deftroy the frame of their
fociety, and incorporate the inhabitants with others ;
or he will exterminate them.
CONRAD II. defied emperor of Germany in 1004.
He was obliged to take the field againft moft of the
German dukes who had revolted from him •, and he
put Emeft duke of Suabia under the ban of the empire.
This being one of the earlieft inftances of fuch a pro-
fcription, the formula is inferted here for its Angularity.
“ We declare thy wife a widow, thy children orphans j
and we fend thee, in the name of the devil, to the four
corners of the world.” It was in the reign or this prince
that the German fiefs became hereditary. He died in
1039.
Conrad III. emperor of Germany in 133^* r^e
duke of Bavaria oppofed his eleflion, and being put
under the ban of the empire, and deprived of his du¬
chy, he could not furvive his difgrace. The margrave
of Auftria wms ordered by the emperor to take pof-
ftflion of Bavaria ; but Welft, uncle to the deceafed
duke, attacked him, and w’as defeated near the caftle
of Winfburgh ; the battle fought upon this occafion is
famous in hiftory, as having given rife to the party
names of Guelph: and Gibbelines, afterwards affirmed in
Italy. The parole of the day with the Bavarians was
TVel/fi, from the name of their general j that of the Im-
perialifts Weritlingen from a final! village where bre-
dcric. duke of Suabia, their commander, had been
nurfed : by degrees thefe names ferved to diftinguifli
the two parties •, and the Italians, w ho could not ac-
cuftom themfelves to fuch rough words, formed from
them their Guelphs and' Gibbelines. He died in
1152. j.
ConR^D of Lichterau, or Abbas Ufpergenfis, was
author of an Univerfal ChronQlogy from the creation
to 1229, continued by an anonymous writer to Cha. V.
CON
He colle&ed a fine library, and died about the year Conradin,
J24O. Confangui-
CONRADIN, or Conrad junior, fon of Con- r^y‘ .
rad IV. was acknowledged emperor by the Gibbe¬
lines, who received him in triumph at Rome : but
Pope Alexander IV. had publiftred a crufade againft
this orphan •, and Urban VII. his fucceffor, gave the
empire to Charles of Anjou, brother to Louis IX.
king of France •, and the unfortunate youth, though
powerfully fupported even by the Turks, loft a battle,
in which he was taken prifoner, and w’as beheaded, by
order of his bafe opponent, publicly at Naples in 1229,
in the 18th year of his age. In him ended the race of
the dukes of Suabia, which had produced feveral kings
and emrerors.
CONSANGUINITY, or Kindred, is defined by
the writers on thele fubjefls to be, vinculum perfona-
rum ah eodemjhpile defcendentium ; “ the connection or
relation of pertons defeended from the fame flock or
common anceftor.” This confanguinity is either lineal
or collatetak
Lineal confanguinity is that which fubfifls between
perlons of whom one is defeended in a direCt line from
the other j as between John Stiles (the propojitus in
the table of confanguiniry) and his father, grandfa¬
ther, great grandfather, and fo upwards in the direft
afeending line ; or between John Stiles and his fon,
grandfon, great grandfon, and fo downwards in the
direCl dei'cending line. Every generation, in this di-
re£l lineal confanguinity, conftitutes a different de*
gree, reckoning either upwards or downwards : the
father of John Stiles is related to him in the firft de¬
gree, and fo likewife is bis fon •, his grandfire and
grandfon, in the fecond ; his great grandfire and great-
grandfon in the third. This is the only natural way of
reckoning the degrees in the direft line ; and there¬
fore univerfally obtains, as well in the civil and canon,
as in the common law’.
The doftrine of lineal confanguinity is fufficiently
plain and obvious •, but it is, at the firft view’, aitomlh-
ing to confider the number of lineal anceftors which
every man has, within no very great number of de¬
grees : and fo many different bloods is a man find to
contain in bis veins, as he hath lineal anceftors. Of
thefe he hath two in the firft afeending degree ; his
own parents : he hath four in the fecond 5 the parents
of his father, and the parents of his mother ; he hath
eight in the third, the parents of his two grandfathers,
and of his two grandmothers •, and by the fame rule of
progreflion, he hath 128 in the feventh ; 1024 in the
tenth •, and at the 20th degree, or the diftance of 20
generations, every man hath above a million of an¬
ceftors, as common arithmetic will demonftrate (a).
This lineal confanguinity, we may obferve, falls ftntfly
w ithin the definition of vinculum perfonarum ab eodem
fiipite defeendentium; fince lineal relations are fuch as
defeend one from the other, and both of courfe from
the fame common anceftor.
Collateral kindred anfwers to the fame defer! ption :
collateral
[ Jfo 1
(a) This will feeTn furpri' ng to thofe who are unacquainted with the increafing power of progreffive num¬
bers ^ but is palpablv evident from the following table of a geometrical progreffion, in which the firft term
is 2j and the denominator alio. 2 ; or, to fpeak more intelligibly, it is evident, for that each of us has two an-
2 ceftors
CON [ 561 1 CON
Gonfangui- collateral relations agreeing with the lineal in this,
that they defcend from the fame flock or anceftor j
but differing in this, that they do not defcend the one
from the other. Collateral kinfmen, then, are fuch as
lineally fpring from one and the fame anceftor, who is
the Jii'ps, or “ root, “ the^/e-J, “ trunk,” or common
flock, from whence thefe relations are branched out.
As if John Stiles hath two fons, who have each a nu¬
merous iffue : both thefe iffues are lineally defcended
from John Stiles as their common anceftor ; and they
are collateral kinfmen to each other, becaufe they are
all defcended from this common anceftor, and all have
a portion of his blood in their veins, which denominates
them confan$uineous.
We muft be careful to remember, that the very be¬
ing of collateral confanguinity confifts in this defcent
from one and the fame common anceftor. Thus Ti-
tius and his brother are related •, why ? becaufe both
are derived from one father : Titius and his firft cou-
fln are related ; why ? becaufe both defcend from the
fame grandfather; and his fecond coufin’s claim to
confanguinity is this, that they are both derived from
one and the fame great-grandfather. In ftiort, as
many anceftors as a man has, fo many common flocks
he has from which collateral kinfmen may be derived.
And as we are taught by holy writ, that there is one
couple of common anceftors belonging to us all, from
whom the whole race of mankind is defcended, the
obvious and undeniable confequence is, that all men
are in fome degree related to one another. For, in-
Vol. VI. Part II.
deed, if we only fuppofe each couple of our anceflors Confanguu
to have left, one with another, two children j and "‘T-
each of thofe children to have left, on an average, two _I'^
more (and without fuch a fuppofition the human fpe-
cies muft be daily diminifliing) ; we (hall find that ail
of us have now fubfifting near 270 millions of kindred
in the 15th degree, at the fame diftance from the feve-
ral common anceftors as wTe ourftlves are ; befides thofe
that are one or two degrees nearer to or . farther from
the common flock, who may amount to as many
more (b). And if this calculation (hould appear in¬
compatible with the number of inhabitants on the earth;
it is becaufe, by intermarriages among the feveral de-
fcendants from the fame anceftor, a hundred or a thou-
fand modes of confanguinity may be confolidated in
one perfon ; or he may be related to us a hundred or
a thoufand different ways.
The method of computing thefe degrees in the ca¬
non law, which we have adopted, is as follows. We
begin at the common anceftor, and reckon downwards;
and in whatfoever degree the two per Ions, or the
moft remote of them, is diftant from the common an¬
ceftor, that is the degree in which they are related to
each other. Thus, Titius and his brother are related
in the firft: degree ; for from the father to each of
them is counted only one : Titius and his nephew are
related in the fecond degree ; for the nephew is two
degrees removed from the common anceftor, viz. his
own grandfather, the father of Titius : or (to give
a more illuftrious inftance from the Engliflr annals)
4 B King
ceftors in the firft degree, the number of whom is doubled at every remove ; becaufe each of our anceftors
has alfo two immediate anceftors of his own.
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
J3
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
1024
2048
4096
8192
16384 x
32768
I3I072
262144
524288
1048576
A ftiorter way of finding the number of anceftors at any given degree, is by fquaring the number of anceftors
at half that number of degrees. Thus 16, the number of anceftors at 4 degrees, is the fquare of 4, the num¬
ber of anceftors at 2 ; 256 is the fquare of 16 ; 65536 of 256; and the number of anceftors at 40 degrees
would be the fquare of 1,048,576, or upwards of a million of millions.
(b) This will fwell more confiderably than the former calculation : for here, though the firft term is but 1, the
denominator is 4; that is, there is one kinfman (a brother) in the firft degree, who makes, together with the
propojitus, the two defendants from the firft couple of anceftors ; and in every other degree, the number of
-kindred muft be the quadruple of thofe in the degree which immediately precedes it. For fince each couple of
anceftors
CON [ 562 ] CON
tonfangui- King Henry VII. who flew Richard III. in the battle
nity- of Bofworth, was related to that prince in the fifth
degree. Let the propq/itus, therefore, in the table of
confanguinity, reprefent King Richard III. and the
clafs marked e, King Henry VII. Now their com¬
mon flock or anceftor was King Edward III. the aba-
vus in the fame table : from him to Edmund duke of
York, the proavus, is one degree ; to Richard earl of
Cambridge, the mwj, two; to Richard duke of York,
Wvz pater, three ; to King Richard III. \.ht propqfitus,
four ; and from King Edward III. to John of Gaunt
(a) is one degree ; to John earl of Somerfet (b) two ;
to John duke of Somerfet (c) three ; to Margaret
countefs of Richmond (d) four ; to King Henry VII.
(e) five. Which laft-mentioned prince, being the far-
theft removed from the common flock, gives the deno¬
mination to the degree of kindred in the canon and
municipal law. Though according to the computation
of the civilians (who count upwards from either of the
perfons related, to the common flock, and then down¬
wards again to the other ; reckoning a degree for each
perfon both afcending and defcending) thefe two
princes were related in the ninth degree : for from
King Richard III. to Richard duke of York is one
degree ; to Richard earl of Cambridge two ; to Ed¬
mund duke of York three; to King Edward III. the
common anceftor, four ; to John of Gaunt five; to Confangui-
John earl of Somerfet fix ; to John duke of Somerfet
feven ; to Margaret countefs of Richmond eight; to .
King Henry VII. nine. See the Table of Confangui¬
nity (Plate CLXIV.), wherein all the degrees of col¬
lateral kindred to the propojitux are computed, as far
as the tenth of the civilians and the feventh of the ca-
nonifts inclufive ; the former being diftinguifhed by the
numeral letters, the latter by the common ciphers.
Consanguinity and Affinity, degrees of, forbid¬
den in marriage. See Marriage, and Law Index.
Consanguinity and Affinity, an obje£tion againft
a judge or a witnefs. See Law Index.
CONSCIENCE, a fecret teftimony of the foul,
whereby it gives its approbation to things that are
naturally good, and condemns thofe that are evil. See
Moral Philosophy.
A man of integrity will never liften to any reafon, or
give way to any meafure, or be mifled by any induce¬
ment, againft confcience.—The inhabitants of a great
town offered Marlhal de Turenne 100,000 crowns,
upon condition he would take another road, and not
march his troops their way. He anfwered them, “ As
your town is not in the road I intend to march, I
cannot accept the money you offer me.”—The earl
of Derby, in the reign of Edward III. making a de-
fcent
anceftors has two defcendants who increafe in a duplicate ratio, it will follow, that the ratio in which all
the defcendants increafe downwTards, muft be double to that in w'hich the anceftors increafe upwards . ^but
we have feen, that the anceftors increafe in a duplicate ratio: therefore the defcendants muft increafe m a
double duplicate ; that is, in a quadruple ratio.
Collateral Degrees. Number of Kindred.
1
4
16
64
256
1024
4096
16384
65536
262144
1048576
4I943°4
16777216
67108864
268435456
1073741824
4294967296
17179S69184
68719476736
274877906944
This calculation may alfo be formed by a more compendious procefs, viz. by fquaring the couples, or half
the number of anceftors, at any given degree ; which will furnifti us with the number of kindred we have in
the fame degree, at equal diftance with ourfelves from the common flock, befides thofe at unequal diftances.
Thus in the tenth lineal degree, the number of anceftors is 1024; its half, or the couples, amount to 512 ; the
number of kindred in the tenth collateral degree amounts therefore to 262144, or the fquare 0^512. And if
we will be at the trouble to recolleft the ftate of the feveral families within our own knowledge, and obferve
how far they agree with this account; that is, whether, on an average, every man has not one brother or
lifter, four firft-coufins, fixteen fecond-coufins, and fo on, we fhall find, that the prefent calculation is very far
from being overchargedj
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
H
15
16
*7
18
*9
20
/
CON
Cenfcience. fcent in Guienne, carried by ftorm the town of Ber-
gerac, and gave it up to be plundered. A Welch
knight happened by chance to light upon the receiver’s
office. He found there fuch a quantity of money
that he thought himfelf obliged to acquaint his gene¬
ral with it, imagining that fo great a booty naturally
belonged to him. But he was agreeably furprifed
wrhen the earl told him, with a pleafant countenance,
that he wiffied him joy of his good fortune j and that
he did not make the keeping of his word to depend
upon the great or little value of the thing he had pro-
mifed.—In the liege of Falifci by Camillus general of
the Romans, the fchoolmafter of the town, who had
the children of the fenators under his care, led them
abroad under the pretext of recreation, and carried
them to the Roman camp, faying to Camillus, that
by this artifice he had delivered Falifci into his hands.
Camillus, abhorring this treachery, oblerved, “ That
there were laws for wTar as wTell as for peace ; and
that the Romans were taught to make war with inte¬
grity not lefs than with Courage^” He ordered the
fchoolmaller to be dripped, his hands to be bound be¬
hind his back, and to be delivered to the boys to be
laffied back into the town. The Falerians, formerly
obftinate in refiftance, ftruck with an a6t of iuftice fo
illuftrious, delivered themfelves up to the Romans }
convinced that they would be far better to have the
Romans for their allies than their enemies.
It is a faying, That no man ever offended his own
confcience, but firft or laft it was revenged upon him.
The power of confcience indeed has been remarked in
all ages, and the examples of it upon record are innu¬
merable. The following is related by Mr Fordyce,
* Vol. ii. *n his Dialogues on Education*, as a real Occurrence
f;, 401. which happened in a neighbouring Hate not many
years ago. A jeweller, a man of good character and
confiderable wealth, having occafion in the way of his
bufinefs to travel at fome diftance from the place of
his abode, took along with him a fervant, in order to
take care of his portmanteau. He had with him fome
of his belt jewels, and a large fum of money, to which
his fervant was likewife privy. The mailer having oc*
cafion to difmount on the road, the fervant watching
his opportunity, took a pillol from his mailer’s faddle
and Ihot him dead on the fpot $ then rifled him of his
jewels and money, and hanging a large Hone to his
neck, he threw him into the nearell canal. With this
booty he made off to a dillant part of the country,
where he had reafon to believe that neither he nor his
mailer were known. There he began to trade in a
very low way at firll, that his obfcurity might fcreen
him from obfervation, and in the courfe of a good
many years feertied to rife, by the natural progrefs of
bufinefs, into wealth and confideration j fo that his
good fortune appeared at once the effeft and reward
of indultry and virtue. Of thefe he counterfeited the
appearance fo well, that he grew into great credit,
married into a good family, and by laying out his hid¬
den llores difcreetly, as he faw occafion, and joining
to all an univerfal affability, he was admitted to a
lhare of the government of the town, and rofe from
one poll to another, till at length he was chofen chief
magiftrate. In this office he maintained a fair cha-
radler, and continued to fill it with no fmall applaufe,
both as a governor and a judge j till one day as he fat
1 563 1
CON
on the bench with fome of his brethren, a criminal Confeioui-
was brought before him who was accufed of murder- ne!s
ing his mailer. The evidence came out full, the jury CorJgfrA
brought in their verdict that the prifoner was guilty, tion.
and the whole affembly waited the fentence of the pre- v——y—
lident of the court (which he happened to be that
day) with great fufpenfe. Meanwhile he appeared
to be in unulual diforder and agitation of mind, and
his colour changed often j at length he arofe from his
leat, and coming down from the bench, placed him¬
felf juft by the unfortunate man at the bar. “ You
fee before you (faid he, addreffing himfelf to thofe
who had fat on the bench with him), a linking in-
ftance of the juft rewards of heaven, which this day,
after 30 years concealment, prefents to you a greater
criminal than the man juft now found guilty.’’ C Then
he made an ample confeffion of his guilt, and of all
its aggravations. “ Nor can I feel (continued he)
any relief from the agonies of an awakened confcience,
but by requiring that juftice be forthwith done againft
me in the molt public and folenln manner.” We may*
eafily fuppofe the amazement of all the affembly, and
efpecially of his fellow-judges. However, they pro¬
ceeded, upon this confeffion, to pafs fentence upon
him, and he died with all the fymptoms of a penitent
mind.
Courts of Conscience, are courts for recovery of
fmall debts, conilkuted by aft of parliament in Lon¬
don, Weftminfter, &c. and other populous and trading
diftrifts.
CONSCIOUSNESS. Metaphyfidans, in lieu of
the word confcience, which feems appropriated to theo¬
logical or moral matters, ordinarily ufe that of con-
fcioufnefs ; whereby they mean an inner fentiment of a
thing, whereof One may have a clear and diftinft no¬
tion. In this fenfe they fay that we do not know
our own foul, nor are allured of the exiftence of our
own thoughts, otherwife than by felf-confcioufnefs.
See Metaphysics.
CONSCRIPT, in Roman antiquity, an appellation
given to the fenators of Rome, who were called con-
fcript fathers, on account of their names being all en¬
tered in one regifter.
CONSECRATION, the aft of devoting any thing
to the fervice and worlhip of God. The Mofaical
law ordained, that all the firft-born, both of man and
beaft, ftiould be fanftified or confecrated to God. We
find alfo that Jofliua confecrated the Gibeonites, as
Solomon and David did the Nethinims, to the fervice
of the temple ; and that the tlebrew’S fometimes con¬
fecrated their fields and cattle to the Lord, after which
they were no longer in their power.
Among the ancient Chriftians, the confecration of
churches was performed with a great deal of pious fo-
letrinity. In wffiat manner it rvas done for the three
firft ages, is uncertain 5 the authentic accounts reach¬
ing no higher than the fourth, when, in the peaceable
reign of Conftantine, churches were everywhere built,
and dedicated with great folemnity. Some think the
confecration confilted in fetting up the fign of the
trofs, or in placing a communion table in the church $
and others, that nO more was done than preaching a
panegyrical fermon in commemoration of the founder,
and that then they proceeded to prayers, one of which
was compofed on purpofe for the church to be confe-
^4 B 2 crated.
CON [ 564 ] CON
Ccnfent. crated. The Romanifts have a great deal of pious
'— v foppery in the ceremonies of confecration *, which they
bellow on almoll evei'y thing, as bells, candles, books,
water, oil, afhes, palms, (words, banners, pictures,
croffes, a gnus dei’s, rofes, children’s clouts, &c.
In England, churches have been always confecrated
with particular ceremonies, the form of which was
left to the diferetion of the bilhop. I hat obferved
by Bifhop Laud, in confecrating St Catharine Creed
church, in London, gave great offence.
Consecration is particularly ufed for the benedic¬
tion of the elements in the eucharilt.
Consecration, among medalifls, is the ceremony
of the apotheofis of an emperor, or his tranflation in¬
to heaven and reception among the gods. On medals
the confecration is thus reprefented : on one fide is
the emperor’s head, crowned rvith laurel, fometimes
veiled j and the inferiptien gives him the title of divus:
on the reverie is a temple, a buftum, an altar, or an
eagle taking its flight towards heaven, either from off
the altar, or from a cippus : at other times the em¬
peror is feen in the air, borne up by the eagle 5 the
infeription always, confecraUo. 1 hefe are the ufual
fymbols : yet on the reverfe of that of Antoninus is
the Antonine column. In the apotheofis of emprefles,
inflead of an eagle there is a peacock. As to the ho¬
nours rendered thefe princes after death, they were ex¬
plained by the words covfecratio, pater, divas, and dcus.
Sometimes around the temple or altar are put, memoria
felix, or memorne teternce : for princeffes, (rtermtas,
and Jlderibus recepta : on the one fide of the head,
dea, or ©e.«.
CONSENT, in a general fenfe, denotes much the
fame with Assent.
Consent of Parts, in the animal economy, an a-
greement or fympathy, whereby when one part is im¬
mediately affedfed, another at a diflance becomes af¬
fected in the fame manner.
This mutual accord or confent is fuppofed to be ef¬
fected by the commerce of the nerves, and their art¬
ful diflribution and ramification throughout the body.
The effeft is fo fenflble as even to come under the
phyfician’s cognizance : thus, the (tone in the blad¬
der, by veliicating the fibres there, will pain and draw
them fo much into fpafms, as to affedt the coats of the.
bowels, in the fame manner, by the intermediation of
nervous threads, and make a colic there •, and alfo ex¬
tend their twitches fometimes as far as the flomach,
‘and occafion grievous vomitings; the remeay, there¬
fore, in fuch cafes, is to regard the part originally
affedled, how remote and grievous foever may be the
confequences and fymptoms in other places.
The fifth conjugation of nerves branched to the
parts of the eye, the ear, thofe of the mouth, cheeks,
praecordia, and parts adjacent, &c. is (uppofed by na-
turaliils to be the inftrument of that particular and
extraordinary confent between thole parts. Hence it
is, that a favoury thing feen or fmelled excites the
appetite, and affedls the glands and parts of the
mouth j that a (liameful thing feen or heard affedls
the cheeks with blufhes: on the contrary, if it pleafes,
it affecls the praecordia, and excites the mufcles of the
mouth and face to laughter } if it grieve, it affedls
the glands of the eyes, (o as to occafion tears, and
the mufcles of the face, putting them into an afpedl
of crying. Dr Willis, quoted by Mr Derharn, im- Confentcs
pntes the pleafure of kiffing, and its effedls, to this Conr!rva
pair of nerves*, which being branched both to the lips t(jr
and the genital parts, when the former are affedled
an irritation is occafioned in the latter. See Sympa¬
thy.
CONSENTES, the name which the Romans gave
to the 12 fuperior gods, the Dii majorum gentium.
The word fignifies as much as confentientes ; that is,
who confented to the deliberations of Jupiter’s council.
They wrere twelve in number, whofe name Ennius has
briefly expreffed in thefe lines,
‘Juno, Vefa, Minervat Cerer, Diana, Venus, Marsy
Mercuriusy Jovi, Neptunus, Vulcanus, ylpollo.
CONSEQUENCE, in Logic, the conclufion 01?
w'hat rel’ults from reafon or argument. See Conclu¬
sion.
The confequence is that other propofition in which
the extremes or premifes of a fyllogifm are joined, or
feparated ; and is gained from what was afferted in
the premile*.
This word, in a more reftrained fenfe, is ufed for
the relation or connedlion between two piopoiitions,
whereof one is inferred from the other.
CONSEQUEN f,-fomething deduced or gathered
from a former argumentation. But, in a more pre-
cife fenfe, it is ufed for the propofition which contains
the conclufion, confidered in itfelf, without any regard
to the antecedent : in which fenfe the confequent may
be true, though the confequence be falfe. See the
preceding article.
CONSERVATOR, an officer ordained for the fe-
curity and prefervation of the privileges of (ome cities
and communities, having a commiflion to judge ot and
determine the differences among them.
In mod catholic univerfities there are two conferva-
tors ; the confervator of royal privileges, or thofe
granted by kings ^ and the coniervator of apofiolical
privileges, or thofe granted by the pope. The firlt
takes cognizance of perfonal and mixed caufes between
the regents, (Indents, &c. and the latter of fpiritual
matters between ecclefiaftics.
Anciently there were appointed confervators of
treaties of peace between princes ; which conferva-
tors became judges of the infra&ions made on a trea¬
ty, and w*ere charged with procuring fatisfaftion to be
made. Thefe were ufually the feudatories of the fe-
veral powers. In lieu of confervators, princes now
have recourfe to other indifferent princes to guarantee
their treaties.
Conservator of Scots Privileges at Campvere, is an
officer belonging to the royal boroughs of Scotland,
who takes care of the mercantile affairs of Scotland,
agreable to the (laple contradl between them and the
States-General.
Conservator of the Peace, in the ancient Engliffi
cuftoms, was a perfon who had an efpecial charge, by
virtue of his office, to fee the king’s peace kept. I ill
the eredlion of juftices of the peace by King Ed¬
ward III. there were feveral perfons who by common
law were interefted in keeping the lame : feme having
that charge as incident to other offices j and others
(imply, or of itfelf, called cufodes, or confervators of
the peace. The chamberlain of Chefter is dill a con-
fervator
CON [ 565 ] CON
Confervator fervator in that county ; and petty conftables are, by
j! the common law, confervators, &c. in the firft fenfe,
0Ites e'" within therr own jurifdiftion : fo are alfo the coroner
. and the fheriff within their own country. The king
is the principal confervator of the peace within all his
dominions: the lord chancellor, lord treafurer, lord
high fteward, lord marfhal, lord high conltable, all the
jutHces of the court of king’s bench, by their office,
and the matter of the rolls, by prefcription, are gene¬
ral confervators of the peace through the whol^* king¬
dom, and may commit breakers of the peace, and bind
them in recognifances to keep it.
CoNSERr.non of the Truce, and Safe ConduBs, was
an officer appointed in every fea -port, under the king’s
letters patent. His charge was to inquire of all of¬
fences committed againft the king’s truce, and fafe
conducts upon the main fea, out of the franchifes of
the cinque-ports, as the admirals were wont to do,
and fuch other things as are declared anno 3 Hen. V.
cap. 6.
CONSERVATORIOS, are mufical fchools efta-
bliflied for the inftru&ion of children in the profeifion
of mafic. There are four of thefe at Venice, defign-
ed for the education of girls, and three at Naples, for
the education of boys. It has been fuggetted that
the operation of caftration was performed in the con-
fervatorios ; but the praftice is abfolutely prohibited :
and the young caftrati are brought from Lucia in Pug¬
lia: but before that operation is performed, their voices
are tried in a confervatorio. The fcholars of the Ve¬
netian confervatorios have been chiefly celebrated for
tafle and neatnefs of execution 5 and thofe of Naples
have had the reputation of being the firft contrapurit'jls,
or compofers, in Europe.
CONSERVATORY, a term fometimes ufed for a
green-houfe or ice-houfe.
CONSERVE, in 'Pharmacy, a form of medicine
contrived to preferve the flowers, herbs, roots, or
fruits of feveral fimples, as near as poflible, to what
they are when frefh gathered. See Pharmacy.
CONSIGNMENT, in Law, the depofiting any
fum of money, bills, papers, or commodities, in good
hands ; either by appointment of a court of juftice, in
order to be delivered to the perfons to whom they are
adjudged ; or voluntarily, in order to their being re¬
mitted to the perfons they belong to, or fent to the
places they are defigned for.
Consignment of Goods, in Commerce, is the de¬
livering or making them over to another *, thus, goods
are faid to be configned to a faftor, when they are
fcnt to him to be fold, &c.; or when a fatftor fends
back goods to his principal, they are faid to be con¬
figned to him.
CONSISTENCE, in Phyfcs, that ftate of a body
wherein its component particles are fo conne£ted cr
entangled among themfelves, as not to i’eparate or
recede from each other. It differs from continuity in
this, that it implies a regard to motion or reft, which
continuity does not, it being fufficient to denominate
a thing continuous that its parts are contiguous to each
other.
CONSISTENTES, in church-hiftory, a kind of pe¬
nitents wTo were allowed to aflift at prayers, but who
could not be admitted to receive the facrament.
CONSISTORY (Conjiforiumf fignifies as much Confiltaryv
as prcetorium, a tribunal : it is commonly ufed for a v—**
council-houfe of ecclefiaftical perfons, or place of ju¬
ftice in the fpiritual court; a fdlion or affembly of pre¬
lates. And every archbilhop and bilhop of every dio-
cefe hath a confiftory court held before his chancellor
or comm'flary in his cathedral church, or other conve¬
nient place of his diocefe, for ecclefiaftical caufes. The
bifhop’s chancellor is the judge of this court, fuppofed
to be flailed in the civil and canon law ; and in places
of the diocefe tar remote from the bifhop’s confiftory j
the bilhop appoints a commilfary to judge in all caufts
within a certain diftrid, and a regifter to enter his de¬
crees, &c.
Consistory, at Rome, denotes the college of car-
dinals, or the pope’s fenate and council, beforfi
whom judiciary caufes are pleaded. Du Cange derives
the word from confifloriitm ; i. e. /ocas ubi con/j/litur;
ufed chiefly for a veftibule, gallery, or anti-chamber,
where the courtiers wait for admiffion : and called
a confjiente multitudine.
The confiftory is the firft court, or tribunal of
Rome : it never meets but when the pope pleafes to
convoke it: the pope pretides in it in perfon, mounted
on a magnificent throne, and habited in his pontifi¬
calia; on the right are the cardinal-bifhops and prieiis,
and on the left the cardinal-deacons. The place where
it is held, is a large hall in the apoftolical palace,
where princes and ambafladors of kings are received.
The other, prelates, prothonotaries, auditors of the ro¬
ta, and other officers, are feated on the fteps of the
throne : the courtiers fit on the ground ; ambafladors
on the right, and confiftorial and fifeal advocates be¬
hind the cardinals.
Befides the public confiftory, there is alfo a private
one, held in a retired chamber, called the chamber of
papegay ; the pope’s throne here being only railed two
fteps high. Nobody is here admitted but the cardi¬
nals, whofe opinions are colle&ed, and called fentences.
Here are firft propofed and palled all bulls for bifliop-
ricks, abbeys, &c. Hence bilhopricks and abbeys
are faid to be confiftorial benefices ; in regard they
rmift be propofed in the confiftory, the annates be paid
to the pope, and his bulls taken. Anciently they were
eledlive ; but by the concordat, which abolilbes elec¬
tions, they are appointed to be collated by the pope
alone, on the nomination of the prince.
Consistory was alfo the name of a court under
Conftantine, where he fat in perfon, and heard caufes:
the members of this court were called comites.
Consistory is alfo uled among the reformed, for
a council or aftembly of minifters and elders, to regu¬
late their affairs, difcipline, &c.
Consistory, or Court Chriftian, in the Englifh laws,
is a council of ecclefiallical perfons, or the place of
juftice in an ecclefiaftical or fpiritual court. Every
archbifhop and bilbop has a confiftory-court, held be¬
fore his chancellor or commiffary, either in his cathe¬
dral, in fome chapel, aifte, or portico, belonging there¬
to; or in fome other convenient place of his diocefe, for
ecclefiaftical carries. The fpiritual court was anciently,
in the time of the Saxons, joined with the county or
hundred court; and the original of the confiftory court,
as divided from thofe courts, is found in a law of the
conqueror,
CON [ 566 ] CON
Confoiation conqueror, quoted by Lord Coke. From this court
Gorfl hit t^iere ^es an aPPea^ to the archbilhop of each province
. relpeftively.
CONSOLATION, one of the places in rhetoric,
wherein the orator endeavours to abate and moderate
the grief or concern of another.
CONSOLE, in Archile&ure, an ornament cut upon
the key of an arch, which has a projefture, and on
occafion ferves to fupport little corniches, figures, bulls,
and vafes.
CONSOLIDATION, in Law, the combining and
uniting two benefices into one. The term is borrowed
from the civil lawj where it properly fignifies an union
of the poffeffion, or occupation, with the property.
Thus, if a man have by legacy ufum fruBum fundi, and
afterwards buy the property, or feedimple, of the
heir; this is called a confolidation.
Consolidation, in Medicine, the a£fion of uniting
broken bones, or the lips of wounds, by means of con-
folidating remedies, as they are called5 which cleanling
with a moderate heat and force, taking corruption out
of the wounds, and preferving the temperature of the
parts, caufe the nourilhment to be fitly applied to the
part affe£led.
Among the many inltances of the confolidating
power of blood and raw flefh, we have a very re¬
markable one in Bartholine’s Medical Obfervations.
A man being condemned to have his nofe cut off by
the hand of the common executioner, the friends, who
were to be prefent, provided a new loaf of warm bread,
which was cut in the middle, and the nofe received in
it as it fell from the face: the nofe was after this nicely
placed on the face again ; and being fewed on, the
whole in time confolidated, and left no other marks
of the ignominy than the fear round the whole nofe,
and the traces of the Hitches.
CONSONANCE, in Mujic. See Interval.
CONSONANT, a letter that cannot be founded
without fome fingle or double vowel before or after it}
as b, c, d, &c.
CONSORT, Zfueen Consort. See Queen.
CONSPIRACY, in Law, fignifies an agreement be¬
tween two or more, falfely to indidl, or procure to be
indifted, an innocent perfon, of felony.
CONSPIRATORS are, by ftatute, defined to be
fuch as bind themfelves by oath, covenant, or other al¬
liance, to affift one another falfely and malicioufly to
indiff perfons, or falfely to maintain pleas.
Confpirators in treafon, are thofe that plot againfl
the king and the government.
CONSTABLE, according to fome, is a Saxon
word, compounded of “king,” and Jlaple which
fignifies the “ ftay or fupport of the king.” But as
we bornnved the name as well as the office of Cttnjiable
from the French, Sir William Blackifone is rather in¬
clined to deduce it, with Sir Henry Spelman and Dr
Cowel, from that language } wherein it is plainly de¬
rived from the Latin comes fiabuli, an officer well
knowm in the empire } fo called, becaufe, like the
great conftable of France, as well as the lord high
conftable of England, he w-as to regulate all matters
of chivalry, tilts, tournaments, and feats of arms, which
were performed on horfeback.— The
Lord High Constable of England is the feventh
great officer of the crown } and he, with the earl
x
marffial of England, were formerly judges of the court Conftable*
of chivalry, called in King Henry IV’s time Curia ' *
Mihtaris, and now the court of honour. It is the
fountain of the martial law, and anciently was held in
the king’s, hall. The power of the lord high con-
flable was formerly fo great, and of w hich fo improper
a ufe was made, that fo early as the 13th of King Rich¬
ard II. a ftatute palled for regulating and abridging
the fame, together with the power of the earl marfhal
of England ; and by this ftatute, no plea could be tri¬
ed by them or their courts, that could be tried by the
common law of the realm. The office of conftable
exifted before the conqueft. After the conqueft, the
office went with inheritance, and by the tenure of the
manors of Harlefield, Newman, and Whitenhurft, in
Gloucefterffiire, by grand ferjeanty in the family of
the Bohuns earl of Hereford and Effex, and afterwards
in the line of Stafford as heirs-general to them ; but
in 1521, this great office became forfeited to the king
in the perfon of Edward Stafford duke of Bucking¬
ham, who was that year attainted for high treafon ; and
in confideration of its extenfive power, dignity, and
large authority, both in time of war and peace, it has
never been granted to any perfon, otherwrife than hac
‘iiice, and that to attend at a coronation, or trial by
combat. In France, the fame office was alfo fuppreffed
about a century after by an edift of Louis XIII. }
though it has been exercifed, in the command of the
Marshals, by the firft officer in the army.
Lord high conftable of Scotland was an office of
great antiquity and dignity. The firft upon record is
Hugo de Morvelle in the reign of David I. He had
two grand prerogatives, viz. Firft, the keeping of the
king’s fword, which the king, at his promotion, when
he fwears fealty, delivers to him naked. Hence the
badge of the conftable is a naked fword.—Second, The
abfolute and unlimited command of the king’s armies
while in the field, in the abfence of the king ; but
this command does not extend to caftles and garrifons.
He was likewife judge of all crimes committed within
twm leagues of the king’s houfe, which precinft wTas
called the Chalmer of Peace : though his jurifdidtion
came at laft to be exercifed only as to crimes during
the time of parliament, wrhich iome extended likewife
to all general conventions. This office was conferred
heritably upon the noble family of Errol, by King Ro¬
bert Bruce } and with them it ftill remains, being ex-
prefsly referved by the treaty of union*
Inferior Constables. From the great office of high
conftable is derived that inferior order, fihee called the
confables of hundreds andfranchfes ; thefe were firft or¬
dained in the 13th year of Edward L by the ftatute
of Winchefter} which, for the confervation of the
peace, and view' of armour, appointed that two confta-
bles Ihould be chofen in every hundred and franchife.
Thefe are what we now call confabularu capitales, or
high confables ; becaufe continuance of time, and in-
creafe of people, &.c. have occafioned others of like
nature, but inferior authority, in every town, called
petty confables, orfub-confabularn, firft inftituted about
the reign of Edward III.
The former, or modern high confables, are appoint¬
ed at the court-leets of the franchife or hundred over
which they prefide ; or, in default of that, by the
juftices at their quarter-feffions} and are removeable
CON [ 5<>7 ] CON
Conftable. by the fame authority that appoints them. The petty
1J - con/lables have two offices united in them, the one an¬
cient, and the other modern. Their ancient office is
that of head-borough, tithing-man, or bortholder j
which is as ancient as the time , of King Alfred : their
more modern office is that of conftable merely $ which
was appointed fo lately as the reign of Edward III.
in order to affift the high-conftable. And in general
the ancient head-boroughs, tithing-men, and borlhold-
ers, were made ufe of to ferve as petty conftables ;
though not fo generally, but that in many places they
{till continue diftinft officers from the conftables.
They are all chofen by the jury at the court-leet ; or
if no court-leet be held, are appointed by two juftices
of the peace.
The general duty of all conftables, both high and
petty, as well as of the other officers, is to keep the
king’s peace in their feveral diftrifts; and to that pur-
pofe they are armed with very large powers of ar-
refting and imprifoning, of breaking open houfes, and
the like : of the extent of which powers, confidering
what manner of men are for the moft part put upon
thefe offices, it is perhaps very well that they are ge¬
nerally kept in ignorance. One of their principal
duties arifing from the ftatute of Winchefter, which
appoints them, is to keep watch and ward in their re-
fpe&ive jurifdidtions. Ward, guard, or cujlodia, is
chiefly intended of the day-time, in order to appre¬
hend rioters, and robbers on the highways ; the man¬
ner of doing which is left to the difcretion of the juf¬
tices of the peace and the conftable : the hundred be¬
ing, however, liable for all the robberies committed
therein by day-light, for having kept negligent guard.
Watch is properly applicable to the night only (being
called among the Saxons wach't or waciu) ; and it be¬
gins when ward ends, and ends when that begins;
for, by the ftatute of Winchefter, in walled towns the
gates (hall be clofed from fun-fetting to fun-rifing $-
and watch (hall be kept in every borough and town,
efpecially in the fummer feafon, to apprehend all
rogues, vagabonds, and night-walkers, and make them
give an account of themfelves. The conftable may
appoint watchmen at his difcretion, regulated by the
cuftom of the place j and thefe, being his deputies,
have, for the time being, the authority of their prin¬
cipal.
There are alfo conftables denominated from parti¬
cular places, as conftable of the Towrer, of Dover
caftle, of Windfor caftle, of the caftle of Caernarvon
and many other of the caftles of Wales j whofe office
is the fame with that of the caftellani, or governors
of caftles.
Constables of London. The city of London is di¬
vided into 26 wards, and the wards into precinfts, in
each of which is a conftable. They are nominated by
the inhabitants of each precinft on St Thomas’s day,
and confirmed, or otherwufe, at the court of wardmote.
After confirmation, they are fworn into their offices
at a court of alderman, on the next Monday after
Twelfth day. Such as are chofen into the office, are
obliged to place the king’s arms, and the arms of the
city, over their doors ; and if they refide in alleys, at
the ends of fuch alleys toward the ftreets, to fignify
that a conftable lives there, and that they may be the
more eafily found when wanted.
Constables to fuflices of the Peace, in Scotland, Conflanee
are the proper officers for executing their orders. Conftancv
They have powers to fupprefs tumults, and to ap- ' ' ~'
prehend delinquents and thofe who can give no good
account of themfelves, and carry them to the next
juftice.
CONSTANCE, a ftrong town of Germany, in the
circle of Suabia, with a bifhop’s fee, whofe biffiop is a
prince of the empire. It has a handfome bridge, and
feveral fine ftrudlures, as well facred as profane. It
carries on a great trade, and is well fortified : and
though it pretends to be an imperial town, the Auf-
trians keep a garrifon here. It is famous for a coun¬
cil held here in 1514, when there were three popes j
but they were all depofed, and Martin V. was ele£!ed
in their room. The council caufed Jerom of Prague
and John Hufs to be burnt, though the emperor Sigif-
mund had given them a fafe conduct \ in purfuance of
this maxim, “ that no faith is to be kept with here¬
tics.” They likewife condemned the do£frine of
Wickliff, and ordered his bones to be burned 40 years
after he was dead. However, the inhabitants now are
Proteftants. It is leated on a lake of the fame name.
E. Long. 9. 10. N. Lat. 47. 38.
Constance, one of the molt confiderable and beau¬
tiful lakes of Switzerland, which feparates it from Sua¬
bia, except that part wffiere the city of Conftance is
feated on its fide- It is divided into three parts j the
upper or largeft part is called Boden fee, the middle
Bodmer fee, and the lower part Zeller fee. The firft
is 37 miles long, and its greateft breadth ij miles. It
is deeper in fummer than in wunter.
CONSTANCY, in a general fenfe, denotes immu¬
tability, or invariablenefs.—In ethics, or when applied
to the human mind, the term implies refolution or
fteadinefs, particularly under fufferings and the trials
of adverfity.
It was the faying of a heathen philofopher, That
there cannot be imagined upon earth a fpeftacle more
worthy the regard of the Creator intent on his works,
than a brave man fuperior to his fufferings. Nothing
indeed can be more noble or honourable than to have
courage enough to execute the commands of reafon.
and confcience j to maintain the dignity of our na¬
ture, and the ftation affigned us; and to be proof
againft poverty, pain, and death itfelf, fo far as not to
do any thing that is fcandalous or finful to avoid them.
To be thus, is to be great above title or fortune. This
argues the foul of a heavenly extra&ion, and is worthy
the offspring of the Deity.
Of this virtue the following example, related in
Englifti hiftory, is here felefled, as fuperior perhaps,
all circumftances confidered, to any other upon re¬
cord.
Sir William Afkew of Kelfay, in Lincolnfhire, had
feveral daughters. His fecond, named Anne, had re¬
ceived a genteel education ; which, with an agreeable
figure and good underftanding, rendered her a very
proper perfon to be at the head of a family. Her fa¬
ther, regardlefs of his daughter’s inclination and hap-
pinefs, obliged her to marry a gentleman who had no¬
thing to recommend him but his fortune, and who was.
a moft bigotted Papift. No fooner was he convinced
of his wife’s regard for the doiftrines of the reforma¬
tion from popery, than, by the inftigation of his
priefts,
CON f 568 ] CON
Conibmcy. priefls, he violently drove her from his houfe, though
'—V-*-' flie had born him two children, and her condudl: was
unexceptionable. Abandoned by her hufband, flic
came up to London, in order to procure a divorce,
and to make herfclf known to that part of the court
who either profeffed or were favourers of Protefian-
tifm •, but as Henry VIII. with confent of parlia¬
ment, had juif enafted the law of the fix articles, com¬
monly called the bloodyJfatutc, fhe was cruelly betrayed
by her own hufband ; and, upon his information, taken
into cufiody, and examined concerning her faith. The
a£I above mentioned denounced death againll all thofe
who (houkl deny the do£lrine of tranfuhjiantiction ; or,
that the bread and wine made ufe of in the facrament
was not converted after confecrstion into the real bo¬
dy and blood of Chrift 5 or, maintain the neceflky of
receiving the facrament in both kinds ; or affirm, that
it was lawful for pviefts to marry ; that the vows of ce¬
libacy might be broken \ that private maffes were of no
avail : and that auiicular confeffion to a priefl was not
neceffary tc falvation. Upon thefe firticles fhe was
examined by the inquifitor, a prieft, the lord-mayor of
London, and the biffiops chancellor ; and to all their
queries gave proper and pertinent anfwers ; but not
being fuch as they approved, ffie was lent back to pri-
fon, where ffie remained eleven days to ruminate alone
on her alarming fituation, and was denied the fmall
confolation of a friendly vifit. The king’s council
being at Greenwich, ffie was once more examined by
Chancellor Wriothefley, Gardiner biffiop of Winche-
fter, Dr Cox, and Dr Robinfon ; but not being able
to convince her of fuppofed errors, ffie was fent to
the Tower. Mr Strype, from an authentic paper,
gives us the following ffiort account of her examina-
iion, which may not, perhaps, be unentertaining or
ufelefs to the reader : “ Sir Martin Bowes (lord
mayor) fitting with the council, as moft meet for his
wifdom, and feeing her Hand upon life and death, I
pray you, quoth he, my lords, give me leave to talk
to this woman ? Leave was granted. Lord Mayor.
Thou fooliffi woman, fayefl thou that, the prieft can¬
not make the holy body of Cbrift ? /I. Afkevj. I fay fo,
my lord : for I have read that God made man ; but
that man made God I never read ■, nor I fuppofe ever
fhall read it. Lord Mayor. No ! Thou fooliffi wo¬
man, after the words of confecration, is it not the
Lord’s body > A. AJkew. No : it is but confecrated
bread, or facramental bread. Lord Mayor. What if
a moufe eat it after confecration 5 what ftiall become of
this moufe ? what fayeft thou, thou fooliffi woman 1
A. AJkew. What ffiall become of her, fay you, my
lord ? L.ord Mayor. I fay, that the moufe is damned.
A. AJkew. Alack, poor moufe !” Perceiving that
fome could not keep in their laughing, the council
proceeded to the butchery and llaughter that they in¬
tended before they came there.—It was ftrongly fu-
fpefted that Mrs Afkew was favoured by fome ladies
of high rank •, and that fhe carried on a religious cor-
refpondtnee with the queen. So that the chancellor
Wriotheftey, honing that he might difeover fomething
that would afford matter of impeachment againft that
princefs, the earl of Hertford, or his countefs, who
all favoured reformation, ordered her to be put to the
yack : but her fortitude in fuffering, and her refolution
£Qt to betray her friends, was proof againft that dia-
2.
bolical invention. Not a groan, not a word, could be Conftantf*.
extorted from her. The chancellor, provoked with 1'v—“*
what he called her obftinacy, augmented her tortures
with his own hands, and with unheard-of violence : but
her courage and conftancy were invincible 5 and thefe
barbarians gained nothing by their cruelties but ever-
lafting difgrace and infamy. As foon as ftie was taken
from the rack, ffie fainted away •, but being recovered,
(he was condemned to the flames. Her bones were dif-
located in fuch a manner, that they were forced to car¬
ry her in a chair to the place of execution. While ftie
was at the ftake, letters were brought her from the
lord chancellor, offering her the king’s pardon if (he
would recant. But ftie refufed to look at them } tell¬
ing the meffenger, that “ ftie came not thither to deny
her Lord and Mafter.” The fame letters were alfo
tendered to three other perfons condemned to the fame
fate j and who, animated by her example, refufed to
accept them. Whereupon the lord-mayor command¬
ed the fire to be kindled j and with favage ignorance
cried out, Fiat jujlitla, “ Let juftice take its courfe.”
The faggots being lighted, ffie commended her foul,
with the utmoft compolure, into the hands of her Ma¬
ker ; and, like the great founder of the religion ftie
profeffed, praying for her murderers, July 16.
1546, about the 25th year of her age.
CONST ANTI A, a diftridt at the Cape of Good
Hope, confifting of two farms, which produce the
well-known wine fo much prized in Europe, and
known by the name of Cape or Conjantia wine. This
place is fituated at the diftance of a mile and a half
from xMphen, in a bending formed by and nearly un¬
der the ridge of hills, which comes from Meuifen-
mountain, and juft where it ftrikes off towards Hout-
bay. One of thefe farms is called Little Conjantia.
Here the white Conftantia wine is made. The other
produces the red. According to M. de la Call’s ac¬
count, not more than 60 figgars of red, and 90 of the
white, Conftantia wine are made, each figgar being
reckoned at 600 French pints, or about 150 Swediffi
cans 5 fo that the whole produce amounts to 22,500
cans. As the company are ufed to keep one-third
of this for themfelves, the remainder is always be-
fpoke by the Europeans long before it is made. At
the Cape this wine is feldom feen at table, partly be-
caufe it is dear, and partly becaufe it is the produce
of the country. The red Conftantia wine fells for
about 60 rixdollars the half avvin j but the white is
ufually to be purchafed at a more reafonable rate.
The genuine Conftantia wine is undeniably a very
racy and delicate deffert wine, and has fomething pe¬
culiarly agreeable in the flavour of it. That its fupe-
riority, however, is not owing to any thing peculiar
in the manner of preparing it, feems extremely pro¬
bable ; for then, without doubt, a great deal more of
it would be made. In faft, Dr Sparmann informs us,
that the genuine wine can only be produced from
particular foils. The diftrifts that lie next to thefe
yield merely the common Cape wine, notwithftanding
th^t they have been planted with vine flocks taken
from this, as well as with fome brought from the
banks of the Rhine, whence it is fuppofed that the
true Conftantia fort originally comes j nay, even though
all the vineyards about Conftantia feem to have the
fame foil. We have ipftances at the Cape, as well as
ia
Conftan-
tina,
Canftan-
tine.
CON [569
In Europe, that good grapes fometimes produce a
bad wine 5 while, on the other hand, bad grapes
will. yield a good fort pf wine : therefore, towards
_ making wine of a certain quality, befides finer ma¬
terials, there mud: be certain conditions and circum-
flances, which, by a diligent and rational inveftigation,
might probably be explored to the great benefit of
mankind.
Such as are apprifed in what quantities Conflantia
wine is confumed in Europe, will perhaps think the
above calculation of the produce too limited. This,
however, Dr Sparmann allures us, is by no means the
cafe ; the overplus being the produce of avarice, which,
goaded on by the defire of gain, will always hit upon
iOiue method of fatisfying the demands of luxury and
ienluality. I he votaries of theie, accuftomed to be
put off with empty founds, do not feldom drink with
the higheft relifii an imaginary Conftantia, with which,
however, this liquor has nothing in common befides
the mere name. It is therefore advifable, even at
the Cape itfelf, to take care, that W'hilft one has a ge¬
nuine fampie given one to talle, one is not made to
pay for a made-up red Conftantia, which otherwife is
in general fold for half the price. The rich quality
of this wine, is, according to Barrow, owing partly
to the fituation and foil, and partly to the care in the
manufacture ; for ripe fruit only is ufed, and always
entirely freed from the ftalks.
CONST ANT1NA, a ftrong and confiderable towm
of Africa, in the kingdom of Algiers, and capital of a
territory of the fame name. It is the largeft and
ftrongeft place in all the eaftern parts 5 and it is feated
on the top of a great rock. 1 here is no way to it
but by fteps cut out of the rock j and the ufual way
of punifhing criminals here is to throw them down
the cliff. Here are a great many Roman antiquities,
particularly a triumphal arch. E. Long. 7. 12. N.
Lat. 36. 4.
C onstantin A, a town of Spain, in Andalufia, and
capital of a fmall territory of the fame name, with a
caftle feated on a mountain. W. Long. 5. 33. N.
Lat. 37. 4c.
CONSTANTINE, a kingdom of Barbary of that
name, in Africa. It is bounded on the north by the
Mediterranean, on the eaft by the kingdom of Tunis,
on the fouth by Bildulgerid, and on the welt by the’
river Sufegmar, which feparates it from the kingdom
of Bugia. T he country is the new Numidia of the
ancients, and had its own king : but it is now a pro¬
vince to Algiers.
Constantine, the Great, the firft emperor of the
Romans who embraced Chriftianity. His father, Con-
itantius Chlorus, rendered himfelf famous by his vic¬
torious expeditions to G?rmany and Britain : upon the
abdication of Dioclefian, he lhared the Roman empire
with Galerius Maximinus in 305, and was at that time
at York, where he died in 306; having firft caufed
his fon Conftantine the Great to be proclaimed empe¬
ror by his army, and the Englifh. Galerius at firft
refufed to admit Conftantine to his father’s fliare in the
imperial throne •, but after having loft feveral battles,
he confented in 308. Maxentius, wLo fucceeded Ga¬
lerius, oppofed him : but was defeated, and drowned
himfelf in the Tyber. The fenate then declared
Conftantine chief or firft Auguftus, and Licinius his
Vol. VI. Part IL
CON
fecond affociate in the empire, in 313. Thefe princes
publifhed an ediil, in their joint names, in favour of
the Chriftians $ but foon after Licinius, jealous of Con-
ftantine’s renown, conceived an implacable hatred a-
gainft him, and renewed the perfecutions againft. the
Chriftians. This brought on a rupture between the
empeiors, and a battle, in which Conftantine was
yiffonous. A fhort peace enfued : but Licinius hav¬
ing fhamefully violated the treaty, the war was re¬
newed ; when Conftantine totally defeating him, he
fled to Nicomedia, w'here he was taken prilbner and
ftiangled in 3^3* Conftantine, now become lole ma¬
iler of the w'ellern and eaftern empires, immtdiately
formed the plan of eftabliftung Chriftianity as the reli¬
gion of the ftate ; for which purpofe, he convoked fe¬
veral ecclefiaftical councils : but finding he w^as like¬
ly to meet with great oppofition from the Pagan inte-
reft at Rome, he conceived the defign of founding a
new city, to be the capital of his Chriftian empire j fee
Constantinople. The glory Conftantine had ac¬
quired by eftabliftiing the Chriftian religion, was tar-
nillied by the part he took in the perfecutions carried
on by the Arians, towards the clofe of his reign,
againft their Chriftian brethren who differed from
them : feduced by Eufebius of Nicomedia, he banilhed
feveral eminent prelates 5 foon after which, he died in
337* the 66th year of his age’, and 31ft of his reign.
_ As to the chara&er of Conftantine, he w'as chafte,
pious, laborious, and indefatigable ; a great general,
fuccefsful in war, and deferving his fuccefs by his
ftiining valour and by the brightnefs of his genius j a
protestor of arts, and an encourager of them by his
beneficence. If we compare him with Auguftus, we
lhall find that he rumed idolatry, by the fame precau¬
tions and the fame addrels that the other ufed to de-
ftroy liberty. Like Auguftus, he laid the foundation
of a new empire 5 but poffeffed of lefs political Ikill, he
could not give it the fame liability : he w-eakened the
body of the ftate by adding to it, in fome meafure, a
fecond head in the foundation of Conftantinople ; and
tranfporting the centre of motion and ftrength too
near the eaftern extremity, he left without heat, and
almoft without life, the wreftein parts, which foon be¬
came a prey to the barbarians. The Pagans w-ere
too much his enemies to do him juftice. Eutropius
fays, that in the former part of his reign he was equal
to the moft accompliftied princes, and in the latter to
the meaneft. The younger Vi61or, who makes him
to have reigned more than 31 years, pretends, that in
the firft 10 years he was a hero j in the 12 fucceedir.g
ones a robber ; and in the 10 laft a fpendthrift. It is
eaiy to perceive, with relpeft to thefe tw'o reproaches
of Viaor’s, that the one relates to the riches which
Conftantine took from idolatry, and the other to thofc
with which he loaded the church.
Constantine, emperor of the Eaft in 1002, left
the care of the empire to his wife Helena, who load¬
ed the people with taxes, and fold all the offices in
church and ftate to the higheft bidders; while the
emperor employed himfelf in reading, writing, and
the fine arts, till he became as good an architea and
painter as he was a bad prince ; he wrote feveral bio¬
graphical and geographical works, which would have
done honour to his name, if he had not negleaed his
duty to compofe them. He died in 559.
4 C CoN-STANTIMfi
CON
t 57° 1
CON
Gonftan-
tine,
Coisltan-
tinople.
Constantine Dracofes, the Ton of Emmanuel Pa-
leologus, was placed on the throne by Sultan Amurath
in 1448. But Mahomet II. his fucceflbr, refolving
to dethrone him, laid fiege to Condantinople by fea
and land, and took it by affault in 1453, after it had
held out 58 days. The unfortunate emperor feeing
the Turks enter the breaches, threw himfelf into the
midft of the enemy, and was cut to pieces j the chil¬
dren of the imperial houfe were maflacred by the fol-
diers j and the women referved to gratify the lull of
the conqueror *, and thus terminated the dynafty of
the Conftantines, 1123 years after its eftablifnment at
Conitantinople.
Constantine, Robert, a learned phyfician, born
at Caen, taught polite literature in that city ; and ac¬
quired great reputation by his {kill in the Greek lan¬
guage, in hiftory, and in medicine. He died in 1603,
aged 103. He wrote a di£tionary in Greek and Latin,
and other w’orks, which are efteeined.
1 . CONSTANTINOPLE, the modern name of the
thT'mpefi-c*ty Byzantium in Thrace. It was enlarged and
al feat to beautified by the Roman emperor Conftantine the
this city Great, in the year 330. At the fame time he tranf-
the-caufe °fferred thither the feat of the empire ; and this remo-
oftheweft val is generally thought to have been one of the prin-
ernem- cipal caufes of the fudden decline of the wellern em¬
pire. piie after this period.
2 In the year 332, the Sarmatians implored Conftan-
Conftantine tine’s afliftance againft the Goths, who had made an
defev ts the jrruptjon jnto their territories, and deftroyed every
O0tlS’ thing with fire and fword. The emperor readily
granted their requeft, and gained a complete vi&ory.
Near 100,000 of the enemy periftied, either in the
battle, or after it with hunger and cold. In confe-
quence of this overthrow, the Goths were obliged to
fue for peace *, but the ungrateful Sarmatians no foon-
er found themfelves delivered from their enemies, than
they turned their arms againft their benefadlor, and
3 ravaged the provinces of Maefia and Thrace. The
and the ^ emperorj receiving intelligence of this treachery, re¬
turned with incredible expedition, cut great numbers
of them in pieces, and obliged the reft to fubmit to
what terms he was pleafed to impofe.
Conftantine feems to have been a prince very highly
refpe&ed, even by far diftant nations. In 333, ac¬
cording to Eufebius, ambaffadors arrived at Conftanti-
nople from the Blemyes, Indians, Ethiopians, and Per-
fians, courting his friendftiip. They were received in
a moft obliging manner ; and learning from the ambaf¬
fadors of Sapor king of Perfia, that there were great
numbers of Chriftians in their matter’s dominions,
Conftantine wrote a letter in their behalf to the Per-
jfian monarch.
Next year, the Sarmatians being again attacked by
the Goths, found themfelves obliged to fet at liberty
and arm their {laves againft them. By this means
they indeed overcame the Goths : but the viftorious
{laves turning their arms againft their matters, drove
them out of the country. This misfortune obliged
number of them, to the number of 300,000, to apply for relief to
Sarmatians the Roman emperor, who incorporated with his le-
into his gions fuch as were capable of fervice •, and gave fettle-
arB°y* mer.ts to the reft in Thrace, Scythia, Macedon, and
Italy. This was the laft remarkable aftion of Con¬
ftantine the Great. He died on May 15• 337? having
4
Is highly
refpefted.
divided the empire among his children and nephews, Conftan-
in the following manner. Conftantine, his eldeft fon,
had Gaul, Spain, and Britain : Conftantius, the fe- 
cond, had Afia, Syria, and Egypt ; and Conftans, the 6
youngeft, Iliyricum, Italy, and Africa. To his ne-ji;s deat},f
phew Dalmatius, he gave Thrace, Macedon, and and divi-
Achaia ; and to King Annibalianus, his other nephew, fl0n of the
Armenia Minor, Pontus, Cappadocia, and the city oferrlPlre•
Caefarea, which he defired might be the capital of his
kingdom. 7
After the death of Conftantine, the army and fe-Allhisre-
nate proclaimed his three fons emperors, without ta" ^t^se™ur-
king any notice of his two nephews, who were foon c^t
after murdered, with Julius Conftantius the late cm-fon8
peror’s brother, and all their friends and adherents, and two
Thus the family of Conftantine was at once reduced nephews,
to his three fons, and two nephews Gallus and Julian,
the fons of Julius Conftantius j and of thefe the former
owed his life to a malady, from which no one thought
he could recover , and the latter to his infancy, being
then at moft about feven years of age. The three bro¬
thers divided among themfelves the dominions of the
deceafed princes 5 but did not long agree together. In ^
340, Conftantine having in vain folicited Conftans to £0nfl.an_
yield part of Italy to him, raifed a confiderable army J tine invades
and under pretence of marching to the afliftance of his the domi-
brother Conftantius, who was then at war with the™™^
Petfians, made himfelf mafter of feveral places in Italy.
Hereupon Conftans detached part of his army againft
him ; and Conftantine, being drawm into an ambufcade 9
near Aqufteia, was cut off with his whole forces. His
body was thrown into the river Anfa j but being after-
w'ards difcovered, was fent to Conftantinople, and in¬
terred there near the tomb of his father. 10
By the defeat and death of his brother, Conftans re- Conftans
mained foie mafter of all the weftern part of the em- rn^el[
pire, in the quiet poffeflion of which he continued till0 1 6 ^
the year 350. This year Magnentius, the fon one ]y[agnen-
Magnus, a native of Germany, finding Conftans de- tuis revolts
fpifed by the army on account of his indolence and in- againft
a&ivity, refolved to murder him, and let up for him-h’m"
felf. Having found means to gain over the chief of¬
ficers of the army to his defigns, he feized on the Im¬
perial palace at Autun, and diftributed among the po¬
pulace what fums he found there ; which induced not
only the city, but the neighbouring country, to elpoufe
his caufe. But Conftans being informed of what had
paffed, and finding himfelf unable to refill the ufurp-
er, fled towards Spain. He wras overtaken, however,
by Gaifo, whom Magnentius had fent after him with a
chofen body of troops, and defpatched with many
wounds, at Helena, a fmall village fituated near the
foot of the Pyrenees. *3
Thus Conftantius acquired .? right to the whole Ro-
man empire j though one-half of it was feized by Mag¬
nentius after the murder of Conftans. I he foimer
had been engaged in a war with the Perfians, in
which little advantage wTas gained on either fide : but
tbe Perfians now giving no more diilurbance, the em¬
peror marched againft the ufurpers in the w'eft. Be- ^
fides Magnentius, there were at that time two other Three pre-
pretenders to the weftern empire. Veteranio, gene-tenders to
ral of the foot in Pannonia, had, on the firft news of the empire,
the death of Conftans, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed
emperor by the legions under his command. He was
Conflan-
4inopolitan
hiftory.
*4
Nepotianus
makes him-
felf mafter
of Rome.
15
He is de-
feated and
killed.
16
Tyranny of
Magnen-
tius.
*7
Sends pro-
jofals of
peace to
Conftantius.
18
ISallus fent
againft the
P«lians,
CON . [ 57
a native of Upper Msefia, and advanced in years when
he ufurped the fovereignty } but fo illiterate, that he
then firft learned to read. The third pretender was
Flavius Popilius Nepotianus, fon of Eutropia, the filler
of Conilantine the Great. Having aflembled a com¬
pany of gladiators and men of defperate fortunes, he
affirmed the purple on the 3d of June 350, and in
that attire prefented himfelf before the gates of Rome.
The prefe£! Anicetus, who commanded there for Mag-
nentius, fallied out againft him with a body of Ro¬
mans, who were foon driven back into the city. Soon
after Nepotianus made himfelf mafter of the city it-
felf, which he filled with blood and fiaughter. Mag-
nentius being informed of what had happened, fent
againft this new competitor his chief favourite and
prime minifter Marcellinus. Nepotianus received him
with great refolution 5 a bloody battle enfued between
the foldiers of Magnentius and the Romans who had
efpoufed the caufe of Nepotianus j but the latter being
betrayed by a fenator, named Heraclitus, his men were
put to flight, and he himfelf killed, after having enjoy¬
ed the fovereignity only 28 days. Marcellinus ordered
his head to be carried on the point of a lance through
the principal ftreets of the city ; put to death all thofe
who had declared for him j and under pretence of pre¬
venting difturbances, commanded a general maffacre
of all the relations of Couftantine. Soon after, Mag¬
nentius himfelf came to Rome, to make the neceffary
preparations for refilling Conftantius, who was exert¬
ing himfelf to the utmoft in order to revenge the
death of his brother. In the city he behaved moft
tyrannically, putting to death many perfons of dif-
tinflion, in order to feize their eftates ; and obliged
the reft to contribute half of what they were worth
towards the expence of the war. Having by this
means raifed great fums, he affembled a mighty army
compofed of Romans, Germans, Gauls, Franks, Bri¬
tons, Spaniards, &c. At the fame time, however,
dreading the uncertain iffues of war, he difpatched
ambaffadors to Conftantius with propofals of accom¬
modation. Conftantius fet out from Antioch about the
beginning of autumn j and, pafling through Conftanti*
nople, arrived at Heraclea, w’here he was met by the
deputies from Magnentius, and others from Veteranio,
who had agreed to fupport each other in cafe the em¬
peror would hearken to no terms. The deputies of
Magnentius propofed in his name a match between him
and Conftantia, or rather Conftantina, the filler of
Conftantius, and widow of Annibalianus j offering, at
the fame time, to Conftantius the filler of Magnentius.
At firft the emperor would hearken to no terms ; but
afterwards, that he might not have to oppofe two ene¬
mies at once, concluded a feparate treaty with Vetera¬
nio, by which he agreed to take him for his partner
in the empire. But when Veteranio afeended the tri¬
bunal along with Conftantius, the foldiers pulled him
down from thence, crying out, That they would ac¬
knowledge no other emperor than Conftantius alone.
On this Veteranio threw himfelf at the emperor’s feet,
and implored his mercy. Conftantius received him
with great kindnefs, and fent him to Prufia in Bithynia,
where he allowed him a maintenance fuitable to his
quality. . ,
Conftantius, now mafter of all Ulyricum, and of
the army commanded by Vetepanio, refolved to march
i ] CON
againft Magnentius without delay. In the mean time,
however, on advice that the Perfians w’ere preparing
to invade the eaftern provinces, he married his filler
Conftantina to his coufin-german Gallus ; created
him Caefar on the 15th of March; and allotted him
for his lhare not only all thd Fall, but likewife
Thrace and Conllantinople. About the fame time
Magnentius gave the title of Csefar to his brother
Decentius, w’hom he difpatched into Gaul to defend
that country againft the barbarians who had invaded
it ; for Conftantius had not only ftirred up the Franks
and Saxons to break into that province, by promifing
to relinquilh to them all the places they fttould con¬
quer, but had fent them large fupplies of men and
arms for that purpofe. On this encouragement the
barbarians invaded Gaul with a mighty army, over¬
threw Decentius in a pitched battle, committed every¬
where dreadful ravages, and reduced the country to
a moft deplorable fituation. In the mean time Mag¬
nentius having affembled a numerous army, left Italy,
and crofting the Alps, advanced into the plains of
Pannonia, where Conftantius, whofe main ftrength
confifted in cavalry, w'as waiting for him. Magnen¬
tius hearing that his competitor was encamped at a
fmall diftance, invited him by a meffenger to the ex-
tenfive plains of Scifcia on the Save, there to decide
which of them had the bell title to the empire. This
challenge was by Conftantius received wdth great joy;
but as his troops marched towards Scifcia in diforder,
they fell into an ambufeade, and were put to flight
with great flaughter. With this fuccefs, Magnentius
was fo elated, that he rejedled all terms of peace, which
were now offered by Conftantius; but after feme time,
a general engagement enfued at Murfa, in wdrich Mag¬
nentius wTas entirely defeated, with the lols of 24,000
men. Conftantius, though vi£lor, is faid to have loft
30,000, which feems improbable. All authors how¬
ever, agree, that the battle at Murfa proved fatal to
the weftern empire, and greatly contributed to its
fpeedy decline.
After his defeat at Murfa, Magnentius retired into
Italy, where he recruited his {battered forces as well
as he could. But the beginning of the following year,
352, Conftantius, having affembled his troops, furpri-
fed and took a ftrong caltle on the Julian Alps, belong¬
ing to Magnentius, without the lofs of a man. After
this the emperor advanced in order to force the reft j
upon which Magnentius was ftruck with fjch terror,
that he immediately abandoned Aquileia, and ordered
the troops that guarded the other poffes of the Alps to
follow him. Thus Conftantius entering Italy without
oppofition, made himfelf mafter of Aquileia. From
thence he advanced to Pavia, where Magnentius gain¬
ed a confiderable advantage over him. Notwith-
ftanding this lofs, however, Conftantius reduced the
whole country bordering on the Po, and Magnentius’s
men deferted to him in wrhole troops, delivering up
to him the places they had garrifoned ; by which the
tyrant was fo diflreartened, that he left Italy, and retir¬
ed w?ith all his forces into Gaul. Soon after this, Af¬
rica, Sicily, and Spain, declared for Conftantius; upon
which Magnentius fent a fenator, and after him fome
biibops, to treat of a peace : but the emperor treated
the fenator as a fpy, and fent back the bifttops with¬
out any anfwer.—Magnentius now finding his affairs
4 C 2 defperate?
Conftsfi-
tinopolitan
hittory.
r9 .
ConftantltM
ftirs up the
F'anks to
■nvade
Gaul.
40
Is defeated
by Mag¬
nentius.
21
Magnen¬
tius de¬
feated at
Murfa.
22
This battl
fatai to th
empire.
€on(Un-
'tlnopilitan
hiftory.
23
Magnen-
tius at¬
tempts to
get Gallus
murdered.
24
Magnen-
tius defeat¬
ed a fecond
time ; kills
all his fa¬
mily and
himfelf.
25 .
Conftantius
foie mailer
of the em¬
pire.
26
Many grie¬
vous cala¬
mities.
27
Tyranny
of Gallus.
CON [57
defperate, and that there were no hopes of pardon,
recruited his army in the bed manner he could, and
difpatched an affaffin into the ead to murder GalLis
Cadar ; hoping that his death would oblige the empe¬
ror to withdraw his forces from Gaul, and march in
perfon to the defence of the eadern provinces, which
were threatened by the Perdans. The affaffin gained
over fome of Gallus’s guards •, but the plot being dif-
covered before it could be put in execution, they were
all feized and executed as traitors.
In 353, the war againd Magnentius was carried on
with more vigour than ever, and at lad happily ended
by a battle fought in the Higher Dauphiny. Mag-
nentius, being defeated, took dielter in Lyons ; but
the few ioldiers 'who attended him, defpairing of any
further fuccefs, refolved to purchafe the emperor’s fa¬
vour by delivering up to him his rival, the author of
fo calamitous a war. Accordingly they lurrounded the
houfe where he lodged ; upon which the tyrant, in
defpair, flew with his own hand his mother, his bro¬
ther Deficlerius whom he had created Cxlar, and fuch
of his friends and relations as were with him : and
then, fixing his fword in a wall, threw himfelf upon it,
in order to avoid a more diameful death which he had
reafon to apprehend.
After the death of Magnentius, his brother Decen-
tius Ccefar, who was marching to his affiftance, and
had already reached Sens, finding himfelf furrounded
on all fides by the emperor’s forces, chofe rather to
llrangle himfelf than fall alive into the hands of his
enemies. Thus Conftantius was left foie mafter of
the Roman empire. His panegyrifts tell us, that after
his vitftory he behaved with the greateft humanity,
forgiving and receiving into favour his greateft ene¬
mies j but other hiftorians differ confiderably from
them, and tell us that Conftantius now became haugh¬
ty, imperious, and cruel, of which many inftances are
given.
This year the empire was fubjeffed to very grie¬
vous calamities. Gaul was ravaged by the barbarians
beyond the Rhine, and the diftnnded troops of Mag¬
nentius. At Rome, the populace rofe on account of
a fcarcity of provifions. In Afia, the Ifaurian rob¬
bers overran Lycaonia and Pamphylia ; and even laid
fiege to Seleucia, a city of great {Length ; which, how¬
ever, they were not able to make themfelves mailers
of. At the fame time the Saracens committed dread¬
ful ravages in Mefopotamia, the Perfians alio invaded
the province of Anthemufia on the Euphrates. But
the eaftern provinces were not fo much haraffed by
the barbarians as by Gallus Caffar himfelf, who ought
to have protested them. That prince was naturally
of a cruel, haughty, and tyrannical difpofttion •, but
being elated with his fucceffes againft the Perfians, he
at laft behaved more like a,tyrant and a madman than
a governor. His natural cruelty is faid to have been
heightened by the inftigations of his wife Conftantina,
who is by Ammbmus ftyled the Alegttra, or “ fury of
her fex and he adds, that her ambition was equal to
her cruelty. Thus all the provinces and cities in the
eaft were filled with blood and {laughter. No man,
however innocent, was fure to live or enjoy his eftate
a whole day •, for Gallus’s temper being equally fufpi-
cious and cruel, thofc who had any private enemies
took care to accufe them of crimes againft the ftate,
2S
2 ] CON
and with Gallus it was the fame thing to be accufed Conflan-
and condemned. At laft the emperor being informed tinopolitan
from all quarters of the evil conducl of his brother in- ^ 1U
law, and being at the fame time told that he alpired
to the fevereignty, refolved upon his ruin. Tor this
end he wrote letters to Gallus and Conftantina, invi¬
ting them both into Italy. Though they had both fuf-
ficient reafon to fear the worft, yet they disift not
venture to difobey the emperor’s exprefs command.
Conftantina, who was well acquainted with her bro¬
ther’s temper, and hoped to pacify him by her artful
infinuations, let out firft, leaving Gallus at Antioch :
but {he had {carce entered the province of Bithynia,
when Ihe was feized with a fever which put an end
to her life. Gallus now defpairing of being able to
appeafe his foveieign, thought of openly revolting ;
but moft of his friends deferted him on account of his
inconftant and cruel temper, fo that he was at laft ob¬
liged to fubmit to the pleafure of Conftantius. He ad¬
vanced, therefore according to his orders j but at Pe-
tavium was arretted, and {flipped of all the enfigns of
his dignity. From thence he was carried to Fianona,
now Fianone, in Dalmatia, where he was examined by
two of his moft inveterate enemies. He conftffed
rooft of the crimes laid to his charge ; but urged as an
excufe the evil counfels of his wife Conftantina. ^le He is pV1t
emperor, provoked at this plea which refitcled on his t0 death,
fifter, and inftigated by the enemies of Gallus, figned
a warrant for his execution, which was performed ac¬
cordingly.
All this time the emperor had been engaged in a War with
war with the Germans : he had marched againft them the Ger-
in perfon ; and though he gained an advantage, the mans,
barbarians thought proper to make peace with him.
This, however, was but fhort-lived. No fooner was
the Roman army withdrawn, than they began to make
new inroads into the empire. Againft them Con¬
ftantius difpatched Arbetio with the flower of the
army ; but he fell into an ambufeade, and was put to
flight with the lofs of a great number of men. This
lois, however, was foon retrieved by the valour of
Arinthaeus, who became famous in the reign of Va-
Icns, and of two other officers, who falling upon the
Germans, without waiting the orders of their general,
put them to flight, and obliged them to leave the Ro¬
man territories.
The tranquillity of the empire, which enfued on
this repulfe of the Germans, was foon interrupted by
a pretended confpiracy, by which in the end a true
one was produced. Sylvanus, a leading man among
the Franks, commanded in Gaul, and had there per¬
formed great exploits againft the barbarians. lie had
been railed to this poft by Arbetio ; but only with a
defign to remove him from the emperor’s prefence, ^
in order to accomplifti his ruin, which he did in the Sylvanus
follow ing manner : One Dynamesy keeper of the emper- betrayed by
or’s mules, leaving Gaul, begged of Sylvanus letters Arbetl°*
of recommendation to his friends at court ; which
being granted, the traitor erafed all but the fubferip-
tion. He then inferted dire&ions to the friends of
Sylvanus for the carrying on a confpiracy ; and de¬
livering thefe forged letters to the prefect Lampi-
dius, they were by him fliown to the emperor. Thus.
Sylvanus was forced to revolt, and caufe himfelf to beced to*rel
proclaimed emperor by the troops under his command, volt.
In
31
He rs for-
3*
Is mur¬
dered.
33
Gaulrava-
.34
- Julian
created
Casfar.
. c ° N [ 573 ]
Conftan- In the mean time, however, Dynames having thought of the
hift°lltan P1"0?61" t0 f°rge another letter, the' fraud was difco-
vered, and an inquiry fet on foot, which brought to
light the whole matter. Sylvanus was now declared
innocent, and letters fent to him by the emperor con¬
firming him in his poll; but thefe were fcarce gone,
when certain news arrived at the court of Sylvanus ha¬
ving revolted, and caufed himfelf be proclaimed em¬
peror. Conftantius, thunderftruck. at this news, dif-
patched againil him Urficinus, an otlicer of great in¬
tegrity, as well as valour and experience in war ; who
forgetting his former chara£!er, pretended to be Syl-
vanus’s friend, and thus found means to cut him off by
treachery.
The barbarians, who had been hitherto kept quiet
ged by the foy braVe Syl vanus, no fooner heard of his death,
atoanans. t^an brolce into Gaul with greater fury than
ever. They took and pillaged above forty cities, and
among the reft Cologne, wThich they levelled with
the ground. At the fame time the Qjaadi and Sarma-
tians entering Pannonia, deftroyed -every thing with
fire and (word. The Perfians alfo, taking advantage
of the abfence of Urficinus, overran, without oppofi-
tion, Armenia and Mefopotamia ; Profper and Mau-
fonianus, who had fucceeded that brave commander in
the government of the eaft, being more intent upon
pillaging than defending the provinces committed to
th eir care. Conftantius not thinking it advifable to
leave Italy himfelf, refolved at laft to raife his coufin
Julian, the brother of Gallus, to the dignity of Caefar.
Julian feems to have been a man of very extraordinary
. talents ; for though before this time he had been en¬
tirely buried in obfemity, and converfed only with
books, no fooner was he put at the head of an army
than he behaved with the fame bravery, condudl, and
experience, as if he had been all his life bred up to the
art of war. He was appointed governor of Gaul; but
before he fet out, Conftantius gave him in marriage
h:s filler Helena, and made him many valuable prefents.
At the fame time, however, the jealous emperor great¬
ly limited his authority ; gave him written inftrudtions
how to behave ; ordered the generals who ferved un¬
der h im to watch all his aflions no lefs than thofe of
the enemy ; and ftridlly enjoined Julian himfelf not to
give any largefles to the foldiety.
Julian fet out from Milan on the firft of December
355, the emperor himfelf accompanying him as far as
Pavia, from whence he purfued his journey to the
Alps, attended only by 360 foldiers. On his arrival
at Turin he was firft acquainted with the lofs of Co¬
logne, which had been kept concealed from the em¬
peror. He arrived at Vienne before the end of the
year, and was received by the people of that city and
the neighbourhood with extraordinary joy.
In 356, the barbarians befieged Autun ; to relieve
which place, Julian marched with what forces he
could raife. When he came there, he found the fiege
raifed : on which he went in purfuit of the barbarians
to Auxerre, crofting with no fmall danger thick woods
and forefts, from Auxerre to Troies. On his march
he was furrounded on all fides by the barbarians, who
moved about the country in great bodies ; but he put
Defeats th t^em to with a handful of men, cut great num-
barbarians!^ D^rs. t^ein *n pieces, and took fome prifoners. From
1 roies he haftened to Rheims, where the main body
35
He fets out
for Gaul.
CON
army, commanded by Marcellus, waited his Cenftan-
arrival. Leaving Rheims, he took his route towards tl“0hoIlt‘in
Decempagi, now Dleuze, on the Seille in Lorrain, . u ‘>ly' .
with a defign to oppofe the Germans who were bufv
in ravaging that province. But the enemy attacking
his rear unexpeffedly, would have cut oft’ two legions,
had not the reft of the army, alarmed at the hidden
noife, turned back to their affiftance. A few days
afterwards he defeated the Germans, though with
great lofs to his own army j the viflory, however,
opened him a way to Cologne. This city he found 37
abandoned by the barbarians. They had neglefted RcPairs the
to fortify it: but Julian commanded the ancient forti-q0
fications to be repairej with all poflibie expedition, i0gne,
and the houfes to be rebuilt j after which he retired
to Sens, and there took up his winter-quarters. This
year alfo Conftantius entered Germany on the fide of
Rhaetia, laid wafte the country far and wide; and
obliged the barbarians to fue for peace, which was ^
readily granted. The fame year he enacted two laws; Idolatrydc-
by one of which it was declared capital to facrifice,claretl capi-
or pay any kind of worfuip, to idols ; the other, grant- ^alnjfuf0n"
ing the effedts of condemned perfons to belong to their U
children and relations within the third degree, except
in cafes of magic and treafon ; but this laft one he re¬
voked two years after.
In the beginning of the year 357, the barbaiians be¬
fieged Julian a whole month in Sens ; Marcellus, the
commander in chief, never once offering to aflift him.
Julian, however, fo valiantly defended himfelf with
the few forces he had, that the barbarians at laft re¬
tired. After this, Conftantius declared Julian com¬
mander in chief of all the forces in Gaul 5 appointing
under him one Severus, an officer of great experience,
and of a quite different difpofition from Marcellus.
On his arrival in Gaul, Julian received him with great
joy, raifed new troops, and fupplied them with arms
which he luckily found in an old arfenal. The em¬
peror, refolving at all events to put a flop to the ter¬
rible devaftations committed by the barbarous nations,
chiefly by the Alemans, wrote to Julian to march di-
reclly againft them. At the fame time he fent Bar-
batio, who had been appointed general in place of Syl¬
vanus, with a body of 25 or 30,000 men, out of Italy,
in order to inclole the enemy between two armies.
I he Leti, however, a German nation, pafling between
the armies, advanced as far as Lyons, hoping to fur-
prife that wealthy city ; but meeting with a warmer
reception than they expe&ed, contented themfelves
with ravaging the country all round it. On the firft
notice of this expedition, Julian detached ftrong par¬
ties to guard the paffages through which he knew the 39
ba rbarians muft return. Thus they were all cut off The Leti
pt thofe who marched near the camp of Barbatio ; cuj.0^
was fo far from cuttinpr off their retreat, that Ju ^aru
excej ^  
who was fo far from cutting off their retreat, that he
complained by a letter to Conftantius of fome officers
for attempting it. Thefe officers, among whom was
Valentinian afterwards emperor of the weft, were
by the orders of Conftantius, caftiiered for their dif-
obedfence. The other barbarians either fortified them¬
felves in the countries which they had feized, flop¬
ping up all the avenues with huge trees, or took fhel-
ter in the ifiands formed by the Rhine. Julian re¬
folved firft to attack the latter j and with this view
demanded fome boats of JBarbatio : but he, inftead of
complying
40
He forces
the barba
CON [5741
Conftan- complying with his juft requeft, immediately burnt all them to
tinopolitan fos boats, as he did on another occafion the provifions
. ry' vvhich had been fent to both armies, after he had plen¬
tifully fupplied his own. Julian, not in the leaft dif-
heartened with this unaccountable conduft, perfuaded
fome of the moft refolute of his men to wade over
to one of the iftands. Here they killed all the Ger¬
mans who had taken ftielter in it. They then feized
band on the boats, and purfued the flaughter in feveral other
i(lands of iftands, till the enemy abandoned them all, and retired
the Rhine, to their refpeftive countries with- their wives and
what booty they could carry. On their departure,
Barbatio attempted to lay a bridge of boats over the
Rhine *, but the enemy, apprifed of his intention,
threw7 a great number of huge trees into the river,
which being carried by the ftream againft the boats,
funk feveral of them, and parted the reft. The Ro¬
man general then thought proper to retire *, but the
barbarians falling unexpectedly upon him in his re¬
treat, cut great numbers of his men in pieces, took
moft of his baggage, laid wafte the neighbouring coun¬
try, and returned in triumph loaded with booty. E-
lated with this fuccefs, they aflembled in great num¬
bers under the command of Cbnodomanus, a prince of
great renowm among them, and fix other kings. They
encamped in the neighbourhood of Strafburg. Here
they were encountered by Julian } who put them to
flight, with the lofs of 6000 or 8000 of their men flain
in the field, and a vaftly greater number drowned in
the river j while Julian h'.mfelf loft only 243 private
men and four tribunes. In this aClion Chnodomarius
was taken, and fent to Rome, where he foon after
died. v
After the battle, Julian advanced with all his army
to Mayence, where he built a bridge over the Rhine
and entered Germany, having with difficulty prevailed
upon his army to follow7 him. Here he ravaged the
country till the time of the autumnal equinox, when
truce with being prevented by fnow from advancing any further,
the barba- he began to repair the fort of Trajan, by fome fuppo-
rians. fecj to be the caftle of Cromburgh, about three or four
leagues from Frankfort. The barbarians were now
fo much alarmed, that they fent deputies to treat of a
peace ; but this Julian refufed to grant them upon
any terms. He confented, however, to a truce for fe-
45
4i
^Entirely
defeats
them at
.Strafburg
42
He enters
Germany
and con¬
cludes a
CON
fubmit j after which he allotted them lands Conftan-
in Gaul, incorporating great numbers of them into histin0PjIlta*
cavalry. He next marched againft the Chamavi, w7hom ^ 11 or-^
he defeated and obliged to retire beyond the Rhine.
Afterwards he rebuilt three forts on the river Meufe,
which had been deftroyed by the barbarians ; but want¬
ing provifions in a country fo often ravaged, he order¬
ed 600 or 800 veflels to be built in Britain for the con¬
veying corn from thence into Gaul. Julian continued
in the country of the Chamavi till the expiration of
his truce with the Alemans ; and then laying a bridge
of boats over the Rhine, he entered their country, put-,
ting all to fire and fword. At laft two of their kings G,a^ts(
came in perfon to him to fue for peace : which Julian peace ta
granted, upon their promifing to fet at liberty the cap-the ^er"
tives they had taken j to fupply a certain quantity ofmarib*
corn when required ; and to furnitb wood, iron, and
carriages, for repairing the cities they had ruined. The
prifoners whom he at this time releafed, amounted to
upwards of 20,000.
Soon after the vernal equinox of this year 358, Con-jrXpediti0I1
ftantius marched in perfon againft the Quadi and Sar-of Conftan-
matians, wTofe country lay beyond the Danube. Ha-J.1US agf'^
ving croffed that river on a bridge of boats, he laid
wafte the territories of the Sarmatians} who thereupon tiong>
came in great numbers, together with the Quadi, pre¬
tending to fue for peace. Their true defign was to
furprife the Romans 5 but the latter iufpefling it, fell
upon them fword in hand, and cut them all in pieces.
This obliged the reft to fue for peace in good earneft,
which was granted on the delivery of hoftages. The
emperor then marched againft the Limigantes, that is,
the flaves who, in 334, had driven the Sarmatians out
of their country, and feized it for themfelves *. They * See N®5.
ufed the fame artifice as the Sarmatians and Quadi had
done, coming in great numbers under pretence of fub-
mitting, but prepared to fall upon him unexpe&edly
if opportunity offered. The emperor, obferving their
furly looks, and diftrufting them, caufed his troops fur-
round them infenfibly while he was fpeaking. The L.i-
migantes then difpleafed with the conditions he offered
them, laid their hands on their fwords : on which
they were attacked by the Roman foldiers. Finding
it impoflible to make their efcape, they made with
great fury towards the tribunal, but were repulfed by
ven months, upon their promifing to ftore with provi- the guards forming themfelves into a wedge, and every
/. .1 r   u„:ij:— This one of them cut in pieces. After this, the emperorHe e^pe|s
Conftan
tins.
44
43 fions the fort he was building in their country
Remarka- year Conftantius made fome remarkable laws. By one
ble laws of ^ pUni(hed with confifcation fuch as renounced the
Chriftian for the Jewifti religion *, and by another, ad-
dreffed to Felix bifhop of Rome, be exempted all mer-
chandifing ecclefiaftics, with their wives, children, and
domeftics, from every impofition ordinary and extraor¬
dinary : fuppofing the gains they made to be applied
by them to the relief of the poor.
Julian con- In 358, as foon as the feafon was fit for aclion, Ju-
quers the ]jan took the field againft the Franks, with a defign to
Franks. conquer them before the truce he had concluded with
the Alemans was expired. The Franks were at that
time divided into feveral tribes, the moft powerful of
which were the Salii and Chamavi. The firft of thefe
fent deputies, intreating that he would (uffer them to
remain as hnends to the empire in the country they
poffeffed. But Julian, without paying any regard to
this deputation, entered their country, and obliged
one of them cut in pieces. After this
ravaged their country to fuch a degree, that they were the Limi-
in the end obliged to fubmit to tbe only condition be games,
thought proper to allow them, which was to quit their
country, and retire to a more diftant place. The coun¬
try was then reftored to the Sarmatians, who were its
original poffcffors. j
This year is alfo remarkable for a very haughtyHaUghty
embaffy from Sapor king of Perfia. The ambaffa-embafiy
dor, named Narfes, brought a letter, in which the Per-from Sapor
fian monarch ftyled himfelf “ king of kings, brother penr|a
of the fun and moon,” &c. He acquainted the em¬
peror, that he might lawfully infill on having all the
countries beyond the river Strymon in Macedon deli¬
vered up to him 5 but left his demands flrould feem
unreafonable, he would be contented with Armenia
and Mefopotamia, which had been moft unjuftly taken
from his grandfather Narfes. He added, that unlefs
iuftice was done him, he was refolved to allert his
right
Conftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
CON. [ 575 ] CON
This letter was prefented to room one Sabinianus, a perfon very unfit for fuch an
, 49
A law a-
gainft ma¬
gicians, Stc,
50
Treachery
of the Li-
migantes.
S1
They are
all cut off.
The hea¬
thens cruel
ly perfe-
cuted.
5.?
The Per-
fians begin
hoftnities.
right by force of arms.
Conftantius wrapped up in a piece of white filk $ but
he, without entering into any negociation with the
ambaffador, wrote a letter to Sapor, in which he told
him, that as he had maintained the Roman dominions
in their full extent, when he was poffefled only of the
eafl, he could not fuffer them to be curtailed now
when he was matter of the whole empire. In a few
days, however, he fent another letter, with rich pre-
fents ; being very defirous at leaft to put off the war
till he had fecured the northern provinces againtt the
incurfions of the barbarians, that he might then employ
all the forces of the empire againft lo formidable an
enemy. This embaffy proved unftlccefsful, as did al-
fo another which was fent foon after. The laft am-
baffadors were imprifoned as fpies, but afterwards dif-
miffed unhurt. By a law of Conftantius dated in 358,
all magicians, augurs, aftrologers, and pretenders to
the art of divination, were declared enemies to man¬
kind ; and fuch of them as were found in the court
either of the emperor or of Julian, he commanded to
be put to the torture, and fpecified what torments they
were to undergo.
In 359, Julian continued his endeavours for relie¬
ving the province of Gaul, which had fuffered fo much
from the incurfions of the barbarians. He eredled
magazines in different places, vifited the cities which
had fuffered moft, and gave orders for repairing their
walls and fortifications properly. He then croffed the
Rhine, and purfued the war in Germany with great
fuccefs, infomuch that the barbarians fubmitted to fuch
terms as he pleafed to impofe. In the mean time, the
emperor, having received intelligence that the Limi-
gantes had quitted the country in which he had placed
them, haftened to the banks of the Danube, in order
to prevent their entering Pannonia. On his arrival
he fent deputies, defiring to know w'hat had induced
them to abandon the country wrhich had been allotted
them. The Limigantes anfwered, in appearance with
the greateft fubmiffion imaginable, that they were will¬
ing to live as true fubje&s of the empire in any other
place ; but that the country he had allotted them wTas
quite uninhabitable, as they could demonftrate if they
W'ere but allowed to crofs the river, and lay their com¬
plaints before him. This requeft was granted ; but
while he afcended his tribunal, the barbarians unex-
pedttedly fell upon his guards fword in hand, killed
feveral of them, and the emperor with difficulty faved
himfelf by flight. The reft of the troops, howrever,
foon took the alarm, and furrounding the Limigantes,
cut them all off to a man. This year Conftantius in-
. ftituted a court of inquifition againft all thofe who
confulted heathen oracles. Paulus Catena, a noted
and cruel informer, was difpatched into the eaft to
profecute them j and Modeftus, then count of the eaft,
and equally remarkable for his cruelty, was appointed
judge. His tribunal wjas erefled at Scythopolis in Pa-
leftine, whither perfons of both fexes, and of every rank
and condition, were daily dragged in crowds from all
parts, and either confined in dungeons, or torn in pieces
in a moft cruel and barbarous manner by racks, or pub¬
licly executed.
359. Sapor king of Perfia began hoftilities, be¬
ing encouraged thereto by the ablence of Urficinus,
whom thi emperor had recalled, and appointed in his
Conftafi-
office. During this campaign, however, he made tinoPolltlK
very little progrefs •, having only taken two Roman u ^ ^ ,
forts, and deftroyed the city of Amida, the liege of
which is faid to have coft him 30,000 men. On the
firft news of the Perfian invalion, Conftantius had
thought proper to fend Urficinus into the eaft 5 but his
enemies prevented him from receiving the fupphes
neceffary for carrying on the war 5 fo that he found
it impoffible to take any effe&ual means for Hopping
the progrefs of the Perfians. On his return, he was
unexpeftedly charged with the lofs of Amida, and all
the difafters that had happened during the campaign.
Two judges were appointed to inquire into his con¬
duct j but they, being creatures of his enemies, left
the matter doubtful. On this Urficinus w7as fo much
exafperated, that he appealed to the emperor, and in
the heat of paffion let fall fome unguarded expref-
fions, which being immediately carried to the em¬
peror, the general was deprived of all his employ¬
ments. _ 54,
Conftantius refolved to march next year in perfon Conftantius
againft the Perfians j but in the mean time, dreading mar^l'es
to encounter fo formidable an enemy, he applied him-pelto!1 ,a'
felf wholly to the affembling of a mighty army, by^ain 1 iera’
which he might be able fully to cope with them. For
this purpofe he wrote lo Julian to fend him part of
his forces, without confidering that by fo doing he
left the province of Gaul expofed to the ravages of
the barbarians. Julian refolved immediately to com¬
ply with the emperor’s orders/, but at the fame time
to abdicate the dignity of Caefar, that he might not
be blamed for the lofs of the province. Accordingly
he fuffered the beft foldiers to be draughted out of his ^
army. They w^ere, however, very unwilling to leave Julian pro^
him, and at laft proclaimed him emperor. Whether claimcd
this was done abfolutely againft Julian’s confent or not61^6101"
is uncertain 5 but he wrote to the emperor, and perfua-
ded the whole army alfo to fend a letter along with his,
in which they acquainted Conftantius with what had
happened, and entreated him to acknowledge Julian as
his partner in the empire. But this was pofitively re-
fufed by Conftantius, wrho began to prepare for w7ar.
Julian then, defigning to be before-hand with the em¬
peror, caufed his troops take an oath of allegiance to
himfelf, and with furprifing expedition made himfelf
mafter of the whole country of Illyricum, and the
important pafs feparating that country from Thrace.
Conftantius was thunder-ftruck with this news 5 but
hearing that the Perfians had retired, he marched
writh all his force againft his competitor. On his ar¬
rival at Tarfus in Cilicia, he wTas feized with a feverilh
diftemper, occafioned chiefly by the uneafinefs and per- ^
plexity of his mind. He purfued his march, however, Conftantius
to Mopfucrene, a place on the borders of Cilicia, at the <narckes a.
foot of Mount Taurus. Here he was obliged to ftopS^1^^11®*
by the violence of his diforder, which increafed every * *•
day, and at laft carried him oft’on the 13th of Novem¬
ber 361, in the 45th year of his age. 57
By the death of Conftantius, Julian now became Julian re¬
mailer of the whole Roman empire without a rival. ^ores
He had been educated in the Chriftian religion j but re*
fecretly apoftatized from it long before, and as foon as
he faw himfelf mafter of Illyricum, openly avowed
his apoftafy, and caufed the temples of the gods to be
£ opened-
Conftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
ON [ 576 ] CON
meffengers arrived at Naiffus in harbour to fhelter the {hips from the fouth wind, built Conftati-
■ 58
Condemns
fome of the
late empe¬
ror’s mini-
fters.
59
Reforms
the court.
60
Reeals the
philofo-
phers, ma¬
gicians, Sec,
61
Marches a-
gainft the
i’erfians.
G
opened. When the
lllyricum, where he then was, to acquaint him with
his being foie mafter of the empire, they found him
confultmg the entrails of vi&ims concerning the event
of his journey. As the omens were uncertain, he was
at that time very much embarrafied and perplexed ;
but the arrival of the meffengers put an end to all his
fears, and he immediately let out for Conftantinople.
At fferaclea he was met by almoft all the inhabitants
of this metropolis, into which he made his public en¬
try on the ilth of December 361, being attended by
the whole fenate in a body, by all the magiilrates, and
by the nobility magnificently dreffed, every one telii-
fying the utmoft joy at feeing fuch a promifing young
prince raifed to the empire without bloodlhed. He was
again declared emperor by the. fenate of Conftanti¬
nople j and as foon as that ceremony was over, he
caufed the obfequies of Conftantius to be performed
with great pomp.
The firft care of Julian was to inquire into the con¬
duct of the late emperor’s minifters. Several of thefe
having been found guilty of enormous crimes, were
condemned and executed ; particularly the noted in¬
former Paulus Catena, and another named Apodamus,
were fentenced to be burnt alive. Along with thefe,
however, was put to death one Urfula, a man of un¬
exceptionable character, and to whom Julian him-
felf was highly indebted. He had been fupplied
with money by Urfula, unknown to the emperor, at
the time when he was fent into Gaul with the title of
Cgefar, but without the money neceflary for the fup-
port of that dignity. For what reafon he was now
put to death, hiftorians do not acquaint us. Julian
himfelf tells us, that he was executed without his know¬
ledge.
The emperor next fet about reforming the court.
As the vaft number of offices was in his time become
an intolerable burden, he difcharged all thofe whom
he thought ufelefs. He reduced, among the reft, the
officers called agentes in rebus, from 10,00c to 17;
and difcharged thoufauds of cooks, barbers, &c. who
by their large falaries drained the exchequer. The
eurioji, whole office it was to inform the emperor of
what had pafled in the different provinces, were all
difcharged, and that employment entirely fupprcffed.
Thus he was enabled to eafe the people of the heavy
taxes with which they were loaded : and this he did by
abating a fifth part of all taxes and impofts through¬
out the kingdom.
As to religious matters, Julian, as before obferved,
was a Pagan, and immediately on his acceffion to the
throne reftored the heathen religion. He invited to
court the philofophers, magicians, &c. from all parts ;
neverthelefs, he did not raife any perfecution againft
the Chriftians. On the contrary, he recalled from ba-
nifhment all the orthodox bithops who had been fent
into exile during the former reign •, but with a de-
fign, as is obferved both by the Chriftian and Pagan
writers, to raife difturbances and fow diffenfions in the
church.
As the Perfians were now preparing to carry on
the war with vigour, Julian found himfelf under a
neceffitv of marching againft them in perfon. But
before he fet out, he enriched the city of Conftanti-
jjople with many valuable gifts. He formed a large
a magnificent porch leading to it, and in another porch tlr'0P0,‘tau
a ftately library, in which he lodged all his books. In , ' .°r^' ■
the month of May, A. D. 362, he fet out for Antioch;
and on the firft of January renewed in that city the
facrifices to Jupiter for the fafety of the empire, which
had been fo long omitted. During his ftay in this ci¬
ty, he continued his preparations lor the Perfian war,
erecting magazines, making new levies, and above all
cohfulting the oracles, arufpices, magicians, &c. The
oracles of Delphi, Delos, and Dodona, allured him of
victory. The arufpices, indeed, and moft of his cour¬
tiers and officers, did all that lay in their power to di¬
vert him from his intended expedition j but the de¬
ceitful anfwers of the oracles and magicians, and the
dtfire of adding the Perfian monarch to the many
kings he had already feen humbled at his feet, prevail¬
ed over all other confiderations. Many nations fent
deputies to him offering their affiftance ; but thefe of¬
fers he rejected, telling them that the Romans were to
affift their allies, but flood in no need of any affift¬
ance from them. He likewife reje£led, and in a very
difobliging manner, the offers of the Saracens j anfwer-
ing them, when they complained of his flopping the
penfion paid them by other emperors, that a warlike
prince had fteel, but no gold ; which they refenting,
joined the Perfians, and continued faithful to them to
the laft. However, he wrote to Arfaces king of Ar¬
menia, enjoining him to keep his troops in readinefs to
execute the orders he fhould foon tranfmit to him. ^
Having made the neceffary preparations for fo im-Croffes the
portant an enterprife, Julian fent orders to his troops Euphrates,
to crofs the Euphrates, defigning to enter the enemy’s
country before they had the leaft-notice of his march j
for which purpofe he had placed guards on all the
roads. From Antioch he proceeded to Litarba, a place
about 15 leagues diftant, which he reached the fame
day. From thence he went to Beraea, where he halted
a day, and exhorted the council to reftore the worfliip
of the gods *, but this exhortation, it feems, was com¬
plied with but by few. From Bersea he proceeded to
Batn* ) and was better pleafed with the inhabitants of
the latter, becaufe they had, before his arrival, re¬
ftored the worlhip of the gods. There he offered fa¬
crifices ; and having immolated a great number of vic¬
tims, he purfued the next day his journey to Hiera-
polis, the capital of the province of Euphratefiana,
which he reached on the 9th of March. Here he
lodged in the houfe of one for whom he had a par¬
ticular efteem, chiefly becaufe neither Conftantius nor
Gallus, who had both lodged in his houfe, had been
able to make him renounce the worftiip of his idols.
As he entered this city, 50 of his foldiers were killed
by the fall of a porch. He left Hierapolis on the 13th
of March j and having paffed the Euphrates on a bridge
of boats, came to Batnae a fmall city of Ofrhoene,
about 10 leagues from Hierapolis; and here 50 more of
his foldiers were killed by the fall of a ftatk of ftraw.
From Batnae he proceeded to Carrhae ; where, in the
famous temple of the moon, it is faid he facrificed a
woman to that planet. _ 6$
While Julian continued in this city, he received ad Invades
vice that a party of the enemies horfe had broke into Perlia.
the Roman territories. On this he refolved to leave
an army in Mefopotamia, to guard the frontiers of the
empire
CON
Gonftan-
trnopolitan
hfftorv.
64
Lays wafte
Alfyna.
^5
Advances
to Ctefi-
phon.
66
Begins his
retreat, but
isdiftreffed
for want of
provifions.
empire on that fide, while he advanced on the other
into the heart of the Perfian dominions. This army
j confided, according to i'ome, of 20,000, according to
others, of 30,000 chdfen troops. It was commanded
by Procopius, and Seballian a famous Manichean who
had been governor of Egypt, and had perfecuted there,
with the utmofi cruelty, the orthodox Chrifiians.
Thefe two were to join, if poffible, Arfaces king of
Armenia, to lay waite the fruitful plains of Media,
and meet the emperor in Aflyria. To Arfaces Julian
himfelf wrote, but in the molt difobliging manner ima¬
ginable, threatening to treat him as a rebel if he did
not execute, with the utmolt punctuality, the orders
given him : and at the conclufion told him, that the
God he adored would not be able to fcreen him from
his indignation.
I here were two roads leading from Carrhae to Per-
fia ; the one to the left by Nifibis ; the other to the
right through the province of Affyria, along the banks
of the Euphrates. Julian chofe the latter, but caufed
magazines to be erefted on both roads 5 and, after
having viewed his army, fet out on the 25th of March,
lie palled the Abora, which feparated the Roman and
Peifian dominions, near its conflux with the Euphra¬
tes ; after which he broke down the bridge, that his
troops might not be tempted to defert, feeing they
could not return home. As he proceeded on his march,
a foldier and two horfes were ftruck dead by a flalh
of lightning ; and a lion of an extraordinary fize pre-
fenting himfelf to the army, was in a moment dif-
patched by the foldiers with a fliower of darts. Thefe
omens occafioned great difputes between the philofo-
phers and arufpices : the latter looking upon them as
inaulpicious, advifed the emperor to return ; but the
former refuted their arguments with others more agree¬
able to Julian’s temper.
Having paffed the Abora, Julian entered Aflyria,
which he found very populous, and abounding "with
all the neceflaries of life ; but he laid it wafte far and
near, deftroying the magazines and provilions which
he could not carry along with him ; and thus he put
it out of his power to return the fame way he came ;
a ftep which was judged very impolitic. As he met
with no army in the field to oppofe him, he advanced
to the walls of Ctefiphon, the metropolis of the Per¬
fian empire ; having reduced all the ftrong holds that
lay in his way. Here, having caufed the canal to be
Cieaied, which was formerly dug by I rajan between
thefe two rivers, he conveyed his fleet from the former
to the latter. On the banks of the Tigris he was op-
pofed by the enemy. But Julian paffed that river in
fpite of their utmoft efforts, and drove them into the
city with the lofs of a great number of their men, he
himfelf, in the mean time, lofing only 70 or 75.
Julian had now advanced fo far into the enemy’s
country, that he found it neceffary to think of a re¬
treat, as it was impoflible for him to winter in Per-
fia. For this reafon he made no attempt on Ctefi¬
phon, but began to march back along the banks of
the Tigris, foon after he had paffed that river. In
the mean time the king of Perfia was affembling a
formidable army, with a defign to fall upon the Ro¬
mans in their march ; but being defirous of putting an
end to fo deftrudlive a war, he fent very advantage¬
ous propofals of peace to Julian. Thefe the Roman
Vot. VI. Part II.
[ 577 1
CON
emperor very imprudently rtjedled ; and foon after, Conflan-
deceived by treacherous guides, he quitted the river,t‘noPol‘tan
and entered into an unknown country totally laid waite
by the enemy 5 and where he wras continually harafled
by ftrong parties, who in a manner furrounded his ar¬
my, and attacked him fometimes in the front, and
fometimes in the rear. A ftill worfe ftep he was per-
fuaded to take by the treacherous guides already men¬
tioned : and this was to burn his fteet, left it ftiould fall
into the hands of the enemy. As loon as the fleet was
fet on fire, the whole army cried out, that the emperor
was betrayed, and that the guides were traitors em¬
ployed by the enemy. Julian ordered them immedi¬
ately to be put to the rack, upon which they confeffed
the treafon ; but it was too late. The fleet was al¬
ready in flames j they could by no means be extin-
guilhed; and no part was faved except 12 veffels,
which were defigned to be made ufe of in the building
of bridges, and for this purpofe were conveyed over
land in waggons.
The emperor thus finding himfelf in a ftrange coun¬
try, and his army greatly dil'pirited, called a council
of his chief officers, in which it was refolved to pro¬
ceed to Corduene, which lay fouth of Armenia, and
belonged to the Romans. With this viewT, they had
not proceeded far when they were met by the king
of Perfia, at the head of a very numerous army, at¬
tended by his two fons, and all the principal nobility
of the kingdom. Several fharp encounters happened,
in which, though the Perfians were always defeated,
yet the Romans reaped no advantages from their vic¬
tories, but were reduced to the laft extremity for want 5-
of provifions. In one of thefe fkirmilhes, when the Is mortally
Romans were fuddenly attacked, the emperor, eagerW0UR(leci
to repulfe the enemy, haftened to the field of battleln a fuc^en
without his armour, when he received a mortal wound^Per!7
by a dart, which, through his arm and fide, piercedfians.
his very liver. Of this wound he died the fame night,
the 26th of June 363, in the 32d year of his age, af¬
ter having reigned Icarce 20 months from the time he
became foie mafter of the Roman empire.
As Julian had declined naming any fucceffor, theJ0Vian
choice of a new emperor devolved on the army. Theyt0.
unanimoufly chofe Jovian, a very able commander,the empire'
whofe father had lately refigned the poll of comet do-
mejiicorum, in order to lead a retired life. The va¬
lour and experience of Jovian, however, were not
fufficient to extricate the Roman army from the diffi¬
culties in which they had been plunged by the impru¬
dence of his predeceffor. I he famine raged in the
camp to iuch a degree, that not, a fingle man would
have been left alive, had not the Perfians unexpe<ftedly
fent propofals of peace. Thefe were now received (-
with the utmoft joy. A peace was concluded for 30Concludes
years; the terms of which were, that Jovian flroulda Peace
reftore to the Perfians the five provinces which hadwiththe
been taken from them in the reign of Dioclefian, with Perfians*-
feveral caftles, and the cities of Nifibis and Singara.
After the conclufion of the treaty, Jovian purfued his
march without moleftation. When he arrived at An¬
tioch, he revoked all the laws that had been made in
the former reign againft Chriftianity and in favour of
Paganifm. He efpoufed alfo the caufe of the ortho¬
dox Chriftians againft the Arians ; and recalled all thofe
who had been formerly baniflied^ particularly Athana-
4 ^ ftus,
CON [ 57
Conftan- fius, to whom he wrote a very obliging letter with
tinopo.itan own hand. It is generally believed alio that Atha-
• h'ft!ry;..- nafius, at the defire of Jovian, now compofed the
creed which ftill goes by his name, arid is fubfcribed
by all the bilhops in Europe. But this emperor did
not live to make any great alterations, or even to vE
70 fit his capital as emperor ; for in his way to Conftan-
His death, tinople he was found dead in his bed, on the 16th or
17th of February 364, after he had lived 33 years,
and reigned feven months and 40 days.
Valentin!- After the death of Jovian, Valentinian was chofen
an chofen emperor. Immediately on his acceffion, the foldiers
emperor, mutinied, and with great clamour required him to
lenTfor his' ch°0^e a Partner *n t^ie Sovereignty. Though he did
partner. " not inllantly comply with their demand, yet in a few
days he chofe his brother Valens for his partner*, and,
as the empire was threatened on all fides with an in-
vafion of the barbarous nations, he thought proper to
divide it. This famous partition was made at Mediana
in Dacia. Valens had for his {hare the whole of
Afia, Egypt, and Thrace ; and Valentinian all the
Weft ; that is, Illyricum, Italy, Gaul, Spain, Britain,
-7a and Africa.
Procopius After this partition, Valens returned to Conftanti-
revolts. nople ; where the beginning of his reign was difturbed
by the revolt of Procopius, a relation of Julian. On
the death of that emperor, he had fled into Taurica
Cherfonefus for fear of Jovian j but not trufting the
barbarians who inhabited that country, he returned in
difguife into the Roman territories, where having
gained over an eunuch of great wealth, by name Eu-
gettius, lately difgraced by Valens, and fome officers
who commanded the troops fent againft the Goths,
he got himfelf proclaimed emperor. At firft he was
joined only by the loweft of the people, but at length
he was acknowledged by the whole city of Conftanti-
nople. On the news of this revolt, Valens would
have abdicated the fovereignty, had he not been pre¬
vented by the importunities of his friends. Fie there¬
fore difpatched fome troops againft the ufurper *, but
thefe were gained over, and Procopius continued for
fome time to gain ground. It is probable he would
finally have fncceeded, had be not become fo much
elated with his good fortune, that he grew tyrannical
► . and infupportable to his own party. In conlequence
Is defeated of this alteration in his difpofitinn, he was firft aban-
and put to doned by fome of his principal officers ; and foon after
death. defeated in battle, taken prifoner, and put to death.
Warwith T*1'5 revolt produced a war betwixt Valens and the
theGoths. Goths. The latter, having been folicited by Proco¬
pius, had fent 3000 men to his affiftance. On hear¬
ing the news of the ufurper’s death, they marched
back ; but Valens detached againft them a body of
troops, who took them all prifoners notwithftanding
the vigorous refiftance they made. Athanaric, king
of the Goths, expoftulated on this proceeding with
Valens; but that emperor proving obftinate, both
parties prepared for war. In 3^7 and 3^9’ ^ aicns
gained great advantages over his enemies *, and ob¬
liged them to fue for peace, which was concluded up¬
on terms very advantageous to the Romans. The
reft of this reign contains nothing remarkable, except
the cruelty with which Valens perfecuted the ortho¬
dox clergy. The latter fent 80 of their number to
him, in order to lay their complaints before him ; but
3 1
CON
be, inftead of giving them any relief, determined to Conflart*
put them all to death. But the perfon who was or-u,^!^tan
dered to execute this fentence, fearing left the pub- . 1 ^ y‘ ^
lie execution of fo many ecclefiaftics might raife dif- *75
turbances, ordered them all to be put on board a fhip, Eighty or-
pretending that the emperor had ordered them only^0^.^*
to be lent into banifhment j but wdien the veflel wasput't0 1
at fome diftance from land, the mariners fet fire to it, death,
and made their own efcape in the boat. The {hip was
driven by a ftrong wind into a harbour, where it 76
was confirmed and all that were in it. A perfecution Magicians
was alfo commenced againft magicians, or thofe whoPer‘recute^*
had books of magic in their cuftody. This occafioned
the deftruftion of many innocent perfons ; for books
of this kind were often conveyed into libraries un¬
known to the owners of them, and this was certainly
followed by death and confiication of goods. Here¬
upon perfons of all ranks were feized with fuch terror
that they burnt their libraries, left books of magic
ftrould have been fecretly conveyed in amongft the
others. In 378, the Goths, whom Valens had admit¬
ted into Thrace, advanced from that province to Ma-
cedon and Theffaly, where they committed dreadful ra¬
vages. They afterwards blocked up the city of Con- 77
ftantinople, plundered the fuburbs, and at laft totally Valens de-
defeated and killed the emperor himfelf. The day af-
ter the battle, hearing that an iiiimenfe treafure was the Goths,
lodged in Adrianople, the barbarians laid fiege to that
place : but being quite ftrangers to the art of befieging
towns, they were repulfed with great {laughter 5 up¬
on which they dropped that enterprife, and returned
before Conftantinople. But here great numbers of
them were cut in pieces by the Saracens, whom Maria
their queen had fent to the afliftance of the Romans j
fo that they were obliged to abandon this defign like-
wife, and retire from the neighbourhood of that city. ^
By the death of Valens, the empire once more fellcratian
into the hands of a fingle perfon. This was Gratian, takesTheo-
who had held the empire of the Weft after the death^°sfius^rer
of Valentinian. He repulfed many barbarous nationshis PartDer‘
who threatened the empire at that time with diffolu-
tion ; but finding himfelf preffed on all fides, he foon
refolved to take a colleague, in order to eafe him of
fome part of the burden. Accordingly, on the 19th
of January 379, he declared Theodofius his partner in
the empire, and committed to his care all the provin¬
ces which had been governed by Valens.
Theodofius is greatly extolled by the hiftorians of
thofe ages on account of bis extraordinary valour and
piety : and for thefe qualifications has been honoured
with the furname of the Great. From the many perfe-
cuting laws, however, made in his time, it would feem
that his piety was at leaft very much mifguided ; and
that if he was naturally of a humane and compaflionate
difpofition, fuperftition and paflion had often totally
obfeured it. He certainly was a man of great con-
dudl and experience in wTar; and indeed the piefent
ftate of the empire called for an exertion of all his abi- 7^
lities. The provinces of Dacia, Thrace, and Ulyri-Miferable
cum, were already loft j the Goths, Taifali, Alans,
and Huns, were maflers of the greateft part of thefe accTf-
provinces, and had ravaged and laid wafte the reft. f)on.
The Iberians, Armenians, and Perfians, were likewise
up in arms, and ready to take advantage of the dif-
tra&ed ftate of the empire. The few foldiers who
had
Theodo
£us.
CON [5
Conflan- had (urvlved the late defeat, kept within the ftrong
tinopolitan h0hb of Thrace, without daring fo much as to look
, hifW- i abroad, much lefs face the viaorious enemy, who mo¬
ved about the country in great bodies, ijut notwith-
itanding this critical iituation, the hiltorians of thole
times give us no account of the traniaaions of the
vear 379. Many great battles indeed are faid to
have been fought, and as many viaories obtained by
Theodofius} but the accounts of tlieie are fo con-
fufed and contradiaory, that no ftrefs can be laid up¬
on them.
In the month of February 380, Theodofius was
feized with a dangerous malady, lo that Gratian found
himfelf obliged to carry on the war alone. I his em¬
peror, apprehending that the neighbouring barbarians
might break into feme of the provinces, concluded a
peace with the Goths, which was confirmed by Theo¬
dofius on his recovery. The treaty wTas very advanta¬
geous to the barbarians *, but they dilregarding all
their engagements, no fooner heard that Gratian had
left Illyricum, than they palled the Danube, and break¬
ing into Thrace and Pannonia, advanced as far as Ma-
cedon, deftroying all with fire and fword. Theodofius,
however, drawing together his forces, marched againlt
The Goths them 3 and, according to the moft refpeftable authori-
-defeated by ties, gained a complete victory 3 though Zoiimus re¬
lates, that he was utterly defeated.
The following year, Athanaric, the moft powerful
of all the Gothic princes, being driven out by a faction
at home, recurred to Theodofius, by whom he was
received with great tokens of friendlhip. The em¬
peror himfelf went out to meet him, and attended him
with his numerous retinue into the city. The Gothic
prince died the fame year 3 and Theodofius caufed him
to be buried after the Roman manner with fuch pomp
and folemnity, that the Goths, who attended him in
his flight, returned home with a refolution never to
moleft the Romans any more. Nay, out of gratitude
to the emperor, they took upon them to guard the
banks of the Danube, and prevent the empire from be¬
ing invaded on that fide.
In 383, one Maximus revolted againft Gratian in
Britain 3 and in the end, having got the unhappy em¬
peror into his power, caufed him to be put to death,
and aflumed the empire of the Weft himfelf. Gra¬
tian had divided his dominions with his brother Va-
lentinian, whom he allowed to reign in Italy and Weft
Illyricum, referving the reft to himfell. Maximus,
therefore, immediately after his ufurpation, lent de¬
puties to Theodofius, afluring him that he had no de-
figns on the dominions of Valentinian. As 1 heodofius
at that time found himfelf in danger from the barba¬
rians, he not only forbore to attack Maximus after
this declaration, but even acknowledged him for his
partner in the empire. It was not long, however, be¬
fore the ambition of the ufurper prompted him to
break his promife. In 387, he paffed the Alps on a
fudden 3 and meering with no oppofition, marched to
domim s Milan where Valentinian ufually refided. The young
of Valenti- prince fled firft to Aquileia ; and from thence to Fhei-
falonica, to implore the prote&ion of Theodofius.
The latter, in anfwer to Valentinian’s letter, inform¬
ed him, that he was not at all furprifed at the pro-
grefs Maximus had made, becaufe the uiurper had
protected, and Valentinian had perfecuted, the ortho-
81
Gratian
murdered
by Maxi¬
mus.
8a
Who in¬
vades the
dominions
yg ] CON
dox Chriftians. At laft he prevailed on the young
prince to renounce the Arian hereiy which he had hi- j,j|j.0Iy_
therto maintained 3 after which I heodofius prormied L .. ^— j
to afliit him with ail the forces ol the Taft. At firft,
however, he fent mefiengers to Maximus, earned I y
exhorting him to reftore the provinces he had taken
from Valentinian, and content himfelf with Gaul,
Spain, and Britain. But the ufurper would hearken 83
to no terms. This very year he befieged and took His luccefo,
Aquileia, Quaderna, Bononia, Mutina, Rhegium, Pla¬
centia, and many other cities in Italy. The following
year he was acknowledged in Rome, and in all the
provinces of Africa. Theodofius, therefore, finding a
Mar inevitable, fpent the remaining months of this
and the beginning of the following year in making the
necefl'ary preparations. His army confifted chiefly ot
Goths, Huns, Alans, and other barbarians, whom he
was glad to take into the fervice in order to prevent S4
their raifing difturbanccs on the frontiers. He dekat- ta
ed Maximus in two battles, took him prifoner, and Put (jealjJ
him to death. The ufurper had left his fon Vi&or, Theodofius.
whom he created Auguftus, in Gaul, to awe the inha¬
bitants in his abfcnce. Againft him the emperor de~
fpatched Arbogaftes, who took him prifoner after hav¬
ing difperfed the troops that attended him, and put
him to death. The victory was ufed afterwards by
Theodofius with great clemency and moderation. S3
In 389, Theodofius took a journey to Rome 3 and, The tcm-
according to Prudentius, at this time converted the
fenate and people from idolatry to Chriftianity. 1 Ae arici
next year wras remarkable for the deftruftion of the throughout
celebrated temple of Serapis in Alexandria 3 which, all Egypt
according to the defeription of Ammianus Marcellinus, deftroyed.
furpaffed all others in the world, that of Jupiter Capi-
tolinus alone excepted. The reafon of its being now
deftroyed was as follows. I heophilus, biftiop of Alex¬
andria, having begged and obtained of the emperor
an old temple, formerly confecrated to Bacchus, but
then ruined and forfaken, with a defign to convert it
into a church, the workmen found among the rubbifti
feveral obfeene figures, which the biftiop, to ridicule
the fuperftition of the Heathens, caufed to be expofed
to public view. This provoked the Pagans to fuch a
degree, that they flew to arms 3 and falling unexpec¬
tedly upon the Chrirtians, cut great numbers of them
in pieces. The latter, however, foon took arms in
their own defence 3 and being fuppoited by the few
loldiers who were quartered in the city, began to re¬
pel force by force. Thus a civil war was kindled,
and no day paffed without fome encounter. The Pa¬
gans ufed to retire to the temple of Serapis 5 and ,
thence fallying out unexpeftedly feized on fuch Chri¬
ftians as they met, and dragging them into the tem¬
ple, either forced them by the moft exquifite torments
to facrifice to their idol, or, if they refufed, racked
them to death. As foon as they expe&ed to be at¬
tacked by the emperor’s troops, they chofe a philofo-
pher named Olympus for their leader, with a defign to
defend themfelves to the laft extremity. The emperor, ‘
however, would not fuffer any puniiliment to be inflic¬
ted upon them for the lives of thofe they had taken
away, but readily forgave them 3 horvever, he ordered
all the temples of Alexandria to be immediately pulled
down, and commanded the bifhop to fee his orders put
in execution. The Pagans no fooner heard that the
4 D 2 emperor
CON
Conftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
r i
CON
85
Valentini-
an murder¬
ed by Arbo
gaftes, who
raifes Eu»
genius to
the empire.
s7
Eugenius
defeated,
taken pri-
foner, and
put to
death.
emperor was acquainted with their proceedings than
they abandoned the temple, wh’ch was in a fhort time
, deftroyed by Theophilus ; nothing being left except
the foundations, which could not be removed on ac¬
count of the extraordinary weight and fize of the
ftones. Not fatisfied with the deftruftion of the Alexan¬
drian temples, the zealous bilhop encouraged the people
to pull down all the other temples, oratories, chapels,
and places let apart for the worlhip of the Heathen
gods throughout Egypt, and the llatues of the gods
themfelves to be either burnt or melted down. Of
the innumerable ftatues which at that time were to be
found in Egypt, he is faid to have fpared but one,
viz, that of an ape, in order to expofe the Pagan re¬
ligion to ridicule. On his return to Conftantinople,
Theodofms ordered fuch temples as were yet Handing
to be thrown down, and the Arians to be everywhere
driven out of the cities.
In 392, Valentinian, emperor of the Weft, was
treacheroufty murdered by Arbogaftes his general ;
who, though he might afterw-ards have eafily feized
on the fovereignty himfelf, chofe to confer it upon
one Eugenius, and to reign in his name. This new
ufurper, though a Chriftian, w7as greatly favoured by
the Pagans, who were well apprized that he only bore
the title of emperor, while the whole power lodged in
Arbogaftes, who pretended to be greatly attached to
their religion. The arufpices began to appear anew,
and informed him that he was deftined to the em¬
pire of the whole w'oxld ; that he would foon gain
a complete victory over Theodolius, who was as much
hated as Eugenius w7as beloved by the gods, &c. But
though Eugenius feemed to favour the Pagans, yet in
the very beginning of his reign he wrote to St Am-
brofe. The holy man did not anfwer his letter till
he was prefled by fome friends to recommend them to
the new prince ; and then he wrote to this infamous
ufurper with all the refpedl due to an emperor. Soon
after his accefllon to the empire, Eugenius fent depu¬
ties to Theodofms 5 and they are faid to have been re¬
ceived by him in a very obliging manner. He did
not, how7ever, intend to enter into any alliance with
this ufurper, but immediately began his military pre¬
parations. In 394, he fet out from Conftantinople,
and wTas at Adrianople on the 15th of June that year.
He bent his march through Dacia, and the other pro¬
vinces between Thrace and the Julian Alps, with a
defign to force the pafles of thefe mountains, and break
into Italy before the army of Eugenius was in a con¬
dition to oppofe him. On his arrival at the Alps, he
found thefe pafles guarded by Flavianus prefect of Ita¬
ly, at the head of a confiderable body of Roman troops.
Thefe were utterly defeated by Theodofius, who
thereupon crofted the Alps and advanced into Italy.
He rvas foon met by Eugenius 5 and a bloody battle
enfued, without any decifive advantage on either fide.
The next day the emperor led his troops in perfon
againft the enemy, utterly defeated them, and took
their camp. Eugenius was taken prifoncr by his own
men, and brought to Theodofius, who reproached him
w7ith the murder of Valentinian, with the calamities
he had brought on the empire by his unjuft ufutpa-
tion, and with putting his confidence in Hercules,
and not in the true God ; for on his chief ftandard he
h$d difplayed the image of that fabulous hero. Euge¬
nius begged earneftly for bis life 5 but while he lay pro- Conftan-
ftrate at the emperor’s feet, his own foldiers cut 0ffhnopolitan
his head, and carrying it about on the point of a fpear, . 11 °’y' .
Ihowed it to thole in the camp, wdio had not yet fub-
mitted to Theodofius. At this they w7ere all thunder-
ftruck j but being informed that Theodofius was ready
to receive them into favour, they threw down their
arms and fubmitted. After this, Arbogaftes, defpair- Ar|K^a^es
ing of pardon, tied to the mountains-, but being in-jaySvj0_
formed that diligent fearch was made for him, he laid lent hands
violent hands on himfelf. His children, and thofe of on himfelf.
Eugenius, took fanftuary in churches : but the empe¬
ror not only pardoned, but took the opportunity of
converting them to Chriftianity, reflored them to their
paternal eftates, and raifed them to confiderable em¬
ployments in the Hate. Soon after this, Theodofius
appointed his fon Honorius emperor of the weft, af-
figning him for his lhare Italy, Gaul, Spain, Africa,
and Weft Ulyricum. The next year, as he prepared
for bis return to Conftantinople, he was feized with a
dropfy, owing to the great fatigues he had undergone
during the w7ar. As foon as he perceived himfelf to
be in danger, he made his will j by which he be-Theodofius
queathed the empire of the eaft to Arcadius, and con-dies,
firmed Honorius in the pofleffion of the weft. He
likewife confirmed the pardon which he had granted
to all thofe who had borne arms againft him, and re¬
mitted a tribute which had proved very burdenfome to
the people ; and charged his two fons to fee thefe
points of his %vill executed. He died at Milan on the
17th of January 395, in the 16th year of his reign and
50th of his age.
From the time of Theodofius to the time when the F ?°
Roman empire in the wreft wras totally deftroyed by ufurpeci
the Goths, we find but very little remarkable in the Bafilifcus.
hiftory of Conftantinople. At this time the eaftern
empire was ufurped by Bafilifcus, w7ho had driven out
Zeno the lawful emperor ; being affifted in his confpi-
racy by the emprefs Verina his fifter. Zeno fled in¬
to Ifauria, wHither he w7as purfued by Ulus and Tre-
condes, tw7o of the ufurper’s generals; who having
eafily defeated the few troops he had with him, for¬
ced the unhappy prince to fhut himfelf up in a caftle,
which they immediately invefted. But in a fhort
time Bafilifcus having difobliged the people by his cru¬
elty, avarice, and other bad qualities, for which he w7as
no lefs remarkable than his predeceflbr had been, his
generals joined w7ith Zeno, whom they reftored to the
throne. After his reftoration, Zeno having got Bafi¬
lifcus into his power, confined him in a caftle of Cap- ^
padocia together w7ith his wife Zenonides, where they is ftarved
both perifhed w7ith hunger and cold. This happened to death,
in the year 467, after Bafilifcus had reigned about 20
months. During the time of this ufurpation a dreadful
fire happened at Conftantinople, which confumed great Great fire
part of the city, with the library containing 1 20,000 ^ Co'iftan-
volumes ; among which w7ere the works of Homer, ttncP‘e*
w'ritten, as is faid, on the great gut of a dragon 1 20
feet long.
The misfortunes which Zeno had undergone did
not w7ork any reformation upon him. He ftill conti¬
nued the fame vicious courfes which had given occa-
fion to the ufurpation of Bafilifcus. Other confpira-
cies w'ere formed againft him, but he had the good
fortune to efcape them. He engaged in a war with
the
Conltan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
93 ,
Decline of
what ow¬
ing.
CON [581
the Oftrogoths, in which he proved unfuccefsful, and
was obliged to yield the provinces of Lower Dacia
, and Mosfia to them. In a (hort time, however, Theo-
doric their king made an irruption into Thrace, and
advanced within 15 miles of Conftantinople, with a de-
lign to befiege that capital : but the following year,
485, they retired in order to attack Odoacer king of
Italy ; of which country Theodoric was proclaimed
king in 493. The emperor Zeno died in the year
491, in the 65th year of his age, and 17th of his
reign.
The Roman empire had now for a long time been
the Roman on the decline : the ancient valour and militarv difci-
.empire,to p]jne which had for fuch a long time rendered the Ro¬
mans fuperior to other nations, had greatly degenera¬
ted j fo that they were now by no means lo powerful
as formerly. The tumults and diforders which had
happened in the empire from time to time by the many
ufurpations, had contributed alfo to weaken it very
much. But what proved of the greatelt detriment
was the allowing vail fwarms of barbarians to fettle
in the different provinces, and to ferve in the Roman
empire in feparate and independent bodies. This had
proved the immediate caufe of the diffblution of the
weftern empire ; but as it affefted the eaftern parts
lefs, the Conftantinopolitan empire continued for up¬
wards of 900 years after the weftern one was totally
diftblved. The weak and imprudent adminiftration of
Zeno, and Anaftafius who fucceeded him, had reduced
the eaftern emnire ftill more } and it might poffibly
have expired in a ftiort time after the weftern one,
It revives had not the wife and vigorous conduft of Juftin, and
under Juf- his partner Juftinian, revived in fome meafure the an-
1
CON
94
tin and Juf-cient martial fpirit which had originally raifed the Ro-
tmian. man empire to its higheft pitch of grandeur.
fuftin afcended the throne in 518. In 521 he en¬
gaged in a war with the Perfians, who had all along
been very formidable enemies to the Roman name.
Againft them he employed the famous Belifarius; but
of him we hear nothing remarkable till after the ac-
ceffion of Juftinian. This prince was the nephew of
Juftin, and wras by him taken as his partner in the em¬
pire in 527 ; and the fame year Juftin died, in the
77th year of his age and 9th of his reign. Juftinian
being now foie mafter of the empire, bent his whole
force againft the Perfians. The latter proved fuccefs-
ful in the firft engagement ; but were foon after utterly
defeated by Belifarius on the frontiers of Perfia, and
likewife by another general named Dorotheus in Ar¬
menia. The wmr continued with various fuccefs du¬
ring the firft five years of Juftinian’s reign. In the
fixth year a peace was concluded upon the following
terms : I. That the Roman emperor Ihould pay to
Cofrhoes, the king of Peifia, 1000 pounds weight of
gold. 2. That both princes fhould reftore the places
they had taken during the wars. 3. That the com¬
mander of the Roman forces fhould no longer refide
at Daras on the Perfian frontiers, but at a place called
Conjlantina in Mefopotamia, as he had formerly done.
4. That the Iberians, who had fided with the Romans,
fhould be at liberty either to return to their own coun¬
try or to remain at Conftantinople. This peace, con¬
cluded in 532, was ftyled eternal; but in the event
proved of very ftiort duration.
About this time happened at Conftantinople the
95
Juftinian’s
war with
the Per¬
fians.
greateft tumult mentioned in hiftory. It began among Conftan-
the different fadftions in the circus, but ended in an tingPoil,an
open rebellion. The multitude, highly diffatisfied with . ,
the conduct of John the prtfeBus pratorio, and of Tre- 9<s
bonianus then queftor, forced Hypatius, nephew to the Great tu-
emperor Anaftafius, to accept the empire, and pro-muItm
claimed him with great folemnity in the forum. As
tne two above-mentioned mmmers were greatly ab-
horred by the populace on account of their avarice,
Juftinian immediately difcharged them, hoping bv
that means to appeafe the tumult : but this was fo far
from anfwering the purpofe, that the multitude only
grew the more outrageous upon it 5 and mcft of the
fenators joining them, the emperor was fo much alarm¬
ed, that he had thoughts of abandoning the city and
making his efcape by feg. In this dilemma the tm-
prefs Theodora encouraged and perfuaded him rather
to part with his life than the kingdom ; and he at laft
refolved to defend himfelf to the utmoft, with the few
fenators who had not yet abandoned him. In the
mean time, the rebels having attempted in vain to
force the gates of the palace, carried Hypatius in tri¬
umph to the circus 5 where, while he was beholding
the fports from the imperial throne, nmidft the {bouts
and acclamations of the people, Belifarius, who had
been recalled from Perfia, entered the city with a
confiderable body of troops. Being then apprifed of
the ufurpation of Hypatius, he marched ftraight to the
circus ; fell fword in hand upon the difarmed multi¬
tude ; and with the afliftance of a band of Heruli,
headed by Mundus governor of Illyricum, cut about
30,000 of them in pieces. Hypatius the ufurper, and
Pompeius another ®f the nephews of Anaftafius, were
taken priibners and carried to the emperor, by whofe
orders they were both beheaded, and their bodies calf
into the fea. Their eftates were confifcated, and like¬
wife the eftates of fuch fenators as had joined with
them 5 but the emperor caufed great part of their
lands and effe&s to be afterwards rtftored, together
with their honours and dignities, to their children.
Juftinian having now no other enemy to contend
with, turned his arms againft the Vandals in Africa,
and the Goths in Italy ; both which provinces he re¬
covered out of the hands of the' barbarians *. But' be- * Sec Bat.
fore his general Belifarius had time to eftablifh fully iary and ^
the Roman power in Italy, he was recalled in order to Gotis.
carry on the war againft Cofrhoes king of Perfia, t>7
who, in defiance of the treaty formerly concluded in Another
532, entered the Roman dominions at the head of awarw'th
powerful army. The fame year, however, a peace rhensPer'
was concluded between the two nations upon the fol-
lowing conditions : 1. That the Romans fhould, with¬
in two months, pay to the Perfian king 5000 pounds
weight of gold, and an annual penfion of 500. 2. That
the Perfiaus (hould relinquifh all claim to the fortrefs
of Daras, and maintain a body of troops to guard the
Caipian gates, and prevent the barbarians from break¬
ing into the empire. 3. That upon payment of the
above-mentioned fum, Cofrhoes fhould immediately
withdraw his troops from the Roman dominions. The
treaty being figned, and the ftipulated fum paid, Cof¬
rhoes began to march back again ; but by the way
plundered feveral cities as if the war had ftill conti¬
nued. Hereupon Juftinian refolved to purfue the war
with the utmoft vigour 5 and for that purpofe def-i
patched *
CON
Cot-iftan- patched Belifarius into the eaft.
But
[ 582 ] ^
foon after he bad fuccefs
CON
tinopolitan was obliged to recal him in order to oppofe the Goths
t hiftoiy. vvho had gained great advantages in Italy alter hw! de-
The Perfian war was then carried on with
98
Peace con
eluded.
& See Beli
farius.
parture.  
indifferent fuccefs till the year 558, when a peace was
concluded upon the emperor again paying an immenfe
fum to the enemy. The fame year the Huns, paf-
fing the Danube in the depth of winter, marched in
two bodies directly for Conilantinople } and laying
wafte the countries through which they paffed, came,
without meeting the leaft oppolition, within 150 fur¬
longs of the city. But Belifarius marching out agamft
them with a handful of men, put them to flight j the
emperor, however, to prevent them from invading the
empire anew, agreed to pay them an annual tribute,
upon their promiling to defend the empire again!! all
other barbarians, and to ferve in the Roman armies
when required. T bis was the lad exploit performed
by Belifarius, who on bis return to Conftantinople was
difgraced, flripped of ail his employments, and con¬
fined to his houfe, on pretence mf a confpiracy againft
■ the emperor *. In the year 565 a real confpiracy was
formed againff Juftinian, w'hich he happily efcaped,
and the confpirators were executed } but the emperor
did not long furvive it, being carried off by a natural
death in 566, in the 39th year of his reign.
During the reign of Juflinian, the majefty of the
Roman empire feemed to revive. He recovered the
provinces of Italy and Africa out of the hands of the
barbarians, by whom they had been held for a number
99 of years •, but after his death they were foon loft, and
Dec!me of ^ empire tended fail to diffolution. In 569 Italy
after Jufti- was conquered by the Lombards, who held it lor the
nian. fpace of 200 years. Some amends, however, was
made for the lofs by the acquifition of Perfarmenia ;
the inhabitants of which, being periecuted by the Per-
fians on account of the Chriftian religion which they
profeffed, revolted to the Romans. I his produced a
war between the two nations, who continued to w’eak.-
en each other, till at laft the Perfian monarchy was
utterly overthrown, and that of the Romans greatly
reduced by the Saracens f. Thefe new enemies at¬
tacked the'Romans in the year 632, and puifued their
conquefts with incredible rapidity. In the fpace of
four years they reduced the provinces of Egypt, Sy¬
ria, and Paleftine. In 648 they were alfo mafters of
Mefopotamia, Phoenicia, Africa, Cyprus, Aradus, and
Rhodes; and having defeated the Roman fleet, com¬
manded by the emperor Confians in perfon, they con¬
cluded a peace on condition of keeping the vaft extent
of territory they had feized, and paying for it 1000
nutnmi a-year.
An expedition againft the Lombards was about this
ful expedi- time undertaken, but with very little luccefs, a body
tion againft Qf 20>000 Romans being almoft entirely cut off by one
of the Lombard generals. In 671 the Saracens ra¬
vaged feveral provinces, made a defeent in Sicily, took
and plundered the city of Syracufe, and over-ran the
whole ifland, deftroying every thing with fire and
fword. In like manner they laid wafte Cilicia ; and
having paffed the winter at Smyrna, they entered
Thrace in the winter of the year 672, and laid fiege
to Conftantinople itfelf. Here, however, they were
repulfed with great lofs : but next fpring they renew¬
ed their attempt, in which they met with the fame
f See Ara¬
bia*
Unfuccefs-
the Lom¬
bards.
101
Conftanti¬
nople be-
fieged by
the Sara¬
cens.
many of their {hips being burnt by the Corftan-
feafire, as it was called, becaule it burnt under water
and in their return home their fleet was wrecked off u—^
the Scyllaean promontory. At laft a peace was con¬
cluded for 30 years, on condition that the Saracens
fhould retain all the provinces they had feized \ and
that they fhould pay to the emperor and his lucceffors
3000 pounds weight of gold, 50 {laves, and as many
choice horfes. # ioj
This peace Was fcarce concluded, when the empire Empiie in.
wras invaded by a new7 enemy, wTho proved very trouble-vaded by
feme for a long time. Thefe were the Bulgarians : ga*
who breaking into Thrace, defeated the Roman army
fent againft 'them, and ravaged the country far and
wide. The emperor confented to pay them an annual
penfion, rather than continue a doubtful war *, and al¬
lowed them to fettle in Lower Mcefia, which iiom trem
was afterwards called Bulgaria. In 687, they were at¬
tacked by Juftinian II. who entered their country
without provocation, or regarding the treaties formei-
]y concluded wdth them. But they falling fuddenly
upon him, drove him out of their country, and obli¬
ged him to reftore tne towns and captives he had ta¬
ken. In 697, this emperor was depofed •, and in his
exile fled to Trebelis king of the Bulgarians, by wTom
be was kindly entertained, and by whofe means he was
reftored to his throne ; but foon forgetting this fa¬
vour, he invaded the country of the Bulgarians, with
a deiign to wreft from them thofe provinces which he ^
had yielded to them. He was attended in this expe-xhey Se¬
dition by no better fuccefs than his ingratitude deler-feat Jufti.
ved, his army being utterly defeated, and be himfelf man II.
obliged to make bis efcape in a light veflel to Conftan¬
tinople. The Bulgarians continued their inroads and
ravages at different times, generally defeated the Ro¬
mans who ventured to oppofe them, till the year 800,
the feventh of the reign of Nicephorus, when they iur-
prifed the city of Sardica in Mcefia, and put the whole
garrifon, confifting of 6000 men, to the fword. The
emperor marched againft them with a confideiable ar¬
my : but the enemy retired at his approach •, and he,
inftead of purfuing them, returned to Conflantinople. io^
Two years after, he entered Bulgaria at the head of j^gircoun.
a powerful armv, deftroying every thing with fire and try cruelly
fword. The king offered to conclude a peace with ravaged by
him upon honourable terms j but Nicephorus, reject-
ing his piropofals, continued to wrafte the country, de¬
ftroying the cities, and putting all the inhabitants,
without diftiuftion of fex or age, to the fword. The
king w'as fo much affected with thefe cruelties which
were exercifed on his fubje£ts, that lie lent a fe-
cond embaffy to Nicephorus, offering to conclude
a peace with him upon any terms, provided he would
quit his country. But Nicephorus difmiffmg the am- js cut
bafiadors w ith {'corn, the Bulgarian monarch attacked offwith his
unexpectedly the Reman camp, forced it, and cut off whole ar-
almoft the whole army, with the emperor himfelf, and my.
a great number of patricians. His fucceflor^ Michael
likewife engaged in a tvar with the Bulgarians j but
being utterly defeated, he was fo grieved that he re-
figned the empire. After this the Bulgarians conti¬
nued to be veiy formidable enemies to the empire, till
the year 979, when they were attacked by Bafihus II.
The Bulgarians were at that time governed by a king try jnva(ie<J
named Samuel; who having ravaged the Roman tern-by Bali.
tones. lius II.
CON
[ 583 ]
CON
Conftan- tories, as was the common praftice of his nation, Ba-
tinopolitan filius fent againft him one Nicephorus Uranus at the
. hlt^iry- . head of a powerful army. Uranus, leaving his bag-
gage at Larifla, reached by long marches the Sper-
chius, and encamped with his whole army ever againft
the enemy, who lay on the oppofite bank. As the ri¬
ver was greatly fwelled with the heavy rains that had
lately fallen, Samuel, not imagining the Romans would
attempt to pafs it, fuffered his troops to roam in large
parties about the country in queft of booty. But Ura¬
nus having at length found out a place where the river
was fordable, palled it in the dead of the night with¬
out being perceived. He then fell upon the Bulgari¬
ans who were left in the camp, and lay for the moft
part alleep •, cut great numbers of them in pieces ;
took a great number of prifoners, with all their bag¬
gage •, and made himfelf matter of •their camp. Sa¬
muel and his fon were dangeroufly wounded ; and
would have been taken, had they not all that day con¬
cealed themfelves among the dead. The next night
they ftole away to the mountains of iEtolia, and from
thence made their efcape into Bulgaria. The follow¬
ing year the emperor entered Bulgaria at the head of
a numerous and well-difciplined army ; defeated Sa¬
muel in a pitched battle, and took feveral ftrong ci¬
ties. The emperor himfelf, however, at laft, nar¬
rowly efcaped being cut off with his whole army 5 be¬
ing unexpeftedly attacked by the Bulgarians in a nar¬
row pafs. From this danger he was relieved by the
arrival of Nicephorus Xiphias, governor of Philippopo-
IG^ lis, with a confiderable body of troops ; who falling
Hismon- upon the enemies rear, put them to flight. Bafiiius
, ftrouscru- purfued them clofe ; and having taken an incredible
c^’ number of captives, caufed their eyes to be pulled out^
leaving to every hundred a guide with one eye, that
he might conduct them to Samuel. This fhocking
fpeftacle fo affected the unhappy king, that he fell in¬
to a deep fw’oon, aud died two days after. The Ro¬
man emperor puriued his conquefts, and in the fpace
of two years made himfelf matter of moft of the ene¬
mies ftrong holds. He defeated alfo the fucceffor of
Samuel in feveral engagements •, and having at laft
killed him in battle, the Bulgarians fubmitted them¬
felves without referve. The vaft treafures of their
princes were by Bafiiius diftributed among his fol-
diers by way of donative. Soon after, the widow
of the late king, with her fix daughters and three of
her Ions, furrendered themfelves to the Roman empe¬
ror, by whom they were received with the utmoft civi¬
lity and refpeft. This obliging behaviour encouraged
the three other (ons of the late king, and moft of the
princes of the blood, who had taken (belter in the
mountains, to fubmit, and throw themfelves on the
emperor’s mercy.
Ibatzes, however, a perfon nearly allied to the royal
family, who had diftinguiftied himfelf in a very emi¬
nent manner during the whole courfe of the war, re-
fufed to fubmit, and fled to a deep and craggy moun¬
tain, with a defign to defend himfelf there to the laft
extremity. Bafiiius endeavoured to caufe him fubmit
by fair means, but he equally defpifed both threats and
proraifes. At lafl: Euftathius Daphnomelus, whom
by a had lately appointed governor of Achridus,
gem, t*16 chief city of Bulgaria, undertook to fecure him
by a moft defperate and improbable fcheme. Without
108
The coun¬
try fubdu-
ed.
109
Ibatzes a-
ione holds
out.
no
He is taken
communicating his defign to any, he repaired, with Conftan-
two perfons in whom he could confide, to the moun-1'110?0^1313
tain on which Ibatzes had fortified himfelf. Fie ho- ,
ped to pafs undifeovered among the many ftrangers
who flocked thither to celebrate the appreaching feaft
of the Virgin Mary, for whom Ibatzes had a particu¬
lar veneration. In this he found himfelf miftaken ; for
he was known by the guards, and carried before the
prince. To him he pretended to have fomething of im¬
portance to communicate ; but as foon as Ibatzes had
retired with him into a remote place, Daphnomelus
threw himfelf fuddenly upon him, and with the affift-
ance of the two men whom he had brought with him,
pulled out both his eyes, and got fafe to an abandoned
caftle on the top of the hill. Here they were imme¬
diately furrounded by the troops of Ibatzes; but
Daphnomelus exhorting them now to fubmit to the
emperor, by whom he affured them they w’ould be well
received, they congratulated Daphnomelus on his fuc-
cefs, and fuffered him to conduct the unhappy Ibatzes
a prifoner to Bafiiius. The emperor was no lefs fur-
prifed than pleafed at the fuccefs of the bold attempt j
and rewarded Daphnomelus with the government of
Dyrrhachium, and all the rich moveables of his pri¬
foner. After this, having accompliftied the entire re¬
duction of Bulgaria, he returned to Conftantinople
with an incredible number of captives j where he was
received by the fenate and people with all poffible de-
monftrations of joy.
All this time the Saracens had at intervals invaded
the Roman dominions, and even attempted to make
themfelves mafters of Conftantinople. Their internal
divifions, however, rendered them now much lefs for¬
midable enemies than they had formerly been ; fo that
fome provinces were even recovered for a time out of
their hands j though the weak and diftrafled ftate of
the empire rendered it impoftible to preferve fuch con- Iir
quefts. But in 1041, the empire was invaded by anTheem-
enemy, not very powerful at that time indeed, but whopire inva-
by degrees gathered ftrength fufficient to overthrowtiec* bytlie
both the Roman and Saracen empires. Thefe were the
Turks; who having quitted their ancient habitations Acount of
in the neighbourhood of Mount Caucafus, and paffedthem.-
the Cafpian (traits, fettled in Armenia Major, about
the year 844. There they continued an unknown and
defpicable people, till the inteftine wars of the Saracens
gave them an opportunity of aggrandizing themfelves.
About the year 1030, Mohammed the fon of Sambrael
fultan of Perfia, not finding himfelf a match for Pifa-
ris fultan of Babylon, with whom he was at war, had
recourfe to the Turks, who fent him 30CO men under
the command of Tangrolipix, a leading man among
them. By their afliftance Mohammed defeated his ad-
verfary ; but when the Turks defired leave to return
home, he vefufed to part with them. Upon this they
withdiew without his confent to a neighbouring de-
fert; and being there joined by feveral difeontented
Perfians, began to make frequent inroads into the
fultan’s territories. Againft them Mohammed imme¬
diately difpatched an army of 20,000 men ; who be¬
ing furprifed in the night, were utterly defeated by
Tangrolipix. The fame of this viftory drew multi¬
tudes to him from all parts ; fo that in a (hort time
Tangrolipix faw himfelf at the head of 50,000 men.
Upon this Mohammed marched againft them in per¬
fon,
CON
[ 584 ]
CON
Ccnftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
They de¬
feat the Ro.
mans.
114
A Turk fli
army en¬
tirely cut
off.
115
They again
invade the
empire.
116
An obfti"
nate en¬
gagement.
Ton, but v\as thrown from his horfe in the beginning of
the engagement, and killed by the fall ; upon which
his men threw down their arms, and fubmitted to Tan-
grolipix.
After this viffory the Turkifh general made war
upon the fultan of Babylon ; whom he at length flew',
and annexed his dominions to his own. He then lent
his nephew, named Cut/u-Mq/es, againft the Arabians ;
but by them he was defeated, and forced to fly to¬
wards Media. Through this province he was denied
a paiTage by Stephen the Roman governor ; upon which
Cutlu-Moles wTas obliged to force a paflfage by en¬
countering the Roman army. Thefe he put to flight,
took the governor himfelf prifoner, and without any
further oppofition reached the conflnes of Perfia,
where he fold Stephen for a flave. Returning from
thence to Tangrolipix, he excufed, in the belt manner
he could, his defeat by the Arabians j but at the lame
time acquainted him with his victory over the Romans
in Media, encouraging him to invade that fertile coun¬
try, which he faid might be eafily conquered, as it w as
inhabited by none but women, meaning the Romans.
At that time Tangrolipix, did not hearken to his ad¬
vice, but marched againfl the Arabians at the head of
a numerous axmy. Pie wTas, however, attended wdth
po better fuccefs than his nephew had been ; and
therefore began to reflect on what he had told him.
Soon after he fent A fan his brother’s fon with an army
of 20,000 men to reduce Media. Purfuant to his or¬
ders, the young piince entered that country, and
committed everywhere dreadful ravages*, but being in
the end draw n into an ambufli by the Roman generals,
he was cut off with his whole army. Tangrolipix, no
way difeouraged by this misfortune, fent a new army
into Media near 100,000 ftrong ; who, after having ra¬
vaged the country without oppofition, laid fiege to
Artza a place of great trade, and therefore reckoned
the moft wealthy in thofe parts. Not being able to re¬
duce it by any other means, they fet it on fire ; and
thus in a fhort time it was utterly deflroyed : the
buildings being reduced to allies, and 150,000 of the
inhabitants perilhed either by the flames or the fw'ord.
After this Abraham Halim, half-brother to Tangio-
lipix, hearing that the Romans, reinforced with a bo¬
dy of troops under the command of Liparites governor
of Iberia, had taken the field, marched againlt them,
and offered them battle ; which they not declining,
the two armies engaged with incredible fury. The
victory continued long doubtful ; but at length inclined
to the Romans^ who neverthelefs did not think pro¬
per to purfue the fugitives, as their general Liparites
was taken prifoner. ,The emperor, greatly concerned
for the captivity of Liparites, difpatched ambaffadors
with rich prefents, and a large fum of money to re¬
deem him, and at the fame time to conclude an al¬
liance wdth Tangrolipix. The fultan received the pre-
1'ents ; but generoufly returned them together wnth the
money to Liparites, whom he fet at liberty without
any ranfom 5 only requiring him, at his departure, ne¬
ver more to be ir arms againll the Turks. Not long
after, Tangrolipix fent a perfon of great authority
among the Turks, with the charafter of ambaffador,
to Conftantinople ; who having arrogantly exhorted
the emperor to fubmit t® his mailer, and acknowledge
himfelf his tributary, was ignominioully driven out of Conftan-
the city. _ ^Tdr1^11
Tangrolipix, highly affronted at the reception his 1 °r*‘ .
ambaffador had met with, entered Iberia while the II-
emperor Conflantine Monomachus was engaged in a The Turks
wrar with the Patzinacae, a Scythian nation. Having kTiege
ravaged that country, he returned from thence to Me-
dia, and laid fiege to Mantzicbierta, a place defended
by a numerous garrifon, and fortified with a triple wall
and deep ditches. However, as it was lituated in an
open plain country, he hoped to be mailer of it in a
Ihort time. But finding the befieged determined to de¬
fend themfelves to the lait extremity, he refolved’ to
raife the fiege, alter he had continued it 30 days. One
of his officers, however, named Alcan, prevailed on him
to continue it but one day longer, and to commit the
management of the attacks to him. This being grant¬
ed, Alcan difpofed his men with fuch Ikill, and lo en¬
couraged them by his example, that, notvvithftanding
the vigorous oppofition they met with, the place would
have probably been taken, had not Alcan been llain as
he was mounting the wall. The belieged, knowing
him by the richnefs of his armour, drew him by the
hair into the city, and cutting off his head threw ^
over the w'all among the enemy ; which fo dilhearten-rajfC(j ^
ed them, that they gave over the allault and retired.
The next fpring Tangrolipix returned, and ravaged
Iberia wdth the utmoll cruelty, fparing neither fex nor
age. But on the approach of the Roman army he
retired to Tauris, leaving 30,000 men behind him to
infell the frontiers of the empire. This they did with
great fuccefs, the borders being through the avarice
of Monomachus unguarded. Till the time of this em¬
peror, the provinces bordering on the countries of
the barbarians had maintained, at their own charge,
forces to defend them ; and were on that account ex¬
empted from paying tribute ; but as Mononiachus ex-
adled from them the fame fums that were paid by-
others, they were no longer in a condition to defend
themfelves. up
In 1062 died the emperor Conllantine Ducas, ha-Theem-
ving left the empire to his three fons, Michael, “^■n* ^
dronicus, and Conllantine ; but as they were all very
young, be appointed the tmprefs Eudocia, regent du-ttiatliie
ring their minority, after having required ol her an will never
oath never to marry } which oath was with great fo-1113'1'1'^
lemnity lodged in the hands of the patriarch. He like-
wife obliged the fenators folemnly to fwear that they
would acknowledge none for their fovereign but his
three fons. No fooner, however, was he dead, than
the Turks, hearing that the empire w'as governed by
a woman, broke into Mefopotamia, Cilicia, and Cap¬
padocia, dellroying all with fire and fword. 'I he em-
prefs was no way in a condition to oppofe them, the
greater part of the army having been difbanded in her
hufband’s life time, and the troops that were Hill on
foot being undifeiplined, and altogether unfit for fer-
vice. The concern which this gave the empreis was
aggravated by the feditious fpeeches of a difeontented
party at home, who repeated on all occafions that the
prefent Hate of affairs required a man of courage and
addrefs at the helm, inllead of a weak and helplefs
woman ; and as they imagined the emprefs would ne¬
ver think of marrying, in confequence of the oath Ihe
had
2
nrtines to
break her
•ath.
tax
She reco¬
vers the
writing in
which it
was con¬
tained,
CON
Conftan- had taken, they hoped by thefe fpeeches to induce the
tmopolitan pe0ple to revolt, and choofe a new emperor. I his Eu-
, hlftory- docia was aware of} and therefore determined to pre-
120 vent the evils that threatened herfelf and her family,
1 he em- by marrying fome perfon of merit who was capable of
prefs deter- defeating her enemies both at home and abroad. At
this time one Romanus Diogenes, a perfon of a mod
beautiful afpeft, extraordinary parts, and illuftrious
birth, being accufed of afpiring to the empire, tried
and convidled, was brought forth to receive fentence
of death. But the emprefs, touched with compaffion
at his appearance, gently upbraided him with his am¬
bition, fet him at liberty, and foon after appointed
him commander in chief of all her forces. In this fta-
tion he acquitted himfelf fo well, that the emprefs re-
folved to marry him if lire could but recover the wri¬
ting in which her oath was contained out of the hands
of the patriarch. In order to this, fire applied to a fa¬
vourite eunuch; who going to the patriarch, told him
that the emprefs was fo taken with his nephew named
Bardas, that fhe was determined to marry and raife
him to the empire, provided the patriarch abfolved
her from the oath fire had taken, and convinced the
fenate of the lawfulnefs of her marriage. The pa¬
triarch, dazzled with the profpeft of his nephew’s
promotion, readily undertook to perform both. He
firft obtained the confent of the ferrate by reprefenting
to them the dangerous flate of the empire, and ex¬
claiming againft the rafh oath which the jealoufy of
the late emperor had extorted from the emprefs. He
then publicly difeharged her from it ; reftored the
writing to her; and exhorted her to marry fome de-
ferving objeft, who being entrufled with an abfolute
authority, might be capable of defending the empire.
The emprefs, thus difeharged from her oath, married
a few days after Romanus Diogenes ; who was there-
HasDioge- upon proclaimed emperor, to the great difappointment
*cs‘ of the patriarch.
As the new emperor was a man of great aftivity
and experience in w7ar, he no fooner faw himfelf veil¬
ed with the fovereign power, than he took upon him
the command of the army, and paffed over into Alia
with the few forces he could affemble, recruiting and
inuring them on his march to military difeipline, which
had been utterly negledled in the preceding reigns.
On his arrival in that continent, he w7as informed that
the Turks had furprifed and plundered the city of Neo¬
defeats C0e^area) and were retiring with their booty. On this
news he haftened after them at the head of a chofen
body of light-armed troops, and came up with them
on the third day. As the Turks were marching in
diforder, without the leaf! apprehenfion of an ene¬
my, Romanus cut great numbers of them in pieces,
and eafily recovered the booty ; after which he pur-
fued his march to Aleppo, w'hich he retook from them,
together with Hierapolis, where he built a flrong
calfle.
As he was returning to join the forces he had left
ond vidto-behind him, he was met by a numerous body of Turks,
who attempted to cut off his retreat. At firft he pre¬
tended to decline an engagement through fear; but
attacked them afterwards with fuch vigour when they
leaf! expedled it, that he put them to flight at the firft
onfet, and might have gained a complete vidlory had
he thought proper to purfue them. After this, feve-
Vol. VI. Part II.
122
xiad mar¬
ries R.oma-
123
He pafies
©ter into
Afia.
He
'the Turks.
*25
Cfafns a fe-
585 ] CON
ral towns fubmitted to him ; but the feafon being notv Conftan.
far fpent, the emperor returned to Conftantinople. rI he
following year he paffed over into Afia early in the
fpring ; and being informed that the Turks had lacked
the rich city of Iconium, befides gaining other con-
fiderable advantages, he marched in perfon againft
them. But the Turks, not thinking it advifable toThey are
wait his coming, retired in great haife. The Arme- again de-
nians, however, encouraged by the approach of thefeated.
emperor’s army, fell upon the enemy in the plains of
Tarfus, put them to flight, and ftripped them both of
their baggage and the booty they had taken. The
fpring following the emperor once more entered Afia
at the head of a confiderable army which he had railed,
and with incredible pains difeiplined during the win¬
ter. When the two armies drew near to each other,
Axan, the Turkifh fultan, and fon of the famous
Tangrolipix, fent propofals to Romanus for a lafting I2y
and honourable peace. Thefe were imprudently re-xhe Ro-
jefted, and a defperate engagement enfued, when, in mans de-
fpite of the utmoft efforts of the emperor, his army^at^a^
was routed, and he himfelf wounded and taken Pr*‘r0r taken!"
foner. When this news was brought to Axan, he
could fcarcely believe it 5 but being convinced by the
appearance of the royal captive in his prefence, he ten¬
derly embraced him, and addreffed him in an affec¬
tionate manner : “ Grieve not (faid he), moll noble
emperor, at your misfortune ; for fuch is the chance
of war, fometimes overwhelming one, and fometimes
another ; you flrall have no occafion to complain of
your captivity ; for I will not ufe you as my prifoner,
but as an emperor.” The Turk was as good as his
word. He lodged the emperor in a royal pavilion ;
affigned him attendants, with an equipage fuitable to
his quality ; and difeharged fuch prifoners as he de-
fired. After he had for fome days entertained his
royal captive with extraordinary magnificence, a per¬
petual peace was concluded betwixt them, and the
emperor difmiffed with the greateft marks of honour
imaginable. He then fet out wdth the Turkifh am-
baffador for Conftantinople, where the peace was to 128
be ratified ; but by the way he was informed that Eu-^udociade-i
docia had been driven from the throne by John the
brother of Confftmtine Ducas, and Pfellus a leading a raonaflc.
man in the fenate, wTo had confined her to a mona- ry.
fiery, and proclaimed her eldeft fon, Michael Ducas,
emperor. On this intelligence, Romanus retired to
a ftrong callle near Theodofiopolis, where he hoped in
a fhort time to be joined *by great numbers of his
friends and adherents. But in the mean time John,
wdio had taken upon him to a£l as guardian to the
young prince, defpatched Andronicus with a confide¬
rable army againft him. Andronicus having eafily de¬
feated the fmall army which Romanus had with him,
obliged him to fly to Adana a city in Cilicia, w'here
he was clofely belieged, and at lalt obliged to furren-
der. Andronicus carried his prifoner into Phrygia,
where he fell dangeroufly ill, being, as was fufpedled, 129
fecretly poifoned. But the poifon being too flow-in Romanus
its operation, John ordered his eyes to be put out»jUatj!>
which was done with fuch cruelty that he died foon af¬
ter, in the year 1067, having reigned three years and
eight months. 130
Axan was no fooner informed of the tragical end ofT^® 'lurks
his friend and ally, than he refolved to invade tbe
4 E1 empire empire.
CON
Conftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
131
They de¬
feat the Ro-
mans.
They gain a
i'econd vic¬
tory.
133
They con¬
quer fevc-
rai provin¬
ces.
*34
Alexius
Comnenas
jftops their
progrei's.
empire anew ; and that not with a defign only to plun¬
der as formerly, but to conquer, and keep what he
had once conquered. The emperor difpatched againft
him Ifaac Comnenus, with a conuderable army ; but
he was utterly defeated and taken prifoner by Axan.
Another army wms quickly fent oft' under the com¬
mand of John Ducas the emperor’s uncle. He gained
at firft fome advantages, and wrould probably have put
a flop to their conquefts, had not one Rufelius, or
Urfelius, revolted with the troops he had under his
command, caufed himfelf to be proclaimed emperor,
and reduced 1'everal cities in Phrygia and Cappadocia.
Againft him John marched with all his forces, fuf-
fering the Turks in the mean time to purfue their con¬
quefts j but coming to an engagement w ith the rebels,
his army was entirely defeated and himfelf taken pri¬
foner. Notwithftanding this viflory, Rufelius was fo
much alarmed at the progrefs of the Turks, that he not
only releafed his prifoner, but joined with him againft
the common enemy, by whom they were both defeat¬
ed and taken prifoners. Axan, however, was for fome
time prevented from purfuing his conqueft by Cutlu-
Mofes, nephew to the late Tangrolipix. He had re¬
volted againft his uncle ; but being defeated by him in
a pitched battle, had taken refuge in Arabia, whence
he now returned at the head of a confiderable army
in order to difpute the fovereignty with Axan. But
while the two armies were preparing to engage, the
caliph of Babylon, who was ftill looked upon as the fuc-
ceftor of the great prophet, interpofed his authority,
He reprefented the dangers of their inteftine diflen-
ftons 5 and by his mediation, an agreement was at laft
concluded, on condition that Axan Ihould enjoy undif-
turbed the monarchy lately left him by his father, and
Cutlu-Mofes Ihould poffefs fuch provinces of the Ro¬
man empire as he or his fons flrould in procefs of lime
conquer.
After this agreement, both the Tutkifti princes
turned their forces againft the empire •, and before the
year 1077, made themfelves mafters of all Media, Ly-
caonia, Cappadocia, and Bithynia, fixing the capital
city of their empire at Nice in the latter province.
During all this time, the emperors of Conftantinople,
as well as their fubjefts, feemed to be in a manner
infatuated. No notice was taken of the great pro¬
grefs made by thefe barbarians. The generals were
ambitious only of feizing the tottering empire, which
feemed ready to fall a prey to the Turks 5 and, after
it was obtained, fpent their time in opprefting their
fubjedds, rather than in making any attempts to repulfe
the enemy.
At laft Alexius Cotnnenus, having w’refted the em¬
pire from Nicephorus Botoniates, in 1077, began to
prepare for oppofing fo formidable an enemy. But
before he fet out, as his foldiers had committed great
outrages on his acceftion to the empire, he refolved
to make confefiion of his fins, and do open penance
for thofe he had fuffered his army to commit. Ac¬
cordingly he appeared in the attire of a penitent be¬
fore the patriarch and feveral other ecclefiaftics, ac¬
knowledged himfelf guilty of the many diforders that
had been committed by bis foldiers, and begged of
the patriarch to impofe upon him a penance fuitable
to the greatnefs of his crimes. The penance enjoined
him and his adherents by the patriarch was to fall, lie
r j86 ]
CON
upon the ground, and pra£life feveral other aufterities Couftan-
for the fpace of 40 days. This command was religiouf- tinoPoiitan
ly obeyed, and the emperor then began to prepare for, hiftory- _
war with fo much vigour, that Solyman, the Turkifti
fultan, fon and fucceflbr to Cutlu-Mofes, difpatched am-
baffadors to Alexius with propofals of peace. Thefe
were at firft rejefted ; but the emperor was at laft glad
to accept them, on certain advice that Robert Guif-
chard, duke of Puglia and Calabria, was making great
preparations againft; him in tbe weft. 135
To this expedition Robert was incited by MichaelRobcrt
Ducas. That prince had been depofed by Nicepho-Gu‘kkard’s
rus Botoniates, and towards the end of the ufurper’s^^
reign fled into the weft, where he was received by emperor.
Robert, who was prevailed upon to favour his caufe.
For this purpofe, Robert made great preparations ;
and thefe were continued even after the depofition of
Botoniates. He failed with all his forces from Brun-He paifes
dufium } and landing at Buthrotum in Epirus, madeover into
himlelf mailer of that place, while his fon Bohemond^iji1115 anc^
with part of the army reduced Aulon, a celebrated Dyrrhachi
port and city in the country now called Albania.nm.
From thence they advanced to Dyrrhachium, which
they invelled both by fea and land ; but met with a
molt vigorous oppofition from George Paleologus,
whom the emperor had entrufted with the defence of
that important place. In fpite of the utmoft efforts of
the enemy, this commander held out till the arrival of
the Venetian fleet, by whom Robert’s navy, command¬
ed by Bohemond, was utterly defeated, the admiral
himlelf having narrowly efcaped being taken prifoner.
After this vi&ory, the Venetians landed without lofs
of time, and being joined by Paleologus’s men, fell up¬
on Robert’s troops with fuch fury, that they deftroy-
ed their works, burnt their engines, and forced them
back to their camp in great diforder. As the Vene¬
tians were now mailers at fea, the befieged were fup-
plied with plenty.of provifions, while a famine began
to rage in the camp of the enemy •, and this calamity
wTas foon followed by a plague, which in the fpace of
three months is faid to have deftroyed ten thoufand
men. Notwithftanding all thefe difafters, however,
Robert did not abandon the fiege : having found means
to fupply his farnilhed troops with provifions, he con¬
tinued it with fuch vigour, that the courage of the be¬
fieged began at laft to fail them ; and Paleologus fent
repeated meffages to the emperor, acquainting him
that he would be obliged to furrender unlefs very
fpeedily adifted. On this Alexius marched in perfon
to the relief of the city, but was defeated with great
lofs by Robert. The whole right wing of Alexius’s
army, finding themfelves hard preffed by tbe enemv,
fled to a church dedicated to St Michael, imagining
they would there find themfelves in a place of fafety ;
but the viftorious army purfuing them, let fire to the
church, which was burnt to allies with all who were
in it. The emperor himfelf with great difficulty made
his efcape, leaving the enemy mafters of his camp and
all his baggage. Soon after this defeat, the city fur-
rendered j and Alexius being deftitute of refources for
carrying on the war, ieized on the wealth of churches
and monafteries, which gave much offence to the clergy,
and had like to have occafioned great difturbanees in
the imperial city. At the lame time, Alexius enter¬
ing into an alliance with Henry emperor of Germany.
peifuaded
CON
[ 587 ]
CON
Conftan- perfuaded him to invade the dominions of Robert in
tmopolitan ^ Henry met with great luccefs j but
. u ^ur~>‘ . was foon overcome, and driven out of that country by
Robert. Bohemond, in the mean time, reduced fe-
veral places in Illyricum ; and, having defeated Alexius
in two pitched battles, entered Thefldy, and fat down
before Lariffa. This place, being defended by an of-
ficer of great courage and experience in war, held out
The city till the emperor came to its relief. Soon after his ar-
furrenders. rival, he found means to draw a ftrong party of Bohe-
mond’s men into an ambufcade, and cut them off al-
moft entirely. However, in the battle which was
fought a few days after, Bohemqnd had the advan¬
tage ; but his troops mutinying and refufing to carry
on the war, he was obliged to return to Italy. Alexi¬
us taking advantage of his abfence, recovered feveral
cities 5 and being informed that Robert was making
great preparations againft him, he had recourfe once
more to the Venetians. By them he wTas affilted with
a powerful fleet, which defeated that of Robert in two
engagements •, but being foon after furprifed by him,
they were defeated with the lofs of almoft their whole
navy. Robert is faid to have uled his victory with
great barbarity, putting many of his prifoners to death
with unheard-of torments. The Venetians equipped
a fecond fleet *, and joining that of the emperor, fell
unexpectedly upon Robert’s navy, who were riding
without the leaft apprehenfions in Buthrotum, funk
molt of his (hips, and took a great number of prifon¬
ers, his wife and younger fons having narrowly efca-
ped falling into their hands. Robert made great pre¬
parations to revenge this defeat ; but was prevented
by death from executing his defigns ; and, after his
13S
The war
139
The Scy¬
thian war.
140
The Ro¬
mans de¬
feated.
14T
They at
laft defeat
the Scythi¬
ans.
tinopolitnn
hirory.
the death of^ecea^*e> ^'s ^on R°ger did not think proper to purfue
Robert. fo dangerous and expenfive a war. He therefore re¬
called his troops, and the places which had been con¬
quered by Robert and Bohemond fubmitted anew to
the emperor.
This war was fcarce ended, when the Scythians
palling the Danube laid wafte great part of Thrace,
committing everywhere the greateft barbarities. A-
gainft them the emperor difpatched an army under
the command of Pacurianus and Branas. The latter
infilled upon engaging the enemy contrary to the opi¬
nion of his colleague ; and his ralhnefs caufed the lofs
of the greater part of the army, who were cut off by
the Scythians together with the two generals. Tali-
cius, an officer who had fignalized himfelf on many
occalions, was appointed to command the army in
their room. He fell upon the enemy as they lay fe-
curely in the neighbourhood of Philippopolis, cut great
numbers of them in pieces, and obliged the reft to re¬
tire in great confulion. The following fpring, how¬
ever, they returned in fuch numbers, that the empe¬
ror refolved to march againft them in perfon. Ac¬
cordingly he fet out for Adrianople, and from thence
to a place called Lardea. Here, contrary to the ad¬
vice of his belt officers, he ventured a battle ; in wffiich
he was utterly defeated with the lofs of vail numbers
of his men, he himfelf efcaping with the utmoft diffi¬
culty. The next year he was attended with no bet¬
ter fuccefs, his army being entirely defeated with the
lofs of his camp and baggage. In the year following,
1084, the emperor retrieved his credit ; and gave the
Scythians luch an overthrow, that very few efcaped
the general {laughter. Notwithftanding this difafler, Conftaft-
however, they again invaded the empire in 1093.
To this they were encouraged by an impollor called
Leo, who pretended to be the eldeft fon of Romanus
Diogenes. The young prince had been flain in a
battle with the Turks; but as the Scythians only want¬
ed a pretence to renew the war, they received the
impoftor with joy. By a ftratagem, however, Leo
was murdered ; and the Scythians being afterwards
overthrown in two great battles, were obliged to fub-
mit on the emperor’s own terms. 142
Since the year 1083, the war had been carried on The Holy
with the Turks with various fuccefs ; but now an af-War.
fociation was formed in the well againft thefe infidels,
which threatened the utter ruin of the Turkilh nation.
This was occafioned by the fuperftition of the Chrilli-
ans, who thought it a meritorious adlion to venture
their lives for the recovery of the Holy Land, polfef-
fed at that time by the Turks and Saracens. Had the
wellern princes been properly allifted by the empe¬
rors of the Eall in this undertaking, the Turks had
undoubtedly been unable to refill them ; but fo far
from this, the Latins wrere looked upon by them as
no lefs enemies than the Turks; and indeed whatever
places they took from the infidels, they never thought
of relloring to the emperors of Conllantinople, to
whom they originally belonged, but erefted a number
of fmall independent principalities; which neither ha¬
ving fufficient llrength to defend themfelves, nor be¬
ing properly fupported by one another, foon became T j.
a prey to the Turks. In the year 1203 happened a Dreadful
dreadful fire at Conllantinople, occafioned by fomefire at Con-
Latin foldiers. Thefe had plundered a mofque, which^ant^n0P^*
the Turks refiding in Conllantinople had been fuffered
to build there. For this reafon they were attacked
by the infidels ; who being much fuperior to them in
number, the Latins found themfelves obliged to fet
fire to fome houfes, in order to make their efcape with
fafety. The flame fpreading in an inllant from llreet
to ftreet, reduced in a Ihort time great part of the city
to affies, with the capacious llore-houfes which had
been built at a vail expence on the quay. The late
emperor Ifaac Angelus, who had been rellored to his
throne by the Latins, died foon after their departure
from Conllantinople, leaving his fon Alexius foie ma¬
iler of the empire. The young prince, to difcharge
the large fums he had promifed the French and Ve¬
netians for their affillance, xvas obliged to lay heavy ^
taxes on his fubjefts ; and this, with the great elteem
and friendlhip fhowed to his deliverers, raifed a general
difcontent among the people of Conllantinople, who
were fworn enemies to the Latins. This encouraged
John Ducas, furnamed Murt%uphhts, from his joined
and thick eyebrows, to attempt the fovereignty. Un¬
happily he found means to put his treacherous de¬
figns in execution ; and llrangled the young prince 144.
with his own hands. After this he prefented himfelfMuruu-
to the people; told them what he had done, which hephlus ftran.
pretended was in order to fecure their liberties ; andSlestheen^
earnellly intreated them tq choofe an emperor whoPtror*
had courage enough to defend them againll the La¬
tins that were ready to opprefs and enflave them. On
this he was inllantly faluted emperor by the inconllant
multitude ; but this ufurpation proved the ruin of the
city. The Latins immediately refolved to revenge
4 L 2 the
*45
The city
taken and
plundered
by the La^
tins.
CON [ 588
Gonftan- tlie death of the young prince ; and, as they had been
t”1.0fP°^tan fo often betrayed and retarded in their expeditions to
. . the Holy Land by the emperors of Conftantinople,
to make themfelves mailers of that city, and feize the
empire for themfelves. In confequence of this refo-
lution they muflered all their forces in Alia, and
having eroded the ilraits, laid liege to Conftantinople
by fea and land. The tyrant, who was a man of great
courage and experience in war, made a vigorous de¬
fence. The Latins, however, after having battered
the walls for feveral days together with an incredible
number of engines, gave a general aflault on the 8th
of April 1204. The attack lafted from break of day
till three in the afternoon, when they were forced to
retire, after having loft fome of their engines, and a great
number of men. The aflault was neverthelefs renewed
four days after} when, after a warm difpute, the
French planted their ftandard on one of the towers ;
which the Venetians obferving, they quickly made
themfelves mailers of four other towers, where they
likewife difplayed their enfigns. In the mean time
three of the gates being broken down by the battering
rams, and thofe who had fealed the walls having killed
the guards, and opened the gates between the towers
they had taken, the whole army entered, and drew
up in battle array between the walls. The Greeks
fled up and down in the greateft confufion $ and fe¬
veral parties were by the Latins difpatched to fcour
the ftreets, who put all they met to the fword, with¬
out diftinftion of age or condition. Night put a
flop to the dreadful daughter, when the princes found¬
ing the retreat, placed their men in different quarters
of the city, with orders to be upon their guard, not
doubting but they ftiould be attacked early next
morning. They were furprifed, however, at that time
by the entire fubmifflon of the Greeks j to whom
they promifed their lives, but at the fame time order¬
ing them to retire to their houfes, they gave up the
city to be plundered by the foldiers for that day.
They ftriclly enjoined their men to abftain from
{laughter, to preferve the honour of the women, and
to bring the whole booty into one place, that a juft
dillribution might be made according to the rank and
merit of each individual. The Greeks had undoubt¬
edly concealed their rnoft valuable effe<ffs during the
night j many perfons of the firft rank had elcaped, and
carried along with them immenfe treafures •, the fol¬
diers had probably, as is ufual in all luch cafes, refer-
ved things of great value for themlelves, notwithftand-
Ing all prohibitions to the contrary 5 and yet the booty,
without the ftatues, pictures, and jewels, amounted to
a fum almoft incredible. As for Murtzuphlus, he made
his efcape in the night; embarking in a fmall veffel
with Euphrofyne, the wife of Alexius Angelus a late
ufurper, and her daughter Eudoxia, for whofe fake he
had abandoned his lawful wife.
Conftantinople continued fubjeft to the Latins till
the year 1261, when they were expelled by one
Alexius Strategofmlus, He was a perfon of an illuftri-
ous family, and, for his eminent fervices, diftinguilhed
with the title of Ccefar. He had been fent againft
Alexius Angelus defpot of Epirus, who now attempted
to recover fome places in Theffaly and Greece from
Michael Paleologus, one of the Greek emperors, that
iince the capture of Corulantinople, had kept their
1
CON
'146
The Latins
hxpelled.
court at Nice ; and to try whether he could on his Conftan-
march furprife the imperial city itfelf. Alexius, having t,"0P°lltatt
paffed the ftraits, encamped at a place called Khegium, 1 ° y‘ *
where he was informed by the natives that a ftrong
body of the Latins had been fent to the fiege of
Daphnu/a, that the garrifon was in great w^ant of
provifions, and that it would be no difficult matter to
furprife the city. Hereupon the Greek general refol-
ved at all events to attempt it : in wrhich he was en¬
couraged by fome of the inhabitants, who, coming pri¬
vately to his camp, offered themfelves to be his guides.
He approached the walls in the dead of the night,
which fome of his men fealed without being obferved j
and, killing the Gentries whom they found afleep,
opened one of the gates to the reft of the army.
The Greeks ruffling in, put all they met to the fword;
and at the fame time, to create more terror, fet fire
to the city in four different places. The Latins,
concluding from thence that the enemy’s forces were
far more numerous than they really were, did not fo
much as attempt either to drive them out or to ex-
tinguifh the flames. In this general confufion, the
emperor Baldwin, quitting the enfigns of majefty, fled
with Juftinian the Latin patriarch, and fome of his
intimate friends, to the fea-fide 5 and there, embark¬
ing in a fmall veffel, failed firft to Eubcea, and after¬
wards to Venice, leaving the Greeks in full pofi’eflion
of Conftantinople. When news of this furprifing and
altogether unexpefted fuccefs of Alexius w’ere firft
brought to Paleologus, he could fcarce give credit to
it ; but receiving foon after letters from Alexius him-
felf, with a particular account of fo memorable an
event, he ordered public thanks to be returned in all
the churches, appeared in public in his imperial robes,
attended by the nobility in their beft apparel, and
ordered couriers to be difpatched with the agreeable
news into all parts of the empire. 147
Soon after, having fettled his affairs at Nice, he fet Entry of
out for Conftantinople with the emprefs, his fon An-
dronicus, the fenate, and nobility, to take poffeffion^^fd.!
of the imperial city, and fix his refidence in that place ty.
that had originally been defigned for the feat of the
eaftern empire. Having paffed the ftraits, he ad¬
vanced to the golden gate, and continued fome days
without the walls, while the citizens were buffed in
making the neceflary preparations to receive him with
a magnificence fuitable to the occafion. On the day
appointed, the golden gate, which had been long (hut
up, was opened, and the emperor entering it amidft
the repeated acclamations of the multitude, marched
on foot to the great palace. He w^as preceded by the
biffiop of Cyzicus, who carried an image of the Virgin
Mary, fuppofed to have been done by St Luke, and
followed by all the great officers, nobility, and chief
citizens, pompoufly drefled. Public thanks were again
returned in the church of St Sophia, at which the em¬
peror affifted in perfon, with the clergy, the ienate,
and nobility. Theie exercifes were fucceeded by all
forts of rejoicings } after which the emperor carefully
furveyed the imperial city. This furvey greatly al-He refolves
layedhisjoy. He faw the ftately palaces and other to reftore
magnificent buildings of the Roman emperors lying in’ 0Its or“
mer graa*.
rums; the many capacious buildings tnat nad Deendeur>
ert&ed by his predeceffors, at an immenfe charge,
deftroyed by fire, aod other unavoidable accidents of
* war
t
CON
[ 589 ]
CON
Conftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory
149
‘Tireat di-
Iturbances
occafioned
by the
treachery
of Paleo-
logus.
.150,
"Union of
the Greek
and Latin
churches.
. I5r
©iiTolved.
war } feveral flreets abandoned by tbe inhabitants, and
choaked up with rubbifh, &c. Thefe objefts gave the
emperor no fmall concern, and kindled in him a defire
of reftoring the city to its former luftre. In the mean
time, looking upon Alexius as the reftorer of his coun¬
try, he caufed him to be clad in magnificent robes 5
placed with his own hand a crown on his head ; or¬
dered him to be conduced through the city, as it were
in triumph ; decreed that for a whole year the name
of Alexius fhould be joined in the public prayers with
his own •, and to perpetuate the memory of fo great
and glorious an action, he commanded his ftatue to be
erefted on a ftately pillar of marble before the church
of the Apoftles. His next care was to re-people the
city, many Greek families having withdrawn from it
while it was held by the Latins, and the Latins
now preparing to return to their relpeflive countries.
The former wTere recalled home j and the latter, in
regard of the great trade they carried on, were al¬
lowed many valuable privileges, which induced them
not to remove. The Greeks were allowed to live in
one of the moft beautiful quarters of the city, to be
governed by their own laws and magiftrates, and to
trade without paying cufloms or taxes of any kind.
Great privileges were likewile granted to the natives
of Venice and Pifa, which encouraged them to lay
afiue all thoughts of removing; and the trade they car¬
ried on proved afterwards highly advantageous to the
ftate.
It was not long, however, before thefe regulations
were altered. The emperor being foon after informed
that Baldwin, lately expelled from Conftantinople, had
married his daughter to Charles king of Sicily, and
given him, by way of dowry, the imperial city itfelf,
he ordered the Genoefe, who were become very nu¬
merous, to remove firft to Heraclia, and afterwards to
Galata, where they continued. As for the Pifans and
Venetians, who were not fo numerous and wealthy,
they were allowed to continue in the city. Paleolo-
gus, though he had caufed himfelf to be proclaimed
emperor, and was poffeffed of abfolute fovereignty, was
as yet only guardian to the young emperor John Laf-
caris, then about 12 years of age. But having now fet¬
tled the Hate, and having gained the affeftions both of
natives and foreigners, he began to think of fecuring
himfelf and his pofterity in the full enjoyment of the
empire ; and for this reafon cruelly ordered the eyes of
the young prince to be put out, pretending that none
but himfelf had any right to the city or empire of Con-
Bantinople, which he alone had recovered out of the
hands of the Latins.
This piece of treachery and inhumanity involved him
in great troubles. The patriarch immediately excom¬
municated him ; and he would in all probability have
been driven from the throne by a combination of the
weftern princes, had he not engaged Pope Urban IV.
to efpouie his caufe, by promifing to fubmit himfelf and
his dominions to the Latin church. Thus, indeed, he
diverted the prefent ftorm ; but this proceeding caufed
the greatelt difturbances, not only in Conftantinople,
but throughout the whole empire, nor was Paleologus
able to reconcile his fubjefls to this union.
In 1283 Michael died, and was fucceeded by his fon
Andronicus. His firft ftep was to reftore the ancient
Greek, ceremonies, thinking he could not begin his
reign with a more popular aft. But thus he involved G>n{Un-
hhnfelf in difficulties ftill greater than before. I hough
Michael had not been able fully to reconcile his Greek .  ^
fubjefts to the Latin ceremonies, yet he had in fome
degree accomplifhed his purpofe. Tbe Latins had got
a confiderable footing in the city, and defended their
ceremonies with great obftinacy; fo that the empire
was again thrown into a ferment by this imprudent
ftep. . _ _ 15a
All this time the Turks had been continuing their War with
encroachments on the empire, which, had it not beentlie T-ur^9,
for the crufades publiffied againft them by the pope,
they would in all probability have made themfelves
mafters of before this time. They were now, how¬
ever, very fuccefsfully oppofed by Conftantine the
emperor’s brother : but his valour rendered him luf-
pefted by the emperor; in confequence of which he was
thrown into prifon, along with feveral perfons of great
diftinftion. On the removal of this brave commander,
the Turks, under the famous Othoman, made them¬
felves mafters of feveral places in Phrygia, Caria, and
Bithynia ; and, among the reft, of the city of Nice.
To put a flop to their conquefts, the emperor difpatch-
ed againft them Philanthropenus and Libadarius, two
officers of great experience in war. The former
gained fome advantages over the enemy ; but being
elated with his fuccefs, caufed himfelf to be proclaim¬
ed emperor. This rebellion, however, was foon fup-
prefied, Philanthropenus being betrayed by his own
men ; but the Turks taking advantage of thefe intef-
tine commotions, not only extended their dominions
in Afia, but conquered moft of the illands in the Me¬
diterranean ; and, being mafteis at fea, infefted the
coafts of the empire, to the utter ruin of trade and
commerce.
From this time the Roman empire tended fall to
diffolution. After the revolt of Philanthropenus, the
emperor could no longer trull his lubjefts, and there¬
fore hired the Maffagetes to affift him : but they, be¬
having in a cardefs manner, were firft defeated by
their enemies, and afterwards turned their arms a-
gainft thofe they came to affift. He next applied to
the Catalans, who behaved in the fame manner ; and
having ravaged the few places left the emperor in
Afia, returned into Europe, and called the 1 urks to
their affiftance. It-,
This happened in the year 1292, and was the firft Their nrfF
appearance of the Turks in Europe. This enterprife, appearance,
however, was unfuccefsful. Having loaded themfelves111 Eur0Pc’
with booty, they offered to depart quietly if they were
allowed a fafe paffage, and Ihips to tranfport them to
Afia. To this the emperor, willing to get rid of luch
troublefome guefts, readily confented, and ordered the
veffels to be got ready with all poffible expedition.
But the Greek officers obferving the immenle booty
with which they were loaded, refolved to fall upon
them in the night, and cut them all off at once. This
fcheme, however, was not managed with fuch fecrecy
but that the Turks had notice of it, and therefore pre¬
pared for their defence. They firft furprifed a llrong
caftle in the neighbourhood, and then found means to
acquaint their countrymen in Afia with their danger¬
ous fituation. Their brethren, enticed with the hopes
of booty, were not long in coming to their affiftance;
and having crofted the Hellefpont in great numbers;
i ravaged).
*54
They are
all cut in
pieces or
taken.
CON [ 590
Conftan- ravaged the adjacent country, making excurfions to by
1 huf0 itan t^e ver7 gates Conrtantinople. At lad the emperor
. ‘ ' . determined to root them out ; and accordingly march¬
ed againft them with all his forces, the country people
flocking to him from all quarters. The Turks at firfl:
gave themfelves over for loft ; but finding the Greeks
negligent of difcipline, they attacked their army unex¬
pectedly, utterly defeated it, and made themfelves ma¬
ilers of the camp. After this unexpected victory, they
continued for two years to ravage Thrace in the moll
terrible manner. At laft, however, they were defeated j
and being afterwards (hut up in the Cherfonefus, they
were all cut in pieces or taken.
Soon after new commotions took place in this un¬
happy empire, of which the Turks did not fail to take
the advantage. In 1327 they made themfelves mailers
of moft of the cities on the Mieander ; and, among
the reft, of the ftrong and important city of Prufa
in Bithynia. The next year, however, Othoman,
who may juftly be ftyled the founder of the Turkilh
monarchy, being dead, the emperor laid hold of that
opportunity to recover Nice, and feme other impor¬
tant places, from the infidels. But thefe were loft
the year following, together with Abydus and Ni-
comedia ; and in 1330 a peace was concluded upon
condition that they Ihould keep all their conquefts.
This peace they obferved no longer than ferved their
own purpofes •, for new commotions breaking out in
the empire, they purfued their conquefts, and by the
year 1357 had reduced all Alia. They next palled the
Hellefpont under the conduCl of Solyman the fon, or,
as others will have it, the brother of Orchane, the fuc-
ceffor of Othoman, and feized on a ftrong caftle on the
*55 European fide. Soon after the Turkilh fultan died, and
Atlrianople was fucceeded by Amurath. He extended the con¬
quefts of his predeceflors, and in a Ihort time reduced all
Thrace, making Adrianople the feat of his empire. A-
murath was flain by treachery in a little time after, and
wTas fucceeded by his fon Bajazet. This prince greatly
enlarged his dominions by new conquefts. In a Ihort
time he reduced the countries of Theflaly, Macedon,
Phocis, Peloponnefus, Myfia, and Bulgaria, driving
out the defpots or petty princes who ruled there. E-
lated with his frequent vidftories, he began to look up¬
on the Greek emperor, to w'hom nothing was now
left but the city of Conftantinople and the neighbour¬
ing country, as his vaflal, Accordingly he lent him
an arrogant and haughty meflage, commanding him to
pay a yearly tribute, and lend his fon Manuel to at¬
tend him in his military expeditions. This demand
the emperor rvas obliged to comply with, but died foon
after, in the year 1392.
Manuel no fooner heard of his father’s death than
he haftened to Conftantinople, without taking leave of
the fultan, or acquainting him with the reafon of his
Bajazet be-ludden departure. At this Bajazet was fo highly of-
fiegesCon- fencle3? that he palled with great expedition .out of
antmop e. ‘,^0 Thrace, ravaged the country adjoining
to Conllantinople, and at laft invefted the city itfelf
both by fea and land. In this extremity Manuel had
recourfe to the wellern princes j who fent him an army
of 130,000 men, under the command of Sigifmund
king of Hungary, and John count of Nevers. But
though the weftern troops proved at firft fuccefsful,
they were in the end defeated with great {laughter
Conftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
taken by
■s he Turks.
*56
] ' COM
Bajazet, who then returned to the 'liege with
greater vigour than ever. As he found, however,
that the citizens were determined to hold out to the
laft, he applied to John, the fon of Manuel’s elder bro¬
ther, who had a better title to the crown than Ma¬
nuel himfelf. With him he entered into a private
agreement, by virtue of which Bajazet was to place
John upon the throne of Conftantinople j on the other
hand, John was to deliver up the city to the Turks,
and remove the imperial city to Peloponnefus, which
the fultan promifed to relinquifli to him and his pofte-
rity. At the fame time, he fent deputies to the inhabi¬
tants of Conftantinople, offering to withdraw his army,
and ceafe from further hollilities, provided they expell¬
ed Manuel and placed John upon the throne. This
propofal rent the city into two factions ; but Manuel
prevented the mifehiefs which were ready to enfue, by
a voluntary refignation, upon condition that he Ihould
be allowed to retire to whatever place he thought pro¬
per with his wife and children.
With this condition John readily complied; and
Manuel having received him into the city, and con¬
ducted him to the palace, let fail for Venice. From
thence he went to the courts of all the weftern prin¬
ces, to folicit their afliftance againft the Turks, whofe
power was grown formidable to all Europe. He was
everywhere received wuth the greateft demonllra-
tions of efteem, and promifed large fupplies; all Chri-
ftendom being now alarmed at the progrefs of the in¬
fidels.
In the mean time, Bajazet did not fail to put John
in mind of his promife ; but the citizens refufing to
comply with fuch a fcandalous treaty, the fiege was re¬
newed, and the city affaulted with more fury than ever.
When it was already reduced to the laft extremity,
news were brought the fultan that Tamerlane, the vic¬
torious Tartar, having overrun all the call with in¬
credible celerity, bad now turned his arms againft the
Turks, and was preparing to break into Syria. Ba¬
jazet, alarmed at the danger that threatened him, raifed I5?
the fiege in great hafte, and advanced againft Tamerlane He is de-
with a very numerous and well difeiplined army ; but felted and
the Tartar totally defeated and took him prifoner, after^e"Pn"
having cut moll of his men in pieces: and thus Con-TamerJane_
ftantinople was preferved for the prefent. 158
But this relief was of Ihort duration. In 1424 theAnuu?th
city was again befieged by Amurath II. The inha-'3efi®Ses.
bitants defended themielves with great bravery •, butnopJe>
mull in the end have fubmitted, had not the emperor
prevailed upon the prince of Caramania to counte¬
nance an impoftor and pretender to the Turkilh throne.
This obliged Amurath to raife the fiege, and march The fiege
with all his forces againil the ufurper, whom he foonlafted-
reduced. Having then no other enemies to contend
with, he entered Macedon at the head of a powerful
army ; and having ravaged the country far and near,
he took and plundered Theffalonica, as he did alfo
moft of the cities of iEtolia, Phocis, and Boeotia.
From Greece he marched into Servia ; which country
he foon reduced. He next broke into the dominions
of the king of Hungary, and befieged the ftrong city
of Belgrade ; but here he met with a vigorous repulfe,
no fewer than 15,000 Turks being llain by the Chri-
ftians in one fally, which obliged the fultan to drop the
enterprife and retire.
In
gain ft the
Turks.
161
He is atlaft but was
defeated.
Conftan- In his retreat he
t'in0P0*‘tan John Hunniades, who cut great numbers of his men
. 1 ~L '' - *n pieces, and obliged the red to fly with precipita-
i6o tion. Not long after he gained a {till more complete
Succefsof vidtory over the enemy in the plains of Tranfylvania,
John Hun- with the lofs of only 3000 of his own men, whereas
niades a- 20,000 of the Turks were killed on the field of battle,
and almoit an equal number in the purfuit. Amurath,
who was then at Adrianople, fent an army into Tran¬
fylvania far more numerous than the former *, but
they were attended with no better fuccefs, being cut
off almoft to a man by the brave Hungarian. He
gained feveral other victories no lefs remarkable;
at laft entirely defeated in 14485 and with
this defeat ended all hopes of preferving the Roman
empire. The unhappy emperor was now obliged to
pay an annual tribute of 300,000 afpers to the fultan 5
and to yield up to him fome ftrong holds which he {till
held on the Euxine fea. However, as he doubted not
but Amurath would foon attempt to become matter
of the city itfelf, he renewed the union between the
Greek and Latin churches, hoping that this would in¬
duce the weftern princes to aflift him in the defence of
the city againft the Turks. This union produced great
difturbances, which the emperor did not long furvive,
but died in 1448, leaving the empire, now confined
within the walls of Conftantinople, to his brother Con-
ftantine-
Amurath the Turkifh fultan died in 1450, and was
fucceeded by his fon Mohammed. In the beginning
of his reign he entered into an alliance with Conttan-
tine, and pretended a great defire to live in friend-
fliip with him and the other Chrittian princes 5 but no
fooner had he put an end to a war in which he was
engaged with Ibrahim king of Caramania, than he
built a ftrong fort on the European fide of the Bofpho-
rus, oppofite to another in Afia ; in both of which he
placed ftrong garrifons. Thefe two caftles command¬
ed the ftraits 5 anti the former being but five miles
from the city, kept it in a manner blocked up. This
foon produced a mifunderftanding between him and
the emperor, which ended in the fiege of the city.
The fiege commenced on the fixth of April 14 ?3,
Mohammed’s numerous forces covering the plains be¬
fore it on the land-fide, and a fleet of 300 fail block¬
ing it up by fea. The emperor, however, had taken
care to fecure the haven, in which were three large
flups, 20 fmall ones, and a great number of galleys,
by means of a chain drawn acrofs the entrance. Mo¬
hammed began the fiege by planting batteries as near
the city as he could, and railing mounts in feveral pla¬
ces as high as the walls themfelves, whence the be-
fieged were inceflantly galled with fhowers of arrows.
He had in his camp a piece of ordnance of prodigious
fize, which is faid to have carried a ball of 100 pounds
weight made of hard black ftone brought from the
Euxine fea. With this vaft piece the enemy made
feveral breaches in the walls ; which, however, were
repaired with incredible expedition by the befieged.
But Mohammed, the better to carry on the fiege,
caufed new levies to be made throughout his extenfive
dominions, by which his army w7as foon increafed to
near 400,000 men ; while the garrifon confided only
of 9000 regular troops, viz. 6000 Greeks and 3000
Genaefe and Venetians. As the enemy continued to
on ’ f j'g* ] CON
wds attacked by the celebrated batter the wmlls day and night without intermiffion, a Gonftaii-
162
Conftanti¬
nople be¬
fieged by
Moham¬
med.
great part of them was at laft beaten down 5 but while tlI|i0P^rltaa
the Turks were bufy in filling up the ditch, in order 1 'r
to give the affault, a new w^all was built. This threw
the tyrant into a prodigious rage, which was greatly
heightened when he faw his tvhole fleet worded by five
{hips, four of which were laden with corn from Pelo-
ponnefus, and the other with all manner of provifions
from the ille of Chios. Thefe opened themfelves a
way through the whole Turkifh fleet 5 and, to the in-
expreflible joy of the Chriftians, at laft got fafe into
the harbour.
The Turks attempted feveral times to force the ha-Heconveys
ven 5 but all their efforts proving ineffedtual, Moham-8c £alleys
med formed a defign of conveying 80 galleys over land the ha*
for the fpace of eight miles into it. This he accom-ven.
plifhed by means of certain engines, the contrivance of
a renegado 5 and having then either taken or funk all
the {hips contained in it, he caufed a bridge.to be built
over it with furprifing expedition. By this means the
city was laid open to an affault from that fide like-
wife. The place was now affaulted on all fides 5 and
Conftantxne being well apprifed that he could not lono-
hold out againft fuch a mighty fleet and fo numerous
an army, fent deputies to Mohammed offering to ac¬
knowledge himfelf his vaffal, by paying him yearly
what tribute he fhould think proper to impofe, pro¬
vided he raifed the fiege and withdrew. The tyrant
anfwered that he was determined at all events to be¬
come mafter of the city : hut if the emperor delivered
it up forthwith, he would yield up to him Peloponne-
fus, and other provinces to his brothers, which they
fhould enjoy peaceably as his friends and allies : but if
he held out to the laft extremity, and fuffered it to be
taken by affault, he would put him and the whole no¬
bility to the fword, abandon the city to be plunder¬
ed by his foldiers, and carry the inhabitants into cap¬
tivity.
This condition was radiiy reje&ed by the emperor-
who thereby involved himfelf and all his fubjefts in the
moft terrible calamity. The fiege was renewed with
more vigour than ever, and continued till the 25th of 164
May ; when a report being fpread in the Turkifh camp A mutiny
that a miglity army was advancing in full march tothe 'n the
relief of the city under the condu£f of the celebrated furklfllC
John Hunniades, the common foldiers, feized with aCHmP'
panic, began to mutiny, and prefs Mohammed in a
tumultuous manner to break up the fiege. Nay, they
openly threatened him with death, if he did not imme¬
diately abandon the enterprife and retire from before
the city, which they defpaired of being able to reduce
before the arrival of the fuppofed fuccours. Moham¬
med was upon the point of complying with their de¬
mand, when he was advifed by Zagan, a Turkifh of¬
ficer of great intrepidity, and an irreconcilable enemy
to the Chriftian name, to give without lofs of time a
general affault. To this he faid the foldiery, however
mutinous, would not be averff, provided the fultan fo-
lemnly promifed to abandon the city to be plundered
by them. As fuch an advice heft fuited the humour of
Mohammed, lie readily embraced it; and caufed a
proclamation to be publlihed throughout the camp, de-
claring, that he gave up to his foldiers all the wealth
of that opulent city, requiring to himfelf only the empty
houfes. 1 ]
The
•Conftan-
tinopolitan
hiftory.
A general
•alTault gi-
ven.
166
Bravery of
the empe¬
ror.
167
He is killed
168
The town
plundered,
and the in¬
habitants
tttaflacred.
CON \ 592
The defire of plunder foon got the better of that
fear which had fetzed the Turkifh army ; and they una-
nimoufiy defired to be ltd on to the attack. Here¬
upon Conftantine was fummoned for the laft time to
deliver up the city, with a promife of his life and li¬
berty ; but to this he anfwered, that he was unalter¬
ably determined either to defend the city or to perifh
with it. The attack began at three in the morning
on Tuefday the 29th of May ; fuch troops were firfl
employed as the fultan valued leaft, and defigned them
for no other purpofe than to tire the Chrillians, who
made a prodigious havock of that diforderly multi¬
tude. After the carnage had lalted fome hours, the
Janizaries and other frefii troops advanced in good or¬
der, and renewed the attack with incredible vigour.
The Chriftians, fummoning all their courage and re-
folution, twice repulfed the enemy : but being in the
end quite fpent, they were no longer able to Hand
their ground 5 fo that the enemy in feveral places
broke into the city. In the mean time Juftiniani, the
commander of the Genoefe and a feledl body of
Greeks, having received two wounds, one in the
thigh and the other in the hand, was fo difheartened,
that he caufed himfelf to be conveyed to Galata, where
he foon after died of grief. His men, difmayed at
the hidden flight of their general, immediately quitted
their polls and fled in the utmofl confufion. How¬
ever, the emperor, attended with a few' of the moft re-
folute among the nobility, Hill kept his poll, driving
with unparalleled refolution to oppofe the multitude
of barbarians that now broke in from every quarter.
But being in the end overpowered with numbers, and
feeing all his friends lie dead on the ground, “ What !
(cried he aloud) is there no Chriltian left alive to llrike
off my head ?” Pie had fcarce uttered thefe words,
when one of the enemy, not knowing him, gave him
a deep cut acrofs the face with his fabre j and at the
fame time, another coming behind him, with a blow
on the back part of his head laid him dead on the
ground. After the death of the emperor, the few
Chriftians that were left alive betook themfelves to
flight; and the Turks, meeting with no further oppo-
fition, entered the city, which they filled with blood
and llaughter. They gave no quarter, but put all they
met to the fword, without diilindlion. Many thou-
fands took refuge in the church of St Sophia, but they
were all maffacred in their afylum by the enraged bar¬
barians *, who, prompted by their natural cruelty, the
defire of revenge, and love of booty, fpared no place
nor perfon. Moll of the nobility were, by the fultan’s
orders, cut off, and the reft kept for purpofes more
grievous than death itfelf. Many of the inhabitants,
among whom were fome men of great learning, found
means to make their efcape wdiile the Turks were bu-
fied in plundering the city. Thefe embarking on five
{hips then in the harbour, arrived fafe in Italy j where,
with the ftudy of the Greek tongue, they revived the
liberal fciences, which had long been negle6led in the
weft. After the expiration of three days, Moham¬
med commanded his foldiers to forbear all further ho-
ftilities on pain of death : and then put an end to as
cruel a pillage and maffacre as any mentioned in hi¬
ftory. The next day be made his public and trium¬
phal entry into Conllantinople, and chofe it for the feat
1
CON
of the Turkilh empire, which it has continued to be ConlfaM-
1 r tinopolitan
ever mice. 1 ,
This city is now called by the Turks IJlampol, and (jor.ftat.
by the Greeks Ijlatrpoli or Stampoli. It is leated at ^
the eaftern extremity of Romania, on a fmall neck of i(,9
land which advances towards Natolia, from which itPrefent
is feparated by a channel of a mile in breadth. The^tc uHk?
fea of Marmora wrafnes its walls on the fouth, and a*" •v*
gulf of the channel of Conftantinople does the fame
on the north. It is delightfully fituated between the
Black fea and the Archipelago, from whence it is fup-
plied with all neceffaries. The grand feignior’s pa¬
lace, called the Seraglio, is feated on the fea fide, and
is furrounded with walls flanked with towers, and fe¬
parated from the city by canals. It is faid the har¬
bour will eafily hold 1200 ftiips. The number of hou-
fes muft needs be prodigious, fince one fire has burnt
down 30,000 in a day, without greatly changing the
afpefl of the city. However, in general, they are
but mean, efpecially on the outfide, where there are
few or no windows } and the ftreets being narrow',
gives them a melancholy look. 1 hey reckon that
there are 3770 ftreets, fmall and great ; but they are
feldom or never clean 5 and the people are infefted
with the plague almoft every year. The inhabitants
are half Turks, two-thirds of the other half Chriftians,
and the reft Jews. Here affe a great number of an¬
cient monuments ftill remaining, and particularly the
fuperb temple of Sophia, which is turned into a mofque,
and far furpaffes all the reft. The ilreet called Adri-
anople is the longeft and broadeft in the city ; and the
bazars, or bcfteins, are the markets for felling all
forts of merchandife. The old and the new are pretty
near each other *, and are large fquare buildings, co¬
vered with domes, and fupported by arches and pila-
fters. The new is the bell, and contains ail forts of
goods which are there expofed to fale. 1 he market
for flaves, of both fexes, is not far off j and the Jews
are the principal merchants, who bring them here to
be fold. There are a great number of young girls
brought from Hungary, Greece, Candia, Ruflia, Min-
grelia, and Georgia, for the fervice of the Turks,
who generally buy them for their feraglios. The great
fquare, near the mofque of Sultan Bajazet, is the place
for public diverfions, where the jugglers and mounte¬
banks play a great variety of tricks. The circumfe¬
rence of this city is by fome faid to be 15 miles, and
by Mr Tournefort 23 miles ; to which if we add the
iuburbs, it may be 34 miles in compafs. The fuburb
called Pera is charmingly fituated •, and is the place
where the ambaffadors of England, France, Venice,
and Holland, refide. This city is built in the form of
a triangle } and as the ground rifes gradually, there is
a view of the whole town from the fea. 1 he public
buildings, fuch as the palaces, the mofques, bagnios,
and caravanfaries for the entertainment of ftrangers,
are many of them very magnificent. E. Long. 29. 20.
N. Lat. 41. 4.
CONSTAT, in Law, the name of a certificate
w hich the clerk of the pipe and auditors of the ex¬
chequer make at the requeft of any perfon who intends
to plead or move in that court for the discharge of any
thing ; and the effe£l of it is, the certifying what does
conjlare upon record touching the matter in queftion.
—A
CON [ 593 ] CON
Conftella A conftat is held to be fuperior to a certificate j
t'jm becaufe this may err or fail in its contents j that can-
Conftitu ”0,:, as certifying nothing but what is evident upon re-
tion. cord.
v-—r—— Alfo the exemplification under the great feal of the
inrolment of any letters patent is called a conjfat.
CONSTELLATION, in AJlronomy, a fyltem of
feveral ftars that are feen in the heavens near to one
another. Allronomers not only mark out the ftars,
but, that they may better bring them into order, they
diftinguifti them by their fituation and pofition in re-
fpe£l: to each other •, and therefore they diftribute
them into afterifms or conftellations, allowing feveral
ftars to make up one conftellation : and for the better
diftinguifhing and obferving them, they reduce the
conftellations to the forms of animals, as men, bulls,
bears, &c. $ or to the images of fome things known, as
of a crown, a harp, a balance, &c. ; or give them the
names of thofe whofe memories, in confideration of
fome notable exploit, they had a mind to tranfmit to
future ages.
The divifion of the ftars by images and figures is of
great antiquity, and feems to be as old as aftronomy
itfelf: for in the moft ancient book of Job, Orion,
Ar&urus, and the Pleiades, are mentioned j and we
meet with the names of many of the conftellations in
the writings of the firft poets, Homer and Hefiod.
The ancients, in their divifion of the firmament,
took in only fo much as came under their notice, dif-
tributing it into 48 conftellations ; but the modern
aftronomers comprehend the whole ftarry firmament,
dividing it into three regions. See Astronomy
Index.
CONSTERNATION is defined by ethical writers
to be an excefs of horror, owing to the ill government
of our admiration and fear : or fuch an immoderate
degree of fear as confounds the faculties, and incapa¬
citates a perfon for confultation and execution.
CONSTIPATION, in Medicine, a hardnefs of the
belly, with great coftivenefs. See Costiveness.
CONSTITUENT part, in Phy/io/ogy, an effen-
tial part in the compofition of any thing, differing
little from what is otherwife called element or prin¬
ciple.
CONSTITUTION, in matters of policy, fignifies
the form of government eftablifhed in any country or
kingdom.
Constitution alfo denotes an ordinance, decifion,
regulation, or law, made by authority of any fuperior,
ecclefiaftical or civil.
Apojlolical Constitutions, a colleflion of regula¬
tions attributed to the Apoftles, and fuppofed to have
been colle&ed by St Clement, whofe name they like-
wife bear.
It is the general opinion, however, that they are
fpurious, and that St Clement had no hand in them.
They appeared firft in the 4th age, but have been
much changed and corrupted fince that time. They
Vol. VI. Part II.
are divided into eight books, confiding of a great Corftltu-
number of rules and precepts, relating to the duties of Cont^.'j1(<tor
Chriftians, and particularly the ceremonies and dif-
cipline of the church. Mr Whifton, in oppofition to
the general opinion, afferts them to be a part of the fa-
cred writings, di&ated by the Apoftles in their meet¬
ings, and written down from their own mouth by St
Clement ; and intended as a fupplement to the New
Teftament, or rather as a fyftem of Chriftian faith and
polity. The reafon why the Conftitutions are fufpedl-
ed by the orthodox, and perhaps the reafon alfo w'hy
their genuinenels is defended by Mr Whifton, is, that
they feem to favour Arianifm.
Constitution, in a phyfical fenfe, fignifies the
particular temperature of the body.
It is curious to obferve, fays Dr Percival, the revo¬
lution which hath taken place, within this century, in
the conftitutions of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflam¬
matory difeafes more rarely occur, and, in general,
are much lefs rapid and violent in their progrt-fs than
formerly (a) ; nor do they admit of the fame antiphlo-
giftic method of cure that was pra&ifed with fuccefs
100 years ago. The experienced Sydenham makes 40
ounces of blood the mean quantity to be drawn in the
acute rheumatifm ; whereas this difeafe, as it now ap¬
pears in the London hofpitals, will not bear above half
that evacuation. Vernal intermittents are frequently-
cured by a vomit and the bark, without venefefrion ;
which is a proof that at prefent they are accompanied
with fewer fymptoms of inflammation than they were
wont to be. This advantageous change, however, is
more than counterbalanced by the introduction of a
numerous clafs of nervous ailments, in a great mea-
fure unknown to our anceftors; but which now prevail
univerfally, £nd are complicated with almoft every
other diftemper. The bodies of men aie enfeebled
and enervated j and it is not uncommon to obferve
very high degrees of irritability, under the external
appearance of great ftrength and robuftnefs. The
hypochondria, palfies, cachexies, dropfies, and all thofe
difeafes which arife from laxity and debility, are in
our days endemic everywhere ; and the hyfterics,
which ufed to be peculiar to the women, as the name
itfelf indicates, now attack both fexes indiferiminate-
ly. It is evident that fo great a revolution could not
be effeCled without a concurrence of many caufes ; but
amongft thefe (according to Dr Percival), the pre¬
fent general ufe of tea * holds the firft and principal * See Tear
rank. The fecond place may perhaps be allowed to
excefs in fpirituous liquors. This pernicious cuftom,
in many inftances at leaft, owes its rife to the former,
W'hich, by the lownefs and depreflion of fpirits it oc-
cafions, renders it almort neceffiry to have recourfe to
fomething cordial and exhilarating. And hence pro¬
ceed thofe odious and difgraceful habits of intempe¬
rance, with which many of the fofter fex are now',
alas ! chargeable.
CONSTRICTOR, an appellation given to feveral
4 F mufcles.
(a) The decreafe in the violence of inflammatory difeafes may perhaps in part be aferibed to the prefent im¬
proved method of treating them. Moderate evacuations, cool air, acefcent diet, and the liberal ufe of laline
and antimonial medicines, are better adapted to check the progrefs of fevers, than copious bleedings, ftimulat-
ing purgatives, and profufe fwcats excited by theriaca and mithridate.
CON
[ 594 1
CON
■ mufcles, on account of their conftringing or clofing
fome of the orifices of the body.
y' CONSTRUCTION, in Geometry, is the drawing
fuch lines, fuch a figure, &c. as are pfevioufly necef-
fary for making any demonftration appear more plain
and undeniable.
Construction of Equations. See Equations.
Construction, in Grammar; fyntax, or the ar¬
ranging and conne&ing the words of a fentence ac¬
cording to the rules of the language. See Grammar
and Language.
The conllru&ion is generally more fimple, eafy, and
direfl, in the modern tongues than in the ancient:
we have very few of thofe inverfions which occafion
fo much embarraffmerit and obfcurity in the Latin j
our thoughts are ufually delivered in the fame order
wherein the imagination conceives them : the nomina¬
tive cafe, for inftance, always precedes the verb, and
the verb goes before the oblique cafes it governs.
The Greeks and Latins, M. St Evremont obferves,
ufually end their periods, where, in good fenfe and
realon, they (hould have begun j aud the elegance of
their language confifts, in fome meafure, in this capri¬
cious arrangement, or rather in this tranfpofal and dif-
order of the words. See Language.
Construction of Statutes, among lawyers. See Law
Index.
CONSUALIA, in antiquity, feafls which were
held among the ancients, in honour of the god Confus
i. e. Neptune j different from thofe other feafts of the
lame deity called Neptunalia. They wen! introduced
with a magnificent cavalcade, or proceffion on horfe-
back •, becaufe Neptune was reputed to have firft
taught men the ufe of horfes j whence his furname of
'ijrwras, Equejlris.
Evander is faid to have firft inftituted this feaft : it
rvas re-eftablilhed by Romulus, under the name of
Confus ; becaufe it was fome god under the denomina¬
tion of Confus that fuggefted to him the rape of the
Sabines. It is faid, that it was with a view to this
rape that he made that eftablilhment. This, however,
is certain, that it was to this feaft all his neighbours
were invited $ when, taking advantage of the folem-
nities and facrifices, he feized the women. To draw
the greater concourfe of people, he gave out, that he
had found an altar hid under ground, which he intend¬
ed to confecrate, with facrifices to the god to whom
it had been originally erefted. Thofe who take upon
them to explain the myfteries of the heathen theology,
fay, that the altar hid under ground is a fymbol of
the fecret defign of Romulus to feize his neighbours
wives.
The confualia were of the number of feafts called
facred ; as being confecrated to a divinity.—Original¬
ly they were not diftinguiftied from thofe of the cir¬
cus 5 whence it is, that Valerius Maximus fays, that the
rape of the Sabines was effe&ed at the games of the
circus.
Plutarch obferves, that during the days of this fo-
lemnity, horfes and affes were left at reft, and were
dreffed up with crowns, &c. on account of its being
the fcaft of Neptunus Equeftris, Eeftus fays, the ca¬
valcade was performed with mules j it being an opi¬
nion, that this was the firft animal ufed to draw the
Servius gives us to underftand, that the confualia fell Confubftan-
on the 13th of Auguft ; Plutarch, in the life of Romu- tial
lus, placed them on the 18th, and the old Roman ka- Cc|Jfu|
lendar on the 21ft of that month. ■ ‘ «
CONSUBSTANTI A.L, in Theology, a term of
like import with co-effential; denoting fomething of
the fame fubftance with another. The orthodox be¬
lieve the Son of God to be confubftantial with the Fa¬
ther.
The term ifitutriot, confubfantial, was firft adopted by
the fathers of the councils of Antioch and Nice, to ex-
prefs the orthodox doftrine the more precisely, and to
ferve as a barrier and precaution againft the errors and
fubtleties of the Arians ; who owned every thing ex¬
cepting the confubftantiality.
The Arians allowed, that the wTord was God, as
having been made God ; but they denied that he was
the fame God, and of the fame fubftance with the Fa¬
ther : accordingly they exerted themfelves to the ut-
moft to abolifh the ufe of the word. The emperor
Conftantinc ufed all his authority with the bilhops to
have it expunged out of the fymbols ; but it ftill
maintained itlelf, and is at this day, as it was then, the
diftinguilhing criterion between an Athanafian and an
Arlan.
Sandius wull have it, that the wmrd confubftantial
tvas unknown till the time of the council of Nice ; but
it is certain it had been before propofed to the council
of Antioch, wherein Paulus Samolatenus had been con¬
demned j though it had there the fortune to be rejeft-
ed. Curcellaeus, on the other hand, maintains that it
was an innovation in do£lrine in the council of Nice,
to admit an expreflion, the ufe whereof had been abo-
lilhed by the council of Antioch.
According to St Athanafius, the wmrd confubftan¬
tial was only condemned in the council of Antioch,
inafmuch as it implied the idea of a pre-exiftent mat¬
ter, prior to the things formed thereof j now, in this
fenfe, it is certain, the Father and the Son are not
confubftantial, there having been no pre-exiftent mat¬
ter.
CONSUBSTANTI ATION, a tenet of the Lu¬
theran church with regard to the manner of the change
made in the bread and wine in the eucharift. The di¬
vines of that profefiion maintain, that after confecra-
tion, the body and blood of our Saviour are fubftan-
tially prefent, together with the fubftance of the bread
and wine, which is called confubjiantiation, or impa-
nation.
CONSUL, the chief magiftrate of the Roman com¬
monwealth, invefted with regal authority for the fpace
of one year. They were two in number, called confuls
a confulendo, and annually chofen in the Campus Mar-
tius. The two firft confuls were L. Jun. Brutus, and
L. Tarquinius Collatinus, chofen in the year of Rome
244, after the expulfion of the Tarquins. In the firll
times of the republic the two confuls were always cho¬
fen from patrician families or noblemen, but the peo¬
ple obtained the privilege in the year of Rome 388,
of ele&ing one of the confuls from their own body,
and fometimes both wTere plebeians. The firft conful
among the plebeians was L. Sextius. It was required
that every candidate for the confulfhip Ihould be 43
years of age, called legitimum tempus. He was always
to appear at the eleftion as a private man. without a
retinue.
CON [ 595 J CON
Conful. retinue, and it was requifite before he canvafled for
v—the office to have difcharged the functions of quaeffor,
edile, and praetor. Sometimes thefe qualifications
were difregarded. Val. Corvinus was made a conful
in his 23d year, and Scipio in his 24th. Young Ma¬
rius, Pompey, and Auguilus, were alfo under the pro¬
per age, when they were invefted with the office, and
Pompey had never beenquaeftor or praetor. The power
of the confuls was unbounded, and they knew no
fuperior but the gods and the laws •, but after the ex¬
piration of their office their conduff was minutely fcru-
tinized by the people, and mifbehaviour was often pu-
nifhed by the laws. The badge of their office wTas
the prxtexta, a robe fringed w ith purple, afterwards
exchanged for the toga pitla or palmata. They were
preceded by 12 lidfors carrying the fafces ox bundles of
flicks, in the middle of w7hich appeared an axe. The
axe, as being the charadlerilfic rather of tyranny than
of freedom, was taken away from the fafces by Vale¬
rius Poplicola, but it wras reflored by his fucceffor.
They took it by turns monthly to be preceded by the
lidlors while at Rome, left the appearance of two per-
fons wuth the badges of royal authority fhould raife
apprehenfions in the multitude. While one appeared
publicly in date, only a crier walked before the other,
and the lidlors followed behind without the fafces.
Their authority was equal j yet the Valerian law gave
the right of priority to the older, and the Julian law
to him who had mod children ; and he was generally
called conful major or prior. As their power was ab-
fblute, they prefided over the fenate, and could con¬
vene and difmifs it at pleafure. The fenators were
their counfellors •, and among the Romans the manner
of reckoning their years was by the name of the con¬
fuls, and by M. Tull. Cicerone et L.Antonio Confulibus,
for indance, the year of Rome 689 was always under-
dood. This cudom laded from the year of Romej;244
till the 1294, or 541 d year of the Chridian era. In
public affemblies the confuls fat in ivory chairs, and
held in their hand an ivory wand called fcipio eburneus,
which had an eagle on its top as a fign of dignity and
power. When they had drawn by lot the provinces
over wdiich they were to prefide during their conful-
dtip, they went to the capitol to offer their prayers to
the gods, and intreat them to protedl the republic j
after this they departed from the city arrayed in their
military drefs and preceded by the li6lors. Sometimes
the provinces were adigned them without drawing by
lot, by the will and appoinftnent of the fenators. At
their departure they were provided by the Hate with
whatever was requifite during their expedition. In
their provinces they were both attended by the 12 lic-
tors, and equally invefted with regal authority. They
were not permitted to return to Rome without the
fpecial command of the fenate; and they always re¬
mained in the province till the arrival of their fuccef¬
for. At their return they harangued the people, and
folemnly protefted that they had done nothing againft
the laws or interell of their country, but had faith¬
fully and diligently endeavoured to promote the great-
nefs and welfare of the flate. No man could be con¬
ful two following years ; yet this inftitution was fome-
times broken, and wTe find Marius re-elefted conful
after the expiration of his office during the Cimbrian
war. The office of conful, fo dignified during the
times of the commonwealth, became a mere title un- Corful
der the emperors, and retained nothing of its authority M .
but the ufelefs enfigns of original dignity. Even the .
duration of the office, which was originally annual, was
reduced to two or three months by J. Ct-efar ; but they
who were admitted on the firft of January denomina¬
ted the year, and were called ordinarii. Their fuccel-
fors during the year were diftinguifhed by the name of
fuffcBi. Tiberius and Claudius abridged the time of
the confulfhip ; and the emperor Commodus made no
lefs than 25 confuls in one year. Conftantine the
Great renewed the original inftitution, and permitted
them to be a whole year in office.
Consul, at prefent, is an officer eftablifhed by vir¬
tue of a commiffion from the king and other princes,
in all foreign countries of any confiderable trade, to
facilitate and difpatch bufinefs, and protedl the mer¬
chants of the nation. The confuls are to keep up a
correfpondence with the minifters of England refiding
in the courts whereon their confulate depends. They
are to fupport the commerce and the intereft of the
nation ; to difpofe of the fums given and the prefents
made to the lords and principals of places, to obtain
their protedlion, and prevent the infults of the natives
on the merchants of the nation.
CONSUMMATION, the end, period, or comple¬
tion of any work. Thus, we fay, the confummation of
all things, meaning the end of the world. By the in¬
carnation, all the prophecies are faid to be confummated.
See Prophecy and Accomplishment.
Consummation of Marriage, denotes the lafl adl of
marriage, w'hich makes its accomplifhment ; or the
molt intimate union between the married pair, &c.
CONSUMP ITON, in Medicine, a word of very
extenfive fignification, implies all diforders that bring
any decay or wafte upon the conftitution ; but is moft
commonly ufed for thephthifis puhnonolis. See Medi¬
cine Index.
Consumption, in Farriery. See Farriery Index,
CONSUS, the pagan god of counfel. He had an
altar under ground in the great circus at Rome, to
fhow that counfel ought to be kept fecret. See Ccn-
sualia.
CONTACT, is when one line, plane, or body, is
made to touch another j and the parts that do thus
touch are called the points or places of contaB.
CONTAGION, in Phyjic, the communicating a ,
difeafe from one body to another. In feme difeafes
it is only effected by an immediate contadt or touch,
as in fyphilis; in others it is conveyed by infedted
clothes ; and in others it is fuppofed to be tranfmitted
through the air at a confiderable diftance, by means
of fleams or effluvia arifing from the fick, as in the
plague and other peflilential.diforders, in which cafe
the air is faid to be contagious, though this has been
difputed.
No attempts which have yet been made to invefli-
gate the nature of contagion, or to afeertain the pro¬
perties of contagious matter, have proved fuccefsful.
But from the means which have been effedlually em¬
ployed either to abate its virulence or to deflroy it
entirely, this matter may be fairly inferred to be of a
chemical nature. We have already detailed the effedls
of the fumes of muriatic acid in purifying the cathedral
of Dijon, which were fuccefsfully uled by Morveau in
4 F 2 ’ 1773.
CON [■ 596 ] CON
■Contagion. Purfuing this hint, no doubt, Dr Carmichael wards, the vapour having entirely fubfided, the frefhContagion,
v Smyth propofed the fumes of nitric acid. "1 his was air was freely admitted into the hofpital as before. v
tried on board different (liips at Sheernefs about the Fewer pipkins were employed for the evening fumiga-
year 1796; and being found to anfwer the purpofe tions than for thofe of the mornings, as the frelh air
of delfroying the contagion which then prevailed, Dr could not be admitted fo freely after the former as the
Smyth afterwards received a liberal reward from go- latter.
vernment for his difcovery. Thefe experiments were The pleafing and immediate effect of the fumigation
condudled on board the Union hofpital fhip by Mr in deftroying the offenfive and difagreeable fmell, arifing
Menzies furgeon of the Difcovery, and Mr Baffan fur- from fo many lick crowded together, was now very
geon of the Union. The wards at this time were perceptible, even to the attendants 5 the confequence
very much crowded with patients •, and of 200 lick of which was, that they began to place fome degree
on board, 150 were in different flages of a malig- of confidence in its efficacy, and approached the craoles
nant, contagious fever, which made a very rapid pro- of the infedled with lefs dread of being attacked with
grefs, and produced very fatal effects on the attendants the diforder : thus the fick were better attended, and
and ffirp’s company. the duty of the hoipital was more regularly and more
The materials and apparatus employed in the procefs cheerfully performed,
were the following: A quantity of fine fand, two dozen From the 26th of November 1795, when the fumi-
quart earthen pipkins, as many common tea-cups, lome gation w'as firft reforted to, till the 25th of December,
long flips of glafs to be ufed as fpatulas, a quantity of not a perfon on board was attacked wku the fever,
concentrated fulphuric acid, and a quantity of faltpetre though, in the three montns preceding, more^ than one
(nitrate of potaffi^. third of all the people in the fhip had been .eized with
The procefs was conduffed in the following manner: the diftemperj and of thefe more than one in four
iff, All the ports and fcuttles were {hut up ; the fand, were carried oft by it ; and the probability is, that the
previouflv heated in iron pots, was fcooped out into ficknefs and mortality would have gone on, incieafing
the pipkins with an iron ladle ) and in this heated fand, in proportion to the diffufion of the contagion, and
in each pipkin, a fmall tea-cup was immerled, contain- to the increafing defpondency of the people, who con¬
ing about half an ounce of fulphuric acid, to which, fidered themfelves as lo many devoted victims,
after it had acquired a proper degree of heat, an equal The advantage 01 the fumigation was not felt by the
quantity of nitrate of potaffi in powder was gradually ffiip’s company and attendants alone, v\homit pielened
added, and the mixture flirred with a glafs fpatula till from the baneful effects ot the fever: the fick and con- ^
the vapour aroie from it in confiderable quantity. The valefcents derived almoft an equal benefit from it. Fne
pipkins were then carried through the wards by the fymptoms of the diieale became milder, and loll much
nurfes and convalefcents, who kept walking about with of their malignant appearance •, and the advantage of a
them in their hands, occafionally putting them under pure and fvveet air to convaleicents mull be obvious,
the cradles of the fick, and in every corner where any Great confidence is always dangerous. It proved fo
foul air ivas fufpe6fed to lodge. In this manner they on the prefent occafion. On the 17th of December
continued fumigating, until the whole fpace between they imagined themfelves lo fecure, that they diicon-
decks, fore and aft, was filled with the vapour, which tinued the cuilom of fumigating morning and evening,
appeared like a thick haze. thinking that once a day was fufficient. On the 2jth,
The vapour at firft excited coughing among the pa- one of the nuries fuffered a flight attack } and on the
tients, which gradually ceafed as it became more ge- 26th a marine, who, for a week before, had been in a
nerally diffufed through the wards : part of this effedt, Hate of intoxication, was leized with the fever, and
however, was to be attributed to the inattention of died. I hefe two accidents gave immediate alarm :
thofe who carried the pipkins, in putting them too near they returned again to the pra£bce of fumigating twice
the faces of the fick ; wrhich caufed them to inhale a day j and from that time to the extermination of the
the ftrong vapour as it immediately iffued from the diforder, there was not an inffance of a perion lufiering
cups. from contagion on board the fhip.
The body-clothes and bed-clothes of the fick were, T he iuccefs of the experiment was not confined to
as much as poffible, expofed to the nitrous vapour du- the Union : the pow7erof the nitrous vapour to defiroy
ring the fumigation ; and all the foul linen removed contagion was equally dilplayed on board fome Ryu-
from them was immediately immerfed in a tub of cold fian ffiips then in the Downs. The fafety, too, with
water, afterwards carried on deck, rinfed out, and hung which it may be employed, in any fnuation, without
up till nearly dry, and then fumigated before it was inconvenience or ri£k of fire, is another great recom-
taken to the waffi-houfe : a precaution extremely necef- mendation in its favour.
fary in every cafe of infeflious diforder. Proper at- It will not be difficult from this defeription to em-
tention was alfo paid to cleanlinefs and ventilation. pl°y hind of fumigation. It is only necefiaiy .0
Three hours were at firft found neceffary to fu- obferve, for the fake ot thofe who may not be veiianv
migate the fhip. In about an hour after, the va- in chemical purfuits, that the ingredients out;ht to be
pour having entirely fubfided, the ports and fcuttles pure, and neither metal veffels nor rods fhould be ufed.
were thrown open for the adiruffion of frelh air. It Any kind of metal getting among the ingredients
could plainly be perceived that the air of the hofpital would caufe the vapour to be very noxious inftead of
was greatly iweetened even after this firft fumigation, falutary. The fumes that rife ffiould be white; if
The procefs was repeated again next morning ; and they are of a red colour, there is reafon to lufpeil the
the people employed, being now more expert, finiffied purity of the ingredients.
the whole in about an hour’s time. In an hour after- The importance of this difcovery need not be infilled
on 1
CON [ 597 ] CON
Contempla-on : it is equally applicable to every fpecies of putrid
t’011 contagion, even to the plague itfelf. It (hould there-
.. fore be ufed in all hofpitals and pariih workhoufes ; and
Continence. r ^ 7
> ^ ~ (liould be conllantly reforted to by the proprietors of all
large works, on the firft appearance of infectious difeafe
among the people employed in them :—indeed, it
fliould be employed even as a preventive in all fitua-
tions where a number cf people, from the nature of
their bufinefs, are obliged to be crowded together, or
where, from local circumitances, there are reafons for
fufpeCting that the purity of the air is injured by
noxious exhalations or other cauft?. If there be any
circumitances in which its utility may be called in
queftion, it can only be in cafes of inflammatory dif-
eafes: for, in fuch, fuper-oxygenation has been found
hurtful.
CON FEMPLATION, an a£t of the mind, where¬
by it applies itlelf to confider and refleft upon the
works of G'’d, nature, &c.
CONTEMPORARY, or Cotemporary, a per-
fon or thing that exiited in the fame age with another.
Thus, Socrates, Plato, and Ariltophanes, were con¬
temporaries.
CONTEMPT, in a general fenfe, the a£t of de-
fpifing, or the ftate of being defpifed.
Cont empt, in Law, is a difobedience to the rules
and orders of a court, which hath power to punifli fuch
offence ; and as this is fometimes a greater, and feme-
times a lefler offence, fo it is punifhed with greater
or lefs punifliment, by fine, and fometimes by impri-
fonment.
CONTENT, in Geometry, the area or quantity of
matter or fpace included in certain bounds.
CON TESSA, a port-town of Turkey in Europe,
in the province of Macedonia, fituated on a bay of the
Archipelago, about 200 miles weft of Conftantinople.
E. Lone. 25. o. N. Lat. 41.0.
CONTEXT ', among divines and critics, that part
of Scripture or other writing which lies about the text,
before or after it, or both. To take the full and ge¬
nuine fenfe of the text, the context fliould be regard¬
ed.
CON TEXTURE, a word frequently ufed in fpeak-
ing both of the works of nature and art ; and deno¬
ting the difpofition and union of the conflituent parts
with refpedl to one another.
CONTI, a town of Picardy in France, with the
title of a principality. It is feated on the river Seille,
in E. Long. 2. 17. N. Lat. 49. 54.
CONTIGUITY, in Geometry, is when the furface
of one body touches that of another.
CONTIGUOUS, a relative term underftood of
things difpoled fo near each other, that they join their
furfaces, or touch. The houfes in ancient Rome were
not contiguous as ours are, but all infulated.
CON IINENCE, in Ethics, a moral virtue, by
which we refill concupifcence. It fliould ftem that
there is this diftimffion between chaflity and continence,
in that it requires no effort to be chafle, which refults
from conftitution 5 whereas continence appears to be
the confequence of a viftory gained over ourfelves.
The verb conttnere, in the Latin, fignifies “ to re-
firain.” The term, however, is moft ufually applied
to men 5 as chajiity is to women. See Chastity.
Continence is a virtue that makes but an inconiider-
able figure in our days. However, we ought not to Continence*
lofe our ideas of things, though we have debauched v——
our true relifli in our praftice : for, after all, folid vir¬
tue will keep its place in the opinion of the wife and
fenfible part of mankind. And though cuftoni has
not made it fo fcandalous as it ought to be to infnare
innocent women, and triumph in the falfehood 5 fuch
a6Iions as we fhall relate mult be accounted true gal¬
lantry, and rife higher in our erteem the farther they
are removed from our imitation.
I. Scipio the younger, when only 24 years of age, Z/nv, VaT.
was appointed by the Roman republic to the command Maximus,
of the army againft the Spaniards. His wifdoin and
valour would have done honour to the molt experienced
general. Determined to ftrike an important blow, he
forms a defign of befieging Carthagena, then the ca¬
pital of the Carthaginian empire in Spain. His mea-
fures were fo judicioully concerted, and with fo much
courage and intrepidity purfued, both by lea and land,
that notwithflanding a bold and vigorous defence, the
capital was taken by florm. Tne plunder was im-
menle. Ten thoufand free-men were made prifoners 5
and above 300 more, of both lexes, were received as
holtages. One of the latter, a very ancient lady, the
wife of Mandonius, brother of Indibilis king of.the
Uergetes, watching her opportunity, came out of the
crowd, and throwing herfelf at the conqueror’s feet,
conjured him, with tears in her eyes, to recommend
to thofe who had the ladies in their keeping to have
regard to their fex and birth. Scipio, who did not
underfland her meaning at firfl, affured her that he
had given orders that they Ihould not want for any
thing. But the lady replied, “ Thofe conveniences
are not what afledt us. In the condition to which for¬
tune hath reduced us, with what ought we not to be
contented ! I have many other apprehenfions, when I
confide, on one fide, the licentioufnefs of war; and
on the other, the youth and beauty of the princefles
which you fee here before us ; for as to me, my age
protects me from all fear in this refpedE” She had
with her the daughters of Indibilis, and feveral other
ladies of high rank, all in the flower of youth, who
confldered her as their mother. Scipio then compre¬
hending what the fubjedl: of her fear was, “ My own
glory (hays he), and that of the Roman people, are
concerned in not fuffering that virtue, which ought
always to be refpefted wherever we find it, fliould be
expofed in my camp to a treatment unworthy of it.
But you give me a new motive for being more ftridl
in my care of it, in the virtuous folicitude you ihow
in thinking only of the prefervation of your honour,
in the midfl of lb many other objects of fear.” After
this converfation, he committed the care of the ladies
to Tome officers of experienced prudence, ftridlly com¬
manding that they fliould treat them with all the re-
fpedt they could pay to the mothers, wives, and daugh¬
ters, of their allies and particular friends. It was not
long before Scipio’s integrity and virtue were put to the
trial. Being retired in bis camp, fome of his officers
brought him a young virgin of fuch exquifite beauty,
that Ihe drew upon her the eyes and admiration of every
body. The young conqueror ftarted from his feat
with confufion and furprife ; and, like one thunder-
ftruck, feemed to be robbed of that prefence of mind-
and felf-poffeffion To neceffary in a general, and for,.-
which.
CON [
(flontinence. which Scipio was remarkably famous. In a few mo-
•'V-'—' ments, having rallied his ftraggling fpirits, he inquired
of the beautiful captive, in the moft civil and polite
manner, concerning her country, birth, and connec¬
tions 5 and finding that (he was betrothed to a Celti-
berian prince named Allucius, he ordered both him
and the captive’s parents to be fent for. The Spanilh
prince no fooner appeared in his prefence, than, even
before he fpake to the father and mother, he took him
afide } and, to remove the anxiety he might be in on
account of the young lady, he addreffed him in thefe
words : “You and 1 are young, which admits of my
fpeaking to you with more liberty. I hofe who brought
me your future fpoufe, affured me, at the fame time,
that you loved her with extreme tendernefs ; and her
beauty left me no room to doubt it. Upon which
refle&ing, that if, like'you, I had thought on making
an engagement, and were not wholly engrofled with
the affairs of my country, I fliould defire that fo ho¬
nourable and legitimate ft paflion flxould find favour,
I think myfelf happy in the prefent conjun£l:ure to do
you this fervice. I hough the fortune of war has made
me your mailer, I defire to be your friend. Here is
your wife : take her, and may the gods blefs you with
her. One thing, however, I would have you be fully
allured of, that (lie has been amongft us as lire would
have been in the houfe of her father and mother, bar
be it from Scipio to purchafe a loofe and momentary
pleafure at the expence of virtue, honour, and the
happinefs of an honefl man. No ; I have kept her
for you, in order to make you a prefent worthy of
you and of me. The only gratitude I require of you
for this inellimable gift is, that you would be a friend
to the Roman people.” Allucius’s heart was too full
to make him any anfrver ; but throwing himfelf at the
general’s feet, he wept aloud. Fhe captive lady fell
into the fame pofture : and remained fo, till the father
burft out into the following words : “ Oh ! divine
Scipio ! the gods have given you more than human
virtue ! Oh ! glorious leader! Oh! wondrous youth !
does not that obliged virgin give you, while Ihe prays
to the gods for your profperity, raptures above all the
tranfports you could have reaped from the poiTedion of
her injured perfon ?”
The relations of the young lady had brought with
them a very confiderable fum for her ranfom : but
when they faw that Hie was reftored to them in lo ge¬
nerous and godlike a manner, they intreated the con¬
queror, with great earneftnefs, to accept that fum as
a prefent; and declared, by his complying, that new
favour wmuld complete their joy and gratitude. Sci¬
pio, not being able to refill fuch warm and earned
folicitation, told them that he accepted the gift ;
and ordered it to be laid at his feet: then addref-
fing himfelf to Allucius, “ I add (fays he) to the por¬
tion which you are to receive from your father-in-law
this fum •, which I defire you to accept as a marriage-
prefent.” _ ....
If we confider that Scipio w^as at this time m the
prime of life, unmarried, and under no redraint, we
cannot but acknowledge, that the conqued he made
of himfelf was far more glorious than that of the Car¬
thaginian empire : and though his treatment of this
captive prince was not more delicate and generous than
what might jutlly be expefted from a perfon endowed
i
598 ] CON
with reafon and reflexion; yet confidering how few Continence.
there are in his circumdances who would h^ve a£led’ *
as he did, we cannot but applaud his conduft, and
propofe him as a datable example to future ages. Nor
was his virtue unrewarded. The young prince, charm¬
ed with the liberality and politenefs of Scipio, went
into his country to publilh the praifes of fo generous
a viftor. He cried out, in the tranfports of his gra¬
titude. “ That there was come into Spain a young
hero like the gods ; who conquered all things lefs by
the force of his arms than the charms of his virtue
and the greatnefs of his beneficence.” Upon this re¬
port all Celtiberia fubmitted to the Romans ; and Al¬
lucius returned in a diout to Scipio, at the head of
1400 chofen horfe, to facilitate his future conqueds.
To render the marks of his gratitude dill more dura¬
ble, Allucius caufed the aftion we have jud related
to be engraven on a filver diield, which he prefented
to Scipio, a ptefent infinitely more edimable and glo¬
rious than all his treafures and triumphs. The buck¬
ler, which Scipio carried with him when he returned
to Rome, was lod, in pading the Rhone, with part of
the baggage. It continued in that river till the year
166^, when fome fifhermen found it. It was, before
the revolution, in the king of France’s cabinet.
2. The circumdance which raifes Alexander the
Great above many conquerors, and, as it were, above
himfclf, is the ufe he made of his viflory after the
battle of ifius. This is the mod beautiful incident in
his life. It is the point of view in which it is his in-
tered to be confidered ; and it is impodible for him
not to appear truly great in that view. By the vi&o-
ry of Iflus he became poffeffed of the whole Perfian
empire ; not only Syfigambis, Darius’s mother, was
his captive, but alfo his wife and daughters, ptinceffes
whofe beauty was not to be equalled in all Afia. A-
lexander, like Scipio, was in the Bloom of life, a con¬
queror, free, and not yet engaged in matrimony: ne-
verthelefs, his camp was to thofe princeffes a facred
afylum, or rather a temple, in which their chadity
was (ecured as under the guard of virtue itfelf; and
fo highly revered, that Darius, in his expiring mo¬
ments, hearing the kind treatment they had met with,
could not help lifting up his dying hands towards hea¬
ven, and widring fuccefs to fo wife and generous a con¬
queror, who could govern his padions at fo critical a
time. Plutarch informs us more particularly, that the
princeffes lived fo retired in the camp, according to
their own defire, that they were not feen by any per¬
fon except their own attendants; nor did any other
perfon dare to approach their apartments. After the
fird vifit, which was a refpeflful and ceremonious one,
Alexander, to avoid expofing himfelf to the dangers of
human frailty, made a folemn refolution never to vifit
Darius’s queen any more. He himfelf informs us of
this memorable circumdance, in a letter written by him
to Parmenio, in which he commanded him to put to piutarcj^
death certain Macedonians who had forced the wives
of fome foreign foldiers. In this letter was the fol¬
lowing paragraph: “ tor as to myfelf, it will be found
that I neither faw nor would fee the wife of Darius ;
and did not fuffer any one to fpeak of her beauty be¬
fore me.”
3. Ifocrates informs us, that Nicocles, king of Sa-
lamin, gloried in never having known any woman be-
0 fides
CON [ 599 ] CON
Continence,fides his tvife ; and was amazed that all other contrails
Continent. CJV^ fociety {liould he treated with due regard, whilft
that of marriage, the moll facred and inviolable of
obligations, was broken through with impunity ; and
that men fhould not bluih to commit an infidelity with
refpe£t to their wives, of which, (hould their wives be
guilty, it would throw them into the utmoft anguilh
and fury.
4. Henry VI. king of England, though unhappy in
his family and government, was neverthelefs poffelfed
of many virtues. He w'as fo remarkable for his cha-
ifity, that before his marriage he would not allow any
lady of a fufpicious charadler and unguarded condudf
to frequent the court: and having obferved one day
fome ladies with their bofoms uncovered, he turned
away his eyes from the indecent objedl. and reprimand-
Rapln, ed them fmartly in the limple dialedl of the times ;
“ Fy, fy (faid he), for lliame j forfooth ye be to
blame.”
5. In the reign of King Charles II. when licentiouf-
nefs was at its height in Britain, a yeomen of the
guards refufed the miflrefs of a king. The lady, who
was diffatisfied with her royal lover, had fixed her eyes
upon this man, and thought fhe had no more to do
than fpeak her pleafure. He got out of her wray.
He refufed to underftand her ; and when fhe preffed
him further, he faid, “ I am married.” The ftory
reached the king, with all its circumftances •, but they
who expedled an extravagant laugh upon the occafion
were difappointed. He fent for the perfon: he found
him a gentleman, though reduced to that mean fta-
tion } and “ Odds fifh, man (fays he), though I am
not honed enough to be virtuous myftlf, I value them
that are.” He gave him an appointment, and refpefl-
ed him for life.
6. In many parts the pooreft people are the moft vir¬
tuous and honed in this refpefl. In the SwTede’s domi¬
nion, towards the pole, there is no name for adultery.
They thought it an offence man could not commit againd
man ; and have no word to exprefs it in their language^
The unpolilbed Lapland peafant, with thefe thoughts,
is, as a human creature, much more refpeftable than
the gay Briton, whofe heart is darned with vices, and
edranged from natural affeftion ; and he is happier.
The perfeft confidence mutually repofed between him
and the honed partner of his bread, entails a fatisfac-
tion even in the lowed poverty. It gilds the humble
hearth, and lights the cabin ; their homely meal is a
iacrifice of thanks, and every breath of fmoke arifes
in incenfe. If hand be laid upon hand, it is fore af-
fe&ion ; and if fome infant plays about their knees,
they look upon him and upon each other with a de¬
light that greatnefs feldom knows, becaufe it feels
diftrud.
CONTINENT, in general, an appellation given to
things continued without interruption ; in which fenfe
we fay, continent fever. See.
Continent, in Geography, a great extent of land
not interrupted by feas, in eontradiftin&ion to idand
and peninfula, &c. See Geography. Sicily is faid
to have been anciently torn from the continent of Ita¬
ly ; and it is an old tradition, which fome of our an¬
tiquaries dill have a regard to, that Britain was for-
tnerly a part of the continent of France.
The world is ufually divided into two great con- Contingent
tinents, the old and the new. Whether there exids
in the fouthern hemhphere another continent, or the “ f
wholer be only an immenfe w’atery region, is a quef-
tion that for near three centuries has engaged the at¬
tention of the learned as well as the commercial
world, and given rife to many intereding voyages
and difeoveries j concerning which, fee the article
South Sea.
CON FINGEN F, fomething cafual or unufual.—
Hence future contingent denotes a conditional event
which may or may not happen, according as circum-
dances fall out.
Contingent, is alfo a term of relation for the
quota that falls to any perfon upon a divifion. Thus
each prince of Germany in time of wrar is to furnidr f6
many men, fo much money, and munition, for his con¬
tingent.
CONTINUED, or Continual* in a general
fenfe, means inceffant, or proceeding without inter¬
ruption.
Continued Fever, is fuch a one as fometimes re¬
mits, but never intermits or goes entirely off till its
period.
Continued Bafs, in Mafic, thus called, fays Rouf-
feau, becauie it is continued through the whole piece.
Its principal ufe, befides that of regulating the harmo¬
ny, is to fupport the voice, and preferve the tone.—
They pretend that it was one Ludovico Viana, of
whom a treatife dill remains, who towards the end of
the lad century fird put the continued bafs in pra<ffice.
Continued Proportion, in Arithmetic, is that where
the coniequent of the fird ratio is the fame with the
antecedent of the fecond } as 4: 8:: 8:16 j in con-
tradiftin&ion to diferete proportion.
CON FINUI I Y, is defined by fome fchoolmen the
immediate cohefion of parts in the fame quantum : by
others, a mode of body, whereby its extremities be¬
come one ; and by others, a date of body refultmg
from the mutual implication of its parts. There are
two kinds of continuity, mathematical and phyfiCal.
The fird is merely imaginary, fince it fuppofes real
or phyfical parts where there are none. The other,
or phyfical continuity, is that date of two or more
particles, in which their parts are fo mutually impli¬
cated as to conditute one uninterrupted quantity or
continuum.
CON FINUO, in Mafic, fignifies the thorough bafs,
as bafio continuo is the continual or thorough bafs,
which is fometimes marked in mufic-books by the let¬
ters B. C.
CON FOBABDITES, a fe£t in the fixth century.
Their fird leader w;as Severus of Antioch ; who was
fucceeded by John the grammarian furnamed Philo-
ponus, and one Theodofius whefe followers were alfo
called Theodofiam. Part of them, rvho were willing to
receive a book compofed by Theodofius on the Tri¬
nity, made a feparate body, and were called Conto-
hahditcs, from fome place, which Nicephorus does not
mention, but which mud apparently have been the
place where they held, their affemblies. The Conto-
babdites allowed of no bilhops; wdiich is the only cir-
cumdancc given us concerning them.
CONTOR, Condor, or Cundur, the American
name
CON
[ 600
See Ornithology
Contorfion name of a fpecies of Vulture.
Index.
CONTORSION, in general, fignifies the afrion of
twifting or wrefting a member of the body out of its
natural fituation. Rope-dancers accuflom themielves
to contorfioirs of their limbs from their youth, to ren¬
der the fibres of their articulations lax, and fupple to
all kinds of poftures.
Con tor sion, in Medicine, has many fignifications.
I. It denotes the iliac paflion. 2. An incomplete dis¬
location, when a bone is in part, but not entirely, for¬
ced from its articulation. 3. A diflocation of the ver¬
tebrae of the back fidewife, or a crookednefs of thefe
vertebrae. And, 4. A diforder of the head, in which
it is drawn towards one fide, either by a fpafmodic con-
tracfion of the mufcles on the fame fide, or a palfy of
the antagonift mufcles on the other.
CONTORTS, the name of the 30th order in Lin-
nseus’s Fragments of a natural method, confiding of
-plants which have a fingle petal which is twilled or
bent to one fide. This order contains the following
genera, viz. echites, cerbera, gardenia, genipa, microc-
nemum, nerium, periploca, rawolfia, tabernaemontana,
vinca, apocynum, afclepias, comeraria, ceropegia, cy-
nanchum, plumeria, llapelia. See Botany Index.
CONTOUR, in Painting, the outline, or that which
defines a figure.
A great part of the Ikill of the painter lies in ma-
naging the contours well. Contour, wdth the Italian
painters, fignifies the lineaments of the face.
CONTOURNE, in Heraldry, is ufed when a beaft
is reprefented Handing or running with its face to
the finifter fide of the efcutcheon, they being always
fuppofed to look to the right, if not otherwife ex-
prefied.
CONTOURNIATED, a term among antiquaries
applied to medals, the edges of which appear as if tui ti¬
ed in a lathe. T his fort of work feems to have had its
origin in Greece.; and to have been defigned to perpe¬
tuate the memories of great men, particularly thofe
who had borne away the prize at the folemn games.
Such are thofe remaining of Homer, Solon, Euclid,
Pythagoras, Socrates, and feveral athlette.
CONTRA-Harmonical Pro/ior/zc/?, is that relation
of three terms, in which the difference of the firft and
fecond is to the difference of the fecond and third, as
the third is to the firlt. Thus, for inftance,^, 5, and
6, are numbers contra-harmonically proportional; for
2 :1 :: 6 : 3.
CoNTRA-Mure, in Fortification, is a little wall built
before another partition wall, to ftrengthen it, fo that
it may receive no damage from the adjacent build-
ings.
CONTRABAND, in Commerce, a prohibited com¬
modity, or merchandife bought or fold, imported or
exported, in prejudice to 'he laws and ordinances of a
Hate, or the public prohibitions of the fovereign. Con¬
traband goods ate not only liable to confifcation them-
felves, but alfo fubjedf all other allowed merchandife
found with them in the fame box, bale, or.parcel, to¬
gether with the horfes, waggons, &c. which conduct
them. There are contrabands likewife, which, befides
the forfeiture of the goods, are attended with feveial
ipenalties and difabilities.
Contradc
] CON
CONTRACT, in a general fenfe, a mutual confent
of two or more parties, who voluntarily promife and ContrlJtflic-
oblige themfelves to do fomething ; pay a certain fum, tory Pro_
or the like. All donations, exchanges, leafes, Sec. are petition,
fo many different contradts. ' T--1
Contract is particularly ufed, in common latv, for
an agreement or covenant between two, with a lawful
confideration or caufe. As, if I fell my horfe for mo¬
ney ; or covenant, in confideration of 20I. to make
you a leafe of a farm ; thefe are good contracts, becaufe
there is quid pro quo.
Vfurious Contract, is a contradl to pay more in-
tereft for money than the laws allow. See Usury.
Thofe contradfs are faid to be null which the law
prohibits the making of; fuch are all contradfs be¬
tween perfons incapable of contradfing, .as minors,
religious, lunatics, wives without confent of their hui-
bands, &c.
Contract is alfo ufed for the inftrument in writing,
which ferves as a proof of the confent granted, and the
obligation paffed between the parties.
Among the ancient Romans, contradfs, and all
voluntary adls, were written, either by the parties
themfelves, or by one of the witneffes, or by a do-
meftic fecretary of one of the parties, whom they
called a notary, but who was no public perfon as
among us.
The contradf, when finifhed, was earned to the
magiftrate, who gave it a public authority by recei¬
ving it inter adla, into the number of adfs under his ju-
rifdidlion *, giving each of the parties a copy thereof,
tranferibed by his clerks or domeftic regifters, and
fealed w ith his feal. Which praftice paffed into France,
where it obtained a long time.
CONTRACTILE FORCE, that property or powder
inherent in certain bodies, w’hereby, when extended,
they are enabled to draw themfelves up again to their
former dimenfions.
CONTRACTION, in Phyftcs, the diminilhing the
extent or dimenfions of a body, or the caufing its parts
to approach nearer to each other; in which fenfe it
Hands oppofed to dilatation or expanfion.
Contraction is frequently uled by anatomical
writers, to exprefs the (hrinking up of a fibre, or an
affemblage of fibres, when extended.
Convulfions and fpafms proceed from a preternatural
contradfion of the fibres of the mufcles of the part con-
vulfed. On the contrary, paralytic diforders generally
proceed from a too great laxnefs of the fibres of the
parts affeaed ; or from the want of that degree of
contraaion neceffary to perform the natural motion or
aaion of the part. In the firfi, therefore, the animal
fpirits are fuppofed to flowr, either in too great a quan-
tity, or irregularly; and, in the laft, the animal (pints
are either denied a free paffage into the part afieded,
or the tenfion of the fibrilhe is fuppofed infufficient
to promote thfe circulation. .
Contraction, in Grammar, is the reducing ot
two fyllables into one, as can't tor cannot, Jhouldjt tor
^ Contradiction, a fpecies of direa oppofi-
tion, wherein one thing is found diametrically oppofite
to another.
CONTRADICTORY propositions,
oppo¬
fite
2
CON
[ 60
Cortrafif- fites, one of which imports a mere and naked denial of
iura other.
Centre. Seeming contradictories is when the members of a
V— y-—period quite diiagree in appearance and found, but
perfectly agree and are confident in fenfe: thus,
Cowards die many times before their death :
The valiant never tafte of death but once.
Shake/jbeore.
CONI R AFISSURE, in Surgery, a kind of frac¬
ture, or fiflure, in the cranium, which fometimes hap¬
pens on the fide oppofite to that which received the
blow, or at lead at fome didance from it.
CONTR AIjNDICA I ION, in Medicine^ is an in¬
dication which forbids that to be done which the main
Icope of a difeafe points out.
Suppofe, e. gr. in the cure of a difeafe a vomit
were judged proper; if the patient be fubjeft to a vo¬
miting of blood, it is a fufficient contraindication as to
its exhibition.
^ CON 1 RARIETY, an oppofition between two
things, which imports their being contrary to one
another; and confids in this, that one of the terms
implies a negation of the other, either mediately or
immediately ; fo that contrariety may be faid to be
the contrad, or oppofition of two things, one of
which imports the abfence of the other, as love and
hatred.
CON FR AST; oppofition or diffimilifude of figures,
by which one contributes to the vifibility or effedl of
the others. See Resemblance.
Contrast, in Painting and Sculpture, exprefles an
oppofition or difference of pofition, attitude, &c. of
two or more figures, contrived to make variety in a
painting, &c. as where, in a group of three figures,
one is diown before, another behind, and another fide-
wife, they are faid to be in contrad.
Fhe contrad is not only to be obferved in the pofi¬
tion of feveral figures, but alfo in that of the fevernl
members of the fame figures : thus, if the right arm
advance farthed, the right leg is to be hindermod ; if
the eye be dire&ed one way, the arm to go the con¬
trary way, &c. The contrad mud be purfued even in
the drapery.
Contrast, in slrchiteclure, is to avoid the repe¬
tition of the fame thing, in order to pleafe by va¬
riety. J
CONTRATE-wheel, in watch-work, that next
to tne crown, the teeth and hoop whereof lie contrary
to thofe of the other wheels, from whence it takes its
name. See VVATCH-Making.
CONTRAVALLAT ION, or the Line of Contra-
vailation, in Fortification, a trench guarded with
a parapet, and ufually cut round about a place by the
befiegers, to fecure themfelves on that fide, and to
ffop the ladies of the garrifon. See Fortification
. CONTRAVENTION, in Law, a man’s failing io
dilcharge his word, obligation, duty, or the laws or
cudoms of the place.
CONFRAYERVA. See Dorstenia, Botany
Index.
CONTRE, in Heraldry, an appellation given to fe¬
veral bearings, on account of their cutting the dn'eld
contrary and oppofite ways: thus we meet with centre
Vol. VI, Part II.
i 1 CON
£)end, contre-chevron, contre-pale, &c. when there Contrite-
are two ordinaries of the fame nature oppofite to each t‘'.)n
other, fo as colour may be oppofed to metal, and me- Contumacy,
tal to colour. ‘'A*
CONTRIBUTION, the payment of each peifon’s ' "
quota of the part he is to bear in fome irapofition, or
common expence. See Contingent, &c.—Contri¬
butions are either involuntary, as thofe of taxes and
impods ; or voluntary, as thole of expeuces for carry¬
ing on fome undertaking for the intered of the com¬
munity*
Contributions, in a military fenfe, are impofi-
tions paid by frontier countries to fecure themielves
from being plundered and ruined by the enemy’s
army. I he. peafants till their ground under the faith
of contributions, as fecurely as in time of profound
peace.
CONTRITION, in Theology, a forrow* for our
fins, refulting from the reflexion of having offended
God, from the foie confideration of his goodnefs, with¬
out any regard to the punidiment due to the tre fpafs,
and attended with a fincere refolution of forfaking
them. The word is derived from the Latin conterere,
to break or bruife.
CON FROL is properly a double regifler kept of
a£ts, iffues, &c. of the officers or commiffioners in
the levenue, army, &c. in order to perceive the true
date , thereof, and to certify the truth, and the due
keeping of the ads fubjed to the enregiderment.
CONTROLLER, an officer appointed to control
or overfee the accounts of other officers; and, on oc-
cafion, to certify whether or not things have been con¬
trolled or examined.
In Britain we have feveral officers of this name ;•
as controller of the king’s houfe, controller of the
navy, controller of the cudoms, controller of the
mint, &c.
Controller of the Hanaper, an officer who attends
the lord t hancellor daily, in term and in feal-time, to
take all things fealed in leathern bags from the clerks
of the banaper, and to mark the number and effed
thereof, and enter them in a book, with all the du¬
ties belonging to the king and other officers for the
fame, and fo charge the clerk of the hanaper with
them.
Controller of the Houfehold, the fecond officer un¬
der the lord dew^ard. The name of his office comes
from the French word contrerouler. His office is to
control the accounts and reckonings of the Green
Cloth, of which board he is always" a member. He
carries a white daff, and is always one of the privy-
council. He has 107I. 17s. 6d. a-year wages, and
1092I. 2s. 6d. board wages.
Controller of the Pfe, an officer of the exchequer,
rvho makes out a fumnons twdee every year, to levy
the farms and debts of the pipe. See Pipe and Ex,
CHEQUER.
Controllers of the Pells, two officers of the exche¬
quer who are the chamberlain’s clerks, and keep a
control of the pell of receipts and goings out.
CONTUMACY, in L^aw, a refufd to appear in court
when legally fummoned, or the difobedience to the
rules and orders of a court having power to punidi
fuch offence.
3 G CONTUSION,
CON r 602 1 CON
Cbntufloh CONTUSION, in Medicine and Surgery, any hurt
Conventi- t^e ^0<^y that is inflided by a blunt inftrument.
cle> See Surgery.
CONVALESCENCE, in Medicine, the infenfible
recovery of health j or that ftate in which, after the
cure of a diforder, the body which has been reduced,
has not yet regained its vigour, but begins to refume
its powers. Proper aliments conduce to the re-efta-
bliihment of the languid faculties ; but as the tone of
the bowels is weakened, the digeftive faculty is not
equal to its office, which is ffiown by light fweats
over the whole body; and the fmalleft excefs in this
refpeft is oftentimes the occafion of dangerous re-
lapfes. A perfon in this ftate is like a taper relumin-
ed, which the lead: degree of wind is fufficient to ex-
tinguiffi.
CONVALLARIA, or Z/zr of the Vallv.x, in Bo¬
tany, a genus of plants, belonging to the hexandria
clafs; and in the natural method ranking under
Sarmentacece. See Botany Index.
CONVENARUM URBS, or Lugdunum, in Ancient
Geography, a town of the Convense, a people of Gal¬
lia Narbonenfis, at the foot of the Pyrenees. Its
origin was owing to the Sertorian war, Pompey com¬
pelling the robbers of the Pyrenees and fugitive flaves
to fettle there, (Pliny). It flood near the head of the
Garonne. Now St Bertrand, in Gafcony. E. Long.
30. Lat 43 15.
CONVENTICLE, a diminutive of convent j de¬
noting, properly, a cabal, or fecret affembly, of a part
of the monks of a convent, to make a brigue or party
in the ele&ion of an abbot. From the ill ufe of thefe
affemblies, the word is come into difrepute 5 and now
Hands for any mifchievous, feditious, or irregular af¬
fembly. F. Doucine obferves, the occidentals always
cfteemed the fifth general council an unlawful conven¬
ticle.
The terra conventicle is faid, by fome, to have been
firft applied in England to the fchools of Wickliff, and
has been fince ufed to fignify the religious affemblies
of all in that country who do not conform to the efta-
blifhed do&rines and worfhip of the church of Eng¬
land.
By 22 Car. II. cap. 1. it is enabled, That if any
perfons of the age of 16 years, fubjefts of this king¬
dom, {hall be prefent at any conventicle, where there
are five or more affembled, they ffiall be fined 5s. for
the firft offence, and 10s. for the fecond ; and per¬
fons preaching incur a penalty of 20I. Alfo fuffer-
ing a meeting to be held in a houfe, &c. is liable to
20I. penalty. Juftices of peace have power to enter
fuch houfes, and feize perfons affembled, &c. And if
they negleift their duty, they ffiall forfeit tool. And
if any conftable, &c. know of fuch meetings, and do
not inform a juftice of peace, or chief magiftrate, &c.
he ffiall forfeit 5I. But the ift Wr and M. cap. 18.
ordains, that proteftant diffenters ffiall be exempt from
penalties : though, if they meet in a houfe with the
doors locked, barred, or bolted, fuch diffenters lhall
have no benefit from t W. and M. Officers of the
government, &c. prefent at any conventicle, at which
there ffiall be ten perfons, if the royal family be not
prayed for in exprefs words, ffiall forfeit 40I. and be
difablcd (Stat. 10 Anne, cap. 2.)
CONVENTION, a treaty, contra#, or agreementConventioa
between two or more parties. ( II
Convention is alfo a name given to an extraordi- a'’
nary affembly of parliament, or the eftatesof the realm, r
held without the king’s writ. Of this kind was the
convention parliament which reftored Charles II. This
parliament met above a month before his return, and
fat full feven months after his reftoration, and enadled
feveral laws (till in force, which were confirmed by
ftat. 13 Car. II. c. 7. and c. 14. Such alfo was the
convention of eftates in 1688, who upon the retreat
of King James II. came to a conclufion that he had
abdicated the throne, and that the right of fucceffion
devolved to King William and Queen Mary ; where¬
upon their affembly expired as a convention, and was
converted into a parliament.
Contention of Efates, in Scotland, was partly of
the nature of a parliament; but differing in this, that
the former could only lay on taxes, while parliament
could both impofe taxes and make laws.
CONVENTUAL, fomething belonging to a con¬
vent or monaftery. See Monastery, and Coenobite.
Conventual, is particularly ufed for a religious
who actually refides in a convent $ in contradiftindion
to thofe who are only guefts, or are entertained there,,
or are in poffeffion of benefices depending on the houfe.
See Monk.
CONVENTUS Jurjdici, w-ere courts of juftice
eftabliffied in the Roman provinces j with a relbrt or
extent of jurifdiftion, circumfcribed and confined
within certain limits of diftri#, whither all who were
of the refort were to repair for juftice. The unfea-
fonable affedlation of changing forms of war into forms
of civil courts, proved the ruin of Varus and of three
legions in Germany, (Florus). Canventum agere, is to
hold a court of juftice.
CONVERGING or Contergent Lines, in Geo¬
metry, are fuch as continually approach nearer one
another, or whofe diftances become ftill lefs and lefs.
Thefe are oppofed to divergent lines, the diftances of
which become continually greater: thofe lines which,
converge one way, diverge the other.
Converging Rays, in Optics, thofe rays that, iffuing
from divers points of an obje#, incline towards ano¬
ther, till at laft they meet and crofs, and then be¬
come diverging rays.
Converging Series, a feries of terms or quantities
that always decreafe the farther they proceed, or which
tend to a certain magnitude or limit: in oppofition to
diverging feries, or fuch as become continually larger
and larger.
CONVERSATION, or discourse, fignifies an
interlocution between two, or among more perfons ;
with this diftinflion, that conVerfation is ufed for any
general intercourfe of fentiments whatever, whereas a
difcourfe means a converfation limited to fame parti¬
cular fubje#.
There is no part, perhaps, of focial life, which af¬
fords more real fatisfaftion than thofe hours which
one paffes in rational and unreferved converfation.
That converfation, however, may anfwer the ends for
which it was defigned, the parties who are to join in
it muft come together with a determined refolution to
pleafe, aad to be pie a fed.
In
Converfa-
tion,
Converfc.
CON
In the conduft of it, be not eager
others, or uneafy at being yourfelf inteirupted j fince
you fpeak either to amufe or inftruft the company, or
’ to receive thofe benefits from it. Give all, therefore,
leave to fpeak in turn. Hear with patience, and an-
fwer with precifion. Inattention is ill manners j it
Ihows contempt j and contempt is never forgiven..
Trouble not the company with your own private
concerns, as you do not love to be troubled with thofe
of others. Yours are as little to them as theirs are to
you. You will need no other rule whereby to judge
of this matter.
Contrive, but with dexterity and propriety, that
each perfon may have an opportunity of diicourfing
on the fubjeft with which he is beft acquainted. He
will be pleafed, and you will be informed. By obfer-
ving this rule, every one has it in his power to aflift
in rendering converfation agreeable ; fince, though he
may not choofe, or be qualified, to fay much himfelF,
he can propofe queftions to thofe who are able to an-
fwer them.
Avoid ftories, unlefs fhort, pointed, and quite a-pro-
pos. He who deals in them, fays Swift, muft either
have a very large ftock, or a good memory, or muft
often change his company. Some have a fet of them
ftrung together like onions; they take poffeflion of
the converfation by an early introduftion of one, and
then you muft have the whole rope j and there Sis an
end of every thing elfe, perhaps, for that meet¬
ing, though you may have heard all twenty times be¬
fore.
Talk often, but not long. The talent of harangue-
ing private company is infupportable. Senators and
barrifters are apt to be guilty of this fault j and mem¬
bers who never harangue in the houfe will often do
it out of the houfe. If the majority of the company
be naturally filent, or cautious, the converfation will
flag, unlefs it be often renewed by one among them
who can ftart new fubje&s. Forbear, however, if pof-
fible, to broach a fecond before the firft is out, left
your ftock ftiould not laft, and you ftiould be obliged
to come back to the old barrel. There are thofe who
will repeatedly crofs upon and break into the conver¬
fation with a frefh topic, till they have touched upon
nil and exhaufted none. Economy here is neceflary
for moft people.
Laugh not at your own wit and humour; leave that
to the company.
When the converfation is flowing in a feridus and
ufeful channel, never interrupt it by an ill-timed jeft.
The ftream is fcattered, and cannot be again colleft-
ed.
Difcourfe not in a whifper, or half-voice, to your
-next neighbour. It is ill-breeding, and, in fome de¬
gree, a fraud ; converfation-ftock being, as one has
well obferved, a joint and common property.
In reflexions on abfent people, go no farther than
you would go if they were prefent. “ I refol.ve (fays
Biftiop Beveridge) never to fpeak of a man’s virtues to
his face, nor of his faults behind his back —A gol¬
den rule ! the obfervation of which would, at one
ftroke, banifti flattery and defamation from the
earth.
CONVERSE, in Mathematics. One propofition is
-called the converfe ef another, when, after a conclu*
Convexity.
[ 603 ] c 0 N .
to interrupt fion is drawn from fomething fuppofed in the conVerfe Converfion
propofition, that conclufion is fuppofed $ and then,
that which in the other was fuppofed, is now drawn _
as a conclufion from it: thus when two fides of a tri¬
angle are equal, the angles under thefe fides are equal;
and, on the converfe, if thefe angles are equal, the two
fides are equal.
CONVERSION, in a moral fenfe, implies a re¬
pentance for a temper and conduX unworthy our na¬
ture, and unbecoming our obligations to its Author,
and a refolution to aX a wifer and a better part for
the future.
Conversion, in War^ a military motion, whereby
the front of a battalion is turned where the flank was,
in cafe the battalion is attacked in the flank.
Conversion of Equations, the fame with reduXion
of equations by multiplication. See Algebra.
CONVERT, a perfon who has undergone a con¬
verfion.
Convert is chiefly ufed in refpeX of changes from
one religion, or religious feX, to another. Converts
with relation to the religion turned to, are denomi¬
nated apojlates with regard to that they have relin-
quiftied.
The Jews formerly converted to Chriftianity in Eng*
land, were called converfos. Henry III. built them a
houfe in London, and allowed them a competent lub-
fiftence for their lives j which houfe was called domus
converforum. But the number afterwards increafing,
they grew a burden to the crown ; upon which they
were diftributed among the monafteries : and after the
expulfion of the Jews under Edward III. the domus
converforum was given for keeping of the rolls.
Converts, in a monaftic fenfe, are lay-friars, or
brothers, admitted for the fervice of the houfe j with¬
out orders, and not allowed to fing in the choir. Till
the eleventh century, the word was ufed for perfons
who embraced the monkifh life at the age of difere-
tion j by which they w’ere diftinguifhed from thofe de¬
voted in their childhood by their parents, called oblati.
But in the eleventh century, when they began to re¬
ceive into monafteries illiterate perfons, incapable of
being clerks, and only deftined for bodily labour, the
fignification of the word was neceflarily changed.
F. Mabillon obferves, that it was John firft abbot of
Vallombrofa who firft introduced thefe brother-con¬
verts, diftinguiftied by their ftate from the monks of
the choir, who were then either clerks or capable of
becoming fo.
CONVEX, an appellation given to the exterior fur-
face of gibbous or globular bodies; in oppofition to
the hollow inner Efface of fuch bodies, which is called
concave i thus v e fay, a convex frieze, lens, mirror,
fuperficies, &c.
CONVEXITY, the exterior furface of a convex,
i. e. gibbous and globular thing ; in oppofition to con¬
cavity, or the inner furface, which is hollow or 'J_-
prefled. See Concave.
The word is of particular import in catoptrics and
dioptrics: where it is applied to mirrors and lenfes.
A convex mirror reprefents its images fmaller than
the objeXs •, as a concave one reprefents them larger :
a convex mirror refleXs the rays from it, diverging ;
and therefore difperfes and weakens their eftcX : as
a concave one refleXs them converging $ lo as they
4 G 2 concur
Convidt’on.
CON [604
Conveyance concur in a point, and have their effect increafed : and
by how much the mirror is a portion of a fmaller
, fphere, by lo much does it diminifh the obje&s, and
difperfe the rays the more. See Mirkor.
A convex lens is either convex on both fides, called
a convexo-convex; or it is plain on one fide and con¬
vex on the other, called a plano-convex; or concave
on one fide and convex on the other, called a con¬
vexo-concave, or concavo-convex, as the one or the
other lurface prevails, i. e. as this or that is a por¬
tion of a fmaller fphere. All convex lenfes infleft the
rays of light in their paffage, i. e. fend them out from
their convex furface converging, fo as that they con¬
cur in a point or focus. Hence all convex lenfes mag¬
nify, i. e. reprefent their images larger than their ob-
je&s; and this the more as they are portions of fmal¬
ler fpheres.
CONVEYANCE, in Law, a deed or inftrument
that paffes land, &c. from one perfon to another.
CONVICT in common law, a perfon that is found
guilty of an offence by the verdict of a jury. See
the following article.
CONVICTION, in Law. When a jary has given a
verdiiT upon trial, finding the prifoner guilty, he is
faid to be convifted of the crime whereof he Hands in-
diffed. See Trial.
When the offender is thus convi&ed, there are two
collateral circumflatices that immediately arife. 1. On
a conviction in general for any felony, the reafonable
expences of profecution are by ifatute 25 Geo. II. c. 36.
to be allowed the profecutor out of the country-flock,
if he petitions the judge for that purpofe ; and by
ftatute 17 Geo. II. c. 3. poor perfons, bound over
to give evidence, are likewife entitled to be paid their
charges, as well without conviftion as with it. 2. On
a conviction of larceny in particular, the profecutor
fhall have reffitution of his goods by virtue of the
ftatute 21 Hen. VIII. c. 1 1. For by the common law
there was no reflitution of goods upon an indictment ;
becaufe it is at the fuit of the king only 5 and there¬
fore the party was enforced to bring an appeal of
robbery, in order to have his goods again. Eut, it
being confidered that the party profecuting the offen¬
der by indictment, deferves to the full as much encou¬
ragement as he who profecutes by appeal, this ftatute
was made, which enaCts, that if any perfon be convict¬
ed of larceny by the evidence of the party robbed, he
fhall have full reftitution of his money, goods, and
chattels, or the value of them out of the offender’s
goods, if he has any, by a writ to be granted by the
juftices. And the conftruCtion of this aCt having been
in great meafure conformable to the law of appeals,
it has therefore in practice fuperfeded the ufe of ap¬
peals of larceny. For inftance, as formerly upon ap¬
peals, fo now upon indictments of larceny, this writ of
reftitution fhall reach the goods fo ftolen, notwithfiand-
i-ng the property of them is endeavoured to be altered
by fale in market overt. And though this may feem
fomewhat hard upon the buyer, yet the rule of law is,
that fpoliatus debet ante omnia reJUtuti, efpecially when
he has ufed all the diligence in his power to conviCt
the felon. And, fince the cafe is reduced to this
hard neceffity, that either the owner or the buyer
mull fuffer ; the law prefers the right of the owner,
who has done a meritorious aft by purfuing a felon to
1
CON
condign puniihment, to the right of the buyer, whofe Convi&iom
merit is only negative, that he has been guilty of no t.onvoca-
unfair tranfaftion. And it is now ufual for the court,, tl°n‘ .
upon the conviftion of a felon, to order, without any
writ, immediate reftitution of fuch goods as are brought
into court, to be made to the feveral profecutors. Or
elfe, fecon^lly, without fuch writ of reftitution, the
party may peaceably retake his goods wherever he
happens to find them, unlefs a new property be fairly
acquired therein. Or, laftly, if the felon be convifted
and pardoned, or be allowed his clergy, the party
robbed may bring his aftion of trover againft him for
his goods, and recover a fatisfaftion in damages. But
fuch aftion lies not before profecution : for fo felonies
wmuld be made up and healed: and alfo recaption is
unlawful, if it be done wuth intention to fmother and
compound the larceny ; it then becoming the heinous
offence of theft-bote.
It is not uncommon, when a perfon is convifted of
a tnifdemeanour, which principally and more immedi¬
ately affefts fome individual, as a battery, imprifon-
ment, or the like, for the court to permit the defen¬
dant to /peak with the profccuto?', before any judge¬
ment is pronounced ; and if the profecutor declares
himfelf fatbfied, to inflift but a trivial punifhment.
This is done to reimburfe the profecutor his expences,
and make him fome private amends, without the
trouble and circuity of a civil aftion. But it is furely
a dangerous praftice ; and, though it may be entruft-
ed to the prudence and difcretion of the judges in the
fuperior courts of record, it ought never to be allow7-
ed in local or inferior jurifdiftions, fuch as the quar-
ter-feftions : where profecutions for affaults are by
this means too frequently commenced, rather for pri¬
vate lucre than for the great ends of public juftice.
Above all, it ihould never be fuftered, where the te-
ftimony of the profecutor himfelf is neceffary to con-
vift the defendant : for by this means the rules of evi¬
dence are entirely lubverted j the profecutor becomes
in effeft a plaintiff, and yet is fuffered to bear witnefs
for himfelf. Nay, even a voluntary forgivenefs by the
partly injured, ought not, in true policy, to intercept
the ftroke of juftice. “ This (fays an elegant writer
who pleads with equal ftrength for the certainty, as for
the lenity of punifhment) may be an aft of good na¬
ture and humanity, but it is contrary to the good of
the public. For although a private citizen may dif-
penfe w'ith fatisfaftion for his private injury, he cannot
remove the neceftity of public example. The right of
punifhing belongs not to any one individual or particu¬
lar, but to the fociety in general, or to the fovertign
who reprefents that fociety \ and a man may renounce
his own portion of this right, but he cannot give up
that of others.”
Conviction, in Theology, expreffes the firft degree
of repentance, wherein the finner becomes fenfible of
his guilt, of the evil nature of fin, and of the danger
of his own ways.
CONVOCATION, an affembly of the clergy of
England, by their reprefentatives, to confult of eccle-
fiaftical matters. It is held during the feffion of par¬
liament, and confifts of an upper and a lower houfe.
In the upper fit the bifhops, and in the lower the infe^
rior clergy, who are reprefented by their proftots ; con¬
fiding of all the deans and archdeacons, of one proftor
for
CON [ 605 ] COO
Convolu- for every chapter, and two for the clergy of every di-
tion ocefe, in all 143 divines; viz. 22 deans, 53 archdea-
Ccr^a cons> 24 prebendaries, and 44 proddors of the diocefan
, , _ , clergy. The lower houfb choofes its prolocutor ; whofe
bufinefs it is to take care that the members attend, to
colleft their debates and votes, and to carry their refo-
lutions to the upper houfe. The convocation is fum-
moned by the king’s writ, diredded to the archbifhop
of each province, requiring him to fummon all bifhops,
deans, archdeacons, &c.
The power of the convocation is limited by a fta-
tute of Henry VIII. They ate not to make any ca¬
nons or ecclefiaftical laws without the king’s licenfe ;
nor when permitted to make any, can they put them
in execution, but under Several reftiiclions. They have
the examining and cenfuring all heretical and fchifma-
tical books and perfons, &c. but there lies an appeal to
the king in chancery, or to his delegates. The clergy
in convocation, and their fervants, have the fame pri¬
vileges as members of parliament.
.Since the year 1665, when the convocation of the
clergy gave up the privilege of taxing themfelves to
the houfe of commons, they feldom have been allowed
to do any bufinefs ; and are generally prorogued from
time to time till diilblved, a new one being generally
called along with a new parliament. The only equi¬
valent for giving up the privilege of taxing themfelves,
was their being allowed to vote at eleddions for mem¬
bers to the houfe of commons, which they had not
t before.
CONVOLUTION, a winding motion, proper to
the trunks of fome plants, as the convolvulus, or bind¬
weed ; the clafpers of vines, bryony, &c.
CONVOLVULUS, bindweed: A genus of
plants of the pentandria dais, and in the natural method
ranking under the 2crh order, Cambanacece. See Bo¬
tany and Materia Medica/Wtw.
CONVOY, in naval affairs, one or more fhips of
war, employed to accompany and protedd merchant
fh'ps, and prevent their being infulted by pirates, or
the enemies of the ftate in time of war.
Convoy, in military matters, a body of men that
guard any lupply of men, money, ammunition, or pro-
vifions, conveyed by land into a town, army, or the
like in time of war.
CONUS, a cone, in Botany: a fpecies of fruit or
fcaly feed-veflel, fo termed by Tournefort and other
botanifts. Linnseus has fubftituted strobilus in its
place.
Conus, the cone-Jbell^ a genus of fhells. See Con-
Chology Index.
' CONVULSION, a preternatural and violent con-
traftion of the membranous and mufcular parts of the
body. See Medicine Index.
CONWAY, a market-town of Caernarvonfhire in
North Wales, fituated near the mouth of a river of
the fame name, 15 miles weft of St Afaph. W. Long.
3. 50. N. Lat. 53. 20.
CONYZA. Flcabane : A genus of plants of the
fyngenelia clais, ranking under the 49th natural order,
Compnjitse. See Botany Index.
CONZ A, a town of the kingdom of Naples in
Italy, fituated on the farther principate, on the river
Offanto, 50 miles fouth-eaft of the city of Naples,
E. Long. 16. 0. N. Lat. 41. o. It is the fee of an
archbilhop.
COOK, Sir Anthony, defeended from S’r Tho¬
mas Cook lord mayor of London, was born in 1506,
and fuppofed to have been educated at Cambridge. He
was fo eminent for his learning, piety, and prudence,
that the guardians of King Edward VI. appointed him
to he his chief inftruftor in learning, and to form his
manners. He had four daughters ; and being refolved
to have fons by education, left he fhould have none by
birth, he taught his daughters thole leffons by night
that he had inftilled into the prince by day: he was
happy in his endeavours, as they proved learned in
Greek and Latin, and equally diftinguilhed by virtue,
piety, and good fortune. Mildred was married to tha
great Lord Burleigh ; Ann to Sir Nicholas Bacon, lord
keeper of the great leal ; Elifabeth to Sir John Ruflel,
fon and heir of Francis earl of Bedford ; and Catha¬
rine to Sir Henry Killigrew. He lived in exile during
the Marian perlecution ; and returning on the acceftion
of Queen Elizabeth, fpent the reft of his days in peace
and honour, dying in 1576.
Cook, Captain James, one of the ableft and moft
celebrated navigators of any country, was the fon of
James Cook, a labourer or fervant in hufbandry, and
fuppofed to have been a native of the county of Nor¬
thumberland, and was born on the 27th of Ocftober
1728, at the village of Marton in the north riding of
Yorkihire. He was one of nine children, alb of whom
are now dead except a daughter, who married a fiftier-
man of Redcar. He received the firft rudiments of
education from the Ichoolmiftrefs of the village ; and
afterwards, on his father’s removal to Great Ayton, he
was put to a day-fehool, at the expence of Mr Skot-
toiv, his father’s employer, where he was inftrutfted in
writing and in a few of the firft rules of arithmetic.
Before the age of thirteen he was bound apprentice to
Mr W. Sanderfon, a haberdafiier or ftiopkeeper at
Straiths, about ten miles from Whitby : but fome
diiagreement taking place between him and his mailer,
he indulged his own inclination in binding himfelf ap¬
prentice to Meffrs Walkers of Whitby, who had fe-
veral vefiels in the coal trade ; and after ferving a few
years longer in the fituation of a common failor, he.
was at length railed to be mate of one of Mr Walker’s
{hips. During all this period it is not recollefted that
he exhibited any thing peculiar either in his abilities or
conduct.
Early in the year 1755, when hoftilities broke out
between France and England, Cook entered on board
the Eagle of fixty guns, to which vefiel Sir Hugh Pal-
lifer was foon after appointed, who loon diftinguilhed
him as an aftive and diligent feaman ; and his prom .-
tion was forwarded by a letter of recommendation
which was written by Mr Ofbaldefton, member for Scar¬
borough, at the requeft of leveral neighbours, in Mr
Cook’s favour. On the ryth of May 1759, he was
appointed mailer of the Mercury, which loon after
failed to America, and juined the fleet under Sir
Charles Saunders at the memorable liege of Quebec.
His intereft with the admiralty appears even then to
have been very ftrong ; for on Mr Olhaldefton’s letter
he was appointed mailer of the Grampus Hoop ; but
the proper mailer having unexpedledly returned to
her.
coo
[ 606 ] coo
Cook, her, the appointment did not take place. Four days
after he was made mafter of the Garland ; when upon
inquiry it was found that he could not join her, as the
veflel had already failed : and the next day, May 15th
1759, he was made mafter of the Mercury. On this
occafion he was recommended by Captain Pallifer to a
difficult and dangerous fervice, viz. to take the found¬
ings of the river St Lawrence, between the illand of
Orleans and the north (bore, which he performed in the
moft complete manner; and foon afterwards he was
employed to furvey the moft dangerous parts of the
river below Quebec : thefe were his firft efforts with
the pencil. After this expedition he was appointed,
on the 22d of September, mafter of the Northumber¬
land, ftationed at Halifax, where he firft read Euclid,
and applied to aftronomy and other branches of fci-
ence. In the year 1762 he was with the Northum¬
berland, affifting at the recapture of Newfoundland ;
and in the latter end of the fame year he returned to
England, and married, at Barking in Effex, Mifs Eli-
fabeth Batts. Early in 1763, when Admiral (then
Captain) Greaves was appointed governor of New¬
foundland, Mr Cook rvent out with him to furvey the
coalts of that iftand. At the end of the feafon he re¬
turned to England; but in the beginning of 1764,
Sir Hugh Pallifer being appointed governor of New¬
foundland and Labradore, Mr Cook accompanied him
in the fame capacity of furveyor, and had the Gran¬
ville fchooner to attend him on that bufmefs : in this
fituation he continued till 1767.
While Mr Cook remained on this ftation, he had an
opportunity of exhibiting publicly a fpecimen of his
progrefs in the ftudy of aftronomy, in a ftiort paper
printed in the 57th volume of the Philofophical Iranf-
aftions, entitled “ An obfervation of an eclipfe of the
fun at the ifland of Newfoundland, Auguft 5. 1766,
with the longitude of the place of obfervation de¬
duced from it.” Mr Cook’s obfervation was made at
one of the Burgeo iflands near Cape Ray, in N. Eat.
47° 5^' 19" ; and by the comparisons of it made by
Mr Mitchel, with an obfervation of Dr Hornfby at
Oxford, it appeared to have been accurately done :
and Mr Cook at that time obtained the character of
an able aftronomer.
In the mean time a fpirit for geographical difco-
veries, which had gradually declined fince the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, began to difcover itfelf anew’.
Two voyages of this kind had been performed in the
reign of George II. the one under Captain Middleton,
the other by Captains Moore and Smyth, with a view
to difcover a north w'eft paffage through Hudfon’s Bay
to the Eaft Indies. Two others, under Captains By¬
ron, Wallis, and Carteret, had been undertaken foon
after the conclufion of the peace in 1763 by order of
his prefent majefty ; and before the return of thefe na¬
vigators, who were ordered to fail round the world,
another voyage was refolved upon for aftronomical pur-
pofes. It having been calculated that a tranfit of Ve¬
nus over the fun’s dilk would happen in 1769, a long
memorial to his majefty was prefented by the Royal
Society ; in which they fet forth the great importance
of making proper obfervations on this phenomenon, the
regard that had been paid to it by the different courts
of Europe ; and intreating, among other things, that a
reffel might be fitted out, at the expence of government,
1
for conveying proper perions to lome of the Friendly
iflands, in order to make the neceffary obfervations.
This being complied wuth on the part of his majefty,
Alexander Dalrymple, Efq. an eminent member of the
Royal Society, was appointed to take the command
of the bark appropriated for the purpofe. In the ex¬
ecution of the projedl, however, an unexpe&ed diffi¬
culty occurred. Mr Dalrymple, fenfible of the im-
poflibility of guiding a veffel through unknown and
dangerous feas without any proper command over the
crew, demanded a brevet commiflion as captain of the
veffel, in the fame manner as had formerly been grant¬
ed to Dr Halley in a voyage of difcovery made by
him. This commiffion Sir Edward Hawke abfolutely
refufed to fign ; declaring, when preffed upon the fub-
jedl, that he would rather fuffer his right hand to be
cut off than truft any of his majefty’s fiiips to a perfon
who had not been properly bred to the fervice ; and in
this proceeding he feemed to be juftified by the muti¬
nous behaviour of Dr Halley’s crew ; who, denying
the legality of his authority over them, had involved
him in a very difagreeable difpute, and which was at¬
tended with pernicious confequences. Mr Dalrymple,
on the other hand, being equally determined in his re-
fufal to proceed without the authority in queftion,
there was a neceflity for finding out fome perfon of fci-
ence who might alfo be free from the objeftion made
by Sir Edw’ard Hawke. Mr Cook therefore was pro-
pofed by Mr Stephens ; and his recommendation be¬
ing feconded by Sir Hugh Pallifer, he was immediate¬
ly appointed to diredl the expedition ; and on this oc¬
cafion was promoted to the rank of lieutenant in his
majefty’s fervice.
Mr Cook’s commiffion as lieutenant w’as dated May
25. 1768 ; a veffel of 370 tons, named the Endeavour,
was provided for him ; and while the neceffary prepa¬
rations were making for the voyage, Captain Wallis
returned. It having been recommended to this gentle¬
man to fix upon a proper place for making the aftrono¬
mical obfervations, he had accordingly chcfen the ifland
named by him George's IJland, but fince known by the
name of Otabeite ; judging alfo that Port Royal harbour
in it wTould afford an eligible fituation. This propofal be¬
ing accepted, direftions for the purpofe w’ere according¬
ly given to Mr Cook, with whom Mr Charles Green
was joined in the aftronomical part ; the latter having
been affiftant to Dr Bradley in the royal obfervatory
at Greenwich, and thus judged to be every way quali¬
fied for the office. The lieutenant was likewife accom¬
panied by Mr Banks, now Sir Jofeph Banks, Dr So-
lander, &c. The principal defign of the voyage was,
as has already been hinted, to make obfervations on
the tranfit of Venus ; but this being done, Mr Cook
was direfted to make further diicoveries in the Pacific
ocean ; and on the 3°^ of July 1768 he let fail on
his expedition. An account of the voyage, and the
difcoveries made during the time of it, is given in the
next article ; here it is fufficient to obferve, that
throughout the whole Mr Cook approved himfelf an
able feaman ; and from his benaviour both to his own
people and to the favage nations he occafionally met
with, fliowed a moft exaft regard to the rules both of
juftice and humanity. On his firft arrival at Otaheite,
the following regulations were drawn up for his peo¬
ple, which he took care fttould be pundually obeyed :
Cook.
Caok.
happened which
whole fcheme.
which had been
chiefly through
recovered, and
Scarce was this
COO [
l# To endeavour, by every fair means* to cultivate a
friendfhip with the natives, and to treat them with all
imaginable humanity. 2. A proper perfon or perfons
to be appointed to treat with the natives for provi-
fions, fruits, &c. and no other perfon belonging to
the (hip to do fo without leave. 3. Every perfon on
ftiore to attend punctually to his duty, and to pay pro¬
per attention to his tools or arms ; and if loft through
negligence, to have the full value charged againft his
pay, with fuch farther punifhment inflifted as occa-
fion might require. 4. The fame penalty to be in¬
flicted on every one who ftiould embezzle, trade with,
or offer to trade with, any part of the fhip’s ftores ; and,
5. No iron to be given in exchange for any thing but
provifions. His rigid adherence to thefe rules was
manifefted in feveral inftances, particularly by feverely
punifhing the fhip’s butcher, who had threatened the
life of a woman, wife to one of the chiefs of the
ifland, for refuftng a ftone hatchet on the terms he
propofed. On ereCting their obfervatory, in ordm* to
go through the aftronomical operations, an accident
had like to have difconcerted the
This was the lofs of their quadrant,
ftolen by fome of the natives ; but,
the exertions of Mr Banks, it was
the obfervations made accordingly,
accompliftied, however, before ano¬
ther theft of the natives demanded the moft ferious
conlideration of the commander. Some of them tak¬
ing advantage of the attention of the officers being
otherwife engaged, took the opportunity of breaking
into one of the ftore-rooms, and ftealing from thence
a bag of fpike nails of no lefs than an hundred weight.
This was a moft important affair j for as thofe nails
were of great eftimation among the Indians, the pof-
feflion of fuch quantity muft undoubtedly have much
leflened their value, and thus rendered proviflons of
every kind greatly dearer on the ifland than before.
One of the thieves therefore being difcovered, was pu-
nilhed with 200 lalhes 5 notwithftanding which he ob-
ftinately refufed to difcover any of his accomplices.
Repeated thefts committed afterwards required all the
wifdom and refolution of Mr Cook to conduft him-
felf in a proper manner. After due confideration, he
judged it to be a matter of importance to put an end
to thefe praClices at once, by doing fomething which
might engage the natives themfelves to prevent them
for their common intereft. This, however, he was
not at prefent able to accomplilh j nor indeed did it
feem poflible to prevent them without ufing fire¬
arms, which from motives of humanity he ftill deter¬
mined to avoid. At laft, after a ftay of three months,
when preparing to take his leave, the moft difagree-
able adventure took place that he had hitherto met
with. This was the defertion of two of his people,
who having married young women of the country, de¬
termined to take up their refidence in it. Mr Cook
was now' obliged to feize fome of the chiefs, and to in¬
form them that they could not obtain their liberty un-
lefs the deferters were recovered. This at laft produ¬
ced the defired effe£l ; the deferters were given up,
and Mr Cook fet fail, along with Tupia (who had
formerly been the prime minifter to Oberea, a princefs
of the ifland) and a boy of 13 years of age, both
607 ] coo
of whom were deflrous of accompanying him to Eng-
land.
While Mr Cook proceeded to vifit others of the
South fea iflands. Tupia occaflonally feived as an in¬
terpreter. On his arrival in New Zealand, Mr Cook
found the people extremely hoftile and infolent. At
their very firft meeting, one of the natives having
threatened to dart his lance into the boat, was {hot
dead. Another, having carried off Mr Green’s hanger
was fired at with fmall {hot •, and upon his ftill refufing
to reftore it, was fired at wdth ball and killed. This,
however, produced very little effefl on the reft, wdio
offered to make an attack upon them, till feveral muf-
kets were fired with fmall {hot, which wounded three
or four more. Next day the commander, having de¬
termined to force fome of the natives on board, in or¬
der to conciliate their affeftions by kind treatment,
direfled his men to follow two canoes whom he per¬
ceived under way before him. One made her efcape,
but the other, not obferving the boats in purfuit, was
overtaken ; on which the favages plied their oars lb
brilkly, that the {hip’s boats were not able to keep up
with them. Tupia, whole language the New Zealan¬
ders underftood, called to them to return, with affur-
ances that no hurt Ihould be done them ; but they con¬
tinued their flight without minding him. A mufket
was then fired over their heads with a view to intimidate
them, but upon this they prepared to fight •, and on
the coming up of the boats began the attack with fo
much vigour, that the lieutenant’s people were obli¬
ged to fire upon them with ball, by which four out of
feven that were in the boat were killed, and the other
three jumped into the water, and were taken on
board.
This part of Mr Cook’s conduft feems inconfiftent
with that humanity for which he was in general fo
eminently diftinguilhed ; he was aware of the cenfure,
and makes the following apology. “ Thefe people
certainly did not deferve death for not choofing to con¬
fide in my promifes, or not confenting to come on
board my boat, even if they had apprehended no dan¬
ger ; but the nature of my fervice required me to ob¬
tain a knowledge of their country, which I could no
otherwife obtain but by forcing into it in an hoftile
manner, or gaining admiflion through the confidence
and good will of the people. I had already tried the
power of prefents without effeft j and I was now
prompted by my defire to avoid farther hoftilities, to
attempt to get fome of them on board y the only me¬
thod we had left of convincing them that we intended
them no harm, and had it in our power to contribute
to their gratification and convenience. Thus far my
intentions certainly were not criminal •, and though in
the conteft, which I had not the leaft reafon to expeft,
our vlftory might have been complete without fo great
an expence of life ; yet in fuch fituations, when the
command to fire has once been given, no man can
pretend to reftrain its excefs, or prefcribe its effeft.”
Notwithftanding the difafter juft mentioned, to which
the three New Zealanders, who wTere taken on board,
had been witneffes, they were foon conciliated, and
began to fing with a degree of tafte that furprifed the
Engliftr gentlemen. They were boys, the oldcft about
in and the youngeft about 11 j but no kindnefs
which
Cook.
—y—i
coo [ 608 ] GOO
Cook, which could be fhown them was In any degree effec- on the 28th of April came in fight of Botany Bay.
tual to bring about a reconciliation with the reft. On Heie all their endeavours to induce the natives to have
the contiary, having perceived the fhip in lome di- any intercourfe with them proved ineffectual, though
Hie s, they inftantiy flrowed a diipofition to make an happily there was no blood fpilt in any quarrel,
attack j and from this tney wrere only prevented by During their navigation round New Holland, the
the filing of a tour-pounder charged with grape-thot. coatts of which are full of dangerous rocks and ihoals,
n'en this did not produce any permanent efiect ; ano- our navigators- were brought into a more perilous fitua-
t. ier attack was determmed upon, and would undoubt- tion than ever *, and from which the efcape was fo ex-
ediy h rve been made, nad not I upia informed them, traordinary, that it defeives a particular relation,
ti it if they perfifted in the attempt, the arms of their This happened on the loth of June 1770, as they
adverfaries,^ like thunder, would deftroy every one of purfued their courfe frbm Trinity Bay, and nearly in
t iem. J nis was enforced by the fire of another four- the latitude affigned to the iflunds difeovered by Qci-
.pounder with grape-flrpt, which fpreading wide in the ros. At that time they had the advantage of a fine
•water, terrified them to fucli a degree that they be- breeze and a clear moonlight j and in Handing oft"
.gan to paddle away as faft as poflible. Notwithftand- from fix till near nine o’clock, the (hip had deepened
ing this, however, lome intercourfe began to take her water from 14 to 21 fathoms j but while the na-
.pjace j but in every inftance the New Zealanders ma- vigators were at iupper, it fuddenly fhoaled to 12, 10,
nifefted tneir hoftility and treachery in fuch a manner and 8 fathoms in the ipace of a few minutes. Every
as fhow^ed that they were not to be gained by fair thing was then ready for putting the fhip about, when
means. At iaft an attempt to carry oft I ayeto, Tu- they fuddenly got into deep water again, and continued
pia s boy, rendered it abiolutely necelTary to fire upon in 20 and 21 fathoms for fome time, lo that the gentle-
them in order to refeue him from certain deftru&ion, men went to bed in perfect fecurity. A little before
lome of the favages having got him into a canoe, eleven, however, the water ftioaled at once from 20 to
where they held him down by violence. In confe- 1 7 fathoms j and before the lead could be heaved again,
quence of this one of the favages was killed on the the ftiip ftruck, and remained immoveable, excepting
fpot, and feveral more wounded, by the difeharge of as far as ftie was heaved up and down, and dallied
mulkets from the boats 5 Tayeto recovered his liberty, againft the rocks by the furge. The alarm was now
jumped into the water, and fwam to the fhip. Some univerfal, and not indeed without the greateft reafon.
partial intercourfe again took place : but ftill it ap- It appeared that the veflel had been lifted over the
peared that the innate rancour of thefe favages was ledge of a rock, and lay in a hollow within it, where
not to be iubdued by any fair means; and it was there were in fome places from three to four fathoms
only by the powerful arguments of cannon and water, and in others fcarcely as many feet : the fheath-
mufketry that they could he kept from attempting to ing boards wrere disjoined, and floating round the fhip
do mifehief. in great numbers j and at laft the falfe keel alfo was
From the account of this voyage publifhed by Dr deftroyed, while the rock kept grating her bottom
Hawkefworth, indeed, it appears, that a conflderable with fuch force as to be heard in the fore ftore-room. It
number of favages perilhed in a manner fimilar to that was now neceflary to lighten the fhip as much as pof-
above mentioned, and they feem to have manifefted a fible : and this was done with ail expedition to the
more hoftile behaviour than afterwards : on thofe me- amount of more than 50 tons. In the morning of the
lancholy occafions, however, it is obferved to the ho- 11th of June they difeovered the land at about eight
nour of Mr Cook, that his humanity was eminently leagues diftance, without any ifland between, on which,
confpicuous beyond that of the common people, who they could have been fent afliore in the event of the
all along fliowed as much inclination to deftroy the ftiip going to pieces, that fo they might have been car-
Indians as a fportfman does to kill the game he pur- ried to the main land by turns. To add to their dif-
iues. trefs, the ftiip drew fo much water, that it was with dif-
While Mr Cook coafted the iflands of New Zealand, ficulty kept under with three pumps. Laflly, it appear-
he was fometimes in the moft imminent danger of be- ed, that even the rifing of the tide, on which they had
ing fliipwrecked. In the latitude of 35® fouth, and ultimately depended for relief, was infufficient to
in the midft of fummer in that climate, he met with anfwer the purpofe as the day tide fell confiderably
fuch a gale of wind as he fcarce ever experienced be- ftiort of that in the night-time. Having therefore
fore 5 lo that he was no lefs than three weeks in get- lightened the ftiip ftill farther, by throwing out every
ting ten leagues to the weftivard, and two more before thing that could poflibly be fpared, they waited with,
he could get 30 leagues farther. Fortunately, how- patience for the next tide j when, after incredible ex-
ever, they were all this time a confiderable way from ertion, the fliip righted, and they got her over the
land, otherwife it is probable that the ftorm muft have ledge of the rock into deep water. By continual la-
proved fatal. hour, however, the men were at laft fo much exhaufled,
Mr Cook having fpent fix months in circumnaviga- that they could not ftand to the pumps more than five
ting and fully exploring the iflands of New Zealand, he or fix minutes at a time; after which they threw
failed fi< m thence on the 311! of March 1770. It muft themfelves flat on the deck, though a ftreani of wa-
be obferved, however, that the extreme hoftility nia- ter between three and four inches deep ran ever it;
nifefted by the inhabitants in that part of the ifland and in this fituation, they lay till others, exhaufted
where he firft arrived, was not univerfally diffufed, hut as well as themfelves, took their places, on which they
that a frimdly intercourfe was for a long time main- ftarted up again, and renewed their exertions. In
tained with thofe about Queen Charlotte’s Sound. this dreadful extremity, Mr Monkhoufe, a midftdpman,
.From New Zealand he proceeded to New Holland, and propofed the expedient of fothering the fliip, as it is
2 called.
coo
Cook.
called, by ■which means he faid that he had Teen a mer¬
chant fhip brought from Virginia to London after (he
had fprung a leak that admitted more than four feet
- water in an hour. The expedient being approved of,
it was put in execution in the following manner. He
took a lower fludding-fail, and having mixed a large
quantity of oakum and wool together, Hitched them
down by handfuls as lightly as poffible j the whole be¬
ing afterwards fpread over with the dung of the fheep
and other filth. I he fail was then hauled under the
fhip’s bottom by means of ropes which kept ft ex¬
tended. When it came under the leak, the wool and
oakum, with part of the fail, were forced inwards by
the prefiure of the water, which thus prevented its
own ingrefs in luch an effe&ual manner, that one
pump, inftead of three, was now fufficient to keep it
under. Thus they got the fhip into a convenient port
on the coaft of New Holland, where they had an op¬
portunity of repairing the injury. Here they dif-
covered that their prefervation had not been owing
entirely to the expedient above mentioned ; for one of
the holes was in a great meafure filled up by a piece
*>f_ rock which had broken off and fluck in it ; and
this hole was fo large, that had it not been filled up
in the manner juft mentioned, they muff undoubtedly
have periled notwithdanding all the afliftance that
could have been derived from the pumps.
The dangers they fuftained in navigating this coaft
were innumerable, infomuch that for very near three
montns they were obliged to have a man conftantly
in the chains heaving the lead. They were always
entangled among rocks and flioals, which could not
have failed todeftmy a lefs experienced navigator •, and
even Mr Cook, with all his fagacity, could not fome-
times have extricated himfelf, had it not been for the
favourable interpofition of feme natural events, which
no human penetration could forefee or have the leaft
dependence upon. Of this we fliall only give the fol¬
lowing inftance. Having at laft, as they thought,
got. fafely over the vaft reefs of funk rocks with
which the coaft of New Holland is furrounded, they
flattered themfelves that all -danger was paffed, and
tne vaft fwell of the water convinced them that they
were now in the open ocean. The remembrance of
former dangers, however, induced them frequently to
take the precaution of founding j notwithftandinp-
which, in the latitude of about 14I.0 S. they found
themfelves one morning only about a mile diftant from
the moft hideous breakers, though the fea all around
was unfathomable. Their fituation was rendered the
more dreadful by its being a dead calm, at the fame
time that^ they were carried towards the rock with
fuch rapidity, that by the time they had got the (hip’s
head turned by means of the boats, (he was fcarcely
100 yards diftant from it. Their only refource then
was to tow the (hip, if poftible, by means of the boats
and pinnace, out of a fituation fo very perilous j but
all their efforts would have been unfuccefsful, had not
a breeze of wind fprung up, which, though too light
to have been noticed at any other time, w-as found to
fecond their efforts fo effedlually, that the (hip began
to move perceptibly from the reef in an oblique di-
rection: during the time that this breeze lafted,
w nch was not more than ten minutes, they had made
a confiderable way. A dead calm fucceeding, they
Vou, VI, Part II. 6 7
t 609 ]
coo
began to lofe ground, and in a little time were dri¬
ven within 200 yards of the rocks : but fortunate-'
ly the breeze returned, and lafted ten minutes more ;
during which time a (mall opening was perceived in
the reef at the diftance of about a quarter of a
mile. The mate being fent out to examine this open¬
ing, reported that it was not more than the length of
the ftiip in breadth, but that there was fmooth water
within. On this it was determined to pu(h into it by
all means. The attempt failed of fuccefs ; as, juft
when they had brought the (hip with great labour to
the mouth of the opening, they found a current fetting
out from it by reafon of the tide now beginning to ebb.
But though their hopes were difappointed in getting
through the opening, they were, by the current ieuing
out from it, driven in a very (hort time to the diftance
of a quarter of a mile from the rocks ; and by dint of
towing and other exertions, they were got by noon to
the diftance of two miles. This temporary deliverance,
however, -afforded but fmall profpeft of being ultimate¬
ly relieved. They had (fill no other expectation than
of being forced back into their former fituation by the
return of the tide ^ but happily they noxv perceived
another opening about a mile to the wtftward. Mr
Hicks the lieutenant being fent to examine this open¬
ing, returned with an account of its being narrow and
hazardous, but capable of being paifed. To this
place therefore the (hip was direfted by every poflible
means ; and a light breeze happening to fpring up,
they fortunately reached it, and were inftantly hurried
through with great rapidity by the current of the re¬
turning tide 5 which, had it not been for this opening,
would undoubtedly have dallied them to pieces againft
the rocks.
From the time they quitted the coaft of New' Hol¬
land till their arrival at Batavia in the illand of Java,
our navigators met with no other danger but what is
common in fea-voyages. They were obliged to ftay
for fome time at this place to repair their damages ;
and on viewing the condition of the (hip, found they
had more realon than ever to admire the manner m
which they had been preferved. Both the falfe-keel
and main-keel were greatly injured ; great part of the
Iheathing was torn off j feveralof the planks were much
damaged, and among thefe there were two, and half of
another, which for fix feet in length were not above
the eighth part of an inch in thicknefs, befides being
penetrated with W'orms quite to the timbers. Here
the crew were exceflively annoyed by ficknefs, which
obliged them to remain much longer than they would
otherwife have done : and it is worthy of notice that
every one of the crew was ill excepting the fail-maker
an old man between 70 and 80 years of age, and who*
was drunk every night. Poor Tupia, with his hoy
Tayeto, fell facrifices to the unhealthinefs of the cli¬
mate, as well as the furgeon, three feamen, and Mr
Green’s fervant. Nor did the evil flop here ; for on
their fetting out from Batavia, the feeds of difeafe
which had been received there broke out in the moft
violent and fatal manner, infomuch that in the courfe
of about fix weeks there died one of Mr Banks’s af-
fiftants, by name Mr Sporing, Mr Parkinfon his na¬
tural hiftory painter, Mr Green the aftronomer, the
boatfwain, carpenter, and mate ; Mr Monkhoufe the
midfliipman, the corporal of the marines, two of the
4 H carpenter’s
Cook.
coo
[ 6,
Cook, carpenter’s crew, and nine feamen. Even the jolly old
■—  fail-maker could now hold out no longer j but whe¬
ther liis death might not in fome meafure be attributed
to his being lefs plentifully fupplied with liquors than
iformerly, might have deferved inquiry. Thefe unfor-
^tunate events probably made a confiderable impreffion
on Mr Cook’s mind ; and perhaps induced him to
dirett his attention to thofe methods of preferving the
health of feamen which he afterwards put in execu¬
tion with fo much fuccefs. After touching at St
He lena, they continued their voyage for England,
where they arrived on the I ith of June I771 • an^
on the 29th of Auguft the fame year, his majefty
teftified his approbation of Mr Cook’s conduct by ap¬
pointing him a captain in the navy. On this occafion
Mr Cook wifhed to have been advanced to the rank of
poft-captain, which, though not more profitable than
the other, is more honourable $ but this being incon-
liftent with the rules of preferment in the navy, the
earl of Sandwich, at that time at the head of the ad¬
miralty, could not agree to it.
Captain Cook was not allowed to remain long in-
a&ive. The idea of a fouthern continent had long
been entertained, and Mr Dalrymple had renewed the
attention of the public towards the queftion, by his
hiftorical colleftion of voyages to the Pacific ocean,
publifhed in two quarto volumes, one in 1770, the
other in 1771. To determine the matter finally, Cap¬
tain Cook was again fent out : and the object of this
Voyage was not merely to fettle the queftion juft men¬
tioned, but to extend the geography of the globe to
its utmoft limits. That the undertaking might be
carried on wfith the greater advantage, it was deter¬
mined to employ two fhips, on the choice and equip¬
ment of which the utmoft attention was beftowed.
The fuccefsful voyage which had already been made
in the Endeavour, luggefted the idea of that fhip be¬
ing a proper model for the two which were to be fent
out and the opinion of Lord Sandwich concurring
with the general idea, two veffels, conftrufted by the
fame peri'on who had built the Endeavour, were pur-
chafed for the voyage. Thefe wrere about 14 or 16
months old at the time they were purchafed ; and, in
the opinion of Captain Cook, were as fit for^ the pur-
pofe as if they had been but newly built. The larger
of the two, of 462 tons burden, w^as named the Refolu-
tion; the fmaller, of 336 tons, had the name of the
Adventure: the complement of men on board the
former, of which Captain Cook was commander, be¬
ing 11 2 •, on the latter, commanded by Mr Tobias Fur-
neaux, 81. In their equipment, every article that
could be fuppofed neceffary, however much out of the
s common line, was procured, and every circumftance
that could be fuppofed to contribute to the fuccefs of
the voyage was attended to in the moft fcrupulous
manner. Befides the ufual ftores and provifions, all
of which were of the beft kinds, the (hips were fur-
nifhed with malt, four-krout, faked cabbage, portable
foup, falop, muftard, marmalade of carrots, beer,^ and
infpiflated wort. Mr Hodges, an excellent landfcape
painter, was engaged to make drawings and paintings
of fuch objefts as required them. Mr John Reinhold
Forfter, with his fon, were both engaged, in order to
explore and colleft the natural hiftory of the countries
through which they palled j and laftly, that nothing
o ] coo
might be wanting to render the voyage as complete as
poflible, Mr William Wales and Mr William Bayley —
were engaged by the board of longitude to make ce-
leftial obfervations. They were furniftied with the
bcft inftruments of every kind, and among the reft
with four time-pieces ; three conftrufted by Mr Ar¬
nold, and one by Mr Kendal on Mr Harrifon’s prin-
ciplcs*
At Plymouth Captain Cook received his inftruc-
tions *, which were not only to fail round the globe,
but to fail round it in'high louthern latitudes, and to
make fuch traverles as might finally relolve the queftion
concerning the fouthern continent. In purfuance Oi
thefe inftrudtions he fet fail on the 13th of July 1772,
and on the 29th of the fame month reached the Ma-
deiras. As he proceeded afterwards in his voyage, he
made three puncheons of beer from the infpiffated wort
carried out along with him, and found it excellently
to anfwer the purpofe, provided the material could
have been kept without fermentation in its infpiflated
itate 5 but as this was found impoflible, the expedient
feems to have failed. In this voyage, however, the
captain ufed with the.greateft fuccefs luch methods as
appeared likely to contribute to the prefervation of the
health of his men. In rainy w'eather, he took care
that the ftiip fliould be aired and dried by means or
fires made between the decks, the damp places were
fmoked, and the people were ordered to air their bed¬
ding, and waflr and dry their clothes, whenever an op¬
portunity offered. Thus he reached the Cape of Good
Hope without having a Angle man fick. Having left
it and kept on his courfe to the fouthward, he oon
began to meet with cold and ftormy weather, by which
he loft aim oft the whole of his live flock of (beep, hogs,
and geefe. The bad effefts of this ftormy weather up¬
on the men were guarded againft by an addition to
their clothing, and giving them a dram on particular
occafions. On the fixth of December, being in the
latitude of 50° 40', he fell in with iftands of ice, and
continued among them in various latitudes till the
17th of January 1773 j when he fet fail for New Zea¬
land, which he reached on the 27th.
The reception of our navigator by the New Zealan¬
ders was now much more friendly than in the former-
voyage, fo that there were no contefts with the na¬
tives ; nor did Captain Cook obferve any one of thole
whom he had feen before, neither was there the
left remembrance of former hoftilities. Haying ftaid
in this country till the 7th of June, our navigators let
fail for Otaheite but during the voyage the crews ot
both fhips were attacked by the feurvy. 1 hofe of tne
Adventure were in a very fickly ftate ; the cook was
dead, and 28 of her bell men incapable of duty. Un
Cook.
board the Refolution matters were much better 5 and
the only reafon that could be conjeftuied or t iC oi
ference was, that the people of the Adventure had
been in a habit of body more inclined to the leurvy
than thefe of the Refolution, and had eaten fewer vege¬
tables. Here it was obferved, that the averfion of lea-
men to a change of diet is fo great, that it can only
be overcome by the Heady and perfever.ng example of
a commander. While he remained at New Zealand,
the captain had difeovered a tree which r®'
fembled the American black fpruce. Perfuaded,
therefore, that it would be attended with effefts
equally
coo
Cook, equally falutary on the health of the people, he em-
v   ployed them in brewing beer from it. This was
done while they continued at Dufky Bay, in order to
fupply the want of'vegetables, which were not to be
procured there j but on removing to Queen Charlotte’s
Sound, they were more fortunate. Captain Cook
himfelf went to look out for antifcorbutic vegetables ;
and returned in a very (hort time with a boat-load of
fcurvy-grafs, celery. &c. Thefe were boiled with the
peas and wheat ; and though fome of the people dif-
liked them at fir ft, they foon became fo fenfible of
their good effeffs, that they cheerfully followed the
example of the reft : and the freedom of the crew from
the fcurvy and other diftempers was by every one at¬
tributed to the New Zealand fpruce beer and vege¬
tables. From this time forward the captain had fcarce
occafion to give orders for gathering vegetables when
they came to any land.
During this voyage Captain Cook experienced ano¬
ther narrow efcape from ftiipwreck. Being becalmed
at the diftance of half a league from a reef of rocks
near Ofnaburgh illand, it was found neceffary to order
out the boats to tow off the Ihips ; but this was found
impoftible. The calm continuing, and the fituation
of our navigators becoming every moment more dan¬
gerous, the captain attempted to get through an
opening in the reef which he had judged praflicable ;
but on approaching it, found that there was not fuf-
ficient depth of water; at the fame time that the
draught of the tide through it forced the (hip thither in
a manner fcarce to be refifted. One of the warping ma¬
chines, with about 400 fathoms of rope, was then or¬
dered out, but did not produce any effeft. They were
within two cables length of the breakers, and no bot¬
tom could be found for calling anchor. Having no
other refource, however, they did drop an anchor;
but before it took hold, the Refolution was ip lefs
than three fathoms water, and ftruck at every fall of
the fea, which broke violently clofe under her ftern,
threatening deftruftion to every one on board. At
laft the tide ceafing to aft in the fame direftion, the
boats were ordered to try to tow off the vefiel; in
which being aflifted by the land-breeze, which fortu¬
nately fprung up at that inftant, they with much la¬
bour fucceeded.
Having fpent a confiderable time in the South Sea
illands, Captain Cook returned to New Zealand, and
from thence fet fail for the fouthern part of the conti¬
nent of America. Here he explored all the iflands in
the neighbourhood, and then returned to England,
where he arrived in fafety on the 30th of July 1774,
having been abfent three years and 18 days; and in all
that time loft only one man, who died of a confump-
tion probably begun before he fet out on the voy-
age.
The reception our navigator now met with was fuit-
ed to his merit. He was immediately railed to the
rank of poft-captain, and foon after unanimoufty elec¬
ted a member of the Royal Society ; from whom he
received the prize of the gold medal for the beft expe¬
rimental paper that had appeared throughout the year.
It was the cuftom of Sir John Pringle, at the delivery
of this medal, annually to make an elaborate difcourfe,
containing the hiftory of that part of fcience for which
the medal was given ; and, as the fubjeft of Captain
GOO
Cook’s paper (the means of preferving the health of Gjok.
feamen) was analogous to the profeflion of Sir John “-v—"
Pringle himfelf as a phyfician, he had the greater op¬
portunity of difplaying his eloquence on the occafion.
The fpeech he made was in the higheft degree honour¬
able to Captain Cook. He remarked, that the fociety
had never more meritorioufty bellowed the medal than
on the perfon who now received it. “ If (fays he)
Rome decreed the civic crown to him who faved the
life of a fingle citizen, what wreaths are due to the
man who, having himfelf faved many, perpetuates in
your Tranlaftions the means by which Britain may
now, on the moll diftant voyages, preferve numbers of
her intrepid fons, her mariners ; wdio braving every
danger, have fo liberally contributed to the fame, to
the opulence, and to the maritime empire of the coun¬
try ?” Thefe honourable teftimonies of the public re¬
gard, however, Captain Cook did not receive, being
already embarked on another voyage, from which he
never returned.
The third voyage of this celebrated navigator was
not undertaken by any exprefs command of his ma-
jefty. Captain Cook had already done fo much, that
it was thought but reafonable he Ihould now fpend the
remainder of his life in quiet; and in order to enable
him to do this in a more comfortable manner, befides
his rank of poft-captain in the navy, he w^as alfo made
a captain in Greenwich. Still, however, there w'ere
fome points in the fcience of geography which had very
much engaged the attention of the public, and were in¬
deed of fuch importance as to become a national con¬
cern. Thefe were to difeover the conneftion between
Alia and America, and to determine whether there was
not a pofiibility of Ihortening the paflage to the Eaft
Indies by failing round the northern parts of the conti¬
nents of Europe and Afia. Many attempts, indeed,
had already been made by various navigators of differ¬
ent nations; but all of them had failed, and, what was
worfe, had left the point Hill undetermined. An aft of
parliament had been pafftd in 1745, by which a reward
of 20,0001. was held out to the (hips of any of his ma-
jefty’s fubjefts for accomplilhing this important voy¬
age, but without mentioning any thing of thofe be-
longing to his majefty ; and this reward was further
confined to the finding out of the north-weft paffage
to the Eaft Indies through HudfonTs bay. In the
year 1776, however, both the errors juft mentioned
were correfted. It was now enafted, “ That if any
{hip belonging to any of his majefty’s fubjefts, or to
his majefty, fhall find out, and fail through, any paf¬
fage by fea between the Atlantic and Pacific oceans,
in any direftion or parallel of the northern hemifphere,
to the northward of the 52d degree of northern lati¬
tude ; the owners of fuch (hips, if belonging to any
of his majefty’s fubjefts, or the commanders, officers,
and feamen, of fuch (hip belonging to his majefty,
fhall receive, as a reward for fuch difeovery, the fum
of 20, oool.
It was not, as has already been hinted, notv deem¬
ed proper to folic.t Captain Cook to undergo frefti
dangers by undertaking a voyage of this kind 5 ne-
verthelefs, as he was univerfally looked upon to be
the fitteft perfon in the kingdom for the purpofe, the
eyes of every one were tacitly fixed upon him : he
was confulted on every thing relating to it, and foli-
4 H 2 cited
[ 6n ]
COO [ 6
cited to name the perfon whom he judged moft proper
to conduct it. To determine this point, Captain Cook,
Sir Hugh Pallifer, and Mr Stephens, were invited to
the houfe of Lord Sandwich to dinner j where, befides
the confideration of the proper officer for conducing
the expedition, many things were faid concerning the
nature of the defign. They enlarged upon its gran¬
deur and dignity, its confequences to navigation and
fcience, and the completenefs it would give to the
whole fyftem of difcoveries •, until at laft Captain Cook
•was fo much inflamed by the representation of the im¬
portance of the voyage, that he ftarted up, and declared
that he wrould conduct it himfelf. This was what the
parties prefent had defired, and probably expefted j
his offer was therefore inffantly laid before the king,
and Captain Cook appointed commander of the ex¬
pedition by the 10th of Feb-ruary 1776. At the fame
time it was agreed, that on his return from the voyage,
he fliould be reftored to his place at Greenw'ich *, and
if no vacancy occurred during the interval, the officer
who fucceeded him was to refign in his favour. The
inftruftions he now received were, that he fhould at¬
tempt the high latitudes between the continents of
Alia and America, and if poffible return to England
along the northern coafts of Afia and Europe. This
w'as moft probably the refult of the captain’s own de¬
liberations, and what had been fuggefted by him to Lord
Sandwich and other people in power. He was parti¬
cularly defired to fail firft into the Pacific ocean through
the chain of newly difcovered iflands which he had
lately vifited. After having croffed the equator, and
paffed into the northern parts of the ocean juft men¬
tioned, he was then to hold fuch a courfe as might
tend to fettle many interefting points of geography,
and produce fome intermediate difcoveries, before he
arrived at the main Scene of operation. With regard
to this principal object, he was ordered, immediately
on his arrival on the coaft of New Albion, to proceed
northward as far as the latitude of 65 degrees, without
lofing any time in exploring creeks or rivers previous
to his arrival in that latitude ; and for his further en¬
couragement,. the act of 1745, offering a premium for
the difcovery of the paffage, wTas amended in the man¬
ner above mentioned. That nothing might be want¬
ing which could promote the fuccefs of the grand ex¬
pedition, Lieutenant Pickerfgill was fent out, in
with directions to explore the coafts of Baffin’s bay ;
and the next year Lieutenant Young wras commiffioned
not only to examine the weftern parts of that bay, but
to endeavour to find a paffage on that fide from the
Atlantic to the Pacific ocean. Nothing, however, was
performed by either of thefe gentlemen which in the
leaft could promote Captain Cook’s fuccefs. Two
veflels were provided as in the former voyage, viz. the
ReSolution and the Difcovery ; the command of the
former being given to Captain Cook, and of the latter
to Captain Charles Clerke. The only thing in which
the appointment of the Difcovery differed from that
of the Re Solution was, that the former had no marine
officer on board. Every degree of attention was be¬
llowed, as in the former voyage, upon the proper
victualling and other neceffaries for the two ffiips;
and that the inhabitants of thofe countries which our
navigator intended to vifit might derive fome perma-
xent benefit from the interccurfe they had with him3
2 ] coo
it was determined to fend abroad a breed of domeftic Cook,
animals, and likewife a quantity of ufeful feeds, to be —v~"
left in proper places. With this view, a bull, two
cows with their calves, and feveral ffieep, with hay and
corn for their fubfiftence, were taken on board ; and
it was likewife propofed to take in others at the Cape
of Good Hope. A large affortment of iron tools and
trinkets was alfo fent out ; and, in Short, every thing
that could be judged proper either to conciliate the
good will of the natives or to prove ferviceable to
them, was provided for the voyage, as well as every
convenience for the fliips companies. In the former
voyage Captain Cook had brought along with him a
native of one of the South Sea iflands, named Omait
who refided in England during the interval between
the fecond and third voyages, and was now happy at
getting an opportunity of returning to his own coun¬
try. Though he could by no means complain of the
entertainment he had met wfith in England, the idea
of returning home loaded with trealure, which might
enable him to make a figure among his countrymen,
foon overcame all uneafy fenfations which the leaving
of his Englifh friends might excite. His majefty had
taken care to furnifh him with every thing that could
poffibly be of ufe when he came to his native country j
and he had befides received feveral valuable prefents
from Lord Sandwich, Sir Jofeph Banks, and feveral
ladies and gentlemen of his acquaintance ; fo that
nothing was omitted which could poffibly be done to
convey, by his means, to the inhabitants of the South
Sea itlands, an idea of the Britifh power and great-
nefs.
Every thing being prepared for the voyage, our na¬
vigator fet fail from the Nore on the 25th of June
1776 j but by reafon of fome delay in receiving his in-
ftrudlions, did not leave Plymouth till the 1 2th of July.
He bad not been long at fea before he began his ope¬
rations for preferving the health of his people j which
were found equally efficacious in this as in the for¬
mer voyage. Finding his flock of provender for the
animals on board likely to run ffiort, he touched at
Teneriff, in order to procure a fupply, having judged
that to be a more proper place than Madeira for the
purpofe. On failing from thence he ran a great rifk
of running upon fome funk rocks on the ifland of
Bonavilta ; but in this, as w’ell as on other occa-
fions of danger, he behaved with the fame judgment,
coolnefs, and prefence of mind, that diftinguifhed him
throughout the whole courfe of his life. On the 12th
of Auguft he arrived before Port Praya, in one of
the Cape de Verd iflands named St Jago; but not
finding it neceffary to go in there, he continued his
voyage to the fouthward. The weather now be¬
coming gloomy, and rainy, required a continuance of
the methods he had already pra&ifed for preferving
the health of his people ; and, as formerly, they were
attended with the greateft luccefs. In this voyage,
the effeft of thefe precautions was the more remark¬
able, as at this time the feams of the veflel were opened
to fuch a degree as to admit the rain, fo that fcarce
any perfon on board could lie dry in his bed j and all
the officers in the gun-room were driven out of their
cabins by the water which came through the fides.
Such was the humanity of the commander, however,
that while the ftfips continued at fea, he would not
truft
COO [6
Cook, truft the workmen over their fides to repair the de-
■"■v"”"” feels, though caulkers were employed in the infide as
foon as fettled weather returned. On the ill of
September our navigators crofled the equator, and on
the 18th of Odlober anchored in Table bay at the
Cape of Good Hope. Here they met with a violent
temped, the effects of which were felt both on fea and
land. It laded three days, and the Refolution was the
only drip in the bay that rode out the dorm without
dragging her anchors. On fhore the tents and obfer-
vatory were dedroyed, and the adronomical quadrant
narrowly efcaped irreparable damage. The Difcovery,
which had been feme time later in failing from Eng¬
land, w?as driven off the coad, and did not arrive till
the xoth of November.
While they remained in this place, a difader happen¬
ed which threatened the lofs of mod of their live dock.
The bulls and twro cows had been put alhore to graze
among other cattle •, but Captain Cook had been advi-
fed to keep the fheep, 16 in number, near the tents,
where they wrere penned in every night. Some dogs
having got in among them in the night-time, killed
four, and difperfed the red. Six of them were reco¬
vered the next day, but the tw7o rams and two of the fi¬
ned ewes in the flock wrere miffing. The captain applied
to Baron Plettenberg the governor ; jffiut all his endea¬
vours w'are unfuccefsful, until he employed fome of the
meaned and low'ed of the people, fellow's whofe cha-
raifler wras, that for a ducatoon they wmuld cut their
reader’s throat, burn the houfe over his head, and bury
him and his whole family in allies. This is mentioned as
an indance how far the beaded policy of the Dutch go¬
vernment at the Cape of Good Hope falls ffiort of its
alleged perfeftion. After all, two of the fined ewes
in the dock were miffing, and never could be recover¬
ed. The captain, therefore, to repair this lofs, and
to make an addition to his original dock, purchafed
two young bulls, two done horfes, twTo mares, two
heifers, two rams, feveral ew'es and goats, with fome
rabbits and poultry 5 when, having finifhed all his bu-
finefs, he fet fail on the 30th of November, though it
uTas not till the 3d of December that, he got clear of
land. Soon after his putting to fea, he had the mif-
fortune to lofe feveral of the goats, efpecially the males,
together with fome fheep ; and it wTas with the utmod
difficulty that the red of the cattle were preferved, by
reafon of the fliip toffing and tumbling about in a very
heavy fea. Having explored fome defolate iflands in the
fouthern feas, Captain Cook fet fail for New Zealand.
During this part of the voyage, our navigators W'ere
involved in fo thick a fog, that, according to the au¬
thors of Captain Cook’s life, “ they failed 300 leagues
in the dark.” The fird land they aftemards reached
was New Hohand*, where having remained till the 30th
of January 1777, they fet fail for New7 Zealand, and on
the 12 th of February they anchored in Queen Charlotte’s
Sound. Here the people were ffiy and timorous, on
account of their having formerly dedroyed 10 of Cap¬
tain Furneaux’s people, who had been fent adiore to
gather vegetables. Thecaufe of the quarrel could not
be known, as none of the party were left alive to tell
the news. Lieutenant Burney, who went afhore in
qued of them, found only fome fragments of their bo¬
dies j from which it appeared that they had been kill-
13 ] coo
ed and eaten by the favages. It w7as not the intention
of Captain Cook, at this didance of time, to refent the
injury ; he even refufed to put to death a chief named
Kahoora, who, as he was informed by the natives them-
felves, had killed Mr Rowe the commander of the par¬
ty. He was, however, particularly careful that no
opportunity drould now be given the favages of com¬
mitting fuch an adlion with impunity ; and with this
view a boat was never fent on diore without being well
armed, and the men under the command of fuch offi¬
cers as could be depended upon. The New Zealanders
were no fooner affured of Captain Cook’s pacific dif-
pofition, than they threw afide their fears and fufpi-
cions, and entered into a commercial intercourfe with
the people. It would have been the lefs excufable in
Captain Cook to have revenged at thL time the maf-
facre of Mr Rowe’s party, 'as he was affured that the
quarrel originated from fome petty thefts of the favages,
w7hich were too haftily refented on the part of the Bri-
tiffi •, and had it not been for this, no mifehief would
have happened.
On the 25th of February our navigator left New
Zealand, taking with him, at the requeft of Omai,
tw7o boys, the eldeft about 18 and the youngeft about
10. Thefe were foon cured of their paffion for tra¬
velling, being both violently fea-fick 5 but as it was
then too late to repent, they expreffed their grief in
loud and almoft continual lamentation ; and this in a
kind of fong which feemed to confift of the praifes of
their native country, whence they were now to be fe-
parated for ever. By degrees, how'ever, the fea-fick-
nefs abated, their lamentations became lefs frequent,
and at laft ceafed entirely ; their native country wras
forgotten, and they appeared to be as firmly attached
to their new friends the Engliffi as if they had been
born among them.
So much time was now fpent in failing up and down
in the Pacific ocean, where feveral new iflands were
difeovered, that Captain Cook judged it impoffible to
accompliffi any thing for this year in the high northern
latitudes *, for which reafon he determined to bear away
for the Friendly ifiands, in order to fupply himfelf
w7ith thofe neceffaries which he had found impoffible
to be got at any of the iflands which he had jutt difeo¬
vered. In his run thither feveral new iflands were vi-
fited ; and in profecuting thefe difeoveries our naviga¬
tor once more narrowly efcaped being ffiipwrecked.
The danger at this time arofe from a low fandy ifland,
which the Refolution was very near running upon*
From this ffie w7as only faved by the circumflance of
all the men having been accidentally called upon deck
to put the veffel about, and mod of them being
at their ftations when the danger was difeovered.
Soon after this both (hips ftruck upon fome funk coral
rocks, but happily w7ere got off without damage.
After a flay of between two and three months,
Captain Cook took leave of the Friendly iflands on the
13th of July 1777; and on the 12th of Augull
reached Otaheite, where he introduced Omai to his
country people, and whofe reception by them is par¬
ticularly related under the next article. Here the
captain found the people of Otaheite ready to engage
in a war with thofe of Eimeo ; but though ftrongly
folicited by the former to affift them in an expedition
COO [ 6
Cook, againft their enemies, he refufed to take any concern
‘ in the affair, alleging, by way of excufe, that the
people of Eimeo had never offended him. This feemed
to fatisfy moft of the chiefs ; but one, named lowha,
was fo much difpleafed, that Captain Cook could ne¬
ver regain his favour. He even threatened, that as
foon as the captain fhould be gone, he would make
war upon Otoo, one of the princes of thefe iflands whom
he knew to be in flrifl friendfhip with him j but from
this he was deterred by the captain’s threatening to
return and chaftife him if he made any fuch attempt.
As a mark of Otoo’s friendfhip, he gave our naviga¬
tor a canoe, which he defired him to carry to the king
of Britain, having nothing elfe, as he faid, worth his
acceptance.
From Otaheite Captain Cook proceeded to Eimeo,
where, on account of fome thefts committed by the
natives, he was obliged to commence hoftilities, by
burning a number of their war canoes, and even (ome
houfes. Thefe tranfaftions gave him much concern j
and the more that he had been fo much folicited to
make war on thefe people by his friends at Otaheite,
to whofe intreaties he had refufed to lilfen. From
Eimeo he proceeded to Huaheine, where he faw Omai
finally fettled, and left with him the twro New Zealand
youths already mentioned. The youngefl of thefe wTas
fo much attached to the Englifh, that it wTas neceifary
to carry him out of the fhip and put him afliore by
force. During his flay on this ifland, the captain was
obliged to punilh a thief wTith greater feverity than he
had ever done before, viz. by caufing his head and
beard to be fhaved, and his ears cut off. Some other
difagreeable tranfa&ions took place, particularly the
defertion of two of his people, who were not recovered
without the greateft difficulty. In the courfe of his
exertions for their recovery, he found it neceffary to
detain the fon, daughter, and fon-in-law, of the chief
of an ifland named Otaha. This had almoft produced
very ferious confequences, the natives having formed
a plot for carrying off Captain Cook himfelf, as well
as Captain Clerke and Mr Gore. With regard to the
commander, they were difappointed by his own cau¬
tion and vigilance ; but MefTrs Clerke and Gore were
in particular danger : and it was only owing to the
circumftance of one of them having a piflol in his hand
as they w-alked together on fhore, that they were not
feized.
Having left the Society iflands, and difcovered
a new group, which in honour of his patron the
earl of Sandw'ich, our commander named the Sand¬
wich IJles, he fet out on the 2d of January 177S on
his voyage northward. In this he was very fuccefs-
fui, ascertaining the vicinity of the continents of Afia
and America, which had never been done, or but very
imperfe£lly, before. From thefe defolate regions he
returned to the ifland of Oonalafhka •, whence, having
refitted and taken in provifions, he returned to the
Southward, and on the 26th of November reached
the Sandwich iflands, where he difcovered a new one
named Mowee, and on the 30th of the fame month
another of much larger extent, named O-why-hee. Se¬
ven weeks were Spent in exploring the coafls of this
ifland ; and during all this time he continued to have
the moft friendly intercourfe with the people, who,
however, appeared to be much more numerous and
I
4 ] coo.
powerful than thofe of any ifland our navigators had Cook,
yet touched at. Several of the chiefs and principal''‘"“V——'
people had attached themfelves greatly to the com¬
mander, and in general the people appeared to be
much moreffioneft in their diipofitions than any whom
he had ever vifited. But by the time he had finifhed
his circumnavigation of the ifland, and caft anchor
in a bay called Karakakooa, matters were greatly al¬
tered. An univerfal difpofition to theft and plunder
had now taken place ; and in this it was evident that
the common people were encouraged by their chiefs,
wffio {hared the booty with them. Still, however, no
hoftilities were commenced: the greateft honours were
paid to the commander $ and, on his going aftiore, he
was received with ceremonies little fhort of adoration.
A vaft quantity of hogs and other provifions wrere
procured for the ffiips •, and on the 4th of February
1779, they left the ifland, not without moft magni¬
ficent prefents from the chiefs, and fuch as they had
never before received in any part of the world. Un¬
luckily they met with a ftorm on the fixth and feventh
of the fame month $ during which the Refolution
fprung the head of her foremaft in fuch a manner that
they were obliged to return to Karakakooa bay to
have it repaired. As they returned, Captain Cook
had an opportunity of (bowing his humanity to the
people, by the relief he afforded to fome of their canoes
which had fuffered in the ftorm. The fame friendly
intercourfe which had formerly been held with the na¬
tives nowr commenced, and Captain Cook was treated
with the ufual honours j but on the 13th of this month
it was unhappily broken off on the following account.
One of the natives being detedted in ftealing the
tongs from the armourer’s forge in the Difcovery, was
difmiffed with a pretty fevere flogging; but this example
was fo far from being attended with any good effedl,
that in the afternoon another, having fnatched up the
tongs and a chiflel, jumped overboard with them and
fwam for the fliore. The mafter and midfhipman were
inftantly difpatched in purfuit of him; but he efcaped on
board a canoe, which paddled away fo quickly that the
cutter could not come near it. A chief named Pareah,
who was at this time on board the Refolution, under-
ftanding wdrat had happened, promifed to go afhore
and get back the ftolen good's ; but before this could
be done the thief had made his efcape into the coun¬
try. Captain Cook, who was at that time afliore,
had endeavoured to intercept the canoe when it land¬
ed, but w’as led out of the way by fome of the' na¬
tives who pretended to be his guides. The tongs and
chiflel, however, were brought back to the mafter as
he advanced to the landing place ; but he being now
joined by fome of the reft of the people in the pin¬
nace, could not be fatisfied with the recovery of the
ftolen goods, but infifted upon having the thief or the
canoe which carried him by w^ay of reprifal. On
his preparing to launch this laft into the wrater, he was
interrupted by Pareah, who infifted that it was his
property, and that he fhould not take it away. As
the officer paid no regard to his remonftrances, Pa¬
reah, who feems to have been a very ftrong man, fei¬
zed him, pinioned his arms behind, and held him
faft by the hair of the head. On this one of the Tailors
ftruck the chief with an oar ; on which, quitting the
officer, he inftantly fnatched the oar out of the man’s
hand,
COO [ 61
hand, and broke it in two acrofs his knee. The In¬
dians then attacked the failors with ftones, and foon
drove them to their boats, to which they were forced
to fwim, as they lay at fome diitance from the (bore.
The officers who could not fwim retired to a fmall
rock, where they were clofely purfued by the Indians;
and here the mailer narrowly efcaped with his life,
till Pareah returned and obliged the Indians to give
over their attacks. The gentlemen, fenfible that Pa-
reah’s prefence alone could prote£f them, entreated
him to remain with them till they could be brought
off in the boats. On his refufal, the mailer fet out to
the place where the obfervatories had been eredled, for
farther affiftance ; but Pareah, who met him, and fuf-
fpe£led his errand, obliged him to return. In the
mean time the multitude had begun to break in pieces
the pinnace, after having taken every thing out of her
that was loofe : on the return of Pareah, however,
they were again difperfed, and fome of the oars re-
ftored, after which the gentlemen were glad to get off
in fafety. Before they reached the ffiip Pareah over¬
took them in a canoe, and delivered the midffiipman’s
cap which had been taken from him in the leuffle ; he
alfo joined nofes with them in token of friendffiip, and
delired to know w'hether Captain Cook would kill him
on account of what had happened. They affured
him that he would not, and made figns of reconcilia¬
tion on their part. On this he left them and pad-
died over to the town of Kavaroah ; and that was the
lalt time that he was feen by the Engliffi. In the night¬
time the fentinels were much alarmed by {hrill and
melancholy lounds from the adjacent villages, which
they took to be the lamentations of the women. Next
day it was found that the large cutter of the Difco-
very had been carried off in the night-time ; on which
Captain Cook ordered the launch and fmall cutter to
go under the command of the fecond lieutenant, and
to lie off the eaft point of the bay in order to intercept
all the canoes that might attempt to get out, and if
neceffary to fire upon them. The third lieutenant of
the Refolution was difpatched to the wellern part of
the bay on the fame fervice ; while the mailer was
lent in purfuit of a large double canoe already under
fail, and making the belt of her way out of the har¬
bour. He foon came up with her, and by firing a
few (hots, obliged her to run on Ihore, and the In¬
dians to leave her. This was the canoe belonging to
a chief named Omca, whofe perfon svas reckoned
equally facred with that of the king ; and to the ne-
glcft of fecuring him w-e may attribute the fucceeding
difaller. Captain Cook now formed the refolution of
going in perfon to feize the king himfelf in his capi¬
tal of Kavaroahand as there was reafon to fuppofe
that he had fled, it was his defign to fecure the large
canoes, which on that account he caufed to be hauled
up on the beach. With this view he left the (hip
about feven o’clock in the morning of Sunday the 14th
of February, being attended by the lieutenant of ma¬
rines, a ferjeant, corporal, and ieven private men.
The crew of the pinnace, under the command of Mr
Roberts, were alfo armed : and as they rowed towards
the Ihore, the captain ordered the launch to leave her
ftation at the cppofite point of the bay, in order to
affilf his ow'n boat. Having landed with the marines
at the upper end of the town, the Indians flocked
5 1 coo
round him, and proftrated themfelves before bim. No
fign of hollility, nor even much alarm, appeared ; the
king’s fons waited on the commander as foon as he
fent for them, and by their means he was introduced
to the king, who readily confented to go on board ;
but in a little time the Indians began to arm thcm-
felves with long fpears, clubs, and daggers, and to
put on thick mats which they ufe as defenfive armour.
This hollile appearance was greatly augmented by an
unlucky piece of news which was juft now brought by
a canoe, viz. that one of the Indian chiefs had been
killed by the people in the Difcovery’s boats. On this
the wjomen, who had hitherto fat on the beach con-
verfing familiarly, and taking their breakfalts, re¬
moved, and a confufed murmur ran through the
crowd. An old prieft now appeared with a cocoa-nut
in his hand, which he held out as a prefent to Captain
Cook, fmging all the while, and making a moft
troublefome noife as if he meant to divert the attention
of the captain and his people from obferving the mo¬
tions of the Indians, who were now everywhere put¬
ting on their armour. Captain Cook beginning to
think his fituation dangerous, ordered the lieutenant
of the marines to march towards the (bore, as he
himfelf did, having all the while hold of the king’s
hand, who very readily accompanied him, attended
by his wife, two fons, and feveral chiefs. The In¬
dians made a lane far them to pals ; and as the di-
ftance they had to go was only about 50 or 60 yards,
and the boats lay at no more than five or fix yards
diftance from land, there was not the leaf! apprehen-
fion of the catallrophe which enlued. The king’s
youngeft fon Keowa went on board the pinnace with¬
out* the leaft hefitation, and the king was about to
follow, when his wife threw her arms about his neck,
and, with the affiifance of two chiefs, forced him to
fit down. The captain might now have fafely got
aboard, but did not immediately relinquiffi the defign
of taking the king along with him. Finding at laft,
however, that this could not be accompliffied with¬
out a great deal of bloodffied, he was on the point of
giving orders for the people to reimbark, when one
of the Indians threw a Hone at him. This infiilt was
returned by the captain, who had a double-barrelled
piece, by a difcharge of fmall fhot from one of the bar¬
rels. This had little effe£t, as the man had a thick
mat before him ; and as he now brandiffied his fpear,
the captain knocked him down with his mulket. The
king’s fon, Keowa, ftill remaining in the pinnace,
the detaining him would have been a great check up¬
on the Indians; but unluckily Mr Roberts, who com¬
manded the pinnace, fet him affiore at his own re-
quelt foon after the firft fire. In the mean time ano¬
ther Indian was obferved in the aft of brandilhing his
fpear at the commander ; who thereupon was obliged
to fire upon him in his own defence. Miffing his
aim, however, he killed one clofe by his fide : upon
which the ferjeant obferving that he had miffed the
man he aimed at, received orders to fire alio, which
he did, and killed him on the fpot. I his repreffed
the foremoft of the Indians, and made them fall back
in a body ; but they were urged on again by thofe be¬
hind, and difcharged a volley of ftones among the ma¬
rines, who immediately returned it by a general dif¬
charge of their muflcets; and this was inftantly follow’-
COO [6
ed by a fire from the boats. Captain Cook expreffed
his aftoniihment at their firing, waved his hand to
them to ceafe, and called to the people in the boats
to come nearer to receive the marines. This order
was obeyed by Mr Roberts; but the lieutenant who
commanded the launch, inftead of coming nearer, put
off to a greater diftance ; and by this prepofterous
condudt deprived the unfortunate commander of the
only chance he had for his life : for now the Indians,
cxafperated by the fire of the marines, rufhed in upon
them and drove them into the water, leaving the cap¬
tain alone upon the rock. A fire indeed was kept up
by both boats } but the one was too far off, and the
other crowded with the marines, io that they could
not direct their fire with proper effeft. Captain Cook
was then obferved making for the pinnace, carrying
his mulket under his arm, and holding his other hand
on the back-part of his head to guard it from the
Hones. An Indian was feen following him, but with
marks of fear, as he flopped once or twice feemingly
undetermined to proceed. At lafl he ftruck the cap¬
tain on the back of the head with a club, and then
precipitately retreated. The latter flaggered a few paces,
and then fell on his hand and one knee, and dropped his
xnufket. Before he could recover himfelf another In¬
dian flabbed him with a dagger in the neck, though
Hill without putting an end to his life. He then fell
into a pool of water knee-deep, where others crowded
upon him : but ftill he flruggled violently wdth them,
got up his head, and looked towards the pinnace as
if foliciting afiiftance. The boat was now above five
or fix yards diftance ; but fuch was the confufed and
crowded ftate of the crew, that no afliftance could be
given him. The Indians then got him under again,
but in deeper water, though he ftill continued to ftrug-
gle, and once more got his head up ; but being quite
fpent he turned towards the rock as if to fupport
himfelf by it, when a favage ftruc'k him with a club,
which probably put an end to his life, as he was never
feen to ftruggle any more. The favages hauled his
lifelefs body upon the rocks, and ufed it in the moft
barbarous manner, fnatching the daggers out of one
another’s hands, in order to have the pleafure of
mangling it. If any thing could add to the misfor¬
tune of this celebrated navigator’s death, it was, that
even his mangled remains were not faved from the
hands of the barbarians. The lieutenant already
mentioned, who, by his removing to a diftance when
he ought to have come on fhore, feemed to have been
the occafion of his death, returned on board without
making any attempt to recover his body ; though it
appeared from the teftimonies of four or five midfhip-
men who arrived foon after at the fatal fpot, that
the beach wras almoft deferted by the Indians, they
having at laft yielded to the continual fire from the
boats. The officer alleged in his own excufe for re¬
moving at firft from the fhore, that he miftook the
fignals •, but be this as it will, the complaints againft
him were fo many and fo great, that Captain Clerke
was obliged publicly to take notice of them, and to
take the depofxtions of his accufers in writing.—Thefe
papers, however, were not found, and it is fuppofed
that the captain’s bad ftate of health had induced him
to deftroy them. After all, we are informed that,
in the opinion of Captain Philips who commanded
6 ] 'COO
the marines, it is very doubtful whether any effe&ual Cook,
relief could have been given to the commander, even 1
if no miftake had been committed on the part of the
lieutenant. The author of all the mifchief was Pa-
reah, the chief already mentioned, who had employ¬
ed people to fteal the boat in the night-time. The
king was entirely innocent both of the theft and the
murder of Captain Cook ; but the latter was perpe¬
trated by fome chiefs who were his near relations.
The chief who firft: ftruck him with a club w^as na¬
med Karimans raha, and he who ftabbed him with the
dagger was called Nooah. The latter, Mr Samwell,
from whofe narrative this account is taken, obferves,
was ftout and tall, had a fierce look and demeanour,
and united in his perfon the two properties of ftrength
and agility more than he had ever obferved in any other
perfon.—Both of them were held in great eftimation by
their countrymen on account of the hand they had in
his death.
By reafon of the barbarous difpofition of the Indians,
it was found impoflible to recover Captain Cook’s body
after the firft opportunity already mentioned was loft. By
dint of threats and negociations, however, fome of the
principal parts were procured wdth great difficulty ; by
which means the navigators were enabled to perform
the laft offices to their much refpedled commander.
Thefe being put into a coffin, and the fervice read
over them, w’ere committed to the deep with the ufual
military honours on the 2ift of February 1779. Soon
after his death a letter wras iffued by M. de Sartine,
fecretary to the marine department of France, and fent
to all the commanders of French fhips, importing,
that Captain Cook fhould be treated as the commander
of a neutral and allied pow’er; and that all captains
of armed veffels w'ho might meet with him, fhould
make him acquainted wdth the king’s orders, but at
the fame time let him know, that on his part he
muft refrain from hoftilities. This humane and gene¬
rous proceeding, with regard to France, originated
from M. Turgot ; but the thought feems firft to have
ftruck Dr Franklin. Thus much at leaft is certain,
that the do£tor, while ambaffador from the United
States, wrote a circular letter to the American naval
commanders fomething to the purport of that already
mentioned ; but in this he was not fupported by Con-
grefs ; for an edi£l was inftantly iffued, that fpecial care
fhould be taken to feize Captain Cook if an oppor¬
tunity of doing it occurred. The Spaniards proceed¬
ed in the fame manner, and both adled on a princi¬
ple equally mean and abfurd, that the obtaining a
knowledge of the weftern coart of America, or vof a
northern paffage into the Pacific ocean, might be at¬
tended with fome bad confequence to their refpedlive
ftates.
Captain Cook was a man of plain addrefs and ap¬
pearance, but well looked, and upwards of fix feet
high. His head was fmall, and he wore his hair,
which was brown, tied behind. His face was full of
expreffion j his nofe exceedingly wrell fliaped 5 his eyes,
which were fmall and of a brown caft, w’ere quick
and piercing ; his eyebrows prominent, which gave
his countenance altogether an air of aufterity. Not-
withftanding this, it was impoflible for any one to ex«
cel him in humanity, as is evident from the whole te¬
nor of his behaviour both to his own people and the
many
COO [ 61
mrvny favage nations with whom he had occafion to in¬
terfere. This amiable property difcovered itfelf even in
the final cataftrophe of his life ; his utmoft care being
direfted to the prefervation of his people, and the pro¬
curing them a fafe retreat to their boats. And it can¬
not be enough lamented, that he who took fo much
care of others, Ihould have perifhed in fuch a miferable
manner for want of being properly fupported by them.
The perfeverance with which he purfued every objeft
which happened to be pointed out as his duty was un¬
equalled. Nothing ever could divert him from what
he had once undertaken ; and he perfevered in the
midft of dangers and difficulties which would have dif-
heartened perfons of very confiderable ftrength and
firmnefs of mind. For this he was adapted by nature,
having a ftrong conftitution, inured to labour, and ca¬
pable of undergoing the greatelf hardffiips. His fto-
mach bore without difficulty the coarfeft and moft
ungrateful food $ and he fubmitted to every kind of
felf-denial with the greateft indifference. To this
ftrength of conftitution he joined an invincible forti¬
tude of mind, of which the circumnavigation of New
Holland, and his voyage towards the South Pole, fur-
niffi innumerable inftances. He was mafter of him-
felf on every trying occafion ; and the greater the
emergency, the greater always appeared his calmnefs
and recolleflion : fo that in the moft dangerous fitua-
tions, after giving proper direftions to his people, he
could fleep foundly the hours that he had allotted to
himfelf. That he poffeffed genius in an eminent de¬
gree cannot be queftioned ; his invention was ready,
and capable not only of fuggefting the moft noble ob-
jeffs of purfuit, but the moft proper methods of at¬
taining them. His knowledge of his own profeffion
was unequalled ; and to this he added a very confider¬
able proficiency in other fciences. In aftronomy, he
became fo eminent, that he was at length enabled to
take the lead in making the aftronomical obfervations
during the courle of his voyages. In general learning
he likewife attained to fuch a proficiency as to be able
to exprefs himfelf with clearnefs and propriety j and
thus became refpeflable as the narrator, as well as the
performer, of great aftions. He w^as an excellent huf-
band and father, fincere and fteady in his friendfihip,
and poffeffed of a general fobriety and virtue of charac¬
ter. In converfation he was unaffefted and unaffum-
ing ; rather backward in puftiing difcourfe, but oblig¬
ing and communicative to thofe who wilhed for infor¬
mation : and he w>as diftinguifhed by a fimplicity of
manners almofl: univerfally the attendant of truly great
men. With all thefe amiable qualities, the captain
w7as occafionally fubjedl to a haftinefs of temper, wffiich
has been fet forth in its utmoft extent, if not exag¬
gerated by fome, though but few, who are not his
friends : but even thefe, as well as others, w'hen taking
a general view of his charafter, are obliged to ac¬
knowledge that he was undoubtedly one of the greateft
men of his age.
Captain Cook is diftinguiffied as an author by an ac¬
count of his fecond voyage written by himfelf. His firft
voyage, as wTell as that of feveral other navigators, had
been recorded by Dr Hawkefworth ; but on the prefent
occafion it was not judged neceffary to have recourfe
to any other than the pen of the author himfelf; and
his journal, with a few occafional alterations, and be-
Vol. VI. Part II.
7 ] COO
ing divided into chapters, was fufficient for the pur-
pofe. The ftyle is clear, natural, and manly •, and it is
not improbable, that even a pen of more ftudied ele¬
gance could not have made it appear to more advan¬
tage. When it appeared, which w'as not till lome time
after the author had left England, the book was re¬
commended by the accuracy and excellency of its
charts, and by a numerous colledlion of fine engravings
done from the original drawings ol Mr Hodges.
We cannot conclude this article without taking fome
notice of the honours paid to our celebrated navigator-
after his death, both by his own countrymen and thofe.
of other nations. Perhaps indeed it may be laid with
juftice, that foreigners hold his memory in an eftima-
tion unequalled even in this country j a remarkable
proof of which occurs in the eulogy upon him by Mi¬
chael Angelo Gianetti, read in the Florentine acade¬
my on the 9th of June 1785, and publiihed at Flo¬
rence the fame year. It is laid alfo, that one of the
French literary academies propofed a prize for the beft
eulogium on Captain Cook ; and many poetical tefti-
monies of his merit appeared in our own language.
The Royal Society of London refolved to teftify their
refpedl to him by a medal, for wffiich purpofe a volun¬
tary fubfcription wras opened. A gold medal was gi¬
ven to fuch of the fellows as fubfcribed 20 guineas,
and a filver one to thofe who fubfcribed fmaller fums ;
and each of the other members received one of bronze.
Thofe who fubfcribed 20 guineas were, Sir Jofeph
Banks prefident, the prince of Anfpach, the duke of
Montague, Lord Mulgrave, and Meffrs Cavendiffi,
Peachey, Perrin, Poli, and Shuttleworth. Many de-
figns were propoled on the occafion •, but the follow¬
ing was that which was aftually ftruck. On one fide
was the head of Captain Cook in profile, wuth this in-
fcription round it, Jac. Cook oceani investigator
ACerrimus ; and on the exergue, Reg. Soc. Lond.
socio suo. On the reverfe is a reprefentation of Bri¬
tannia holding a globe, with this infcription round her.
Nil intentatum nostri liquere; and on the ex¬
ergue, Auspiciis Georgu III. One of the gold
medals ftruck on this occaiion was prefented to the
king, another to the queen, and a third to the prince
of Wales. Another was fent to the French king on
account of the protection he had granted to the (hips ;
and a fecond to the emprefs of Ruffia, in wffiofe domi¬
nions they had been treated with every expreffion of
friendfhip and kindntfs. Both thefe great perfonages
condefcended to accept of the prefent w-ith marks of
fatisfaflion. The French king wrote a handfome let¬
ter to the Society, figned by himfelf, and underligned
by the marquis de Vergennes; and the emprefs of
Ruffia commiflioned Count Ofterman to fignify to Mr
Fitzherbert the fenfe Ihe had of the value of the pie-
fent, and that ffie had caufed it to be depofited in the
mufeum of the Imperial Academy of Sciences. As a
further teftimony of the pleafure ffie derived from it,
the emprefs prefented to the Royal Society a large
and beautiful gold medal, containing on one fide the
effigies of herfelf, and on the other a reprefentation of
the ftatue of Peter the Great. After the general af-
fignment of the medals, which took place in 1784,
there being a furplus of money ftill remaining, it wras
refolved by the prefident and council, that an addition¬
al number of medals ffiould be thrown off, to be dif-
4 I pofed
COO [ 6
(.°ok, pofed of in prefents to Mrs Cook, the eatl of Sand-
Difcoveries. W'.ch’ -Dr ®enjarai>i Franklin, Dr Cook, provolt of
u—King’s College Cambridge, and Mr Planta. At the
fame time it was agreed that Mr Aubert fliould be al¬
lowed to have a gold medal of Captain Cook, on his
paying for the gold, and the expence of linking it,
in confideration of his intention to prefent it to the
king of Poland.
During the two vifits of the (hips at Kamtfchatka,
Major Behm, the commandant of that province, had
bellowed, in the moll liberal manner, every kind of
allillance which it was in his power to bellow 5 and
fuch was the fenfe entertained by the lords of the ad¬
miralty of the kindnefs he had fhowed, that they de¬
termined to make him a prefent of a magnificent piece
of plate, with an infcription expredive of his humane
and generous conduil. The infcription w^as drawn
up by Dr Cook, and afterwards fubmitted to the opi¬
nion and corre6tion of fome gentlemen of the firlt
eminence in claffical talle.
Sir Hugh Pallifer, who had all along difplayed an
uncommon refpe£t and kindnefs for Captain Cook,
likewife difplayed his regard for his memory in a moll
eminent manner. On his ellate in Buckinghamlhire
he conltrudled a fmall building with a pillar, contain¬
ing the character of Captain Cook, which is given at
the end of the introduftion to the lall voyage. This
was drawn up by the honourable Admiral Forbes, ad¬
miral of the fleet, and general of the marines, to whom
Captain Cook was known only by his merit and ex¬
traordinary adlions.
Amidll all thefe expreflions of unavailing praife, it
was not forgotten to Ihow fome effential fervice to the
widow7 and family of our celebrated navigator. A
memorial for a penlion of 200I. per annum was given
in to the king from the commiflioners of his admiral¬
ty, and figned by the earl of Sandwich, Mr Butler,
the earl of Lifburne, Mr Penton, Lord Mulgrave,
and Mr Mann. His majelly complied with the re¬
quell of the memorial, and the grant was paffed through
the ufual forms with all poflible fpeed. By this 200I.
per annum were fettled on the widow during life ; and
25I. a-year on each of her three fons. After her
death the 200I. was to be divided between her chil¬
dren ; a fourth was allotted to Captain King, and the
remaining fourth to Mr Bligh and the reprefentatives
of Captain Clerke.
The lall honour paid to the memory of Captain
Cook was the granting a coat of arms to the family,
which was done by patent on the 3d of September
1785 • anfJ °f this we have the following defcription.
Azure, betw’een the two polar liars: Or, a fphere on
the plane of the meridian, north pole elevated, circles
of latitude for every ten degrees, and of longitude for
every 15 ; fhowing the Pacific ocean between 6o°
and 240° well, bounded on one fide by America, and
on the other by Alia and New Holland ; in memory
of the difcoveries made by him in that ocean, fo very
far beyond all former navigators. His track thereon
is marked with red lines ; and for crelt, in a wreath
of the colour is an arm imbowed, veiled in the uni¬
form of a captain of the royal navy. In the hand is
the union jack, on a llaff proper. The arm is encircled
by a wreath of palm and laurel.
Cgg&’s Difcoveries.—The number of countries dif-
[8 1 coo
covered by Captain Cook, and which had never before Cook’s
been vifited by any European, is very confiderable 5 Difcoveries.
but it was a remarkable property of our celebrated na- v
vigator, that, wherever he touched, every thing rela¬
tive to the place wTas determined with fuch accuracy
and precifion, that all former accounts feemed to go
for nothing, and the difcovery to belong entirely to
Captain Cook. Thus it w7as not unufual with him to
make difcoveries in places already well known ; and
thus his voyages have conveyed a vail fund of know¬
ledge perfectly original. Though the accounts of the
different places, therefore, at which he touched, are
particularly given under their names in the order of
the alphabet, w7e lhall in this article endeavour to
join the whole together in fuch a manner as to give
the reader fome idea of the benefit which has accrued
to fcience from voyages attended not only wdth much
expence and labour, but even wuth the lofs of the ce¬
lebrated navigator’s life.
When he fet out in the Endeavour in the year 1768, Madeira a
the firll place he touched at w7as Madeira. Here Mr volcanic
Banks and Dr Solander, befides fome additions to the^an<^
fcience of botany, difcovered undoubted marks of the
ifland having a volcanic origin. On leaving this place,
they found it neceffary to touch at Rio de Janeiro for
provifions, and, during the run thither, the commander
had an opportunity of determining the caufe of the z
luminous appearance of the fea. On the 29th of Oc- Luminous
tober they oblerved that the water frequently emitted appearance
flaflies like lightning, though much imaller ; but fuch °*
was their frequency, that eight or ten of them were ^animals,
vifible almoft at the fame moment. This appearance
they found, both at this time and afterwards, to arife
from a fmall kind of animal with which the water
abounded. Whilfl flaying at Rio de Janeiro, a melan¬
choly obfervation was made of the prodigious w7afte of
human lives with which the working of the Portu- ?
guefe gold mines w7as attended, no fewer than 40,000 Vaft num*
negroes being annually imported for this purpofe, none btr of ne-
of w’hom, it leems, furvive the labour of the year ; and grocsde-
our navigator was informed, that in 1766 this number fhe work^
was fo far ftiort, that they were obliged to draught ing the gold
20,000 more from the town of Rio itfelf. Proceed- mines,
ing from thence to the fouthern coafls of America, he
had an opportunity of determining a queltion of great
importance to navigation, viz. whether, in failing to Bed paf-
the Pacific ocean, it is better to pafs through the fage into
ftraits ot Magellan, or to double Cape Horn and fail the Pacific
through thofe of Le Maire ? From Captain Cook’s through
voyage it appears, contrary to the opinion of former the ftraits
navigators, that the latter is the preferable paffage. Le Maire.
Through this he wras only 33 days in coming round the
land of Terra del Fuego from the eaft entrance of the
flrait of Le Maire till he had advanced about 1 2 de¬
grees to the weftward, and three and a half to the
northward of Magellan’s ftraits. During all this
time the (hip fcarcely received any damage, though if
he had paffed the other way he could not have accom-
plilhed his paffage in lefs than three months, befides
immenfe fatigue to his people and damage to the (hip.
In thefe ftormy regions, however, he experienced the Exceffive
fame inconveniences felt by ether navigators ; fuch a fiorms and
fea being met with off Cape Diego, that the {hip fre-1 °b* in the
quently pitched her bowfprit under water. Here alfo ^outhein
the excefllve cold and mutability of weather in the{eI<SlCn'°
fouthern
COO • [6
Cook’s fouthern regions was experienced in fuch a manner as
Bifcoveries. hgj nearly proved fatal to fome of the gentlemen who
Y failed along with him. Dr Solander, Mr Banks, Mr
Monkhoufe the furgeon, and Mr Green the aftronomer,
with their attendants and fervants, fet out on a botani¬
cal expedition while the (hip lay at anchor in the bay
of Good Succefs. It was then the middle of iummer,
and the morning on which they fet out was as mild
and warm as it ufually is in the month of May in Eng¬
land : but having afcended a mountain for the purpofe
of botanizing, they were furprifed by fuch florms of
fnow and hail that they could not get back that night.
Dr Solander, who warned them of their danger, that
people when about to perilh with cold were feized with
a violent inclination to deep, was the firft who feemed
likely to fall a viftim to it $ and it was not in the power
of his companions to keep him from fitting down
for that purpofe. He was awakened in a few minutes;
but during this fhort interval his feet had become fo
much diminiftred by the contraction of the veflels, that
6 his (hoes fell off from them when he was again made
Miferable to rife. Even thefe dreary regions, however, are not
irate of the without inhabitants, whom our voyagers juftly conclu-
aatxves. tQ ^ jowefj. 0f human fpecies. Indeed,
confidering the little convenience they have, it is won¬
derful how they can refift the feverity of the climate,
for they are almoft without clothing 5 they dwell in
miferable hovels, which admit both the wind and fnow
or rain ; and they have not any utenfil for dreflrng their
food. Neverthelefs, thefe miferable creatures, as they
appeared to our navigators, feemed to have no wn(h to
poffefs more than they enjoyed ; and they were abfo-
lutely indifferent about every thing that was offered
them, except large beads which they would take as
ornaments. Hence Dr Hawkefworth, w7ho wrote the
account of the voyage, concludes, that thefe people
may be on a level with ourfelves with refpeft to the
^ real happinefs they enjoy.
Wands dif- On the 26th of January 1769 our navigators left
covered be-Cape Horn j and from that time to the firft of March,
Horn'Vnd^6 ^ur'n8 which they run no lefs than 660 leagues, met
Otaheite. with no current by which the (hip was affefted. Hence
it is probable, that during all this time they had never
been near any land, the currents of the ocean being
ufually met with in the neighbourhood of iflands. Se¬
veral iflands, however, were difcovered before they
reached Otaheite, on wThich they beftowed the names
of Lagoon Ifland, Thrumb-cap, Bow liland, the
Groups, Bird Ifland, and Chain Ifland. All thefe
ieemed to be inhabited, and wrere covered with a moft
delightful verdure ; which appeared to the greater ad¬
vantage, as our navigators had for a long time feen no
land but the dreary hills and waftes of Terra del Fue-
go. Having arrived at Otaheite, they fet about ob-
ferving the tranfit of Venus over the fun, which indeed
was the main purpofe for which the voyage had been
undertaken. The anxiety wfliich they underwent when
the time of the expedited phenomenon approached may
eafily be imagined, as the whole depended on the cir-
cumftance of a clear fky, w’hich though more readily to
be expedited in that climate than one more to the north¬
ward, was (till a matter of uncertainty. In confequence
of fome hints which had been given by the earl of
Morton, Captain Cook determined to fend out tw7o par¬
ties to different places to make the obfervations 3 by
8
Tranfit of
Venus ob-
ferved.
19 1 COO
which means there would be a chance of fuccels, even Cook's
if thofe at Otaheite (hould fail. For this purpofe he Ditcovmef,
fent Mr Gore in the long boat to Eimeo, a neighbour- 1""
ing ifland, along with Mr Monkhoufe, Mr Banks, and
Mr Sporing, who were furnilhed with proper inftru-
ments by Mr Green the aftronomer. Meffrs Hicks,
Clerke, Pickerfgill, and Saunders, were lent in the
pinnace to a convenient fpot to the eaftward of the
main obfervatory, where they were likewife ordered to
make obfervations with fuch inftruments as they had.
The day on which the tranfit happened wras the 3d of
June 1769, when they had the fatisfadflion to fee the
fun rife without a cloud 3 and as the weather continued
equally clear throughout the day, there was the beft
opportunity of making the obfervations in a proper
manner. All of them fawr an atmofphere or dulky
cloud round the planet, which difturbed their obferva*
tion, and probably caufed them to differ from each
other more confiderably than they would othervvife
have done. According to Mr Green, the times of
ingrefs and egrefs of the planet were as follow :
Morning.
Firft external contact,
Firft internal contadl, or total immerfion,
Afternoon.
Second internal contaff,
Second external contadf, or end of the 7
tranfit, - J
h.
9
9
25
44
i. fee.
42
4
*4
32
8
10
From thefe obfervations the latitude of the obfer¬
vatory was found to be 170 29' 15*' S. and the longi¬
tude 1490 32' 30" W. of Greenwich. Several curious
remarks were made both on the country itfelf and on p
the inhabitants. Mr Banks, in an excurfion up the Otaheite
country, difcovered many traces of volcanic fire ; the a v°lcanic
ftones, like thofe of Madeira, had evidently the ap- 1^an^’
peaiance of being burnt, and the very clay on the hills IO
had the fame appearance. The natives, though ad-Account of
diffed to thieving, appeared in general harmlel’s and the natives,
friendly, and very ready to fupply the (hip with ne-
ceffaries in exchange for fuch things as they wanted*
The articles on which they fet the greateft value were
hatchets, axes, large nails, fpikes, looking-glaffes, and
beads. They wrere alfo fond of fine linen, whether
white or printed ; but an axe of the value of half a
crorvn would buy more provifions than a piece of cloth
of the value of 20 (hillings. They are very fickle and
inattentive ; fo that it was not poflible to engage them
to pay any regard to the vvorfliip of the Deity which
they faw performed before them 3 nor w-ould they at¬
tend to any explanation of it that was given them-.
They are not, however, deftitute of a religion of their
owm ; and are particularly careful of the repofitories
of the dead, which they will not allow to be violated
on any account. Of this Captain Cook had an in-
ftance, when fome of his people offered to take dowm
an inclofure of one of thefe repofitories. T hey were
violently oppofed by the natives, w-ho fent a meffenger
to acquaint them that they would never fuffer any
fuch thing 3 and the only infult that ever was offered to
an Englilhman by the people of this ifland was on a
fimilar account. From Otaheite our navigators carried
4 I 2 with
Cook’s
J>ifcoverie
COO [ 620 1 C
with them Tupia, formerly high pi left of the country, Cook learned that there
•and prime minifter to Queen Oberea. From his prac¬
tice it appeared, that the priefls of Otaheite, as well as
elfewhere, take care to place themfelves a ftep nearer
the Deity than the common people, and to ufe the de¬
ceptions too frequently put in praftice, by fuch media¬
tors. While on board the Endeavour, he frequently
prayed to his god Tone for a wind ; and according to
his own account never failed of fuccefs. This, how¬
ever, he took care to enfure ; for he never began his
Society
Iflands dif-
covered.
12
Wretched
appearance
of ttie king
of Bolabo-
la.
13
Oheteroa
ifland dif-
covered.
prayers till he perceived the breeze already on the wa¬
ter, and fo near that it muft reach the (hip before they
could wTell be ended. It was obferved likewife of the
people of Otaheite, that they had their bards or min-
llrels, who went about the country with mufical inllru-
ments. The band whom they faw at this time con¬
fided of two players on flutes and three drummers ;
the latter accompanying the flutes with their voices.
Their fongs were made extempore, and the Englifh
themfelves were generally the fubjedf.
From Otaheite our navigators failed towards a neigh¬
bouring ifland named Tethuora ; but finding it fmall,
low, and without any fettled inhabitants, the captain
chofe rather to direft his courfe towards Huaheine and
Ulietea, which he was informed were well inhabited.
Thefe had never been vifited by any European fhip :
but the inhabitants, though peaceable and friendly,
were very flow and cautious in trading, fo that the
captain was obliged to bring out his hatchets to mar¬
ket ; a commodity which he had hoped might have
been concealed from thofe who had never feen an Eu¬
ropean fhip before. On his arrival at Ulietea he found
by the difcourfe of Tupia, that the inhabitants of a
neighbouring ifland named Bolabola were of fuch a
martial difpofition as to be the terror of thofe of Hua¬
heine, Ulietea, and others, infomuch that he appre¬
hended great danger to our navigators fhould they
touch at an ifland which the Bolabola men had lately
conquered. This, however, had fo little effe<5! upon
Captain Cook, that he not only landed on the ifland
already mentioned, but took poffeffion, in his majefty’s
name, of Bolabola itfelf, together with Ulietea, Hua¬
heine, and another named Otaha, which were all vi-
fible at once. During their flay here they paid a vifit
to Opoony, the formidable monarch of Bolabola ;
whom, to their furprife, they found a feeble wretch,
withered and decrepid, half blind with age, and fo
ftupid that he feemed fcarce to be poffeffed of a com¬
mon degree of underftanding. About thefe iflands
they fpent fix weeks, beftowipg upon them the name
of the Society IJles, on account of their being fo near
to each other. They are fix in number, Ulietea, Hua¬
heine, Bolabola, Otaha, Tubai, and Maurna. The
fmaller ones in their neighbourhood are Tethuora, Ei-
meo, Tapoamanao, Oatara, Opururu, Tamou, Toaho-
atu, and Whennuaia.
Leaving the Society Iflands, which are fituated be¬
tween Eat. 16. IO. and 16. 55. S. and between 150.
57. and 152. W. from the meridian of Greenwich, they
fell in with the ifland of Oheteroa, fituated in S. Eat.
22. 27. and W. Long. 150. 47. ; but this was found
to be deftitute of any harbour or fafe anchorage, and
the difpofition of the inhabitants fo hoftile that they
could not by any means be conciliated, fo that no
attempts were made to land. From Tupia Captain
o o
were feveral iflands in the Cook’s
neighbourhood, which our navigator conje£lured to ^‘fcovene5>
be Bofcawen and Keppel’s ifiands, difcovered by Cap- * ’
tain Wallis j but without fpending more time in ex¬
ploring thefe, he fet fail to the fouthward in fearch of
a continent.
Our voyagers left Oheteroa on the 15th of Augufl Comet of
1769, and on the 30th had a view of the comet which \1(>9
appeared that year j its tail fubtending on an angle 0flervc^*
42 degrees. This proved a new fource of apprehen-
fion to Tupia, who inllantly cried out, that as foon as
it was feen at Bolabola, the people of that country
would attack thofe of Ulietea, who would undoubted¬
ly be obliged to fly with precipitation to the mountains
to fave their lives. On the 6th of Oftober they dif¬
covered land, w-hich from its fize, and the enormous
mountains obfervable on it, was fuppofed by the gen¬
tlemen on board to be part of 'lerra SJuflrails incognita ;
but on farther examination it was found to be part of x .
New7 Zealand. Flere the inhabitants were found toThey ar-
fpeak a dialed! of the language of Otaheitc, lo that rive at
they could underftand Tupia, and he them j yet foNew Zea-
extremely hoflile were their diipofitions, that not the!an^’
fmalleft intercourfe could be held with them ; nor
could any thing neceflary for the fhips be procured
excepting wood : fo that the name Captain Cook
thought proper to beflow on this part of the country
was Poverty Bay. By the natives it is called Taoneroa,
and lies in S. Lit. 38. 42. and W. Long. 181. 36.
During the time of his flay in this part of the wan Id
the captain circumnavigated almoft the whole country
of New Zealand, which he found to confifl of two
iflands feparated from each other by a narrow7 flrait,
w7hich, from its difcoverer, has obtained the name of
Cook's Strait. In fome places the diipofition of the in¬
habitants was as favourable as could be wifhed j fothat
Dr Solander, Mr Banks, and other gentlemen, had an
opportunity of exploring the country in fome degree, I(j
with a view to difcover its natural produdlions. In Rock of an
one of their excurfions, as they prfi'ed through a val- extraordi-
ley, the hills on each fide of which were very fleep,nary ^iaPe*
they were fuddenly itruck with the fight of a very ex¬
traordinary natural curiofity. It was a rock perfora¬
ted through its w'hole fubflance, fo as to form a rude
but flupendous arch or cavern, opening diredlly to the
fea. This aperture was 75 feet long, 27 broad, and
41; in height, commanding a view of the bay and the
hills on the other fide, w’hich were feen through it ;
and opening at once on the view, produced an effedt 17
far fuperior to any of the contrivances of art. On Natural
that part of the coaft, which, from having obferved a of
tranfit of Mercury, they named Mercury Bay, oyffers^
were found in fuch plenty, that they might have load¬
ed not only their boats, but even their fhip with them.
They were about the fame fize with thole met with in
this country ; and on account of their being found in
fuch plenty, and likewife that the adjacent country
abounds with conveniences, Captain Cook was at great
pains to point out the fituation of the place. By his
obfervations, the latitude of Mercury bay is 36. 48.
28. S.
Leaving this bay our commander proceeded to ex¬
plore other parts of the country, which by their ac¬
count feems to abound with livers. Tw7o large ones
were met with iu Mercury bay 5 one of which, from
the
COO [62
Cook’s the abundance of oyfters found at its moutb, was call-
Bifcoveriec.ecj Oyjler river; the other they named Mangrove ri-
l" “yer, from the number of mangrove trees growing there.
A third, which they called 'Thames, was met with in
that part called the Bay of lilands, up which they fail¬
ed 14 miles. Its banks were everywhere adorned
with lofty trees, which they had likewife obferved in
other parts of the country. They were too heavy for
mads, but would make the fined planks imaginable j
and as they refembied the pitch pine, the timber of
which is lightened by tapping, the carpenter was of
opinion that they might thus be rendered more pro¬
per for mads than any European timber. One of
thefe trees meafured 19 feet 8 inches in circumference
at the height of fix feet from the ground, and was no
lefs than 89, with very little taper, to the branches ;
fo that the lieutenant fuppofed it mud contain 356
feet of folid timber. In Queen Charlotte’s Sound the
country was little other than one vad fored, with plen¬
ty of excellent water, and the coad abounding w'ith fidi.
As the drip 1 \y at the didance of only a quarter of a
mile from the fhore, they were agreeably entertained
with the finging of an infinite number of fmall birds,
which formed a melody greatly iuperior to any thing
they had ever heard before. The mutic of thele little
choriders feemed, to be like fmall bells, mod exquifitely
tuned, though probably the didance and intervention
of the water had a confiderable effefl in heightening
it. They began to fing about two in the morning,
and continued their fong till funrife, after which they
were filent all the day, refembling in this refpedf the
18 nightingales of our own country.
General yhe time which Captain Cook fpent in exploring the
of[hecoun-COads of New Zealand was not lefs than fix months,
tjy. n Bv his refearches it was drown to confid of two large
iflands, the mod northerly of which is called Eaheino-
mauwe, and the mod foutherly Eovy or Eavai Poe-
nammoo; though it is not certain whether the whole
fouthern id tnd or only a part of it is comprehended un¬
der this name. This id md feems to be barren and
mountainous, but Eaheinomauwe has a much better ap¬
pearance •, and it was umverfally believed by the gen¬
tlemen on board, that all kinds of European grain, as
well as garden plants and fruirs, would ilouridr in the
greated abundance and perfeflion ; and from the ve¬
getables found here it was concluded that the winters
are not more levere than thofe of England, and it was
known by experience, that the dimmer was not hotter,
• though the heat was more equal than in this country.
Here are no quadrupeds except dogs and rats ; and
the latter are fo fcarce, that they efcaped the notice of
many on board. T ie birds are not numerous, and the
gannet is the only one of the European kind that was
obferved. The infeffs are equally fcarce 4 but the lea
makes abundant recompenfe for this fcarcity of land
animals j every creek fwarms w'ith filh, equally delici¬
ous with thofe in this country. The foreds are of vad
extent, and filled with,excellent timber trees ^ the lar¬
ged, draighttd, and cleaned that Mr Cook had ever
feen. There is here one plant which anfwers the pur-
pofes of both hemp and fiax, and excels all others of the
kind that have been met with in any other part of the
world. If the fettling of New Zealand therefore drould
ever be deemed an objefl worthy of the attention of
Great Britain, Captain Cook was of opinion,, that the
ip
Proper
place lor
fettling a
colony
there.
1 ] COO
bed place for edablidiing a colony would be either on Cook’*
the banks of the Thames or in the bay of Blands ; each D't J<:fie?:
of thefe places having the advantage of an excellent
harbour. Settlements might be extended, and a com¬
munication made with the inland parts of the country
by means of the river } -and veffcls eafily conftruff ed
of the excellent timber with which the country every¬
where abounds. 20
The inhabitants of New Zealand are in a very bar-
barous date, and have a degree of ferocity unknown tants>
to the inhabitants of the South fea iflands, though
they feem to have the fame origin. During their re-
fidence there, our navigatois had the molt convincing
evidences of their being cannibals, and accullomed to
devour the bodies of their flain enemies. Notwith-
danding thefe barbarous practices, however, they
feemed to enjoy a date of uninterrupted health. In
all the vifits made to their towns, none was ever per¬
ceived who had the lead bodily complaint, not even
the flighted eruption on the Ikin. This extraordinary
degree of health was likewife manifeded by the eafe
with which their wounds were healed without the Imall-
ed application, as well as by the number of old men^
with which the ifland abounded. Many of thefe, by the '
lofs of their hair and teeth, feemed to be extremely ^
old, but none of them were decrepid } and though in¬
ferior in drength to the young men, they came not
behind them in the lead with regard to cheerfulnefs
and vivacity. The univerfal and only diink of the
New Zealanders is water.
Our navigator had now explored three-fourths of
that part of the globe where the fouthern continent
was fuppofed to lie, without being able to find it j and
his voyage had demondrated, that the lands feen by
former navigators could not have been parts of fuch a
continent, though, as he had never proceeded farther
to the fouthward than 40 degrees, the arguments for it 2r
were not as yet entirely overthrown. Mr Cook, how- Difcove-
ever, did not at this time proceed farther in the fearch
of fuch a continent, but failed from New Zealand to . 0 ~
the coad of New Holland, where he anchored in Bo¬
tany Bay on the 20th of April. Here he found a few
favage inhabitants more barbarous and degenerate than
any that had yet been obferved. Their language was
hardi and diffonant, totally unintelligible even to Tu-
pia : they appeared to have little curiofity, and fet no
value upon any prefent that could be made them. The
mod remarkable circumdance in this country feems to
be its extreme fcarcity of water ; not a fingle dream
of any confequence having ever been obferved by any
navigator. Some were of opinion indeed, that More-
ton’s bay, in S. Lat. 26. 59. and W. Long. 206. 28.
opens into a river j though the only reafon they had
for this opinion was, that the fea looked paler in that
part than ufual, and the land at the bottom part of the
bay could not be feen. At this time, however, the
matter could not be determined by experiment, on
account of the wind being contrary. The icarcity
of water here is the more furprifing, on account of the
vad extent of the country, and likewile its having
abundance of tolerably high hills. In this ifland there
were found many curious plants and animals ; and it 22
was found, that in feveral places the magnetical needle Magnetic
was affe&ed to fuch a degree, as to vary its pofition neenle 'ur-
even to 30 degrees. At one time it varied no lefs
than*
GOO ^ [ 622
Cook’s than two points on being removed to the didance of
1 c°\ nes. only fee^ Some of the loofe ftones being taken up
and applied to the needle produced no effcdt j but Mr
Cook was of opinion that the. whole phenomenon was
to be afcribed to iron ore in fome of the mountains,
and of which traces had been already met with. This
irregularity continued in fome degree even at fea ; for
when the fliip was clofe under Cape Upftart, the varia¬
tion of the needle in the evening of the 4th of June
was 90. eaft, and next morning only 50. 35'. 5 and this
wras in like manner accounted for from iron ore, or
fome magnetical matter below the furface of the
ground. The great illand has many other fmall
ones round it, feveral of which were vifited by our na¬
vigators. One of them, named Engle IJland, feemed to
be inhabited by a monftrous kind of birds, the neft of
one of which meafured no lefs than 26 feet in circum¬
ference, and two feet eight inches in height ; and in
the Philofophical Tranfadfions, vol. xx. there is an ac¬
count of one of thefe nefts ftill larger } but the bird
to which it belonged was not feen. That, which
our navigators faw was built of fticks, and lay upon the
ground.
The country which goes by the name of New Hoi-
ofthe coun-is by far the larged: ifland in the world. Its ea~
Birds nefts
of an im-
rnenfe llze.
24
Vaft extent
25
Separated
by (traits
from New
Guinea.
ftern part, called A^ew South Wales, now firlt explored
by Captain Cook, extends upwards of 2000 miles in
length, if the coaft were reduced to a ftraight line.
Though inhabited, as we have already faid, by very
barbarous favages, their number appears to bear no
proportion to the extent of their territory. The in-
tercourfe they had wdth our navigators was fo fmall,
that they could pick up but a few words of their lan¬
guage. As a Britilh fettlement is now made in that
country, there is no doubt that much more exadt ac¬
counts will foon be obtained than even the diligence
and attention of Captain Cook could colledl on fuch a
tranfient vifit.
In this voyage our navigator, befides exploring the
eaflern part'of the ifland, which had never been done
before, difcovered that it was feparated from the ifland
of New Guinea, to which it had formerly been thought
to join. The two countries are feparated by a ftrait
to which the commander gave the name of Endeavour
Strait. The north entrance of this lies in S. Lat. io.
39. and W. Long. 218. 36. *, the palfage is formed by
the main land and a congeries of iflands to the north,
on which our navigator beftowed the name of Prince
of Wales's IJla nds. T h e fe are very different both in
height and extent ; and the captain was of opinion,
that feveral paffages might be found out among them.
On the coaft of New Holland oppofite to New Guinea
are found cockles of an immenfe fize 5 fome of them
being as much as two men could move, and containing
20 pounds of good meat. In thefe feas, as well as on
the coafts of Brazil, our navigators found the furface of
the water covered with a kind of fcum called by the
failors fea-fpawn. It was examined by Mr Banks and
Dr Solsmder ; but they could determine nothing far-
^ ther than that it was of vegetable origin.
Unaccount- natives of New Guinea wtre fo boflile that no
able me- difcoveries of any confequence could be made. They
thod of the refembled the New Hollanders in ftature, and having
lettinu iff |h°rt croPPed hair. Like them too they were abfo-
gj-ej, lately naked, but fomewhat lefs black and dirty. They
26
Cockles of
vaft fize,
fearlcum,
See.
J COO
had a furprifing method of letting off a kind of fires, Cook’s
exaftly refembling the flalhes of fire-arms, but without h>hc°venev
any explofion. It was not known in what manner v
this wras done, as they were never near enough to
make a particular obfervation. Thofe who difeharged
them had a fhort piece of ftick which they fvvung fide-
wife from them, from which there iffued the fire and
fmoke juft mentioned. This feems to have been in¬
tended as a defiance ; for they had no effedl as offen-
five weapons, and others were armed with bows and
arrows. The country appeared extremely pleafant
and fertile. The place at which they touched lies in
S. Lat. 6. 15. /
As the condition of the Endeavour was now very
much (battered by having failed fo long in thefe dan¬
gerous feas, the commander determined to make the
belt of his way for Batavia in order to refit. In this
voyage he firft paffed two unknown iflands without
touching at either of them. They were fuppofed to
belong to the Aurora iflands ; but if this be the cafe,
the latter muft be laid down at too great a diftance
from New Guinea. The Weafel Ifles, laid down by
former navigators at about 28 or 25 leagues from the
coaft of New Holland, were not feen ; for which reafon
Mr Cook is of opinion that they are erroneoufly laid
down.
Faffing by theTflands of Timor, Timor-lavet, Rot-
ta, and Seman, they next arrived at the ifland of Sa-
vu, where a fettlement had lately been made by the 2g
Dutch. In this voyage they had the fatisfadlion of Aurora
obferving the aurora auftralis, which here feemed toauftralis.
differ in fome refpedls from that in the northern hemi-
fphere. It confifted of a dull reddifti light extend¬
ing about 20 degrees above the horizon ; and though
it varied fometimes in extent, it was never lefs than
eight or ten degrees. From this general mafs of
light there fometimes iffued rays of a brighter colour,
which vanifhed and were renew’ed like thole of the au¬
rora borealis, but without any of that tumultuous mo¬
tion obferved in the aurora borealis. The body of the
light bore S. S. E. from the fliip, and continued with¬
out any diminution of its brightnefs from 10 to 12 at
night.
The middle part of the ifland of Savu lies in 10. 3 J1-Excellent
fouth, and 237. 30. weft longitude, and afforded a moftcharadier
beautiful profpedt from the fliip. The people are re-°‘d*6 inlia"
markable for the purity of their morals, which are faidg^1150^
to be irreproachable, even on the principles of Chrif-
tianity. Though no man is allowed to have more
than one wife, inftances of illicit commerce betwixt
the fexes are fcarcely known among them. Inftances
of theft are likewile very rare; and fo far are they
from revenging a fuppofed injury by murder, that
when any differences arife among them, they are im¬
mediately and implicitly referred to the determination
of the king. They will not even make it the fubjeft
of private debate, left they fhould be proveked to re-
fentment and ill-nature 5 and the delicacy and cleanli-
nefs of their perfons are faid to be proportionable to ^
the purity of their morals. Good ef-
On the arrival of the Endeavour at Batavia, our na-ot the
vigator had an opportunity of obferving the good ef_ electrical
feds of the eledrical chains applied to (hips in fecuring
them from the effeds of lightning. A dreadful ftormfro n the
of thunder happened one evening, during which the- dcTsof
main-mail ^gktmng.
COO [ 623 ] COO
31
Death of
Tupia.
Cook’s tnain-maft of one of the Dutch Eafi: Indiamen was
Dilcoveries. fpijt an<j carried away clofe by the deck, the main-
v top-maft, and top-gallant-maft being fhivered to pie¬
ces. This fhip lay fo neat the Endeavour, that the
latter would probably have lhared the fame fate, had
it not been for the condudling chain which fortu¬
nately was juft put up. The explolion ftiook her like
an earthquake, the chain at the fame time appearing
like a line of fire. The ftroke feemed to have been
directed to the Dutch veflel by an iron fpindle at
the maft head : which pradlice our commander dif-
commends, but ftrongly inculcates the ufe of the elec¬
trical chain.
On their landing at Batavia, Tupia was confined by
ficknefs, fo that he appeared quite lifelefs and dejedted
when put into the boat : but on his arrival at land re¬
covered his fpirits furprifingly. The fcene, to him fo
new and extraordinary, feemed to produce an effedl
fimilar to what is produced by enchantment. His at¬
tention was particularly engaged by the various dreffes
of the people : and being informed that at Batavia
every one appeared in the drefs of his own country, he
expreffcd a defire of likewife appearing in the garb of
Otaheite. Having therefore been furnifhed with South
fea cloth from the fhip, he equipped himfelf with
great quicknefs and dexterity. After the firft How of
fpirits had lubfided, however, he foon began to feel
the fatal effedfs of the climate •, and his boy Tayeto,
whofe fpirits had been ftill more elevated on his ar¬
rival, was attacked with an inflammation of the lungs,
and in a little time fell a vidlim to the difeafe. Tu¬
pia himfelf did not long furvive him, and his death
was not attributed lolely to the unwholefomenefs of
the climate. Having been accuftomed from his in¬
fancy to fubfift chiefly upon vegetable food, and par¬
ticularly on ripe fruit, he had foon contradfed the dif-
orders incident to a fea life, and could fcarce have
been expedied to reach England, even if the un-
wholefome climate of Batavia had been out of the
queftion.
The Endeavour left Batavia on the 27th of De¬
cember 1770, and on the 5th of January 1781 reach¬
ed Prince’s ifland. This place had been formerly
much frequented by the India fliips, but of late en¬
tirely deferted on account of the fuppofed bad quality
of the water ; but this our navigator has difcovered to
be a miftake ; and that, though the water near the
fea is brackifh, it may be had of excellent quality by
going a little way up the country. He is of opinion,
that this ifland is a more proper place for fhips to
touch at than either North Ifland or New Bay, be-
caufe neither of thefe can afford other refrcflrments
which may be had at Prince’s ifland.
3*
Prince’s
ifland, a
proper
place for
fhips to
touch at.
The reft of the voyage affords but little interefting
matter. I he Cape of Good Hope, which was their
next ftage, has been fo fully defcribed by former na¬
vigators that there was little room for addition. At
St Helena the commander made fome remarks on the
rigorous treatment of the flaves, tvhich was reprefent-
ed as worfe than that of the Dutch either at Batavia
or the Cape of Good Hope. In the account of his
fecond voyage, however, this accufation was retraft-
33 eci'
Second Captain Cook’s fecond voyage was undertaken in
voyage, an efpecial manner to determine finally the queftion
concerning the exiftence of a fouthern continent. It Cook’s
commenced in the year 1772 ; and, as in the former, Dlfcovene?*
he proceeded firft to Madeira. From thence he pro- v
ceeded to St Jago, one of the Cape de Verde iflands ;
where an opportunity was taken,;of delineating and gi¬
ving fuch a defcription of Port Praya, and the fupplies
to be there obtained, as might be of ufe to future navi¬
gators. On the 8th of September he crofft-d the line
in 8° weft longitude, and had the fatisfaftion to meet
with good weather, though he had been informed that
he had failed at an improper time of the year, in con-
fequence of which he would probably be becalmed.
From his account, however, it appears, that though in
fome years fuch weather may be expected, it is by no
means univerfally the cafe. In this part of the ocean cajm3s4not
he had alfo an opportunity of obferving the caufe always to
of the luminous property of fea-water, which in hisbefeared
former voyage had been attributed to infetls. Mr For- neaf .
fter being of a different opinion, the matter was again e^Uin° lii"
particularly inquired into, but the refult was entirely ^
conformable to the former determination. Some hue-Luminous
kets of water being drawn up from alongfide the Ihip,quality of
were found to be filled with thofe inledls of a globular i.ea water
form, and about the lize of a fmall pin’s head. No termined!"
life indeed could be perceived in them 5 but Mr Forfter
was thoroughly convinced of their being living ani¬
mals when in their proper element.
Proceeding fouthward in queft of a continent, they ice ^^9.
fell in with ice iflands in S. Lat. 50. 40. and two
degrees of longitude eaft from the Cape of Good
Hope. One of thefe was fo much concealed by the
hazrnefs of the weather, that it could not be feen at
the diftance of more than a mile. Captain Cook judged
it to be about 50 feet in height and half a mile in cir¬
cumference ; its Tides rifing in a perpendicular direc¬
tion, and the fea breaking again!! them with great vio¬
lence. Two days after, they paffed fix others, fome of
which were two miles in circumference and 60 feet in
height; yet fuch was the ftrength and violence of the
waves that the fea broke quite over them. On the 14th
they were flopped by a vaft field of low ice, of which
they could perceive no end. In different parts of this
field there were feen iflands, or hills of ice like thofe
already defcribed, and fome of the people imagined
that they faw land over them j but upon a narrow ex¬
amination this was found to be a miftake. On getting
clear of the field of ice they again fell in with loofe
iflands ; and as it was a general opinion that thefe are
only formed in bays and rivers, our navigators con¬
cluded that they could not be at a great diitance from
land. They were now in the latitude of 550 40' fouth*
and as they had failed for more than 30 leagues along
the edge of the ice without finding any opening, the
captain determined to run 30 or 40 leagues farther to
the eaftward, in hopes of then getting to the fouth¬
ward. If in this attempt he met with no land or other
impediment, his defign was to ftretch behind the ice
altogether, and thus determine the matter at once. In
a (hort time, however, it became evident that the
field of ice along which they had failed fo long, did
not join with any land; and the captain now came to
a relolution of running as far to the weft as the meri¬
dian of Cape Circumcifion. In the profecution of this
defign he met with a very fevere florin, which was
rendered the more dangerous by the pieces of loofe ice
among
coo
[ 62
in the vici
-nity of
land.
38
Irregulari¬
ty of the
magnetic
needle.
Cook’s among which they were ftill entangled, and a vafi;
l)iicovenes 0f could not; perceive the boundaries
about three miles to the northward. Of this they
could not get clear without receiving fome fevere
ftrokes j and after all, when they arrived at the place
where they ought to have found Cape Circumcifion,
it could not be difcovered ; fo that the captain con¬
cluded that what Bouvet took for land could have
been nothing but ice.
’Ice not al- During this run the fallacy of the general opinion
ways found had been difcovered, that the ice with which the polar
regions abound has been formed in the vicinity of
land. It was found likewife, that the water produced
from the melting of ice, even though formed in the
ocean, was perfe&ly fweet -and well tailed. Of this
circumftance the captain took advantage to fupply
himfelf with water ; and gave it as his opinion that it
was the molt expeditious method of wateiirig he had
ever known. He had likewife an opportunity of de¬
tecting another popular error, viz. that penguins, al-
batrofles, and'other birds of that kind, never go far
from land. This indeed may be the cafe in open feas,
but in fuch as are covered with ice it is very different ;
for they then inhabit the ice iflands, and float out with
them to fea to a great diftance.
When in the latitude of 49. 13. S. fome figns of
land were perceived; but as the wind did not admit of
any fearch being made in the direflion where it was
fuppofed to lie, the captain proceeded in his voyage
to the eaftward. A very remarkable alteration in the
direftion of the needle was now perceived, and which
could not be fuppofed owing to the vicinity of any
magnetic matter, as it happened while the fhips were
far out at fea. The circumftance was, that when the
fun was on the ftarboard fide of the fhip the variation
was leaf!, but greatefl: when on the oppofite fide. An
aurora auftralis was again obferved, which broke out in
fpiral or circular rays, and had a beautiful appearance ;
but did not feem to have any particular direflion, be¬
ing confpicuous at various times in different parts of
the heavens, and diffufing its light over the whole at-
mofphere.
The extreme cold and ftormy weather which now
began to take place, determined Captain Cook not to
crofs the antarffic circle a fecond time as he had once
defigned. His obfervations coufirmed the accounts of
former navigators, that the cold of the fouthern feas is
much more intenfe than in equal latitudes in the nor¬
thern hemifphere ; but at the fame time it ftiowed
that this cold cannot be owing- to the vicinity of a con¬
tinent, as had been formerly imagined. On the con¬
trary, it was now determined beyond difpute, that if
anv fuch continent exifted in the eaftern part of the
fouthern ocean, it muff be confined within the latitude
of 60 degrees. No farther difeoveries therefore being
prafticable in higher latitudes, as the winter feafon
was approaching, the commander fleered for New
Zealand, where he anchored in Dufky Bay on the 2 9th
of March, having been at fea 117 days without once
Farther ac-coming in fight of land. Here the time was fpent in
count of procuring proper refrefliments for the people, and ex¬
ploring the fea-coaft and country for the benefit of
future navigators. Nor was our commander unmind¬
ful of the inhabitants. Here he left the five geefe
which yet remained, choofing for them a place where
2
39
Jixtreme
cold of the
fouthern
feas.
40
New Zea¬
land.
4 ] COO
there were no people at the time to difturb them ; and Cook’s
as they had there great plenty of food, he had no doubt D’fcovenes.
of their breeding, and in a fhort time fpreading over ' ' " v '
the country. Some days after a piece of ground was
cleared by fetting fire to the topwood, after which it
was dug up and fowed with garden feeds. Dufky Bay
is fituated in the wertern ifland of New Zealand, called
Tavai Poenammoo, which, as has already been faid, is
lefs fertile than the other. The inland part is full of
rugged mountains of a vaft height : but the fea-coaft
is covered with trees, among which is the true fpruce,
which was found to be of great ufe. It was remark¬
ed, that though a vaft quantity of rain fell during the
time of refidence here, it was not attended with any
bad effefls on the health of the people : which fur-
nifhes an additional argument for the healthinefs of the
place. Dufky Bay is reckoned by Captain Cook to
be the molt proper place in New Zealand for the pro¬
curing of refrefhments, though it is attended with fome
difagreeable circumftances, particularly being infefted
with great numbers of black fand-flies, which were
troublefome to an extreme degree. The natives feen.
at Dufky Bay were apparently of the fame race with
thofe feen in other parts of the country, and led a
wandering life, without any appearance of being uni¬
ted in the bonds of fociety or friendfhip.
From Dufky Bay the captain proceeded to Queen
Charlotte’s Sound, where he met with the Adventure,
which had been feparated from the Refolution for
above 14 weeks. In his paffage thither he had an op-Water
portunity of obferving fix water fpouts, one of which *P0Uts’
palled within 50 yards of the Refolution. It has been
a common opinion, that thefe meteors are diflipated
by the firing of a gun, and the captain was forry he
had not made the experiment ; but he acknowledges,
that though he had a gun ready for the purpofe, and
was near enough, his attention was fo much engaged
in viewing them, that he forgot to give the neceffary
orders.
Having planted another garden in this part of the
country, and left two goats, two breeding fows and a
boar, in as private a fituation as poflible, that they
might be for fome time out of the reach of the natives, ^
the captain fet fail for Otaheite. During the long Difeoveries
abfence of the Adventure, Captain Furneaux had vi- of Captain
fited the coaft of New Holland, and difcovered that Ftuneaux.
there was no probability of Van Diemen’s land being
feparated from it by ftraits: he had likewife found
additional proofs that the natives of New Zealand
were accuftomed to eat human flefh. Captain Cook
nlfo remarked with concern, that the morals of the
New Zealanders were by no means %ended by the
vifit he had formerly paid them. At that time he
looked upon the women to be more chafte than thofe
of moft of the nations he had vifited ; but now they
were ready to proftitute themfelves for a fpikenail,
and the men to force them to fuch an infamous traffic,
•whether agreeable to the inclinations of the females
or not.
In the run from New Zealand to Otaheite, our
commander paffed very near the fituation affigned by
Captain Carteret to Pitcairn’s ifland, difcovered by him
in 1767, but without being able to find it, though a
fight of it would have been ufeful for oorrefting its
longitude as well as that of others in the neighbour¬
hood ;
coo
[ 625 ]
coo
Cook’s hood ; but there was not at prefent any time to fpend
Difcoveries.;n fearching for it. Proceeding farther on in his voy-
v sge, however, he fell in with a duller of iflands fup-
pofed to be the fame difcovered by M. Bougainville;
New iflands and named by him the Dangerous Archipelago, do
tlifcovered. four Qf thefe Captain Cook gave the names of Refo-
lution, Doubtful, Furneaux, and Adventure IJIands. Re-
folution Ifland is fituated in S. Lat. 17. 24. W. Long.
141. 29. Doubtful Ifland in S. Lat. 17. 20. W. Long.
141. 38. Furneaux Hland in S. Lat. 17. 5. W. Long.
143. 16. and Adventure Ifland in S. Lat. 17. 14. and'
44 W. Long. 144. 30.
Miftake No difcovery of any great confequence was made at
concerning tjle Qf Qtaheite or thofe in its neighbourhood,
efoTalieite.excePtinS t^at the caPtain had an opportunity of
correfting the opinion, which till now had prevailed,
of the exceflive diffolutenefs and immodefty of the
women of Otaheite; and which had been enlarged up¬
on by Dr Hawkefworth more than feemed to be con-
fiftent with decency. The charge, however, according
to the accounts of this fecond voyage, is far from be¬
ing indifcriminately true, even of the unmarried females
of the lower clafs. Some additions were made to the
knowledge of the geography of thofe iflands j and
from Huaheine Captain Furneaux took on board of
his Ihip one of the natives of Ulietea named Omai, af¬
terwards fo much fpoken of in England. Captain Cook
at firft appeared diflatisfied with his choice of this
youth, as being inferior in rank to many others, and
having no particular advantage in Ihape, figure, or
complexion j however, he had afterwards reafon to be
better pleafed. During the captain’s refidence at O-
taheite, he ufed his utmoft endeavours to difcover whe¬
ther the venereal difeafe was endemic among them, or
whether it had been imported by Europeans : but in
this he could not meet with any perfedtly fatisfaflory
account, though it was univerfally agreed, that if it
had been introduced by Europeans, it mult have been
by the French under M. Bougainville.
Captain Cook having left Ulietea on the 17th of
September 1773, dire£ted his courfe weftward,, with
an inclination to the fouth. In this courfe he difco¬
vered land in S. Lat. 19. 8. and W. Long 158. 54. to
which he gave the name of Harvey's IJland. From
thence he proceeded to the ifland of Middleburg, wrhere
he was treated in the molt hofpitable manner poflible.
To fuch an excefs did the people carry their genero-
fity, that they feemed to be more fond of giving a-
way their goods than in receiving any thing for them ;
infomuch that many, who had not an opportunity of
coming near the boats, threw over the heads of others
whole bales of cloth, and then retired, w’ithout either
waiting or alking for any thing in return. From Mid-
dleburg he proceeded to Amfterdam ifland, where the
beauty and cultivation of the ifland afforded the moll
enchanting profpeiff. There wTas not an inch of wafte
ground } the roads were no wider than what was ab-
folutely neceffary, and the fences not above four inches
thick. Even this was not abfolutely loft; for many
of thefe contained ufeful trees or plants.
It is obfervable of the ifles of Middleburg and Am¬
fterdam, as w?ell as of moft others in the South fea,
rounded111" t^at are guarded ^rom t^e waves by a reef of
with coral cora^ rochs, which extend about one hundred fathoms
rocks. from the Ihore. Thus they are effe&ually fecured
Vol. VI. Part II.
45
Harvey’s
ifland dif¬
covered.
46
South fea
iflands ge-
from the encroachments of the ocean ; by which they 5 ^
would probably foon be fwallowed up, as moft of them 1 coven^
are mere points in comparifon of the vaft quantity of
water which furrounds them. Here he left a quan¬
tity of garden vegetable feeds and pulfe, wdrich it was
not doubted would be taken care of by the induftrious
inhabitants. In the latt mentioned iflands our naviga¬
tors found no animals but hogs and fowls; the for¬
mer being of the fame kind with thofe ufually feen
in the other iflands of the South fea ; but the latter
greatly preferable, equalling thofe of Europe in their
lize, and even preferable in refpecft: of the goodnefs of
their flelh.
On the 7th of 0<ftober, Captain Cook deft the ifland
of Amfterdam, with a defign to pay another vifit to
New Zealand, in order to take in wood and water for
his voyage in quell of a fouthern continent. The day
after he left Amfterdam he fell in with the ifland of
Pilftart, formerly difcovered by Tafman, and fituated
in S. Lat. 26'. W. Long. 175. 59. thirty-two leagues
diftant from the call end of Middleburg. On his arrival 47
at New Zealand, he exerted himfelf as much as poflible Another
to leave a proper affortment of vegetables and animals ^ditt0 Nevr
for the benefit of the inhabitants. One of the firft/jea,ar
things he did, therefore, was to make a prefent to a
chief, who had come off in a canoe, of a quantity of
the moft ufeful garden feeds, fuch as cabbage, turnips,
onions, carrots, parfneps, and yams ; together with feme
wheat, French and kidney beans and peafe. With
the fame perfon alfo be left two boars, two fows, four
hens, and two cocks. This prefent, however valuable
in itfelf, feems to have been but indifferently recei¬
ved ; for the chief w^as much better fatisfied with a
fpikenail half the length of his arm than with all the
reft ; notwithftanding which, he promifed to take care
of the feeds, and not to kill any of the animals. On
inquiring about thofe animals left in the country in the
former part of his voyage, the captain was informed,
that the boar and one of the fows had been feparated,
but not killed. The other he faw in good condition,
and very tame. The two goats, he was informed, had
been killed by a native of the name of Gaubiah.
The gardens had met with a better fate; all the arti¬
cles being in a very flourifhing condition, though left
entirely to nature, excepting the potatoes. Captain
Cook, howrever, ilill determined to fupply thefe ifland-
ers with ufeful animals, put on Ihore a boar, a young
fow, two cocks, and two hens, which he made a pre¬
fent of to the adjacent inhabitants. Three other fow’S
and a boar, with two cocks and hens, he ordered to
be left in the country without the knowledge of the
Indians. They wrere carried a little way into the
woods, and there left with as much food as would
ferve them for 10 or 12 days, in order to prevent them
from coming down to the coaft in queft of it, and thus
being difcovered. 4^
A fecond feparation from the Adventure had now'Voyage in
taken place; notwithftanding wEich, Captain Cookqueftofa
fet out alone with his veffel in queft of a fouthern con- A|U,herri
tinent; and fuch was the confidence put in him by the corit'u‘entl
failors, that all of them expreffed as much fatisfa&ion
and alacrity as if not only the Adventure, but ever fo
many ftrips had been in company.
On the 26th of November the captain fet fail from
New Zealand; and on the 12th of December began to
4 K fall
coo
[
49
Is flopped
by ice.
Cooks jaIl ;n wIt}1 thg jCC) confiderably farther to the
Southward than they had met with it in the former part
of his voyage ; being now in the Lat. of 62. 10. S.
and 172° W. Long. As they proceeded fouthward,
the number of ice iflands increafed prodigioufly *, and
in Lat. 67. 31. and W. Long. 142. 54. they all at
once got in among fuch a duller of thefe iflands, that
it became a matter of the utmoft difficulty and danger
to keep clear of them. Finding it impoffible, there¬
fore, to get any farther to the louthward at prefent,
the captain determined to explore a confiderable trad
of fea to the north of his prefent fituation, and then
again to Hand to the fouth. But in this he was Hill
unfuccefsful j no land being difcovered either in fail¬
ing northward, ealfward, weftward, or fouthward }
though he proceeded as far in the lad diredion as
71* S. Lat. and 106. 54* W* It wTas now impof-
lible to proceed j and the opinion of the captain him-
felf, as well as of moll of the gentlemen on board, was
that the ice by which they were now Hopped extend¬
ed as far as the pole. As there was Hill room, how¬
ever, in parts of the ocean entirely unexplored, for
very large iflands, our commander determined not to
abandon the purfuit in which he was engaged until
there ffiould not be any poffibility of doing more : and
befides the poffibility of making new difcoveries, he
was confcious that many of the iflands already difco¬
vered were fo obfcurely known, that it was of confe-
quence to pay them a fecond vifit. With this view he
propofed to go in quefi of Eafler or Davis’s ifland j the
fltuation of which was known with fo little certainty,
that none of the attempts lately made to difcover it
had been fuccefsful. He next intended to get within
the tropic, and then to proceed to the wefl, touching
at any iflands he might meet with, and fettling their
fituations, until he Ihould arrive at Otaheite, where it
was neceffary for him to make fome flay in order to
look for the Adventure. It was part of his defign alfo
to run to the weflward as far as Terra Auflral del E-
ipiritu Santo, difcovered by Quiros, and which M.
Bougainville had named The Great Cyclades. From
this land he propofed to fail to the fouthward, and
from thence to the eafl between the latitude of 50°
and 6o°. In the execution of this defign, he deter¬
mined if poffible to reach Cape Horn, during the en-
fuing November, when he would have the befl part of
the fummer before him to explore the fouthern part of
the Atlantic ocean.
In purfuing his courfe to the northward, it had been
part of his defign to find out the land faid to have been
difcovered by Juan Fernandez in about the latitude of
38°; but be was foon convinced, that if any fuch
land exifled, it could only be a very fmall ifland 3 but
the profecution of the defign was for fome little time
interrupted by a violent bilious diforder by which the
^uvuliyc captain was attacked. In this, when he began to re¬
property of cover, as there was no frefh meat on board, he was ob-
dog’sfleih. liged to have recourfe to dog’s flelh ; and a favourite
nnimal belonging to Mr Forfier was facrificed on
the occafion. The captain was able to eat not only
of the broth made of this, but likewife of the fleffi, when
his flomach could bear nothing elfe. On the nth of
March they arrived at Eafler Ifland, before which time
the captain was tolerably recovered. Here they made
but few difcoveries farther than determining the fl-
5°
Nutritive
626 ] COO
tuation of it to be in S. Lat. 27. 5. 30. and W. Cook’s
Long. 109. 46. 20. 1 he illand itfelf was found
barren and deiolate, having every appearance of being v~“ “
lately ruined by a volcanic eruption 5 without either ,T
wood, fuel, or freffi water worth taking on board. The Vifit Eafler
inhabitants were few in number j and the women inifland,
very fmall proportion to the men, but remarkable for
their lewdnefs. A number of gigantic ftatues were
obferved, which had alfo been taken notice of by Com¬
modore Roggewein, and the origin of which could not
be accounted for.
On leaving Eafler Ifland, Captain Cook was again
attacked by his bilious diforder 3 but happily reco-
vered before he reached the Marquefas, which they and the
did on the 6th and 7th of April. One of thefe, Marquefas*
being anew difcovery, received the name oi Hood's
IJland, from the young gentleman by whom it was
firft obferved. Thefe are five in number; fituated
between 9 and 10 degrees of fouth latitude, and be¬
tween 138. 47. and 139. 13. of weft longitude. They
were dil'covered by Mendana a Spaniard ; and their
names are, La Magdalena, St Pedro, La Dominica,
Santa Chriflina, and Hood’s Ifland. The inhabitants
are, without exception, the fineft race of people in the
South fea, furpaffing all others in that part of the
world in the fymmetry of their perfons and regularity
of their features. Their origin, however, from the
affinity of language, vyas evidently the fame with that
of Otaheite. It was in St Chriflina that our comman¬
der anchored ; and he has left particular dire&ions for
finding a particular cove in Refolution bay in that
ifland, which is the moft convenient for procuring wood
and water.
In the pafiage from the Marquefas to Otaheite, our
navigators paffed feveral low and fmall iflands connec¬
ted together by reefs of coral rocks. One of thefe,
named by the inhabitants Tiookea, was vilited by Lieu-Hand3
tenant Cooper. It was difcovered and vifited by Cap-Ticokea.
tain Byron 3 and is fituated in S. Lat. 27. 30. W.
Long. 144. 56. The inhabitants are much daiker in
their complexions, and feem to be of a fiercer difpofi-
tion than thofe of the neighbouring iflands. They
have the figure of a fiffi marked upon their bodies 3 a
very proper emblem of their profeffion, deriving their
fubfiftence almoft entirely from the fea. Faffing by
St George’s iflands, which had been alfo difcovered
and named by Captain Byron, our commander now
difcovered four others, which be named Pallifer's paliifer'3
IJlands. One of thefe is fituated in S. Lat. 15. 26. iflands.
and W. Long. 146. 20. another in S. Lat. 15. 27.
and W. Long. 146. 3. They were inhabited by peo¬
ple relembiing thofe of Tiookea, and like them were
armed with long pikes. Flere our navigator obferves,
that from W. Long. 138° to 148° or 150°, the fea
is fo full of fmall low iflands, that one cannot proceed
with too much caution.
On his arrival in Otaheite, provifions were met with Arrival at
in great plenty ; and they were now very acceptable, Otaheite.
by reafon of the long time the fliip had been at fea
without obtaining any confiderable fupply. Two
goats which had been given by Captain Furneaux to a
chief named O/oo, appeared to be in a very promifing
fituation. The female had brought forth two kids,
which were almoft large enough to propagate 3 and as
ffie was again with kid, there was little doubt that the
ifland
55.
Huaheine,
Ulietea,
Howe
S7,
tlotterdam
ifiand.
COO [
Cook’s ifland would foon be flocked with thefe ufeful ani-
Difcovenes. mals • though it was otherwife with the fheep, all
<< w of which had died except one. On this occafion,
alfo, the captain furniflied the natives with cats, of
which he gave away twenty j fo that there was lit¬
tle danger of the flock of thefe animals decaying.
During his refidence at this time, he had an oppor¬
tunity of making lome computation of the number of
inhabitants on the ifland, which he fuppofed to be no
lefs than 200,000.
Huaheine and Ulietea iflands were next vifited, but
without any remarkable occurrence. From the latter
our commander fet fail on the 5th of June 1774 i an<^
Aland, &c. next day came in fight of Howe ifland, difcovered by
Captain Wallis, and fituated in S. Lat. 16. 46. and
W. Long. 154. 8. On the 16th a new ifland, named
Palmerjlone IJlandy was difcovered in S. Lat. 18. 4.
W. Long. 163. 10. j and, four days after, another was
obferved in S. Lat. 19. l. W. Long. 169. 37. As it
was evidently inhabited, the captain determined to
land $ but found the people fo extremely hoftile, that
no intercourfe could be had : nay, he himfelf was in
danger of lofing his life by a lance thrown by one of
the natives, w’hich paffed clofe over his fhoulder. From
the extreme hoftility of the people of this ifland, it
was named by Captain Cook Savage IJland. It is of
a round Ihape, pretty high, and has deep water clofe
to the fnore, but has no good harbour.
Faffing by a number of fmall iflands, Captain Cook
next anchored at that of Anamocka or Rotterdam,
difcovered by Tafman. It is fituated in 20. 15. S.
Lat. and 174. 31. W. Long. Its form is triangular,
each fide extending about three and a half or four
miles. From the north-weft to the fouth it is encom-
pafled by a number of fmall iflands, fand-banks, and
breakers; of which no end can be feen from the ifland
on the northern fide, and may poflibly be as far ex¬
tended as Amflerdam or Tongataboo. While the
captain remained on this ifland, he learned the names
of more than 20 of the adjacent ifles, fome of w'hich
were in fight between the north-weft and north-eaft.
Two of thefe, which lie more to the weftvvard than
the others, are named Amattafoa and Oghoo. They
are remarkable for their height ; and from a great
fmoke vifible about the middle of Amattafoa, it was
fuppofed to have a volcano. The ifland of Rotterdam,
Middleburg, or Eaoowe, with Pilftart, form a group
extending about three degrees of longitude, and two
of latitude. The whole group was named T'he Friend¬
ly IJlet by Captain Cook, on account of the friendftiip
which feemed to fubfift among the inhabitants, and
their courteous behaviour to ftrangers. The people
of Rotterdam ifland are fimilar to thofe of Amfter-
dam ; but the ifland is not in luch a ftate of high cul¬
tivation as Amflerdam, nor do its fruits come to fuch
perfe&ion. It is alfo inferior in the articles of cloth,
matting, &c. which are accounted the wealth of thefe
parts. \
From Rotterdam ifland our navigator continued his
fcrides vifit-courfe to jjjg leftward, where he firft difcovered a
fmall ifland in S. Lat. 19. 48. W. Long. 178. 2. It
was named Turtle ifland, from the great number of
thefe animals found upon it. Sixteen days after he
fell in with the clufler of iflands named by M. Bou¬
gainville the Great Cyclades. The firft ifland on which
S8 ,
Suppofed
volcano.
59
•New He¬
ed.
627 ] C O 0
he landed was Mallicollo, where, though the people Cobk s ^
were at firft very hoftile, they were foon conciliated,p1 ccntr
and a friendly intercourfe took place. The language
of thefe people is confiderably different from that of
the other South fca iflands j they are diminutive in
their perfons, and of ugly "features 5 their hair black,
or browm, ftiort and curling, but lefs ioft than that of
the negroes. They had no name for a dog in their lan¬
guage, and had never feen the animal; fo that they
were extremely found of a dog and bitch, of which
Captain Cook made them a prefent. The harbour in
this ifland, in which the fhip came to an anchor, was
named Sandwich harbour, and lies on the north-eaft
fide, in S. Lat. 16. 25. 20. E. Long. 167. 57. 53. It
is very commodious for the carrying on any operations
at land, having a good depth of water, and many other
advantages. , ^
The next difeovery was that of the group named sj^pherd'*
Sheepherd's IJles, in honour of Dr Shepherd, Plumian iiles.
profeflbr of aftronomy at Oxford. Numbers more
were every day obferved j of which one peaked rock,
named the Monument, was uninhabited, being appa¬
rently inacceflible to any other creature but bird?.
Sandwich ifland is of a confiderable extent, and exhi¬
bits a moft beautiful profpeft. It is furrounded with
other fmaller iflands, the principal of which were na¬
med Montague and Hinchinbrooke. At Erromango
they found the people hoftile and treacherous j and
from a fkirmifh they had w ith them near a promontory
on the north-eaft point of the Aland it w^as named
Traitor's Head. Its fituation is in S. Lat. 10. 43. E.
Long. 169. 28. 61
From Erromango our navigator proceeded to Tan-Tanna
na, an ifland they had formerly difcovered at a diftance, ^an^*
and which is furrounded by fome others, three of
which are named Immer, Footoona or Erronan, and
Anatom. At Tanna they ftaid for fome time, on account
of their wanting fome quantity of wood. A vol-Volcano,
cano was feen about the middle of this ifland, w'hich
burned with great violence, particularly in moift and
wet wTeather j but notwithftanding the friendly terms
on which they were with the natives, the latter would
never allow them to approach this mountain. There
were fome fpots on the fea-coaft w'hich emitted an hot
and fulphureous fmoke ; and the people alfo expreffed
much uneafinefs when thefe were approached 01 med¬
dled with. The port which the Ihip entered in this
ifland was named Refolution Harbour, and is fituated in
S. Lat. 19. 32. 25t* E* Long. 169. 44. 35. It is a
frnall creek three quarters of a mile long, and about
half as broad. It is extremely convenient, having
plenty of wood and water clofe to the (bore. Among
the vegetable produftions of this ifland, there is realon
to fufpefl the nutmeg tree to be one, a pigeon ha¬
ving been (hot, in the craw of which wTas a wild nut¬
meg. The inhabitants are two diftinft races of peo¬
ple, and fpeak tw’o different languages ; one that of
tbe Friendly iflands, the other peculiar to Tanna and
thofe in the neighbourhood. The people are very Dexterity
expert in the ufe of their weapons;1 on which Mr of the inha*
Wales makes’the following remarks: “I muff:
fefs I have often been led to think the feats w’hich
Homer reprefents his heroes as performing with their
fpears, a little too much of the marvellous to be ad¬
mitted in an heroic poem, I mean when confined
4 K 2 within
bitants in
the ufe of
their lances.
COO [628
Coolc’s within the ftrait flays of Ariftotle ; nay, even fo great
Diicovencs. an a(]vocate fol. as ]yjr p0pe acknowledges them
to be lurprifing j but fince I have feen what thefe
people can do with their wooden fpears, and them
badly pointed, and not of an hard nature, I have not
the leaf! exception to any one paflage in that great
poet on this account. But if I fee fewer exceptions,
I can find infinitely more beauties in him, as he has,
I think, fcarcely an a£tion, circumitance, or defcrip-
tion of any kind whatever relating to a fpear, which I
have not feen and recognifed among thefe people j
as their whirling motion and whiftling noife as they
fly; their quivering motion in the ground when they
fall ; their meditating their aim when they are going
to throw ; and their lhaking them in their hand as they
go along.”
The Archipelago, in which Captain Cook had now
remained a confiderable time, is fituated between 14.
29. and 20. 4. S. Lat. and betw'een 166. 41. and 170.
21. E. Long, extending 125 leagues in the dire&ion
of N. N. W. 4r W. and S. S. E. 4 E. The principal
iflands are the Peak of the Etoile, Terra del Efpiri-
tu Santo, Mallicollo, St Bartholomew, the ifle of Le¬
pers, Aurora, Whitfuntide ifle, Ambrym, Paoom,
Apee, Three Hills, Sandwich, Erromango, Tanna,
Immer, and Anatom. They were firft difcovered in
16o6 by Quiros, who fuppofed them to be part of a
fouthern continent ; nor were they vifited from that
time till the year 1768, when M. Bougainville bellow¬
ed upon them the name of the Great Cyclades, as al¬
ready mentioned. This gentleman, however, befides
landing in the ifle of Lepers, only difcovered that the
country was not connedled, but confifted of iflands.
Captain Cook examined the whole in fuch an accu¬
rate manner, afcertaining the fituation of many of the
iflands, and difcovering fuch numbers of newr ones,
that he thought he had an undoubted right to impofe
a new name upon them, and therefore called them the
^ "New Hebrides.
New . ile - From the New Hebrides Captain Cook fet fail for
donia dif- New7 Zealand, in order to profecute his voyage in
fearch of a fouthern continent, but in three days dif¬
covered a large ifiand, w'hich he named New Caledo¬
nia; and which, next to New Zealand, is the largeft
in the Pacific ocean. It lies between 19. 37. and 22.
30. S. Lat. and between 163. 37. and 167. 14. £.
Long, lying N. W. 4 W. and S. E. \ E. extending
about 87 leagues in that direction, though its breadth
does not anywhere exceed 10 leagues. The natives
are firong, adlive, well made, and feem to be a middle
race between thofe of Tanna and the Friendly ifles;
and the women were more chafle than thofe of the
iflands farther to the eaftward. The ifland afforded a
confiderable variety of plants for the botanifts, and
fome excellent timbers of the fpecies of the pitch pine,
for malls and fpars. The wTood is clofe-grained, white,
and tough ; and very fit for the purpofe. One of the
fmall iflands furrounding the large one was named the
IJle of Pines, from the quantity of thefe trees found
upon it ; and another, from the number and variety of
plants it afforded, had the name of Botany ifland. The
coaft, however, was fo dangerous, that our navigator,
having no more time to fpare, was obliged to leave
fcyme part of it unexplored, though the extent was de¬
termined, as has been already related. MrForfter was
1
coo
covered.
of opinion, that the language of this people is totally Cook's
different from that of any of the other South Sea Difcoveries.
iflands. 1 v  
Proceeding from New Caledonia, our navigator next Norfolk
feil in with an ifland about five leagues in. circumfe-illand.
rence, and of a good height, fituated in S. Lat. 29.
2. 30. and E. Long. 168. 16.; on which he bellowed
the name of Norfolk IJland. It was entirely uninhabit¬
ed. Various trees and plants common at New Zealand
were obferved here, particularly the flax plant, which
is more luxuriant in this ifland than in any part of
New7 Zealand. The chief produce of the ifland is a
kind of fpruce-pine, many of the trees of which are
10 or 12 feet in circumference. The palm-cabbage
likewife abounds here ; and the coalls are well Hocked
with excellent fill). On the 18th of Odlober they ar-
rived at Queen Charlotte’s Sound in New Zealand ; Arrival at
the fituation of which was now afcertained by Mr^ew2ea«
Wales wdth the utmolt accuracy, its latitude being *an<^*
found 41. 5. 564* S. and its longitude 174. 25. 74 E.
On examining the gardens which had been made, it
W’as found that they were in a thriving condition,
though they had been entirely neglected by the natives.
Some of the cocks and hens u'ere fuppofed to be Hill
in exiftence, as anew laid hen’s egg was found, though
none were feen.
On the 10th of November Captain Cook fet fail
from New Zealand in fearch of a fouthern continent;
but having traverfed a vail extent of fea for 17 days,
from S. Lat. 43. o. to 55* 4^* he gave up all thoughts
of finding any more land in this part of the ocean,
and therefore determined to fleer diredlly for the well
entrance of the ftraits of Magellan, with a defign of
coafting the fouthern part of Terra del Fuego quite
round Cape Horn to Le Maire’s Straits. As the
world had hitherto received but very imperfed ac¬
counts of this coafi, he thought a furvey of it would
be of more advantage to navigation and geography than
any thing he could exped to meet with in a higher
latitude. On the 17th of December he reached the
coaft of Terra del Fuego, and in three days m^re an¬
chored in a place to which he gave the name of Chrifi-
mas Sound. The land appeared defolate beyond any
thing he had hitherto experienced. It feems to be
entirely compofed of rocky mountains, without the jgj
leaft appearance of vegetation. Thefe mountains ter¬
minate in horrid precipices, the craggy fummits of
W'hich fpire up to a vaft height ; fo that fcarcely any
thing in nature can have a more barren and lavage
profped than the whole of the country. In the courfe
of his voyage along this coaft, he could not but ob-
ferve, that at ne time bad he ever made one of fuch
length where fo little occurred of an interefting na¬
ture. Barren and dreary, however, as the coaft was,
it was not totally deftitute of accommodations about
Chriflmas Sound. Frefti water and wood for fuel
were found about every harbour ; and the country
everywhere abounds with fowd, particularly geefe.-—
A confiderable number of plants were alfo found upon
it, almoft every fpecies of which was new to the bo¬
tanifts. In palling by Cape Horn, it was wiflitd to
determine whether it belonged to the land of Ter-Remarks
ra del Fuego, or to a fmall ifland fouth from it ; but on a voyaga
this was found impracticable on account of the fog-rouiul
gy weather and dangerous fea. Its latitude wasHorn‘
now
69
Surprifing
concord of
in thefe
parts.
COO
Cook’s now determined to be 55. 58. S. and its
Difcoveries. gy_ ^5. W. The coaft appeared lefs dreary here than
' * on the weftern fide of Terra del Fuego ; for though
the fummits of fome of the hills were rocky, the fides
and valleys feemed covered with a green turf and wood¬
ed in tufts. In pafling this cape a remark, was made
by the captain, that if he were on a voyage round
Cape Horn, to the weft, and not in want of wood or
water, or any other thing which might make it necef-
fary to put into port, he would fail a confiderable way
to the fouthward, fo as to be out of the reach of land
altogether. By this method he would avoid the cur¬
rents, whofe force, he was of opinion, would be broken
at 10 or t 2 leagues diftance from the fhore, and far¬
ther off would be entirely deftroyed. I he extent of
Terra del Fuego, and confequently of Magellan’s
Straits, was found to be lefs than what is commonly
laid down in maps and charts, and the coafts, in gene¬
ral, lefs dangerous than has been ufually reprefented 5
though this muft undoubtedly have been owing in a
great meafure to the weather, which happened to be
remarkably temperate. In one of the fmall iflands
near Staten Land, and which from their being difeove-
the animals recj on new year»s Jay Were called New Year's 1/les,
4* ricklA •' J 1 IT \
a remarkable harmony was oblerved among the ani¬
mals of different fpecies with which thefe defolate re¬
gions abound. The fea-lions occupy the greateft part
of the fea-coaft ; the bears occupy the inland ; the
fhags are ported in the higheft cliffs j the penguins in
fuch places as have the beft accefs to and from the
fea ; and the other birds choofe more retired places.
Occafionally, however, all thefe animals were feen to
mix together like domeftic cattle and poultry in a
farm yard, without one attempting to hurt the other
in the leaft. Even the eagles and vultures were fre¬
quently obferved fitting together on the hills among
the {hags, while none of the latter, either old or
young, appeared to be difturbed at their prefence. It
is probable, therefore, that thefe birds of prey fubfift
by feeding on the carcafes of the animals which die
naturally or by various accidents, and which muft be
very numerous, from the immenfe quantity exifting on
the ifland.
Our navigator now fet out in queft of that extenfive
coaft laid down in Mr Dalrymple’s chart, and in which
is marked the gulf of St Sebaftian j but when he
came into the place where it is fuppofed to lie, neither
land nor any certain figns of it could be met wdth.
Some iflands, however, were difeovered, particularly
Willis’s ifland, in S. Lat. 54. o. W. Long. 38. 23. ;
another named Bird IJland and South Georgia., fituated
between 53. 57. and 54. 57. S. Lat. and between 38.
13. and 35. 34. W. Long. All thefe were covered
with fnow' and ice to a great height. Not a tree
was to be feen, not even a fhrub, nor were there any
rivulets or ftreams of water : the only vegetables to
be met with were a coarfe ftrong-bladed grafs, wild
burnet, and a kind of mofs. A confiderable quantity
of feals and penguins were met with, whofe flefh, though
very coarfe, was preferred by the {hip’s company, even
by Captain Cook himfelf, to the fait provifions, which
were now greatly decayed. The moft foutherly land
difeovered by our navigator was that on which he
bellowed the name of Southern Thu/e, and which is
fituated in S, Lat. 59. 13. 30. W. Long. 27. 45.
Cook’s
Difcoveries.
70
Farther dif¬
coveries in
the fouth-
ern regions.
[ 629 ] COO
longitude This was ftill more defolate than South Georgia, being
forfaken even by the feals and penguins which a-
bounded on it. Not a fingle herb of any kind wms
feen upon it, but vaft high and barren mountain', the
tops of fome of which reached above the clouds ; and
it may be remarked, that this feems to be the only part
of the world, hitherto difeovered, entirely unfit for the
fupport of animal life. ^
Southern Thule was difeovered on the 31ft of Ja-of the ex-
nuary 1775; and from this to the 6th of February iftence of a
feveral other iflands were difeovered, and named
Brifiol, Cape Montague, Saunders's IJles, Candlemas IJles,
and Sandwich's Land. With regard to this laft, Capt.
Cook was undetermined whether it was a group of
iflands or part of a continent lying near the pole, as
after all his difappointments, he was ftill inclined to
think that fuch a continent has an exiftence, on ac¬
count of the vaft quantity of ice met with in the
fouthern feas 5 and which from its great height appears
to be formed in bays and gulfs of the land, and not
in the ocean itfelf. The greateft part of the fouthern
continent, however, if it has any exiftence, muft be
within the polar circle, where the fea is fo incumbered
with ice, that the land muft be inacceflible. So great
is the danger in navigating thefe fouthern feas, that
Captain Cook aflerts on the moft probable grounds in
the wTorld, that fuch lands as lie to the fouthward of
his difcoveries could not be explored 5 and that even
no man would venture farther than he had done.
Thick fogs, fnow-ftorms, intenfe cold, and every thing
that can render navigation difficult or dangerous, muft
be encountered j all which difficulties are greatly
heightened by the inexpreflibly horrid afpeft of the
country itfelf. It is a part of the world doomed by
nature never once to feel the warmth of the fun’s rays,,
but to be buried in everlafting fnow and ice. What¬
ever ports there may be on the coaft, they are almoft
entirely covered with frozen fnow of a vaft thicknefs.
If, however, any of them fhould be fo far open as to
invite a {hip into it, file w'ould run the rifk of being
fixed there for ever, or of coming out in an ice ifland.
To this it may be added, that the iflands and floats on
the coaft, the great falls from the ice-cliffs in the port,,
or a fudden fnow-ftorm, might be attended wdth equal¬
ly fatal effedts. For thefe reafons our commander de¬
termined to abandon the purfuit of a land whofe exift¬
ence was fo equivocal, but whofe inutility, if it fhould
be difeovered, was certain. One thing only remained
to complete what he wifhed to accomplifh, and that 72
was to determine the exiftence of Bouvet’s land. n Voyage in
this inquiry he fpent 16 days j but having run for
of thefe diredtly in the latitude afligned to that land, ja°^et °
and found no appearance of it or of Cape Circumci-
fion, he concluded, that neither of them had any ex¬
iftence, but that the navigators had been deceived by
the appearance of ice-iflands. Twx> days more w7ere
fpent in queft of fome land which had been obferved
more to the fouthward, but with the like bad fuccefs j
after which our commander abandoned all farther
thoughts of fouthern difcoveries, and prepared for re¬
turning to England. On his way home, however, he
determined to direft his courfe in fuch a manner as to
fall in with the ifles of Denia and Marfeveen. Thefe Of the files
are laid down in Dr Halley’s variation chart in lati-ofDenia
tude 41. 30. Si and about 4. o. E. from the meridian ^^ar-
i of *
Cook’s
Difcoveries
74'
Of tke ufe-
fulnefs of
diftilling
fea-water.
75
Third voy
age.
16
Vifits the
ifle of Te-
neriffe.
77
Tea-flirub,
Impregna¬
ted lemon.
. ^ ,
Prince Ed¬
ward’s
iflands dif-
covered.
COO [ 63
of the Cape of Good Hope. None of thefe iflands
could be found ; and therefore our commander, having
very little time to fpare either in fearching for them
or attempting to difprove their exiftence, made the
belt of his way to the Cape of Good Hope, and from
thence to England. In his paffage thither, he vifited
the ifles of St Helena, Afcenfion, and Fernando de
Noronha. An experiment was made on the ufe of the
ftill for procuring frefh water at fea ; the refult of which
was, that though the invention was ufeful upon the
whole, yet it wrould not by any means be advifable to
truft entirely to it. Provided indeed that there was
not a fcarcity of fuel, and that the coppers w?ere good,
as much might thus be procured as would fupport life j
but that no efforts would be fufficient to procure the
quantity neceffary for the prefervation of health, efpe-
cially in hot climates. He was likewife convinced
that nothing contributes more to the health of feamen
than having plenty of frefh water. His laft ftage in
this fecond voyage before his arrival in England was
at Fayal, one of the Azores iflands j and his only de-
fign of flopping here was to give Mr Wales an op¬
portunity of finding the rate of the watches going,
that fo he might be enabled to find the longitude of
thefe iflands with the greater certainty.
■ . In our commander’s third voyage he touched at the
ifland of Teneriffe inflead of Madeira, looking upon
the former to be a better place for procuring refrefh-
ments ; and w^as convinced of the jullnefs of his con¬
jecture by the facility with which provifions of all
kinds were obtained. The air of the country is ex¬
ceedingly healthy, and proper for thofe fubjeft to pul¬
monary complaints. This was accounted for by a
gentleman of the place from the great height of the
ifiand, by which it was in the power of any perlon to
change the temperature of the air as he pleafed ; and
he exprefied his furprife that phyficians, inftead of
fending their patients to Nice or Lifbon, did not fend
them to Teneriffe. From the fame gentleman it was
learned, that the tea flirub grows in that ifland as a
common u'eed, which is conftantly exterminated in
large quantities. 7'he Spaniards, however, fometimes
ufe it as tea, and afcribe to it all the qualities of that
brought from the Eaft Indies. They give it alfo the
name of tea, and fay that it w’as found in the country
when the iflands were firft difcovered. Another bota¬
nical curiofity is the fruit called the impregnated lemon,
which is a perfeCf and diftinCI lemon inclofed wdthin
another, and differing from the outer only in being a
little more globular.
From Teneriffe Captain Cook proceeded to the Cape
of Good Hope, and from thence to the fouthward,
where he fell in wdth two iflands, the larger of which
is about 15 leagues in circuit, and the fmaller about
nine ; their diftance from one another being about five
leagues. The one of tbefe iflands lies in S. Lat. 46.
53. and E. Long. 37. 46. ; the other in S. Lat. 46. 4.
E. Long. 38. 8. As the fhips paffed through between
them, they could not difcern either tree or fhrub upon
any of them, even with the afliftance of their beft
glaffes. The fhore feemed to be bold and rocky, their
internal parts full of mountains, wdiofe fides and fum-
mits were covered with fnow. Thefe two, with four
others, which lie from 9 to 12 degrees of longitude
more to the eaft, and nearly in the fame latitude, had
I
° ] coo
been dffccvered in the year 1772 by Captain Marion Cook’s
du Frefne and Crozet, two French navigators, jn Difloveries.
their paffage from the Cape of Good Hope to the Phi-'    
lippmes. As no names had been affigned to them in
a chart of the Southern ocean communicated to Cap¬
tain Cook, in I775> t1|ie tvvo larger ones were by him
difttr.guifhed by the name of Prince Edward's ijlands,
in honour of his majefty’s fourth fon ; the other four,
with a view' to commemorate the difcoverers, were
called Marion's and Croxet's ijlands. go
. From °ur commander fleered to the foutlward Voyage in
in fearch of Kerguelen’s land, which he had been
ftrufted to touch at, in order to difcover, if poffible ^e,rg,ue-
a good harbour there. In his paffage to it feveral new’1' ^
illands were difcovered ; one, to which Kerguelen had
given the name of the IJland of Rendezvous, Captain
Cook, on account of its flrape, changed to that of
Blight's Cap. It js fituated in S. Lat. 48. 29. E. Defcription
-Long. 08. 40. and is a nigh round rock, inacceflible of that
to all creatures but birds. Next day he fell in with Ker-ifland-
guelen’s land, at firft thought to be a part of the fouth-
ern continent, but afterwards found by Kerguelen
himfelf to be an iftand. The extent of it, however
was not determined either by the French navigator or
by Captain Cook. The former reckons it at 200
leagues in circumference, but Captain Cook eftimates
it at much lefs. Our navigator could not get any ex-
tenfive view of it on account of the foggy weather j
but as far. as could be difcovered, it was barren and
defolate, infomuch that there was neither food nor
covering for cattle of any kind, fo that they would
inevitably perifti if any were left. Even the fea-coafts
were in a great meafure deftitute of filh ; but the
fiiore was covered with innumerable multitudes of
feals, together with penguins and other birds ; all of
which were fo void of fear that any quantity whatever
might be killed without any difficulty. Not a fingle *
tree nor ftirub could be feen, nor a piece of drift w ood
on the fhore ; and herbage of every kind was likewfife
very fcarce. A prodigious quantity of the fea-w^eed call¬
ed by Sir Jofeph Banks fucus gig-anteus, was found in
one of the bays. The whole variety of plants found in
tnis ifland did not exceed fixteen or eighteen fpecies.
The harbour in which our navigator made his longeft
ftay on this defolate coaft was named Port Pallifer,
and is fituated in S. Lat. 49. 3. E. Long. 69. 37. In
this voyage our navigator undoubtedly difplayed fupe-
rior nautical abilities to thofe of M. Kerguelen, who in
turn voyages to the place had never been able to bring
his fhips to anchor on any part of the coaft. g2
From Kerguelen’s land our navigator proceeded to Of Van Di-
the coaft of New Holland, where he now touched atenien’s
the fouthern part called Van Diemen's Land, where heland’
anchored in Adventure bay. Here they found plenty
of wood and w'ater, wflth abundance of grafs, coarfe
indeed, where they went firft afhore, but afterwards
much finer and proper for the cattle. Here, as every¬
where elie, the latitudes and longitudes were fettled
with the greateft exa£tnefs. The bottom of Adven¬
ture bay w?as found to lie in S. Lat. 43. 21. 6. ; E.
Long. 147. 29. The inhabitants vifited them in a
friendly manner, but feemed as ftupid and infenfible as
thofe they had formerly feen. They feemed to be
totally ignorant of the ufe of iron, and fet no value
upon any thing in the ornamental way excepting
beads j
COO [ 631 ] coo
Cook’s beads; nor did they feem to, be acquainted even with
Diic >ver‘"s. ufe of fidi hooks. Here they found the dories of
the ancient fauns and fatyrs living in hollow trees rea¬
lized. Some huts covered with bark, and of a mod
wretched condruftion, were indeed found near the
diore } but the mod commodious habitations were af¬
forded by the Jarged trees. Thefe had their trunks
. hollowed out by fire to the height of fix or feven feet ;
and there was room enough in one of them for three
or four perfons to fit round a hearth made of clay j and
it may judly feem furprifing, that notwithdanding the
extreme violence offered to the vegetative powers of
the tree by forming this habitation, it dill continued
to douridr in confequence of one fide being left entire.
The people, notwithdanding their extreme barbarity,
were fuppofed to proceed from the fame dock with
thofe of the South fea iilands. As in one of their
vifits the natives had feized upon two pigs which had
been brought adrore, apparently with an intention to
kill them, the commander determined to make them a
prefent of thefe animals j though from their excefiive
dupidity and inattention there was no probability of
their allowing them to propagate, if they had been
put diredlly into their hands. To prevent this, Cap¬
tain Cook ordered the two they had attempted to feize,
being a boar and a fow, to be carried about a mile
within the head of the bay, and faw them left by the
fide of a frefh water rivulet. He was prevented from
leaving any other fpecies by a confideration of the bar-
83 barity of the inhabitants.
New Zea From New Holland our navigator proceeded to New
land. " Zealand, where he arrived on the 12th of February
1777, and anchored in Queen Charlotte’s found.
Here he was defirous of leaving a further fupply of a-
nirnds; but the inhabitants had hitherto firown fuch
carelelfnefs about thofe which had been left, that he
. durlt not venture to leave any other than two goats,
a male and a female with kid, and two hogs, a boar
and low. He was informed, however, that one chief
had feveral cocks and hens in his pofiefiion, fo that
there was fome probability of thefe animals being al¬
lowed to multiply ; and as ten or a dozen hogs had at
difterent times been left by Captain Cook, befides
thofe put on fliore by Captain Furneaux, it feems alfo
to be likely that this race of creatures will increafe ei¬
ther in a wild or domeftic ftate, or both. The gar¬
dens had flill been almoft totally neglefted, and foms
of them deftroyed. Thofe which remained, however,
produced cabbages, onions, leeks, purflain, radifhes,
and a few potatoes. Thefe lafl had been brought
from the Cape of Good Hope, and were fo greatly me¬
liorated by the change of foil, that with proper culti¬
vation they feemed to bid fair for excelling thofe of
other countries.
Our navigator’s next courfe was towards the ifiand
of Otaheite ; in the run to which he difcovered the
itland of Mangea, fituated in S. Lat. 22. 57. E. Long.
2° 1. 53. From thence he proceeded to Wateon,
where Omai, now on his way home, recognifed three
of his countrymen, natives of the Society iflands, who
84 had arrived here by the following accident. About
Extraordi- 12 years before, 20 of the natives of Otaheite had
fbrvation'of ^rak.arke^ 'n a canoeJ in order to vifit the neighbour-
fome of the Ufietea. A violent ftorm arofe, which
natives of drove them out of their courfe, and they fuffered in-
Otaheite,
credible hardlhips by famine and fatigue, fo that the Cook’s
greateft part of them perifhed. Four men continued Difcoveries,
hanging by the fide of the veflel for four days after it ^
was overfet, when they were at laft brought within
fight of the people of this illand. The latter imme¬
diately lent out their canoes, and brought them afhore,
treating them afterwards with fo much kindnefs, that
the three who now furvived exprefied no defire of
returning to their own country, though they had now
an opportunity, but chofe rather to remain where
they were. This ifiand is fituated in S. Lat. 20. 1. E.
Long. 201.45. and is about 6 leagues in circumference.
The inhabitants are faid to be equally amiable in their
perfons and difpofitions.
Vifiting a fmall ifiand named Wenooa-ete, or Ota-
kootaia, fituated in S. Lat. 19. 15. and E. Long. 201.
37. our comrtiander found it without inhabitants, though
there were undoubted marks of its being occafionally
frequented. Harvey’s ifiand, which in his former voy¬
age had been defiitute of inhabitants, was now found
to be well peopled ; but the inhabitants fiiovved fuch
an hoftile difpofition that no refrelhments could be pro¬
cured ; for which reafon it was determined to fleer for
the Friendly illands, where there was a certainty of
meeting with an abundant fupply. In his way thither
he touched at Palmerflone ifland, from a fmall ifleftonTmand
near which a lupply of 1200 cocoa nuts was obtain-a proper
ed, befides abundance of filli and birds of various kinds.Place of
Had the ifland been capable of furnifliing water, the retre^1* ^
captain would have preferred it to any of the irihabi-
ted ones for the purpofe of procuring refrefhments, as water,
they could be had in any quantity without moleftation
from the petulance of the inhabitants. As water at
this time happened to be a fcarce article, our naviga¬
tor was obliged to fupply himfelf from the (bowers
v/hich fell, and which afforded as much in an hour as
he could procure by diftillation in a month.
During the time of refidence at the Friendly iflands,
our navigator vifited one named Hepace, at which no
European fhip had ever touched before. Here he was
entertained in a friendly manner, fupplied with refrefh¬
ments, and left fome ufeful animals. Great additions
were made to the geography of thefe iflands, and many
curious remarks made on the inhabitants and natural
produces. It was obferved by Mr Anderfon, that the
people had very proper notions of the immateriality
and immortality of the human foul ; and he thought
himfelf authorized to aflert that they did not worfhip
any part of the vifible creation.
Faffing by a fmall ifland named Toobouai, about fiveR U-
or fix tniles in extent, and fituated in S. Lat. 23. 25.cfOmldTt
E. Long. 210. 37. our navigator now arrived at Ota-Otaheite,
heite. Here Omai met with his relations, fome of
whom received him with apparent indifference ; but
his meeting with an aunt and a fifter was marked with
expreffions of the moft tender regard. It was Hua-
heine, however, that was deftined for the place of O-
mai’s-final refidence, and thither the captain repaired
on purpofe to fettle him. The affair was conduffed
with great folemnity j and Omai brought with him
a fuitable alfortment of prefents to the chiefs, went
through a great number of religious ceremonies,
and made a fpeech, the fubjeft of which had been
diftated to him by Captain Cook. The refult of the fie ^jfet
negociation was, that a fpot of ground was affigned tledat Hu-
him, aheine,
COG [632]
Cooks him, extending about two hundred yards along the hoo, Atooi,
1 acovenes. {hore 0f the harbour, with a proportionable part of
an adjacent hill. I he carpenters of both fhips were
t then employed in conftrufting a houfe for him, in
which he might fecure his European commodities.
At the fame time a garden was made for his ufe, in
which were planted lhaddocks, vines, pine-apples, me¬
lons, and feveral other garden vegetables. Here he
met with a brother, filter, and filter-in-law, by whom
he was very affectionately received ; but it was difco-
■vered with concern, that none of his relations wTere
able to proteCt him in cafe of any attack on his perfon
or property j fo that there was too much reafon to
fear that he would be plundered immediately on the
departure of the Englilh. To prevent this, if poffi-
ble, Captain Cook advifed him to conciliate the fa¬
vour and engage the patronage and protection of fome
of the molt powerful chiefs by proper prefents j at the
fame time that he himfelf took every opportunity of
letting the inhabitants know that it was his intention
to return to the illand again, and if he did not find
Omai in the fame ftate of fecurity in which he left
him, thofe by Whom he had been injured would cer¬
tainly feel the weight of his refentment. About a
fortnight after leaving Huaheine, the captain had a
mefl'age from Omai ; in which he informed him that
every thing went well, only that his goat had died in
kidding, for which he defired another might be fent;
and accompanied this requeH with another for two
s8 axes, which wTere fent along with a couple of kids,
Remarks ^ale and female. On taking his final leave of the So¬
on the Soci-ciety illands, Captain Cook obferves, that it would
ety jflands. have been far better for thefe poor people never to
have knowm the fuperiority of the Europeans in fijch
arts as render life comfortable, than after once being
acquainted with it to be again abandoned to their ori¬
ginal incapacity of improvement •, as, if the intercourfe
betw’een them and us Ihould be wholly difcontinued
they could not be reftored to that happy Hate of me¬
diocrity in which they were found. It feemed to him
that it was become in a manner incumbent on the Eu¬
ropeans to vifit thefe illands once in three or four years,
in order to fupply them with thofe conveniences of
which they have taught them the ufe. It is indeed to
be apprehended, that by the time the iron tools which
were then among them are w'orn out, they will have
forgotten the ufe of their own ; as in this laft voyage it
W'as obferved that the ufe of their former tools was al-
moft totally abolilhed.
Having left the Society illands, Captain Cook now
proceeded to the northward, crofiing the equator on
the 2 id and 23d of December ; and on the 24th dif-
covered a low uninhabited illand about 15 or 20
leagues in circumference. Here the longitude and la¬
titude were exaftly determined by means of an eclipfe
of the fun. The weft fide of it, where the eclipfe was
obferved, lies in N. Lat. 1. 59. E. Long. 202. 30.
From the time of its difcovery it obtained the name of
Chr\ftmas IJland. Plenty of turtle was found upon
it, and the captain caufed the feeds of the cocoa-nut,
yams, and melons, to be planted.
Proceeding ftill to the northward, our navigator
next fell in with five illands, to which he gave the ge¬
neral name of Sandwich ijles, in honour of his patron.
Their names in the language of the country are Woa-
coo
Oneeheeow', Oreehoua, and Tehoora. Cook’s
I hey are fituated in the latitude of 21. 30. and 2 2. 15. Discoveries.
North, and between 199. 20. and 201. 30. E. Long. v-*-'
The longitude was deduced from no fewer than 72 fets
111 n a t* h wj t-xro fric rT ^ « In*.*—iT _ £ _ r *n i •
89
Chriftmas
ifland dif-
cavered.
90
Sandwich
&les.
of lunar obfervations. The largeft of thefe illands is
Atooi, and does not in the leaft referable the other
illands of the South fea formerly vilited by our na¬
vigator, excepting only that it has hills near the
centre, which Hope gradually towards the fea-fide.
The only doraeftic animals found upon it were hogs,
dogs, and fowls. Captain Cook defigned to have
made the inhabitants of this illand a prefent of fome
others ; but being driven out of it by flrefs of wea¬
ther, he was obliged to land them upon a fmaller one
named Oneeheeow. 1 hey were a he-goat with tw'o fe¬
males, and a boar and fow of the Englifti breed,
which is much fuperior to that of the South fea
illands. He left alio the feeds of melons, pumkins,
and onions. The foil of this illand feemed in general
to be poor : it was obfervable that the ground was co¬
vered with Ihrubs and plants, fome of which had a
more delicious fragrancy than had been experienced
before. The inhabitants of thefe illands are much
commended, notwithftanding their horrid cuftom of
eating human flelh. In every thing manufa&ured by
them there is an ingenuity and neatnefs in an uncommon
degree ; and the elegant form and polilh of fome of
their filhing-hooks could not be exceeded by an Euro¬
pean artift, even alfifted by all his proper tools. From
what was feen of their agriculture alfo, it appeared
that they were by no means novices in that art, and
that the quantity and goodnefs of their vegetable pro-
du&ions might with propriety be attributed as much
to their Ikilful culture as to the fertility of the foil.
The language of the Sandwich illes is almoft identi¬
cally the fame with that of Otaheite. CI
Proceeding farther to the northward, our navigators American
difcovered the coaft of New Albion on the 7th of March coaft difco-
1778. Its appearance was very different from that 0fvered*
the countries with which they had hitherto been conver-
fant. The land was full of mountains, the tops of which
were covered with fnow j while the valleys between
them, and the grounds on the fea-coaft, high as well
as low, were covered with trees, which formed a beau¬
tiful profpect as of one vaft foreft. The place where
they landed was fituated in N. Lat. 44. 33. E. Long.
235. 20. At firft the natives feemed to prefer iron
to every other article of commerce ; but at laft they
ftiowed fuch a predile&ion for brafs, that fcarcely a bit
of it was left in the flaps except what belonged to the
neceffary inftruments. It was obferved alfo, that thefe
people were much more tenacious of their property
than any of the favage nations that had hitherto been
met with, infomuch that they would part neither with
wood, water, grafs, nor the moft trifling article, with¬
out a compenfation, and weie fometimes very unrea-
fonable in their demands ; with which, however, the
captain always complied as far as was in his power.
The place where the Refolution was now anchored
was by our navigator called £7 George's Sound, but he found,
afterwards underftood that the natives gave it the name
of Nootka. Its entrance is fituated in the eaft corner
of Hope Bay, in N. Lat. 49. 33. E. Long. 233. 12.
The climate, as far as they had an opportunity of ob- 93
ferving it, was much milder than that on the eaftern Mildnefs of
toaft the climate.
coo
[ 633 ]
coo
Cook’s
Difeoveries,
94
Natives ac.
tjuainted
with the
ufe of me¬
tals.
.
Prince
William’s
iound.
9$
•Cook’s ri¬
ver.
coaft of the American continent in the fame parallel of
latitude } and it was remarkable that the thermometer,
even in the night, never fell lower than 420, while in
the day-time it frequently rofe to 6o°. T he trees met
with here are chiefly the Canadian pine, white cyprefs,
■and fome other kinds of pine. There feemed to be a
fcarcity of birds, which are much haraffed by the natives,
who ornament their clothes with the feathers, and uie
the flefli for food. The people are no ftrangers to the
ufe of metals, having iron tools in general ufe among
them ; and Mr Gore procured two filver fpoons of a
conftru&ion fimilar to what may be obferved in fome
Flemifh piftures, from a native who wore them round
his neck as an ornament. It is mofl: probable that
thefe metals have been conveyed to them by the w^ay
of Hudfon’s bay and Canada : nor is it improbable
that fome of them have been introduced from the
north-weftern parts of Mexico.
While Captain Cook failed along this coaft, he kept
always at a dlftance from land when the wind blew
ftrongly upon it j whence feveral large gaps were left
unexplored, particularly between the latitudes of 50°
and 550. The exadt fituation of the fuppofed ftraits
of Anian wTas not afcertained, though there is not the
leaft doubt, that if he had lived to return by the fame
wTay in 1779, he would have examined every part
with his ufual accuracy. On departing from Nootka
found, our navigator firfl: fell in writh an ifland in N.
Lat. 59. 49. E. Long. 216. 58. to which he gave the
name of Kay's Ijland. Several others were difcovered
in the neighbourhood 9 and the ftiip came to an an¬
chor in an inlet named by the captain Prince William's
found. Here he had an opportunity of making feveral
obfervations on the inhabitants, as tvell as on the na¬
ture of the country. From every thing relative to the
former, it was concluded, that the inhabitants were of
the fame race with the Efquimaux or Greenlanders.
The animals were much the fame with thefe met with
at Nootka, and a beautiful Ikin of one animal, which
feemed to be peculiar to the place, was offered to fale.
Mr Anderfon was inclined to think that it was the fame
to which Mr Pennant has given the name of the cafan
marmot. The alcedo, or great king’s-fifher, was found
here, having very fine and bright colours. The hum¬
ming bird alfo came frequently, and flew about the
fhip when at anchor j though it is fcarce to be fuppo¬
fed that it can live throughout the winter on account
of the extreme cold. The water-fowl were in confi-
derable plenty ; and there is a fpecies of diver which
feemed to be peculiar to the place. Almoft the only
kinds of fifli met with in the place were torfk and ho-
libut. The trees were chiefly the Canadian and fpruce
pine, fome of which were of a confiderable height and
thicknefs. The found is judged by Captain Cook to
occupy a degree and a half of latitude and two of
longitude, exclufively of its arms and branches, which
were not explored. There was every reafon to believe
that the inhabitants had never been vifited by any Eu¬
ropean vejfel before ; but our navigator found them
in polfeflion not only of iron but of beads, which it is
probable are conveyed to them acrofs the continent
from Hudfon’s bay.
Soon after leaving Prince William’s found, our
navigators fell in with another inlet, which it was
expefted would lead either to the northern fea or to
Vol. VI. Part II.
Hudfon’s or Baffin’s bay ; but upon examination it Cook’s
was found to end in a large river. This was traced P fcoveri(''
for 210 miles from the mouth, as high as N. Latitude
61. 30. and promifes to vie with the mofl; confiderable
ones already known, as it lies open by means of its
various branches to a very confiderable inland com¬
munication. As no name was given by our comman¬
der to this river, it wras ordered by Lord Sandwich to
be named Cook's river. The inhabitants feemed to
be of the fame race with thofe of Prince William’s
found ; and like them had glafs beads and knives ;
they were alfo clothed in very fine furs 5 fo that it
feemed probable that a valuable fur-trade might be
carried on from that country. Several attempts have
accordingly been made from the Britifn fettlements in
the Eaft Indies to eftablifli a traffic of that kind •, but
little benefit accrued from it except to the proprietors
of the firft veffel, her cargo having greatly lowered
the price of that commodity in the Chinefe market. It
muft be obferved, that on the weftem fide cf the Ame¬
rican continent, the only valuable {kins met with are
thofe of the lea-otter 5 thofe of the other animals,
efpecially foxes and martens, being of an inferior qua¬
lity to fuch as are met with in other parts.
Proceeding farther to the northward, our navigators They fall ia
now fell in with a race of people who had evidently Wlth the i-
been vifited by the Ruffians, and feemed to have adopt-
ed from them fome improvements in drefs, &c. In tjje Ruf.
the profecution of this part of their voyage, it appeared flans,
that they had been providentially conveyed in the dark
through a paffage fo dangerous, that our commander
wmuld not have ventured upon it in the day-time.
They were nowr got in among thofe ifiands which had
lately been difcovered by Captain Beering and other
Ruffian navigators, and came to an anchor in a har¬
bour of Oonalalhka, fituated in N. Lat. 53. 55. E.
Long. 193. 30. Here it was remarked that the inha¬
bitants had as yet profited very little by their inter-
courfe with the Ruffians 5 fo that they did not even
drefs the filh they ufed for their food, but devoured
them quite raw%
From Oonalaflika our navigator proceeded again to¬
wards the continent, which he continued to trace as far
as poffible to the northward. In N. Lat. 54. 48. 9%
E. Long. 195. 45. is a volcano of the fhape ofA volca116,
a perfect cone, having the crater at the Very fummit.
On the coaft farther to the north the foil appears very
barren, producing neither tree nor fhrub, though the
lower grounds are not deftitute of grafs and feme
other plants. To a rocky point of confiderable height,
fituated in N. Lat. 58. 42. E. Long. 197. 36. our
commander gave the name of Cape Newnham.
Here Mr Anderfon, the furgeon of the Refolution*
died of a confumption, under which he had laboured for
more than twelve months. Soon after he had breathed
his laft, land being feen at a diflance, it was named sdn-
derfon's if and; and on the 9th of Auguft the (hip an¬
chored under a point of the continent, which he na-
med Cape Prince of Wales. This is remarkable for be- CapePrince
ing the moft wefterly point of the American continentot Wales'
hitherto known. It is fituated in N. Lat. 65. 46. ico
E. Long. 191. 45. It is only 39 miles diftant from the v*c‘n*ty.
eaftern coaft of Siberia j fo that our commander had ^tsof A-
the pleafure of afeertaining the vicinity of the two fia anci a-
continents to each other, which had only been imper- merica.
4 L feftly
COO [ 634 ] coo
Cook’s fe&ly done by the Ruffian navigators. Setting fail
from .this point next day, he fleered to the welt and
north, when he toon fell in with the country of the
Tfchutfki, which had been explored by Beering in
1728. Here he had an opportunity of correcting M.
Stoehlin’s map, who had placed in thefe feas an ima¬
ginary ifland, on which he beflowed the name of A-
/ajchha. Being convinced that the land he had now
reached w?as part of the Afiatic continent, our com¬
mander direCted his courfe eaftward, in order to fall
in with that of America j and on the 17th reached
the latitude of 70. 33. and E. Long. J97. 41. Here
they began to perceive that brightnefs in the horizon
called by mariners the blink of the ice ; and in 70. 41.
101 they had got quite up to it, fo that no farther pro-
Thetr pro- grefs could be made,. Next day they made a fhift to
ward ftop- 8et as *ar as 70, 44 J but the ice was now as compaCt
j>ed by ice. as a wall, and about ten or twelve feet in height. Its
furface was extremely rugged, and farther to the
northward appeared much higher. Its furface was
covered with pools of water •, and great numbers of
fea-lions lay upon it, whofe flelh they were now glad
to ufe as food. Our commander continued to tra-
▼erfe the Icy fea till the 29th j but the obftruClions
becoming every day greater and greater, it was
thought proper to give over all further attempts of
finding a paffage to Europe for that year. He did
not, however, omit the inveftigation of the Afiatic
and American coafls until he had fully afcertained the
accuracy of Captain Beering’s accounts as far as he
went, and corrected the errors of M. Stoehlin. Great
additions were thus made to the geographical know¬
ledge of this part of the globe *, and Mr Coxe obferves,
that “ it refleCts no fmall honour upon the Britifli
name, that our great navigator extended his difcoveries
much farther in one expedition, and at fo great a dif-
tance from the point of his departure, than the Ruf¬
fians accompliftied in a long feries of years, and in
to2 parts belonging or contiguous to their own empire.”
Arrival^at encj 0f celebrated navigator’s difcoveries,
k®11 " however, was now at hand. .From Beering’s ftraits
he failed for Oonalaflika, where he arrived on the
2d of OCtober, and ftaid for fome time in order to
repair his (hips. While the carpenters were employed
in this work, one-third of the people had permiffion
to go on fhore bv turns, in order to gather berries,
■with which the ifland abounds, and which, though
now beginning to decay, were of great fervice, in con¬
junction with the fpruce-beer, to preferve the people
from the fcurvy. Such a quantity of fifli was like-
wife procured, as not only ferved to fupply the {hips
for the prefent, but likewife allowed a great number
to be carried out to fea ; fo that hence a confiderable
faving was made of the provifions of the (hips, which
was an article of very confiderable confequence. On
the 8th of the month our commander received a very
Angular prefent from fome ptrfons unknown, by the
hands of an Oonalaflika man named Dcrramoufhi. It
confifted of a rye-lo&f, or rather a falmon-pye in the
form of a loaf, and highly feafoned with pepper. This
man had the like prefent for Captain Clerke, and each
of them was accompanied with a note which none on
board could underftand : a few bottles of rum, with
fame wine and porter, were fent in exchange : it be¬
ing fuppofed that fuch a prefent would be more accep- Cook’s
table than any other thing that could be fpared. Cor- ^ikoveries.
poral Lediard of the marines, an intelligent man, was
at the fame time direCled to accompany Derramouftik,
for the purpofe of gaining a more fatisfaftory account
of the country. On the tenth of the month he re¬
turned with three Ruffian feamen or furriers, who with
feveral others refided at Egoodhac, where they had
a dwelling-houfe, fome ftore houfes, and a floop about
30 tons burden. One of thefe people was either ma¬
iler or mate of the velfel, and all of them were very
fober and decent in their behaviour. The greateft dif¬
ficulty arofe from the want of an interpreter; for
which reafon the converfation w7as . carried on by figns.
However, the captain obtained a fight of two fea-
charts, both of wdiich he was allowed to copy. One
of them included the fea of Penfliinfk, part of the coafl
of Tartary down to the latitude 41° j the Kurile
iflands, and the peninfula of Kamtfchatka. The other
comprehended all the difcoveries that had been made
from the time of Captain Beering to the year 1777 j
but thefe were found to be very trifling. Indeed our
navigator was aflured by all the Ruffians whom he had
occafion to fee, that they knew’ of no other iflands
than thofe laid down in the charts jiift mentioned, and
that none of them had ever feen any part of the A-
merican continent excepting what lies oppofite to the
country of the Tfchutfki. With regard to the natives
of Oonalafhka, they aretoappearar.ee the moft inof-of the inha-
fenfive and peaceable people in the world, not to be Chants,
in a ftate of civilization ; though perhaps this may be
owing in fome meafure to the connexion they have
long had with the Ruffians. From the affinity ob-
ferved between the language of the Efquimaux Green¬
landers, and thofe of Norton’s found in N. Lat. 64. 55.
there is great reafon to believe that all thofe nations Ic4
are of the fame extraflion ; and if that be the cafe»^jCat^U"
there is little reafon to doubt that a communication pro‘bRkie
by fea exifts betw een the eaftern and weftern fides of betw ixt th&
the American continent 5 which, however, may very eaft and
probably be fhut up by ice in the winter time, or even coafls
for the moft part throughout the year. , ° 1^nca‘
The return of Captain Cook to the Sandwich Confequen-
iflands, with the lamentable cataftrophe that enfued,ccs t aP-
have been already related under the former art,*cle*
We ffiall now briefly enumerate the confequences of
his difcoveries with refpeft to the advancement of
fcience. Thefe are principally Fis having overthrown
the hypothefis of a fouthern continent of immenfe ex¬
tent, ufually fpoken of under the name of Terra aufralis
incognita; his demonftration of the imprafticability of a
northern paffage either by Afia or America to the
Eaft Indies} and his having eftabliffied a fure method
of preferving the health of feamen through the long-
eft fea-voyages. It is remarked by the biffiop of
Carlifle, that one great advantage refulting from the
late furveys of the globe, is the refutation of fanciful
theories, too likely to give birth to impra&icable un¬
dertakings. The ingenious reveries of fpeculative
philofophers will now be obliged to fiibmit, perhaps
with reluctance, to the fober dictates of truth and ex¬
perience ; nor is it only by difeouraging future unpro¬
fitable fearches that the late voyages are likely to be ,
of fervice to mankind, but likewife. by leflening the
dangers
coo
[ (>35 1
COO
book’s dangers and dlftreffes formerly experienced n. thofe
pifcoverie?. peas wliich are within the aftual line of commerce
' v ' and navigation.
The interefts of fcience, as well as of commerce,
are highly indebted to the labours of our illuftrious
navigator. Before his time almoft half the furface of
the globe was involved in oblcurity and confufion . but
now fuch improvements have been made, that geogra¬
phy has affumed a new face, and become in a manner
a new fcience ; having attained fuch completenefs as
to leave only fome lefs important parts to be explored
by future voyagers. Other fciences befides geography
have been advanced at the fame time. Nautical agro¬
nomy, which was in its infancy w:hen the late voyages
were undertaken, is now brought to much greater per-
feftion j and, during Captain Cook’s laft expedition,
many even of the petty officers could take the diftance
of the moon from the fun or from a liar, the moil de¬
licate of all obfervations, with fufficient accuracy ; and
the officers of fupeiior rank would have been affiamed
to have it thought that they did not know7 how to ob-
ferve for, and compute, .the time at fea ; a thing before
< hardly mentioned among feamcn. It mull, however,
be remembered, that a great part of the merit in this
refpeft is due to the board of longitude. In conferjuence
of the attention of that board to the important objedl
juft mentioned, liberal rewards have been given to ma¬
thematicians for perfecting the lunar tables and facili¬
tating calculations ; and artifts have been amply en¬
couraged in the conftru&ion of watches, and other m-
ftruments better adapted to the purpofes of navigation
than any that formerly exifted.
A vaft addition of knowledge has been gained with
refpeft to the ebbing and flowing of the tides; the di¬
rection and force of the currents at fea j the nature of
the polarity of the needle, and the caufe of its varia¬
tions. Natural knowledge has been increafed by ex¬
periments on the effefts of gravity in different and
very diftant places ^ and from Captain Cook s having
penetrated fo far into the fouthern regions, it is now
afcertained, that the phenomenon ufually called the
aurora borealis^ is not peculiar to high northern lati¬
tudes, but belongs equally to all cold climates, whe¬
ther north or fmth.
No fcience, however, perhaps (lands more indebted
to thefe voyages than that of botany. At leal! 1200
new fpecies of plants have been added to thofe former¬
ly known ; and every other department of natural
hiftory has received large additions. Befides all this,
tliere have been a vaft many opportunities of obferving
human nature in its different fttuations. I he iilands
vifited in the middle of the Pacific ocean are inhabited
by people who, as far as could be obferved, have con¬
tinued unmixed with any different tribe fince their firft
fettlement. Hence a variety of important fatfts may
be collected with refpeft to the attainments and defi¬
ciencies of the human race in an uncultivated (late, and
in certain periods of fociety. Even the curiofities
brought from the newly difcovered iflands, and which
enrich the Britiffi mufeum and the late Sir Afhton Le¬
ver’s (now Mr Parkinfon’s) repofitory, may be confi-
dered as a valuable acquifition to this country, and af¬
fording no fmall fund of inftruflion and entertainment.
There are few inquiries more generally interefting
than thofe which relate to the migrations of the vari¬
ous colonies by which the different parts of the eaith
have been peopled. It was known in gener.d, that . ^ ,
the Afiatic nation called the Malayans pcfleffed in for¬
mer times much the greateft trade of the Indies, and
that their (hips frequented not only all the coafts of
Afia, but even thoie of Africa 1 kewiie, and particu¬
larly the large ifland of hladagafcar j but that iiom
Madagafcar to the Marquefas and Eafter ifland, that
is, nearly from the eaft fide of Africa till we approach
the weft coaft of America, a fpace including aimoft
half the circumference of the globe, the fame nation
of the oriental world fhould have made then (ettle-
ments, and founded colonies throughout almoft every
intermediate ftage of this immenfe tradl, in ifiands ac
amazing diftances from the mother continent, is a hi-
ftorical faft that before Captain Cook’s voyages could
not be known, or at leaft but very imperf. ftly. This
is proved, not only by a fimilarity of manners and cu-
ftoms, but like wife by the affinity of language > and
the collections of words which have been made irom
all the widely-diffufed iflands and countries vifited by
Captain Cook, cannot fail to throw much light on the
origin of nations, and the manner in which the eaith
was at firft peopled.
Befides this, information has been derived concern¬
ing another family of the earth formerly very much
unknown. This was the nation of the Efquimaux or
Greenlanders, who had formerly been known to exift
only on the north-eaftern part of the American con¬
tinent. From Captain Cook’s accounts, howevei, it
appears, that thefe people now inhabit alio the coafts
and iflands on the weft fide of America oppofite to
Kamtfchatka. From thefe accounts it appears alio, that
the people we fpeak of have extended their migrations
to Norton found, Oonalaftrka, and Prince William’s
found ; that is, nearly to the diftance of 1500 leagues
from their ftations in Greenland and the coaft of La-
bradore. Nor does this curious fad reft merely on
the evidence arifing from the fimilitude of manners;
for it (lands confirmed by a table of words, exhibiting
fuch an affinity of language as muft remove every
doubt from the mind of the moft fcrupulous inquirer.
From the full confirmation of the vicinity of the
two great continents of Afia and America, it can no
longer be fuppofed ridiculous to believe, that the latter
received its inhabitants from the former ; and by the
fadts recently difcovered, a degree of further evidence
is added to thofe which might formerly be derived
from nature concerning the authenticity of the Mofaic
accounts. It is not indeed to be doubted, that the
infpired writings will Hand the tell of the moft rigor¬
ous inveftigation ; nor wdll it ever be found, that true
philofophy and Divine Revelation can militate againft
each other. The rational friends of religion are .fo
far from dreading the fpirit of inquiry, that they vvifti
for nothing more than a candid and impartial exami¬
nation of the fubjedl, according to all the lights which
the improved reafon and enlarged (cience ot man can
afford.
Another good effe£f of the voyages of Captain Cook
is, that they have excited in other nations a zeal for
fimilar undertakings. By order of the French govern¬
ment, Meffi de la Peyroufe and de Langle failed from
Bred in Auguft 1785, in the frigates Bouffole and
Aftrglabe, on an enterprife, the. purpofe of which was
4 L 2 tc*
GOO [ 636 ] COO
Cook’s to improve geography, aftronomy, natural hiftory, and
Difcovenes. philofophy, and to colled an account of the cuftoms
and manners of different nations. For the more ef¬
fectual profecution of the defign, feverai gentlemen
were appointed to go out upon the voyage, who were
known to excel in different kinds of literature. The
officers of the Bouffole were men of the beft informa¬
tion and firmeft refolution j and the crew contained a
number of artificers in various branches of mechanics.
Marine watches, &c. were provided, and M. Dagelet
the aftronom'er was particularly dire&ed to make ob-
fervations with M. Condamine’s invariable pendulum,
to determine tKe difference in gravity, and to afcer-
tain the true proportion of the equatorial to the polar
diameter of the earth. It has likewife been made evi¬
dent, that notwithftanding all that has been done by
Captain Cook, there is (till room for a farther invef-
tigation of the geography of the northern parts of the
world. The objed accordingly was taTcen up by the
emprefs of Ruffia, who committed the care of the
enterprife to Captain Billings an Engliffiman in her
majefty’s fervice. We ffiall only make one obferva-
tion more concerning the benefits likely to accrue
from the voyages of Captain Cook, and that is relative
to the fettleraent in Botany bay. Whatever may be
fuppofed to accrue to the nation itfelf from this fettle-
ment, it muft undoubtedly give the higheft fatisfadion
to every friend to humanity to be informed, that thus
a number of unhappy wretches will be effedually pre¬
vented from returning to their former fcenes of temp¬
tation and guilt, which may open to them the means
of induftrious fubfijfence and moral reformation. If
the fettlement be conduded with wifdom and pru¬
dence, indeed it is hard to fay what beneficial confe-
quences may be derived from it, or to what height it
may arife. Rome, the greateft empire the world ever
faw, proceeded from an origin little, if at all, fuperior
to Botany bay. For an account of this fettlement
fee the article Ncw-Holljnd.
One other objed remains only farther to be confi-
dered with regard to thefe voyages, and that is the ad¬
vantages which may refult from them to the difeovered
people. Here, however, it may perhaps be difficult to
fettle matters with precifion. From the preceding ac¬
counts, it muft be evident that the intentions of Cap¬
tain Cook were in the higheft degree benevolent $ and
if at any time the people were the fufferers, it muft
have been through their own fault. In one inftance
indeed it might be otherwife, and that is with refped
to the venereal difeafe. The evidence in this cafe can¬
not be altogether fatisfadory. Mr Samwell, who fuc-
ceeded Mr Ahderfon as furgeon of the Refolution, has
Endeavoured to ftiow, that the natives of the lately ex¬
plored parts of the world, and efpecially of the Sand¬
wich iflands, were not injured by the Engliffi ^ and it
was the conftant care and folicitude of Captain Cook
to prevent any infedion from being communicated to
the people where he came. But whether he was uni-
verfally fuccefsful in this refped or not, it is evident
that the late voyages were undertaken with a view7 ex¬
ceedingly different from,thofeof former times. The
horrid cruelties of the Spaniffi conquerors of America
cannot be rerpembered without concern for the caufe
pf religion and human nature ; but to undertake ex¬
peditious with a defign of civilizing the world, and
meliorating its condition, is certainly a noble objed. Cook’s
From the long-continued intercourfe betwixt this coun-I)ftcoverie8*
try and the South fea iflands, there cannot be any ^
doubt that fome degree of knowledge muft already
have been communicated to them. Their flock of
ideas muft naturally be enlarged by the number of un¬
common obfervations which has been prefented to them,
and new7 materials furnilhed for the exercife of their
rational faculties. A confiderable addition mull be
made to their immediate comfort and enjoyment by
the introdudion of ufeful animals and vegetables ; and
if the only benefit they ffiould ever receive from Bri¬
tain ffiould be the having obtained frelh means of fub-
fiftence, this of itfelf muft be confidered as a valuable-
acquifition. Greater confequences, however, may foon
be expeded. The connexion formed with thefe peo¬
ple may be confidered as the firft ftep towards their im-
provement $ and thus the bleffings of civilization may
be fpread among the various tribes of Indians in the
Pacific ocean, wffiich in time may prepare them for
holding an honourable place among the nations of the
earth. ^ ^
As a fupplement to this account of the difeoveries Account of
made by Captain Cook himfelf, w7e ffiall here fubjoin a Captain
narrative of the fubfequent part of the voyage by Cap-clerke’s
tain Clerke, &c. until the return of the fhips to Eng-^^S6'
land. At the time of Captain Cook’s death, the great
point of a north-weft paffage remained in fome meafure
to be ftill determined : for though, by the event of
the former attempt, it had been rendered highly im¬
probable that they Ihould fucceed in this, it was ftill
refolved to try whether or not, at certain feafons of
the year, the ice might not be more open than they
had hitherto found it. The firft objed that naturally
occurred, however, was the recovery of Captain Cook’s Methwls
body ; for which Mr King was of opinion that fometaken for
vigorous meafure ought inftantly to be purfued. His^6 rec<’*
motives for this, befides the perfonal regard he had^ery
for the captain, were to abate the confidence which Coofc’s bo-
muft be fuppofed to enfue on the part of the natives, dy.
which would probably incline them to dangerous at¬
tempts*, and this the more particularly, as they had
hitherto difeovered much lefs fear of the fire arms than
other favage nations were accuftomed to do. Mr Sam-
well alfo takes notice of the intrepidity of the natives
in this refped j but aferibes it, in the firft inftance, to
ignorance of their effeds j and in the next, to a no¬
tion, that as the effeds of thefe arms were occafioned
by fire, they might be counteraded by water. For
this purpofe they dipped their war-mats in water j
but finding themfelves equally vulnerable after this
method had been purfued, they became more timid and
cautious.
As matters flood at prefent, there was even reafon
to dread the confequences of a general attack upon the
fliips : and therefore Mr King was the more confirm¬
ed in his opinion of the neccffity of doing fomething to
convince them of the prowefs of their adverfaries. In
thefe apprehenfions he w7as feconded by the opinion of
the greater part of the officers on board ; and nothing
feemed more likely to encourage the ifianders to make
the attempt than an appearance of being inclined to
an accommodation, which they would certainly attri¬
bute to weaknefs or fear. Captain Clerke, however,
and thofe who were in favour of conciliatory meafures,
urged
COO [ ^37 1 coo
Cook’s urged, that the mifchief was already irreparable ; that
Difcovenes. the natives, by reafon of their former friendfhip, had
a ftrong claim to the regard of the Englifh j and that
the more particularly, as the late calamitous accident
did not appear to have taken its rife from any preme¬
ditated defign : they urged alfo the ignorance of the
king concerning the theft, and the miftake of the
illanders who had armed themfelves on a fuppofition
that fome attempt would be made to carry off the
king. To all this was added, that the fhips were in
want of refrefhments, particularly water ; that the
Refolution’s foremaft would require feven or eight days
before it could be properly repaired 5 and as the fpring
was faft advancing, the fpeedy profecution of the
voyage to the northward ought now to be the only
objeft 5 that a vindi&ive conteft with the natives might
not only juftify an imputation of needlefs cruelty, but
would occafion great delay in the equipment of the
fhips.
In confequence of the prevalence of thefe fentiments
lenient meafures were adopted, though the behaviour
of the natives continued to be very infolent. A great
body Hill kept pofleflion of the fhore ; many of whom
came off in their canoes within piftol-fhot of the fhips,
and provoking the people by every kind of infult and
defiance. A train of negociations for Captain Cook’s
body took place ; in which the natives fhowed the moft
hoftile and treacherous difpofition, and, as afterwards
appeared, had cut the flefli from the bones and burnt
it. A piece of about ten pounds weight was brought
by two natives at the hazard of their lives, who gave
information that the reft had been burnt, and that
the bones were in the poffeflion of the king and fome
of the principal chiefs. Information w’as given, at
the fame time, that the chiefs were very defirous of
war, in order to revenge the death of their country¬
men.
Thus it appeared that the pacific plan had anfwered
no good purpofe. No fatisfaftory anfwer had been
given to the demands made of the bodies of the flain ;
nor was any progrefs made in the great wmrk intend¬
ed, viz. a reconciliation with the natives ; they ftill
remained on fhore in an hoftile pofture, as if determined
to oppofe any endeavours that might be made by our
people to land ; at the fame time that a landing was
become abfolutely neceffary, in order to complete the
ftock of water. Had this fpiritlefs condir& been per-
fifted in, there is not the leaft doubt that neither this
purpofe or any other could have been effeaed. The
infolence of thO natives became every day greater and
greater: infomuch that one of them had the audacity
to come within mufket (hot of the Refolution, and, af¬
ter throwing feveral ftones, waved Captain Cook’s hat
over his head, while his countrymen on fliore were ex¬
ulting and encouraging his audacity. By this infult
the people were fo highly enraged, that coming on
the quarter-deck in a body, they begged that they
might no longer be obliged to put up with fuch reite¬
rated provocation, but might be allowed to make ufe
of the firft opportunity of revenging the death of their
captain. The neceffity of more vigorous meafures,
108 therefore, being now apparent, a few difcharges of the
His remains great guns, w’ith the burning of a village and fome
at laft ob- other a£ts of feventy, at laft produced the mangled re¬
tained. tnains of Captain Cook. They were wrapped up in a
bundle, in which were found both his hands entire, Cook’»
which were eafily knowm by a fear in one of them di- Difcoveriet
vlding the fore-finger from the thumb the whole length v
of the metacarpal bone. Along with thefe was the
fkull, but with the fcalp feparated from it, and the
bones of the face wanting j the fcalp, with the ears
adhering to it, and the hair cut ftiort ; the bones of
both the arms, and the Ikin of the fofe-arms hanging
to them j the bones of the thighs and legs joined to¬
gether, but w-ithout the feet. The ligaments of the
joints were obferved to be entire j the whole fhowing
evident marks of being in the fire, except the hands
which had the flefti remaining upon them, and w’ere
cut in feveral places and crammed with fait, moft pro¬
bably for the purpofe of preferving them. The Ikull
W’as not fra£lured ; but the fcalp had a cut in the back
part of it. The lower jaw and feet were wanting, ha¬
ving been feized by different chiefs. I09
Having accompliftied the purpofes of their ftay in Unfuccefs-
this place, Captain Clerke fet fail from Karakakooa bay fulattempts-
in O-why-hee towards MWee, with a defign to ex-
plore the coafts of that ifland more fully than had been C°~
done, but were unable to accompliih their purpofe :
nor indeed was it in their power to accomplifh any
difeovery of confequence among thefe iflands. The on¬
ly intelligence worth mentioning which they were able
to procure was, that wars had enfued about the pro¬
perty of the goats which were left by Captain Cook
on the ifland of Oneeheow, fis has been already men¬
tioned, and that during the conteft all thefe poor
animals, who had already begun to multiply, were de-
ftroyed ; fo that the benevolent attempts of our illuftri-
ous navigator in favour of thefe iflanders had proved
abortive.
On quitting the ifland of Oneeheow, our navigators
fet fail for another named Modoopappa, which they
were affured by the natives lay within five hours fail¬
ing of Tahoora, a fmall ifland in the neighbourhood of
Oneeheow. In this they proved unfuccefsful; on which
it was determined to fteer for the coaft of Kamtfchat-
ka. In the paflage thither they arrived at the place
where De Gama is faid to have difeovered a great ex¬
tent of land ; but of this they could difeover no ap¬
pearance. This imaginary continent is faid to have-
been difeovered by a navigator called John de Gama,
but who feems alfo to have been imaginary, as no per-
fon can find out either the country where he lived, or
the time when he made the difeovery. We are in¬
formed by Muller, that the firft account of it was pub-
liflied by Texeira in a chart of 1649, who places it be¬
tween the latitude of 44 and 45 degrees, and about
160. eaft longitude, and calls it “ land feen by John
de Gama, in a voyage from China to New Spain.”
By the French geographers it is removed five de¬
grees farther to the eaft. When they arrived
Kamtfchatka they were entertained in the moft hof-vourable*
pitable manner, and furniflied with every thing that reception
could be procured in that defert and barren region.at Kamt-
u In this wretched extremity of the earth (fays thefcIiatka>
narrator of the voyage), beyond conception barba¬
rous and inhol'pitable, out of the reach of civilization,
bound and barricaded wdth ice, and covered with fum-
mer fnow, we experienced the tendereft feelings of
humanity, joined to a noblenefs of mind and elevation
of fentiment which would have done honour to any
dime
Ill
Tfchutlki
fubmit to
the em-
prefs.
c coo [638
0r na,7r'” From M»j” Be>™. ™ particular,
  they received fo many and fo great obligations, that
an handfome acknowledgment was made 1dm by the
Royal Society, as has been already obferved. Even
tne Tailors were To ftruck with gratitude, that they
voluntarily requefted that their allowance of grog
might be with-held, in order to compliment the garri-
ion oF Bolcheretlk wbth the fpirits j faying, that they
kiiew brandy was extremely fcarce in that country,
the foldiers on (hore having offered four roubles'a
bottle for it. 1 he officers, however, would not
allow them to fuller by their generofity in this in-
clement country and feafon of the year (the month
of March not being yet expired) ; but in room of
the imall quantity of brandy which Major Behm
confented to accept, fubftituted an equal quantity of
rum. ' J
It is worth obferving, that the kindnefs with which
the em.prefs had ordered the Britiffi navigators to be
treated in this part of her dominions was amply re¬
warded, even with no lefs than the addition of a new
kingdom to the Ruffian empire, which hitherto her
arms had not been able to fubdue. Among the north¬
ern Afiatics none had been able to maintain their in¬
dependence except the Tfchutfki, who inhabit the
north-eart extremity of the continent. No attempt to
fubdue thefe people had been made fince the year j 750,
when the Ruffian forces had at daft been obliged to re¬
treat, after having loft their commanding officer. The
Ruffians afterwards removed their frontier fortrefs from
the river Anadyr to the Ingiga, which runs into the
northern extremity of the fea of Okotfk, and gives its
name to a gnlf to the weft of the fea of Penftiinik.
On the day that Captains Clerk and Gore arrived at
Bolcheretfk, Major Behm received difpatches from this
fort, acquainting him that a party of the Tfchutfki
had been there with voluntary offers of friendfhip and
a tribute. That on afking the reafon of fuch an un¬
expected alteration in their fentiments, they had ac¬
quainted his people that two large Ruffian boats had
vifited them towards the end of the preceding fummer;
1
COO
proceed north- Eruptk>a
and three daysot avol-
an eruption ofcano*
On the 15 th
112
Vaft quan-
that they had been ffiown the greateft kindnefs by the,
people who were in them, and had entered into a
league of amity with them ; and that, in 'confequence
of this, they came to the Ruffian fort in order to fet-
tle a . treaty upon terms agreeable to both nations.
1 his incident had occafioned much fpeculation, and
could never have been underftood without the affift-
ance of thofe who were now prefent : the large Ruf¬
fian boats having been in truth no other than the
Refolution and Difcovery, under Captains Cook and
Clerke.
tity of fifli. About the middle of May the fnow began to melt
very faft in this inhofpitable region, and the fliips be¬
ing now on their paffage northward, met with an ex¬
cellent opportunity of fupplying themfelves with ftfh.
The beach was cleared of Ice on the 15th'of the
month ; from which time vaft quantities came in from
every quarter. Major Behm had ordered all the Kamt-
fchadales to employ themfelves in the fervice of the
Englifh fliips 5 fo that often they found it impoffible
to take on board the quantities that were fent. They
chiefly confifted of herrings, trout, flat fifti, and cod.
I hefe fifti were here found in fuch plenty, that once
the people of the Difcover furrounded fuch an ama-
2
z-ng quantity with the feine, that they were obliged Cook’s
to throw out a very confiderable number, left the net ■*->‘^coveries*
ffiould have been broken to pieces j and the cargo was' * 
K . sbundant, that, befides having a flock for im¬
mediate ufe, they filled as many calks as they could
conveniently fpare for falling; and after fending on
board the Refolution a tolerable quantity for the
lame purpofe, they left behind feveral bufhels on the
beach.
.While they remained in this country an onnortu-c -V3
n.'ty offered of obferving the pernicious effeas of fpi- liquors per.
rituous hquors in producing the fea-feurvy. All the n'cious m
Ruffian foldiers were in a greater or leffer degree af-tlie fea‘
fliaed with that diforder, fome of them being in thefCUrVy*
laftftage ^ J and it was particularly obferved that
a ferjeant, with whom our people had kept up a moft
friendly intercourfe, had, in the courfe of a few day,.
lought upon himfelf the moft alarming fcorbutic
lymptoms, by drinking too freely of the liquors with
which he had been prefented by the Englifh. Cap¬
tain Clerke foon relieved them, by putting them un¬
der the care of the furgeons of the ftiips, and fupply-
mg them with four-krout, and malt for fweet-wort.
In confequence of this a furprifing alteration was
loon obferved in the figures of moft of them : and
their fpeedy recovery was principally attributed to the
fweet wort.
On the 12th of June they began to
ward along the coaft of Eamtfchatka,
after had an opportunity of obferving
one of the volcanoes of that peninfula. ^
before day light, they were furprifed with a rumblino-
none like diftant thunder j and when the day appear¬
ed, found the decks and fides of the fhips covered near
an inch thick with fine dull like emery. The air was
at the fame time loaded and obfeured with this fub-
ftance ; and in the neighbourhood of the volcano it-
felt jt was fo thick that the body of the hill could not
be difeovered. The explofion became more loud at
12 o’clock, and during the afternoon, being fucceed-
ed by (bowers of cinders, generally of the fize of peafe,
though fome were as large as hazel-nuts. Along
with thefe there alfo fell fome fmall ftones which had
unuetgone no alteration from the a61ion of the fire.
In the evening there w^ere dreadful claps of thunder,
with bright flaflies of lightning, which, with the dark-
nefs of the Iky, and the lulphureous fmell of the air,
produced a moft aw-ful and tremendous effeff. The*
Ihips were at this time about 24 miles diftant from the
volcano j and it appeared that the volcanic (bower had
been carried to a (fill greater diftance, as they next
day found the bottom of the fea to confilt of fuch fmall
ftones as had fallen upon the decks of the ftiips. The
mountain was (fill obferved to be in a ftate of eruption
on the 18th.
_ For fome time Captain Clerke kept the coaft v
Kamtfchatka in viewq with a defign to make an accu-tF‘ irth-
rate furvey of it ; but in this he was difappointed bywar<k
foggy and (qually weather ; however, he determined
the pofition of fome remarkable promontories, and at
laft finding the feafon too far advanced to accompliffi
his defign, fet fail for Beering’s ftraits, chiefly with a
view' to afeertain the fituation of the proje&ing points
of the coaft.
On the 3d of July our navigators came in fight of
the
c lr5
or Voyages t*
COO [639 ] coo
Cook’s the Ifland of St Lawrence, and another which was
pilcoveric’. fuppofed to lie between it and Anderlbn’s ifland. The
latter being entirely unknown to Captain Clerke, he
was inclined to have approached it, but was unable
to effect his purpofe. All thefe ifiands as well as the
coaft of the Tfchutlki on the continent were covered
with fnow, and had a difmal appearance.
In the preceding year Captain Cook had determined
the fituation of the illands of St Diomede to be in 65°
48' latitude ; but now being fomewdiat at a lofs to re¬
concile this with the pofition of the continent, they
flood for fome time over to the latter, till fully con¬
vinced of the accuracy of the former obfervation. At
this time they approached within two or three leagues
of the eallern cape of Alia, which is an elevated
round head of land extending abgut five miles from
north to fouth, and forms a peninfula connefted
with the continent by a narrow illhmus of low
land. It has a bold Ihore, and three lofty detached
fpiral rocks are feen off its northern part. It was Hill
encompaffed with ice, and covered with fnow. Here
they found a ftrong current fetting to the northward,
which at noon had occafioned an error in the compu¬
tation of the latitude of no lefs than 20 miles. A fi-
milar effedl had been obferved the preceding year in
pafling this ftrait. On fleering to the north-eall the
weather cleared up, fo that they had a view of the
eaftern cape of Alia, Cape Prince of Wales on the
weflern coall of America, with a remarkable peaked
hill on the latter, and the two iflands of St Diomede
lying between them. Here they met wuth great num¬
bers of very fmall hawks, having a compreffed bill ra¬
ther large in proportion to the body j the colour
dark brown, or rather black, the bread whitifh, and
II<? towards the abdomen of a reddilh hue.
ped b^the t^ie Juty> at 12 o’clock, the {hips were in
ice. 1 N. Lat. 67. o. E. Long. 191. 6. when having already
paffed many large pieces of ice, and obferved that in
feveral places it adhered to the continent of Ada, they
;were fuddenly dopped about three in the afternoon by
an extenfive body, which flretched towards the wed.
By this their hopes of reaching any higher latitude
than what had been attained lad year were confiderably
diminilhed $ but finding the courfe obllrudled on the
Aliatic fide, they proceeded to the north-eadward, in
order to explore the continent of America between the
latitudes of 68 and 69° ; which had lad year been
found impradlicable on account of the foggy weather;
but in this alfo they were partly difappointed j for on
the 7th, about fix in the morning, they met with an¬
other large body of ice flretching from north-wed to
fouth-ead ; but not long afterwards, the horizon be¬
coming clear, they had a view of the American coad
at the didance of about ten leagues, extending from
north-ead by ead, to ead, and lying between N. Lat.
68° and 68° 20'. As the ice was not very high, the
view extended a great way over it, fo that they could
perceive it exhibiting a compadl folid furface, and ap¬
parently adhering to the land. Soon after the wea¬
ther became hazy, fo that they lod fight of the land ;
and it being impoflible to get nearer, they continued
to deer northward clofe by the fide of the ice. This
courfe was continued till next morning, during which
time the drips pafled fome drift wood ; but the morn¬
ing following, the wind fhifting to the north, .they were
obliged to dand to the wedward. At two in the af- Cook’s
ternoon they were again clofe to an immenfe expanfe Diicovcr.es,
of ice ; which from the mad-head feemed to confid of v 11 ^
very large compadl bodies, united towards the exterior
edge, though in the interior parts fome pieces doated in
the water ; it extended from wed-fouth-wed to north-
ead by north. There was now a neceflity for deering
towards the fouth, as the drong northerly winds had
drifted down fuch numbers of loofe pieces, that they
had encompafied the drips for fome time, and it was
impoflible to avoid very fevere drokes while failing
among them. Thus, however, they reached the lati¬
tude of 69. 12. and E. Long. 188. 5 ; but having
now failed almod 40 leagues to the wed along the
edge of the ice without perceiving any opening, Cap¬
tain Clerke determined to bear away fouth by ead, the
only quarter which was clear at prelent, and to wait
till the feafon was fome what farther advanced before
any further attempts were made. The intermediate
time he propofed to employ in furveying the bay of
St Lawrence, and the coad fituated to the fouthward
of it ; as it mud be a great fatisfaddion to have an
harbour fo near in cafe of the drip’s receiving any da¬
mage from the ice ; and the captain was alfo defirous
of paying another vifit to the Tfchutlki, efpecially in
confequence of the accounts of them that had been iry
given by Major Behm. In this navigation they killed Remark-
feveral fea-horfes, and had an opportunity of obfer-a Ie affte5*
ving the drength of parental affedion in thofe mon-fe^hoifes^
drous animals. On the approach of the boats towards towards
the ice, all of them took their young ones under theirthe )oung>
fins, and attempted to make their efcape with them in¬
to the lea. Some whole cubs were killed or wound¬
ed, and left floating upon the furface of the water, rofe
again, and carried them down, fometimes jull as they
w'ere on the point of being taken into the boat; and
could be traced bearing them to a confiderable didance
through the water, which was dained with their blood.
They were afterwards obferved bringing them at in¬
tervals above the furface, and again plunging under
its furface with an horrid bellowing; and one female,
whofe young one had been killed and taken on board,
became fo furious, that Are druck her tulks through
the bottom of the cutter. ijS
Our navigators dill found themfelves difappointed The dn'ps *
in their attempts. On approaching the coall of the finally ftop-
Tfchutlki they met with a large and compa£l body of Ped by ice-
ice, extending to the north-ead, fouth-wefl, and fouth-
ead, as far as the eye could reach ; fo that they were
again obliged to fail back to the northward. Here al¬
fo their courfe was foon dopped; for, on the 13th,
being in N. Lat. 69. 37. and about the middle of the’
channel between the two continents, they once more
fell in with a compaft body of ice, of W'hich they
could perceive no limit. Captain Clerke therefore de¬
termined to make a final attempt on the coad of A-
merica, the paffage northwatd having been found
lad year pradlicable much farther on that than the A-
fiatic fide. Thus they attained the latitude of 70. 8.
at the didance, as was fuppofed, of 25 leagues from
the coad of America; and fome days after got about
three minutes farther to the northward, about the di¬
dance of feven or eight leagues from the Icy Cape,
This, however, was the utmod limit of the voyage to
the north-ead ; and they were foon obliged to relin-
quilh.'.
1
€ O O [ 640 ] COO
^ Cook’s quifti all liopes of proceeding farther on the Ameri-
j3ilco\e:i o can Another effort was ftill refolved on to try
the practicability of a north-weft paffage ; and for
this purpofe our navigators altered their direction on
the 21 ft of July, palling through a great quantity of
loofe ice. About ten at night the main body was dif-
ll9 covered at a very fmall diftance, fo that they were ob-
Dangerous Hged to proceed to the fouthward. During this peri-
iituation of lous navigation, the Difcovery, after having almoft got
the Difco- clear out ffona the ice, became fo entangled by feveral
large pieces, that her progrefs was flopped, and fhe
immediately dropped to leeward, falling broadlide
foremoft on the edge of a conliderable body of ice, on
which Ihe ftruck. with violence, there being an open
fea to windward. At length the mafs was either
broken or moved fo far, that the crew had an opportu¬
nity of making an effort to efcape. But unluckily,
before the ftiip gathered way fufficient to be under
command, Ihe fell to leeward a fecond time upon ano-
other piece of ice \ and the fwell rendering it unfafe
to lie to windward, and finding no profpeCt of get¬
ting clear, they pulhed into a fmall opening, and made
the veffel fall: to the ice with hooks. Here the Refolu-
tion for fome time loft fight of her confort, which
occafioned no fmall uneafinefs in both veffels } but at
length, on a change of wind, the Difcovery, fetting
all her fails, forced a paffage, though not without lo-
fing a confiderable part of her fheathing, and be¬
coming very leaky by reafon of the blows (he had re¬
ceived.
Thus the two veffels continued to make every effort
to penetrate through the immenfe quantities of ice
with which thofe feas are filled winter and fijmmer,
but without fuccefs. Captain Clerke therefore finding
that it wTas impofiible either to get to the northward,
or even to reach the Afiatic continent, the fliips being
alfo greatly damaged, determined to proceed fouth¬
ward to the bay of Awatfka, on the Kamtfchadale
coaft, to refit, and afterwards take a furvey of the
iao coafts of Japan before the w’inter fliould fet in.
Of the ex- During this navigation, two general conclufions wrere
taCrt.of the adopted relative to the extent of the Afiatic coaft, in
tinent to oppoution to the opinion or Mr Muller. One is, that
the north- the promontory, called the Eq/l Cape, is in reality the
ward. moft eafterly point of Afia 5 and that no part of that
quarter of the globe extends farther than the longitude
of 190° 22' E. The other conclufion is, that the
latitude of the moft north-eafterly point of Afia does
not exceed 70°. N. but is rather fomewhat below it.
As the prefent difcoveries, however, were terminated
on the Afiatic fide in the 69th degree of latitude, the
probable diredlion of the coaft afterwards can only be
conje&ured. The only fources of knowledge in this
cafe are the Ruflian charts and journals} and thefe in
general are fo defective and contradictory, that the
particulars of their real difcoveries can fcarce be col¬
lected. Hence the Ruflian geographers are greatly
divided in their opinions concerning the extent and
figure of the peninfula of the Tfchutfki. Mr Muller,
in a map publilhed 1751, fuppofes it to extend north-
eaft as far as the latitude of 750, and E. Long. 19®
ending in a round cape, which he calls Tfchukotjkoi Nofs.
To the fouthward of this cape he fuppol'es the coaft to
form a bay to the weft, bounded in the latitude of
67° 18' by Serdze Kamen, the moft northerly point
obferved by Beering in his expedition in 1728. A Cock’s
new form is given to the whole peninl'ula in a mapDifcoveries,
publilhed by the academy at Peterlburgh in 1776.
Here its nroft north-eafterly extremity is placed in N.
Lat 73". E. Long. 178. 30. j and its moft eafterly
point in N. Lat. 65. E. Long. 189. 30. All the other
maps vary between thefe two fituations : and the only
thing in which all of them agree is the pofition of the
Eaft cape in N. Lat. 66. The form of the coaft, how¬
ever, is verry erroneous in the map publifhed by the
academy, and may be entirely difregarded. In Mr
Muller’s map, the northern part of the coaft has fome
refemblance to that laid down in Captain Cook’s and
Clerke’s furvey, as far as the latter extends ; only
that Mr Muller does not make it trend fufficiently to
the weft, but fuppofes it to recede only five degrees
of longitude between the latitudes of 66° and 69° }
whereas it really recedes almoft ten.
We muft next examine Mr Mullers authority for
fuppofing the coaft to bend round to the north and
north-eaft in fuch a manner as to form a large pro¬
montory. Mr Cpxe, whofe accurate refearches into
this matter muft give great weight to his opinion,
thinks, that the extremity of the promontory was
never doubled by any perfon except Deftineff- and his
party 5 who failed, in the year 1648, from the river
Kovyma, and are imagined to have got round to the
river Anadyr. The account of this voyage, however,
gives no geographical delineation of the coaft, fo that
its figure muft be determined by other circumftances ;
and from thefe it evidently appears, that the Tfchu-
kotfkoi Nofs of Defhneff is in reality the Eaft cape of
Captain Cook. Speaking of this nofs, he fays, that a
perfon, with a favourable wind, may fail from the
ifthmus to the Anadyr in three days and three nights.
This agrees entirely with the lituation of the Eaft cape,
W'hich is about 120 leagues from the mouth of the ri¬
ver Anadyr $ and there being no other ifthmus to the
north between that and the latitude of 69°, it feems
evident, that by this defcription he certainly means
either the Eaft cape or fome other fituated to the fouth-
ward of it. In another place he fays, that oppofite to
the ifthmus there are two iflands upon which fome
of the Tfchutfki nation were obferved, having pieces
of the teeth of fea-horfes fixed in their lips 5 and
this exadlly coincides with the two iflands that lie
to the fonth-eaft of the Eaft cape. Our navigators
indeed did not obferve any inhabitants upon thefe
nlands •, but it is by no means improbable, that fome
of thofe of the American coaft, whom the above de¬
fcription perfe£lly luits, might have accidentally been
there at the time, and been miftaken for a tribe of
Tfchutfki.
Other circumftances, though lefs decifive than thofe
juft mentioned, concur in the fame proof. Defhneff
fays, that in failing from the Kovyma to the Anadyr, a
great promontory, which projefts far into the fea, muft
be doubled ; and that this promontory extends be¬
tween north and north-eaft. From thefe exprellions,
perhaps, Mr Muller was induced to reprefent the
country of the Tfchutfki in the form we find in his
map; but if he had been acquainted with the pofition
of the Eaft cape as determined by Captain Cook, and
the ftriking agreement between that and the promon¬
tory or ifthmus in the circumftances above-mentioned,
it
goo r 641 ] coo
Cook’s it is moft probabk that he would not have deemed thefe
Bifcoveries. eXpreflions of fufficient weight to authorize his extend-
v ing the north-eaftern extremity of Alia either as far
to the north or to the eaft as he has done.
Another authority ufed by Mr Muller feems to have
been the depolition of the Coffack Popoff, taken at
the Anadiifkoi Oftrog in 1711. Popoff was fent by
land, in company with feveral others, to demand tri¬
bute of the independent Tfchutfki tribes, who inhabit¬
ed the country about the Nofs. In the account of
this journey, the diftance betwixt Anadirfk andTlchu-
kotlkoi Nofs is reprefented as a journey of ten weeks
with loaded rein-deer. From fuch a vague account,
indeed, we can judge but very little: but as the di¬
ftance between the Eaft cape and Anadirlk does not
exceed 200 leagues, and confequently might be accom-
pliftied in the fpace above mentioned at the rate of 12
or 14 miles a day, we cannot reckon Popoff’s account
of its fituatioii inconfiftent wuth the fuppolition of its
being the Eaft cape- It may likewife be obferved,
that Popoff’s route lay along the foot of a rock named
Malkot, fituated at the bottom of a fpacious gulf,
which Muller fuppofes to have been the bay he lays
down between the latitudes of 66° and 720 j and he
accordingly places the rock Matkol in the centre of
it 5 but it feems more probable that it might be a part
of the gulf of Anadyr, which they would undoubted¬
ly pafs in their journey towards the Eaft cape.
But what feems to put the matter beyond all doubt,
and to prove that the cape w-hich Popoff vilited cannot
be to the northward of 69° Lat. is that part of his
depofition which relates to an ifland lying off the Nofs,
from whence the oppofite coaft might be difcerned ;
for as the oppofite continents, in the latitude of 69°,
diverge fo far as to be upwards of 100 leagues diftant,
it is highly improbable that the Afiatic coaft ftiould
again trend eaftward in fuch a manner as to come al-
moft in fight of that of America. As an additional
proof of the pofition in queftion, w^e may obferve, that
the Tfchukotfkoi Nofs is conftantly laid down as
dividing the fea of Kovyma from that of Anadyr j
which could not poflibly be the cafe if any large
cape had projected to the north-eaft in the higher la¬
titudes.
The next queftion to be determined is, to w hat degree
of latitude the northern coaft of Afia extends before it
•inclines direftly weft ward ? Captain Cook was always
ftrongly inclined to believe, that the northern coaft of
this continent, fronr the Indigirka eaftward, has hi¬
therto been ulually laid down above two degrees to the
northwrard of its true fituation j for which reafon, and
on the authority of a map that was in his poffeflion,
as u’ell as from intelligence received at Oonalafhka, he
placed the mouth of the Kovyma in the latitude of 68*.
Should he be right in his conje&ur^ it is probable
that the coaft of Afia does not anywhere extend be¬
yond the latitude of 70° before it trends to the weft 5
and confequently our navigators muft have been only
one degree from its northern extremity. This feems
to be confirmed by the filence of the Ruffian naviga¬
tors concerning any extent of continent to the north-
w’ard of Shelatfkoi Nofs ; nor do they mention any
remarkable promontory, except the Eaft cape be¬
tween the Anadyr and the Kovyraa. Another parti¬
cular which Dcftmeff relates may perhaps be deemed a
You yi. Part II.
farther confirmation of this opinion, viz. that he met Cook’s
with no obftru&ion from ice in failing round the D^coverie^*
northern extremity of Afia ; though he adds, that v
this fea is not at all times fo free of it, which indeed
appears evidently to be the cafe. That part of the
continent which lies between Cape North and the
mouth of the Kovyma is about 125 leagues in extent.
A third part of this fpace, from Kovyma eaftward,
was explored in the year 1723 by Feodot Am ffoff,
who informed Mr Muller that its diieftion was ealt-
erly. Since that time it has been furveyed with fome
accuracy by Shalauroff, wdiofe chart makes it trend
north-eaft-by-eaft as far as Shelatfkoi Nofs, which he
places at the diftance of about 43 leagues eaft of the
Kovyma. The fpace therefore, between the Nofs and
Cape North, fomewhat more than 80 leagues, is the
only part of the Ruffian dominions now remaining
unexplored. But if the Kovyma be erroneoufty laid
dowm in point of longitude as well as latitude, a lup-
pofition far from being improbable, the extent of the
undifcovered coaft will be •confideiably diminifhed.
The following are the reafons why it may be fuppo-
fed that the mouth of the Kovyma is placed too far to
the weft ward in the Ruffian charts : 1. Btcaufe the ac¬
counts that have been given of the navigation of the
Frozen ocean^from that river round the north-eaftern
extremity of Afia to the gulf of Anadyr, do not
agree with the fuppofed diftance between thofe places.
2. Becaufe the diftance from the Anadyr to the Ko¬
vyma over land is by fome Ruffian travellers reprefent¬
ed as a journey of no very great length, and eafily per¬
formed. 3. Becaufe the coaft ftom the Shelatlkoi Nofs
of Shalauroff appears to trend diredfly louth-eaft to¬
wards the Eaft cape. From all which it may be in¬
ferred, with fome degree of. probability, that only 60
miles of the northern Afiatic coaft; remain to be ex-
plored. m
With regard to a north-weft paffage from the At-Imprafti-
lantic into the Pacific ocean, it is highly probable cat,'lfty of
that no fuch thing exifts to the fouthward of the 56rh a north-
degree of latitude. If, in reality, it exifis atiywhere,
it muft certainly be either through Baffin’s bay, or paffage in-
by the north of Greenland in the weltern hemisphere, to the Pa-
or in the eaftern, through the Frozen fea to the north cific ocean*
of Siberia j fo that in w-hichever continent it is feated
the navigator muft pafs through Beering’s ftraits.
All that remains now to be confidered therefore is,
the imprafticability of penetrating into the Atlantic
ocean through thefe ftraits. From the voyages of
our navigators it appears, that the fea to the northward
of Beering’s ftraits is more free from ice in Auguft
than in July, and perhaps may be ftill more fo in fome
part of September. But after the autumnal equinox
the length of the day diminifties fo faft, that no farther
thaw can be expedled ; and it would be unreafonable
to attribute fo great an effedl to the warmth of the laft
fortnight of September as to imagine it capable of dif-
perfing the ice from the moft northern part of the
American coaft. Even admitting this to be pofftble*
it muft at leaft be allowed that it would be highly im¬
prudent to endeavour to avoid the Icy cape, by run¬
ning to the known parts of Baffin’s bay, a diftance of
about 1260 miles, in fo ftrort a time as that paffage
can be luppofed to be open. On the fide of Afia there
appears ftill lefs probability of fuccefs, as appears from
4 M the
COO [ 642 ] coo
Cook's the teflimony of the Ruffian as well as the Englifh na-
pikoveries. vjgat;0rSt Xhe voyage of Deffineff indeed proves the
poffibility of circumnavigating the north-eaftern ex¬
tremity of Afia 5 but even this affords a very {len¬
der foundation to hope for any great benefit, as no
perfon befides himfelf appears to have fucceeded in
the attempt, though more than a century and a half
has now elapfed fince the time of his voyage. But
even fuppofing that, in fome very favourable fea-
fon, this cape might be doubled, ftill the cape of Tai-
mura remains, extending as far as the 78th degree of
latitude, and round which none pretend ever to have
failed.
Thefe arguments feem conclufive againft any ex-
pedlation of a north-weft or north-eaft paffage to the
Eait Indies, unlefs on the fuppofition of an open fea
very near the polar regions. The probability of get¬
ting into the polar feas is confidered under the article
Pole j and indeed from what has already been ad¬
vanced muft appear very little. Waving this fub-
jedf therefore at prefent, we (hall return to the re¬
marks made by our navigators during their fecond
14a voyage.
Remarks In this they did little more than confirm what had
during the been obferved during the firft : for it never was in
voyage of p0wer t0 approach the continent of Afia in any
Cierke to- higher latitude than 67°, nor that of America in any
■wards the part, excepting a few leagues, between 68° and 68° 20',
Icy fea. which they had not feen before. In both years the
ice was met with fooner on the Afiatic than the A-
merican coaft } but in 1779 they met with it in lower
latitudes than in 1778. As they proceeded north¬
ward, the ice was found univerfally more compaft and
folid, though they were afcertained at the fame time
that the greateft part of what they met with was move-
able. Its height on a medium was eftimated at eight
or ten feet j though fome of the higheft might be about
16 or 18. The currents were generally at the rate of
one mile in the hour, and more generally fet from the
fouth-weft than from any other quarter. Their force,
however, was fo inconfiderable, whatever their direc¬
tion might be, that no conclufion could poffibly be
drawn from them concerning the exiftence or non-
exiftence of a northern paffage. With regard to the
temperature of the weather, July was found much
colder than Auguft. In the former, the thermometer
was once at 20*, and very frequently at 30* j whereas
during the laft year it was very uncommon in Auguft
to have it as low as the freezing point. High winds
were experienced in both feafons, all of which blew
from the fouth-weft. The air was foggy whenever
the weather became calm j but the fogs were obferv-
ecT to accompany foutherly winds much more than
others.
The ftraits, in the neareft approach of the conti¬
nents to each other, in the latitude of 66°, are about
13 leagues over; beyond which they diverge to N.
E. by E. and W. N. W.; fo that in the latitude of
69°, their diftance from each other is about 300 miles.
A great refemblance is obferved betwixt the continents
on both fides of the ftraits. Both are deftitute of
wood ; the (bores are low, with mountains further in¬
land, rifing to a great height. The foundings in the
mid way between them were from 29 to 30 fathoms,
gradually decreafmg as either continent was approach¬
ed ; with this difference, however, that the water was Cook's
fomewhat (hallovver on the coaft of America than that P^"ver'eSa
of Afia, at an equal diftance from land. The bot-
tom, towards the middle, was a foft (limy mud ; and
near either fhore was a brownifti fand intermixed with
a few7 (hells and fmall fragments of bones. There
was but little tide or current, and what there was
came from the weft. 123
Before the (hips could reach the peninfula of Kamt-Death of
fchatka, Captain Cierke expired; in confequence ofCaptain
which the command of the Difcovery devolved upon
Mr King, Captain Gore being now the fuperior of¬
ficer. On the return to Kamtfchatka, Captain Cierke
wras buried in the fpot on which a church w7as to be
ere£led ; it having been his own defire to be interred
in the church. 124
By the time they arrived at this peninfula, the face Return to
of the country was greatly improved ; the fields being
covered with the moft lively verdure, and every plant
in the moft flouriftiing date. The eruption of the 0f the bay
volcano which they had obferved on their laft depar- of Awat-
ture from Kamtfchatka, had done little or no damage ^a*
notwithftanding its violence. Several (tones had fallen
about the fize of a goofe’s egg, but none larger. At
this vifit it was obferved by our navigators, that the
complexions of the Ruffians feemed to be much more
unhealthy and fallow than when they faw them for¬
merly ; and the Ruffians made the fame obfervation
upon the complexions of their guefts. As no certain
caufe for this alteration could be perceived, the blame
wras by both parties laid on the verdure of the coun¬
try ; which, by contrafting itfelf with the colour of
the people, made the latter appear to difadvantage.
Having repaired as well as they could the damages
fuftained by the (hips among the ice, our navigators
now began to proceed on their voyage fouthward ;
but the (battered condition of their veffels, with the
little time they had now to fpare on voyages of dif¬
covery, after having been fo long at fea, now render¬
ed them much lefs fuccefsful than formerly. Before
leaving the peninfula, however, they took care to give
fuch a defcription of the bay of Awatfka as muft be
of great fervice to future navigators. This bay lies
in 52. 51. N. Lat. and 158. 48. E. Long, in the
bight of another bay formed by Cape Gavareea to the
fouth, and Cheeponlkoi Nofs to the north. The lat¬
ter of thefe bears ftnm the former N. E. by N, and is
32 leagues diftant. From Cape Gavareea to the en¬
trance of Awatflca bay the coaft takes a northerly di-
reftion, and extends about 11 leagues. It confifts of
a chain of ragged cliffs and rocks, and in many parts
prefects an appearance of bays or inlets; but on a
nearer view, low grounds were perceived by which the
headlands were conne61ed. From the entrance of
Awatlka bay, Cheeponfkoi Nofs bears E. N. E. di¬
ftant 17 leagues. The ftiore on this fide is flat and low,
with hills behind gradually rifing to a confiderable
height. The latitude of Cape Gavareea is 52. 21.
By this remarkable difference of the land on both fides
the cape, navigators may be dire£ted in their courfe
towards it from the fouthward. When they approach
it from the northward, Cheeponlkoi Nofs becomes
very confpicuous; it being a high projettingTieadland,
and united to the continent by a large extent of level
ground lower than the Nofs: and prefents the fame
appearance
COO [ 645 ] coo
Cook’s appearance whether viewed from the north or fouth.
jpifcoveries. should the weather happen to be fufficiently clear to
' ^' v~ admit a view of the mountains both on the fea coaft
and in the neighbourhood, the fituation of Awatlka
bay may be known by the two high ones to the fouth
of it. That neareft the bay is in the form of a fugar
loaf, the other flat at top, and not quite fo high. Three
very confpicuous mountains appear on the north fide
of the bay j of which that to the weft appears to be
the higheft ; the next, being a volcano, is readily
known by the fmoke which it emits ; the third is the
moft northerly, and might properly be called a clufter
of mountains, as it prefents feveral flat tops to view.
When got within the capes, the entrance of the bay
of Awatlka to the north is pointed out by a light-
houfe on a perpendicular headland. Many funken
rocks lie to the eaftward of this headland, ftretching
two or three miles into the fea $ and which with a
moderate fea or fwell will always (how themfelves.
A fmall round ifland lies four miles to the fouth of
the entrance, principally compofed of high pointed
rocks, one of which is very remarkable. The en¬
trance into the bay is at firft about three miles wide,
and one and an half in the narroweft part 5 the length
is four miles in a north-weft diredtion. Within the
mouth is a noble bafon about 25 miles in circumfer¬
ence in which are the harbours of Rakoweera to the
eaft, Tarcinflca to the weft, and St Peter and St Paul
12g to the north.
Account of On leaving Kamtfchatka, it was unanimoufly judged
the voyage improper to make any attempt to navigate the leas
time oflea ^etween t^e cont*nent Afia and Japan. Inftead of
ving Karat-rid®* it was propofed to fteer to the eaftward of that
JTchatka. ifland, and in the way thither to fail along the Ku¬
riles ; examining particularly thofe that are fituated
neareft to the northern coaft of Japan, which are faid
to be confiderable, and neither fubjeft to the Ruffians
nor Japanefe. In cafe they Ihould have the good for¬
tune to meet with fome fecure and commodious har¬
bour in one of thefe iflands, it was fuppofed that they
might prove of confiderable importance, as convenient
places for (belter for fubfequent navigators, who might
be employed in exploring thefe feas, as the means of pro¬
ducing a commercial intercourfe among the adjacent
dominions of the two above-mentioned empires. The
next objeft was to take a furvey of the coafts of the
illands of Japan j after which they defigned to fail for
the coaft of China as far north as polfible, and then
fail along it fouthward to Macao.
In purfuance of this plan, they failed along the
coaft of Kamtfchatka, till they came to the fouthern
point called Cape Lopatkat whofe fituation they deter¬
mined to be in Lat. 51. o. E. Long. 156. 45. To the
north-weft they obferved a very lofty mountain whofe
fummit was loft in the clouds j and the fame inftant
the firft of the Kurile iflands, named Shoomfha, made
its appearance in the dire&ion of weft, half fouth.
The paffage betwixt the fouthern extremity of Cape
Lopatka and the ifland of Shoomflca, though only one
league in breadth, is extremely dangerous, both on ac¬
count of the rapidity of the tides, and of the funk rocks
which lie off the cape. In the courfe of this voyage,
they had occafion to obferve, that a violent fwell from
the north-eaft frequently took place, though the wind
had been for fome time in the weftern quarter $ a cir- Cook'4
cumftance for which they feem to have been altogether Difc°veri«
unable to account. Co"p>
The tempeftuous weather which now occurred, pre 1 , ' '
vented any difcoveries from being made among the
Kurile ifles 5 however, they again failed over the fpace
afligned to the land of De Gama, without being able
to find it; and from comparing feveral accounts of
the Ruffian navigators with one another, it was judged
extremely probable, that the land of Jefo, fo frequent¬
ly laid down in former maps, is no other than the moft
foutherly of the Kurile ifles. On coming in view of
the coaft of Japan, they had the mortification to find
that they could not approach the land by reafon of
the tempeftuous weather and bad ftate of the (hips ; the
coafts of thefe iflands being extremely dangerous. Faf¬
fing from thence in quell of the Balhee iflands, they
found amazing quantities of pumice-ftone floating in
the fea $ fo that they feemed inclined to believe, with
Mr Muller, that if there had formerly been any part
of the continent, or large ifland, called the Land of
fefo, it mull have difappeared in a volcanic convul-
lion $ which alfo mull have been the cafe with that
called the Company's Land and Staten ijland. Though
they had not the good fortune to find the Balhee
iflands, they difcovered one in 24. 48. N. Lat. 141.
20. E. Long, which from its appearance, and tite
fulphureous fmell emitted by it, they named Sulphur
ijland. After this nothing remarkable occurred till
their arrival at Canton in China, where, having ftaid
for fome time in order to put their Ihips in repair,
they at laft fet fail for Britain $ but through llrefs
of weather were driven as far north as Stromnefs in
Orkney. From thence Captain Gore fent a difpatch
to the lords of the admiralty to inform them of his ar¬
rival } and on the 4th of Odlober 1780 the Ihips reach¬
ed the Nore, after an abfence of four years, two
months, and twenty-two days.
COOKERY, the art of preparing and drelfing vic¬
tuals for the table : An art in its fimpleft and ordi¬
nary modes, fufficiently familiar to every houfe-keeperj
and, in its luxurious refinements, too copioufly detail¬
ed in manuals and direftories publilhed for the purpofe,
to require any enlargement here, were it even a topic
that at all deferved confideration in a work of this na¬
ture.
COOLERS, in Medicine, thofe remedies which were
fuppofed to produce an immediate fenfe of cold, being
fuch as have their parts in lefs motion than thofe of
the organs of feeling j as fruits and all acid liquors.
Or they are fuch as were fuppofed, by a particular vif-
cidity or groffnefs of parts, to give the animal fluids a
greater confiftency than they had before, and confe-
quently retard their motion, having lefs of that intef-
tine force on which their heat depends: this property
was afcribed to cucumbers and fimilar fubftances.
COOM, a term applied to the foot that gathers over
an oven’s mouth ; and alfo to the black, greafy fub-
ftance, which works out of the wheels of carriages.
COOMB, or Comb of corn, a dry meafure contain¬
ing four bulhels, a half or quarter.
COOP, in Hufbandry, a tumbrel or cart enclofed
with boards, and ufed to carry dung, grains, &c.
Coor, is alfo the name of a pen, or enclofed place
4 M a wher«
c o
Cooper, where lambs, poultry, &c
v*“ be fed.
COOPER, an artificer who makes calks, coops
tubs and barrels, and all kinds of wooden velfels which
are bound together with hoops. It would appear,
that the art of the cooper is of great antiquity, and
foon attained all the perfection which it at prefent pof-
fefies.
But although this art is very ancient, there are fome
.countries in which it is yet unknown 3 and in other
countries from the fcarcity of wood, or from fome
other caufes, earthen veflels and Ikins lined with pitch
are ufed for containing liquors. The Latin word do/ium,
isufually tranfiated “ calk” 3 but it was employed by the
Romans to denote earthen velfels ufed for the lame
purpofes. The word dolare, to “ plane, or fmooth,”
from which dolium is derived, and the word dolariut,
a “ cooper,” may be naturally enough applied, the
former to the conllruCtion of calks, which are made of
feveral pieces of the fame tree planed and fitted for
joining together, and the latter to the artificer him-
felf.
Pliny afcribes the invention of calks to the people who
lived at the foot of the Alps. In his time hey lined
'them with pitch. From the year 70 of the Chriftian
era in the time of Tiberius and Vefpafian the art of
conftrufting veffels of different pieces of wood feems to
have been well known. Indeed, previous to this pe¬
riod, Varro and Columella, in detailing the precepts of
rural economy, fpeak diftin&ly of veffels formed of dif¬
ferent pieces, and bound together with circles of wood
or hoops. The defcription which they have given ac¬
cords exaCHy with the conllruClion of calks. The fa¬
brication of calks, on account of the great abundance
of wood, was probably very early introduced into
France. When this art was firft pra&ifed in Britain
is unknown 3 but it feems not improbable that it was
derived from the French.
The figure of a calk is that of two truncated cones,
or rather conoids, joined together ; for the lines are
not ftraight, as in the cone, but are curved from the
vertex to the bafe. As the place where the junction
feems to take place is the moft capacious, it is com¬
monly called the belly of the calk. In the choice of
wood, old, thick, and ftraight trees are preferred, from
which thin planks are hewn which are to be formed
into ftaves. In France, the wood is prepared in win¬
ter 3 the ftaves and bottoms are then lormed, and they
are put together, or, in the language of the artificer,
the calk is mounted, in fummer. Planing the ftaves
is one of the moft difficult parts of the work 3 and it is
at the fame time one of the moft important in the fa¬
brication of calks. In dreffing ftaves with the plane,
the workman is diredfted to cut acrofs the wood 3 the
reafon of which is probably to prevent the inftrument
following the courfe of the fibres, which may not al¬
ways be in the fame plane with the furface of the
ftave, and thus render it of unequal thicknefs.
In the formation of the ftaves, it ought to be recol-
lefted, that each is to conftitute part of a double co¬
noid. It muft therefore be broadeft at the middle, and
muft gradually become narrower, but not in ftraight
lines, towards the extremities. The outfide of the
ftave, acrofs the wood, muft be wrought into the feg-
ment of a circle 3 and it muft be thickeft near the mid-
O [ 644 ] coo
are flint up in order to die, growing gradually thinner towards the ends.
Great experience, it is obvious, muft be requilite for 1
the nice adjuftment of the different curves to the fize
and fliape of the cafk. Lefs attention, as it is lefs ne-
ceffary, is paid to the rounding or drefling of the in-
fide of the ftave.
After the ftaves are dieffed and ready to be arranged
in a circular form, it might be fuppofed neceffary for
the purpofe of making the feams tight, to trim the thin
edges in fuch a manner, that the contiguous ftaves may
be brought into finn contact throughout the whole
joint, or Hoped fimilar to the arch-ftones of a bridge.
But this is not the pradlice which is ufually followed
by the artificer. Without attempting to Hope them,
fo that the whole furface of the edge may touch in
every point, he brings the contiguous ftaves into con-
ta£l only at the inner lurface 3 and in this way, by
driving the hoops hard, he can make a elder joint
than could be done by Hoping them from the outer to
the inner fide. In this, perhaps, with giving the pro¬
per curvature to the ftaves, confifts the principal part
of the cooper’s art.
Cooper, Anthony-Afhley, firft earl of Shaftefbury,
a moft able itatelman, was the fon of Sir John Cooper,
Bart, of Rockburh in Hampftiire, and was born in
1621. He wTas eledled member for Tewkelhury, at
19 vears of age, in the ftiort parliament that met April
13. 1640. He feems to have been w^ell affedled to the
king’s lervice at the beginning of the civil w’ars 3 for
he repaired to the king at Oxford with offers of affift-
ance : but Prince Maurice breaking articles to a town
in JDorletftiire that he had got to receive him,
furnifhed him with a pretence for going over to the
parliament, from which he accepted a commiffion.
When Richard Cromwell was depofed, and the Rump
came again into powder, they nominated Sir Anthony
one of their council of ftate, and a commiftioner for
managing the army. At that very time he had enga¬
ged in a lecret correfpondence for reftoring Charles II.
and, upon the king’s coming over, was Iworn of his
privy council. He was one of the commiflioners for
the trial of the regicides 3 was foon after made chan¬
cellor of the exchequer, then a commiffioner of the
treafury 3 in 1672 w’as created earl of Shaftefbury 3
and foon after was raifed to the poll of lord chancel¬
lor. He filled this office with great ability and inte¬
grity 3 and though the Ibort time he was at the helm
was in a tempeftuous feafon, it is doing him juftice to
fay, nothing could either diftraft or affright him.
The great feal was taken from him in 1673, 12 months
after his receiving it 3 but, though out of office, he ftill
made a diftinguiihed .figure in parliament, for it was
not in his nature to remain inactive. He drew upon
himfelf the implacable hatred of the duke of York, by
fleadily promoting, if not originally inventing, the fa¬
mous projeft of an exclufion-bill. When his enemies
came into power, he found it neceffary to confult his
fafety, by retiring into Holland, where he died fix
weeks after his arrival, in 1683. While his great abi¬
lities are conftffed by all, it has been his misfortune
to have his hiftory recorded by his enemies, who ftu-
died to render him odious. Butler has given a very
fevere character of him in his Hudibras.
Cooper, Anthony AJhley, earl of Shaftefbury, was
fon of Anthony earl of Shaftefbury, and grandfon of
Anthony
Cooper.
-
GOO
[ 645 1
COO
Cooper. Anthony firft earl of Shaftefbury, lord high cnancel-
 ' lor of England. He was born in 1671, at Exeter-
houfe in London, where his grandfather lived, who
from the time of his birth conceived fo great an aftec-
tion for him, that he undertook the care of his educa¬
tion ; and he made fo good a progrefs in learning,
that he could read with eale both the Latin and Greek
languages when only 11 years old. In 1683, his fa¬
ther carried him to the fchool at Winchelter, where he
was often mlulted on his grandfather s account, whofe
N memory was odious to the zealots for defpotic power .
he therefore prevailed with his father to confent to his
delire of going abroad. After three years ftay abioad,
he returned to England in' 1689, and was offered a
feat in parliament in fome of thofe boroughs where his
family had an intereft. But this offer he did not now
accept, that he might not be interrupted in the courie
of his ftudies, which he profecuted five years more
wuth great vigour and fuccefs *, till, on Sir John I ren-
chard’s death, he was defied burgefs for Pool. Soon
after his coming into parliament, he had an opportu¬
nity given him of exprelfing that fpirit of liberty by
which he uniformly direded his condud on all occa-
fions. It was the bringing in and promoting “ the
ad for regulating trials in cafes of high treafon.”
But the fatigues of attending the houfe of commons
in a few years fo impaired his health, that he was ob¬
liged to decline coming again into parliament after the
diffolution in 1698. He then went to Holland, where
the converfation or IMr Bayle, Mr le Clerc, and feve-
ral other learned and ingenious men, induced him to
refide a twelvemonth. During this time, there was
printed at London, in 8vo. an imperfect edition of
Lord Alhley’s Inquiry concerning Virtue. It had been
furreptitioufly taken from a rough draught, fketched
when he was no more than 20 years of age. His lord-
fhip, who was greatly chagrined at this event, immedi¬
ately bought up the impreffion before many books wTere
fold, and fet about completing the trCatile, as it af-
terwards appeared in the fecond volume of the Charac-
teriilics. Soon after Lord Alhley’s return to Eng¬
land, he became, by the deceaie of" his father, earl of
Shaftefburv. But his own private affairs hindered
him from attending the houfe of lords till the fe¬
cond year of his peerage, when he was very earneft
to fupport King William’s meafures, who was at that
time projecting the grand alliance. So much was he
in favour wuth K’.ng William, that he had the offer of
fecretary of ftate y but his declinijig.uonffitution would
not allow him to accept it. Though he was difahled
from engaging in bufinefs, the king confulted him on
matters of very high importance •, and it is pretty well
knowm that he had the greateft lhare in cpmpofmg that
celebrated laft fpeech of King William, December 31.
jjoi. On Queen Anne’s acceflion to the throne, he
returned to his retired manner of life, being no longer
advifed with concerning the public ; and was then re¬
moved from the vice-admiralty of Dorfet, which had
been in the family for three generations. In 1703, he^
made a fecond journey to Holfffnd, and returned to
England the year following. The French prophets,
foon after this, having by their enthufiaftic extravagan¬
cies made a great noife throughout the nation, and,
among different opinions, fome advifing a profecution,
the lord Shaftelbury apprehended that fuch meafures
tended rather to inflame than to cure the difeafe. T his Cooper,
was the origin of his Letter concerning Enthufiaim,
which he lent to Lord Somers, then preiident of the
council} and which being approved of by that noble¬
man and other gentlemen to whom it was ihown, w as
publiflied in 1708, though without the name of the
author, or that of the perlon to whom it was addrefied.
His Moraliff, a philofophical Rhapiody, beaig a reci¬
tal of certain converlations on natural and moral (ub-
jeCls, appeared in January 1709 •, and in the May fol¬
lowing his Senfus Communis, an effay upon the freedom
of Wit and Humour, in a Letter to a Frieqd. It was
in the fame year that he entered into the marriage ffate
with Mrs Jane Ewer, the youngeil daughter of Tho¬
mas Ewer, Elq. of Lee in tdertfordffnre. By this la¬
dy, to whom his lordlhip was related, he had an only
fon, Anthony the late earl of Shafteffiury. In 1710,
his Soliloquy, or Advice to an Author, was publiftied
at London in 8vo. While he was thus employing
himfelf in literary compofition, his health declined (o
faff, that it was recommended to him to leek afliftar.ee
from a warmer climate. Accordingly, in July
he fet out for Naples, and purluing his journey by way
of France, was obliged to pal's through the duke ot
Berwick’s army, which at that time lay encamped near
the borders of Piedmont. Here he was entertained by
that famous general in the moft friendly manner, and
every affitlance was given him to conduft him in lafety
to the duke of Savoy’s dominions. Our noble author’s
removal to Italy was of no fervice to the re-effablifh-
ment of his health ; for after having refided at Naples
about a year and a half, he departed this life on the
qr.h of February, O. S. 1712-13, in the qzd year of
his age. The only pieces which he finifhed after he
came to this city, were the Judgment of Hercules,,
and the Letter concerning Defion, w'hich laft was add¬
ed to that impreflion of the Chara&eriftics which ap¬
peared in 1732* It was in l^ii that the fiiil edition
was publiftied of all the CharadteriHics together, and
in the order in which they now ftand. But this pub¬
lication not being entirely to his lordlhip’s iatist;:<5V.on,
he chiefly employed the latter part of his life in prepa¬
ring his writings for a more elegant edition ; wmch
was given to the world in 1713’ ^oon ^ftcr his deceafe.
The feveral prints that were then firft interfperfed
through the volumes were all invented by himfelf, and
defigned under his immediate iiffpeftion y and foi this
purpofe he was at the pains of drawing up a molt ac¬
curate fet of inftrmftions, the manufeript of which is
ftill preferved in the family. That no miltakes might
be committed, the earl did not leave to any other
hands fo much as the drudgery of corredfing the prefs.
In the three volumes of the Charadteriftics of Men,
Manners, Opinions, and Times, he completed the
whole of his works which he intended for the public
eye. Not long before his death he had formed a
-fcdTPme of writing a difeourfe on painting, fculpture,
and the othes-wts of d^ign, which, if he had lived to
have finifhed it, might have proved a very pleafing
and ufeful work, as he had a fine tafte in lubjecls of that
kind : but his premature deceaie prevented his making,
any great progrefs in the undertaking. The earl of
Shaftefbury had an efteem for the works of the belt
Enghfh divines j one remarkable mlfance of which was
difulayed in his writing a Preface to a volume of Dr
J Whichcot’s
COO [646
Cooper. Whichcot’s Sermons, publiftied in 1698. Copies of
thefe fermons had been taken in fliort-hand, as they
were delivered from the pulpit j and the earl had fo
high an opinion of them, that he not only introduced
them to the world by his preface, but had them print¬
ed under his own particular infpeftion. In his Letters
to a Young Man at the Univerfity, he fpeaks of Bi-
Ihop Burnet and Dr Hoadly in terms of great applaufe,
and has done juftice to the merits of Tillotfon, Bar-
Chillingworth, and Hammond, as the chief pil-
G O 0
Jars of the church againft fanaticifm. But whatever
xegard his lordfhip might have for fome of our divines,
it was to the writings of antiquity that his admiration
was principally diredled. Thefe were the conftant ob¬
jects of his ftudy, and from them he formed his fyftem
of philofophy, which was of the civil, focial, and
theiftic kind.
Of Lord Shaftefbury’s chara&er, as a writer, differ¬
ent accounts have been given. As one of his greateft
admirers, may be mentioned Lord Monboddo ; who,
fpeaking of his Rhapfodift: in particular, does not hefi-
tate to pronounce it not only the beft dialogue in Eng-
lifh, out of all degree of comparifon, but the fublimeft
philofophy j and, if we will join with it the Inquiry,
the completed fyftem both of morality and theology,
that we have in our language, and, at the fame time,
of the greateft beauty and elegance for the ftyle and
compofttion.
Even feveral of the authors who have diftinguifhed
themfelves by their direft oppofttion to many of the
fentiments which occur in the Charafteriftics, have ne-
verthelefs mixed no fmall degree of applaufe with their
cenfures. “ I have again perufed, with frefti pleafure
and frefh concern (fays Mr Balguy, in his Letter to a
Deift), the volumes of Charafteriftics—I heartily wifti
the noble author had been as unprejudiced in writing
as I was in reading. If he had, I am perfuaded his
readers would have found double pleafure and double
inftruttion. It feems to me, that his lordftiip had little
or no temptation to purfue any Angularities of opi¬
nion by way of diftinftion. His fine genius would fuf-
ficiently have diftinguifhed him from vulgar authors in
the high road of truth and fenfe; on which account
his deviations feeln the more to be lamented. The pu¬
rity and politenefs of his ftyle, and the delicacy of his
fentiments, are and muft be acknowledged by all read¬
ers of tafte and fincerity. But neverthelefs, as his beau¬
ties are not eafy to be overlooked, fo neither are his
blemifties. His works appear to be ftained with fo
many grofs errors, and his fine thoughts are fo often
mingled with abfurdities, that however we may be
charmed with the one, we are forced to condemn the
other.” Mr Balguy hath farther obferved, with re¬
gard to the Inquiry concerning Virtue, which is the
immediate objeft of his animadverfion, that though he
cannot agree in every particular contained in it, he
finds little more to do than to tell how much he ad¬
mires ; and that he thinks it indeed, in the main, a
performance fo juft and exaft as to deferve higher prai-
fes than he is able to give it.
Dr Brown, in his effay on the Chara&eriftics, ob-
ferves, that the earl of Shafteftmry hath in that per¬
formance mingled beauties and blots, faults and ex-
-cellencies, with a liberal and unfparing hand. At the
fame time, the do&or applauds that generous fpirit of
1
freedom which (bines throughout the whole. Another Cooper,
direft antagonifl of the earl of Shafteftmry, Dr Le- v——
land, has oblerved, that no impartial man will deny
him the praife of a fine genius. “ The quality of the
writer (continues the doftor), his lively and beautiful
imagination, the delicacy of tafte he hath (hown in
many inftances, and the graces and embellifliments of
his ftyle, though perhaps fometimes too affefted, have
procured him many admirers. To which may be add¬
ed his refined fentiments on the beauty and excellency
of virtue, and that he hath often fpoken honourably of
a juft and good Providence, which minifters and go¬
verns the whole in the beft manner *, and hath ftrong-
ly ‘aflerted, in oppofition to Mr Hobbes, the natural
difference between good and evil; and that man was
originally formed for fociety, and the exercife of mu¬
tual kindnefs and benevolence j and not only fo, but
for religion and piety too. Thefe things have very
much prejudiced many perfons in his favour, and pre¬
pared them for receiving, almoft implicitly, whatever
he hath advanced.” Dr Johnfon, as we are informed
by Sir John Hawkins, bore no good-will to Lord
Shafteftmry j neither did he feem at all to relifti the
cant of the Shaftefburian fchool, nor inclined to ad¬
mit the pretenfions of thofe who profeffed it, to taftes
and perceptions svhich are not common to all men $ a
tafte in morals, in poetry and profe writing, in paint¬
ing, in fculpture, in mufic, in architeflure, and in go¬
vernment ! A tafte that cenfured every produftion,
and induced them to reprobate every effort of genius
that fell (hort of their own capricious ftandard.
The grand point in which our noble author has ren- Slog. Brit:
dered himfelf juftly obnoxious to the friends of reli-vol. iv.
gion, is his having interfperfed through the Characte-
riftics a number of infinuations that appear to be unfa¬
vourable to the caufe of revelation. There have not
however been wanting many among his admirers, who
have thought that he ought not to be reckoned among
the deiftical writers. The author of animadverfions
upon Dr Brown’s three Effays on the Charadteriftics,
obferves, that it is “ imprudent, to fay no worfe, in
fome fincere advocates for Chriftianity, to rejeft the
friendly advice and afliftance of fo mafterly a writer as
the lord Shaftefbury, and to give him up to the Deifts
as a patron of infidelity.” But it is matter of faft,
and not confiderations of prudence or imprudence, that
muft determine the queftion. In fupport of his lord-
(hip’s having been a believer in our holy religion, may
be alleged, his Preface to Whichcot’s Sermons, and his
Letters to a Student at the univerfity : in both which
works he conftantly expreffes himfelf in fuch language
as feems to indicate that he was really a Chriftian.
And wdth regard to the letters, it may be remarked,
that they were written in 1707, 1708, and 1709, not
many years before his lordlhip’s death. Neverthelef?,
there are in the Charadleriftics fo many fceptical paf-
fages, that he muft be confidered as having been a
doubter at lead, if not an abfolute difbeliever, with
refpeft to revelation. But if he muft be ranked a-
mong the Deifts, wx agree with the obfervation of
one of his biographers,- that he is a very different Deift
from numbers who have appeared in that chara&er $
his general principles being much lefs exceptionable.
The ftyle of Lord Shaftelbury’s compofitions is alfo
a point upon which various and pontradiftory fenti¬
ments
coo
[ 647 ]
COP
Cooper, ments have been entertained. But for the fulleft and
•""""v 1 moft judicious criticifm that has appeared upon that
fubjeft, we may refer the reader to Dr Blair’s Lec¬
tures on Rhetoric and Belles Lettres, vol. i. p. ip2*
193, 207, 208, 234, 263, and 396—398.
Cooper, Samuel, a very eminent Englilh miniature
painter, born in 1609* atid bred under the care of
his uncle John Holkins. He derived, however, his
principal excellence from a ftudy of the works of Van-
dyck, in whofe time he lived ; infomuch that he was
commonly ftyled “ Vandyck in little.” His pencil was
chiefly confined to the head, in which, wflth all its de¬
pendencies, efpecially the hair, he was inimitable j but
if he defcended lower his incorre£lnefs was notorious.
He died in 1672 ; and his pieces are univerfally ad¬
mired all over Europe, felling for incredible prices.—-
He had a brother, Alexander, likewife a good minia¬
ture painter, who became limner to Chriltina queen
of Sweden.
Cooper, Thomas, a pious and learned prelate in
the reign of Queen Elizabeth, was born at Oxford a-
bout the year 1517- He was educated in the fchool
adjoining to Magdalene college, of which he was a cho-
rifter, where alfo, in 1539, he was ele&ed probation¬
er, and fellow in the following year. About the year
1546, quitting his fellowfhip, he applied himfelf to the
ftudy of phyfic, in 1556 took the degree of bachelor in
that faculty, and pradtifed as phyfician at Oxford. Be¬
ing inclined to the Proteftant religion, probably this
was only a prudent fufpenfion of his final intentions
during the popifh reign of Queen Mary *, for, on the
acceflion of Elizabeth, he refumed the ftudy of divini¬
ty, became a celebrated preacher, was made dean of
Chrift-church, and vice-chancellor of the univerfity,
having accumulated the degrees of bachelor and doc¬
tor in divinity. In 1569 he was made dean of Glouce-
fter; and, theyearfollowing, bifhop ofLincoln: whence,
in 1584, he was tranflated to the fee of Winchefter,
in which city he died on the 29th of April 1594’ and
was buried in the cathedral there, on the fouth fide of
the choir. The feveral writers who have mentioned
Dr Cooper, unanimoufly give him the charadler of an
eloquent preacher, a learned divine, and a good man.
He had the misfortune, while at Oxford, to marry a
lady whofe gallantries became notorious : neverthelefs
he would not be divorced from her •, knowing that he
could not live without a wife, he did not choofe “ to
charge his confcience with the fcandal of a fecond
marriage.”—He wTrote, 1. The Epitome of Chronicles
from the 17th year after Chrift to 1540, and thence
after to 1560. 2. Thefaurus lingua Romance et Bri-
Sannicce. This dictionary, which is an improvement
upon Elyot’s, was much admired by Queen Elizabeth,
who thenceforward determined to promote the au¬
thor. 3. A brief expofition of fuch chapters of the
Old Teftament as ufually are read in the church, at
common prayer, on Sundays throughout the year.
4. An admonition to the people of England. 5. Ser¬
mons.
Cooper, John Gilbert, a polite writer of the pre-
fent age, was born in 1723 5 and was defcended from
an ancient family in the county of Nottingham, whofe
fortune was injured in the laft century by their at¬
tachment to the principles of monarchy. He refided
at Thurgarton priory in Nottinghamfliire, which was
granted by King Henry VIII. to William Cooper, one
of his anceftors. This manfion Mr Cooper inherited
from his lather, w'ho in 1639 was high Iherift of the
county j and tranfmitted it to his fon, who filled the
fame re fpeddable office in 1783. After paffing through
Weftminfter fchool under Dr John Nicoll, along with
the late Lord Albemarle, Lord Buckinghamffiire, Ma¬
jor Johnfon, Mr George Aftiby, and many other emi¬
nent and ingenious men, he became in 1743 a fellow-
commoner of Trinity-college, Cambridge, and refided
there two or three years j but quitted the univerfity
on his marriage with Sufanna the daughter of William
Wrighte, Efq ; fon to the lord keeper of that name,
and recorder of Leicefter 1729—1763. In theyear
1745 he commenced author by the publication of The
Power of Harmony, a poem in qto *, and in 1746 and
1747 he produced feveral Effays and Poems under the
fignature of Philalethes, in a periodical work called
The Mufeum, publiffied by Mr Dodfley. In the fame
year he came forward as an author, with his name, by
a work which received much affiftance from his friend
the Reverend John Jackfon of Leicefter,-who commu¬
nicated feveral learned notes, in which he contrived to
manifeft his diflike to his formidable antagonift Mr
Warburton. It was entitled The Life of Socrates,
colle&ed from the Memorabilia of Xenophon, and the
Dialogues of Plato, and illuftrated farther by Ari-
ftotle, Diodorus Siculus, Cicero, Proclus, Apuleius,
Maximus Tyrius, Boethius, Diogenes Laertius, Au-
lus Gellius, and others, 1749, 8vo. In this work Mr
Cooper gave evident marks of fuperior genius; warm,
impetuous, and impatient of reftraint. In 1754, Mr
Cooper publiflied his Letters on 1 afte, 8vo 5 an ele¬
gant little volume, on which no fmall ffiare of his re¬
putation is founded^ and in I755> The Tomb of
Shakefpeare, a Vifion, 410j a decent performance, but
in which there is more of wit and application than of
nature or genius. In 1756 he affifted Mr Moore, by
writing fome numbers of the World ; and attempted
to roufe the indignation of his countrymen againft the
Heffians, at that jun&ure brought over to defend the
nation, in a poem called the Genius of Britain, ad-
drefled to Mr Pitt. In 1758, he publiffied Epiftles to*
the Great, from Ariftippus in Retirement, 4to ; and
The Call of Ariftippus, Epiftle IV. to Mark Akenfide,
M. D. Alfo, A Father’s Advice to his fon, in 410.
In the Annual Regifter of the fame year is his Tranfla-
tion of an Epiftle from the King of Pruffia to Monfieur
Voltaire. In 1759, he publiffied Ver Vert j or the
Nunnery Parrot; an Heroic Poem, in four cantos, in-
fcribed to the Abbefs of D*** *, tranflated from the
French of Monfieur Greffet, 4to ; reprinted in the firft
volume of Dilly’s Repofitory, X777 > an^» 17^4>
Poems on feveral fubje&s, by the Author of the Life
of Socrates 5 with a prefatory Advertisement by Mr
Dodfley. In this little volume were included all the
feparate poetical pieces which have been already men¬
tioned, excepting Ver Vert, which is a fprightly com-
pofition. Mr Cooper died at his father’s houfe in
May Fair, after a long and excruciating illnefs ari-
firig from the-ftone, April 14th I7^9‘
CO-ORDINATE, fomething of equal order, rank,-
or degree with another.
COOT. See Fulica, Ornithology Index.
COPAIBA, qv Balfam of Qoymm, a liquid refi-
nous
Cooper
II
Copaiba.
11 n-...—■wf
COP
Copaifera
II
Cjpenlia-
gcn.
f 648 1
COP
nous juice, flowing from incxfions made in the trunk
of the copaifera balfamum. See Materia Medica
Index.
COPAIFERA, in Botany : A genus belonging to
the decandria clafs of plants. See Botany Index.
COPAL, improperly called gum copal, is a gum of
the refinous kind brought from New Spam, being the
concrete juice of the Rhus Copa/linum. It is employed as
a varniih. See Varnishing and Chemistry Index.
COPARCENARY, the lhare or quota of a copar¬
cener.
COPARCENERS, (from cow part'ceps, “ part¬
ner i”), or Parceners ; fuch as have equal portions
jn the inheritance of their anceftor.
Coparceners are fo either by law or cuftom. Co¬
parceners by law, are the iflue female ; which, in de¬
fault of a male or heir, come equally to the lands of
their anceilors. Coparceners by cuftom, are thofe
who, by fome peculiar cuftom of the country, chal¬
lenge equal parts in fuch lands •, as in Kent, by the
cuftom of gavelkind. The crown of England is not
fubjefl to coparcenary.
COPE, an ecclefiaftical onfament, ufually worn
by chanters and fubchanters, wLen they officiate in
folemnity. It reaches from the {boulders to the feet.
The ancients called it Pluviale.-—The word is alfo ufed
for the roof or covering of a houfe, &c.
Cope is alfo the name of an ancient cuftom or tri¬
bute due to the king or lord of the foil, out of the
lead-mines in fome part of Derbyftiire ; of which Man-
love faith thus :
Egrefs and regrefs to the king’s highway,
The miners have ; and lot and cope they pay ;
The thirteenth difh of ore within their mine.
To the lord for lot, they pay at meafuring time}
Sixpence a load for cope the lord demands,
And that is paid to the burghmajler's hands.
This word by doomfday-book, as Mr Hagar hath in¬
terpreted it, fignifies a hill : and cope is taken for the
fupreme cover, as the cope of heaven.
COPFL. See Cupel.
COPENHAGEN, the capital of the kingdom of
H-mmark, fituated on the eaftern ftiore of the ifland of
Zealand, upon a fine bay of the Baltic fea, not far
from the ftrait called the Sound. E. Long. 13. o. N.
Lat. 55. 30.
The precife date of the foundation of this city is dif-
puted ; but the moft probable account is, that it took
its rife from a caftle built on the fpot in the year 1168,
as a prote&ion againft the pirates wdiich at that time
fwarmed in the Baltic. The conveniency of the fitua-
tion, and the fecurity afforded by the caftle, foon in¬
duced a number of the inhabitants of Zealand to refort
thither : but it w^as not diftinguifhed by the royal refi-
dence until 1443, during the reign of Chriftopher of
Bavaria } fince wLich period it has been gradually en¬
larged and beautified, and is become the capital of
J)enmark.
Copenhagen is the beft built city of the north ; for
although Peterfburgh excels it in fuperb edifices, yet,
as it contains no wmoden houfes, it does not difplay
that {hiking contraft of meannefs and magnificence;
but in general exhibits a more equable and uniform ap-
pearance. The town is furrounded towards the land
with regular ramparts and baljions, a broad ditch full Copenlia-
of water, and a few outworks ; its circumference Sen
meafures between four and five miles. The ftreets are,. ^ •
w'ell paved, with a foot-way on each fide, but too nar- > ^ 1
row and inconvenient for general ufe. The greateft
part of the buildings are of brick ; and a few are of
free-ftone brought from Germany. The houfes of the
nobility are in general fplendid, and conftrufted in the
Italian ftyle of architecture : the palace, which was
erected by Chriftian VI. is a large pile of building ;
the front is of ftone, and the wfings of brick ftuc-
coed ; the fuite of apartments is princely ; but the.
external appearance is more grand than elegant.
The bufy fpirit of commerce is vifible in this city,
which contains about 80,000 inhabitants. The haven
is always crowded with merchant (hips: and the ftreets
are interfected by broad canals, which bring the mer-
chandife clofe to the warehoufes that line the quays.
This city owes its principal beauty to a dreadful fire in
1728, that deflroyed five churches and 67 ftreets, which
have been fince rebuilt in the modem ftyle. The new
part of the town, raifed by the late king Frederic V.
is extremely beautiful, fcarcely inferior to Bath. It
confifts of an ocftagon, containing four uniform and
elegant buildings of hewn ftone, and of four broad
ftreets leading to it in oppofite direfHons. In the
middle of the area ftands an equeftrian ftatue of Fre¬
deric V. in bronze, as big as life, which coft 8o,oool.
The Royal Mufeum, or Cabinet of Rarities, merits
the attention of travellers. This collection, which
was begun by Frederic III. is depofited in eight apart¬
ments, and ranged in the following order : animals,
ftiells, minerals, paintings, antiquities, medals, dreffes,
firms and implements of the Laplanders.
Part of Copenhagen, which is called Chriflianflafen,
is built upon the Ifle of Amak, w'hich generally at¬
tracts the curiofity of foreigners; (fee Amak). From
this place, to which the main city is joined by a
bridge, the markets are fupplied with fowl, beef, mut¬
ton, venifon, corn, and culinary vegetables, which are
produced here in the greateft abundance.
COPER NICAN, in general, fomething belonging
to Copernicus. Hence
Copernican Sy/lem or Hypothejis, that fyftem of the
wrorld wherein the fun is fuppoled to reft in the cen¬
tre, and the planets, with the earth, to move in ellip-
fes round him. See Copernicus.
COPERNICUS, Nicolaus, an eminent aftronomer,
was born at Thorn in Pruflia, Jan. 10. 1472. Fie
was taught the Latin and Greek languages at home ;
and afterwards fent to Cracovia, where he fludied
philofophy and phyfic. His genius in the mean time
wras naturally turned to mathematics, which he pur-
fued through all its various branches. He fet out for
Italy when he w’as 23 years of age ; but ftaid at Bo-
nonia fome time, for the fake of being with the cele¬
brated aftronomer of that place, Dominicus Maria :
whofe converfation, how’ever, and company, he affeft-
ed, not fo much as a learner, as an affiftant to him in
making his obfervations. From thence he paffed to
Rome, where he was no fooner arrived than he was
confidered as not inferior to the famous Regiomonta¬
nus; and acquired, in fliort, fo great a reputation, that
he was chofen profeffor of mathematics, which he
taught for a long time with great applaufe. He alfo
paade
COP i 649 J COP
Copernicus, made fome aftronomical obfervations tb^re about the
w”—"v year 1500. Returning to his own country fome years
after, he began to apply his vaft knowledge in mathe¬
matics to correft the fyftem of aftronomy wdiich then
prevailed. He fet himfelf to collefl all the books
which had been written by philofophers and aftrono-
mers, and to examine all the various hypothefes they
had invented for the folution of the celeftial pheno¬
mena ) to try if a more fymmetrical order and confti-
tution of the parts of the world could not be difcover-
ed, and a more juft and exquifite harmony in its mo¬
tions eftabliftted, than wdiat the aftronomers of thofe
limes fo eafily admitted. But of all their hypothefes
none pleafed him fo well as the Pythagorean, which
made the fun to be the centre of the fyftem, and fup-
pofed the earth to move not only round the fun, but
round its own axis alfo. He thought he difcerned much
beautiful order and proportion in this ; and that all
that embarraffment and perplexity from epicycles and
excentrics, which attended the Ptolemaic hypothefis,
wmuld here be entirely removed.
This fyftem, then, he began to confider, and to write
upon, when he was about 35 years of age. He em¬
ployed himfelf in contemplating the phenomena care¬
fully •, in making mathematical calculations; in exa¬
mining the obfervations of the ancients, and in making
new ones of his own ; and after more than 20 years
chiefly fpent in this manner, he brought his fcheme to
perfeftion, and eftablifhed that fyftem of the world
which goes by his name, and is now univerfally re¬
ceived, (fee Astronomy Index). His fyftem, how¬
ever, was then looked upon as a moft dangerous here-
fy $ for which he was throwm into prifon by Pope
Urban VIII. and not fuffered to come out till he had
recanted his opinion j that is, till he had renounced
the teftimony of his fenfes. He died the 24th of May
1543, in the 70th year of his age.
7’his extraordinary man had been made canon of
Worms by his mother’s brother, Lucas Wazelrodius,
who was bilhop of that place. He was not only the
greateft of aftronomers, but a perfeft mafter of the
Greek and Latin tongues •, to all which he joined the
greateft piety and innocence of manners.
The following is the account of the difcoveries of
Copernicus by Dr Smith, in his EJfays on Philofophical
' Subjecls.
“ The confufion (fays Dr Smith) in which the old
hypothefis reprefented the heavenly bodies, was, as Co¬
pernicus himfelf tells us, what firft fuggefted to him the7
defign of forming a new fyftem, that thefe, the nobleft
works of nature, might no longer appear devoid of that
■harmony and proportion which difcover themfelves in
her meaneft produdlions. What moft of all difiatisfied
him was, the notion of the equalizing circle, which, by
reprefenting the revolutions of the celeftial fpheres as
•equable only when furveyed from a point that was dif¬
ferent from their centres, introduced a real inequality
into their motions; contrary to that moft natural, and
indeed fundamental idea, with which all the authors of
aftronomical fyftems, Plato, Eudoxus, Ariftotle, even
Hipparchus and Ptolemy themfelves, had hitherto fet
out, that the real motions of fuch beautiful and divine
objedls muft neceffarily be perfectly regular, and go on,
an a manner as agreeable to the imagination as the ob-
^etfls themfelves are to the fenfes. He began to con-
Vca. VI. Part II.
fider, therefore, whether, by fuppofing the heavenly Cope
bodies to be arranged in a different order from that in
which Ariftotle and Hipparchus had placed them, this
fo much fought for uniformity might not be bellowed
upon their motions. To difcover this arrangement
he examined all the obfcure traditions delivered down
to us, concerning every other hypothefis which the
ancients had invented, for the fame purpofe. Pie
found, in Plutarch, that fome Pythagoreans had repre¬
fented the earth as revolving in the centre of the uni-
verfe, like a rvheel round its own axis; and that others,
of the fame feft, had removed it from the centre, and
reprefented it as revolving in the ecliptic like a flar
round the central fire. By this central fire he fuppo-
fed they meant the fun ; and though in this he was
very widely miftaken, it was, it feems, upon this in¬
terpretation that he began to confider how fuch an hy¬
pothefis might be made to correfpond to the appear¬
ances. The fuppofed authority of thofe old philofo¬
phers, if it did not originally fuggeft to him his fyftem,
feems at leaft to have confirmed him in an opinion
which, it is not improbable, he had beforehand other
reafons for embracing, notwithftanding what he him¬
felf would affirm to the contrary.
“ It then occurred to him, that if the earth was fup¬
pofed to revolve every day round its axis, from weft to
eaft, all the heavenly bodies w’ould appear to revolve,
in a contrary direction, from eaft to weft. The diurnal
revolution of the heavens, upon this hypothefis, might
be only apparent ; the firmament, wffiich has no other
fenfible motion, might be perfeftly at reft ; while the
fun, the moon, and the five planets, might have no
other movement befide that eaftward revolution which
is peculiar to themfelves. That, by fuppofing the
earth to revolve with the planets round the fun, in an
orbit, which comprehended within it the orbits of Ve¬
nus and Mercury, but wras comprehended within thofe
of Mars, Jupiter, and Saturn, he could, without the
embarraffment of epicycles, connect together the appa¬
rent annual revolutions of the fun, and the dire<51, re¬
trograde, and ftationary appearances of the planets ;
that while the earth really revolved round the fun on
one fide of the heavens, the fun would appear to re¬
volve round the earth on the other; that while ft.e
really advanced in her annual courfe, he would appear
to advance eaftward in that movement which is peculiar
to himfelf. That, by fuppofing the axis of the earth
to be always parallel to itfelf, not to be quite perpen¬
dicular, but fomewhat inclined to the plane of her or¬
bit, and confequently to prefent to the fun the one
pole when on the one fide of him, and the other when
on the other, he would account for the obliquity of the
ecliptic; the fun’s feemingly alternate progreffion from
north to fouth, and from fouth to north ; the confequent
change of the feafons, and different lengths of days and
nights in the different feafons.
“ If this new hypothefis thus connefled together all
thefe appearances as happily as that of Ptolemy, there
wTere others which it conne<fted together much better.
The three fuperior planets, when nearly in conjunflion
xvith the fun, appear always at the greateft diftance from
the earth; are fmalleft, and leaft fenfible to the eye; and
feem to revolve'forward in their direft motion w’ith the
greateft rapidity. On the contrary, when in oppofi-
tion to the fun, that is, when in their meridian about
4 N midnight,
COP [6s
Copernicus, midnight, they appear neareft the earth, are largeft, and
'     moft fenfible to the eye, and feem to revolve backwards
in their retrograde motion. To explain thefe appear¬
ances, the fyftem of Ptolemy fuppofed each of thefe
planets to be at the upper part of their feveral epicy¬
cles in the one cafe, and at the lower in the other.
But it afforded no fatisfaclory principle of connexion,
which could lead the mind eafily to conceive how the
epicycles of thofe planets, whofe fpheres were fo diftant
from the fphere of the fun, ftiould thus, if one may fay
fo, keep time to his motion. The fyftem of Coperni¬
cus afforded this eaftly ; and like a more fimple machine,
without the afliftance of epicycles, connected together,
by fewer movements, the complex appearances of the
heavens. When the fuperior planets appear nearly in
conjunction with the fun, they are then in the fide of
their orbits, which is almoft oppofite to, and moft di¬
ftant from, the earth, and therefore appear fmalleft and
leaft fenfible to the eye. But as they then revolve in
a direCtion which is almoft contrary to that of the
earth, they appear to advance forward with double ve¬
locity } as a {hip that fails in a contrary direction to
another, appears from that other to fail both with its
own velocity and the velocity of that from which it is
feen. On the contrary, when thofe planets are in op-
pofition to the fun, they are on the fame fide of the fun
with the earth, are neareft it, moft fenfible to the eye,
and revolve in the fame direClion with it j but as their
revolutions round the fun are flower than that of the
earth, they are neceffarily left behind by it, and there¬
fore feem to revolve backwards j as a {hip which fails
flower than another, though it fails in the fame direc¬
tion, appears from that other to fail backwards. After
the fame manner, by the fame annual revolution of the
earth, he conneCled together the direCl and retrograde
motions of the two inferior planets, as W’ell as the fta-
tionary appearances of all the five.
“ Thus far did this new account of things render the
appearances of the heavens more completely coherent
than had been done by any of the former fyftems. It
did this, too, by a more fimple and intelligible, as well
as more beautiful machinery. It reprefented the fun,
the great enlightener of the univerfe, whofe body was
alone larger than all the planets taken together, as ella-
blifhed immoveable in the centre, {bedding light and
heat on all the worlds that circulated around him in
one uniform direClion, but in longer or ftrorter periods,
according to their different diftances. It took away
the diurnal revolution of the firmament, whofe rapidity,
upon the old hypothefis, was beyond what even thought
could conceive. It not only delivered the imagination
from the embarraffment of epicycles, but from the diffi¬
culty of conceiving thefe two oppofite motions going
on at the fame time, which the fyftem of Ptolemy and
Ariftotle bellowed upon all the planets j I mean, their
diurnal weftward^ and periodical eaftward revolutions.
The earth’s revolution round its own axis took away
the neceffity for fuppofing the firft, and the fecond was
eafily conceived when by itfelf. The five planets, which
feem, upon all other fyftems, to be objeCts of a fpecies
by themfelves, unlike to every thing to which the ima¬
gination has been accuftomed, when fuppofed to revolve
along with the earth round the fun, were naturally ap¬
prehended to be objeCls of the fame kind with the earth,
habitable, opaque, and enlightened only by the rays of
o ] c o 'P
the fun. And thus this hypothefis, by claffing them in Copernicus,
the fame fpecies of things, with an objeCl that is of all Cophti. ^
others the moft familiar to us, took off that wonder and
uncertainty which the ftrangeneis and fingularity of
their appearance had excitedand thus far, too, better
anlwered the great end of philofophy.
“ Neither did the beauty and fimplicity of this fyftem
alsne recommend it to the imagination *, the novelty
and unexpeClednefs of that view of nature which it
opened to the fancy, excited more wonder and furprife
than the ftrangeft of thofe appearances, which it had
been invented to render natural and familiar, and thefe
fentiments ftill more endeared it. For though it is the
end of philofophy to allay that wonder which either the
unufual or feemingly disjointed appearances of nature
excite, yet {he never triumphs fo much as when, in or¬
der to conneft together a few, in themfelves perhaps
inconfiderable objects, {he has, if I may fay fo, created
another conftitution of things, more natural indeed, and
fuch as the imagination can more eafily attend to, but
more new, more contrary to common opinion and ex-
pe£lation, than any of thofe appearances themfelves.
As in the inftance before us, in order to conneft to¬
gether fome feeming irregularities in the motions of
the planets, the moft; inconfiderable objefts in the
heavens, and of which the greater part of mankind
have no occafion to take any notice during the whole
courfe of their lives, ftre has, to talk in the hyperbo¬
lical language of Tycho Brahe, moved the earth from
its foundations, ftopt the revolution of the firmament,
made the fun Hand ftill, and fubverted the whole order
of the univerfe.
“ Such were the advantages of this new hypothefis,
as they appeared to its author when he firft invented it.
But though that love of paradox, fo natural to the
learned, and that pleafure which they are fo apt to take
in exciting, by the novelty of their fuppofed difcoveries,
the amazement of mankind, may, notwithftanding what
one of his difciples tells us to the contrary, have had
its weight in prompting Copernicus to adopt this fyf¬
tem ; yet when he had completed his Treatife of Re¬
volutions, and began coolly to confider what a ftrange
doiflrine he was about to offer to the world, he fo
much dreaded the prejudice of mankind againft it,
that, by a fpecies of continence of all others the moft
difficult to a philofopher, he detained it in his clofet
for thirty years together. At laft, in the extremity
of old age, he allowed it to be extorted from him,
but died as foon as it was printed, and before it was
publiffied.”
Copernicus, the name of an aftronomical inftru-
ment, invented by Mr Whifton, to exhibit the motion
and phenomena of the planets, both primary and fe-
condary. It is built upon the Copernican fyftem, and
for that reafon called by his name.
COPHTI, Cophts, or Copti, a name given to
the Chriftians of Egypt, who are of the fe£l of Jaco-
bites.
The critics are extremely divided about the origin
and orthography of the word ; fome write it Cophti,
others Cophtites, Cophtitae, Copts, &c. Scaliger de¬
rives the name from Coptos, an anciently celebrated
towm of Egypt, the metropolis of the Thebaid. Kir-
cher refutes this opinion, and maintains, that the word
originally fignifies “ cut” and “ circumfcribed j” and
was
COP
f 651 ]
COP
was given thefe people by the Mahometans, by way of
reproach, becaufe of their pra£Hce of ciicumcifing .
but P. Sollier, another Jefuit, refutes this opinion.
Scaliger afterwards changed his opinion, and derived
the word from AiywTts, the ancient name of Egypt,
by retrenching the firft fyllable: but this opinion, too,
P. Sollier difputes. John de Leo and others fay, that
the Egyptians anciently called their country K/chtbtb,
or Cibthy from Cibth their firft king, whence Cophtite,
&c. others fay from Cobtim fecond king ot Egypt.
Vanfleb derives the word Copht from Copt, fon of
Mifraim, grandfon of Noah. All thefe etymologies
P. Sollier rejefts, on this principle, that were they true,
the Egyptians ought all equally to be called Cophti;
whereas, in effeft, none but the Chriftians, and among
thofe none but the Jacobites, bear the name, the Mel-
chites not being comprehended under it. Hence he
choofes to derive the word from the name Jacobite^
retrenching the firft fyllable 5 whence Cobite, Cobea,
Copta, and Cophta.
The Cophts have a patriarch who refides at Cairo,
but he takes his title from Alexandria : he has no
archbilhop under him, but 11 or 12 biftiops. The
reft of the clergy, whether fecular or regular, is com*
pofed of the orders of St Anthony, St Paul, and St
Macarius, who have each their monafteries. Befides
the orders of priefts, deacons, and fubdeacons, the
Cophts have likewife archimandrites, the dignity
whereof they confer with all the prayers and ceremo¬
nies of a ftri£l ordination. This makes a confiderable
difference among the priefts ; and befides the rank
and authority it gives them with regard to the religi¬
ous, it comprehends the degree and functions of arch-
priefts. By a cuftom of 600 years (landing, if a prieft
tlefted biftiop be not already archimandrite, that dig¬
nity muft be conferred on him before epifcopal ordi¬
nation. The fecond perfon among the clergy, after
the patriarch, is the titular patriarch of Jerufalem, who
alfo refides at Cairo, becaufe of the few Cophts at Je¬
rufalem ; he is, in effeft, little more than the biftiop
of Cairo: only he goes to Jerufalem every Eafter,
and vifits fome other places in Paleftine near Egypt,
which own his jurifdiftion. To him belongs the go¬
vernment of the Cophtic church, during the vacancy
of the patriarchal fee.
To be eledled patriarch, it is neceffary the perfon
have lived all his life in continence : it is he confers
the biftioprics. To be ele&ed biftiop, the perfon muft
be in the celibate j or, if he has been married, it
muft not be above once. The priefts and inferior mi-
nifters are allowed to be married before ordination}
but are not obliged to it, as Ludolphus erroneoufty
obferves. They have a great number of deacons, and
even confer the dignity frequently on children. None
but the lowed rank among the people commence ec-
clefiaftics •, whence arifes that exceflive ignorance found
among them yet the refpefl of the laity towards
the clergy is very extraordinary. Their office is longer
than the Roman office, and never changes in any
thing: they have three liturgies, wdiich they vary oc-
cafionally.
The monadic life is in great efteem among the
Cophts: to be admitted into it, there is always re¬
quired the confent of the biftiop. The religious
Cophts make a vow of perpetual chaftity j renounce
the world, and live with great aufterity in deferts:
they are obliged to deep in their clothes and their  
girdle, on a mat ftretched on the ground •, and to
proftrate themfelves every evening 150 times, with
their face and breaft on the ground. I hey are all,
both men and women, of the lowTeft clafs of the people }
and live on alms. The nunneries are properly hofpi-
tals } and few enter but widows reduced to beggary.
F. Roderic reduces the errors and opinions of the
Cophts to the following heads : 1. That they put away
their wives, and efpoufe others w’hile the firft are
living. 2. That they have feven facraments, viz. bap-
tifm,1 the eucharift, confirmation, ordination, faith, faff¬
ing, and prayer. 3. That they deny the Holy Spirit to
proceed from the Son. 4. That they only allow of three
oecumenical councils} that of Nice, Conftantinople,
and Ephefus. 5. That they only allow of one nature,^
will, and operation, in Jefus Chrift, after the union ot
the humanity with the divinity. For their errors in
difcipline, they may be reduced, 1. To the pradjce
of circumcifing their children before baptiim, which
has obtained among them from the 12th century,
2. To their ordaining deacons at five years of age.
3. To their allowing of marriage in the fecond degree.
4. To their forbearing to eat blood ; to which fome
add their belief of a baptifm by fire, which they con¬
fer by applying a hot iron to their forehead or cheeks.
 Others palliate thefe errors, and (how that many of
them are rather abufes of particular perfons than
doarines of the fea. This feems to be the cafe with
regard to their polygamy, eating of blood, marrying
in the fecond degree, and the baptifm of fire } for cir-
cumcifion, it is not praaifed as a ceremony of reli¬
gion, nor as of any divine appointment, but merely
as a cuftom which they derive from the Iftimael¬
ites y and which, perhaps, may have had its origin
from a view to health and decency in thofe hot coun¬
tries.
The Cophts, at different times, have made fcveral
reunions with the Latins} but always in appearance
only, and under fome neceflity of their affairs. In the
time of Pope Paul IV. a Syrian was difpatched to
Rome from the patriarch of Alexandria, with letters
to that pope } wherein he acknowledged his authority,
and promifed obedience } defiring a perfon might be
difpatched to Alexandria, to treat about a reunion of
his church to that of Rome ; purfuant to which,
Pius IV. fucceffor to Paul, chofe F. Roderic, a Jefuit,
whom he difpatched in 1561, in quality of apoftolical
nuncio. But the Jefuit, upon a conference with two
Cophts deputed for that purpofe by the patriarch,
was made to know, that the titles of father of fathers,
paftor of paftors, and mafter of all churches, which
the patriarch had beftowed on the pope in his letters,
were no more than mere matters of civility and com¬
pliment } and that it was in this manner the patriarch
ufed to write to his friends ; they added, that fince
the council of Chalcedon, and the eftablilhment of fe-
veral patriarchs independent of one another, each was
chief and mafter of his own church. This was the
anfwer the patriarch gave the pope, after he had re¬
ceived a fum of money remitted to him from Rome,
by the hands of the Venetian conful.
COPHTIC, 01 Coptic, the language of the Cophts,
the ancient language of the Egyptians, mixed with
4 N 2 a
Copliti,
(Japhtic
COP [6
Cophtic a great deal of Greek, the chara&ers it is written
CoJng bein8 Greek. It has a form and conftrudlion
peculiar to itfelf: it has no intkaions of the nouns
or verbs j but exprefles number, cafe, gender, perfon,
mood, tenfe, and poffeffive pronouns, by letters and
particles prefixed.
F. Kircher is the firft who publilhed a grammar and
vocabulary of the Cophtic. There is not known any
book extant in the Cophtic, except tranflations of the
Holy Scriptures, or of ecclefiaftical offices; or others
that have relation thereto, as diftionaries, &c.
I he ancient Cophtic is now no longer found but
in books ; the language now ufed throughout the
country is Arabic. The old Cophtic, which Kircher
maintains to be a mother tongue, and independent of
all others, had been much altered by the Greeks: for
befides that it has borrowed all its chara&ers from the
Greek, with a very little variation, a great number of
the words are pure Greek. Voffius, indeed, afferts,
that there was no Cophtic language till after Egypt
became fubjeft to the Arabs. The language, accord¬
ing to him, is a mixture of Greek and Arabic : the very
name thereof not being in the world till after the Arabs
were mailers of the country. But this, M. Simon ob-
ferves, proves nothing ; except that what was ancient¬
ly called Egyptian, has fince by the Arabs been called
Cophtic, by a corruption of fpeech. There are, it is
true, Arabic words in the Cophtic ; yet this by no
means proves but that there was a language before
that time, either Cophtic or Egyptian. Pietro de la
Valle obferves, that the Cophts have entirely loft
their ancient tongue ; that it is now no longer under-
ftood among them •, that they have nothing extant
therein but fome facred books 5 and that they ftill fay
mafs in it.
All their other books have been tranllated into
Arabic, which is their vulgar tongue ; and this has oc-
cafioned the originals to be loft : it is added, that they
xehearfe the epiftles and gofpels in the mafs twice ;
once in Arabic and once in Cophtic. Indeed, if we
believe F. Vanfleb, the Cophts fay the mafs in Arabic,
all but the epiftles and gofpels, which they rehearfe
both in that and Cophtic.
Cophtic Bible. See Bible.
Cophtic Liturgies are three; one attributed to Bafil,
another to St Gregory, and the third to Cyril : they
are tranllated into Arabic for the ufe of the priefts and
people.
COPIA FA, under the weftern empire, a grave-dig¬
ger.^ In the firft ages of the church there were clerks
deftined for this employment. In the year 3 (jy Con-
ftantine made a law in favour of the priefts copiatte,
i. e. of thofe who had the care of interments; where¬
by _ lie exempts them from the luftral contribution
which all other traders paid. It was under him alfo
that they firft began to be called copiatx, q. d. clerks
ueftined for bodily labour, from jcocto;, or kottu, Jcwdo,
cedo,ferio, “ I cut, beat,” &c. Before that time they
were called decani and leElicarii; perhaps becaufe they
were divided by decades or tens, each whereof had a
bier or litter for the carriage of the dead bodies. Their
place among the clerks was the next in order before
the chantors.
COPING of a wall, the top or cover of a wall,
made {loping to carry off the water.
52 ] COP
Coping over, in Carpentry, a fort of hanging over, Coping
not fquare to its upright, but bevelling on its under 11
fide till it end in an edge. Copy-hold
COPIST, in diplomatic fcience, fignifies a tran.. ^
fcriber or copier of deeds, books, &c.
COPPA, in Law, a cop or cock of grafs, hay, or
corn, divided into titheable portions ; as the tenth
cock, &c. This word in ftriftnefs denotes the ga¬
thering or laying up the corn in cops or heaps, as the
method is for barley or oats, &c. not bound up, that it
may be the more fairly and juftly tithed : and in Kent
they ftill retain the word, a cop or cap of hay, ftraw,
&c.
COPPEL. See Cupel.
COPPER, one of the metals, called by the al-
chemifts Venus, on account of its facility of uniting
with a great number of different metallic fubftances.
Its colour, when pure, is pale red, and its fpecific
gravity from 8.7 to 9.3, which depends not only on
its degree of purity, but alfo on its condenfation by
hammering. See Chemistry Index.
COPPERAS, a name given to the fa&itious ful-
phate of iron. See Chemistry Index.
COPPERPLATE. See Engraving.
COPPICE, or Copse, a little wood, confifting of
under-woods, or fuch as may be raifed either by {ow¬
ing or planting.
COPTOS, in Ancient Geography, a famous trading
town of the Thebais, inhabited by Egyptians and
Arabs, fome diftance from the Nile ; others place it in
a fmall ifland in the Nile, on which, however, it had
a port. Here Ifis, on hearing of the death of Ofiris,
cut one of her locks and put on mourning ; and hence
the name Coptos, fignifying privation. A proof this
of the antiquity of the place. And for this reafon
the Ifiaci, or priefts of Ifis, were bald, according to
Juvenal.
COPULATION, the a£t of generation, or the
congrefs of the male and female, otherwife called coi¬
tion. See Generation.
COPY, in a law fenfe, a tranfcript of a writing or
inftrument, made for the ufe and fatisfa&ion of fome
of the parties concerned, or in order to preferve the
memory thereof.
Copy is alfo ufed for an imitation of any original
w’ork ; particularly a painting, draught, figure, &c.
Copy, among' printers, denotes the manufcript or
original of a book given to print from.
Copr-Hold, a tenure for which a tenant has nothing
to ftiow but the copy of the rolls made by the fteward
of the lord’s court.
It is called a bafe tenure ; becaufe the tenant holds
the land at the will of the lord. However, it is not
fimply at the will of the lord, but accoiding to the cu-
ftom of the manor by which fuch eftate is defcendible,
and the tenant’s heirs may inherit it ; and a copy-hold¬
er, fo long as he does his fervices, and does not break
the cuftom, cannot be ejefted by the lord ; and if he
be, he fliall have trefpafs againft him. See the articles
Tenure and Villenage.
Copy Holder, one who is admitted tenant of lands
or tenements within a manor, which time out of mind,
by ufe and cuftom of the manor, have been demifable,
and demifed to fuch as will take them in fee-fimple
or fee-tail, for life, years, or at will, according to the
cuftom
COP [6.
Gopy-right. cuftom of the manor by copy of court-roll; but is ge-
""vr   nerally where the tenant has fuch ellate either in fee
or for three lives.
Copr-Right, the right which an author may be fup-
pofed to have in his own original literary compofi-
tions; fo that no other perioit, without his leave,
may pmblifh or make profit of the copies. When a
man by the exertion of his rational powers has pro¬
duced an original work, he has clearly a right to
difpofe of that identical work as he pleales \ and any
attempt to take it from him, or vary the difpofition
he has made of it, is an invafion of his right of pro¬
perty. Now the identity of a literary compofition
confifts entirely in the fentiment and the language ;
the fame conceptions, clothed in the fame words,
mull: necelfarily be the fame compofition : and whatever
method be taken of conveying that compofition to the
ear, or to the eye of another, by recital, by writing, or
by printing, in any number-of copies, or at any pe¬
riod of time, it is always the identical w7ork of the
author w'hich is fo conveyed ; and no other man (it
hath been thought) can have a right to convey or
transfer it without his confent, either tacitly or ex-
prefsly given. This confent may perhaps be tacitly
given when an author permits his work to be publhh-
ed without any refer ve of right, and without ftamp-
ing on it any marks of ownerlhip *, it is then a prefent
to the public, like the building of a church, or the lay¬
ing out a new7 highway : but in cafe of a bargain for
a fingle impreflien, or a total fale or gift of the copy¬
right •, in the one cafe the reverfion hath been thought
to continue in the original proprietor; in the other
the whole property, w7ith its exclufive rights, to be
perpetually transferred to the grantee. On the other
hand, it is urged, that though the exclufive right of
the manufcript, and all which it contains, belongs un¬
doubtedly to the owner before it is printed or pub-
IHhed 5 yet from the inftant of publication, the exclu¬
five right of an author or his afligns to the foie com¬
munication of his ideas immediately vanilhes and eva¬
porates 5 as being a right of too fubtile and unfub-
llantial a nature to become the fubje£t of property
at the common law, and only capable of being guard¬
ed by pofitive fiatute and fpecial provifions or the ma-
giftrate.
The Roman law adjudged, that if one man wrote
any thing, though ever fo elegantly, on the paper or
parchment of another, the writing Ihould belong to
the original owner of the materials on which it was
written : meaning certainly nothing more thereby
than the mere mechanical operation of writing, for
which it direfted the fcribe to receive a fatisfaftion :
efpecially as, in works of genius and invention, fuch
as a pidlure painted on another man’s canvas, the
fame law gave the canvas to the painter. We find
no other mention in the law of any property in the
works-of the underftanding, though the fale of litera¬
ry copies, for the purpofes of recital or multiplication,
is certainly as ancient as the times of Terence, Mar¬
tial, and Statius. Neither with us in Britain hath
there been (till very lately) any final determination
upon the right of authors at the common law7. It was
determiued in the cafe of Miller v. Taylor in B. R.
Rafcb. 9. Geo. III. 1760, that an exclufive copy-right
in authors fubfifted by the common law. But after-
3 1 COR
wards, in the cafe of Donaldfon, v. Bechet, before the Coques
houfe of lords, which was finally determined 22d J]epie
February 1774, it was held, that no copy-right fub-. ~
fills in authors, after the expiration of the feveral
terms created by the ftatute 8 Ann. c. 19. This fta-
tute declares, that the author and his affigns lhall
have the whole liberty of printing and reprinting his
works for the term of 14 years, and no longer; and
alfo prote£ts that property by additional penalties and
forfeitures; direfting farther, that, if at the end of
that term, the author himfelf be living, the right fhall
then return to him for another term of the fame dura¬
tion.
COQUES, Gonzalo, an efteemed painter of por¬
traits and converfations, was born at Antwerp in 1618,
and w7as a difciple of the old David Ryckaert ; under
whofe direction he applied himielf diligently to culti¬
vate thofe promifing talents which he pofi'tfTed ; not
only by prablifing the belt rules adminiftered to him
by his inltrudtor, but alfo by ftudying nature with
Angular attention. He was a great admirer of Van-
dyck ; and fixing on the manner of that great artiil as
his model, had the happinefs of fo far fucceeding, that
next to him he was efteemed equal to any other painter
of his time. In the fchool of Ryckaert he had been
accuftomed to paint converfations, and he frequently
compofed fubjefts of fancy like Teniers, Oftade, and
his mailer ; and by that habit he introduced a very
agreeable ftyle of portrait-painting, in a kind of hillo-
rical coverfation, which feemed much more accep¬
table to perfons of talte than the general manner of
painting portraits, and procured him great reputation
and riches. In that way he compofed feveral fine pic¬
tures for King Charles I. and likewife feveral for the
archduke Leopold, and the prince of Orange ; which
latter prince, as a mark of refpeft, prefented Coques
with a rich gold chain, and a gold medal, on which
the bull of that prince was imprefied. He died in
1684. He had an excellent pencil; his portraits were
w7ell defigned, with eafy natural attitudes ; he difpo-
fed the figures in his compofition fo as to avoid confu-
fion or embarrafiment : he gave an extraordinary
clearnefs of colour to his heads and hands; and his
touch was free, firm, and broad, a circumltance very
uncommon in works of a fmall fize.
COQUIMBO, a port town of Chili, in South A-
merica, fituated at the mouth of a river of the fame
name, which difeharges itfelf into the Pacific ocean.
W. Long. 75. 10. N. Lat. 30. 8.
COR caroli, in djlronomy, an extra-conflellated
liar in the northern hemifphere, fituated between the
Coma Berenicis and Vrfa major, fo called by Dr Hal¬
ley in honour of King Charles.
CoK-Hydrcc, a fixed liar of the firlt magnitude, in
the conllellation of Hydra.
CoR-Leonis, in AJlronomy, a fixed liar of the firlt
magnitude in the conftellation Leo.
CoR-meille, a noted plant, common in the highlands
of Scotland. Its roots dried are the fupport of the
highlanders in long journeys, amidll the barren hills
deftitute of the fupports of life ; and a fmall quantity,
like the alimentary powders, will for a long time re¬
pel the attacks of hunger. Infufed in liquor it is an
agreeable beverage, and, like the nepenthe of the
Greeks, exhilarates the mind. From the fimilitude
I of
Goracias
COR [ 6j4 ]
COR
ofTound in the name, it feems to be the fame with
chara, the root difcovered by the foldiers of Caelar at
Dyrrhachium, which fteeped in milk was fuch a relief
to the familhed army. Or we may reafonably believe
it to have been the Caledonian food defcribed by Dio,
of which the quantity of a bean would prevent both
hunger and thirft ; and this, fays the hiltorian, they
have ready for all occafxons.
CORACIAS, the Roller, a genus of birds of the
order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
CORACO-brachialis, in Anatomy, the name of a
mufcle in the arm, ferving to raiie it upwards.
CORACOIDES, in Anatomy, a fmall fliort procefs
of the fcapula. See Anatomy Index.
CORACOMANTES, in antiquity, perfons who
foretold events from their obfervations @n crows.
CORALLINA, or Coral, in Zoology, a genus be¬
longing to the order of vermes zoophyta. See Hel¬
minthology Index.
CORAL Fishery. Red coral is found in the Me¬
diterranean, on the (bores of Provence , from Cape de
la Couronne to that of St Tropez 5 about the ides of
Majorca and Minorca ; on the fouth of Sicily ; on the
coafts of Africa ; and, laftly, in the Ethiopic ocean,
about Cape Negro.
Coral-Stone, a name fora kind of red and white
agate which breaks in veins, and is found in Italy and
fome parts of Saxony. That of Rochlitz in Saxony
is the mod celebrated, and is found in globules which
have a kind of cruft about them.
CORALLINES, a genus belonging to the vermes
zoophyta. See Helminthology Index.
COR ALLODENDRON. See Erythrina, Bo¬
perfons, at the head of whom was the late Frederic
prince of Wales. Captain Coram died in I751 i an(^
was interred, at his own delire, in a vault under the ,
chapel of the Foundling Hofpital.
CORAN, or Alcoran. See Alcoran.
CORAX, the trivial name of a fpecies of Coavus.
See Ornithology Index.
CORANICH, among the Scotch and Irifh, the cu-
ftom of linging at funerals, anciently prevalent in thofe
countries, and (fill praftifed in feveral parts. Of this
cuftom Mr Pennant gives the following account. “ I
had not the fortune to be prefent at any in North
Britain j but formerly aflifted at one in the fouth of
Ireland, where it was performed in the fulnefs of hor¬
ror. The cries are called by the Irifti the ulogohne and
hu/lulu ; two words very expreffive of the found uttered
on thefe occafions j and being of Celtic (lock, etymo-
logifts would fvvear to be the origin of the tXtXvtyai of
the Greeks and ululatus of the Latins. Virgil is very
fond of ufing the laft whenever any of his females are
diftreffed j as are others of the Roman poets, and ge¬
nerally on occafions fimilar to this. It was my fortune
to arrive at a certain town in Kerry at the time that a
perfon of fome diftinftion departed this life ; my cu-
riofity led me to the houfe, uThere the funeral feemed
condufted in the pureft claflical form.
Corftn
Coramchs
^iiodcunquc afpiceret luBus, gem 'itufque fonabant,
Formaque non taciti funens intvs erat.
In (hort, the conclamatio was fet up by the friends in
the fame manner as Virgil defcribes that confequential
of Dido’s death $
tany Index.
CORALLOIDES (frutices). See Eschara
and Keratophyta.
CORAM, Captain Thomas, a gentleman remark¬
ably diftinguiftied by his humanity, was born about
the year 1668, and (pent the early part of his life in
the Ration of mafter of a veffel trading to our colonies.
Afterwards refiding in the eaftern part of the metro¬
polis, among fea-faring peole, where bufinefs often
obliged him to come early into the city, and return
late, he frequently faw young children expofed in the
ftreets through the indigence or cruelty of their pa¬
rents. This excited his compaflion, and induced him
to projeft the foundation of an hofpital for foundlings.
In this humane defign he laboured with indefatigable
diligence for feventeen years j and by his application
procured a number of the nobility and gentry to pa¬
tronize and carry the fcheme into execution, and at
length obtained the royal charter for it. He was alfo
highly inftrumental in promoting the trade of Ameri-
ca, by procuring a bounty upon naval (lores imported
from our colonies. He was likewife eminently con¬
cerned in fetting on foot the colonies of Georgia and
Nova Scotia. His laft charitable defign, in which he
lived to make fome progrefs, was a fcheme for uniting
the North American Indians more clofely to the Bri-
ti(h intereft, by an eftablifhment for the education of
Indian girls. In (hort, he fpent the greateft part of
life in labouring for the public, and experienced a fate
too common in thofe who devote their talents to fuch
laudable purpofes ; being at laft indebted (or fubfiftence
to the voluntary fublcriptions of fome public-fpirited
Lamentis, gemituque,yt fcemineo ululatu
FeBa fremunt.
Immediately after this followed another ceremony, fully
defcribed by Camden in his account of the manners of
the ancient Irilh ; the earneft expoftulations and re¬
proaches given to the deceafed for quitting this wmrld,
where (lie enjoyed fo many bleffings, fo good a hulfeand,
and fuch fine children. This cuftom is alfo of great
antiquity, for Euryalus’s mother makes the fame ad-
drefs to her dead fon.
 Tunc ilia feneBce
Sera mece requies I potuijli reliquere folam,
Crudehs I
But when the time approached for carrying out the
corps, the cry was redoubled,
Tremulis ululatibus athera complent;
a numerous band of females waiting in the outer court
to attend the hearfe, and to pay in chorus the laft tri¬
bute of their voices. The habit of this forrowing
train, and the negleft of their perfons, were admirably
fuited to the occafion j their robes were black and
flowing, refembling the ancient palla } their (eet na¬
ked, their hair long and diftrevelled : I might truly fay,
Ut qui condvBi plorant in fun era, dicunt
Et faciuntpropeplura dolentibus exammo.
The corpfe was carried (lowly along the verge of a
rood beautiful lake, the ululatus was continued, and
the
Corban
i!
Corcelet.
COR [655
the whole proceffion ended among the venerable ruins
of an old abbey.”
, CORBAN, in Jewilh antiquity, were thofe offerings
which had life, in oppofition to the minchab, or thofe
which had not. It is derived from the word iarab,
which fignifies “ to approach j” becaufe the viaims
were brought to the door of the tabernacle. The corban
were always looked upon as the moft facred offerings.
The Jews are reproached with defeating, by means of
the corban, the precept of the fifth commandment,
which enjoins the refpeft due to parents. For when
a child had no mind to relieve the wants of his father
or mother, he would fay to them, “ It is a gift (ro«-
ban} by whatfoever thou mighteft be profited by me
i. e. “ I have devoted that to God which you afk of
me, and it is no longer mine to give.”
Cor.ban is alfo a ceremony which the Mahometans
perform at the foot of Mount Arrafat in Arabia, near
Mecca. It confifts in killing a great number of fheep,
and diflributing them among the poor.
CORBEILS, in Fortification, little bafkets about a
foot and a half high, eight inches wide at the bottom
and twelve at the top j which being filled with earth,
are frequently fet one againft another upon the para¬
pet or elfewhere, leaving certain port holes, from whence
to fire upon the enemy under covert without being
feen by them.
CORBEL, in Archite&ure, the reprefentation of a
bafket, fometimes feen on the heads of caryatides. The
word is alfo ufed for the vafe, or tambour, of the Co¬
rinthian column ; fo called from its refemblance to a
bafket, or becaufe it was firft formed on the model of
a bafket.
Corbel, or Corbil, is alfo ufed, in building, for a
fhort piece of timber placed in a wall, with its end
flicking out fix or eight inches, as occafion ferves, in
manner of a fhouldering-piece. The under part of the
end thus flicking out is fometimes cut into the form of
a boultin j fometimes of an ogee, and fometimes of a
face, &c. according to the workman’s fancy j the up¬
per fide being plain and flat.
Corbel is alfo ufed by fome architefls for a niche
or hollow left in walls for images, figures, or flatues to
Hand in.
CORBET, Richard, bifliop of Norwich, and an
eminent poet, was born at Ewell in Surry, toward
the latter end of the 16th century ; and educated at
Oxford, where he was efteemed one of the mofl cele¬
brated wits of the univerfity. Entering into holy or¬
ders, he became a popular preacher, and was made
chaplain to King James I. : when, after feveral prefer¬
ments in the church, he wras, in 1629, made bifliop
of Oxford j and, in 1632, was tranflated to the fee of
Norwich. He was very hofpitable, and always a ge¬
nerous encourager of public defigns. He died in
1635. There have been feveral editions of his poems
publiftied under the title of Poemata Stromata.
CORBEY, a town of Picardy in France, with a fa¬
mous abbey of Benedi6tine monks. It is feated on the
river Somme, 10 miles call of Amiens, and 75 north
of Paris. E. Long. 2- 35. N. Lat. 49. 55.
CORCELET, in Natural Hfiory, that part of the
fly-clafs which is analogous in its fituation to the breaft
in other animals. Many have called it the breaft in
Cord.
] COR
thefe alfo, but improperly ; becaufe the breaft of other Corchorus
animals is the place of the lungs and trachea, but
thefe organs are in the fly-clafs diftributed through 1
the whole body.
CORCHORUS : A genus of plants belonging to
the polyandria clafs j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 37th order, Columnee. See Botany
Index.
CORCULUM, a diminituve from cor “ the heart,”
little heart $ the effence of a feed, and principle of
life of the future plant, attached to and contained
within the lobes. It confifts of two parts, termed by
Linnaeus Plumula and Rostellum. The former
is the radicula of Grew and other naturalifts. The
corculum is in faft the embryo of the future vegetable;
and is attached by two trunks of veffels to the lobes
at their union. The firft of its two parts mounts up¬
ward, and becomes the trunk. The other ftrikes into
the ground, and is the rudiment of the root. The
lobes and heart of the feed are diftimflly vifible in the
bean, and other feeds of that clafs, efpecially after re¬
maining fome time in water or eaith.
The principle of life is feated either at the fummit
or bafe of the feed. From this circumftance are con-
ftru&ed the two firft claffes in Caefalpinus’s method,
containing trees and ftirubs only.
CORCYRA, in Ancient Geography, an ifland in the
Ionian fea, oppofite to Thefprotia, a diftri£l of E-
pirus, called Schena and Ph&acia by Homer. In Calli¬
machus it is called Drepane; its moft ancient name, ac¬
cording to the Scholiaft, from the curvity of its figure.^
Famous for the ftripwreck of Ulyfles and the gardens ot
Alcinous. Now Corfu.
CorcyrA, a cognominal town of the ifland ; for¬
merly powerful, and capable of coping with mighty
ftates ; fituated about the middle of the eaft fide of
the ifland, called The Town of the Pheeacians by Ho¬
mer. Now Corfu, from the Kojvipw of the middle age,
the name of the citadel. It was a colony of the Co¬
rinthians. Corcyrai, the people. E. Long. 19. 48.
Lat. 39. 50. . .
Corcyra Nigra, an ifland in the Adriatic, on the
coaft of Dalmatia (Pliny) ; called MeUna by the
Greeks, to diftinguilh it from the ifland in the Ionian
fea. The epithet Nigra was added, from its woods of
tall trees with which it is almoft covered. Now Cur-
%ola.
CORD, or Chord, an affemblage of feveral threads
of hemp, cabled or twfifted together by means of a
wheel. See Cordage. The word comes from the
Greek which properly fignifies an inteftine or
gut, of which cords may be made. See Chord.
Magical Cord, an inftrument in great ufe among
the Laplanders, and by them fuppofed to be endued
with a number of virtues. It is a cord or rope with
three knots tied in it. They ufe many magical rites
and ceremonies in the tying of this cord; and, when
thus prepared, it is fuppofed to have power over the
winds ; and they will fell, by means of it, a good wind,
or at leaft the promife of one, to a ftiip. If they un¬
tie only one of thefe knots, a moderate gale fucceeds j
if twm, it is much ftronger : and if three, a florm is
fure to follow.
Cord of Wood, a certain quantity of wood for burn-
ing>
COR [ M ] COR
Cord-wood ing, fo called becaufe formerly meafured with a cord.
I’ The dimenfions of a ftatute cord of wood are eight
, °r e ‘ , feet long, four feet high, and lour feet broad.
v ' Cord-^Too//, is new wrood, and fuch as, when brought
by water, comes on board a veflel, in oppofition to that
which is floated.
CORDAGE, a term ufed in general for all forts
of cord, whether fmall, middling, or great. See
Rope.
The naval cordage of the earlier ages was in all
probability only thongs of leather. Thefe primitive
ropes were retained by the Caledonians in the third
century. The nations to the north of the Baltic had
them in the ninth or tenth centuries : and the inha¬
bitants of the weftern ifles of Scotland make ufe of
them at prefent j cutting the Ikin of a feal, or the raw
and falted hide of a cow, into long pieces, and faften-
ing the plough to their horfes with them, or even twill¬
ing them into ftrong ropes of 20 or 30 fathoms length.
But thefe, in the fouth of our ifland, and on the con¬
tinent, were early fuperfeded by the ufe of iron chains.
The very maritime and commercial nation of the Ve-
neti, that w^ere fo intimately conne&ed with the Bel-
gse of Britain, ufed iron chains for their cables in
the days of Caefar. But in the more diftant and re¬
fined countries of the fouth, both thongs and thefe had
long given place to the ufe of vegetable threads and
the arts of combining them into ftrength. In this
manner the Greeks appear to have ufed the common
rulhes of their country, and the Carthaginians the
fpartum or broom of Spain. And as all the cordage
of the Romans was made of thefe materials at their
laft defcent on our ifland, fo the art of manufa&uring
them would be neceflarily introduced with the Roman
fettlements among the Britons. Under the direftion
of Roman artifts their thongs of leather would natu¬
rally be laid afide, and the junci, or rulhes of the
plains, worked up into cordage. And what remark¬
ably coincides wdth this opinion is, that the remains of
old cables and ropes are Hill diftinguilhed among the
Britilh failors by the name of oldjunk.
The nations of Roman Britain, and the tribes of
Caledonia and Ireland, had inherited, from their ear-
lieft anceftors, many of the ruder arts of navigation.
Their Ihips were large open boats, framed of light
timbers ribbed with hurdles and lined with hides.
Thefe were furnilhed with mails and fails. 1 he lat¬
ter were formed of hides, as the tackle was of thongs.
They were a&ually of hides among the Veneti as late
as the days of Csefar; and they wTere never furled,
but only bound to the mall. But thefe flight fea-boats,
and their rude furniture, would foon be difmifled by
the provincials for the more fubftantial veflels and
more artificial fails of the Romans. The Roman lails,
which w'ere compofed of flax in the days of Agricola,
were afterwards made of hemp •, and our own are
therefore denominated cannabis or canvas by our mari¬
ners at prefent. And about the fame period affuredly
did the junk of the Britifh cordage give way to the
fame materials ; the ufe of hempen lopes upon land,
and of hempen nets for hunting, being very common
among the Romans in the firft century.
CORBATED, an appellation frequently given by
naturalills to things fomewhat reftmbling a heart.
CORDED, in Heraldry. A crofs corded, fome au¬
thors take for a crofs wound or wwenched about with Cofdefcfas
cords: others, with more probability, take it for a crofs II
made of twro pieces of cord. ■ or”'1ua' .
CORDELERAS, mountains of South America,
otherwife called Andes.
CORDELIER, a Francifcan, or religious of the
order of St Francis. The Cordeliers are clothed in
thick grey cloth, with a little cowl, a chaperon, and
cloak of the fame ; having a girdle of rope or cord
tied with three knots : rvhence the name.—They are
otherwife called Minor Friars, their original name.
The denomination Cordelier is faid to have been firft
given them in the war of St Louis again!! the infidels j
wherein the Friars Minor having repulfed the barba¬
rians, and that king having inquired their name, it
was anfwered, they were people cordelier, “ tied with
ropes.” The Cordeliers are to a man profeffed Sco-
tifts.
CORDEMOI, Geralde, a learned philofopher and
hiftorian, born at Paris, made himfelf known to M.
Bofluet, who placed him about the dauphin in the qua¬
lity of reader. He inllrufted that young prince w ith
great afliduity 5 and in 1675 was received into the
French academy. He w'rote a general hiftory of France
during the firft races of the French kings, in twro vols;
and fix difcourfes on the diflinftion between Body and
Soul, wrhich were printed together in 1702 in quarto.
He died in 1684. M. Cordemoi followed the principles
of Defcartes.
CORDIA: A genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 41ft order, ydfperifolice. See Botany
Index.
CORDIAL, in Medicine, whatever raifes thefpirits,
and gives them a hidden ftrength and cheerfulnefs •,
as wine, fpirits, the effluvia of flowers, fruit, and many
other fubftances.
CORDON, in Fortification, a row of ftones, made
round on the outfide, and let between the wall of the
fortrefs which lies allope, and the parapet which ftands
perpendicular, after fuch a manner, that this diflerence
may not be oftenfive to the eye } whence the cordons
ferve onlv as an ornament, ranging round about the
place, being only ufed in fortifications of ftone-work :
for in thofe made with earth the void fpace is filled up
wdth pointed flakes.
CORDUBA, in Ancient Geography, an illuftrious
city of Baetica, on the right or north fide of the Bae-
tis. Built by Marcellus, according to Strabo ; but
which Marcellus is not fo clear. It was the firft co¬
lony fent into thofe parts by the Romans*, and fur-
named Patricia, becaufe at firft inhabited by principal
men, both of the Romans and natives. It is men¬
tioned by Sil. Italicus in the fecond Punic war ; and
hence it is probable the firft Marcellus was the foun¬
der, and not the Marcellus engaged in the civil war
between Cafflar and Pompey. It was famous for the
birth of the tw;o Senecas and of Lucan (Martial), and
for its r|ch produce in oil (Statius, Martial). Still re¬
taining its name a little altered. W. Long. 5. Lat.
37* 45*
CORBOUA, or Cordova, a city of Andalufia in
Spain, fituated on the river Guadelquiver, in a very
extenlive plain. The circumference is large ; but it is
not peopled in proportion to its extent, for there are
a
COR [ 657 ] COR
Cordoua. a great many orchards and gardens within the walls,
v—■“* There are many fuperb ftrudtures, palaces, churches,
and religious houfes } particularly the cathedral, which
is very magnificent : It was formerly a mofque when
the Moors poffeffed the town •, for which reafon it Hill
retains the name of Mezqtiita, which has the fame
meaning. The cathedral is very rich in plate ; four of
the filver candlefticks coft 850I. a-piece. The re¬
venue of the fee amounts to 3500I. per annum ; but as
the bifiiops cannot devife by will, all they die pofi'effed
of efcheats to the crov.m. The liquare called the Pla%a
Major is furrounded with very fine houles, under which
are piazzas. The trade is fiourilhing on account of
the river •, and confifts of wine, filk, and Cordovan
leather. In the neighbourhood of this place are a vaft
number of orange and lemon trees, which renders their
fruits exceeding cheap. The bell horfes in Spain come
from hence.
Cordova wTas the ancient Corduha mentioned in the
preceding article. After the fall of the Roman em-
• pire, it was fubje£ted to the dominion of the Goths j
but in the eighth century it was raifed by the Moorifh
princes to a Hate of Iplendor unequalled in any other
part of the world. In the year 755, Abdoulrahman, only
heir-male of the O.nmiad line, having palled over from
Africa at the head of a few defperate followers, found
means to raife a rebellion in Spain ; wThen, after a
battle fought on the banks of the Guadelquiver, in
which he overthrew the lieutenant of the Abaffid ca¬
liph of Damafcus, he became king of all the Moorilh
pofleflions in the fouth of Spain, and in 759 fixed
his royal refidence at Cordova. Then began thofe
flourilhing ages of Arabian gallantry and magnificence
w hich rendered the Moors of Spain luperior to all their
co-temporaries in arts and arms, and made Cordova
one of the rnoft fplendid cities of the world. Agri¬
culture and commerce profpered under the happy fwTay
of this hero ; and the face of the country was changed
from a fcene of defolation, wdtich the long w^ars and
harih government of the viceroys had brought on, into
a molt populous fiourilhing Hate, exceeding in riches,
number of inhabitants, activity, and indufiry, any
prior or fubfequent era of the Spanifh hiilory. He
added new fortifications to the town, built himfelf a
magnificent palace with delicious gardens, laid caufe-
ways through the marlhes, made excellent roads to open
ready communication between the great towns, and
in 786 began the great mofque, which he did -not live
to finifh.
During the courfe of twro centuries, this court con¬
tinued to be the refort of all profeffors of the polite
arts, and of fuch as valued themfelves upon their mili¬
tary and knightly accomplilhments 5 whilft the relt of
Turope was buried in ignorance, debafed by brutality
of manners, or diftradled by fuperftitious difputes.
England, weakened by its heptarchy, was too inconfi-
derable even to be mentioned in the political hiftory of
the times. France, though it had a gleam of reputa¬
tion under Charlemagne, was Hill a barbarous unpo-
lilhed nation : and Italy W'as in utt£r confufion ; the
frequent revolutions and change of mailers rendering
it impoflible for learning, or any thing good to ac¬
quire a permanent footing in fo unflable a foil : Greece,
though Hill in pofleflion of the arts and luxury of an¬
cient Rome, had loH all vigour, and feemed abforbed
Vol. VI. Part II.
in the moH futile of all purfuits, viz. that of fchola- Cordoua*
Hie argument and religious fubtilities. '
The refidence of the Ommiad caliphs was long con-
fpicuous for its fuprerne magnificence, and the crowds
of learned men who were allured to it by the protec¬
tion ofiered by its lovereigns, the beauty of the coun¬
try, the wholelomenefs of the climate, and the variety
of pleafures that returned inceffantly in one enchant¬
ing round.
Cordova became the centre of politenefs, induftry,
and genius. Tilts and tournaments, with other coltly
fliow's, were long the darling pafiimes of a wealthy
happy people j and this u7as the only kingdom in the
well w’here geometry, afironamy, and phyfic, were
regularly fiudied and praflifed. Mufic w7as no lefs
honoured ; for we find, that in 844 a famous mufician
called All Zeriab came to fettle at Cordova, and form¬
ed feveral pupils, who were fuppofed to equal the moH
celebrated performers that were ever known even in
the Eafi. That aichitedture was greatly7 encouraged,
we need no other proof than the great and expenfive
fabrics undertaken and completed by many of thefe
Spanifii monarchs. Whatever faults may be juHly
condemned in their manner by the connoifleur, ac-
cuHomed to the chaHe noble graces of the Grecian
proportions, certainly nobody can behold wThat remains
of thefe Moorifh edifices, without being firongly im-
preffed with a high idea of the genius of the artills, as
well as the grandeur of the prince who carried their
plans into execution.
Thefe fultans not only gave the moH difiinguifhed
protedlion to arts and fciences, and to the perfons learn¬
ed in any of them, but were themfelves eminently
verfed in various branches of knorvledge. Alkahem
II. colledled fo immenfe a quantity of manuferipts that
before the end of his reign the royal library contained
no lefs than 600,000 volumes, of which the very cata¬
logue filled 40 huge folios. The univerfity of Cordo¬
va was founded by him, and under fuch favourable au-
fpices rofe to the higheil pitch of celebrity.
Abdoulrahman w7as fucceeded by his fon Hiffem,
w'hofe paflion for glory and architenure was not in the
lead inferior to that of his father, hie put the finiflr-
ing hand to the mofque, which the plunder of the
fouthern provinces of France enabled him to complete
in the courfe of a few' years. The bridge over the
Guadelquiver was a work of Hiffem’s after his own
plan.
Alkahem fucceeded Hifl'em.
Abdoulrahman II. was alfo paflionately fond of build¬
ing. He was the firH that brought the fupplies of
w'ater to Cordova by means of leaden pipes laid upon
aquedufts of Hone. The quantity was fo confiderable,
that every part of the palace, the mofques, baths,
fquares, and public edifices, had all of them their
fountains confiantly playing. A great many of thefe
works Hill iubfid. He paved the whole city, and e-
redled feveral mofques.
After him reigned Mahomet Almundar, Abdallah,
and Abdoulrahman III. who furpaffed all his predecef-
lors in fplendor, riches, and expence. His fubjefts vied
wuth each other in profufion and magnificence. This
monarch was fucceeded by his fon Alkahem II. who
left a minor to fucceed him, and the kingdom to be
governed by the famous vifir Mahomet Abenamir, fur-
4 O named
COR [65a] COR
Corduan named Alman'zor, or “ the defender,” from his great
C rea vi&ories and wife conduft. His defcendants inherited
. from him the vifirfhip, and a power as abfolute as if
they had been caliphs, until the weaknefs of the fove-
reigns encouraged, and the infolence of the minifters
provoked, the grandees to difturb the ftate with their
jealoufies and diffenfions. Thefe broils occafioned fuch
a feries of civil war and anarchy, as overthrew the
throne of Cordova, and deftroyed the whole race of
Abdoulrahman. Thus the glorious edifice, founded
by the valour and prudence of that conqueror, and ce¬
mented by fimilar virtues in many of his fucceffors,
funk into nothing as foon as the fceptre devolved upon
■ weak enervated princes, whofe indolence and incapa¬
city transferred the management of every thing to a
vifir. Many petty kingdoms (prung up out of the
ruins of this mighty empire } and the Chriftians foon
found opportunities of deftroying, by feparate attacks,
that tremendous power, which when united had proved
an overmatch for their utmoft force.
New Cordova, a confiderable town of South Ame¬
rica, in the province of Tucuman, with a biihop’s fee,
175 miles from St Jago. W. Long. 62. 5. S. Lat.
32. 10.
CORDUAN, a famous pharos or light-houfe of
France, in Guienne, at the mouth of the river Girond.
The architefture is extremely fine j and it is placed
there to hinder veffels from running on the fand-banks
at the mouth of the river. W. Long. 1.9. N. Lat.
45. 36.
CORDUS, Valerius, a learned botanift, was the
fon of Ericius Cordus, a phyfician and poet of Ger¬
many. Having learned the languages, he applied him-
felf to the fludy of botany, in the profecution of which
he examined the mountains of Germany, and travelled
into Italy *, but being wounded in the leg by the kick
of a horfe, died at Rome in 1554. He wrote Remarks
on Diofcorides, and other works.
CORDWAINERS, orCoRDiNERs, the term where¬
by the ftatutes denominate Jhoetnakers. The word is
formed from the French cordonnier, which Menage de¬
rives from corduan, a kind of leather brought from
Cordoua, whereof they formerly made the upper lea¬
thers of their fiioes. Others derive it from corde
rope,” becaufe anciently fhoes were made of cords ;
as they ftill are in fome parts of Spain, under the
name of alpargates. But the former etymology is bet¬
ter warranted ; for, in effeft, the French workmen
who prepare the corduas are ftill called cordouan-
niers.
In Paris they have two pious focieties under the
titles of freres cordonniers, “ brothers ftioemakers,”
eftablifhed by authority towards the middle of the 17th
* See Crif- century •, the one under the protedtion of St Crifpin *,
pin. the other of St Crifpianus, two faints who had former¬
ly honoured the profeffion. They live in community,
and under fixed ftatutes and officers 5 by which they
are directed both in their fpiritual and fecular concerns.
The produce of their fhoes goes into a common flock,
to furnilh neceffaries for their fupport; the reft to be
diftributed among the poor.
COREA, a peninfula lying to the north-eaft of
China, between 99 and 109 degrees of E. Long, and
between 32 and 46 of N. Lat._ It is divided into 8
provinces, which contain 40 cities of the ift rank, 51
of the 2d, and 70 of the 3d. The capital of the whole Cerea.
is Han-ching, where the king refides. The Jefuits
fay, the people are well made, of a fweet and tradlable
dii’pofition, and fond of learning, mufic, and dancing,
and in general referable the Chinefe. Their houfes
are mean, being covered with thatch ; and they have
no beds, but lie on the floor. They have little filk,
and therefore make ufe of linen cloth in its room.
Their trade confifts in white paper, pencils, ginfeng,
gold, filver, iron, yellow varniffi, fowls whofe tails are
three feet long, horles no more than three feet in
height, fable Ikins, caftor, and mineral fait. In general
it is a fertile country, though abounding in mountains.
It is tributary to China.
M. Grofier relates an obfervation concerning the
natural hiftory of Corea, wffiich, in his opinion, fur-
niflies a new proof of the revolutions which the furface
of our globe has undergone. An ancient Chinefe
book aflerts, that the city where Kipe, the king of
Corea, eftabliffied his court, was built in a place which
forms at prefent a part of the territories of Yong-
ping-fou, a city of the firft clafs in the province of
Petcheli. “ If this (fays he) be admitted as a faft,
wx may from thence conclude, that thefe territories
formerly belonged to Corea ; and that the gulf of
Lea-tong, which at prefent feparates this kingdom
from the province of Petcheli, did not then exift, and
that it has been formed fince j for it is not probable
that the fovereign would have fixed his relidence with¬
out the boundaries of his kingdom, or in a place where
he was feparated from it by a wide and extenfive fea.
This conjefture is confirmed by certain fafts admitted
by the Chinefe. Thus when Yu, furnamed the Great,
undertook to drain and carry off the waters which
had inundated the low grounds of feveral provinces,
he began by the river Hoang-ho, the overflowing of
which caufed the greateft devaftation. He went in
fearch of its fource to the bofom of Tartary, from
whence he directed its courfe acrofs the provinces of
Chan-fi, Chen-fi, Honan, and Petcheli. Towards its
mouth, in order to weaken the rapidity of its waters,
he divided them into nine channels, thiough which he
caufed the river difcharge itfelf into the eaftern fea
near the mountain of Kie-che-chan, which then formed
a promontory. Since that time to the prefent, that is,
about 3950 years, the river Hoang-ho has departed
fo much from its ancient courfe, that its mouth at
prefent is about fix degrees fatther fouth. > We muft
alfo remark, that the mountain Kie-che-chan, which
was formerly united to the main land of Yong-ping-
fou, ftands at prefent in the fea at the diftance of about
50 leagues to the fouth of that city. If the fea has
been able to cover with its waters that extent of ter¬
ritory which at prefent forms part of the gulf of Lea-
tong, may we not be allowed to fuppofe that like in¬
undations may have formed lucceffively the whole of
that gulf, the ancient exiftence of which feems fo ill
to agree wuth the refidence of the kings of Corea in
the territories of Yong-ping-fou ? It is true, the Chi¬
nefe hiftory makes no mention of fo confiderable a
phyfical revolution : but it is equally filept with re¬
gard to the 500 lys (50 leagues) extent of ground
wffiich is at prefent covered by the fea beyond the
mountains of Kie-che-chan. Befides, of all the changes
which the furtace of our globe experiences, thofe only
are
1
■
COR [ 6j
Coiea. are mentioned in hiftory which happen fuddenly, and
■1 ■ which confequently make more impieflion on the
minds of men.
Corea chiefly produces wheat, rice, and ginfeng,
with a kind of palm tree which yields a gum capable
of producing a yellow varnilh little inferior to gilding.
Hence alfo are exported caftor and lable Ikins ; al-
fo gold, filver, iron, and foflil fait -, a kind of fmali
brufhes for painting, made of the hair of a wolf’s tail,
are likewife manufactured here, which are exported
to China and highly efleemed there. I he fea coafts
abound in fifh, and great numbers of whales are found
there every year towards the north-eaft. Several
of thefe, it is faid, have in their bodies the harpoons
of the French and Dutch, from whom they have
efcaped in the northern extremities of Europe; which
feems to indicate a paffage from the European into
the Afiatic feas round the continents of Europe and
Alia.
A confiderable quantity of the paper of Corea is
annually imported into China ; indeed the tribute due
to the emperor is partly paid with it every year. It
is made of cotton, and is as ftrong as cloth, being writ¬
ten upon with a fmali hair-brufh or pencil j but muft
be done over with alum-water before it can be written
upon in the European manner. It is not purchafed
by the Chinefe for writing, but for filling up the
fquares of their falh-windows 5 becaufe, when oiled, it
refills the wind and rain better than that of China. It
is ufed likewife as wrapping paper $ and is ferviceable
to the tailors, who rub it between their hands until it
becomes as foft and flexible as the fineft cotton cloth,
inlfead of which it is often employed in lining clothes.
It has alfo this Angular property, that if it be too thick
for the purpofe intended, it may be eafily fplit into tw-o
or three leaves, each of which is even ftronger than
the belt paper of China.
The Coreans are well made, ingenious, brave, and
tradable •, are fond of dancing, and fhow great docility
in acquiring the fciences, to which they apply with great
ardour, and which they honour in a particular manner.
The northern Coreans are larger fized and more ro-
buft than thofe of the fouth •, have a talle for arms,
and become excellent foldiers. Their arms are crofs-
bows and long fabres. Men of learning are diflinguilh-
ed from other clafles of people by two plumes of fea¬
thers in their caps •, and when merchants prefent the
Coreans with any books for fale, they drefs themfelves
in the richetl attire, and burn perfumes before they
treat concerning the price.
The Coreans mourn three years, as in China, for a
father or mother : but the time of mourning for a bro¬
ther is confined to three months. Their dead are not
Interred until three years after their deceafe j and when
the ceremony of interment is performed, they place
around the tomb the clothes, chariot, and horfes of
the deceafed, with whatever elfe he fliowed the great-
eft fondnefs for <Vhile alive *, all which they leave to
be carried off by the afliftants. Their houfes, as in
China, confift only of one ftory, and are very ill built;
in the country being compofed of earth, and in cities
generally of brick, but all thatched with ftraw ; the
walls of their cities are conftru£ted after the Chinefe
manner, with fquare turrets, battlements, and arched
gates. Their writing, drefs, religious ceremonies, and
9 1 COR
creed, as well as the greater part of their cuftoms, aie
borrowed from the Chinefe. I heir women, however, (-;ore]i;>
are lefs confined, and have the liberty of appearing in •,   
public with the other fex, for which they are often lioi-
culed by their neighbours. They differ from the Chi¬
nefe alfo in their ceremonies of marriage, and in the
manner of contra&ing it; the parties in this country-
taking the liberty to choofe for themfelves, without
confulting the inclinations of their parents, or fuffering
them to throw any obftacles in their way.
COREIA, in antiquity, a feftival in honour of Pro-
ferpine, named Core, K#g»i, which, in the Moloflian dia¬
led! fignifies a beautiful woman.
CORELLI, Arcangelo, the famous Italian mu-
fician and compofer, a native of Fufignano, in the ter¬
ritory of Bologna, was born in 1653* entertain¬
ed an early propenfity to the violin ; and as he advan¬
ced in years, laboured inceffantly in the practice oi
that inftrument. About the year 1672, his curiofity
led him to vifit Paris, probably with a view to attend
the improvements which were making in mufic undei
the influence of Cardinal Mazarine, and in confequence
of the eftablifhment of a royal academy ; but notwith-
ftanding the charadler which he brought with him, he
Was driven back to Rome by Lully, whofe jealous
temper could not brook fo formidable a rival as this il-
luftrious Italian. In the year 1680 he vifited Germany,
and met with a reception fuitable to his merit from
moft of the German princes, particularly the eledlor of
Bavaria ; in whofe fervice he was retained, and con¬
tinued for fome time. After about five years ftay abroad,
he returned again to Rome, and there purfued his ftudies
with great afliduity.
The proficiency of Corelli on his favourite inftru¬
ment the violin was fo great, that the fame of it Ipread
throughout Europe. The ftyle of his performance
was learned, elegant, and pathetic ; and his tone firm
and even. Mr Geminiani, who was well acquainted
with, and had ftudied it, ufed to refemble it to a
fweet trumpet. A perfon who had heard him per¬
form fays, that, whilft he was playing on the violin,
it was ufual for his countenance to be difturbed, his
eyes to become as red as fire, and his eye-balls to roll
as in an agony.
Corelli was highly favoured by that great patron
of poetry and mufic, Cardinal Ottoboni. Crefcembini
fays, that he regulated the mufical academy held at
the palace of his eminence every Monday afternoon.
Here it was that Mr Handel became acquainted with
him ; and in this academy a ferenata of Mr Handel,
entitled // Trionfo del Tempo, was performed, the
overture to which was in a ftyle fo new and Angular,
that Corelli was confounded in his firft attempt to play
it.
During the refidence of Corelli at Rome, befides
thofe of his own country, many perfons were ambi¬
tious of becoming his difciples, and learning the prac¬
tice of the violin from the greateft mafter on that in¬
ftrument the world had then heard of. Of thefe it is
faid the late Lord Edgecumbe was one : and that the
fine mezzotinto print of Corelli by Smith was feraped
from a picture painted by Mr Hugh Howard at Rome
for that nobleman.
Corelli died at Rome in 1713 ; and was buried in
the church of the Rotunda, otherwife called the Pan-
4 O 2 theonj
Corelli.
[ 66°
C O R
theon, in the firft chapel on the left hand of the en-
trance. Over the place of his interment is a fepul-
chral monument to his honour, with a marble bull there¬
on, erefted at the expence of Philip William, count
palatine of the Rhine, under the care and diredlion of
Cardinal Ottoboni.
For many years after his deceafe, this excellent mu-
iician was commemorated by a folemn mufical per¬
formance in the Pantheon, on the anniverfary of his
death. In the year 1730 an eminent mafter, now liv-
ing, was prefent at that folemnity, who relates that
at it the third and eighth of his concertos were per¬
formed by a numerous band, among w’hom were manv
who had been the pupils of the author. He adds, that
thefe two pieces were performed in a flow, diftincf,
and firm manner, without graces, and jult as they are
wrote ; and from hence concludes, that this was the
manner in which they were played by the author him-
felf.
He died poffefTed of about 6oocl. fterling. He
w^as a pafiionate admirer of pidlures, and lived in an
uninterrupted friendfhip with C srlo Cignani and Carlo
Marat : thefe two eminent painters w7ere rivals for his
favour ; and for a feries of years prefented him at times
with p.clures, as well of other mailers as of their own
painting. The confequence was, that Corelli became
poflefied of a large and valuable collection of original
paintings ; all which, together with the fum above-
mentioned, he bequeathed to his dear friend and pa¬
tron Cardinal Ottoboni, who referving the pictures to
himfelf, generoufiy difiributed the reft of his tffeCfs a-
mong the rel itions of the teftator.
Corelli is laid to have been remarkable for the
mildnefs of his temper and the modefty of his deport¬
ment ; neverthelefs, he w>as not infenfible of the re-
fpedft due to his Ikill and exquifite performance. Cib¬
ber, in the Apology for his Life, p. 340. relates, that
when he was playing a folo at Cardinal Ottoboni’s, he
difcovered the cardinal and another perfon engaged
in difcourfe, upon which he laid down his inftrument •,
and being alked the reafon, gave for anfwer, that he
feared the mufic interrupted their converfation.
The com rofitions of Corelli are celebrated for the
harmony refulting from the union of all the parts;
but the finenefs of the airs is another diftinguilhing
charaCleriftic of them : the allemand in the 10th folo
is as remarkable for, fpirit and force, as that in the
11 this for its enchanting delicacy : his jigs are in a
ftyle peculiarly his own : and that in the 5th folo was
never equalled. In the gavot movements in the 2d
and 4th operas, the melody is diftributed wdth great
judgment among the feveral parts. In his minuets
alone he feems to fail \ Bononcini, Mr Handel, and
Guifeppe Martini, have excelled him in this kind of
airs.
It is faid there is in every nation a ftyle both in
fpeaking and writing, which never becomes obfolete ;
a certai.i mrde of pbraf.ology, fo confonant and con¬
genial to the analogy and principles of its refpe&ive
language, as to remain fettled and unaltered. This,
but with much greater latitude, may be faid of mufic :
and accordingly it may be obferved of the compofi-
tions of Corelli, not only that they are equally intelli¬
gible to the learned and unlearned, but that the im-
preftions made by them have been found to be as du-
] COR
raole in general. His mufic is the language o( na- Coreopfis
ture ; and, for a feries of years, all that heard it be- It
came fenfible of its effe&s : of this there cannot be a Corfu'
ftronger proof than that, amidft all the innovations V
which the love of change had introduced, it continued
to be performed, and was heard with delight, in-
churches, in theatres, at public folemnities, and fefti-
vities, in all the cities of Europe for near 40 years.
Men remembered, and would refer to paffages in it as
to a claflic author ; and even at this day, the mafters
of the fcience do not hefitate to pronounce of the com-
pofitions of Corelli, that, of fine harmony and elegant
modulation, they are the moft perfedl exaroplars.
COREOPSIS, TICKS EEDED SUNFLOWER: A ge-
nus of plants belonging to the lyngenefia clafs *, and in
the natural method ranking under the 49th order,
Compojtta. See Botany Index.
CORFE castle, a borough-town in Dorfetfhire in
England. It takes its name from a tlrong caftle, be-
longing to the crown, that Hood there, but is now in
ruins. It lends two members to parliament. W.
Long. 2. 8. N. Lat. ^o. 33.
CORFU, an ifiand in the Ionian fea, at the mouth
of the gulf of Venice, formerly called Corcyra and
Pheeacia, famous for the gardens of Alcinous. It be¬
longs at prefent to the Venetians; and forms the bul¬
wark of Chriftendom againft the Turks, who have
often attempted to reduce it, but without fuccefs. It
is well fortified, and has 50 caftles ; and the number of
the inhabitants is faid to be about 50,000. The inha¬
bitants are of the Greek church ; and the Venetians
fend them a governor and magiftrates, which are chan¬
ged every two years. The foil is very fruitful, and
produces a great deal of wine, olives, and feveral o-
ther fruits, particularly figs, which are exceedingly
good. The chief city is likewife called Corfu : fee the
following article.
Corfu, a city of the ifland of that name, belonging
to the Venetians. It is a large place, ftrongly forti¬
fied, and defended by a garrifon of about 10,coo men;
which, however, in the opinion of a late traveller, do
not appear adequate to the extent of the fortifications.
A number of very excellent brafs and iron cannon are
mounted on the different forts, which, he obferves, are
fo divided, that it would take treble the number of
their garrilon to defend them. However, the republic
of Venice is generally at. peace with the different Eu¬
ropean nations, and the ancient power of the Turks
being much decayed, they have little to apprehend ;
though to prevent any hidden furprife, the Venetians
keep a formidable fquadron in the harbour of Corfu,
and the works have been much improved by Major
General Patenon.—In the late war they had with the
Turks, this town was attacked by an army of 8o,oco
men, and attempted to be ftormed feveral times by the
enemy ; but the garrifon, which cor.fifted of 12,000
men, under the command of Count Schulenburg, made
fo brave and gallant a defence, that they always repul-
fed them, and obliged them to raile the fiege, and a-
bandon the place with confiderable lofs. For this piece
of fervice the republic has caufed a magnificent ilatue
to be eredled in memory of the count, with an elegant
Latin infeription, fetting forth the many eminent fer-
vices of his military atchievements. The circumfe¬
rence of the city is about four miles; the number of
inhabitants
Coria
II
Coridor.
COR [66
inhabitants on the whole ifland is computed at about
50,000, the greateft part of whom are Greeks.
This ifland is the refidence of the governor general,
whofe jurifdiflion extends over all the illands fubjeft to
the republic of Venice, in the Levant Teas, and is con-
fidered as one of the greateft honours they can confer
on a fubjeft. He is always a nobleman of the firft
rank, and has his appointment for three years only, in
which time he makes a tolerable addition to his for¬
tune, and on his return to Venice is generally advanced
to the honours of the fenate. In the city are many
handfome Greek churches, the principal of which is
that of St Speyidione, or the cathedral. It is embel-
lilhed with fome excellent painting*, and moft fuperb-
ly ornamented. The body of the faint from whom it
was named, is preferved entire in a rich {brine within
the church. The Greeks are moft of them fuch fana¬
tics as to be continually offering their devotions at this
fhrine, believing that through the intercefiion of the
faint they will obtain all their wants ; and that by of¬
ferings of money their fins will be forgiven them ; by
wThich means the church has amafled an immenfe trea-
fure. The relic of the faint is depofited in a filver
coffin, richly decorated with precious ftones. It is in
an amazing ftate of prefervation ; he having died in
the iiland of Cyprus upwards of 700 years ago j and
after remaining 400 years there, was tranlported to
this place.—Betides the grand fleet, the Venetians have
another of galleys, that are manned by convifts whofe
crimes are not of fuch a nature as to merit death.
The chief diverfions of this place in the winter are
operas •, they have always a company of comedians
for the feafon from Naples. In the fummer they pafs
their time in walking upon the ramparts ; few except
the governor and great officers of ftate are permitted
to keep carriages. The Corfu people perfiftly re-
femble the Zanteots in their manners (fee Zante) •,
though it muft be obferved, in praife of the former,
that affaflinations are uncommon among them, their
laws being too fevere to permit fuch pradlices with im¬
punity. E. Long. 19. 48. N. Lat. 39. 50.
CORIA, a town of Spain, in the kingdom of Leon
and province of Eftremadura, towards the confines of
Portugal, with a biffiop’s fee. It is feated on a little
river called Alagon^ in a very fertile plain. There is
nothing remarkable but the cathedral church, except
at a little diilance a river without a bridge, and a
bridge without a river. This was caufed by an earth¬
quake, which turned the river another way. W. Long.
6. 46. N. Lat. 39. 59.
CORIANDRUM, coriander : A genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria clafs \ and in the natural
method ranking under the 45th order, Umbe/lata:. See
Botany Index.
CORIARI A, Tanner's or Myrtle-leafed Sumach :
A genus of plants belonging to the dioecia clafs ; and
in the natural method rankine under the 54fh order,
Mifcellanece. See Botany Index. This plant is much
ufed in the fouth of France, where it grows naturally,
for tanning of leather, whence its name 0$ tanner's fu-
maeh. It alfo dyes a beautiffil black colour.
CORIDOR, or CoRRinoR, in Fortification, a road
cr way along the edge of the ditch, without-fide 5 en-
compaffine the whole foitification. The wmrd comes
from the Italian coridore, or the Spanifh condor.
i ] COR
It is alfo called the covert-way, becaufe covered with Condor
a glacis, or efplanade, ferving it as a parapet.—The
coridor is about zo yards broad. . , —
Coridor is alfo ufed in architecture for a gallery or
long aifle around a building, leading to feveral cham¬
bers at a diftance from each other, fometimes wholly
inclofed, and fometimes open on one fide.
COR INNA, a Grecian lady, celebrated for her
beauty and poetic talents, was born at I heffu, a city
of Boeotia, and was the difciple of Myrtis another
Grecian lady. Her verfes were fo efteemed by the
Greeks, that they gave her the name of the lyric
mufe. She lived in the time of Pindar, about 495 years
before Chrift ; and is faid to have gained the prize of
lyric poetry from that poet ; but Paufanias obierves
that her beauty made the judges partial.
CORINTH, a celebrated city of antiquity, for
fome time the moft illultrious of all the Greek cities.
It is faid to have been founded 1514 years before
Chrift, by Sifyphus the fon of Molus, and grandfather
of Ulyfles. Various realons are given for its name, but
moft authors derive it from Connthus the fon of Pe-
lops. It was fituated on the fouth part of the ifthmus
which joins the Peloponnelus, nowr the Morea, to the
continent. It confided of a citadel built upon an emi¬
nence, and thence named Acrocorinthus ; befides which
it had two maritime towns fubjeft to it, named Le-
cheum and Cenchrea. The whole ftate extended fcarce
half a degree in length or breadth } but fo advan-
tageoufly were the above-mentioned ports fituated,
that they might have gained the Corinthians a lupe-
riority, if not a command, over all Greece, had not
their advantageous fituation inclined them to com¬
merce rather than war. For their citadel was almoll
impregnable ; and commanding both the Ionian and
aEgean feas, they could eafily cut off all communica¬
tion from one half of Greece with the other; for
which reafon this city was called one of the fetters ot
Greece.
But as the genius of the Corinthians led them to
commerce rather than martial exploits, their city be¬
came the fineft in all Greece. It was adorned with
the moft fumptuous buildings, as temples, palaces,
theatres, porticoes, &c. all of them enriched with a
beautiful kind of columns, which from the city were
called Corinthian. But though the Corinthians feldom
or never engaged in a wTar with a view7 of enlarging
but rather of defending their little ftate, they did
not forget to cultivate a good difcipline both in time
of peace and of war. Hence many brave and experi¬
enced generals have been furnifhed by Corinth to the
other Grecian cities, and it was not uncommon for the
latter to prefer a Corinthian general to any of their
own.
This city continued to preferve its liberty till the
year before Chrift 146, when it was pillaged and burnt
by the Romans. It was at that time the ifrongeft place
in the world : but the inhabitants were fo diihearten-
ed by a preceding defeat, and the death of their ge¬
neral, that they had not prefence of mind enough even
to {hut their gates. The Roman conful Mummius,
was fo much furprifed at this, that at firft he could
fcarce believe it : but afterwards fearing an ambufeade,
he advanced with all poflible caution. Ashe met with
no refiftance, his foldiers had nothing to do but de.
m
COR
[ C62 ]
COR
Corinth, ftroy the few inhabitants that had not fled, and plun-
’■"‘V-—' der the city. Such of the men as had ftaid were all
put to the fword, and the women were fold for Haves.
After this the city was ranfacked by the greedy fol-
diers, and the fpoils of it are faid to have been im-
menfe. There w'ere more veffels of all forts of metal,
more fine pictures and ftatues done by the greatefi:
mailers, in Corinth, than in any other city in the
world. All the princes of Europe and Afia who had
any talte in painting and fculpture furnilhed them-
felves here with their richelt moveables : here were
call the finell llatues for temples and palaces, and all
the liberal arts brought to their greatell perfeflion.
Many ineftimable pieces of the moll famous painters
and llatuaries fell into the hands of the ignorant fol-
diers, who either deltroyed them, or parted with them
for a trifle. Polybius the hillorian was an eye witnefs
to this barbarifm of the Romans. He had the morti¬
fication to fee twro of them playing at dice on a famous
pi£lure of Arillides, which wras accounted one of the
wTonders of the world. The piece was a Bacchus, fo
exquifitely done, that it was proverbially faid of any
extraordinary performance, “ It is as well done as
the Bacchus of Arif ides.” This mafterly piece of
painting, however, the foldiers willingly exchanged
for a more convenient table to play upon 5 but when
the fpoils of Corinth were put up to fale, Attains
king of Pergamus offered for it 600,000 fellerces,
near 5000I. of our money. Mummius was furprifed
at fuch a high price offered for a picture, and imagined
there mull be fome magical virtue in it. He therefore
interpofed his authority, and carried it to Rome, not-
withllanding the complaints of Attalus. Here this
famous pihlure was lodged in the temple of Ceres,
where it was at lalt dellroyed by fire, together with
the temple. Another extraordinary inilance of the
flupidity of Mummius is, that when the pi£lures were
put on board the tranfports, he told the mailers of
the veffels very ferioufly, that if any of the things were
either loll or fpoiled, he would oblige them to find
others at their own coll ; as if any other pieces could
have fupplied the lofs of thofe inellimable originals,
done by the greatell mailers in Greece. When the
city w7as thoroughly pillaged, fire was fet to all the
corners of it at the fame time. The flames grew more
violent as they drew near the centre, and at laft
uniting there made one prodigious conflagration.
At this time the famous metalline mixture is faid to
have been made, which could never afterwards be
imitated by art. The gold, filver, and brafs, which
the Corinthians had concealed, were melted, and ran
down the llreets in llreams, and when the flames
■were extinguifhed, a new metal was found, compof-
ed of feveral different ones, and greatly elleemed in
after ages.
The town lay defolate until Julius Ctefar fettled
there a Roman colony j when, in moving the rubbilh
and digging, many vafes were found of brals or earth
finely embofled. The price given for thefe curiofities
excited indullry in the new inhabitants. They left
no burving-place unexamined ; and Rome, it is faid,
was filled with the furniture of the fepulchres of Co¬
rinth.
St’-abo was at Corinth foon after its relloration by
the Romans. He defcubes the fite as follows. “ A
lofty mountain, in perpendicular height as much as Corinth,
three fladia and a half (near half a mile), the afcent"
30 iladia (3^ miles), ends in a pointed lummit called
Acrocorinthus. Of this the portion to the north is the
moll fteep : beneath which lies the city on a level area
at the foot of the Acrocorinthus. The circuit of the
city alone has been 40 fladia (5 miles), and as much
of it as was unfheltered by the mountain has been '
walled about. Within the inclofure was comprehend¬
ed alfo the Acrocorinthus, where the mountain wras ca¬
pable of receiving a wall j and as we afcended, the ve-
ftiges were plain *, fo that the whole circumference ex¬
ceeded 85 ftadia (near 11 miles). On the other fides,
the mountain is lefs fteep, but rifes very high, and is
vifible all around. Upon the fummitis a fmall temple
of Venus 5 and below it the fpring Pirene, wTich does
not overflow, but is always full of pellucid and pot¬
able water. They fay it unites with fome other hid¬
den veins, and forms the fpring at the mountain foot,
running into the city, and affording a fufficient fupply
for the ufe of the inhabitants. In the city is plenty of
wells, and in the Acrocorinthus, as they fay, for we
did not fee any. There they relate the winged horfe
Pegafus was taken as he was drinking, by Bellerophon.
Below Pirene is the Sifypheum, fome temple or pa¬
lace of white ftone, the remains not inconfiderable.
From the fummit is beheld to the north Parnaffus and
Helicon, lofty mountains covered with fnow \ and be¬
low both, to the weft, the Criffean gulf bounded by
Phocis, by Eoeotia and the Megaris, and by Corinthia
and Sicyonia oppofite to Phocis. Beyond all thefe
are the mountains called the Oneian, ftretching as far
as Boeotia and Cithaeron from the Scironian rocks on
the road to Attica.” Strabo faw likewife Cleon from
thence. Cenchreae was then a village. Lechaeum
had fome inhabitants.
New Corinth had flouriflied 217 years when it was
vifited by Paufanias. It had then a few antiquities,
many temples and ftatues, efpecially about the Agora
or market-place, and feveral baths. The emperor
Hadrian introduced water from a famous fpring at
Stymphalus in Arcadia j and it had various fountains
alike copious and ornamental. The ftream of one if-
fued from a dolphin, on which was a brazen Nep¬
tune j of another, from the hoof of Pegafus, Tm
whom Bellerophon ivas mounted. On the right
hand, coming along the road leading from the market¬
place toward Sicyon, was the Odeum and the theatre,
by which was a temple of Minerva. The old Gymna-
fium was at a diftance. Going from the market-place
toward Lechaeum was a gate, on w’hich were placed
Phaeton and the Sun in gilded chariots. Pirene enter¬
ed a fountain of white marble, from which the cur¬
rent paffed in an open channel. They fuppofed the
metal called Corinthian brafs to have been immerged
while red hot in this water. On the way up to the
Acrocorinthus were temples, ftatues, and altars ; and
the gate next Tenea, a village with a temple of Apol¬
lo, fixry ftadia, or feven miles and a half dillant, on the
road to Mycense. At Lechceum was a temple and a
braz.n image of Neptune. At Cenchrete were tem¬
ples 5 and by the way from the city a grove of cy*.
prefs trees, fepulchres, and monuments. Oppofite was
the Bath of Helen, water tepid and fait, flowing plen¬
tifully from a rock into the fea. Mumtnius had ruin¬
ed
COR [
Corinth, ed the theatre of Corinth, and the munificence of the
great Athenian Atticus Herodes was difplayed in an
edifice with a roof inferior to few of the moil cele¬
brated ftru&ures in Greece.
The Roman colony w7as referved to fuffer the fame
calamity as the Greek city, and from a conqueror more
terrible than Mummius, Alaric the favage deftroyer
of Athens and univerfal Greece. In a country ha -
raffed with frequent wars, as the Peloponnefus has
fince been, the Acrocorintbus was a poll too confe-
quential to be neglefted. It was befieged and taken
in 1459 by Mahomet II. j the defpots or lords of the
Morea, brothers of the Greek emperor who was kill¬
ed in defending Conftantinople, refufing payment of
the arrears of the tribute, which had been impofed by
Sultan Morat in 1447. The country became fubjeft
to the Turks, except fuch maritime places as were in
the poffeffion of the Venetians ; and many of the
principal inhabitants were carried away to Conftanti¬
nople. Corinth, with the Morea was yielded to the
republic at the conclufion of the war in 1698, and a-
gain by it to the Turks in 1715*
Corinth retains its old name, and is of confiderable
extent, ftanding on a high ground, beneath the Acro-
corinthus, with an eafy defcent tow'ard the gulf of
Lepanto ; the houfes fcattered or in parcels, except
in the Bazar or market-place. Cypreffes, among
which tower the domes of mofques, wnth corn-fields,
and gardens of lemon and orange trees, are interfper-
fed. The air is reputed bad in fummer, and in au¬
tumn exceedingly unhealthy. Wheler relates, that
from the top of the Acrocorinthus or citadel, he en¬
joyed one of the moft agreeable profpe&s which this
world can afford. He gueffed the walls to be about
two miles in compafs, inclofing mofques, wdth houfes
and churches moftly in ruins. An hour was confumed
in going up on horfeback. It was a mile to the foot
of the hill; and from thence the way w'as very fteep
with many traverfes. The families living below were
much infefted by corfairs, and on every alarm flocked
up to the caftle.
According to Dr Chandler, Corinth has preferved
but few monuments of its Greek or Roman citizens.
The chief remains, he informs us, are at the fouth-
weft corner of the town, and above the bazar or mar¬
ket •, 11 columns fupporting their architraves, of the
Doric order, fluted, and wanting in height near half
the common proportion to the diameter. Within
them, toward the weftern end, is one taller, though
not entire, ■which, it is likely, contributed to fuftain the
roof. They have been found to be ftone, not marble }
and appear brown, perhaps from a cruft formed on the
outfide. The ruin he judges to be of very remote
antiquity, and a portion of a fabric erefled not only
before the Greek city was deftroyed, but before the
Doric order had attained to maturity. He fufpefts
it to have been the Sifypheum mentioned by Strabo.
North of the Bazar ftands a large mafs of brickwork,
a remnant, it may be conjeftured, of a bath, or of the
Gymnafium.
The inhabitants are moft of them Chriftians of
the Greek church, who are allowed liberty of con-
fcience by the Turks. E. Long. 28. 13. N. Lat.
38. 14.
Corinth, the IJlhmus of, in the Morea, is a neck
being the moft noble
See Architecture,
663 ] COR
of land which joins the Morea to Greece, and reaches Corinthian
from the gulf of Lepanto to that of Egina. Julius C(J'rk<
Caefar, Caligula, and Nero, attempted to cut a chan- v—J
nel through it, but in vain j and they therefore af¬
terwards built a wall acrofs it, which they called
Hexatnilium, becaufe it was fix miles in length. This
was demolifhed by Amurath II. and afterwards rebuilt
by the Venetians, but wTas levelled a fecond time by
Mahomet II. _ ,
CORINTHIAN, in general, denotes fomething
belonging to Corinth : thus we fay, Corinthian brafs,
Corinthian order, &c.
Corinthian Brafs. See Brass and Corinth.
Corinthian Order, in SlrchiteCiurc, the fourth or¬
der of architedlure, according to Scamozzi ; but M.
Le Clerc makes it the fifth,
and delicate of all the five.
N° 47-
CORIO, Bernardine, an hiftorian, born of an il-
luftrious family at Milan, in the year 1460. He was
fecretary of ftate to that duchy 5 and Lewds duke
of Sforza appointed him to write the hiftory of Mi¬
lan. He died in 1500. The belt edition of his hi¬
ftory is that of 1503, in folio. It is printed in Italian,
and is very fcarce.
CORIOLANUS, G Marcius, a famous Roman
captain, took Corioli a town of the Volfci, whence he
had his furname : at laft, difgufting the people, he
was banilhed Rome by the tribune Decius. He went
to the Volfci, and perfuading them to take up arms
againft the Romans, they encamped within four miles
of the city. He would not liften to propofals of peace
till he was prevailed upon by his wife Veturia, and
his mother Volumnia, who were followed by all the
Roman ladies in tears. He was put to death by
the Volfci as a traitor that had made them quit their
conqueft : upon which the Roman ladies went into
mourning j and in the fame place where his blood
was fpilled there was a temple confecrated to feminine
virtue..
CORIS, a. genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria clais. See BotAny Index.
Cor is is alto ufed in the Eaft Indies for a kind of
fhells which pafs for money.
CORISPERMUM, tickseed : A genus of plants
belonging to the monandria clafs, and in the natural
method ranking under the 12th order, Hohracece. See
Botany Index.
COR1TANI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
Britain, occupying widely the inland parts, as North¬
ampton, Leicefter, Rutland, Lincoln, Nottingham, and
Derbyftiires (Camden).
CORK, the bark of a tree of the fame name,
Shiercus Saber, Lin. See Qukrcus, Botany Index.
To take off the bark, an incifion is made from
the top to the bottom of the tree, and at each extre¬
mity another round the tree, perpendicular to the firft.
When the tree is 15 years old, it may be barked for
eight years fucceflively 5 and the quality of the bark
improves with the age of the tree. When ftripped
from the tree, which does not therefore die, the bark
is piled up in a pond or ditch, and loaded with heavy
ftone,s to flatten it, and reduce it into tables : hence it
is removed to be dried $ and when fufficiently dry, put
in bales for carriage. If care be not taken to ftrip the
1 bark
Cork.
COR [ 664
bark, it fplits and peels of itfelf ; being pufhed up by
J another bark formed underneath.
The cork-tree, as well as the ufes to which the bark
is applied, was known both to the Greeks and Romans.
Pliny informs us that the Romans employed it to Hop all
kinds of veflels ; but the ufe of it for this purpofe does
not appear to have been very common till the inven¬
tion of glafs bottles, of which, according to Profeflbr
Beckman, there is no mention before the 15th cen¬
tury.
Other vegetable productions have been fometimes
employed inftead of cork. The Spondias Lutea, a tree
which grows in South America, particularly in moift
places, and which is there called monbin or monbnin, is
fometimes brought to England for the purpofe of flop¬
ping veffels. The roots of liquorice are applied to the
fame ufe, and on that account, this plant is much cul¬
tivated in Sclavonia, and exported to other countries.
A tree called nyj/a, which grows in North America,
has been found alfo to anfwer as a fubflitute for
]
COR
cork.
The chief ufe of cork
&.c. and to flop bottles,
make that kind of light
rvhich is ufed by painters.
is, to put in fhoes, flippers,
The Spaniards burn it to
black called Spanijh black,
The Egyptians made cof¬
fins of corkj which being lined-with a refinous com-
pofition, preferved dead bodies uncorrupted. The
Spaniards line ftone walls wnth it, which not only
renders them very warm, but correCls the moifture of
the air.
FoJJU Cork, a name given to a kind of ftone which
is a fpecies of amianthus, cpnfifting of flexible fibres
loofely interwoven, and fomewhat refembling vegeta¬
ble coik. It is the lighted; of all ftones ; by fire it is
fufible, and forms a black glafs. It pofTefles the gene¬
ral qualities of amianthus. See that article.
Cork, in Latin comitatus Corcagienjis, a county of
the province of Munfter in Ireland. It is the moft po¬
pulous and confiderable county of the kingdom next
to that of Dublin, containing near a million of acres,
and being divided into 15 baronies. It is bounded on
the north-eaft by the county of Waterford ; on the
weft by -Kerry ; by Limeric on the north ; and by the
fea on the fouth and fouth-eaft. Including Defmond
it is S5 miles in length and 50 in breadth: but is
very unequal both ways. Though a confiderable part
of the country is foggy, mountainous, . and barren,
yet by the induftry of the inhabitants it is pretty w’ell
cultivated and improved, and contains feveral good
towns and harbours.
Cork, a city of Ireland, and capital of the county
of that name. It is an epifcopal fee, and is the largeft
and moft populous of any in the kingdom, Dublin
alone excepted. It is fituated on the river Lee, 15
miles from its mouth. It is a place of great trade,
the harbour here being one of the fineft in the world.
Though fmaller veflels can come up to the quay, yet
the larger generally ride at a place called Pojfage.
This city, together with its liberties, makes a county.
It was built or rather fortified by the Danes, in the
ninth century. The greateft part of it ftands on a
marftiy ifland furrounded by the river Lee, which alfo
runs through the city, and divides it into feveral ca¬
nals. On this account fome have thought the air very
moift and unwholefome. Complaints have alfo been
made againft the water as impure ; but, from compar¬
ing the bills of mortality with thofe of other cities, it
appears that the city of Cork is far from being un¬
healthy. This hath been accounted for from the in¬
flux of the tide, by which a ftagnation of air is pre¬
vented. 'The firft charter of Cork was beftowed by
Henry III. and afterwards ratified by Edward I. Ed¬
ward II. and Edward III. Edward IV. granted a
new charter ; and the city received many favours from
the fucceeding monarchs. King James I. gave the ci¬
tizens a nerv and ample charter ; and King Charles I.
what is called the Great Charter, by which, among
others, a claufe in King James’s charter was enforced,
making this city a county of itfelf. The fee of Cork
is reputed worth 2700I. a-year. The chapter confifts
of a dean, chanter, chancellor, treafurer, archdeacon,
and twelve prebendaries. The church is dedicated to
St Barr or Finbarr ; and the diocefe is divided into
five deaneries. There is very little to be found in an¬
cient writers concerning the foundation of the cathe¬
dral of Cork ^ yet it is generally afcribed to St Barr
in the feventh century. Many of its biftiops have been
great benefadlors to it. Through length of time the
church became quite ruinous ; but it hath lately been
completely rebuilt, and is now an elegant modern
ftru61ure. To defray the expence, the parliament laid
a tax on all coals confirmed in the city of Cork. The
deanery is reputed to be worth 400I. a-year.
Cork is much improved and enlarged, feveral broad
ftreets have been lately added, by filling up the canals
that formerly ran through them, and are now built
up with elegant houfes.: the parade is very fpacious,
and is adorned with an equeftrian ftatue of King
George II. It hath the largeft export in the king¬
dom, particularly of beef, hides, tallow, butter, fifti,
and other provlfions. It is partly fituated on feveral
iflands, formed by the river Lee, which are banked
and quayed in, fomewhat like the towns in Holland ;
and partly on rifing grounds, on the north and fouth
lides of the river. The earl of Marlborough befieged
and took it from King James’s army in 1690; when
the duke of Grafton, -wTo ferved as a volunteer, was
flain in the attack. It contains about 8600 houfes,
and upwards of 70,00.0 inhabitants. It hath twelve
companies of foot quartered in the barracks. Befides
a ftately cathedral, built from the foundation, between
1725 and 1735, by the produce of a duty upon coals,
as above noticed, it is adorned with feveral handfome
parilh churches. It has alfo an elegant exchange for
the merchants, a new and beautiful cuftomhoufe, a
town-hall, feveral fine hofpitals, and various other
public ftruflures. The city pofleffes an annual reve¬
nue of about 1300I. out of which the mavor enjoys
for his falary and the fupport of his dignity 500I. The
wealth and grandeur of-Cork arife from its capacious
and commodious haven, where almoft any nunlber of
fhips may lie with eafe and fafety. According to
fome accounts, when there has been no war, 1200
veffels have reforted hither in a year. Ships from
England, bound to all parts of the Weft Indies, take
in here a great part of their provifions ; and on the
fame account the haven of Cork is vifited by thofe al¬
fo of moft other nations. The flaughtering feafon
continues from the month of Auguft to the latter end
of January ; in which fpace it has been computed, that
they
Cork.
COR
t 665 1
COR
Cork T«- they kill and cure feldom fewer than 100,000 head of and then the «M>ot ro.^mStently .dorttri, ana P'ece“-‘--'goniM,
7 ‘ „P ^vnorfc rnnfilts of but- ed by the hoft. Machines hkewife of various fantahi- ^
Ket black cattle. The reft of their exports conftfts of but-
Oor-niafs. ter? candles, hides raw and tanned, linen cloth, pork,
^ I y' ’- calves, lambs, and rabbit {kins, tallow, wool for Eng¬
land, linen and woollen yarn, and worfted. T. ne
merchants of Cork carry on a very extenfive trade to
almoft all parts of the known world ; fo that their
commerce is annually mcrealing. The produce of the
Cuftoms fome years fince exceeded 6o,OOol. and the
number of {hips that they employ is double to what
it was forty years ago. T he only thing that feemed
to be wanting to the fecurity of the port of Cork was
fupplied in the earl of Chefterfield’s memorable admi-
niilration, by building a fort on the great ifland, to
command the entrance of the haven. The outlets of
Cork are cheerful and pleafant. 1 he country around
the city, on both fides of the river, is hilly and piftu-
refque •, and the harbour called the Cove, is one of
the beft in the world ; the entrance is fafe, and the
whole navy of England might ride in it, lecure from
every wind that blows. Ships of burden, however,
are obliged to unload at Paflage, five miles and a half
from Coik, the channel not admitting veffels of above
150 tons.
Cork Jacket or Waif}coat, is an invention of one
Mr Dubourg, a gentleman very fond of fwimming,
but fubjedt to the cramp, which led him to confider
of fome method by which he might enjoy his favou¬
rite diverfion with lafety. The waiftcoat is compofed
of four pieces of cork, two for the breafts and two for
the back ; each pretty near in length and bieadth to
the quarters of a waiftcoat without flaps *, the whole is
covered with coarie canvafs, with two holes to put the
arms through •, there is a fpace left between the two
back-pieces, and the fame betwixt each back and
breaft-piece, that they may fit the eafier to the bodyi
Thus the waiftcoat is only open before, and may be
faftened on the wearer with ftrings ; or, if it fhould be
thought more fecure, with buckles and leather ftraps.
This waiftcoat does not weigh above 12 ounces, and
may be made up for about five or fix {hillings expence.
Mr Dubourg tried his waiftcoat in the Thames, and
found that it not only fupported him on the water, but
that two men could not fink him, though they ufed
their utmoft efforts for that purpofe. If thofe who ufe
the fea occafionally, and eipecially thofe who are obli¬
ged to be almoft conftantly there, xvere to have thofe
waiftcoats, it would be next to impoftible that they
Ihould be drowned. It would alfo be of vaft feivice to
thofe that, for the fake of health, bathe in the fea ;
and even the moft delicate and timorous young lady
might by the help of one of thefe jackets venture into
a rough fea. See stiR-Jacket, and BAMBoo-Habit,
CORMANDEL. See Coromandel.
COR-MASS, the name of a grand proceffion, faid
to have been eftablilhed at Dunkirk during the domi¬
nion of Charles V. and renewed on St John’s day, the
24th of June. After the celebration of high mafs, the
proceffion, confifting of the feveral tradefmen of the
town, begins. Each perfon has a burning taper of
wax in his hand : and after each company comes a pa¬
geant, followed by the patron-faint, ufually of folid
filver, richly wrought and adorned. The companies
are followed by mufic ; and after the muficians, the
friars in the habits of their order, the lecular priefts,
Vol. VI. Part II.
cal forms and devices, and as varioufly accoutred, form
a part of the (how on this occafion ; which is delcrib-
ed as one of the moft luperb and magnificent in the
world, by an eye-witnefs, in 1755.
CORMORANT, a corruption of corvorant. See
Pelicanus, Ornithology Index.
CORN, the grain or feeds of plants feparated from
the fpica or ear, and ufed for making biead.
There are feveral fpecies of corn, fuch as wheat,
rye, and barley, millet and rice, oats, maize and len¬
tils, peafe, and a number of other kinds j each of
which has its ufefulnefs and propriety.
Europe, in every part of it> Egypt, and fome
other cantons of Africa, particularly the coafts of Bar¬
bary } and fome parts of America cultivated by the
Europeans, particularly New England, New l ranee,
and Acadia, are the places which produce corn. O-
ther countries have maize and rice in lieu of it ; and
fome parts of America, both in the iflands and con¬
tinents, fimple roots, fuch as potatoes and minioc.—
Egypt was anciently the moft fertile of all other coun¬
tries in corn } as appears both from lacred and pro¬
fane hiftory. It furniftied a good part of the people
fubjed to the Roman empire, and was called the dry
nurfe of Rome and Italy. Bitain, France, and Poland,
feem now in the place of Egypt, and with their iuper-
fluities fupport a good part of Europe.
For the fir ft difeovery and culture of corn, authors
are much divided ; the common opinion is, that in the
fir ft ages men lived on the fpontaneous fruits of the
earth } as acornc, and the nut or maft produced by
the beech } which, they fay, took its name fegus,
from the Greek1 eat. It is added, that they
had not either the ufe of corn, or the art of prepar¬
ing or making it eatable.
Ceres has the credit of being the firft that fliowed
the ufe of corn, on which account file was placed
among the gods } others gave the honour to Triptole-
mus , others {hare it between the two, making Ceres
the firft difeoverer, and Triptolemus the firft planter
and cultivator of corn. Diodorus S cuius alcribes the
whole to llis; on which Polydore Vhgil obferves, he
does not differ from tl eieft} Ifis and Ceres being
in reality the fame. The Athenians pretend it was
among them the art began ; and the Cretans, or Can-
diots, Sicilians, and Egyptians, lay claim to the fame.
Some think the title of the Sicilians beft fupported,
that being the country of Ceres : and authors add, fhe
did not teach the fecret to the Athenians, till ftie had
firft inftrucled her own eountrymtn. Others fay, Ceres
paffed firft into Attica, thence into Crete, and, laft of
all, into Sicily : many of the learned, however, main¬
tain it was in Egypt the art of cultivating corn fiilt
began •, and it is certain there was corn in Egypt and
the Eaft long before the time of Ceres.
Corn is, very different from fruits, with refpecl fd
the manner of its prefervation •, and is capable of be¬
ing preferved in public granaries, for prefimg occa-
fions, and of being kept for leveral centuries.—A little
time after the fiege of Metz, under Henry II. of
France, in the year 1578, the due d Etpeinon laid
up vaft {lores of corn in the citadel } which was pre-
{erved in good plight to. the year 1707, when the
4. P French
COR
French king and his retinue,
bread baked thereof.
The chief thing that contributes to the prefervation
of corn is a cruft which forms on its furface, by the
germination of the grain next underneath, to the
thicknefs of an inch and a half. On that at Metz
people walked, without its giving the leaft way. At
Sedan was a granary cut in a rock, wherein a heap of
corn was preferved a hundred and ten years : it was
covered with a cruft a foot thick.
For the prefervation of corn, the firft method is to
let it remain in the fpike } the only expedient for con¬
veying it to the illands and provinces of America. The
inhabitants of thofe countries fave it in the ear, and
raife it to maturity by that precaution : but this me¬
thod of preferving it is attended with feveral incon¬
veniences among us ; corn is apt to rot or fprout, if
any the leaft moifture is in the heap j the rats likewife
infeft it, and our want of ftraw alfo obliges us to fepa-
rate the grain from the ear. The fecond is to turn out
and winnow it frequently j or to pour it through a
trough or mill-hopper, from one floor to another ; be¬
ing thus moved and aired every 15 days, for the firft
6 months, it will require lefs labour for the future, if
lodged in a dry place : but if, through negleft, mites
fliould be allowed to Aide into the heap, they will foon
reduce the corn to a heap of duft : this muft be avoid¬
ed^ by moving the corn anew', and rubbing the places
adjacent with oils and herbs, whofe ftrong odour may
chace them aw7ay ; for which garlic and dwarf-elder
are very effeflual j they may likewnfe be expofed to
the open fun, which immediately kills them. When
the corn has been preferved from all impurities for
the fpace of two years, and has exhaled all its fires, it
may be kept for 50 or even 100 years, by lodging it
in pits covered with ftiong planks clofelv joined to¬
gether; but the fafer way is to cover the heap with
quicklime, which fhould be diffblved by fprinkling it
over with a fmall quantity of water ; this caufes the
grains to ihoot to the depth of two or three fingers;
and inclofes them with an incruftation, as above men¬
tioned, through which neither air nor infedls can pe¬
netrate.
Indian Corn, or Maize. See Zea, Botany Index.
CoRN-ButierJiy, method of deftroying it. See A-
griculture Index.
CoRN-Crake. SccRallus, Ornithology Index.
Corn-Mill, a water-engine for grinding of corn.
See Mechanics.
Corn, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
CORNS, in Surgery, hard excrelcences, confifting
of indurations of the fkin arifing on the toes, and fome-
times on the fides of the feet, where they are much
r.xpoled to the preflure of the fhoes. By degrees they
prefs themfelves farther down between the mufcular
fibres on thefe parts, and by their irritation occafion
extreme pain. Many cures have been preferibed, but
the total removal of them is always found to be at¬
tended with great difficulty. It has been recommend¬
ed to foften them with plafters, and then to pull them
up by the roots, to apply cauftic, &c. but the beft cure
is to bathe them frequently in warm water, and pare
away as much as poflTible of the indurated Ikin without
drawing blood.
CQRNAGE, an ancient tenure, the fervice where-
Cornaro.
[ 666 ] COR
palling that way, ate of was to blow a horn when any invafion of the Scots Cornarifts
was perceived. I his tenure was very frequent in the
northern counties near the Pi&s wall; but by flat. ,
12 Car. II. all tenures are converted into free and
common focage.-—An old rental calls cornage, newt-
geldt, q. d. neat-geld. Lord Coke fays, in old books it
is called horngeld.
CORNARISTS, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, the dif-
ciples of I heodore Cornhert, an enthufiaftic fecretary
of the ftates of Holland. He wrote at the fame time
againft the Catholics, Lutherans, and Calvinifts. He
maintained that every religious communion needed
reformation ; but he added, that no perfon had a right
to engage in accomplifhing it without a miflion fup-
ported by miracles. He was alfo of opinion, that a
perfon might be a good Chriftian without being a
member of any vifible church.
CORNARIUS, or Haguenbot, John, a celebra¬
ted German phyfician, born at Zwickow in Saxony.
His preceptor made him change his name of Haguen¬
bot to that of Cornarius, under wftiich he is moft
known. At 20 years of age he taught grammar, and
explained the Greek and Latin poets and orators to
% his fcholars ; and at 23 was licentiate in medicine.
He found fault with moft of the remedies provided
by the apothecaries ; and obferving, that the greateft
part of the phyficians taught their pupils only what is
to be found in Avicenna, Rhafis, and the other Arabian
phyficians, he carefully fought for the writings of the
beft phyficians of Greece, and employed about 15 years
in tranflating them into Latin, efpecially the works of
Hippocrates, Aetius, Eginetes, and a part of thofe of
Galen. Meanwhile he praclifed phyfic with reputa¬
tion at Zwickow, Frankfort, Marpurg, Nordhaufen,
and Jena, where he died of an apoplexy in 1558,
aged 58. Fie alfo wrote fome medicinal treatiles;
publiftied editions of fome poems of the ancients on
medicine and botany; and tranflated fome of the
works of the fathers, particularly thofe of Bafil, and
a part of thofe of Epiphanius.
CORNARO, Lewis, a Venetian of noble extrac¬
tion, memorable for having lived healthful and aiftive
to above 100 years of age by a rigid courfe of tempe¬
rance. By the ill conduct of fome of his relations he
was deprived of the dignity of a noble Venetian ; and
feeing himfelf excluded from all employments under
the republic, he fettled at Padua. In his youth he
was of a weak conftitution ; and by irregular indul¬
gence reduced himfelf at about 40 years of age to
the brink of the grave, under a complication of difor-
ders ; at vyhich extremity he was told that he had no
other chance for his life, but by becoming fober and
temperate. Being wife enough to adopt this whole-
forne counfel, he reduced himfelf to a regimen of which
there are very few examples. He allowed himfelf no
more than 12 ounces of food and 14 ounces of liquor
each day ; which became fo habitual to him, that when
he was above 70 years of age, the experiment of add¬
ing two ounces to each by the advice of his friends,
had like to have proved fatal to him. At 83 he wrote
a treatife which has been tranflated into Engliffi, and
often printed, entitled, “ Sure and Certain Methods of
attaining a Long and Healthful Life j” in which he re¬
lates his own ftory, and extols temperance to a degree
of entkufiafm. At length the yolk of an egg became
^ fufficient
COR [ 667 ] COR
Cornavii fafficient for a meal, and fometimes for two, until he
II died with much eafe and compofure in 1566. The
orne ‘a~ . writer of the Spedlator, N° 1^,5, confirms the fa£t
from the authority of the Venetian ambaffador at that
time, who was a defcendant of the Cornaro family.
CORNAVII, (Ptolemy), a people of Britain be¬
ginning in the very heart of the ifland, and extending
to Chefter. Now Warwick, Worcejier, Salop, Stafford
and Cheflnre (Camden).
CORNEA tunica, in Anatomy, the fecond coat of
the eye *, fo called from its fubftance refembling the horn
of a lantern, in Latin cornu. See Anatomy Index.
CORNEILLE, Peter, a celebrated French poet,
was born at Rouen in the year 1606. He was brought
up to the bar, which he attended for fome little time j
but formed with a genius too elevated for fuch a pro-
feffion, and having no turn for bufinefs, he foon de-
ferted it. An affair of gallantry occafioned his uni¬
ting his firfl piece, entitled Melite; which had prodi¬
gious fuccefs. Encouraged by the applaufe of the
public, he wrote the Cid, and the other tragedies that
have immortalized his name. In his dramatic works
he difcovers a majefly, a ftrength and elevation of ge¬
nius, fcarce to be found in any other of the French
poets ; and, like our immortal Shakefpeare, feems
better acquainted with nature than with the rules of
critics. Corneille was received into the French aca¬
demy in 1647, and died dean of that academy in 1684,
aged 78. Befides his dramatic pieces, he wrote a
tranflation, in French verfe, of the “ Imitation of Jefus
Chrift,” &c. The belt edition of his works is that of
1682, in 4 vols rzmo.
Corneille, Thomas, brother of the former, was a
member of the French academy and of that of inferip-
tions. He difeovered in his youth a great inclination
to poetry; and at length publifhed feveral dramatic
pieces in 5 vols izmo, fome of which were applauded
by the public, and afted with fuccefs. He alfo wrote,
I. A tranflation of Ovid’s Metamorphofes, and fome
of Ovid’s Epiftles j 2. Remarks on Vauglas ; 3. A
Dictionary of Arts, 2 vols folio ; and, 4. An Uni-
verfal Geographical and Hiltorical Dictionary, in
3 vols folio.
Corneille, Michael, n. celebrated painter, was born
as Paris in the year 1642 ; and was inftruCted by his
father, who was himfelf a painter of great merit.
Having gained a prize at the academy, young Corneille
obtained a penfion from Louis XIV. 5 and was fent to
Rome, vehere that prince had founded a fchool for
young artifts of genius. Having ftudied there fome
time, he gave up his penfion, and applied to the an¬
tique with great care. He is faid to have equalled
Carache in drawing, but in colouring he was deficient.
Upon his return from Rome, he was chofen profefibr
in the academy of Paris ; and was employed by the
above prince in all the great wrorks he was carrying
on at Verfailles and Trianon, where are ftill to be feen
lome noble eftorts of his genius.
CORNEL- tree. See Cornus, Botany /Wes?.
CORNELIA, daughter of Scipio Africanus, was
the mother of Tiberius and Caius Gracchus. She was
courted by a king, but (he preferred being the wife
of a Roman citizen to that of a monarch. Her vir¬
tues have been defervedly commended, as well as the
v/holefome principles flie inculcated in her two fons.
When a Campanian lady made once a {how of her CornehY'
jewels at Cornelia’s houfe, and entreated her to favour”-v—*■“
her with a fight of her Own, Cornelia produced her
two fons, faying, “ Thefe are the only jewels of which
I can boaft.”
Cornelia Lex, de civitate, was enabled, in the year
of Rome 670, by L. Corn. Sylla. It confirmed the
Sulpician law, and required that the citizens of the
eight newly defied tribes ftiould be divided among the
35 ancient tribes.—Another, de judiciis, in 673, by the
lame. It ordained, that the praetor fliould always ob-
ferve the fame invariable method in judicial proceed¬
ings, and that the procefs (hould not depend upon his
will.—Another de fumptibus, by the fame. It limited
the expences which generally attended funerals A-
nother de religione, by the fame, in 677. It reftored to
the college of priefts the privilege of choofing the
priefts, which by the Domitian law had been lodged
in the hands of the people.—-Another, de municipns, bjt
the fame $ which revoked all the privileges which had
been fome time before granted to the feveral towns
that had aflifted i^larius and Cinna in the civil w'ars.—
Another de magijlratibus, by the fame ; which gave
the powder of bearing honours, and being promoted be¬
fore the legal age, to thofe who had followed the in-
terefl: of Sylla j while the fons and partizans of his
enemies, who had been proferibed, were deprived of
the privilege of Handing for any office in the Hate.—
Another, de magijlratibus, by the fame, in 673. It or¬
dained, that no perfon ftiould exercife the fame office
within ten years diftance, or be inverted with two dif¬
ferent magiftracies in one year.—Another, de magijlra¬
tibus, by the fame, in 673. It diverted the tribunes
of the privilege of making laws, interfering, holding
aflemblies, and receiving appeals. All fuch as had
been tribunes were incapable of holding any other of¬
fice in the ftate by that law.—Another, de majejlate, by
the fame, in 670. It made it treafon to lend an army
out of a province or engage in a wrar wuthout orders,
to influence the foldiers to fpare or ranfom a captive
general of the enemy, to pardon the leaders of robbers
or pirates, or for the abfence of a Roman citizen to a
foreign court wuthout previous leave. The punirtiment
was aquee et ignis interdiElio.—Another by the fame.
It gave the power to a man accufed of murder, either
by poifon, w-eapons, or falfe accufations, and the fet-
ting fire to buildings, to choofe whether the jury that
tried him {hould give their verdift clam or palam, viva
voce, or by ballot. Another by the fame, which made
it aquae et ignis interdiBio to fuch as were guilty of for¬
gery, concealing and altering of wills, corruption, falfe
accufations, and the debafing or counterfeiting of the
public coin. All fuch as were acceflbry to this offence
wrere deemed as guilty as the offender.—Another, de
pecuniis repetundis ; by which a man convi&ed of pecu¬
lation or extortion in the provinces was condemned to
fuffer the aqua et ignis interdiRios—Another, by the
fame •, wrhich gave the power to fuch as were fent into
the provinces with any government, of retaining their
command and appointment without a renewal of it by
the fenate, as was before obferved.—Another by the
fame ; which ordained, that the lands of proferibed
perfons rtiould be common, efpecially thofe about Vo-
laterrae and Fefulae in Etruria, which Sylla divided
among his foldiers.—Another by C. Cornelius tribune
^ 4^3 of
CO R [ 663 j COR
-Cornelian of the people, in 686. It ordained, that no perfon
£ J!c ^ ftiould be exempted from any law according to the
him general cuftom, unlefs 200 fenators were prefent in
» - ^ - the fenate •, and no perfon thus exempted could hin¬
der the bill of his exemption from being Carried to the
people for their concurrence.—Another, by Naffica, in
582, to make war againft Perfeus, Ion of Philip king
of Macedon, if he did not give proper latisfacfion to
the Roman people.
CORNELIAN. See Carnklian.
CORNER, in a general fenfe, the fame with An¬
gle.
CORNET, in the military art of the ancients, an
inllrument much in the nature of a trumpet ; which
when it only founded, the enfigns were to march alone
without the foldiers ; whereas when the trumpet only
founded, the foldiers were to move without the enfigns.
The cornets and buccinae founded the charge and re¬
treat ; and the cornets and trumpets founded during
the courfe of the battle. See Plate CLX1V.
Cornet, in modern military economy, denotes an
officer in the cavalry who bears the enfign or colours
of a troop.
The cornet is the third officer in the company, and
commands in the abfence of the captain and lieutenant.
He takes his title from his enfign, which is fquare ;
and is fuppofed to be called by that name from cvr//u,
becaufe placed on the wings, which form a kind of
points or horns of the army. O.hers derive the name
from coronet; alleging, that it was the ancient cuftom
for thefe officers to wear coronets or garlands on their
heads.
CORNEUS, the name by which Linnaeus calls a
kind of tin ore, found in black columns, with irregu¬
lar Tides, and terminating in prifms.
CORNICHE, Cornish, or Cornice, in architec¬
ture, the uppermofl: member of the entablature of a
column, as that which crowns the order. See Ar¬
chitecture, Chap. I. and the Plates.
Corniche, is alfo ufed, in general, for all little
projeclures in mafonry or joinery, even where there
are no columns, as the corniche of a chimney, beau-
fet, &e.
Corhiche Ring, in a piece of ordnance, is that next
from the mir/.zle ring, backward.
CORNICULARIUS, in antiquity, an officer in
the Roman army, whofe bufinefs was to aid and afiift
the military tribune in quality of a lieutenant.
The corntcular'ii went the rounds in lieu of the tri¬
bune, vifited the watch, and were nearly what the
aids major are in the French army.
The denomination cornicu/arius was given them from
a little horn, called corniculum, which they ufed in
giving orders to the foldiers : though Salmafius de¬
rives it from corniculum, the creft of a head-piece ; it
being an obfervation o* Pliny, that they wore iron or
brafs horns on their helmets j and that thefe were call¬
ed cornicula.
In the Nothin Imperii we find a kind of fecretary or
regifter of the lame name. His bufmefs was to attend
the judge, and enter down his fentiments and decifions.
The critics derive the wTord, in this fenfe, from corni-
culum, a little horn to put ink in.
CORNICULUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Sabines, to the eaft of Cruflumerium, towards the
Anio. It wasburntdown by Tarquhv, but reftored again, Cornifh
after the expulfion of the kings, (Florus). Now in diamond
ruins, called il Monte Genaro, (Holitenius). Cornwall
CORNISH diamond, a name given by many peo- ■
pie to the cryftals found in digging the mines of tin
in Cornwall. See Cornwall.
CORNIX, the trivial name of a fpecies of Corvus. •
See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
CORNU. See Horn.
Cornu Ammonis, in Natural Hi/lory, foffil (hells,
called alfo ferpentjlones, or fnake-Jlones.
They are found of all fizes, from the breadth of a
fixpence to more than two feet in diameter, and forne
even larger •, fome of them rounded, others greatly
compreffed, and lodged in different firata ot Hones and
clays ; fome again ate fmooth, and others varioufiy
ridged, their Ih ite and ridges being either ftraight, irre¬
gularly crooked, or undulated. See Snake-Stones.
Cornu Cervi. See Hartshorn.
CORNUCOPIA, among the ancient poets, a horn
out of which proceeded plenty of all things ; by a par¬
ticular privilege which Jupiter granted his nurle, lup*
poled to be the goat Amalthea. The fable is thus
interpreted : That in Libya there is a little territory
(liaped not unlike a bullock’s horn, exceeding fertile,
given by King Ammon to his daughter, Amalthea,
.whom the poets feign to have been Jupiter’s nurfe.
In Architeclure and Sculpture the cornucopia, or
horn of plenty, is represented under the figure of a
large horn, out of which iffue fruits, iloweis, &c. On
medals, F. Joubert obferves, the cornucopia is given
to all deities.
CORNUCOPIiE, in Botany, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria clafs ; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4th order, Gravnntce. See
Botany Index.
CORNUS, Cornel tree, Cornelian cherry, or
Dog-wood : A genus of plants belonging to the te-
trandria clals ; and in the natural method ranking un*
der the 47th order, Stellct#.
CORNUT1A, a genus of plants, belonging to the
didynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 40th order, fUr/b/w/rf. See Botany Index.
CORNW ALL, the moll wetlerly county of Eng¬
land, bounded by the Englifh channel on the fouth,
St George’s channel on the weft, the Briftol channel on
the north, and on the eaft by the river Tamar, which
feparates it from Devonftiire. Its name is fuppofed by
fome to be compounded of cam, fignifying “ a rock”
in the Britrlh language, and Gauls or Waules, the
name the Saxons gave to the Britons. Others, how¬
ever, think it is derived from the Latin cornu, or the
Britilh kern, “ a horn on account of its running out
into the fea fomewhat in the form of a horn, blither
the ancient Britons (as well as in W ales) retired on
the intrufion of the Saxons, where they oppofed their
further conquefts. In this part of the ifiand they
formed a kingdom that exifted for many years alter
under different princes, amongft whom were Ambto-
fius Aurelius, and the juftiy celebrated Arthur ; nor
were they fubdued till the middle of the 7th century,
from which time Cornwall was confidered as fubjeft
to the Weff Saxon kings, who begun their foverejgn-
ty in 519, and continued it till 828, under 18 love-
reigns, the laft of whom was the great Egbert, who
fubdued
COR [ 669 ] . . C °
Cornwall, fubdued all the others; and by uniting them, formed rivers with which it is watered.
  v 1 the kingdom of England, when this country was in-
eluded in the county of Devon, then the pth diviilon ;
and that accounts for Alfred’s not mentioning Corn¬
wall, which, on forming the circuits after the Norman
conqaeft, is included in the vveftern circuit. In 1337,
Edward III. erefted it into a dukedom, and inverted
with it Edward the Black Prince. But this, according
to the exprels words of the grant, is limited to tne
firft born fon and heir, on which account Richard II.
was created duke of Cornwall by charter. So was
Henry V. by his father Henry IV. Henry VI. de¬
livered the duchy to his fon Prince Edward, and Ed¬
ward IV. created his fon Edward V. duke of Cornwall,
as did Henry VII. his fon, afterwards Henry VIII.
upon the death of his elder brother Arthur. James I.
created his fon Henty duke of Cornwall, which title
on his deceafe came to his brother Charles. . 1 he el-
deft fons of fucceeding kings have enjoyed this title by
inheritance. Thefe not only appoint the ftierirt, but all
writs, deeds, &c. are in their name, and not in the
king’s ; and they have alfo peculiar royalties and pre¬
rogatives diftinft from the crown, for which they ap¬
point the officers. This county is 80 miles long, 40
broad, and 250 in circumference j containing 960,000
acres, and 126,000 inhabitants. It is divided into
9 hundreds ; has 27 market towns, viz. Launcellon,
Truro, Falmouth, Helfton, Saltalh, Bodmyn, St Ives,
Tregony, Camelford, Fowey, St Germains, Penryn,
Callington, St Auftle, Eaft Looe, Padftow, St Co-
lomb, Penfance, Grampond, Lefkard, Leftwithiel, St
Mawes, St Michael, Newport, Market Jew, Stratton,
and Redruth', 1230 villages, 191 parrthes, 89 vica¬
rages: provides 640 men to the militia, and pays 8 parts
of the land-tax. Its chief rivers are the Taman Fale
Cober, Looe, Camel, Fowe, Haile, Lemara, Kenfe,
, and Aire. Its principal capes or head lands are the
Land’s-end, the Lizard, Cape Cornwall. Deadman’s-
head, Rame-head, &c. and a duller of itlands, 144 in
num ber, called the Scilly ijles, fuppofed formerly to
have been joined to the main land, though now 30
miles dirtant; abounding with antiquities, particularly
druidical.
As Cornwall is furrounded by the fea on all fides
except the eaft, its climate is fomewhat different fiom
that 'of the other parts of Britain. The reafons of
this difference will be eaftly underftood from what is
obferved concerning the climate ol America. I he
frmmers in Cornwall aie lefs hot, and the winters Itfs
cold, than in other parts of England, and the fpring
and harveft are obferved to be more backward. High
and fudden winds are alfo more common in this than
in other counties of England. The county is rocky
and- mountainous ; but the mountains are rich in me¬
tals, efpecially tin and cooper. The valleys are very
pleafant and fertile, yielding great plenty both or corn
and pafture. The lands near the fea-coaff are ma¬
nured and fertilized with fea-weed, and a kind of land
formed by the pat tides of broken fhells as they are
dalhed againft each other by the fea. Cattle of all
forts are imaller here than in the other counties of
England; and the wool of the fheep, which are moftly
without horns, is very fine, and the fleih, both of them
and the black cattle, extremely delicate. I he coun¬
ty is well fupplied. wftth fifh from the fea and the many
R
The moft noted of c&rnwall.^
the fea-filh is the pilchard 5 of which prodigious quan-‘ v
titles are caught from July to November, and export¬
ed to different parts, eipecially to Spam. It is laid that
a million have been lometimes taken at a fingle draught.
The natives are remarkable for their ftrength and ac¬
tivity, as well as their dexterity in wrertling, in which
exercife the Cornifti hug is highly extolled.
This county abounds in mines of different metals
and femimetals ; but the principal produce is tin.
The Phenicians early viiited thefe coafts for this ar¬
ticle, fome think 400 or 450 years before Chrift 5 ami
the mines continued to be wrought with various luc-
cefs at different periods. In the time of King John
they appear to have yielded no great emolument j the
right of working them being wholly in the king as
earl of Cornwall, and the mines farmed by the Jews
for 100 mtrks } and according to this proportion the
10th of it, 61. 13s. 46. is at this day paid by the
crown to the bilhop of Exeter. In the time of Rich¬
ard king of the Romans and earl of Cornwall, the tin-
mines were immenlely rich j the Jews being farmed out
to him by his brother Henry III. what intereft they
had was at his difpofal. The Spanifti tin-mines being
flopped by the Moors, and none diff overed in Ger¬
many, the Malabar coaft, or the Spanifti Weft Indies,
Cornwall and its earls had all the trade of Europe for
it. The Jews being baniihed the kingdom, j8 Edw. I.
they were again negle&ed till the gentlemen of Black-
more, lords of feven tithings beft ftored at that time
with tin, obtained of Edmund earl of Cornwall, Ion ot
Richard king of the Romans, a charter under his own
leal, with more explicit grants of privileges, courts,
pleas, parliaments, and the toll-tin or Vj-th °i Bie
tin railed. At this time too the right of bounding or
dividing tin grounds into feparate partitions for the
encouragement of fearching for it feems to have been
firft appointed, or at leaft adjufted. This charter was
confirmed 33 Edward I. and the Cornifh iepaiated
from the Dovonrtiire tinners. Their laws, particular¬
ly recited in Plowden’s Commentaries, p. 237, were
further explained 50 Edw. III. confirmed and en¬
larged by parliament, 8 Rich. II. 3 Ed. IV. I Ed. \ I.
x and 2* P. and M. and 2 E:iz. and the whole fo-
ciety divided into four parts under one general warden
to do juftice in law and equity, from whofe fentence
lies an appeal to the duke of Cornwall in council, or
for want of a duke of Cornwall to the crown. The
lord-warden appoints a vice-warden to deteimine all
ftannery difputes every month: he alfo conftitutes four
ftewards, one for each of the precimffs before men¬
tioned, who hold their courts every three weeks, and
decide by juries of fix perfons, with an appeal referved
to the vice-warden, lord warden, and lord of the prince’s
council. In difficult cafes the lord-warden, by com-
miffion, iffues his precept to the four principal towns
of the ftannery diftriffis, who each.choole fix members',
and thefe twenty-four ftannators conftitute the parlia¬
ment of tinners. Each ftannator choofes an affillant,
making a kind of Handing council in a different apart¬
ment to give information to the prince. Whatever
is enabled by the body of tinners muff be figned by
the ftannators, the lord-warden, or his deputy, and
by the duke or the king, and thenceforward has with
regard to tin affairs all the authority of an a& of the
•whole.
COR [ 6
^Cornwall, whole leglflature. Five towns are appointed in the
' nioft convenient parts of the county for the tinners to
bring their tin to every quarter of a year. Thefe are
Lefkard, Leftwithielj I ruro, Helfton, and Penfance,
the la It added by Charles II. for the conveniency of
the weftern tinners. In the time of Henry VIII.
there were but two coinages at Midfummer and Mi¬
chaelmas ; two more at Chriltmas and Lady-day were
added, for which the tinners pay an acknowledgment
called Pqft groats, or 4d. for every hundred of white
tin then coined. The officers appointed by the duke
alTay it j and if well purified ftamp it by a hammer
with the duchy fpal, the arms of Richard earl of Corn¬
wall, a lion rampant G. crowned O. within a bordure
of bezants S j and this is a permiffion to the coiner to
fell, and is called coining the tin. Every hundred of
white tin fo coined pays to the duke 4s. The tin of
the whole county, which, in Carew’s time, in the laft
century, amounted to 30,000!. or 40,000). yearly, has
for 24 years lalt part amounted one year with another
to 180,000). or 190,000). fterling. Of this the duke
of Cornwall receives for his 4s. duty on every hundred
of white tin above io,oool. yearly: the bounders or
proprietors of the foil about £th at a medium clear,
or about 30,000!. yearly $ the remainder goes to the
adventurers in the mine, who are at all the charge of
working. Tin is found colle&ed and fixed in lodes
and floors, or in grains and bunches in the natural
rock, or loofe and detached in Angle feparate ftones
called Jhodes or Jireams, or in a continued courfe of fuch
ftones called the beuheyl or living Jlream, or in an are¬
naceous pulverized date. It is rtrott eafily difcovered
by tracing the lodes by the fcattered fragments of them
called Jhodes, by leave of the lord of the foil or the
bounder. The tin being divided among the lords and
adventurers, is damped and worked at the mill •, and
being thus dreffed is carried under the name of black
tin to the melting-houfe, where it is melted by Welch
pit-coal, and poured into blocks of 3201b. weight, and
carried to the coinage town. Mundic, a fcarce metal
or mineral ore, of a white, braffy, or brown colour, is
found in large quantities, intermixed with tin, copper,
and lead, and fometimes by itfelf. Iron ore is found
in Cornwall, but the working it does not anfwer.
There is no richer copper, nor a greater variety any
where than in this county. Silver, if really found
here in the reigns of Edward I. and II. has been rare¬
ly found fince, nor do the lead mines anfwer. Very
late difcoveries have proved that Cornwall has more
gold than was formerly imagined. What is called the
Cormfh diamond is a figured cryftal generally hexagonal
and pyramidical, or columnar, or both, of a fine clear
water, and of all our baftard diamonds in this nation
efteemed the beft, and fome of different colours, black,
yellow. Sec. The clearer thefe are, the better they
will bear engraving for feals.
In privileges and language Cornwall feems to be
another kingdom. By 21 Elizabeth it. was ordered
that all duty on Corniffi cloth exported ffiould be re¬
mitted to every Engliffiman within the duchy of Corn¬
wall. This was firft granted by the Black Prince,
in confideration of their paying 4s. for the coinage of
every hundred of tin ; whereas Devonlhire pays no
more than 8d. They have alfo by grant from Richard
earl of Cornwall, confirmed 25 Henry III, freedom to
I
° ] COR
take fand out of the fea and carry It through the Corru-all
country for manure ; wdiereupon in the following II
reign, on an inquifition made, we find a complaint that Corollary.
Saltafh had lately taken 12s. yearly for each barge' 
that carried fand up the d amar j whereas nothing
ought to have been demanded. They ftill continue
this ancient method of improving their land, carrying
it ten miles up into the country, and great part of
the way on horfes backs. Mr Ray fuppofes the vir¬
tue of thiS' fand depends chiefly on the fait mixed
with it, which is fo copious that in many places fait
is boiled up out of a li*xivium made of the fea fand ;
and the reafon why fand when it has lain long in the
fun and wind proves lefs enriching and ufeful is, that
the dews and rain evaporate great part of its fait.
They had likewife a privilege of trading to all parts
of the world, granted them by Charles I. in recom-
penfe of their loyalty.
The number of boroughs in this fmall county rvas
furprifingly increafed by Edward VI. who added feven
to the original fix, Mary two, Elizabeth fix, making
in all 21, fending 40 members befides the county two£
Eight of thefe boroughs had an immediate or re¬
mote connexion w ith the demefne lands of the duchyj
the reft belonged to religious houfes, or powerful fa¬
milies, or were old boroughs, which had legal immu¬
nities granted to them by their princes or lords.
The Cornilh language is a dialed of that which
till the Saxons came in was common to all Britain,
and more anciently to Ireland and Gaul ; but the in¬
habitants of this ifland being difperfed before thofe
conquefts, and driven into Wales and Cornwall, and
thence into Bretagne, the fame language, for want of
frequent intercourfe, became differently pronounced
and written, and in different degrees mixed with dif¬
ferent languages. Hence came the Welfh, the Cornilh
and the Armoric dialeds, whofe radicals are fo much
alike that they are known and admitted by the inha¬
bitants of either country j but the grammar fo varied
that they cannot converfe. The Cornilh is reckoned
the moft pleafing of the three. It was fpoken fo ge¬
nerally here down to the reign of Henry VIII. that Dr
John Moreman, vicar of Mynhinet, is faid to have
been the firft who taught his parilhioners the Lord’s
prayer, the creed, and ten commandments in Eng-
liffi, and at the Reformation the natives defired the
fervice in Englilh. The older people in fome parifhes
retained their original language to the middle of the
laft century : and the laft fermon was preached in it
in 1678. When Mr Ray was here, 1662, he could
find but one perfon who could write this language j
and it is now fo nearly extinft, that Mr Barrington,
in 1768, could only find one old woman who could
fcold in it, and ffie is fince dead.
CORODY. See Revenue.
COROLLA, among botanifts, the moft confpicu-
ous part of a flower, furrounding the organs of gene¬
ration, and compofed of one or more flower-leaves,
moft commonly called petals, to diftinguifh them from
the leaves of the plant j according as there is one, two,
or three of thefe petals, the corolla is faid to be mono-
petalous, dipetalous, tripetalous, &c.
COROLLARY is a confequence drawn from fome-
thing already advanced or demonftrated: thus, it be¬
ing demonftrated that a triangle which has two equal
fides,
COR [ 671 ] COR
Coroliftas iides, has alfo two angles equal ; this corollary will
’’ follow that a triangle which has three (ides equal, has
or|j™an- alfo its three angles equal.
> COROLISTjE, a name by which Linnaeus diftin-
guifhes thofe fyflematic botanifts who have arranged
vegetables from the regularity, figure, number, and
other circumftances, of the petals, or beautiful colour¬
ed leaves of the flowers. The belt fyftems of this
kind are thofe of Rivinus and Tournefort. The for¬
mer proceeds upon the regularity and number of the
petals; the latter, wuth much more certainty, on their
regularity and figure.
COROLLULA, a term ufed by botanifts to ex-
prefs the little partial flowers which make up the com¬
pound ones.
COROMANDEL, the eaftern coaft of the penin-
fula on this fide the Ganges in Afia. It is bounded
on the north by Golconda, on the eaft by the bay of
Bengal, on the fouth by Madura, and on the weft by
Bifnagar. This coaft fo much refembles that of O-
rixa, that the Abbe Raynal choofes to confider them
as one, and gives to both the general name of Coro¬
mandel. Here an exceftive heat reigns from the be¬
ginning of May to the end of O&ober. It begins at
nine in the morning, and continues till nine in the
evening. During the night it is allayed by a fea-breeze
from the fouth-eaft *, and moft commonly this refrefh-
ing gale begins at three in the afternoon. The air is
lefs inflamed during the reft of the year, though in all
feafons it is very hot. It rains almoft continually du¬
ring the months of November and December. This
immenfe tradl is covered with a parched fand for the
extent of two miles, and fometimes only one mile
along the coaft.
This country was at firft neglefled by the Europe¬
ans for many reafons. It was feparated by inaccef-
fible mountains from Malabar, where thefe bold ad¬
venturers endeavoured to fettle themfelves. Spices
and aromatics, which were the principal objects of
their attention, were not to be found there. In fhort,
civil diffenfions had baniihed from it tranquillity, fecu-
rity, and induftry. At that period the empire of
Bifnagar, to which this vaft country was fubjeft, was
falling to ruin. The governors of Vifapour, the
Carnatic, Golconda, and Orixa, threw off their depen¬
dence, and affumed the title of kings. Thofe of
Madura, Tanjore, Myfore, Gingi, and fome others,
likewife ufurped the fovereign authority, though they
retained their ancient title of Natch. This revolution
had juft happened when the Europeans appeared on
the coaft of Coromandel. The foreign trade was at
that time inconfiderable ; it confifted only of diamonds
from Golconda, which were carried to Calicut and
Surat, and from thence to Ormus or Suez, whence
they were circulated through all Europe and Afia.
Maffulipatan, the richeft and moft populous city of
thefe countries, was the only market that was known
for linens; they were purchafed at a great fair an¬
nually holden there by the Arabian and Malayan vef-
fels that frequented that bay, and by caravans arrived
from diftant parts. The linens were exported to the
fame places with the diamonds. The fondnefs for the
manufa&ures of Coromandel, which began fo prevail
here, infpired all the European nations trading to the
Indian feas with the refolution of forming fettlements
there. They were not difcouraged either by the dif- Coroman-
ficulty of conveying goods from the inland parts of the ,
country, where there was no navigable river ; by the
total want of harbours, where the fea at one leafon
of the year is not navigable j by the barrennefs of the
coafts, for the moft part uncultivated and uninhabited $
nor by the tyranny and fludluating ftate of the go¬
vernment. They thought that filver would be indu-
ftrioufly fought after j that Pegu would furnifh timber
for building, and Bengal corn for fubfiftence j that a
profperous voyage of nine months would be more
than fufficient to complete their ladings ; and that by
fortifying themfelves they fhould be fecure againft
the attacks of the weak tyrants that oppreffed thefe
countries.
The firft European colonies were eftablifhed near
the ftiore. Some of them obtained a fettlement by
force ; moft of them were formed with the confent
of the fovereigns j and all were confined to a very
narrow tradl of land. The boundaries of each were
marked out by a hedge of thorny plants, which was
their only defence. In procefs of time fortifications
w’ere raifed 5 and the fecurity derived from them,
added to the lenity of the government, foon increafed
the number of colonifts. The fplendor and indepen¬
dence of thefe fettlements feveral times raifed the jea-
loufy of the princes in whofe dominions they were
formed j but their attempts to demolifh them proved
abortive. Each colony increafed in profperity in pro¬
portion to the riches and the wifdom of the nation
that founded it. None of the companies that exer-
cifed an exclufive privilege beyond the Cape of Good
Hope had any concern in the trade of diamonds. This
was always left to private merchants, and by degrees
fell entirely into the hands of the Englifti, or the Jews
and Armenians that lived under their protection. At
prefent this grand objeCt of luxury and induftry is much
reduced. The revolutions that have happened in In-
doftan have prevented people from reforting to thefe
rich mines; and the anarchy in which this unhappy
country is plunged leaves no room to hope that they
will be again attended^to. The whole of the com¬
mercial operations on the coaft of Coromandel is con¬
fined to the purchafe of cottons. The manufacturing
of the white cotton brought there dift’ers fo little from
ours, that it would be neither interefting nor inftruc-
tive to enter into a minute defcription of it. The
procefs ufed in making their printed cottons, which
was at firft fervilely followed in Europe, has fince
been rendered more Ample, and brought to greater
perfection by our manufacturers. The painted cot¬
tons which are brought there we have not yet attempt¬
ed to imitate. Thofe who imagine we have been
prevented from undertaking this branch merely by
the high price of labour among us, are miftaken. Na¬
ture has not given us the wild fruits and drugs necef-
fary for the compofition of thofe bright and indelible
colours which conftitute the principal merit of the In¬
dian manufactures ^ nor has Ihe futnifhed us with the
waters that ferve to fix them. The Indians do not
univerfally obfervc the fame method in painting their
cottons ; either becaufe there are fome niceties pecu¬
liar to certain provinces, or becaufe different foils pro¬
duce different drugs for different ufes. We fhould
tire the patience of our readers were we to trace the
flow
COR [672
Coromsn- flow and painful progrefs of the Indians in the art of
, '• painting their cottons. It is natural to believe that they
^ owe it to length ot time, rather than to the fertility
of their genius. What feems to authorife this conjec¬
ture is, that they have Hopped in their improvements,
and have not advanced a fingle Hep in the arts for
many ages ; whereas we have proceeded with ama¬
zing rapidity. Indeed, were we to confider only the
want of invention in the Indians, we fliould be tempt¬
ed to believe, that, from time immemorial, they have
received the arts they cultivate from fome more in-
duftrious nation 5 but w'hen it is remembered that
thefe arts have a peculiar dependence on the mate¬
rials, gums, colours, and productions of India, we
cannot but be convinced that they are natives of that
country. It may appear fomewhat iurpriiing that
cottons painted with all forts of colours fhould be fold
at fo moderate a price, that they are almoft as cheap
as thofe that have only two or three. But it muft be
obferved, that the merchants of the country fell to all
the companies a large quantity of cottons at a time ;
and that the demand for cottons painted with various
colours makes but a finall article in their affbrtments,
as they are not much effeemed in Europe.
Though cottons of all forts are in fome degree ma-
nufaclured through the whole country of Indoflan,
which extends from Cape Comorin to the banks of the
Ganges ; it is obfervable, that the fintft are made
in the eaftern part, the common ones in the centre,
and the coarfe ones in the moil weftern parts. Ma¬
nufactures are elfablifhed in the European colonies,
and upon the coaft; they are more frequent at the
diitance of five or fix leagues from the fea, where cot¬
ton is more cultivated, and provifions are cheaper.
The purchafes made there are carried 30 or 40 leagues
farther into the country. The Indian merchants fet¬
tled in the European factories have always the ma¬
nagement of this bufinefs. 1 he quantity and quality
of the goods wanted are fettled with thefe people:
the price is fixed according to the patterns : and at
the time a contract is made, a third or fourth part
of the money agreed on is advanced. I his arrange¬
ment is owing to the neceffity thefe merchants them-
felves are under of advancing money to the workmen
by the partners or agents who are difperled through
the whole country : of keeping a watchful eye upon
them, for fear of lofing what they have advanced ; and
of gradually lefiening the fum, by calling for tne cot¬
tons as faft as they are wTorked off. \\ ithout theie
precautions, nothing could be depended on in an op-
preffive government, where the weaver cannot work
on his own account, either becaufe his circumfiances
will not permit, or becaufe he dares not venture to
difcover them for fear of exactions. The companies
that have either fuccefs or good management, con-
ftantly keep the ftock of one year in advance in their
fettlemerts. By this method they are fure of having
the quar. y of goods they have occafion for, and of
the quality they choofe, at the molt convenient time :
not to mention that their workmen, and their mer¬
chants, who are kept in conftant employment, never
leave them. Such nations as w^ant money and credit
cannot begin their mercantile operations till the ar¬
rival of their thips. They have only five or fix months
■*t molt to execute the orders fent from Europe. I he
2
] COR
goods are manufactured and examined In hafte ; and Coromam.
they are even obliged to take fuch as are known to be . ,
bad, and would be rejeCled at any other time. The v
necefiity they are under of completing their cargoes,
and fitting out their veffels before hurricanes come on,
leaves no room for nicety of infpeftion. It would be
a miftake to imagine that the country agents could be
prevailed upon to order goods to be made on their
account in hopes of felling them with a reafonable
advantage to the company with whom they are en¬
gaged. For, befides that the generality of them
are not rich enough to embark in lo large an un¬
dertaking, they would not be certain of finding their ac¬
count in it. If the company that employ them fliould
be hindered by unforefeen accidents from fending the
ufual number of ihips, thefe merchants would have no
vent for their commodities. The Indians, the form
of whofe drefs requires different breadths and lengths
from thofe of the cottons fabricated for our ufe, would
not purchafe them ; and the other European compa¬
nies would be provided, or certain of being provided,
with whatever the extent of their trade required, and
their money enabled them to purchafe. T he plan of
procuring loans, which was contrived to remedy this
inconvenience, never has nor can be ufeful. It Las
been a cuftom, time immemorial, in Indoftan, for
everv citizen who borrows money to give a written
inftrument to his creditor. 'I his deed is of no force
in a court of judicature, unleis it is figned by tnree
witneffes, and bears the day of the month and the
year when it was made, with the rate of intereft
agreed upon by the parties. If the borrower fails to
fulfil his engagements, he may be arrefied by the
lender himfelf. He is never imprifoned, becaufe
there is no fear of his making bis efcape. Ele would
not even eat, without obtaining leave of his creditor.
The Indians make a threefold divifion of intereft:
one kind they call vice; another neither vice nor vir¬
tue ; and a third, they fay, is virtue. The fiift is four
per cent, a month 5 the fecond two } and the third one.
The laft is, in their opinion, an aft of beneficence
that only belongs to the moft heroic minds. Yet,
though the Europeans, who are forced to borrow,
meet with this treatment, it is plain they cannot avail
themfclves of the indulgence without being involved
in ruin.
The foreign trade of Coromandel is not in the hands
of the natives. In the weftern part, indeed, there
are Mohammedans knowm by the name of ChahaSj
who, at Naour and Porto-Nuovo, fend out fliips to
Acheen, Merguy, Siam, and the eaftern coaft. Befides
vtffels of confiderable burden employed in thefe voy¬
ages, they have Imaller embarkations for the coafting
trade for Ceylon and the pearl fifhery. 'I he Indians
of Maffulipatan turn their attention another way.
They import from Bengal white callicoes, which they
dye or print, and fell them again at the places from
whence they had them, at 35 or 40 per cent, advan¬
tage. Excepting thefe traniaftions, v'hich are of very
little confequence, the whole trade is vened <n the
Europeans, who have no partners but a few Banians
and Armenians fettled in their colonies. I he quanti¬
ty of callicoes exported from Coromandel to the dif¬
ferent ports of India may be computed at 35CO bales.
Of theie the French carry 8co to Malabar, Mocha,
and
COR [ 673 J COR
Corona, and the hie of France ; the Engllfh, 1200 to Bombay,
Malabar^ Sumatra, and the Philippine iflands j and the
Dutch 1500 to their different fettlements. Except
500 bales deffined for Manila, each of the value of 100
guineas, the others are of fuch an ordinary kind that
they do not exceed 30 guineas at prime coft •, fo that
the whole number of bales does not amount to more than
hbout 150,000].
Coromandel furnilhes Europe with 9500 bales ; Boo
of which are brought by the Danes, 2500 by the
French, 3000 by the Englilh, and 3200 by the Dutch.
A confiderable part of thefe callicoes are dyed blue,
or ftriped blue and red for the African trade. The
others are fine muffins, printed callicoes, and handker¬
chiefs from Maflulipatan, or Paliacate. It is proved
by experience that each of thele bales cofts only about
42I. fterling 5 confequently they ought to bring in to
the manufaftory where they are wrought near 360,000!.
The payments are not entirely made in fpecie, either
in Europe or Afia j we give in exchange, cloths, iron,
lead, copper, coral, and fome other articles of lefs va¬
lue. On the other hand, Afia pays with fpices, pep¬
per, rice, fugar, corn, and dates. All thefe articles
taken together may amount to about 2io,oool.; and
from this calculation it follows, that Coromandel re¬
ceives annually from Europe about 300,000!. in mo¬
ney. The Britilh, who have acquired the fame fupe-
riority on this coaft that they have elfewhere, have
formed on it feveral fettlements.
CORONA, among anatomifts, denotes that edge of
the glans penis where the preputium begins.
CoaosA, or Halo, in Optics, a luminous circle, fur¬
rounding the fun, the moon, the planets, or fixed liars.
Sometimes thefe circles are white, and fometimes co¬
loured like the rainbow7. Sometimes one only is vi-
fible, and fometiaies feveral concentric coronas make
their appearance at the fame time. Thofe which have
been feen about Sirius and Jupiter were never more
than three, four, or five degrees in diameter j thofe
which furround the moon are alfo fometimes no more
than three or five degrees ; but thefe, as well as thofe
which furround the fun, are of very different magni¬
tudes, viz. of 120 o', 220 35', 30® o', 38° o', 41° 2',
450 o', 46° 24', 470 o', and 90°, or even larger than
this. Their diameters alfo fometimes vary during the
time of obfervation, and the breadths both of the co¬
loured and white circles are very different, viz. of 2, 4,
or 7 degrees.
The colours of thefe coronas are more dilute than
thofe of the rainbow ; and they are in a different or¬
der, according to their fize. In thofe which New’ton
obferved in 1692, they were in the following order,
reckoning from the infide. In the innermoft were
blue, white, and red ; in the middle were purple, blue,
green, yellow, and pale red; in the outermoft, pale
blue and pale red. Mr Huygens obferved red next
the fun, and a pale blue outw?ards. Sometimes they
are red on the infide and white on the outfide. M.
Weidler obferved one that was yellow on the infide
and white on the outfide. In France, one was obfer¬
ved in 1683, the middle of which was white; after
which followed a border of red ; next to it w7as blue,
then green, and the outermoft circle was a bright red.
In 1728, one was feen of a pale red outwardly, then
Yol. VI. Part II.
followed yellow, and then green, terminated by a Corona,
white.
Thefe coronas are very frequent. In Holland, M.
Mufchenbroeck fays, 50 may be feen in the day-time,
almoft every year ; but they are difficult to be obfer¬
ved, except the eye be fo fituated, that not the body
of the fun, but only the neighbouring parts of the
heavens can be feen. Mr Middleton fays, that this
phenomenon is very frequent in North America ; for
that there is generally one or tw7o about the fun every
week, and as many about the moon every month.
Halos round the fun are very frequent in Ruffia. M.
Atpinus fays, that from the 23d of April 1758, to the
20th of September, he himlelf had obferved no lefs
than 26, and that he has fometimes feen twice as ma¬
ny in the fame fpace of time.
Coronas may be produced by placing a lighted can¬
dle in the midft of fteam in cold weather. Alfo, if
glafs windows be breathed upon, and the flame of a
candle be placed fome feet from it, while the fpedfta-
tor is alfo at the diftance of fome feet from another
part of a window7, the flame will be furrounded with
a coloured halo. And if a candle be placed behind a
glafs receiver, when air is admitted into the vacuum
within it, at a certain degree of denfity, the vapour
with which it is loaded will make a coloured halo
round the flame. This was obferved by Otto Gue¬
ricke. In December 1756, M. Mufchenbroeck ob¬
ferved, that when the glafs windows of his room
were covered with a thin plate of ice on the infide,
the moon appearing through it w7as furrounded with
a large and varioufly coloured halo ; and, opening the
window, he found that it arofe entirely from that thin
plate of ice, for none was feen except through it.
Similar, in fome refpects, to the halo, was the re¬
markable appearance which M. Bouguer defcribes, as
obferved by himfelf and his companions on the top of
Mount Pinchinca, in the Cordilleras. When the fun
was juft rifing behind them, fo as to appear w hite,
each of them faw his own Ihadow projedled upon it,
and no other. The diftance was fuch, that all the
parts of the ffiadow were eafily diftinguiftiable, as the
arms, the legs, and the head ; but what furprifed them
moft was, that the head was adorned with a kind of
glory, confifting of three or four fmall concentric
crowns, of a very lively colour, each exhibiting all the
varieties of the primary rainbow, and having the cir¬
cle of red on the outfide. The intervals between thefe
circles continued equal, though the diameters of them
all were conftantly changing. The laft of them was
very faint, and at a confiderable diftance w7as another
great white circle, which furrounded the whole. As
near as M. Bouguer could compute, the diameter of
the firft of thefe circles was about 5-} degrees, that of
the fecond 11, that of the third 17, and fo on ; but
the diameter of the white circle was about 76 degrees.
This phenomenon never appeared but in a cloud con-
fifting of frozen particles, and never in drops of rain
like the rainbow. When the fun was not in the hori¬
zon, only part of the white circle was vifible, as M.
Bouguer frequently obferved afterw:ards.
Similar alfo to this curious appearance was one that
was obferved by Dr M‘Feat in Scotland. This gen¬
tleman obferved a rainbow round his ftiadow in the
4 Q.. niift.
COR [ 674 ] COR
Corona, mift, when he was upon an eminence above it. In
v this fituation the whole country round Teemed, as it
were, buried under a vaft deluge, and nothing but the
tops of diftant hills appeared here and there above the
flood : To that a man would think of diving down in¬
to it wdth a kind of horror. In thofe upper regions
the air, he fays, is at that time very pure and agree¬
able to breathe in. At another time he obferved a
double range of coloprs round his lhadow in thefe cir-
cumftances. The colours of the outermoft range were
broad and very diftindf, and everywhere about two
feet diftant from the lhadow. Then there was a
darkilh interval, and after that another narrower range
of colours, clofely furrounding the fhadow, which was
very much contrafled. This perfon Teems to think
that thefe ranges of colours are caufed by the inflec¬
tion of the rays of light, the fame that occafioned the
* Ed'm Ef ^ght which furrounds the lhadows of all bo-
fays, vol. i. dies, obferved by M. Maraidi, and this author *. But
p. 198. the prodigious variety with w'hich thefe appearances
are exhibited feems to ftiow that many of them do not
refult from the general lawrs of refleftion, refraftion, or
inflexion, belonging to tranfparent fubftances of a
large mafs j but upon the alternate refledlion and tranf-
miflion of the different kinds of rays, peculiar to fub¬
ftances reduced to the form of thin plate*, or confifting
of feparate and very minute parts. But where the di-
menfions of the coronas are pretty conftant, as in the
ufual and larger halo, w’hich is about half the diame¬
ter of the rainbow", they may, perhaps, be explained on
the general principles of refra£lion only.
Defcartes obfei ves, that the halo never appears w hen
it rains : from which he concludes that this phenome¬
non is occafioned by the refraiflion of light in the
round particles of ice, which are then floating in the
atmofphere j and though thefe particles are flat when
they fall to the ground, he thought they muft be pro¬
tuberant in the middle, before their defcent 5 and ac¬
cording to this protuberancy he imagined that the di¬
ameter of the halo would vary.—In treating of me¬
teors, Gaffendi fuppofed that a halo is the fame thing
with the rainbow, the rays of light being in both
cafes twice refradfed and once refledfed within each
drop of rain or vapour, and that all the difference
there is between them arifes from their different fitu¬
ation with refpedl to the obferver. For, whereas,
when the fun is behind the fpedlator, and confequent-
ly the rainbow before him, his eye is in the centre of
the circle ; when he views the halo, with his face to-
v/ards the fun, his eye is in the circumference of the
circle ; fo that according to the known principles of
geometry, the angle under which the objedf appears
in this cafe muft be juft half of w-hat it is in the other.
Though this writer fays a great deal upon the fubjedf,
and endeavours to give reafons why the colours of the
halo are in a different order to thofe of the rainbow,
he does not defcribe the progrefs of the rays of light
from the fun to the eye of the fpedlator when a halo
is formed by them, and he gives no figures to explain
his ideas.
Dechales, alfo, endeavours to fliow that the gene¬
ration of the halo is fimilar to that of the rainbow. If,
^ate fays he, a fphere of glafs or cryftal, AB, (fig. 1.) full
CLX V. o£ water) fcg p]ace(l in the beams of the fun Ihining
from C, there will not only be two circles of coloured
light on the fide next the fun, and which conftitute the Coronr.
tw’o rainbows j but there will alfo be another on the '■“"■"V"-*
part oppofite to the fun, the rays belonging to which
meeting at E, afterwards diverge, and form the co¬
loured circle G, as wdll be vifible, if the light that is
tranfmitted through the globe be received on a piece
of white paper. The colours alfo will appear to an
eye placed in any part of the furface of the cone FEG.
Meafuring the angle FEH, he found it to be 23 de¬
grees. They were only the extreme rays of this cone
that w^ere coloured like thofe of the rainbow.
This experiment he thought fufficiently illuftrated
the generation of the halo ; fo that whenever the tex¬
ture of the clouds is fuch, as not entirely to intercept
the rays of the fun or moon, and yet have fome de¬
gree of denfity, there will always be a halo round
them, the colours of the rainbow appearing in thofe
drops which are 23 degrees diftant from the fun or
moon. If the fun be at A (fig. 2.), and the fpedlator
in B, the halo will be the circle 1)FE, DBE, being
46 degrees, or twice 23.
The reafon wrhy the colours of the halo are more
dilute than thofe of the rainbow", he fays, is owing
principally to their being formed not in large drops of
rain, but in very fmall vapour 5 for if the drops of
water were large, the cloud w’ould be fo thick, that
the rays of the fun could not be regularly tranfmitted
through them 5 and, on the other hand, he had ob¬
ferved, that when the rainbow is formed by very thin
vapours, the colours hardly appear. As for thofe cir¬
cles of colours which are fometimes feen round candles,
it w’as his opinion that they are owdng to nothing
but moifture on the eye of the obferver ; for that he
could never produce this appearance by means of va¬
pour only, if he wiped his eyes carefully j and he had
obferved that fuch circles are vifible to fome perfons
and not to others, and to the fame perfons at one time
and not another.
The moft confiderable of all the theories refpeifting
haloes, and that which has met wdth moft the favour¬
able and longeft reception, is that of Mr Huygens.
Sir Ifaac Newton mentions it with refpedf, and F>r
Smith, in his Complete Syftem of Optics, does not fo
mi’ch as hint at any other. The occafion of Mr Huy¬
gens publifhing his thoughts on this fubjefl, was the
appearance of a halo at Paris, on the 12th of May
1667, of which he gave an account in a paper read at
the Royal Academy in that city, which was afterwards
tranflated, and publifhed in the Englifti Philofophical
Tranfaflions, and which may be feen in Lowrthorp’s
Abridgment, vol. ii. p. 189. But this article contains
nothing more than the heads of a difccurfe, which he
afterwards compoled, but never quite finilhed, on this
fubjeft ; and which has been tranflated, with fome ad¬
ditions, by Dr Smith, from whom the following ac¬
count is chiefly extrafled.
Our philofopher had been firft engaged to think par¬
ticularly upon this fubjeft, by the appearance of five
funs at Warfaw, in 1658 ; prefently after which, he
fays, he hit upon the true caufe of halos, and not long
after of that of mock funs alfo.
To prepare the way for the following obfervations,
it muft be remarked, that if we can conceive any kind
of bodies in the atmofphere, which, according to the
known laws of optics, will, either by means of reflec¬
tion
COR [6
Corona, tion or refra&ion, produce the appearance in queftion,
“""'V ■■ -when nothing elfe can be found that will do it, we
muft acquiefce in the hypothefis, and fuppofe fuch bo¬
dies to exift, even though we cannot give a fatisfattory
account of their 'generation. Now, two fuch bodies
are aflumed by Mr Huygens; one of them a round
ball, opaque in the centre, but covered with a tranfpa-
rent (hell 5 and the other is a cylinder, of a fimilar
compofition. By the help of the former he endea¬
vours to account for halos, and by the latter for thofe
appearances which are called mock funs. Thofe bo¬
dies which Mr Huygens requires, in order to explain
thefe phenomena, are not, however, a mere affump-
tion ; for fome fuch, though of a larger fire than his
purpofe requires, have been aftually found, confiding
of (now .within and ice without. They are particular¬
ly mentioned by Defcartes.
The balls with the opaque kernel, which he fuppo-
fed to have been the caufe of them, he imagjnes not to
exceed the fize of a turnip feed j but, in order to il-
luftrate this hypothefis, he gives a figure of one, of a
larger fize, in ABCDEF, (fig. 3.) reprefenting the -
kernel of fnow in the middle of it. If the rays of
light, coming from GH, fall upon the fide AD, it is
manifefi; they will be fo refradled at A and D, as to
bend inwards ; and many of them will ftrike upon the
kernel EF. Others, horvever, as GA and HD, will
only touch the fides of the kernel j and being again
refra&ed at B and C, will emerge in the lines BK, CK,
eroding each other in the point K, whofe neareft di-
ftance from the globule is fomewhat lefs than its appa¬
rent diameter. If, therefore, BK and CK be produ¬
ced towards M and L, (fig. 4.) it is evident that no
light can reach the eye placed within the angle LKM,
but may fall upon it when placed out of that angle, or
rather the cone reprefented by it.
For the fame reafon, every other of thefe globules
will have a (hadow behind it, in w’hich the light of the
fun will not be perceived. If the eye be at N, and
that be conceived to be the vertex of a cone, the fides
of which NR, NQ^ are parallel to the fides of the
former cone KL, KM, it is evident that none of the
globules within the cone QNR can fend any rays of
the fun to the eye at N. But any other globule out
of this cone, as X, may fend thofe rays, which are
more refradted than XZ, to the eye j fo that this
will appear enlightened, while thofe within the cone
will appear obfeure. It is evident from this, that
a certain area, or fpace, quite round the fun, muft
appear dark j and that the fpace next to this area
will appear luminous, and more fo in thofe parts that
are neareft to the obfeure area ; becaufe, he fays, it
may eafily be demonftrated, that thofe globules which
are neareft to the cone QNR exhibit the largeft image
of the fun. It is plain, alfo, that a corona ought to
be produced in the fame manner, whatever be the
fun’s altitude, becaufe of the fpherical figure of the
globules.
To verify this hypothefis, our philofopher advifes us
to expofe to the lun a thin glafs bubble, filled with
water, and having fome opaque fubftance in the centre
of it •, and he fays we (hall find, that we fiiall not be
able to fee the fun through it, unlefs at a certain di-
ftance from a place oppolite to the centre of it ; but
9? foon as we do perceive the light, the image of the
75 ] COR
fun will immediately appear the brighteft, and colour- Corona,
ed red, for the fame reafon as in the rainbow.
Thefe coronas, he fays, often appear about the
moon ; but the colours are fo weak as to appear only
white. Such white coronas he had alfo feen about
the fun, when the fpace within them appeared fcarce
darker than that without. This he fuppofes to hap¬
pen when there are but few of thofe globules in the
atmofphere } for the more plentiful they are, the more
lively the colours of the halo appear ; at the fame time
alfo the area within the corona will be the darker.
The apparent diameter of the corona, which is gene¬
rally about 45 degrees, depends upon the fize of the
dark kernel ; for the larger it is with refpefl to the
whole globule, the larger will be the dark cone behind
it.
The globules that form thefe halos, Mr Huygens
fuppofes to have confided of foft fnow, and to have
been rounded by continual agitation in the air, and
thawed on their outfides by the heat of the fun.
To make the diameter of the halo 45 degrees, he
demonftrates that the femidiameter of the globule muft
be to the femidiameter of the kernel of fnow very near¬
ly as 1000 to 480 $ and that to make a corona of too
degrees, it muft be as tcoo to 680.
Mr Weidler, in his Commentary on parhelia, pub-
lilhed at Wirtemberg in 1733, obferves that it is
very improbable that fuch globules as Mr Huygens’s
hypothefis requires, with nuclei of fuch a precife pro¬
portion, fhould exift*, and if there were fuch bodies,
he thinks they would be too fmall to produce the ef-
fedls aferibed to them. Befides, he obferves that ap¬
pearances exaftly fimilar to halos are not uncommon,
where fluid vapours alone are concerned ; as wdien a
candle is placed behind the fleam of boiling water in
frofty weather, or in the midft of the vapour ifluing
copioufiy from a bath, or behind a receiver when the
air is fo much rarefied as to be incapable of fupporting
the water it contains. The rays of the fun twice re-
fledled and twice refrafted within fmall drops of w*ater
are fufficient, he fays, without any opaque kernel, to
produce all the appearances of the halos that have the
red light towards the fun, as may be proved by expe¬
riment. That the diameter of the halos is generally
half of that of the rainbow, he accounts for as GafTendi
did before him.
M. Mariotte accounts for the formation of the fmall
coronas by the tranfmiflion of light through aqueous
vapours, where it fuffers two refraftions, without any
intermediate reflexion. He (hows that light which
comes to the eye, after being refrafted in this man¬
ner, will be chiefly that which falls upon the drop
nearly perpendicular 5 becaufe more rays fall upon
any given quantity of furface in that fituation, fewer
of them are reflefted with fmall degrees of obliquity,
and they are not fo much fcattered after refradflion.
The red will always be outermoft in thefe coronas,
as confiding of rays wdiich fuffer the leaft refraftion.
And whereas he had feen, when the clouds were dri¬
ven brilkly by the wind, halos round the moon, vary¬
ing frequently in their diameter, being fometimes of
two, fometimes of three, and fometimes of four de¬
grees ) fometimes alfo being coloured, fometimes only
white, and fometimes difappearing entirely ‘7 he con¬
cluded that all thefe variations arofe from the diffe-
4 Qt* rent
COR [67
rent thicknefs of the clouds, through which fometimes
more and fometimes lefs light was tranfmitted. He
fuppofed, alfo, that the light which formed them
might fometimes be refledled, and at other times re-
frafted. As to thofe coronas which confift of two or¬
ders of colours, he imagined that they were produced
by fmall pieces of fnow, which, when they begin to
diflblve, form figures which are a little convex towards
their extremities. Sometimes, alfo, the fnow will be
melted in different fhapes ; and in this cafe, the co¬
lours of feveral halos will be intermixed, and confufed*,
and fuch, he fays, he had fometimes obferved round
the fun.
M. Mariotte then proceeds to explaift the larger co¬
ronas, namely thofe that are about 45 degrees in dia¬
meter, and for this purpofe he has recourfe to equian¬
gular prifms of ice, in a certain pofition with refpeft
to the fun j and he takes pains to trace the progrefs
of the rays of light for this purpofe ; but this hypo-
thefis is very improbable. In fome cafes he thought
that thefe large coronas were caufed by hail-ftones, of
a pyramidal figure, becaufe after two or three of them
had been feen about the fun, there fell the fame day
feveral fuch pyramidal hail-ftones. M. Mariotte ex¬
plains parhelia by the help of the fame fuppofitions.
See Parhelia.
Sir Ifaac Newton does not appear to have given
any particular attention to the fubjedl of halos, but he
has hinted at his fentiments concerning them occafion-
ally j by which w7e perceive that he confidered the
larger and lefs variable appearances of this kind as
produced according to the common laws of refra£tion,
but that the lefs and more variable appearances de¬
pend upon the fame caufe with the colours of thin
plates.
He concludes his explication of the rainbow with
the following obfervation on halos and parhelias. “ The
light which comes through drops of rain by two re-
fraftions, without any refieftion, ought to appear the
ftrongeit at the diftance of about 26 degrees from
the fun, and to decay gradually both ways as the di¬
ftance from him increafes. And the fame is to be un-
derftood of light tranfmitted through fpherical hail-
ftones : and if the hail be a little flatted, as it often
is, the tranfmitted light may be fo ftrong, at a little
lefs diftance than that of 26 degrees, as to form a halo
about the fun or moon ^ which halo, as often as the
hail-ftones are duly figured, may be coloured, and then
it muft be i‘ed within by the leaft refrangible rays,
and blue without by the moft refrangible ones : efpe-
cially if the hail-ftones have opaque globules of fnow
in their centres to intercept the light within the halo,
ns Mr Huygens has obferved, and make the infide of
it more diftinclly defined than it would otherwife be.
For fuch hail-ftones, though fpherical, by terminating
the light by the fnow, may make a halo red within, and
colourlefs without, and darker within the red than
without, as halos ufe to be. For of thofe rays which
pafs clofe by the fnow, the red-making ones will be
the leaft refraSed, and fo come to the eye in the
ftraighteft lines.”
Some farther thoughts of Sir Ifaac Newton’s on the
fubjecl of halos we find fubjoined to the account of
his experiments on the colours of thick plates of glafs,
which he conceived to be fimilar to thofe wnich are ex-
6 ] COR
hibited by thin ones. “ As light refle£led by a lens Corona,
quickfilvered on the back fide makes the rings of the —v—“
colours above deferibed, fo (he fays) it ought to make
the like rings in pafling through a drop of w^ater. At
the firft refledlion of tne rays within the drop, fome
colours ought to be tranfmitted, as in the cafe of a
lens, and others to be reflefted back to the eye. For
inftance, if the diameter of a fmall drop or globule of
wTater be about the 50odth part of an inch, fo that a
red-making ray, in pafling through the middle of this
globule, has 250 fits of eafy tranfmiflion within the
globule, and all the red-making rays which are at a
certain diftance from this middle ray round about it
have 249 fits within the globule, and all the like rays
at a certain farther diftance round above it have 248
fits, and all thofe at a certain farther diftance 247 fits,
and fo on, thefe concentric circles of rays, after their
tranfmiffion, falling on a white paper, will make con¬
centric rings of red upon the paper, fuppofing the
light which paffes through one fingle globule ftrong
enough to be fenfible ; and in like manner the rays of
other colours will make rings of other colours. Sup-
pofe now that in a fair day the fun fhould (bine through
a thin cloud of fuch globules of water or hail, and that
the globules are all of the fame fize, the fun feen
through this cloud ought to ‘appear furrounded with
the like concentric rings of colours, and the diameter
of the firft ring of red ihould be 7^°, that of the
fecond io^°, that of the third 1 2° 33', and according
as the globules of water are bigger or lefs, the ring
Ihould be lefs or bigger.”
This curious theory our author informs us was con¬
firmed by an obfervation which he made in 1692. He
faw by refle&ion, in a veffel of ftagnating water, three
halos, crowns, or rings of colours about the fun, like
three little rainbows concentric to his body. The co¬
lours of the firft, or innermoft crown, were blue next
the fun, red without, and white in the middle, between
the blue and red. Thofe of the fecond crown were
purple and blue within, and pale red without, and
green in the middle. And thofe of the third were
pale blue within, and pale red without. Thefe crowns
inclofed one another immediately, fo that their colours
proceeded in this continual order from the fun out¬
ward j blue, white, red j purple, blue, green, pale,
yellow, and red ; pale blue, pale red. The diameter
of the fecond crown, meafured from the middle of
the yellow and red on one fide of the fun, to the
middle of the fame colour on the other fide, was 9-5-
degrees or thereabouts. The diameters of the firft
and third he had not time to meafure ; but that of the
firft feemed to be about five or fix degrees, and that
of the third about twelve. The like crowns appear
fometimes about the moon ; for in the beginning of
the year 1664, on February 19th at night, he faw two
fuch crowns about her. The diameter of the firft
or innermoft was about three degrees, and that of
the fecond about five degrees and a half. Next about
the moon was a circle of white ; and next about that
the inner crown, which was of a bluifh green w’ithin,
next the white, and of a yellow and red without j
and next about thefe colours were blue and green on
the infide of the outer crown, and red on the outfide,
of it.
At the fame time there appeared a halo at the di¬
ftance
Corona
11
Coronary
Arteries.
COR [677
fiance of about 2 2° 35' from the centre of the moon.
It was elliptical; and its long diameter was perpendi-
cular to the horizon, verging below fartheft from the
moon. He was told that the moon has fometimes
three or more concentric crowns of colours encompaf-
fing one another next about her body. 1 he more
equal the globules of water or ice are to one another,
the more crowns of colours will appear, and the co¬
lours will be the more lively. The halo, at the di-
ftance of 2 2i degrees from the moon, is of another
fort. By its being oval, and more remote from the
moon below than above, he concludes that it was
made by refraftion in fome kind of hail or fnow float¬
ing in the air in an horizontal pofture, the refrafting
angle being about 50 or 60 degrees. Dr Smith, how¬
ever, makes it fufficiently evident, that the reafon why
this halo appeared oval, and more remote from the
moon towards the horizon, is a deception of light, and
the fame with that which makes the moon appear
larger in the horizon.
Dr Kotelnihow having, like Dr Halley, made very
accurate obfervations to determine the number of pol-
fible rainbows, confiders the coloured halo which ap¬
pears about a candle as the fame thing with one of
thefe bows which is formed near the body of the fun,
but which is not vifible on account of his exceffive
fplendor.
Laftly, M. Mufchenbroeck concludes his account of
coronas with obferving, that fome denlity of vapour,
or fome thicknefs of the plates of ice, divides the light
in its tranfmiffion through the fmall globules of water,
or their interftices, into its feparate colours : but what
that denfity was, or what was the fize of the particles
which compofed the vapour, he could not pretend to
determine.
Corona, among Botani/ls, the name given by fome
to the circumference or margin of a radiated com-
.pound flower. It correfponds to the radius of Lin¬
naeus ; and is exemplified in the flat, tongue-fhaped
petals which occupy the margin of the daify or fun-
flower.
Corona A’ljlralis, or Meridionalis, Southern Crown,
a conflellation of the fouthern hemifphere, whofe flars
in Ptolemy’s catalogue are 13, in the Briufh cata¬
logue 12.
Corona Borealis, the Northern Crown, or Garland,
in AJlronomy, a conflellation of the northern hemi¬
fphere, whofe flars in Ptolemy’s catalogue are eight,
in Tycho’s as many, and in Mr Flamftead’s 21.
Corona Imperialis, in Conchology, a name given by
fome authors to a kind of voluta, differing from the
other fhells of that family, by having its head orna¬
mented with a number of points, forming a fort of
crown. See Voluta, Conchology Index.
CORONAL, in Anatomy, the firft future of the
fkull. See Anatomy/Wex.
CORONALE os, the fame with os frontis. See
Anatomy Index.
CORONARY vessels, in Anatomy, certain vef-
fels which furnifh the fubflance of the heart with
blood.
Coronary Arteries, are two arteries fpringing out
of the aorta, before it leaves the pericardium. See
Anatomy Index.
] COR
Coronary Vein, a vein diffufed over the exterior
furface of the heart. See Anatomy Index.
Stomachic Coronary, a vein inierted into the ttunk
of the fplenic vein, which, by uniting with the mefen-
teric, forms the vena porta. See Anatomy Index.
CORONARIAE, in Botany, the 10th order of
plants, in Linnreus’s Fragments of a Natural Method.
Coronary-
Vein
11
Coroner.
Under this name, inftead of the more obvious one /?-
baecce, Linnaeus colleds a great number of genera, moft
of which furnifh very beautiful garden flow-ers, viz.
albuca, cyanella, fritillaria, helonias, hyacinthus, hy-
poxis, lilium, melanthium, ornithogalum, fcilla, tulipa,
agave, aletris, aloe, anthericum, afphodelus, bromelia,
burmannia, hemerocallis, polyanthes, tillandfia, vera-
trum, yucca.
CORONATION, the ceremony of invefling with
a crown, particularly applied to the crowning of kings,
upon their fucceeding to the fovereignty. See King.
CORONAL, id Ancient Geography, a town of Boeotia,
near Mount Helicon, and the lake Copais, fituated on
an eminence: famous for the defeat of the Athenians
and Boeotians by Agefilaus. Another Corona of Thef-
faly; having Narthacium to the eaft, and Lamia near
the Sperchius to the north (Ptolemy).
CO RONE, \x\ Ancient Geography, a towmof Meffenia,
fituated on the fea, giving name to the Sinus Coronre-
us, (Pliny); now' Golfo di Coron. Paufanias takes it
to be the Aepea of Homer ; but Strabo Thuria, and
Pliny Pedafus, now Coron, in the territory of Beivi-
dere, in the Morea. E. Long. 22. N. Lat. 36. 30*
CORONELLI, Vincent, a famous geographer,
born at Venice. His fkill in the mathematics having
brought him to the knowledge of the count d’Eflrees,
his eminence employed him in making globes for
Louis XIV. With this view Coronelli fpent fome time
at Paris, and left a great number of globes there, which
are efleemed. In 1685, he was made cofmographer
to the republic of Venice ; and four years after public
profeffor of geography. He founded an academy of
cofmography at Venice ; and died in that city in 1718.
He publithed about 400 geographical charts, an abridg¬
ment of cofmography, feveral books on geography, and
other works.
CORONER {^c or on a tor'), an ancient officer in Eng¬
land, fo called becaufe he hath principally to do with
pleas of the crown, or fuch wherein the king is more
immediately concerned. And in this light,- the lord
chief jullice of the king’s bench is the principal coro¬
ner in the kingdom ; and may, if he pleafes, exercife
the jurifdidtion of a coroner in any part of the realm.
But there are alfo particular coroners for every county
in England ; ufually four, but fometimes fix, and fome¬
times fewer. This officer is of equal authority with
the fheriff; and was ordained, together with him to
keep the peace, when the earls gave up the wardfhip
of the county.
He is chofen by all the freeholders of the county
court ; and by the ftatute of Wellminller 1. it was en¬
abled, that none but lawful and diftreet knights fhould
be chofen ; but it feems now fufficient if a man have
lands enough to be made a knight, whether he be really
knighted or not ; for the coroner ought to have an
eftate fufficient to maintain the dignity of his office,
and anfwer any fines that may be made upon him for
2
COR [ 678 ] COR
coroner *is miftehaviour ; and, if he hath not enough to an- natural method ranking under the 32d order, Pa- Cofonoid
Coronilla V ’ ne inau.De ievied on tne county, as a pu-
«—nilhment for eledling an infufficient officer. Now,
indeed, through the culpable negleft of gentlemen of
property, this office has been fuffered to fall into dif-
repute, and get into low and indigent hands ; fo that
although formerly no coroners would be paid for fer-
ving their country, and they were by the aforefaid
ftatute of Weftminfter 1. exprefsly forbidden to take
a reward under pain of great forfeiture to the king,
yet for many years part they have only defired to be
chofen for the fake of their perquifites ; being allow¬
ed fees for their attendance by the ftatute 3 Hen. VII.
c. 1. which Sir Edward Coke complains of heavily,
though fince his time thofe fees have been much en¬
larged.
. The coroner is chofen for life $ but may be removed,
either by being made fheriff or chofen verderor, which
are offices incompatible with the other > and by the
ftatute 25 Geo. II, c. 29. extortion, negleft, or miffie-
haviour, are alfo made caufes of removal.
The office and power of a coroner are alfo, like
thofe of the fheriff, either judicial or minifterial $ but
principally judicial. This is in great meafure afcer-
tained by ftatute 4 Edw. I. De officio coronatoris ; and
confifts, firft, in inquiring, when any perfon is {lain, 'or
dies fuddenly, or in prifon, concerning the manner of
his death. And this muft be fuper vifum corporis ; for
if the body is not found, the coroner cannot fit. He
muft alfo fit at the very place where the death hap¬
pened. And his inquiry is made by a jury from four,
five, or fix, of the neighbouring towns, over whom he
is to prefide. If any be found guilty by this inqueft
of murder, he is to commit to prifon for farther trial,
and is alfo to inquire concerning their lands, goods,
and chattels, w hich are forfeited thereby ; but whe¬
ther it be murder or not, he muft inquire whether
any deodand has accrued to the king, or the lord of
the franchife, by this death ; and muft certify the
whole of this inquifition to the court of king’s bench,
or the next affizes. Another branch of his office is to
inquire concerning ffiipwrecks; and certify whether
wreck or not, and who is in poffeffion of the goods.
Concerning treafure-trove, he is alfo to inquire con¬
cerning the finders, and where it is, and whether any
one be fufpe&ed of having found and concealed a trea-
fure ; “ and that may uTell be perceived (faith the old
ftatute of Edw. I.), where one liveth riotoully, haunt¬
ing taverns, and hath done fo of long time j” where¬
upon he might be attached and held to bail upon this
fufpicion only.
The minifterial office of the coroner is only as the
fherift’s fubftitute. For when juft exception can be
taken to the ffieriff, for fufpicion of partiality (as that
he is interefted in the fuit, or of kindred to either plain¬
tiff or defendant), the procefsmuft then be awarded to
the coroner, inftead of the fheriff, for execution of the
king’s wrrits.
CORONET. See Crown.
Coronet, or Cornet, of a horfe, the loweft part of
the pa Item, which runs round the coffin, and is diftin-
guiffied by the hair joining and covering the upper part
of the hoof.
CORONILL V,Colvtea : A genus
of plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs, and in the
X
pihonacea. See Botany Index. H
CORONOID, and Condyloid, proceffes. See CorPora*
Anatomy Index. , t>°n*
CORPORA cave rnosa, in Anatomy, two fpongi-
ous bodies, called alfo corpora nervoj'a and corpus fpon-
giofutn. See Anatomy Index.
Corfora Pyrewndolia, are two protuberances of the
under part of the cerebellum, about an inch long ; fo
called from their relemblance to a pyramid. See Ana¬
tomy Index.
Corpora Striata. See Anatomy Index.
CORPORAL, an inferior officer under a fergeant,
in a company of foot, who has charge over one of the
divifions, places and relieves fentinels, and keeps good
order in the corps de garde j he alfo receives the word
from the inferior rounds, which paffes by his corps de
garde. 'Phis officer carries a fufee, and is commonly
an old foldier j there are generally three corporals in
each company.
Corporal of a Ship of War, an officer under the ma¬
iler at arms, employed to teach the officers the ex-
ercife of fmall arms, or of mulketxy ; to attend at the
gangway, on entering ports, and obferve that no fpi-
rituous liquors are brought into the ffiip, unlefs by ex-
prefs leave from the officers. He is alfo to extinguifti
the fire and candles at eight o’clock in w’inter, and
nine in fummer, when the evening gun is fired and
to walk frequently dowm in the lower decks in his
watch, to fee that there are no lights but fuch as are
under the charge of proper fentinels.
Corporal (Corpora/e), is alfo an ancient church-
term, fignifying the facred linen fpread under the cha¬
lice in the eucharift and mafs, to receive the fragments
of the bread, if any chance to fall. Some fay it w'as
Pope Eufebius wffio firft enjoined the ufe of the corpo¬
ral j others afcribe it to St Sylvefter. It was the cu-
ftom to carry corporals, with fome felemnity, to fires,
and to heave them again!! the flames, in order to ex¬
tinguifti them. Philip de Comines fays, the pope
made Louis XI. a prefent of the corporale whereon
my lord St Peter fung mafs.
CORPORATION, a body politic or incorporate,
fo called, becaufe the perfons or members are join¬
ed into one body, and are qualified to take, grant,
&c.
Of corporations there is a great variety fubfifting,
for the advancement of religion, of learning, and of
commerce ; in order to preferve entire and for ever
thofe rights and immunities, which, if they were
granted only to thofe individuals of which the body
corporate is compofed, would upon their death be ut¬
terly loft and extindft. To ffiow the advantages of
thefe incorporations, let us confider the cafe of a col¬
lege in either of our univerfities, founded adfludendum
et orandum, for the.encouragement and fupport of re¬
ligion and learning. If this was a mere voluntary af-
fembly, the individuals which compofe it might in¬
deed read, pray, ftudy, and perform fcholaftic exer-
cifes together, fo long as they could agree to do fo ;
but they could neither frame nor receive any laws or
rules of their condudl 5 none at leaft which w ould
have any binding force, for want of a coercive power
to create a fufficient obligation. Neither could they
be capable of retaining any privileges or immunities:
for.
COR [ 679 ] COR
Corpora- for, if fuch privileges be attacked, which of all this
t'OT1, unconnected affembly has the right or ability to de-
’ fend them ? And, when they are difperfed by death
or otherwife, how (hall they transfer thefe advanta¬
ges to another fet of ftudents, equally unconnefted as
themfelves ? So alfo, with regard to holding eftates
or other property, if land be granted for the purpofes
of religion or learning to 20 individuals not incorpo¬
rated, there is no legal -way of continuing the pro¬
perty to any other perfons for the fame purpofes, but
by endlels conveyances from one to the other, as of¬
ten as the hands are changed. But when they are
confolidated and united into a corporation, they and
their fucceffors are then confidered as one perfon in
law : as one perfon, they have one will, which is col¬
lected from the ftnfe of the majority of the indivi¬
duals : this one will may eflablifli rules and orders for
the regulation of the whole, which are a fort of mu¬
nicipal laws of this little republic 5 or rules and fta-
tutes may be prefcribed to it at its creation, which are
then in the place of natural laws : the privileges and
immunities, the eftates and pofleflions, of the corpo¬
ration, when once veiled in them, will be for ever
veiled, without any new conveyance to new fuccef-
fions ; for all the individual members that have exift-
ed from the foundation to the prefent time, or that
fliall ever hereafter exift, are but one perfon in law,
a perfon that never dies : in like manner as the river
Thames is Hill the fame river, though the parts which
compofe it are changing every inftant.
The honour of originally inventing thefe political
conftitutions. entirely belongs to the Romans. They
were introduced, as Plutarch fays, by Numa ; who
finding, upon his acceflion, the city torn to pieces by
the two rival faftions of Sabines and Romans, thought
it a prudent and politic meafure to fubdivide thefe
two into many fmaller ones, by inftituting feparate
focieties of every manual trade and profeflion, They
were afterwards much confidered by the civil law, in
which they were called unherfitates, as forming one
whole out of many individuals •, or collegia, from be-
ing gathered together: they were adopted alfo by the
canon law, for the maintenance of ecclefiaftical difci-
pline; and from them our fpiritual corporations are
derived. But our laws have confiderably refined and
improved upon the invention, according to the ufual
genius of the Englilh nation, particularly with regard
to foie corporations, confifting of one perfon only, of
which the Roman lawyers had no notion , their maxim
being that, Tres faciunt collegium; though they held,
that if a corporation, originally confifting of three
perfons, be reduced to one, Si univerjitas adunum redit;
it may ftill iublilt as a corporation, EtJlet nornen uni-
verjitatis.
_ As to the feveral forts of corporations, the firft di-
vifion of them is into aggregate and foie. Corporations
aggregate confift of many perfons united together into
one fociety, and are kept up by a perpetual fucceflion
of members, fo as to continue for ever : of which kind
are the mayor and commonalty of a city, the head and
fellows of a college, the dean and chapter of a cathe¬
dral church. Corporations foie confift of one perfon
only and his fucceflbrs, in fome particular ftation, who
are incorporated by law, in order to give them fome
, capacities and advantages, particularly that of
perpetuity, which in their natural perfons they could Corpora,
not have had. In this fenfe the king is a foie corpora- tl0t1'
tion } fo is a bifliop j fo are fome deans and prebenda-'
ries, diftinft from their feveral chapters ; and fo is every
parfon and vicar. And the neceffity, or at leaft ufe,
of this inftitution will be very apparent, if we confider
the cafe of a parlbn of a church. At the original en¬
dowment of parifti-churches, the freehold of the church,
the church-yard, the parfonage-houfe, the glebe, and
the tithes of the parifti, were veiled in the then par¬
fon by the bounty of the donor, as a temporal recom-
penfe to him for his fpiritual care of the inhabitants,
and with intent that the fame emoluments ftiould ever
afterwards continue as a recompenfe for the fame care.
But how was this to be effedled ? The freehold w7as
veiled in the parfon j and, if we fuppofe it veiled in
his natural capacity, on his death it might defcend to
his heir, and wrould be liable to his debts and incum¬
brances : or at belt, the heir might be compellable, at
fome trouble and expence, to convey thefe rights to
the fucceeding incumbent. The law therefore has wife¬
ly ordained, that the parfon, quatetius parfon, (hall ne¬
ver die, any more than the king ; by making him and
his fucceffors a corporation. By which means all the
original rights of the parfonage are preferved entire to
the lucceflbr 5 for the prelent incumbent, and his pre-
deceffor who lived feven centuries ago, are in law one
and the fame perfon 5 and what was given to the one
was given to the other alfo.
Another divifion of corporations, either foie or ag¬
gregate, is into ecclejiajlical and lay. Ecclefiaftical cor¬
porations are, where the members that compofe it are
entirely fpiritual perfons, fuch as biftrops, certain deans
and prebendaries, all archdeacons, parfons, and vicars,
which are foie corporations; deans and chapters at
prefent, and formerly prior and convent, abbot and
monks, and the like, bodies aggregate. Thefe are
erefled for the furtherance of religion, and perpetu¬
ating the rights of the church.—Lay corporations are
of two forts, civil and e/eemofynary. The civil are fuch
as are ere£led for a variety of temporal purpofes. The
king, for in ft an ce, is made a corporation, to prevent in
general the poflibility of an interregnum or vacancy of
the throne, and to preferve the poflefiions of the crown
entire •, for immediately upon the demife of one king,
his fuccefibr is in full poffeflion of the regal rights and
dignity. Other lay corporations are erected for the
good government of a town or particular diftrift, as a
mayor and commonalty, bailiff and burgefies, or the
like : fome for the advancement and regulation of ma-
nufaftures and commerce ; as the trading companies
of London and other towns: and fome for the better
carrying on of divers fpecial purpofes 5 as church war- \
dens, for confervation of the goods of the parifti ; the
college of phyficians and company of furgeons in Lon¬
don, for the improvement of the medical fcience ; the
royal fociety for the advancement of natural know¬
ledge j and the fociety of antiquarians for promoting
the ftudy of antiquities. The eleemofynary fort are
fuch as are conftituted for the perpetual difttibution of
the free alms or bounty of the founder of them to
fuch perfons as he has dire&ed. Of this kind are all
hofpitals for the maintenance of the poor, fick, and
impotent 5 and all colleges, both in our univerfities and
out of them : which colleges are founded for two pur¬
pofes ;
Corpora¬
tion.
COR r 680 1 COR
pofes : I. For the promotion of piety and learning by
proper regulations and ordinances. 2. For imparting
afliftance to the members of thofe bodies, in order to
enable them to profecute their devotion and ftudies
with greater eafe and afllduity. And all thefe eleemo-
fynary corporations are, ftri&ly fpeaking, lay, and not
ecclefiaftical, even though compofed of ecclefiaftical
perfons, and although they in fome things partake of
the nature, privileges, and reftri&ions of ecclefiaftical
bodies.
Having thus marfhalled the feveral fpecies of cor¬
porations, let us next proceed to confider, 1. How
corporations in general may be created. 2. What are
their powers, capacities, and incapacities. And, 3. How
they may be diffolved.
I. Corporations, by the civil law, feem to have
been created by the mere a6t and voluntary aflbcia-
tion of their members j provided fuch convention was
not contrary to law, for then it was illicitum collegium.
It does not appear that the prince’s confent was ne-
ceffary to,be adlually given to the foundation of them;
but merely that the original founders of thefe volun¬
tary and friendly focieties (for they were little more
than fuch) (hould not eftablilh any meetings in oppo-
fition to the laws of the ftate.
Bat in England the king’s confent is abfolutely ne-
ceffary to the eredlion of any corporation, either im¬
pliedly or exprefsly given. The king’s implied con-
lent is to be found in corporations which exift by force
of the common law, to which our former kings are
fuppofed to have given their concurrence ; common
law being nothing elfe but cuftom, arifing from the
univerfal agreement of the whole community. Of
this fort are the king himfelf, all bilhops, parfons, vi¬
cars, church-wardens, and fome others ; who by com¬
mon law have ever been held (as far as our books can
Ihow us) to have been corporations, virtute officii; and
this incorporation is fo infeparably annexed to their
offices, that we cannot frame a complete legal idea of
any of thefe perfons, but we muft alfo have an idea of
a corporation, capable to tranfmit his rights to his fuc-
ceflbrs, at the fame time. Another method of impli¬
cation, whereby the king’s confent is prefumed, is as
to all corporations by prefcription, fuch as the city of
London, and many others, which have exifted as cor¬
porations, time whereof the memory of man runneth
out to the contrary ; and therefore are looked upon in
law to be well created. For though the members
thereof can Ihow no legal charter of incorporation,
yet in cafes of fuch high antiquity the law prefumes
there once was one ; and that by the variety of acci¬
dents, which a length of time may produce, the char¬
ter is loft or deftroyed. The methods by which the
king’s confent is exprefsly given, are either by aft of
parliament or charter. By aft of parliament, of which
the royal affent is a neceflary ingredient, corporations
may undoubtedly be created : but it is obfervable, that
moft of thofe ftatutes which are ufually cited as ha¬
ving created corporations, do either confirm fuch as
have been before created by the king; as in the
cafe of the college of phyficians, erefted by charter
10 Hen. VIII. which charter was afterwards confirm¬
ed in parliament : or, they permit the king to ereft a
corporation infuturo with fuch and fuch powTers; as is
the cafe of the bank of England, and the fociety of the
Britiffi fiihery. So that the immediate creative aft is Corpora-
ufually performed by the king alone, in virtue of his tl0n•
royal prerogative. v—y——
All the other methods therefore whereby corpora¬
tions exift, by common law, by prefcription, and by
aft of parliament, are for the moft part reducible to
this of the king’s letters patent, or charter of incor¬
poration. The king’s creation may be performed by
the word s creamus, engimus. fundatnus, incorporamusy or
the like. Nay it is held, that if the king grants to a
fet of men to have gildam mercatorium, “ a mercantile
meeting or aflembly,” this is alone fufficient to incor¬
porate and eftablifti them for ever.
The king (it is faid) may grant to a fubjeft the
power of erefting corporations, though the contrary
was formerly held ; that is, he may permit the fub¬
jeft to name the perfons and powers of the corporation
at his pleafure ; but it is really the king that erefts,
and the fubjeft is but the inftrument; for though none
but the king can make a corporation, yet tjui facit per
alium,facit per fe. In this manner the chancellor of the
univerfity of Oxford has power by charter to ereft
corporations ; and has aftually often exerted it in the
ereftion of feveral matriculated companies, now’ fub-
fifting, of tradefmen fubfervient to the ftudents.
When a corporation is erefted, a name muft be gi¬
ven to it; and by that name alone it muft fue and be
fued, and do all legal afts.
II. After a corporation is fo formed and named, it
acquires many powers and rights, .which we are next
to confider. Some of thefe are neceffarily and infepa¬
rably incident to every corporation ; which incidents
as foon as a corporation is duly erefted, are tacitly an¬
nexed of courfe. As, 1. To have perpetual fucceffion.
This is the very end of its incorporation ; for there
cannot be a fucceffion for ever without an incorpora¬
tion ; and therefore all aggregate corporations have
a power neceffarily implied of elefting members in the
room of fuch as go off. 2. To fue or be fued, implead
or be impleaded, grant or receive, by its corporate
name, and do all other afts as natural perfons may.
3. To purchafe lands and hold them, for the benefit of
themfelves and their fucceffors : which two are con-
fequential to the former. 4. To have a common feal.
For a corporation, being an invifible body, cannot ma-
nifeft its intentions by any perfonal aft or oral dif-
courfe: it otherwife afts and fpeaks only by its com¬
mon feal. For though the particular members may
exprefs their private confents to any aft by words or
figning their names, yet this does not bind the corpora¬
tion ; it is the fixing of the feal, and that only, which
unites the feveral affents of the individuals who com-
pofe the community, and makes one joint affent of the
whole. 5. To make by-laws or private ftatutes for
the better government of the corporation ; wffiich are
binding upon themfelves, unlefs contrary to the law’s
of the land, and then they are void. But no trading
company is with us allowed to make by-laws which
may affeft the king’s prerogative or the common pro¬
fit of the people, under penalty of 40I. unlefs they
be approved by the chancellor, treafurer, and chief
jnftices, or the judges of affize in their circuits; and
even though they be fo approved, ftill, if contrary to
law, they are void. Thefe five powers are infeparably
incident to every corporation, at leaft to every corpo¬
ration
COR t 681 ] COR
Corpora, ration aggregate c for two of them, though they may
tion be pra&ifed, yet are very unneceffary to a corporation
*. 1 - - pQje ^ vj^ to bave a corporate feal to tellify his foie
aflent, and to make ftatutes for the regulation of his
own conduft.
Corporations have a capacity to purchafe lands for
themlelves and fucceffors j but they are excepted out
of the ftatute of wills ; fo that no devife of lands to a
corporation by will is good $ except for charitable ufes,
by flat. 43. Eliz. c. 4. which exception is again great-
'ly narrowed by the flat. 9. Geo. II. c. 36. And alfo,
by a great variety of ftatutes, their privilege even of
purchafing from any living granter is much abridged ;
fo that now a corporation, either ecclefiaftical or lay,
muft have a licenfe from the king to purchafe, before
they can exert that capacity which is veiled in them
• by the common law : nor is even this in all cafes fuffi-
< cient. Thefe ftatutes are generally called the ftatutes of
Bljclfionet mortmain. See Mortmain.
The general duties of all bodies politic, confidered
in their corporate capacity, may, like thofe of natural
perfons, be reduced to this lingle one ; that of afling
up to the end or defign, whatever it be, for which
they were created by their founder.
III. How corporations may be diffolved. Any par¬
ticular member may be disfranchifed, or lofe his place
in the corporation, by asfting contrary to the laws of
the fociety, or the laws of the land : or he may refign
it by his own voluntary aft. But the body politic may
alfo itfelf be diffolved in feveral wTays ; which diffolu-
tion is the civil death of the corporation $ and in this
cafe their lands and tenements lhall revert to the per-
fon, or his heirs, who granted them to the corpora¬
tion j for the law doth annex a condition to every
fuch grant, that if the corporation be diffolved, the
granter fhall have the lands again, becaufe the caufe
of the grant faileth. The grant is indeed only during
the life of the corporation ; which may endure for
ever : but when that life is determined to be the dif-
folution of the body politic, the granter takes it back
by reverfion, as in the cafe of every other grant for life.
The debts of a corporation, either to or from it, are
totally extinguilhed by its diffolution ; fo that the
members thereof cannot recover, or be charged with
them, in their natural capacities : agreeable to that
maxim of the civil law, Si quid univerjitati debetur,Jin-
gulis non debetur ; nec, quod debet univerjitas,Jinguli de¬
bent.
A corporation may be diffolved, 1. By aft of par¬
liament, which is boundlefs in its operations. 2. By
the natural death of all its members, in cafes of an ag¬
gregate corporation. 3. By furrender of its franchifes
into the hands of the king, which is a kind of fuicide.
4. By forfeiture of its charter, through negligence or
abufe of its franchifes, in which cafe the law judges
that the body politic has broken the conditions upon
which it was incorporated, and therefore the incor¬
poration is void. And the regular courfe is to bring an
information in nature of a writ of quo warranto, to
inquire by what warrant the members now exercife
their corporate power, having forfeited it by fuch and
luch proceedings. The exertion of this aft of law,
for the purpofes of the ftate, in the reigns of King
Charles and King James II. particularly by feizing the
charter of the city of London, gave great and juft of-
Vot. VI. Part II,
fence j though perhaps, in ftriftnefs of law, the pro- Corpora-
ceedings in moft of them were fufficiently regular j tuj!n
but the judgment againft that of London was reverfed corpulent
by aft ot parliament after the revolution } and by the . , -v— i,-
fame ftatute it is enafted, that the franchifes of the
city of London fhall never more be forfeited for any
caufe whatfoever. And becaufe by the common law
corporations were diffolvcd, in cafe the mayor or head
officer was not duly elefted on the day appointed in the
charter or eftabliihed by prefcription, it is now pro¬
vided, that for the future no corporation fhall be diffol¬
ved upon that account, and ample direftions are given
for appointing a new officer, in cafe there be no elec¬
tion, or a void one, made upon the charter or prefcrip.
tive day.
Corporation AEi, is that which prevents any perfon
from being legally elefted into any office relating to
the government of any city or corporation, unlef$
within a twelvemonth before he has received the facra-
ment of the Lord’s Supper according to the rites of the
church of England j and which enjoins him to take the
oaths of allegiance and fupremacy when he takes the
oath of office ; otherwdfe his eleftion is void.
CORPOREAL, thofe qualities which denominate
a body. See Incorporeal.
CORPOREITY, the quality of that which is cor¬
poreal, or has body ; or that which conftitutes or de¬
nominates it fuch.—The corporeity of God was the
capital error of the Anthropomorphites. Some au¬
thors reproach Tertullian with admitting a corporeity
in the Deity $ but it is manifeft, by body he means no
more than fub/}ance.-~-Tht Mahometans reproach the
Samaritans at this day, with a belief of the corporeity
of God. Many of the ancients believed the corporeity
of angels.
CORPSE, a dead body.
If any one, in taking up a dead body, fteals the
fhroud, ,or other apparel, it will be felony. Stealing on¬
ly the corpfe itfelf is not felony ; but it is punifhable as
a mifdemeanor by indiftment at common law.
CORPS, in Architecture, is a term borrowed from
the French, fignifying any part that projefts or advan¬
ces beyond the naked of a wall $ and which ferves as
a ground for fome decoration or the like.
Corps de Battaille, is the main body of an army
drawn up for battle.
Corps de Garde, a poll in an army, fometimes under
covert, fometimes in the open air, to receive a body of
foldiery, wTho are relieved from time to time, and are
to watch in their turns, for the fecurity of a quarter, a
camp, ftation, &.c.*—-The word is alfo ufed for the men
who watch therein. It is ufual to have, befide the
great, a little corps de garde, at a good diftance before
the lines; to be the more readily adverlifed of the ap¬
proach of the enemy.
CORPULENCY, the ftate of a perfon too much
loaded with flefti or fat.
Corpulency is the occafion of various difeafes, and
particularly the apoplexy. It was held infamous among
the ancient Lacedaemonians.
Sennertus mentions a man that weighed 600 pounds,
and a maid 36 years of age who weighed 450. Bright
of Malden, who died at the age of 29 years in 1750,
weighed 616 pounds. Chiapin Vitelli, marquis of
Cerona, a noted Spanifh general in his time, from an
4 R exceflxve
—.“■gtf11
COR [ 682 ] COR
exceflive corpulency, is faid to have reduced himfelf by
drinking of vinegar, to fuch a degree of leannefs, that
he could fold his fkin feveral times round him.
Caftile foap, in the form of a bolus, an elefluary,
pills, or diffblved in a gill or more of foft water, from
one to four drachms taken at bed-time, is ftrongly
recommended with a view of reducing corpulency, in
a difcourfe on its nature, caufes, and cure, by Mal¬
colm Flemyng, M. D. Lond. 1760. See Medicine
Index.
CORPUS, in Anatomy, is applied to feveral parts
of the animal llruflure } as corpus callofum, corpus
cavcrnofum, &.c. See Anatomy Index.
Corpus is alio ufed in matters of learning, for feve¬
ral works of the fame nature collefted and bound to¬
gether.
Gratian made a colleflion of the canons of the
church, called corpus canonum. The corpus of the civil
law is compofed of the digeft, code, and inilitutes.
We have alfo a corpus of the Greek poets ; and ano¬
ther of the Latin poets.
Corpus Cbrijli, a feftival of the church of England,
kept on the next Thurfday after Trinity Sunday, in-
ftituted in honour of the euchariil ; to which alfo one
of the colleges of Oxford is dedicated.
CORPUSCLE, in Phyjics, a minute particle, or
phyfical atom, being fuch as a natural body is made
up of. By this word is not meant the elementary
particles, nor hypoftatical principles of chemifts ; but
fuch particles, whether of a fimple or compound na¬
ture, whofe parts will not be diffblved nor diffipated by
ordinary degrees of heat.
CORPUSCULAR philosophy, is that way of
philofophifing which endeavours to explain things, and
to account for the phenomena of nature, by the mo¬
tion, figure, reft, pofition, &c. of the corpufcles, or the
minute particles of matter.
Mr Boyle fums up the chief principles of the cor-
pufcular hypothefis, which now flourifhes under the
mechanical philofophy in thefe particulars j
X. They fuppofe that there is but one catholic or
univerfal matter, which is an extended, impenetrable,
and divifible fubftance, common to all bodies, and ca¬
pable of all forms. 2. That this matter, in order to
form the vaft variety of natural bodies, muft have mo¬
tion in fome or all its aflignable parts 5 and tnat this
motion was given to matter by God the Creator of all
things, and has all manner of direftions and tendencies.
3. Matter muft alfo be aflually divided into parts, and
each of thefe primitive particles, fragments, or atoms
of matter muft have its proper magnitude or fize,
as alfo its peculiar figure or fhape. 4. They fup¬
pofe alfo, that thefe differently fized and ftiaped par¬
ticles may have as different orders and pofitions, where¬
of great variety may arife in the compofition of bodies.
CORRADIN1 DE Se3,7,a, Peter Marce/linus, a
learned civilian and cardinal, born at Sezza, in
acquired the efteem and confidence of Clement XI.
and died at Rome in 1743. He was the author of a
learned and curious work, entitled, “ Verus Latium
profanum et facrum,'” 2 vols folio 5 and a hittory of
Sezza,in 4X0.
CORRADO, Sebastian, an Italian grammarian of
the 16th century, taught the Greek and Latin tongues
st Reggio, where he formed an academy of polite li¬
terature ; and at length removed to Bologna, in or- Corretfficn.
der to be profeffor of thofe languages. He wrote fe- ' ^ ‘ ~f
veral works, the moft efteemed of which are, “ •%«“-
Jtura in qua Ciceronis vita refertur,‘l'> an excellent
performance } and, “ de Lmgua Latina.'''1 He died
in 1556.
CORRECTION, in Printing, the aft of retrench¬
ing the faults in a work ; or the reading w'hich the
correftor gives the firft proofs, to point out and amend
the faults, to be reftified by the compofitor.
The correftions are placed on the margin of each
page, right againft the line where the faults are found.
There are different charafters ufed to exprefs different
correftions, as D or dele, for any thing to be ef¬
faced or left out. When any thing is to be inferted,
the place is marked in the line with a caret a, and the
infertion added in the margin. When a word, fyl-
lable, &.c. is to be altered, it is erafed out of the
proof, and that to be put in its room written in the
margin •, always obferving, if there be feveral miftakes
in the fame line, that the correftions in the margin be
feparated by little bars, or ftrokes, | . If a fpace be
omitted, its place is marked with a caret, and the
margin with %. If a fpace be wrong placed, as in
the middle of a word, the two parts are connefted
with a cu rve, and the fame charafter put in the
margin. If a letter be inverted, it is expreffed on the
margin with 9. If any thing be tranfpofed, it is
marked thus : The fhortejl \ure tbe\ folhes\ lejl ; for the
JljorteJl follies are the hef ; and in the margin is added tr.
in a circle. If Roman charafters are to be changed for
Italic, or vice verfa, a line is drawm under them thus,
and Roman or Italic added in the margin ; if to capi¬
tals, a double line. If a word or fentence is entirely
omitted, the place is marked with a caret, and in the
margin is inferted the w7ord out. If the letters of
a word Hand too far afunder, a line is drawn under
them, and in the margin is put a crooked line or
hook, thus v_.
Correction Houfe, a place of confinement, where
vagrants and perfons guilty of crimes of an inferior
degree, fuffer punilhment by being obliged to labour
for a certain period of time, as for months or years,
according to the nature of the crime. The benefit
arifing to fociety, and the reformation of offenders,
from this mode of puniftrment, have been varioufly efti-
mated by different writers, according to the views
which they have taken of the effefts and confequences
which are fuppofed to follow the confinement and re-
ftraint to which the criminal is fubjefted. It has
been regarded as one of the greateft deJefts of the
laws of this countiy, that, excepting the punifhment
of death, there is no other which is accompanied with
that degree of feverity and terror to awe or reftrain
offenders from the commiffion of crimes. To this pur-
pofe are the following obfervations of Dr Paley. The
laws of England, he fays, “ are not provided with any
other punilhment than that of death, Efficiently terri¬
ble to keep offenders in awe. Tranfportation which is
the puniffiment fecond in the order of feverity, anfwers
the purpofe of example very imperfeftly ; not only be-
caufe exile is in reality a flight punilhment to thofe who
have neither property, nor friends, nor regular means
COR [
Cot region, of fubfiftence at home, but becaufe the punifhment,
—-j——' whatever it be, is unobferved and unknown. A tranf-
ported convift may fuffer under his fentence, but his
fufferings are removed from the view of Ins country¬
men ; his mifery is unfeen ; his condition ftrikes no
terror into the minds of thofe for whofe warning and
admonition it was intended. This chafm in the fcale
of puniihment produces alfo two farther imperfeflions
in the adminiftration of penal juftice •, of which the
fhft is, that the fame puniihment is extended to crimes
of very different characters and malignancy j and the
fecond, that punilhments, feparated by a great interval,
are affigned to crimes hardly diftinguifhable in their
guilt and mifchief.”
This defeft, it has been fuppofed might be made up
by the proper management of houfes of correction. For
as the objeCt of puniihment is not only the amend¬
ment of the offender, but is alfo intended to operate as
an example to others, both thefe objeCts feem to be
more certainly attained by the confinement and labour
to which criminals are fubjeCted in houles of this def-
cription than by any fpecies of puniihment provided
by the laws of Britain. It is greatly to be regretted
that the punilhments infli&ed by the law's of this coun¬
try, whether imprifonment or exile, pain or infamy,
have rarely the efiFeCf of producing any reformation of
the criminal. On the contrary he often returns to the
world more hardened in crime, and more determined
in his wicked courfes. Houfes of correCHon might
probably in this refpeft be attended wfith more benefi¬
cial confequences. This feems to be the cafe with the
Amfterdam houfe of correftion, an account of which
in this view wall not, it is hoped, be unacceptable to
our readers. It is extracted from the Journal of the
Travels of M. Thouin.
The Amfterdam correction houfe, from the employ¬
ment of the prifoners confined in it, is called the rafping-
houfe, and is deltined to the reception of thofe malefac¬
tors whofe crimes do not amount to a capital offence.
Their puniihment cannot fo properly be denominated
folitary confinement as a fequeltration from fociety du¬
ring a limited term of years. The building is fituated
in a part of the fuburbs to the north-ealt of the city.
The exterior has nothing remarkable, either with re-
fpeCI to form or extent. It is detached from the ftreet
by a fpacious court, which contains the keeper’s lodge,
together with apartments for the different fervants be¬
longing to the eftablifhment. CT’er the gate, which
opens from this court into the prifon, are placed two
flatues, as large as life, reprefenting two men in the aft
of fawing a piece of logw'ood.
'The inner court is in the form of a fquare, round
which are arranged the apartments of the prifoners, to¬
gether with the neceffary warehoufes. One part of the
ground ftory is divided into different chambers ; the
other ferves as a depot for the logwood, and the imple¬
ments employed in its preparation.
The keeper, whofe countenance, contrary to the ge¬
neral cuftom of perfons of his profefiion, was ftrongly
indicative of urbanity and gentlenefs, introduced M.
Thouin into an apartment where two prifoners were at
work in fawing a large log of Campeachy wood. The
faw is compofed of four blades joined together, with
very ftrong, large, and fharp teeth, which make a feif-
•fure in the wood of nearly two inches in breadth. The
683 ] COR
operation is repeated, till the pieces become too fmall Correction
to undergo the law, w’hen they are ground in mills pe- v
culiarly conffru&ed for this purpofe.
This employment requires an extraordinary exertion
of ftrength, and is at firft a fevere penance even to ro-
buft perfons ; but habit, addrefs, and praflice, foon ren¬
der it eafy ; and the prifoners in a flrort time become
competent to furnilh, without painful exertion, their
w’eekly contingent of 200 lb. weight of fawed pieces.
After completing this talk, they even find time to fa¬
bricate a variety of little articles in w7ood and Ifraw,
which they fell to thofe who vifit the prifon, or difpofe
of, by means of agents, in the tow’n.
M. Thouin next infpe&ed three apartments of dif¬
ferent dimenfions, which opened into tire inner court.
The one wTas inhabited by lour, the fecond by fix, and
the third by ten prifoners. The furniture of the rooms
confilled in hammocks, with a mattrefs, a blanket, and
a coverlid to each, tables, chairs, and ftools, glafs, &c.
earthen veffels, and various other articles of convenience.
Every thing in thefe apartments w7as diffinguilhed by
neatnefs and propriety •, and notwithffanding the num¬
ber of inhabitants allotted to each w-as fully adequate
to the dimenfions of the rooms, the fenfes were not of¬
fended with any difagreeable feent, and the air was in
every refpeft as pure and wholefome as the furrounding
atmofphere.
In an obfeure part of the building are a number of
cells, in which formerly thofe prifoners wTo revolted
againft the proper fubordination of the place, or ill-
treated their comrades, were confined for a few7 days.
But the keeper affured M. Thouin that thefe cells had
not been made ufe of for upwards of 10 years. I hey
are dark gloomy dungeons, w ith only a fmall aperture
for the admiflion of light and air. The fuppreflion of
this barbarous and coercive puniihment does honour to
the humanity of government.
The ftore-rooms are filled wbth various kinds of w7ood
for the purpofes of dyeing ; as the heematoxylum cam-
pechianum, the moms tinSioria, the cafalpinia fappan,
&c. They are all exotics, with the exception of the
evonymus Europeeus. The warehoufes were not pf
fuflicient extent to contain the quantity of wood, which
was depofited in piles in different parts of the court.
The prifoners, amounting to 76 in number, w'ere
uniformly habited in coarfe woollens ; wear very good
ftockings, large leather (hoes, white (hirts, and caps or
hats. They are, by the rules of the houfe, obliged to
frequent ablutions, which greatly contribute to the pre-
fervation of their health. There was only one fick per-
fon amongft them 5 and, what is not a little remark¬
able, almoft all the prifoners had formerly lived ip large
commercial towns ; very few7 villagers were amongft
them. They had all been fentenced to imprifonment
for theft 5 but it depends upon themfelves, by reforma¬
tion and good behaviour, to ffiorten the term of their
confinement, which many of them frequently do.
The keeper, whofe humanity to the unfortunate per¬
fons committed to his care entitles him rather to the
title of their protestor than their gaoler (and M. Thouin
informs us, that the prifoners generally called him by
no other name than father'), affiffs them with his coun-
fels and friendly admonitions. He regifters every week,
in a book appropriated to this purpofe, both the in-
ftances of good and bad behaviour, which is annually
4 R. 2 fubmitted
COR [ 684 ] COR
Cl>rrefti°!’- fubmltted >0 tile examination of tile magiftracy, who, M. Tiiouin conclude! his account with obferving, Correflor
irom this report, abridge or prolong the term of con- that the rafping houfe at Amfterdam bears a greater II
nnement, according to the degree of indulgence which refemblance to a well-ordered manufa&ory than to a ^orro^on'
each prifoner appears to merit. Cafes frequently hap- prifon. It were to be wifhed, that all fimilar inftitu- *
pen^where a malefa61or, condemned to an imprifonment tions were conducted upon a fimilar plan,
of eight years, by his good behaviour procures his en- But it is probable that folitary confinement and lefs
largement at the expiration of four; and fo in propor- intercourfe with their friends would have a better ef-
tion for a fhorter term. But great attention is paid feft in reforming the habits of offenders than the in-
to dilcriminate between a&ual reform and hypocritical dulgences which M. Thouin confiders as fo beneficial,
artifice. < The philofopher whom we formerly quoted obferves,
i he letvard of good behaviour is not, however, con- that “ of reforming punilhments none promifes fo much
fined to, or withheld till, the period of aflual liberation, fuccefs as that of folitary imprifonment, or the confine-
Their reftoration to lociety is preceded by a progref- ment of criminals in feparate apartments. This improve-
five amelioration of their lot. I heir work is gradually ment of the Amfferdam houfe of corre£lion w’ould aug-
rendeied lefs laborious, they are accommodated with fe- ment the terror of the punifhment, would feclude the
parate apartments, and employed in the fervices «f do- criminal from the fociety of his fellow-prifoners, in
mefiic economy. The keeper even entruffs them with which fociety the worfe are lure to corrupt the better j
commiflions beyond the precin&s of the prifon ; and would wean him from the knowledge of his com-
Icarce a fingle inftance has occurred of their abufing panions, and from the love of that turbulent pernicious
this indulgence.^ By this prudent management, a con- life in w’hich his vices had engaged him ; would raife
liderable faving is effe&ed in the expence of the efta- up in him reflexions on the folly of his choice, and dif-
blifnment, at the fame time that it tends to wear away pofe his mind to fuch bitter and continued penitence,
prejudice, and to initiate the prifoners by gradual ad- as might produce a lading alteration in the principles
vances into the reciprocal duties of focial life. of his conduX.”
M. Thouin made particular inquiries whether it w^as In addition to the confinement and labour which of-
cuftomary for perfons after their difcharge to be con- fenders undergo in houfes of correXion, fome are fub-
fined a fecond and third time, as is but too often the jeXed to whipping at certain ftated intervals. The
cafe in many countries, for a repetition of their offence. benefit arifing from this mode of puniftiment, with re-
He was informed, that fuch inftances very rarely occur j gard to the reformation of the criminal, has been juftly
but the cafe is not without precedent, as he obferved in queftioned. If any good effeX is to be expeXed from
the perfon of a young Jew, who was then in the rafp- this difcipline, it muff be infliXed in private. It has
ing-houfe for the third time. The cale of this man is been obferved by one * who knew human nature well, * FirfcTinr
fomewhat extraordinary. During the period of his de- that punifhment which deprives a man of all fenfe of
tention, he always conforms, with the moft fcrupulous honour will never contribute to make him virtuous 5
obfervance, to the rules of the place, and gives general and it is generally found that the foldier who has once
latisfaXion by his exemplary conduX. But fuch, as been whipped, becomes quite indifferent to propriety
he himfclf avowed to our traveller, is his conffitutional of conduX. Faffing, which is not attended with fhame,
propenfity to thieving, that no fooner is the term of his promifes to be a more eft'eXual punifhment of profligacy,
imprifonment elapfed, than he returns with redoubled CORRECTOR, in general, denotes fomething that
ardour to his lawlefs courfes. It is not fo much for the mends the faults or bad qualities of others,
fake of plunder, as to gratify his irrefiftible impulfe, Corrector of the Staple^ a clerk belonging to the
that he follows this vicious life j and M. Thouin adds, ftaple, whofe bufinefs is to write down and record the
that he recounted his different exploits with as much bargains that merchants make there,
exultation and triumph as a veteran difplays when re- Corrector, in Medicine or Pharmacy, an ingre-
hearfing his warliite atchievements. dient in a compofition, which guards againft or abates
Another falutary regulation in this inftitution, from the force of another,
which the beft confequences refult, is the indulgence CORREGIDOR, the name of an officer of juftice
granted to the prifoners of receiving the vifits of their in Spain, and countries fubjeX to the Spanifh govern-
wives and miftreffes twice every week. Proper care, ment. He is the chief judge of a town or province,
however, is taken to guard againft the introduXion of CORREGIO. See Allegri.
difeafe j and the ladies,tin one fenfe, psrchafe their ad- CORRELATIVE, fomething oppofed to another
miffion by giving a trifling fum of money at the gate, in a certain relation. Thus father and fon are cor-
which becomes the perquifite of the aged prifoners, relatives. Light and darknefs, motion and reft, are
whofe wants are of a different nature from their youth- correlative and oppofite terms.
ful comrades. Thus the pleafures of one clafs contri- CORRIGIOLA, in Botany: A genus of plants
bute to the comforts of the other j and the entrance belonging to the pentandria clafs, and in the natural
money, trifling as it is, keeps away a crowd of idle va- method ranking under the 45th order, Mifcellanea.
gabonds, who have no acquaintance with the prifoners. See Botany Index.
The ladies at their vifits are permitted to eat and drink CORROBORANTS, or Corroborative Medi-
with their lovers 5 and when the converfation becomes cities. See Strengtheners.
too animated for a third perfon to be prefent, the reft CORROSION, in a general fenfe, the aXion of
of the company obligingly take the hint, and leave them gnawing away, by degrees, the continuity of the parts
to enjoy a tete a-tete.—By this prudent regulation, of bodies.
many hurtful confequences attendant on a total feclu- Corrosion, in Chemijlry, an aXion of bodies, by
fion from female fociety arc guarded againft. means of proper menttruums, that produces new com¬
binations,
COR
Corrofive binations, and a change of their form, without con-
11 verting them to fluidity.
Cormption. CORROSIVE SUBLIMATE MERCURY. See CHE¬
MISTRY Index.
CORRUGATOR muscle. See Anatomy, Table
of the Mufcles.
CORROSIVES, in Surgery, are medicines which
corrode whatever part ©f the body they are applied to.
Such are burnt alum, white precipitate of mercury,
white vitriol, red precipitate of mercury, butter of an¬
timony, lapis infernalis, &c.
CORRUPTICOLiE, a fe£I who rofe out of the
Monophyfltes in Egypt about the year 519, under their
chief Severus, the pretended patriarch of Alexandria.
Their diftinguiftiing doftrine, whence they derived
their name, was, that the body of Jefus Chrift was
corruptible; that the fathers had owned it ; and that
to deny it was to deny the truth of our Saviour’s paflion.
On the other hand, Julian of Halicarnafliis, another
Eutychian, a refugee, as well as Severus, in Alexan¬
dria, maintained that the body of Jefus Chrift had been
alwrays incorruptible; that to fay it was corruptible,
was to make a diftindlion between Jefus Chrift and
the Word, and by confequence to make two natures in
Jefus Chrift.
The people of Alexandria wTere divided between
the twro opinions j and the partifans of Severus were
called corrupticobe, q. d. worfhippers of fomething cor¬
ruptible : fometimes they were denominated corrupti-
biles; and the adherents of Julian incorruptibiles or
phantafq/hv. The clergy and fecular powers favoured
the firft •, the monks and the people the latter.
CORRUPTION, the deftruflion, extinction, or
at leaft ceffation for a time, of the proper mode of ex-
irtence of any natural body. See Putrefaction.
Corruption of Blood, in Law, one of the confequen-
ces of an attainder; and is both upwards and down¬
wards ; fo that an attainted perfon can neither inherit
lands or other hereditaments from his anceftors, nor
retain thofe he is already in poffeflion of, nor tranfmit
them by defcent to any heir ; but the fame ftiall efcheat
to the lord of the fee, fubjeCl to the king’s fuperior
right of forfeiture ; and the perfon attainted fhall alfo
obftruft all defcents to his pofterity, wherever they are
obliged to derive a title through him to a remoter an-
ceftor. See Attainder.
Blackjionc s This is one of thofe notions which "our laws have
vomr*tn . adopted from the feudal conftitutions, at the time of
the Norman conqueft ; as appears from its being un¬
known in thofe tenures which are indifputably Saxon,
or igavel kind : wherein though by treafon, according
to the ancient Saxon laws, the land is forfeited to the
king, yet no corruption of blood, no impediment of
defcents, enfues; and on judgment of mere felony, no
efcheat accrues to the lord. But by the law of Eng¬
land, derived as above, a man’s blood is fo univerfally
corrupted by attainder, that his fons can neither inhe¬
rit to him nor to any other anceftor, at leaft on the part
of their attainted father.
This corruption of blood cannot be abfolutely remo¬
ved but by authority of parliament. The king may
excufe the public punifhment of an offender ; but can¬
not abolifli the private right which has accrued, or may
accrue, to individuals as a confequence of the crimi¬
nal’s attainder. He may remit a forfeiture in which
COR
the intereft of the crown is alone concerned *, but he Corruptioa
cannot wipe away the corruption of blood ; for there- Corj*c!U
in a third perfon hath an intereft, the lord who claims . —^
by efcheat. If therefore a man hath a fon, and is at¬
tainted, and afterwards pardoned by the king : this
fon can never inherit to his father, or father’s ancel-
tors; becaufe his paternal blood, being once through¬
ly corrupted by his father’s attainder, muft continue
fo : but if the fon had been born after the pardon, he
might inherit; becaufe, by the pardon, the father is
made a new man, and may convey new inheritable
blood to his after-born children.
This corruption of blood, thus arifing from feudal
principles, but perhaps extended farther than even
thefe principles wall warrant, has been long looked upon
as a peculiar hardfhip: becaufe the oppreflive parts of
the feudal tenures being now in generaT aboliftred, it
feems unreafonable to referve one of their moft ine¬
quitable confequences; namely, that the children (hould
not only be reduced to prefent poverty (which, how¬
ever fevere, is fufficiently juftified upon reafons of pub¬
lic policy), but alfo be laid under future difficulties of
inheritance, on account of the guilt of their anceftors. •
And therefore in moft (if not all) of the new felonies
treated by parliament fince the reign of Henry VIII.
it is declared that they ffiall not extend to any cor¬
ruption of blood : and by the ftatute 7 Anne c. 21.
(the operation of which is poftponed by the ftatute
17 Geo. II. c. 39.) it is enadfed, that after the death
of the late pretender and his fons, no attainder for
treafon ihall extend to the difinheriting any heir, nor
the prejudice of any perfon, other than the offender
himfelf; which provifions have indeed carried the re¬
medy farther than was required by the hardffiip above
complained of; w'hich is only the future obftrudlion of
defcents, where the pedigree happens to be deduced
through the blood of an attainted anceftor.
CORSAIR, a pirate or perfon who fcours the
feas, efpecially the Mediterranean, with a veffel armed
for war, without commiffion from any prince or powTer,
to plunder merchant veflels. The word comes from
the Italian carfare, of corfo, or d curfbus, by reafon
of their courfes, or excurffons.—The name is com¬
monly given to the piratical cruifers of Barbary, who
had their rife about the beginning of the 16th cen¬
tury.
A corfair is diftinguiffied from a privateer in this,
that the latter does it under a commiffion, and only
attacks the veflels of thofe at war with the ftate whence
his commiffion is derived. The puniffiment of a cor¬
fair is to be hanged, without remiffion ; wdiereas pri¬
vateers are to be treated as prifoners of war. All cor¬
fair veflels are good prizes.
CORSELET, a little cuirafs: or, according to
others, an armour or coat made to cover the whole
body, anciently worn by the pike-men, ufually placed
in the front and flanks of the battle, for the better re¬
filling the enemy’s affaults, and guarding the foldiers
placed behind them.
CORSICA, an ifland in the Mediterranean, be¬
tween 8° and to0 E. Long, and 410 and 43* N. Lat.
On the fouth it is feparated from Sardinia, by the
ftrait of Bonifacio ; to the eaft it has the Tufcan fea;
to the north the gulf of Genoa ; and to the weft it is
oppoftte the coafts of France and Spain. It is 150
1 miles
[ 685 ]
fiorika,
Corfned.
COR
miles from north to fouth, and from 40 to 50 In breadth.
It was known to the ancient Greeks by the names of
Callifta and Cyrnus, and to the Romans by its prefent
appellation. On the coaft are many excellent har¬
bours. It is mountainous, but fruitful vallies are in-
terfperfed j and it hasfome fine lakes and rivers. With
refpect to produfts, Corfica has nothing peculiar to it-
felf •, but from the earlielt times it has been famous for
its fwarms of bees, and produces vail quantities of ho¬
ney, which, however, is reckoned bitter, on account
of the box and yew with which the country abounds.
The mountains are rich in lead, iron, copper, and fil-
ver; a mine of the latter was opened in the vear 1767,
from which a quintal of mineral produced 18 ounces
of filver. There are alfo mines of alum and faltpetre:
the granite of Corfica is nearly equal to the oriental.
Porphyries, jafper, talc, amianthus, emeralds, and
ether precious flones, are found fcattered in the moun¬
tains ; and the fouth coaft abounds with beautiful
coral. After many revolutions, this ifland was, for
fome centuries, under the dominion of the Genoefe,
whofe tyranny was fuch, that the Corficans were
almoft in a perpetual date of infurre&ion. In 1736,
a German adventurer, Theodore baron Newhoff,
brought fome affillance to them, and, on his affu-
rances of more powerful aid, they defied him king 5
but, as he could not fubflantiate his promife®, he
was obliged to leave the ifland. He came to Eng¬
land, was thrown into the Fleet prifon, releafed by
an a61 of infolvency (after having regiftered his
kingdom of Corfica for the benefit of his creditors)
and fuffered to die in extreme indigence. The Ge¬
noefe tired of the conteft, fold the fovereignty to
France, in 1767, and the celebrated Paoli, who had
been defied to the chief command, in 1755, was
obliged to abandon the ifland in 1769. After the
French revolution, in 1789, Corfica was admitted as
an eighty-third department of France, at the particu¬
lar requeft of a deputation, of which Paoli was at the
head. In confequence, however, of fome events
which followed the revolution of 1792, Paoli revolted;
the French, by the afliflance of the Englifh, were ex¬
pelled from the ifland; and Corfica, on the 19th of
June 1794, was declared annexed to the crown of
Great Britain, according to a new conflitution, which
had been previoufly formed. In Oflober 1796, how¬
ever, the Englifh found it expedient to evacuate the
Ifland, of which the French immediately took poffef-
lion, and again united it to their republic, dividing it
into two^ departments, Golo and Liamone ; of the
former of which Baflia is the chief town, and of the
latter Ajaccio.
CORSNED, or Morsel of Execration, a fpe-
*See Trial, cies of trial or purgation * anciently in ufe among us,
and which probably arofe from an abufe of revelation
in the dark ages of fuperftition. It confifled of a piece
of cheefe or bread, about an ounce in weight, which
was confecrated with a form of exorcifm ; defiring of
the Almighty that it might caufe convulfions and pale-
nefs, and find no paffage if the man was really guil¬
ty ; but might turn to health and nourifhment if he
■was innocent; as the water of jealoufy among the Jews
wras, by God’s efpecial appointment, to caufe the belly
to fwell, and the thigh to rot, if the woman w as guil¬
ty of adultery. This corfned was then given to the
2
686 ] COR
fufpe&ed perfon, who at the fame time alfo received
the holy facrament: if indeed the corfned was not, as
fome have fufpe61ed, the facramental bread itfelf; till,
the fubfequent invention of tranfubfiantiation prefer-
ved it from profane ufes with a more profound refpedl
than formerly. Our hiftorians aflure us, that God¬
win, earl of Kent, in the reign of King Edward the
Confeffor, abjuring the death of the king’s brother, at
lait appealed to his corfned, “ per buccellam deglutien-
dam abjuravit” which ftuck in his throat and killed
him. This cuftom has been long fince gradually abo-
lilhed, though the remembrance of it flill fubfifts in
certain phrafes of abjuration retained among the com¬
mon people : as, “ I will take the facrament upon it;
May this morfel be my laft ;” and the like.
CORE, Corn elius, a celebrated engraver, w7as born
at Hoorn in Holland in 1536. After having learned
the firlt principles of drawung and engraving, he went
to Italy to complete his fludies, and vifited all the
places famous for the works of the great mafters. At
Venice he was courteoufly received by Titian; and en¬
graved feveral plates from the pi6Iures of that admi¬
rable painter. He at laft fettled at Rome, where he
died in 1578, aged 42. According to Bafan, he w7as
“ the beft engraver with the burin or graver only that
Holland ever produced. We find in his prints,” adds
he, “ corredfnefs of drawing, and an exquifite tafte.”
He praifes alfo the tafte and lightnefs of touch with
which he engraved landfcapes, and that without the
afliftance of the point. It is no fmall honour to this
artift, that Agoftino Carracci w’as his fcholar, and imi¬
tated his ftyle of engraving rather than that of any
other mailer. His engravings are very numerous (151
according to Abbe Handles), and by no means un¬
common.
CORTES of Spain, a term purely Spanifh, figni-
fying the courts, i. e. the ftates or aflembly of the
ftates, at Madrid.
Cortes, or Cortez, Ferdinand, a Spanifli ge¬
neral, famous for the conqueft of Mexico, and other
vidlories over the natives of South America; but in¬
famous for the cruelties he committed upon the van-
quiftied, without regard to rank, age, or fex. It pro¬
bably was on this account he was but coolly received
on his return to Europe by his royal mailer Charles
V.: It is even afferted that the emperor aiked him
who he was ? to w hich Cortez replied ; “ I am the
man who gave you more provinces than your ancef-
tors have left you towns.” Died in 1554, aged 63.
See Mexico.
COR'l EX, in Botany, the rind or coarfe outer
bark of plants. The organization of the outer and
inner baiks, which differ piincipally in the finenefs
of their texture, is particularly explained under the
article Plants.
Wounds of the bark, and its feparations from the
wood, whether naturally or artificially made, are eafi-
ly cured, and made to unite again by proper care. If
fe6fions be made in the rinds of the afh and fycamore
of a fquare figure, three fides cut, and the fourth un¬
cut, and the whole be afterwards bound round with a
pack-thread, it will all unite again, only leaving a fear
in each of the three fides where it was cut. If feveral
parts of the bark of either of thefe trees be cut eff, and
entirely feparated from the tree ; fome ftiallower, lea¬
ving
Cort
Cortex.
COR
[ 687 1
COR
Cortex
II
Corufca-
tion.
ving a part of tlas bark on, and others deeper, to the
wood itfelf j thefe pieces being again put into then-
places, and bound on with a pack-thread, will not in¬
deed unite, but a frefh bark will grow in their places,
and thruft them away : but if they be firft carefully
laid on in the exaft direaion in which they originally
grew, and then the whole part beyond the wound on
every fide covered with a large plafter of diachylon,
or the like, and this bound over with pack-thread to
keep all firmly in their places, the pieces of bark, whe¬
ther cut off (hallower or deep down to the very wood
of the tree, will firmly unite themfelves to the places
where they originally grew. This cure will be per¬
formed in about three weeks ; but the outer rind of
the feparated pieces will not be plump, but fomewhat
fhrivelled } the edges alfo will recede fomewhat from
their original place ; fo that there remains a fort of
fear all round. Thefe experiments are beft made in
the 1’pring feafon for in the autumn and winter, the
fap arifing but weakly, the parts that fhould unite
wither before that is brought about. The fuccefs of
thefe experiments has made fome think that the whole
branch of a tree feparated and bound on again might
unite with the reft. But the experiments that have
been made in the mold favourable manner for fuch a
trial have all proved vain, the branch cut off withering
always in a few days, however well united and care¬
fully kept on.
Cortex Peruvianas. See Cinchona, Botany
Index.
Cortex Winteranus. See Wintera, Botany
Index.
CORTONA, Pietro da. See Berretini.
Cortona, a very ancient town of Italy, mentioned
by many of the Roman hiftorians. It was originally
called Carton, and lay to the northward of the lake
Thrafymenus. It ftill remains the name of Cortona.
E. Long. 13. o. N. L it. 43. 15.
CORTONESE, Pietro Palo. See Gobbo.
CORTUSA, Bear’s ear Sanicle : A genus of
plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs j and in the
natural method ranking under the 2ift order, Precice.
See Botany Index.
CORUNNA, or Groyne, a port-town of Galli-
cia in Spain, fituated on a fine bay of the Atlantic
ocean, about 32 miles north of Compoftella, and
20 fouth-weft of Ferrol. W. Long. 9. o. N. Lat.
43- °-
CORUS, Omer, Homer, or Chomer, in the Jew-
ilh antiquities, a meafure containing 10 baths or 75
gallons and five pints, as a meafure of things liquid,
and 32 pecks and X pint as a meafure for things dry.
The corns or omer was moft commonly a meafure for
things dry 5 and the greateft that was ufed among the
jews. It contained, according to the rabbins, 10
ephahs or 30 fata or feahs. Corns is the moft ufual
term in the hiftorical writers, and omer or chomer among
the prophets.
Corus is alfo ufed in fome of our old writers for
eight buftiels or a quarter ; decern coros trhici, Jive de¬
cern quarteria.
CORUSCATION, a glittering or gleam of light
iffning from any thing. It is chi fly ufed for a flafli
of lightning darting from the clouds in time of thun¬
der.
There is a method of producing artificial corufca- C°™0v™
tions, or fparkling fiery meteors, which will be vifible
not only in the dark but at noon-day, and that from
two liquors adfually cold. The method is this. Fif¬
teen grains of folid phofphorus are to be melted in
about a drachm of water-, w'hen this is cold, pour upon
it about two ounces of oil of vitriol -, let thefe be Iha-
ken together, and they will at firft heat, and afterwards
they will throw up fiery balls in great number, which
will adhere like fo many liars to the fides of the glafs,
and continue burning a confiderable time ; after this,
if a fmall quantity of oil of turpentine is poured in,
without ihaking the phial, the mixture will of itfelf
take fire, and burn very furioufly. The veffcl fhould
be large, and open at the top.
Artificial corufcations may alfo be produced by
means of oil of vitriol and iron, in the following man¬
ner : Take a glafs body capable of holding three quarts;
put into this three ounces of oil of vitriol and tw-elve
ounces of water j then warming the mixture a little,
throw in, at feveral times, two ounces or more of
clean iron filings ; upon this an ebullition and white
vapours will arife : then prefent a lighted candle to
the mouth of the veffel, and the vapour will take fire,
and afford a bright fulmination or flalh like light¬
ning. Applying the candle in this manner feveral
times, the effeft will always be the fame ^ and fome-
times the fire will fill the whole body of the glafs, and
even circulate to the bottom of the liquor ; at others,
it will only reach a little way down its neck. I he-
great caution to be ufed in making this experiment is
the making the vapour of a proper heat: for, if toa
cold, few vapours will aiife *, and, if made too hot,
they will arife too faft, and will only take fire in the
neck of the glafs, wflthout any remarkable corufca-
tion.
CORVORANT, formerly written Cormorant.
See Pflicanus, Ornithology Index.
CORVUS, the Raven or Crow kind, a genus of
birds of the order of pica1. See Ornithology^
Index.
Corvus (Raven), in dfronomy, a conftellation of
the foutiiern hemiiphere ; whofe ftars in Ptolemy’s ca¬
talogue are 7 ; in Tycho’s as many ; in the Britannic
catalogue 9.
Corvus, in Roman antiquity, a military engine, or
rather gallery, moveable at pleafure by means of pul¬
leys ; chiefly ufed in boarding the enemy’s (hips to co¬
ver the men. The conftruflion of the corvus w'as
as follow-s : They eredfed on the prow’ of their veffels
a round piece of timber of about a foot and a half
diameter, and about l 2 feet long ; on the top of which
they had a block or pulley. Round this piece of tim¬
ber they laid a ftage or platform of boards, four feet
broad, and about 1-8 feet long, wfliich was well framed'
and faftened with iron. The entrance was long-ways,
and it moved about on the above-mentioned upright
piece of timber as on a fpindle, and could be hoifted
up within fix feet of the top : about this was a fort
of parapet knee-high, which w-as defended with up¬
right bars of iron fnarpened at the end, and towards
the top there was a ring, by the help of which and a
pulley or tackle, they raifed or lowered the engine at'
pleafure. With this moveable gallery they boarded
the enemy’s veffels (when they did not oppofe fide to-
fide).
COR
C»ryate fide), fometimes on their bow and fometimes on their
_ I! ftern, as occafion befl: ferved. When they had grap-
° chia P^e<^ t^le enemy with thefe iron fpikes, if they happen-
w——y—^ ed to fwing broadfide to broadfide, then they entered
from all parts j but in cafe they attacked them on the
bow, they entered two and two by the help of this
machine, the foremoft defending the foreparts, and
thofe that followed the flanks keeping the bofs of their
bucklers level with the top of the parapet.
CORYATE, Thomas, a very extraordinary per-
fonage, who feems to have made himfelf famous by
his whimfical extravagancies, was the fon of a clergy¬
man, and born at Oldcombe in Somerfetflure in 1577.
He acquired Greek and Latin at Oxford ; and coming
to London, was received into the houfehold of Henry
prince of Wales. If Coryate was not over witty him¬
felf, he got acquainted with the wits of that time, and
ferved to exercife their abilities, having more learning
than judgment. He was a great peripatetic : for, in
1608, he took a long journey on foot j and after he
returned, publifhed his travels under the following
ftrange title : Crudities hq/ii/y gobbled up in five months
Travels in France, Savoy, Italy, Rhetia, Helvetia, fame
parts of High Germany, and the Netherlands, Lond.
1611, 410. In 1612 he fet out again with a refolution
\ to fpend ten years in travelling : he went firft to Con*
ftantinople j and after travelling over a great part of
the Eaft, died of a flux at Surat in the Eaft Indies.
Some of the accounts of his peregrinations are to be
found in Purchas’s Pilgrimages.
CORYBANTES, in antiquity, priefts of Cybele,
who danced and capered to the found of flutes and
drums. See Crotalum.
Catullus, in his poem called Atys, gives a beautiful
defcription of them, reprefenting them as madmen.
Accordingly Maximus Tyrius fays, that thofe poflefied
with the fpirit of Corybantes, as foon as they heard
the found of a flute, were feized with an enthufiafm,
and loft the ufe of their reafon. And hence the
Greeks ufe the word Ko^vfixrritv, to corob antique, to fig-
nify a perfon’s being tranfported or pofleffed with a de¬
vil. See Enthusiasm.
Some fay that the Corybantes were all eunuchs $
and that it is on this account Catullus, in his Atys,
always ufes feminine epithets and relatives in fpeaking
of them.
Diodorus Siculus remarks, that Corybas, fon of Ja-
fon and Cybele, palling into Phrygia with his uncle
Dardanus, there inftituted the worlhip of the mother
of the gods, and gave his own name to the priefts.
Strabo relates it as the opinion of fome, that the Co¬
rybantes were children of Jupiter and Calliope, and
the fame with the Cabiri. Others fay the word had
its origin from this, that the Corybantes always walk¬
ed dancing (if the expreflion may be allowed) or tof-
fing the head, Ko^virrevris (Zanau.
CORYBANTICA, a feftival held in Crete, in me¬
mory of the Corybantes, who educated Jupiter when
he was concealed in that ifland from his father Saturn,
who would have devoured him.
CORYCEUM, in antiquity, that part of the gym-
nafium where people undreffed. It was otherwife cal¬
led apodyterion.
CORYCOMACHIA, among the ancients, was a
* fort of exercife in which they pulhed forwards a ball,
[ 688 1
COR
fufpended from the ceiling, and at its return either Corydales
caught it with their hands, or fuffered it to meet their II
body. Oribafius informs us it was recommended for Ccr>'vrek-
extenuating too grofs bodies. . a”‘ f
CORYDALES, in Botany, an order of plants in
the Fragmenta Methodi Naturaiis of Linnaeus, contain¬
ing the following genera, viz. epimedium, hypecoum,
leontice, melianthus, pinguicula, and utricularia.
COR YDALIS, in Botany, See Fumaria. Bo¬
tany Index.
CORYLUS, the Hazle : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the monoecia clafs \ and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 50th order, Amentacece. See
Botany Index.
CORYMBIFER./E, in Botany, the name of an or¬
der or divifion of the compound flowers adopted by
Linnaeus after Ray and Vaillant, in the former editions
of his Fragments of a Natural Method. This title in
the later editions is changed for Difcoidece, another
name borrowed from Ray’s Method, but ufed in a
fomewhat different fenfe.
CORYMBIUM, in antiquity, an ornament of hair
worn by the women. Its form was that of a corym-
bus.
Corymbium : A genus of plants belonging to the
fyngenefia clafs ; and in the natural method ranking
under the 49th order, Compofitee. See Botany Index.
—The calyx is diphyllous, uniflorous, and prifmatical;
the corolla monopetalous and regular ; there is one
woolly feed below each floret.
CORYMBUS, properly fignifies a clufter of ivy
berries. Among botanifts, it is a mode of flowering
in which the leffer or partial flower (talks are produ¬
ced along the common (talk on both fides; and though
of unequal lengths, rife to the fame height, fo as to
form a flat and even furface at the top. See Botany
Index.
CORYNOCARPUS, in Botany; A genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria clafs. See Botany
Index.
CORYPHA, Mountain Palm, or Umbrella Tree;
A genus of plants of the order of Palma, belonging
to the monoecia clafs. See Botany Index.
CORYPHiENA, a genus of fifties belonging to
the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology Index.
CORYPHAEUS, in the ancient tragedy, was the
chief or leader of the company that compofed the cho¬
rus : (fee Chorus).—-The wmrd is formed from the
Greek xogvcp*), tip of the head.” The coryphaeus
fpoke for all the reft, whenever the chorus took part
in the aftion, in quality of a perfon of the drama, du¬
ring the courle of the afts. Hence coryphaeus had
palled into a general name for the chief or principal
of any company, corporation, feft, opinion, &c. Thus
Euftatius of Antioch is called the coryphccus of the
council of Nice ; and Cicero calls Zeno the corypheeus
of the ftoics.
CORYVR EKAN, a dangerous whirlpool on the
weft coaft of Scotland, between the ifle of Scarba and
the north point of that of Jura. It is fo named from a
young Danifli prince, who periftied in this place : its
dreadful vortex extends above a mile in circuit. Ma¬
ny fmaller whirpools and rapid currents are found in
this neighbourhood j dangerous to thofe who are ftran-
gers to the coaft.
CORYZA,
Oaryza
COS [
CORYZ in Medicine, a catarrh of the nofe.
Medicine Index.
CORZOLA, or Curscola, an IHand in the gulf
of Venice, divided from Ragufa in Dalmatia by a nar¬
row ftrait. E. Long. 18. o. N. Lat. 42. 35-
COS, or Coos, in Ancient Geography, a noble
ifland on the coalt of Caria, in the Hither Afia, 15
miles to the weft of Halicarnaffus, 100 in compais,
called Meropis; and hence Thucydides joins both
names together, Cos Meropis; it had a cognominal
town Cos, but originally called AJlypalcea, mentioned
by Homer ; with a port locked or walled round,
(Scylax, Mela). The ifland was fruitful, and yielded
a generous wine, (Strabo). It boafted ot Hippocrates
and Apelles ; each at the head of his feveral profef-
fion. It was the country of Philetas, an excellent ele¬
giac poet, who flourifhed in the time of Philip and A-
lexander : the preceptor of Ptolemy Philadelphus : fo
thin and light that he was obliged to wear lead to pre¬
vent the being blown aw'ay by a puff of wind (iElian,
Athenteus) •, much commended by Propertius. The
v jles Cox, made of filk, w’ere famous for their fine-
nefs and colour, (Horace, Propertius, Tibullus). In
the fuburbs of Cos flood the temple of iEfculapius, a
noble ftrufture, and extremely rich.
Cos, the Whctjlone, in Natural Hi/lory, a genus
of vitrefcent ftones, confifting of fragments of an inde¬
terminate figure, fub-opaque, and granulated.
Of this genus there are feveral fpecies, fome con¬
fifting of rougher, and others of fmoother, or even of
altogether impalpable particles •, and ufed not only for
whetftones, but alfo for mill-ftones, and other the like
purpofes.
Cos turcica, Turhey-ftone, a fpecies of ftones of
the garnet kind, belonging to the filiceous clafs. It
is of a dull white, and often of an unequal colour ;
fome parts appearing more compafl than others. Its
fpecific gravity is 2.598 : it ftrikes fire rvith fteel, and
effervefces with acids. Mr Kirwan found that 100
parts of it contain 25 of carbonate of lime, and no
iron. Cronftedt is of opinion that there are probably
two forts of ftones known by this name, as that de-
fcribed by Wallerius neither gives fire with fteel nor
effervefces with acids. It is ufed as a wdietftone ; and
thofe of the fineft grain are the beft hones for the
moft delicate cutting tools, and even for razors, lan¬
cets, &c.
COSCINOMANCY, the art of divination by
means of a fieve. The word comes from xacxiw, cn-
hrum, “ a fieve,” and parraoL, divination. The fieve
being fufpended, after rehearfing a formula of wrords,
it is taken between turn fingers only j and the names
of the parties fufpe&ed repeated : he at whofe name
the fieve turns, trembles, or {hakes, is reputed guilty
of the evil in queftion.
This muft be a very ancient pra&ice : Theocritus,
in his third Idvllion, mentions a woman very Ikilful in
it. It was fometimes alfo praflifed by fufpending the
fieve by a thread, or fixing it to the points of a p- ir of
ftieers, giving it room to turn, and naming, as before,
the parties fufoefred ; in which laft manner cofcinoman-
cy is {fill praftifed in fome parts of England. It ap¬
pears from Theocr’tus, that it was not only ufed to
find out perfons unknown, but alfo to difcover the fe-
crets of thofe that wTere known.
Vox. VI. Part II.
689 ] COS
See CO-SECANT, in Geometry, the fecant of an arch Co-fecant
which is the complement of another to 90°. SeeCofin|j
Geometry.  
COSEN AGE, in Law, a writ that lies w here the
trefail, that is, the tritavus, the father of the beiai!, or
great grandfather, being feized in fee at his death of
certain lands or tenements, dies ; a ftranger enters,
and abates ^ then {hall his heir have this w’rit of cole-
the form of which fee in Fitz. Nat. Br. tol.
nage
221.
COSENING, in Law, an offence whereby any¬
thing is done deceitfully, in or out of contrails, which
cannot be fitly termed by any efpecial name. In the
civil law it is calledJlellionatus. See Stellionate.
COSENZA, the capital of the Hither Calabria, in
the kingdom of Naples. E. Long. 16 35. N. Lat.
39. 15. It is an archbifhop’s fee.
COSHERING, in the feudal cufioms, a kind of
right of the lords to lie and feaft themielves and their
followers at their tenants houfes. The word cohering
may perhaps be derived from the old Englifti w'ord
cojhe, a cot or cottage.
CO-SINE, in Trigonometry, the fine of an arch
which is the complement of another to 90°. See
Geometry.
COSMETIC, in Phyjic, any medicine or prepara¬
tion which renders the {kin foft and white, or helps to
beautify and improve the complexion 5 as lip-falves,
cold creams, cerufe, &c.
COSMICAL, a term in aftronomy, exprefling one
of the poetical rifings of a ftar : thus a ftar is faid to
rife cofmically when it rifes with the fun, or with that
point of the ecliptic in which the fun is at that time :
and the cofmical fetting is wdien a ftar fets in the weft
at the fame time that the fun rifes in the eaft.
COSMOGONY, in Phyjics, fignifies the fcienc<“ of
the formation of the univerfe. It is formed of tcorpos,
the world, and ytyopca, / am born.
In our conjectures about the formation of the world
there are two principles which w^e ought never to lofc
fight of. 1. That of creation ; for certainly matter
could not give itfelf exiftence, it muft have received it.
2. That of a Supreme Intelligence directing this creation,
and the arrangement of the parts of matter, in conle-
quence of which this world was formed. See Crea¬
tion and Geology.
COSMOGR APHY, the defeription of the world ;
or the art which teaches the conftruCtion, figure, dif-
pofition, and relation of all the parts of the wmrld, with
the manner of reprefenting them on a plane. The word
comes Lorn Koo-pes, world, and yfctipw, I defenbe.
Cofmography confifts chiefly of t*o parts: AJlro-
nomy, which fliows the ftrufture of the heavens, and
the difpofition of the liars ; and Geography, wTich ftrow's
thofe- of the earth.
COSMOLABE (from x,o<rp,o;, world, and XctpZctva,
l tahe), an ancient mathematical'nftrument, lerving to
meafure diftances both in the heavens and on earth.
The Cofmo/abe is in a great measure the fame with the
aftrolabe. It is alfo called panlacofm, or the univerfai
inftrument, by L. Morgard, in a treatife written ex-
prefsly upon it, printed in 1612.
COSMOLOGY (from world, and Aoyof,
difeourfe), the fcience of the w-orld in general. This
Wolfius calls general, or tranfcendental cofmology, and
4 S 'has
COS [ 690 ] cos
Cefmopo- has written a treatife on the fubjeft, wherein he endea-
CoJTacks vours to explain how the world arifes from Ample fub*
,, ftances j and treats of the general principles, of the mo¬
difications of material things, of the elements of bodies,
of the laws of motion, of the perfeftion of the world,
and of the order and courfe of nature.
COSMOPOLITE, or Cosmopolitan, a term
fometimes ufed to fignify a perfon who has no fixed
Jiving or place of abode, or a man who is a ftranger
nowhere. The word comes from the Greek xorpts,
world, and 7r*\ts, ctly.—One of the ancient philofophers
being interrogated what countryman he was ? anfwer-
ed, he was a cofmopohte, i. e. an inhabitant or citizen
of the world.
COSSACKS, a name given to the people inhabit¬
ing the banks of the rivers Dnieper and Don, near the
.Black fea and borders of Turkey. The word implies
irregular troops of hotfe. Thefe people are divided
into European and Afiatic Coffacks. The firft con-
fill of the Zaporog, who dwell below the catara£l of
the Dnieper, fome on the fide next to Ruffia, and
others on the oppofite fide of that river ; the Lower
and Upper Coffacks \ the Bielgorod Coffacks •, and
a part of the Don Coffacks. The Afiatic Coffacks
are compofed of the reft of the Don Coffacks, the Gre-
bin Coffacks, the Yaik Coffacks, and the Weftern
Calmucks, who retiring from thofe that inhabited the
fouth borders of Siberia under Yaiuki Can, fettled
upon the Wolga, and are dependent upon Ruffia.
The Coffacks were known by that name ever fince
the 948th year of Chrill. They dwelt upon Mount
Caucafus, in the place now called Cabardy ; and were
reduced under the Ruffian dominion by Prince Mftiflaw
in the year 1021. Many Ruffians, Poles, and others,
who could not live at home, have, at different times
been admitted among the Coffacks : but the latter,
abftrafted from thefe fugitives, mull have been an an¬
cient and well governed nation.
Towards the beginning of the 16th century, the
Zaporog Coffacks fixed their habitations on the fpa-
cious plains that extend along the banks of the Dnie¬
per. They had undergone confiderable hardlhips from
the incurfions of the Tartars, for which they after¬
wards found means to avenge themfelves in an ample
manner. The Poles being fenfible how ferviceable
the Coffacks might be in defending them from the ra¬
vages of the Tartars, and even of the Ruffians, propo-
fed to them terms of alliance. In 1562, they folemn-
ly took them under their protection, and engaged to
pay them an annual fubfidy ; in return for which the
Coffacks were to keep on foot a fufficient body of troops
for the defence of the Polilh dominions. With a view
to bind them ftill more ftrongly by ties of intereft, the
Poles gave them the whole country between the rivers
Dnieper and Neifter, and the borders of Tartary.
The Coffacks applied themfelves with great induftry
to the cultivation of this fertile fpot; fo that in a ftrort
time it was interfperfed with large towns and hand-
fome villages. Befides, they continually haraffed the
Turks, and did them great damage by their incur¬
fions ; and, in order to prevent the latter from pur-
fuing them, or making reprifals, they poffeffed them¬
felves of feveral fmall iflands in the Dnieper, where
they kept their magazines, &c. The hettman or ge¬
neral pf the Coffacks was not in the leaft fubordinate
to the field marfhal of Poland j but a£led In concert Coflacks,
with him as an ally, and not as a fubjeft of that repub- v—
lie. But this alliance, though of fuch manifeft advan¬
tage to both parties, was not of long duration. The
Poles, feeing the vaft improvements made by the Cof¬
facks in the country they had given up to them, be¬
came envious of them, and a&ually made an attempt
to bring them into fubjeflion, as we have feen in the
hiftory of Poland. In 1648 the Coffacks gained great
advantages over them, and next year came to an ac¬
commodation, in which they not only preferved their
old immunities, but obtained additional privileges.
The refult of all w7as, that thefe Coffacks remained
under the protedlion of Ruffia •, and as their former
country was entirely laid wafte in the late wars, they
fettled in the Ruffian Ukraine, upon receiving formal
aflurances from the court of Ruffia, that no alteration
fhould be made in their political conftitution, and that
no taxes whatever ftiould be laid upon them. The
Coffacks, on the other hand, were always to keep in
readinefs a good body of troops for the fervice of
Ruffia : but in the year 1708 Mazeppa, their hettman
or chief, went over from the Ruffians to the Swedes j
upon which Peter I. refolved to prevent fuch revolts
for the future. To this end, after the battle of Pul-
towa, he fent a ftrong detachment into the above-men¬
tioned little iflands in the Dnieper, whither the Cof¬
facks had fled with their wives and children, and all
their effe£is ; and ordered them all to be put to the
fvvord without diftindlion, and the plunder to be di¬
vided among his foldiers. He likewife fent a great
number of men into their country, and caufed feveral
thoufands of the Coffacks to be carried to the coafts
of the Baltic, where they were put to all forts of hard
labour ; by which means he in a manner extirpated
the whole nation.
What diftinguiflies the Zaporog Coffacks from all
other people is, that they never fuffer any women in
their fettlements, as the Amazons are faid not to have
fuffered any men among them. The women of thefe
Coffacks live in other iflands of the Dnieper. They
never marry, nor have any family : all their male chil¬
dren are enrolled as foldiers, and the females are left
with their mothers. The brother often has children
by his filler, and the father by his daughter. They
know no law's but thofe which cuftom has introduced,
founded on their natural wants j though they have
among them fome piiefts of the Greek perfuafion.
They ferve in the armies as irregulars j and w oe to
thofe who fall into their hands.
The country of thefe Coffacks, who are an affem-
blage of ancient Roxelans, Sarmatians, and Tartars, is
called the Ocraine or Ukraine. It lies upon the bor¬
ders of Ruffia and Poland, Little Tariary, and Turkey,
and was anciently a part of Scythia. By virtue of the
laft treaty fettled between Ruffia and Poland, in 1693,
the latter remains in poffeffion of all that part of the
Ukraine which is fituated on the weft fide of the Dnie¬
per, and is now but poorly cultivated. That on the
eaft fide, inhabited by the Coffacks, is in a much bet¬
ter condition, and extends about two hundred and
fixty miles in length, and as many in breadth. It is
one continued fertile plain, watered by a great num¬
ber of fine rivers, diverfified with pleafant woods, and
yields fuch plenty of all forts of grain, pulfc, tobacco,
honey
cos
CoiTacks. honey and wax, as to fupply a great part of the Ruf-
1 v empire with thofe commodities. Its pailures are
exceeding rich, and its cattle very large $ but the in¬
habitants are greatly plagued by locufts, which infert
this fine country. The houfes in the Ukraine are,
like thofe of the Ruffians, moftly built with tim¬
ber.
The Coffacks are tall and well made, generally hawk-
nofed, and of a good mien. They are hardy, vigorous,
brave, and extremely jealous of what is moft valuable
in life, their liberty •, fickle and wavering, but fociable,
cheeeful, and fprightly. They are a very powerful
people, and their forces confift wholly of cavalry.—
Their diale& is a compound of the Poliffi and Ruffian
languages j but the latter is the moft predominant.
They were formerly Pagans or Mahometans ; but up¬
on their entering into the Polifti fervice, they were
baptized Chriftians of the Romifli communion j and
now that they belong to Ruffia, they profefs themfelves
members of the Greek church.
Each of their towns, with the diftrift belonging to
it, is governed by an officer called ottomann or atta-
mann.
The Don Coffacks, fo called from their refidence
upon the banks of the river Don, greatly refemble
thofe already defcribed. In the year 1559’ when the
Czar Iwan Bafilowitz was emperor of Ruffia, they vo¬
luntarily put themfelves under his prote&ion, and are
at this time on a pretty equal footing with the other
Ruffian fubjetts. They have feveral towns and vil¬
lages upon the banks of the Don 5 but are prevented
from extending themfelves farther up the country, by
the fcarcity of freffi water and wood in many places.
Their chief fupport is grazing and agriculture, and oc-
cafionally robbing and plundering, for which they
want neither capacity nor inclination. Every town is
governed by a magiftrate called tamann ; and the ta«
manns, with their towns, are under the jurifdi&ion of
two ottomanns, who refide at Tffierkalky. The troops
of thefe Coffacks likewife confift entirely of cavalry.
In this country all the towns and villages are fortified
and encompaffed with pallifades, to defend them againft
the incurfions of the Galmucks and Kuban Tartars, with
whom they are continually at war. The Coffacks, in
general, are of great fervice to garrifon towns by w’ay
of defence, or to purfue an enemy j but are not fo
good at regular attacks.
The Sietffi Coffacks, who are alfo called Hafdamacks,
have their particular hettman. They inhabit the Ruf¬
fian, Polifti, and Turkiffi dominions, along the banks
of the Dnieper.
The Yaik Coffacks dwrell on the fouth fide of the
river Yaik ; and upon the fuccefs of the Ruffian arms
in the kingdom of AftraCan, voluntarily fubmitted to
them. In ftature they greatly refemble the other Cof¬
facks 5 though by their boorifti manner of living, and
intermarriages with the Tartars, they have not the
ftiape and air peculiar to the reft of their countrymen.
Their natural difpofitions and cuftoms are, however,
nearly the fame. Hufbandry, fifliing, and feeding of
cattle, are their principal employments *, and, like the
other tribes, they let flip no opportunity of making
depredations on their neighbours. Their continual
wars with the Kara Kalpacs and the Kafatffiaia Horda
oblige them to keep their towns and villages in a ftate
COS
of defence. They are indeed fubjeft to Ruffian wai- Colie
wodes, to whom they pay an annual tribute in corn, Co|„t(,
wax, honey, and cattle j but they have alfo their par-. ' * —.
ticular chiefs, who govern them according to their an¬
cient cuftoms. Though the generality of the Yaik
Coffacks profefs the Greek religion, yet a great many
relics of Mahometanifm and Paganifra are ftill found
among them. Being naturally bold and hardy, they
make excellent foldiers ; and they are not fo turbu¬
lent as the other Coflacks. They live entirely at
peace with the Calmucks and their other neighbours,
and even maintain a commercial intercourfe with
them.
COSSE de Geniste, an order of knightood in-
ftituted in 1234, by Louis IX. at his marriage with
Margaret of Provence, The motto on the collar of
this order was, Exaltat humiles.
COSSET, among farmers, a colt, calf, or lamb,
brought up by hand without the dam.
COSTA, Christopher, a celebrated botanift of
the 16th century, was born in Africa, of a Portuguefe
father, and went into Afia, to perfedf himfelf in the
knowledge of fimples, where he was taken prifoner,
but found means to make his efcape, and after feveral
Voyages, pradtifed phyfic at Bourgos. He wrote,
I. A Treatife on Indian drugs and medicines. 2. His
Voyages to the Indies. 3. A book in praife of Wo¬
men ; and other works.
COSTAL, an appellation given by anatomifts to fe-
veral parts belonging to the lides; thus we meet with
coftal mufcles, vertebrae, &c.
COSTANZO, Angelo di, an Italian hiftorian and
poet, lord of Catulopa, was born in 1507, of a noble
and ancient family of Naples, and died about 1591.
He wrote, 1. A Hiftory of Naples, from 1250 to
1489 ; the beft edition of which is that of Aquila, in
1582, in folio, very fcarce. 2. Italian poems, which
are efteemed, and have had feveral editions.
COSTA-ricca, a province of North America in
New Spain, and in the audience of Guatimala, bound¬
ed on the north-eaft by the Northern ocean, on the
fouth-weft by the South fea, on the north-weft by Ni¬
caragua, and on the fouth eaft by Veragua. The foil
is not very fertile, though there is plenty of cattle.
Carthagena is the capital town.
COSTARD, George, a clergyman of the church
of England, and author of feveral learned works, was
born about the year 1710. He was educated at Wad-
ham college, Oxford ; and took the degree of M. A.
in 1733. The firft ecclefiallical fituation in which he
was placed was that of curate of Iflip in Oxfordfhire.
In 1747 he publiffied, in 8vo, Some Obfervations tend¬
ing to illuftrate the Book of Job. In 1750 he pub-
lilbed Two Differtations : I. On the meaning of the
word Kejita, mentioned in Job, chap. xlii. ver. 11.
II. On the Signification of the word Hermes. In 17 .2
he publiffied in 8vo, at Oxford, DiJJertationes 11. Critico-
facra. quorum pnma explicatur Exek. xiii. 18. H tcra
vero, 2 Reg. x. 22. In 1755 he wrote a letter to Dr
Birch, which is preferved in the Britiffi Mufeum refpedl-
ing the meaning of the phrafe fpheera barbanca. Some
time after this he undertook to publifli a fecond edition
of Dr Hyde’s Hi/ioria Rtltgionis veterum Perfarum, eo~
rumque Magorum; and which was accordingly printed
under his infpeftion and with his correftions, at the Cla-
4 S 2 rendon 4
[ 691 1
COS [69
rendon Prefs at Oxford, in 410. In 1760, Mr Coltard’s
extenfive learning having now recommended him to the
notice of Lord Chancellor Northington, he obtained, by
the favour of that nobleman, in June 1 764, the vicarage
of T wickenham in Middleiex, in which fituation he
continued till his death. In 1767 he publilhed, in one
volume quarto, The Hiftory of Aftronomy, with its
application to Geography, Hiftory, and Chronology •,
occafionally exemplified by the Globes. This work
was chiefly intended for the ufe of ftudents, and con¬
tains a full and diftimft view of the feveral improve¬
ments made in geography and aftronomy. Mr Coftard
has ftiowm, “ by a gradual deduction, at what time, and
by whom, the principal difcoyeries have been made in
geography and aftronomy ; how each dilcovery has
paved the way to what followed ^ and by what eafy
fteps, through the revolution of fo many ages, theie
very ufeful fciences have advanced towards their pre-
fent ftate of perfeftion. In 177^ he publifhtd, in
8vo, A Letter to Nathaniel Brafley Halhed, Efq.
containing fome Remarks on his Preface to the Code
of Gentoo Laws. This appears to have been the laft
of his publications. It contains fome criticifms which
were intended to invalidate the opinion which Mr Hal¬
hed had conceived concerning the great antiquity of
the Gentoo laws •, and fome arguments againft a no¬
tion which had been adopted by feveral writers, drawn
from the obfervation of natural phenomena, that the
world is far more ancient than it is reprefented to be
by the Hebrew chronology. Mr Coftard died on the
I Oth of January 1782. He was a man of uncommon
learning, and eminently Ikilled in Grecian and oriental
literature. His private charadler was amiable, and he
was much refpeffed in the neigbourhood in which he
lived for his humanity and benevolence. Befides the
works already mentioned, he wrote fome others ; and
was alfo the author of learned papers, inferted in the
Philofophical Tranfa<ftions, on aftronomical and chro¬
nological fubjedls.
COSTIVENESS, a preternatural detention of the
feces, with an unufual drynefs and hardnefs thereof,
and thence a fuppreflion of their evacuation. See Me¬
dicine Index.
COSTMARY, the Englifh name of a fpecies of
tanfy. See Tanacetum, Botany
COSTS, in Law, imply the expences of a fuit reco¬
vered by the plaintiff, together with damages. Cofts
were not allowed by the common law, the amercement
of the vanquiftied party being his only punilhment $
* Blacljl. but they are given by ftatute *. Cofts are allowed in
Comment, chancery for failing to make anfwer to a bill exhibited,
or making an infufficient anfwer ; and if a firft anfwer
be certified by a mafter to be infufticient, the defendant
is to pay 40s ; 3’. for a fecond infufficient anfwer ; 4I.
for a third, &c. But if the anfwer be reported good,
the plaintiff (hall pay the defendant 40<--. cofts.
COSTUME, a rule or precept in painting, by
which the artift is enjoined to make every perfon and
thing fuftain its proper charafter, and not only obferve
the ftory, but the circumftances, the fcene of aftion,
the country or place, and take care that the habits,
arms, manners, proportion, and the like, exadlly corre-
fpond.
COSTUS, a genus of plants belonging to the ma-
2 1 COT
nandria clafs, and in the natural method ranking under Cota
the eighth order, Scitaminea. See Botany Index. ||
COTA, Rodriguez, a Spaniih poet in the 16th ^ote‘ie- _
century, was the author of the Tra$i-comedia de Ca/ijlo
y Melibea, which has been tranflated into Latin by
Gafper Barthius, and into French by James de La-
vardin. The Spaniards fet a great value on this per¬
formance.
CO-TANGENT, the tangent of an arch which is
the complement of another to 90. Ser Geometry.
COTBUS, a towm of Germany in Lower Lufatia.
It is a ftrong important place, and has been fubjeft to
the king of Pruffia ever fince the year 1645. It is
feated on the river Spree, 60 miles fouth-by-eaft of
Berlin, and 55 fouth-eait of Wirtemburg. Here are
a great number of French Proteftants, who have intro¬
duced manufadlures ; and this place is noted for excel¬
lent beer, pitch, and the cultivation of flax. E. Long.
15. 29. N. Lat. 51. 40.
COTE, a term ufed in courfing, to exprefs the ad¬
vantage one greyhound has over another when he runs
by the fide of it, and putting before it, gives the hare
a turn. See Coursing.
CoTK-Gare, a kind of refufe wool, fo clung or clot¬
ted together that it cannot be pulled afunder. By
13 Rich. II. flat. 1. c. 9. it is provided, that neither
denizen or foreigner make any other refufe of wool,
but cote-gare and villein. So the printed ftatute has
it ; but in the parliament roll of that year it is cod-landt
and villein. Cot, or cote, fignifies as much as cottage
in many places, and was lo uled by the Saxons accord¬
ing to Verftegan.
COTELERIUS, John Baptist, fellow of the Sor-
bonne, and king’s Greek profeffor, was born at Nif-
mes in Languedoc in 1627. Fie made a colle&ion of
the fathers who lived in the apoftolic age, which he
publifhed at Paris in two volumes folio in idyzj all
reviewed and corredfed from feveral MSS. with a La¬
tin tranfiation and notes. He alfo publiftied Monumenta
Ecclejia Grecca, in 3 vols •, being a colleflion of Greek
tradls out of the king’s and M. Colbert’s libraries, and
which had never been publifhed before ; to thefe he
added a Latin tranflation and notes. He intended a
farther profecution of this work •, but his intenfe ftu-
dies broke his conftitution, and deprived him of life
in 1686. Befides his great fkill in languages and ec-
clefiattical antiquities, Cotelerius was remarkable for
his probity and candour.
COTFiRELLUS, Cotarius and Coterellus, accord-*
ing to Spelman and Du Frefne, are fervile tenants j
but in Doomfday and other ancient MSS. there ap¬
pears a diftimftion, as well in their tenure and quality
as in their name ; for the cotarius hath a free foccage
tenure, and paid a ftated firm or rent in provifions or
money, with fome occafional cuftomary fervices; where¬
as the coterellus feems to have held in mere villenage,
and his perfon, iffue, and goods, were diipofable at the
pleafure of the lord.
COTERIE, a term adopted from the French tra¬
ding affociations or partnerftiips, where each perlon
advances his quota of flock, and receives his proportion
of gain •, and which retains its original meaning wrhen
applied to little affemblies or companies affociated for
miith and good humour, where each one furnifhes his
quota
COT
[ 693 ]
COT
Cotes
II
Cott.
quota of pleafantry. Here they coin new words not un-
derftood elfewhere, but which it becomes, fathionable
for others to ufe ; and they are thought ridiculous who
' are ignorant of them. It has been fometimes ufed to
fignify a club of ladies. . .
COTES, Roger, an excellent mathematician of
the x8th century. He early difcovered an inclination
to the mathematics; and at 17 years of age, was ad¬
mitted a penhoner of Trinity college, Cambridge. In
1706, he was appointed profeflbr of altronomy in the
profeiforflxip founded by Hr Plume archdeacon of Ro-
chefter, being cholen the firlt in that chair for his great
merit and learning. In the year I7l3» ^ ieSue^
of Dr Richard Bentley, he publifhed at Cambridge,
in 4to, a fecond edition of Sir Ifaac Newton s Princi¬
ple!, with all the improvements which the author had
annexed thereto ; to which he prefixed an excellent
preface. He prepared feveral ufeful books for the
public; and wrote A DTcription of the great Meteor
which appeared on the 6th of March 1716, publifhed
in the Philofophical Tranfaftions. He lived but a
little while to carry on the difeourfes for which he
was eminently qualified ; dying in the prime of his age
in 1716, to the great regret of all the lovers of the
fciences.
COTESWOLD, feveral fheep-cotes, and (beep
feeding on hills. It come from the Saxon cote, i. e.
cqfa, i( a cottage,” and wo/d, ‘‘ a place where there is
no wood.”
COTHURNUS, Buskin, a very high ihoe or
patten railed on fcles of cork, W'ore by the ancient
a£lors in tragedy to make them appear taller and more
like the heroes they reprefented ; moft of whom were
fuppofed to be giants. It covered the greateft part of
the leg, and was tied beneath the knee. Jt fchylus is
faid to have invented the cothurnus. See Buskin.
COT ICE, or Cotise', in Heraldry, is the fourth
part of the bend ; which with us is feldom or ever
borne but in couples, with a bend between them ;
whence probably the name; from the hrench cote,
“ fide;” they being borne, as it were, a-fide of the
bend.— A bend thus bordered is faid to be cotifed, co-
tice. He bears fable on a bend cotifed argent three
cinquefoils.
COTILLON, the name of a well-known bulk
dance, in w’hich eight perfons are employed. The term
is French, and fignifies an under-petticoat.
CO PRONE, a town in the Hither Calabria (land¬
ing on the fite of the ancient Croton, though not oc¬
cupying the fame extent of ground: (See Croton).
It is fortified with (ingle walls, and a caille eredled by
Charles V. Its private buildings are poor and fordid,
the ftreets difmal and narrow. Cheefe and corn are
the principal commodities. For the (lowage of corn,
there are ranges of granaries in the fuburbs ; and the
annual export is about 20,000 tomoti. The cheefe
is tolerably good ; but has a great deal of that hot
acrid tafle fo common to all cheefe made with goats
milk. The wine is not unpleafant, and appears fufeep-
tible of improvement by better management in the
making and keeping.
COT F, a particular fort of bed-frame, fufpended
from the beam of a (hip for the officers to deep in
between the decks. This contrivance is much more
convenient at lea than either the hammocks or fixed
cabins; being a large piece of canvas fewed into the
form of a chell, about fix feet long, and one foot deep, _
and from two to three feet wide. It is extended by a
fquare wooden frame with a canvas bottom, equal to
its length and breadth, to retain it in an horizontal
pofition.
COTTAGE, Cottagium, is properly a little
houfe for habitation without lands belonging to it;
fiat. 4 Edw I. But by a later (latute 31 Eliz. c. 7.
no man may build a cottage unltfs he lay four acres ot
land thereto ; except it be in market-towns or cities,
or within a mile of the fea, or for the habitation of
labourers in mines, failors, fordlers, fiiepherds, &c.
and cottages erefled by order of jufticos of peace for
poor impotent people are excepted out of the ftatute.
The four acres of land to make it a cottage within the
law are to be freehold, and land of inheritance ; and
four acres holden by copy, or for life or lives, or (or
any number of years, will not be fufficient to make a
lawful cottage.
COTTON, in Commerce, a foft downy fubflance
found on the goffypiurn, or cotton-tree. See Gossy-
pium, Botany Index.
Cotton is ieparated from the feeds of the plant by
a mill, and then fpun and prepared for all forts of fine
work, as (lockings, waillcoats, quilts, tapellry, cur¬
tains, &c. With it they likewife make muflin ; and
fometimes it is mixed with wool, fometimes with filk,
and even with gold itfelf.
The fined fort comes from Bengal and the coad of
of Coromandel.
Cotton makes a very confiderable article in com¬
merce, and is didinguilhed into cotton-wool and cotton-
thread. The firll is brought modly from Cyprus, St
John d’Acre, Smyrna, and the Ead and Wed Indies;
the mod edeemed is white. Thoie who buy it in bales
fhould fee that it has not been wet : moidure being
very prejudicial to it.
Of cotton-thread, that of Hamas, called cotton (Pounce,
and that of Jerufalem, called baxas, are the mod edeem¬
ed ; as alfo that of the Wed India idands. It is to be
chofen white, fine, very dry, and evenly fpun. The
other cotton threads are the half bazas, the rames, the
beledin, and gondezel ; the payas and mountafiri, the.
geneguins, the baquins, the joffelaffars, of wffiich there
are twTo forts, d hole of India, known by the name of
Tutucorin, Java, Bengal, and Surat, are oi four or
five forts, didinguidred by the letters A, B, C, &c.
They are fold in bags, with a deduflion of one pound
and a half on each of thofe of Tutucorin, which are
the deared, and two pounds on each bag of the other,
forts. For thofe of Fielebas, Smyrna, Aleppo, and
Jerufalem, the deduftion at Amderdam is eight ia
the hundred for the tare, and two in the hundred for
weight, and on the value one per cent, for prompt
payment.
Cotton of Siam, is a kind of filky cotton in the An¬
tilles, fo called becaule the grain was brought from.
Siam. It is of an extraordinary finenefs, even furpai-
fing filk in foftnefs. They make hofe of it there pre¬
ferable to filk ones for their ludre and beauty. I hey
fell from 10 to 12 and 15 crowns a pair, but there are
very few made unlefs for curiofity.
The manner of pacVing, Cotton as praPlifed m the
Antilles. The bags are made of coarfe cloth, of wffiich
z the
Cottage,
Cotton.
COT [ 694
n* take three ells and a half each; the breadth is
' one ell three inches. When the bag has been well
foaked in water, they hang it up, extending the mouth
of it to crofs pieces of timber nailed to polls fixed in
the ground feven or eight feet high. He who packs
it goes into the bag, which is fix feet nine inches deep,
or thereabouts, and prefles down the cotton, which an-
other hands him, with hands and feet 5 obferving to
tread, it equally everywhere, and putting in but little
at a time. The bell time of packing is in rainy moift
weather, provided the cotton be under cover. The
bag Ihould contain from 300 to 320 pounds. The tare
abated in the Antilles is three in the hundred. Cot¬
ton being a produ£lion applicable to a great variety of
manufailures, it cannot be too much cultivated in our
own plantations that will admit of it.
Cotton-Spinning, the art or procefs of reducing cot¬
ton-wool into yarn or thread.
The moll fimple method for this purpofe, and the
only one in ufe for a long time in this country, wras by
the hand upon the well-known domellic machine call¬
ed a one-thread wheel. But as the demand for cotton-
goods began to increafe, other inventions were thought
of for expediting this part of the manufa£ture. About
50 years ago, one Paul and others of London con¬
trived an engine for a more eafy and expeditious me¬
thod of fpinning cotton, and for which they obtained
a patent; but the undertaking did not prove fuccefsful.
Some years thereafter, various machines were con-
ftrufled by different perfons for facilitating the fpinning
of cotton; but without producing any very material
or lafting advantage. At length, about the year 1767,
Mr James Hargrave, a weaver in the neighbourhood
of Blackburn in Lancalhire, conllrufted a machine by
which a great number of threads (from 20 to 80)
might be fpun at once, and for which he obtained his
majelly’s letters-patent. This machine is called a 'Jen¬
ny, and is the bell contrivance for fpinning woof or
Jhute that has hitherto appeared. It is now commonly
conllrufled for 84 threads *, and rvith it one perfon can
fpin 100 Englilh hanks in the day, each hank contain¬
ing 840 yards.
Carding of cotton, as a preparation for fpinning,
ufed formerly to be performed by the hand, with a
fingle pair of cards upon the knee : but this being a
tedious method, ill fuited to the rapid operations of
the new fpinning machines, other methods were con;’
trived for affording a quicker and more adequate fup-
Pjy- _ The firll improvement for this purpofe was
likewife made by Mr Hargrave $ and confilled in ap-
plying two or three cards to the fame board, and fix¬
ing them to a llool or Hock $ whence they obtained the
name of Jloch-cards. With thefe, one woman could
perform two or three times as much work as Ihe could
do before in the common way. A Hill more expedi¬
tious method of carding, however, by what are com¬
monly called cylinder cards, was foon afterwards in¬
vented, and is that which is now moll commonly prac-
tifed : but as feveral perfons lay claim to this inven¬
tion, it is not eafy to determine to whom in particular
the merit of it is due.
The next and moll capital improvements which this
branch of manufa&ure received were from Mr Ark¬
wright, a native of Lancalhire, afterwards Sir Richard
Arkwright of Cromford in Derbylhire. He firft brought
1
] COT
forward his new method of fpinning cotton in 1768,
for which he obtained a patent in 1769. In 1775,'"
he obtained another patent for engines which he
had conltru&ed to prepare the materials for fpin-
ning ; though one of thefe patents, being challenged
at law, was fet afide fome years before it expired.
The refult of Mr Arkwright’s different inventions and
improvements is a combination of machinery, by which
cotton is carded, roved, and fpun, with the utmoft ex-
adlnefs and equality ; and fuch a degree of perfedlion
attained in fpinning warp, as is not to be equalled in
any other part of the world. To thefe improve¬
ments this country is entirely indebted for the great
extent of its cotton manufaftures ; large buildings ha¬
ving been eredled for that branch both in England
and Scotland, many of which contain feveral thou-
fands of fpindles, each driven by one or more large
water wheels ; and fome of fuch extent as to fpin at
the rate of one thoufand yards of twill or warp yarn
in the minute.
Other machines have been invented at different times,
and a variety of improvements made by different me¬
chanics and manufacturers j one of which in particular
we mull not omit to mention. It is called a mule, be¬
ing a kind of mixture of machinery between the warp-
machine of Mr Arkwright and the tuoo/^machine or
hand jenny of Mr Hargrave ; and was alfo invented in
Lancalhire. This machine bids fair to be of great ufe
in fpinning cotton-yarn for muflins to a degree of fine-
nefs never before known in this country, being nearly
equal in quality to thofe ufually brought from India.
Cotton-Mills, are large buildings with peculiar ma¬
chinery for carding, roving, and fpinning cotton : (fee
the preceding article.)—Thefe were entirely unknown
in this country before the different inventions and im¬
provements of Meffrs Arkwright and Hargrave ; fince
which time great numbers have been ereCled in Eng¬
land, many in Scotland, and fome in Ireland.
The firll ereftions of the kind were by Meffrs Ark¬
wright and Hargrave, both in the town of Notting¬
ham, and both nearly at the fame time. The engines
were then driven by horfes : but fince that time they
have been chiefly erefted upon water-falls in different
parts of the country j particularly the warp-machines,
W'hich are better adapted for being driven by water
than any other. The moft extenfive of thefe is in the
village and neighbourhood of Cromford in Derbylhire,
and under the immediate infpeClion of Sir Richard
Arkwright. The firll that was ereCled in Scotland
w^as for Mr Peter Brotherllon, under the infpeftion
and direction of Mr John Hackett from Nottingham ;
and is in the neighbourhood of Pennycuick near Edin¬
burgh. Since which time feveral have been ereCted
in the neighbourhood of Glafgow, Pailley, Lanark,
Perth, &c. Many are driven by Iteam-engines.
General State of the Cotton ManufaBory. The fa¬
cilities which the manufacturers of Great Britain had
fuddenly acquired, and the immenfe capitals which
they have fo recently laid out in expenfive machinery
and other heavy ellablilhments for carrying on the
cotton trade, are unparalleled in the annals of the
world. Above 140 cotton mills are now (1787) built
in Great Britain, of which nearly two-thirds have
been ereCted within thefe feven years. Befides thefe,
there are above 20,500 hand-mills or jennies for fpin-
nirvg
COT [ 695 J COT
Cotton, rung the fliute for the twifted yarn fpun by the water-
mills.
Above a million of money was, within this time,
funk in mills, hand-engines, and other machines, in¬
cluding the grounds and neceffary buildings.
Expence of water-mills, - L. 715,000
Ditto of hand-jennies, houfes, T
buildings, and auxiliary ma- > 285,000
chinery, fuppofed at leaft, J
of the immenfe return it makes for labour more than
any other branch of the cotton manufa£fory. Eaft In¬
dia cotton wool has been fpun into one pound of yarn
worth five guineas ; and when wove into muflin, and
afterwards ornamented by children in the tambour, has
extended to the value of 15I. ; yielding a return of
5,900 per cent, on the raw material.
But the ftate of the raw materials, and the progref-
five and aftonifhing increafe of this manufafture, will
be belt explained by what follows:
Cotton.
Total, L. 1,000,000
A power had been alfo created of working nearly
two million of fpindles ; and men, women, and chil¬
dren were trained to this bufinefs, capable of carrying
the cotton manufa£fure almoft to any extent. In
1787, the power of fpindles capable of being worked
was eftimated as follows :
In the water-mills, - - - 286,000
In the jennies, - - 1,665,100
Cotton Woo! ufed in
the Manufadlure.
1781, lb. 5,101,920
1782, 11,206,810
i783> 9>54(5.i79
1784, 11,280,238
1785, 17.992.888
1786, 19,151,867
1787, 22,600000
Suppofed Value when
Manufactured.
L. 2,000,000
3 900,000
3 200,000
3.950,000
6,000,000
6,500,000-
7,500,000
Total fpindles, 1,951,100
In the branches applicable to muflin and callico, it
was calculated that employment was given to 100,000
men and women, and at leaft 60,000 children ; many
of the latter having been taken from different parifhes
slhd hofpitals in Great Britain.
The quantity of the raw material of cotton wool
confumed in this manufacture, which did not amount
to 6,000,000 pounds in 1781, and was only about
11,000,000 pounds fix years ago, had amounted in the
year 1787 to the enormous height of 22,000,000 lb.
and upwards ; and the aftoniftiing rapidity of this in¬
creafe is in fome meafure to be attributed to the exten-
fion of thefe branches to the goods of India, particu¬
larly the callicoes and muflins.
Britifh callicoes were firft made in Lancafhire about
the year 1772, but the progr«fs was flow till within
thefe laft 12 years. The quantity manufaftured has
fince extended from about 50,000 to 1,000,000 of
pieces made in the courfe of a Angle year.
Britifli muflins were not fuccefsfully introduced un¬
til the year 1781, and were carried to no great extent
until 1785, after which period the progrefs during two
years became rapid beyond all example. The acquifi-
tion of cotton wool of a fuperior quality from Deme-
rara and the Brazils, and the improvements made in
the fpinning fine yarns upon the mule jennies, had gi¬
ven a fpring to this branch of the cotton manufaftory,
which extended it beyond what it was pofiible to have
conceived. Above half a million pieces of muflin of
different kinds, including ftiawls and handkerchiefs,
were computed to be annually made in Great Britain ;
while the quantity not only increafcd daily with the
new acceflion of powers that were burfting forth upon
the country, but the quality was exceedingly improv¬
ed ; and fince a yearly fupply of about 300 bales of Eaft
Indian cotton has been obtained by the w^ay of Oftend,
yarns have been fpun, and muflins have been wove,
equal to any from India. Nothing, therefore, but a
fine raw material appeared wanting to enable the Bri-
tifh manufaffurer to carry this branch to the greateft
extent : and, of all others, it is that fpecies of cotton
goods which deferves moft to be encouraged, becaufe
Such was the progrefs of the Britifli cotton manu-
fa&ory till 1787*, when, with eftabliftiments and me¬
chanical pow'ers capable of bringing forward immenfe
quantities of goods into the coniumption, this manu-
fa&ure was checked by a great and fudden redu&ion
of the prices of Eaft India goods of the fame fpecies,
which were fold above 20 per cent, on an average un¬
der the lovveft prices at which the Britifli manufafturer
can afford to fell without lofs.
This conduct in the Eaft India Company quickly
operated to the great prejudice of the Britifli manu-
fa&ures; and there is no faying how far thefe might
be reduced, fliould that company be allowed to prefs
goods upon the market at prices which have no rela¬
tion to the original coft, and under circumftances where
every idea of protecting duties is annihilated in the
effeft of the general fyftem.
The home-manufaClure of this article, however, in
all its different branches, has been greatly extejided,
and is likely to be carried on with greater advantage
to the manufacturer than ever it was before.
Lavender Cotton. See Santolina, Botany In¬
dex.
Philofophic Cotton, a name given to the flowers of
zinc, on account of their white colour, extreme light-
nefs, and refembl.ince to cotton.
Flax ?nade to refemb/e Cotton. See Flax.
Silk Cotton. See Bombax, Botasy Index.
CoTTON-Weed. See Gnaphalium, Botany Index.
Cotton, Sir Robert, a moft eminent Englifh anti¬
quarian, defcended from an ancient family, w'as born
in 1570. In his 18th yearhebegan to colleCt ancient
records, charters, and other MSS. Camden, Selden,
and Speed, acknowledged their obligations to him in
their refpeCtive works. He was highly diftinguifhed
by Queen Elizabeth, and by James I. who created
him a baronet. He wrote many things himfelf; but
our principal obligations to him are for his valuable li¬
brary, confifting of curious manufcripts, &c. which he
was 40 years in collecting. At his death in 1631, he
left the property of it to his family, though defigned
for public ufe. A large acceflion was made to this li¬
brary by private benefaCfions before the death of the
founder, and afterwards by the purchafes of his heirs,
and
COT [ 696 ] C O U
Gottuu anJ donations of others, who added to it a great num-
Vvlldo ^er °‘ ^00^s» relating to the hiflory and antiqni-
ncs. * t’cs our ovvn nat,'on- An aft of parliament was ob-
' tained, at the requeft of Sir John Cotton, in 1790, for
preferving it after his deceafe, under the above deno-
min tion for public ufe. It is now fixed in the Britifh
Mu'l um. For ftatutes relating to it, fee 12 and 13
W. III. r. 3. and 5 Anne can. 30.
Cotton, Charles, a burlefque poet, was defcended
of a good family, and lived in the reign of Charles II.
and James II. His mod celebrated piece h Scarroni-
des or Travejlie of the firfi: and fourth books of the
JEneid. But though, from the title, one would be
apt to imagine it an imitation of Scarron’s famous
Traveflie of the fame author, yet upon examination,
it would be found greatly to excel not only that, but
every other attempt of the fame kind that hath been
hitherto made in any language. He has alfo tfanflated
feveral of Lucian’s dialogues, in the fame manner, un¬
der the title of the Scoffer Scuff'd;—and written ano¬
ther poem of a more ferious kind, entitled the Wonders
of the Peak, The exaft period of either Mr Cotton’s
birth or his death, is nowhere recorded ; but it is pro¬
bable the latter happened about the time of the revo¬
lution. Neither is it better known what his circum-
itances were with refpeft to fortune $ they appear,
however, to have been eafy, if one may judge from the
turn of his writings, which is fuch as feems fcarcely
poffible for any one to indulge whofe mind w7as not
perfeftly at eafe. Yet there is one anecdote told of
him, which feems to fliow that his vein of humour
could not rcftrain itfelf on any confideration, viz. that
in confequence of a fingle couplet in his Virgil Tra¬
vejlie, wherein he has made mention of a peculiar kind
of ruff worn by a grandmother of his who lived in the
Peak, he loft an eftate of 400I. per annum j the old
lady, whofe humour and tefty difpofition he could by
no means have been a ftranger to, being never able to
forgive the liberty he had taken with her; and having
her fortune wholly at her difpofal, although fhe had
before made him her foie heir, altered her will, and
gave it away to an abfolute ftranger.
COT FUS, ox Bull-head, a genus of fifties belong¬
ing to the order of thoracici. See Ichthyology
Index.
CO TULA, may-Weed : A genus of plants be¬
longing to the fyngenefia clafs. See Botany Index.
COTULA, or Cotyla, a liquid meafure in ufe among
the ancients.
Fannius fays, the cotyla was the fame thing with the
hemina, which was half a fextary.
Sit cotylas, quas ff placeat, dixiffe Ficebit
Heminas receptt geminas fextarias units.
Chorier obferves, that the cotyla was ufed as a dry
meafure as well as a liquid one ; from the authority of
Thucydides, who in one place mentions two cotylse of
wine, and in another two cotylas of bread.
COTURNIX. See Tetrao, Ornithology In¬
dex.
COTYLEDON, navel-wort: A genus of plants
belonging to the decandria clafs ; and ranking under
the natural order, Succulentce. See Botany Index.
COTYLEDONES, in Anatomy, are certain glan¬
dular bodies, adhering to the chorion of fome ani- Cotyledo-
mals. r.es
Cotyledones, in Botany, the periftiable porous c
fide lobes of the feed, which involve, and for fome , ouc^irV)
time furnilh nourifhment to, the embryo plant. See
Botany Index.
COTYTTO, the goddefs of all debauchery. Her
feftivals, called Cotyttia, were celebrated by the Athe¬
nians, Corinthians, Thracians, Sec. during the night.
Her priefts w?ere called baptce, and nothing but debau¬
chery and wantonnefs prevailed at the celebration. A
feftival of the fame name wasobferved in Sicily, w’here
the votaries of the goddefs carried about boughs hung
with cakes and fruit, which it was lawful for any per-
fon to pluck off. It was a capital punifhment to re¬
veal whatever was feen or done at thefe facred feftivals.
It coll Eupolis his life for an unfeafonable refleftion
upon them. The goddefs Cotytto is fuppofed to be
the fame as Proferpine.
COUCH, in Painting, denotes a lay, or impreflion
of colour, whether in oil or water, wherewith the pain¬
ter covers his canvas, wall, wainfeot, or other matter
to be painted.
The word is alfo ufed for a lay or impreflion on any
thing, to make it firm and confident, or to fereen it
from the weather.
Paintings are covered with a couch of varnifh ; a
canvas to be painted mull firft have twro couches of
fize, before the colours be laid ; two or three couches
of white lead are laid on wood, before the couch of
gold be applied : the leather-gilders lay a couch of
water and wdiites of eggs on the leather, before they
apply the gold or filver-leaf.
The gold-wire-drawers alfo ufe the word couch for
the gold or filver leaf wherewith they cover the mafs
to be gilded or filvered, before they draw it through
the iron that is to give it its proper thicknefs.
The gilders ufe couch for the quantity of gold or
filver leaves applied on the metals in gilding or filver-
ing. Each couch of gold is but one leaf, or two at
moft, and each of filver three to gild : if the gilding
be hatched, there are required from eight to twelve
couches ; and only three or four if it be without hatch¬
ing. To filver there are required from four to ten
couches, according to the beauty of the work.
CoucH-Grafs. See Triticum, Botany Index.
COUCHANT, in Heraldry, is underftood of a lion,
or other bead, when lying dowm, but with his head
raifed ; which diftinguifties the pofture of couchant
from dormant, wherein he is fuppofed quite ftretched
out and afleep.
COUCHE, in Heraldry, denotes any thing lying
along : thus chevron-couche, is a chevron lying fide-
wife, with the two ends on each fide of the fliield,
which ftiould properly reft on the bafe.
COUCHER, or Courcher, in our ftatutes, is ufed
for a faftor, or one that continues in fome place or
country for traffic ; as formerly in Gafcoign, for the
buying of wines. Anno 37 E Jw. III. c. 16.
Coucher, is alfo ufed for the general book in which
any religious houfe or corporation regifter their paiti-
cular afts. Anno 3 and 4 Edw. VI. c. 10.
COUCHING of a Cataract, in Surgery. See
Surgery Index.
COVE,
C O V
r 697 i
C O V
Cove,
Covenant.
COVE, a fraall creek or bay, where boats and fmall
vefl'els may ride at anchor, (heltered from the wind and
fea.
COVENANT, in Law, is the confent and agree¬
ment of two or more perfons to do, or not to do, lome
a6t, or thing, contracted between them. Alfo it is
the declaration, the parties make, that they will ftand
to fuch agreement, relating to lands or other things ;
and is created by deed in writing, fealed and executed
by the parties, or otherwife it may be implied in the
contraft as incident thereto. And if the perfons do
not perform their covenants, a writ or aftion of cove¬
nant is the remedy to recover damages for the breach
of them.
Covenant, in ecclefiaftical hiftory, denotes a con-
trad or convention agreed to by the Scotch in the
year 1638, for maintaining their religion free from in¬
novation. In 1581, the general affembly of Scotland
drew up a confeflion of faith, or national covenant,
condemning epifcopal government, under the name of
hierarchy, which was figned by James I. and which he
enjoined on all his fubjeds. It was again fubfcribed
in 1590 and 1596. The fubfcription was renewed in
1638, and the fubfcribers engaged by oath to maintain
religion in the fame ftate as it was in 1580, and to re-
jed all innovations introduced fince that time! This
oath annexed to the confeflion of faith received the
name of the covenant: as thofe who fubfcribed it were
called covenanters.
Covenant, in Theology, is much ufed in connec¬
tion with other terms j as, 1. The Covenant of Grace
is that which is made between God and thofe who be¬
lieve the gofpel, whereby they declare their fubjec-
tion to him, and he declares his acceptance of them
and favour to them. The gofpel is fometimes deno¬
minated a covenant of grace, in oppofition to the Mo-
faic law. 2. Covenant of Redemption denotes a mutual
Ifipulation, tacit or exprefs, between Chrifl: and the
Father, relating to the redemption of finners by him,
previous to any ad on Chrift’s part under the charac¬
ter of Mediator. 3. Covenant of Works fignifies, in
the language of fome divines, any covenant whereby
God requires perfed obedience from his creatures, in
fuch a manner as to make no exprefs provifion for the
pardon of offences to be committed againft the pre¬
cepts of it, on the repentance of fuch fuppofed offend¬
ers, but pronounces a fentence of death upon them :
fuch, they fay, was the covenant made with Adam in
a ftate of innocence, and that made with Ifrael at
Mount Sinai.
Solemn League and CorENANr, was eftablifhed in the
year r643, an(^ formed a bond of union between Scot¬
land and England. It was fworn and fubfcribed by
many in both nations ; who hereby folemnly abjured
popery and prelacy, and combined together for their
mutual defence. It was approved by the parliament
and affembly at Weftminfter, and ratified by the gene¬
ral affembly of Scotland in 1645. King Charles I. dif-
approved of it when he furrendered himfelf to the
Scots army in 1646 : but in 1650 Charles II. declared
his approbation both of this and the national covenant
by a folemn oath ; and in Auguft of the fame year,
made a farther declaration at Dunfermline to the fame
■purpofe, which was alfo renewed on occafion of his
coronation at Scone in 1651. The covenant was ra-
V01.. VI. Part II.
tified by parliament in this year j and the fubfcription Covenant?
of it required by every member, without which the
conftitution of the pailiament was declared null and
void. It produced a feries of diftraftions in the fub-
fequent hiftory of that country, and was voted illegal
by parliament, and provifion made againft it. Stat. 14
Car. II. c. 4.
Ark of the Covenant, in Jewifh antiquity. See Ark.
COVENTRY, a town of Warwickfhire, in Eng¬
land, fituated in W. Long. 1. 26. N. Lat. 52. 25. It
is an ancient place, and is fuppofed to derive its name
from a convent formerly fituated here. Leofric, earl
of Mercia, who rebuilt the religious houfe after it had
been deftroyed by the Danes, and was lord of the
place about the year 1040, is laid, upon fome provo¬
cation, to have loaded them with heavy taxes. Be¬
ing importuned by his lady, Godina, to remit them,
he confented, upon condition that the Ihould ride na¬
ked through the town, which he little imagined Ihe
would ever comply with. But he found himfell mif-
taken : for Ihe accepted the offer, and rode through
the town with her long hair fcattered all over her
body •, having firft enjoined the citizens not to venture,
on pain of death, to look out as fhe paffed. It is laid,
however, that a certain taylor could not help peep¬
ing : and to this day there is an effigy of him at the
window whence he looked. To commemorate this
extraordinary tranfaflion, and out of relpeft to the
memory of their patronefs, the citizens make a procei-
fion every year, with the figure of a naked woman
on horfeback. After Leofric’s death, the earls of
Chefter became lords of the city, and granted it many
privileges. At length it was annexed to the earldom
of Cornwall j and growing confiderable, had divers
immunities and privileges conferred upon it by feveral
kings} particularly that of a mayor and two bailiffs
by Edward III. } and Henry VI. made it, in conjunc¬
tion with fome other towms and villages, a diftinff coun¬
ty, independent of the county of Warwick. But af¬
terwards Edward VI. for their dilloyalty, deprived them
of their liberties, which wxre not reftored till they
had paid a fine of 500 mtrks. By a charter from
James I. an alderman is allotted to each wTard, with
the powers of the juftices of the peace within the city
and its liberties. The walls were ordered to be de-
molifhed at the Reftoration j and now nothing remains
of them but the gates, which are very lofty. Coven¬
try is noted for the two parliaments which were held
in it •, the one called the parliament of Dunces, and the
other of Devils. The former was fo called on account
of the exclufion of the lawyers ; and the attainders of
the duke of York, the earls of Saliffiury, Warwick,
and March, procured the other the epithet of Devils.
The town-houfe of Coventry is much admired for its
painted windows, reprefenting feveral kings and others
that have been benefaftors to the city. The chief ma-
nufa£Iures carried on here are temmies and ribbands.
Coventry fends two members to parliament, and gives
title of earl to an ancient family of the fame name.——
Coventry is a bifliop’s fee. The bifhoprick is faid to
have been founded by Ofwy king of Mercia, in the
year 656 or 657 5 and although it hath a double name,
yet, like Bath and Wells, it is a fingle diocefe. It was
fo extremely wealthy, that King Offa, by the favour of
Pope Adrian, conftituted it an archiepifcopal fee j but
4 T this
C O U [
this title was laid afide on the death of that king.
698
In
1075’ Peter, the 34th bilhop, removed the fee to Chef-
ter. In 1102, Robert de Limfey, his immediate fuc-
ceflbr, removed it to Coventry j and Hugo Novant,
the 41ft biftiop, removed it back to Litchfield, but
with great oppofition from the monks of Coventry.
1 he diipute was finally fettled in a manner nearly fi-
milar to that which is mentioned between Bath and
Wells. Here it was agreed that the bifhop (hould be
ftyled from both places, and that Coventry fhould
have the precedence j that they fhould choofe the bi-
fhop alternately j and that they fhould both make one
chapter to the bifhop, in which the prior of Coventry
fhould be the chief man. Matters continued thus till
the Reformation, when the priory of Coventry be¬
ing diffolved by King Henry VIII. the flyle of the bi¬
fhop continued as before. But an aft of parliament
pa{Ted 33d of King Henry VIII. to make the dean
and chapter of Litchfield one foie chapter to the bi¬
fhop. This fee hath given three faints to the church j
and to the nation one lord chancellor, three lord trea-
furers, three prefidents of Wales, one chancellor to the
univerfity of Cambridge, and one mafter of the ward¬
robe. The old church built by King Ofwy being ta¬
ken down by Roger de Clinton, the 37th bifhop, he
built the beautiful fabric that now Hands in 1148, and
dedicated it to the Virgin Mary and St Chad. Du¬
ring the grand rebellion, the church fuffered much j
but foon after the Refloration, it was repaired and
beautified. This diocefe contains the whole counties
of Stafford and Derby (except two parifhes of the
former), the largeft part of Warwickfhire, and near¬
ly one half of Shropfhire, in which are 555 parifhes,
of which 250 are impropriate. It hath four archdeacon¬
ries, viz. Stafford, Derby, Coventry, and Shrewfbury.
It is valued in the king’s books at 559I. 18s. 2^d.
and is computed to be worth annually 2800I. The
clergy’s tenth is 590I. 16s. Ii^d. To this cathe¬
dral belong a bifhop, a dean, a precentor, a chancel¬
lor, a treafurer, four archdeacons, twenty-feven pre¬
bendaries, five prieft-vicars, feven lay clerks or fing-
ing men, eight choriilers, and other under officers and
fervants.
CO-VERSED Sine, in Geometry, the remaining
part of the diameter of a circle, after the verfed fine is
taken from it. See Geometry.
COVERT in Law.—Femme Covert denotes a wo¬
man married, and fo covered by, or under the protec¬
tion of, her hufband.
CovKRr-Way, or Corridor, in Fortification, a fpace
of ground, level with the field on the edge of the ditch,
three or four fathoms broad, ranging quite round the
half moons and other works towards the country. It
has a parapet raifed on a level, together with its ban¬
quets and glacis. See Fortification.
COVERTURE, in Law, is applied to the Hate and
condition of a married woman, who is under the power
of her hufband, and therefore called convert.
COUGH, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Cough, in Farriery. See Farriery Index.
Cough, called the hufk, is a difeafe to which young
bullocks are fubjeft. In this diforder the wind-pipe
and its branches are loaded with fmall taper worms.
Farmers count the difeafe incurable $ but fumigations
] c o u
with mercurials, as cinnabar, or with foetids, as tobacco, Couhage
might prove ferviceable. ||
COUHAGE, or stinking beans ; a kind of kid- ('ounc>1,
ney-beans imported from the Eaft Indies, where they v
are ufed as a cure for the dropfy. The down growing
on the outfide of the pod is fo pointed as, like a nettle
to fling the flefli, though not with fo painful a fenfa-
tion. This, by a corruption of the word, is called
cowitch. See Dolichos, Botany Index.
COVIN, a deceitful compaft or agreement between
two or more to deceive or prejudice a third perfon :
As, if a tenant for life confpire with another, that this
other fhall recover the land which the tenant holds in
prejudice of him in reverfion. Dr Skinner takes the
word to be a corruption of the Latin conventum, and
therefore writes it coven. See Conspiracy.
COVING, in building, is when houfes are built
projefting over the ground-plot, and the turned pro-
jefture arched with timber, lathed and plaftered.
COVINUS, among the ancients, a kind of chariot,
in which the Gauls and Britons ufed to fight in battles.
COUL, or Cowl. See Cowl.
COULTER, in Hujhandry, an iron inflrument,
fixed in the beam of a plough, and ferving to cut the
edge of each furrow. See Agriculture.
COUNCIL, or Counsel, in a general fenfe, an
affembly of divers confiderable perfons to concert mea-
fures relative to the flate.
In Britain, the law, in order to affift the king in the
difcharge of his duties, the maintenance of his dignity,
and the exertion of his prerogative, hath affigned him
a diverfity of councils to advife with.
1. The firfl of thefe is the high court of parliament.
See Parliament.
2. The peers of the realm are by their birth here¬
ditary counfellors of the crown ; and may be called to¬
gether by the king, to impart their advice in all mat¬
ters of importance to the realm, either in time of par¬
liament, or, which hath been their principal ufe, when
there is no parliament in being. Accordingly, Brac-
ton, fpeaking of the nobility of his time, fays, they
might properly be called “xonfules a confulendo ; re-
ges enim tales fibi affociant ad confulendum.” And in
the law-books it is laid down, that the peers are crea¬
ted for two reafons: 1. Ad confulendum, 2. Ad defen-
dtndum, regetn: for which reafons the law gives them
certain great and high privileges j fuch as freedom
from arrefts, &c. even when no parliament is fitting j
becaufe the law intends, that they are always affifling
the king wnth their counfel for the common-wealth,
or keeping the realm in fafety by their prowefs and
valour.
Inftances of conventions of the peers, to advife the
king, have been in former times very frequent; though
now' fallen into difufe, by reafon of the more regular
meetings of parliament. Sir Edward Coke gives us an
extraft of a record, 5 Henry IV. concerning an ex¬
change of lands between the king and the earl of Nor¬
thumberland, wherein the value of each was agreed
to be fettled by advice of parliament (if any fhould
be called before the feaft of St Lucia), or otherwife
by advice of the grand council of peers, rvhich the king
promifes to affemble before the faid feaft, in cafe no
parliament fhall be called. Many other inftances of
this
c o u
[ 699 ]
c o u
Council, tliis kind of meeting are to be found under our ancient
,  ■ j.in^s . tv,ough the formal method of convoking them
Blackjiont't had^been fo long left off, that when King Charles I. in
Comment. i6^ out'writs under the great feal to call a
council of all the peers of England, to meet and attend
his mnjefty at York, previous to the meeting of the
long parliament, the earl of Clarendon mentions it as
a new invention, not before heard of: that is, as he
explains himfelf, fo old, that it had not been praftifed
in fome hundreds of years. But though there had not
for long time before been an mllance, nor has there been
any fince, of affembling them in lo folemn a manner,
vet in cafes of emergency, our princes have at feveral
times thought proper to call for, and confult as many
of the nobility as could eafily be brought together :
as was particularly the cafe with King James II. alter
the landing of the prince of Orange } and with the
prince of Orange himfelf before he called the conven¬
tion parliament which afterwards called him to the
throne.
Befides this general meeting, it is ufually looked
upon to be the right of each particular peer of the
realm, to demand an audience of the king, and to lay
before him with decency and refpetl fuch matters as*
he fhall judge of importance to the public weal. And
therefore, in the reign of Ed'vard II. it was made an
article of impeachment in parliament againft the two
Hugh Spencers, father and fon, for which they were
banifhed the kingdom, “ that they by their evil covin
would not fuffer the great men of the realm, the king’s
good counfellors, to ipeak with the king, .or to come
near him ; but only in prefence and hearing of faid
Hugh the father and Hugh the fon, or one of them,
and at their will, and according to fuch things as
pleafed them.”
3. A third council belonging to the king, are, ac¬
cording to Sir Edward Coke, his judges of the courts
of law, for law-matters. And this appears frequently
in the Englilh ftatutes, particularly J4 Edward III.
c. 5. and in other books of law. So that when the
king’s council is mentioned generally, it muft be de¬
fined, particularized, and underftood, fecundum fubjec-
tam materiem “ according to the fubjeft matter
and if the fubjeft be of a legal nature, then by the
king’s council is underftood his council for matters of
law •, namely, his judges. Therefore, when by ftatute
16 Richard II. c. 5. it w^as made a high offence to im¬
port into England any papal bulls, or other pro-
ceffes from Rome j and it w’as enafted, that the of¬
fenders ftrould be attached by their bodies and
brought before the king and his council to anfwer for
fuch offence ; here, by the expreflion of king’s council,
wrere underftood the king’s judges of his courts of juf-
tice, the fubjeft matter being legal: this being the ge¬
neral way of interpreting the word council.
4. But the principal council belonging to the king
is his privy council, which is generally by way of
eminence, called the council. For an account of its
conftitution and powers, fee the article Privy-Coarc-
til.
Aulic Council. See Aulic.
Common Council, in the city of London, is a court
wherein are made all bye-laws which bind the citizens.
It confifts, like the parliament, of two houfes; an up¬
per, compofed of the lord-mayor and aldermen j and a
lower, of a number of common-council men, chofen
by the feveral wards, as reprefentatives of the body of __
the citizens.
Council of War, an aflembly of the principal offi¬
cers of an army or fleet, occafionally called by the ge¬
neral or admiral to concert meafures for their condudf
with regard to lieges, retreats, engagements, &c.
Council, in church hiftory, an affembly of prelates
and doftors, met for the regulating matters relating to
the doftrine or difeipline of the church.
National Council, is an aff mbly of the prelates of
nation under their primate or patriarch.
Oecumenical or General Council, is an affembly which
reprefents the whole body of the univerfal church. The
Romanifts reckon eighteen of them ; Bollinger, in his
treatife de conciliis, fix ; Dr Prideaux, feven •, and
Bilhop Beveridge has increafed the number to eight,
which, he fays, are all the general councils which have
ever been held lince the time of the firlt Chriftian em¬
peror. They are as follows: 1. The council of Nice,
held in the reign of Conftantine the Great, on account
of the herefy of Arius. 2. The council of Conftan-
tinople, called under the reign and by the command of
Theodofius the Great, for much the fame end that the
former council was fummoned. 3. The council of
Ephefus, convened by Theodofius the younger at the
fuit of Neftorius. 4. The council of Chalcedon, held
in the reign of Martinus, which approved of the Eu-
tychian herefy. 5. The fecond council of Conftanti-
nople, affembled by the emperor Juftinian, condemned
the three chapters taken out of the book of Theodo-
rus of Mopfueftia, having firft decided that it was law¬
ful to anathematife the dead. Some authors tell us,
that they likewufe condemned the feveral errors of O-
rigen about the Trinity, the plurality of worlds, and
pre-exiftence of fouls. 6. The third council of Con-
ftantinople, held by the command of Conftantius Po-
gonatus the emperor, in which they received the defi¬
nitions of the five firft general councils, and particularly
that againft Origen and Theodorus of Mopfueftia. 7.
The fecond Nicene council. 8. The fourth council of
Conftantinople, affembled when Louis II. was emperor
of the Weft. The regulations which they made are
contained in twenty-feven canons, the heads of which
are fet down by M. du Pin, to whom the reader is
referred.
COUNSEL, in a general fenfe, fignifies advice or
inftruftion how to behave in any difficult matter.
Counsel, or Advocates, in Englifh courts of law,
are of two fpecies or degrees-, Barristers, and Ser¬
jeants. See thefe articles •, alfo Advocate.
From both thefe degrees fome are ufually fele&ed
to be his majefty’s counfel, learned in the law 5 the two
principal of whom are called his attorney-general, and
folicitor general. The firft king’s counfel, under the de¬
gree of ferjeant, was Sir Francis Bacon, who was made
fo honoris caufa, without either patent or fee ; fo that
the firft of the modern order (who are now the fworn
fervants of the crown, with a {landing falary) feems to
have been Sir Francis North ; afterwards lord keeper
of the great feal to King Charles II. Thefe king’s
counfel anfwer, in fome degree, to the advocates of the
revenue, advocati fifci, among the Romans. For they
muft not be employed in any cafe againft the crown
without fpecial Hcenfe j in which reftriftion they agree
4 T 2 with
Counci',
Counfei.
Counfe!
!l
Court.
C O U [ ^oo
with the advocates of the fife j but, in the imperial
lawT, the prohibition was carried ftill farther, and per-
haps was more for the dignity of the fovereign 5 for,
excepting fome peculiar caufes, the fifeal advocates
, were not permitted to be at all concerned in private
Continent * fuitS betWCen fubjeft 3nd ^bjeft. A Cuftom has of
late years prevailed of granting letters patent of pre¬
cedence to fuch barrifters as the crown thinks proper
to honour with that mark of diftin&ion : whereby they
are entitled to Inch rank and preaudience as are affign-
cd in their refpeftive patents j fometimes next after
the. king’s attorney-general, but ufually next after his
majefty’s counfel next being. Thefe, as W'ell as the
queen’s attorney and folicitor general, rank promifeu-
oully with the king’s counfel ; and, together with
them, fit wnthin the bar of their refpeftive courts: but
receive no falaries, and are not fworn j and therefore
are at liberty to be retained in caufes againft the crown.
And all other ferjeants and barrifters indiferiminately,
(except in the court of common pleas, where only
ferjeants are admitted), may take upon them the pro-
tedlion and defence of any fuitors, whether plaintiff
or defendant; who are therefore called their c/ients;
like the dependents on the ancient Roman orators.
Thefe indeed praftifed gratis, for honour merely, or
at moft for the fake of gaining influence ; and fo like-
wife it is eftablifhed with us, that a counfel can main¬
tain no aftion for his fees 5 which are given, not as
locatio vel conJuRio, but as quiddam honorarium ; not as
a falary or hire, but as a mere gratuity, which a coun-
fellor cannot demand without doing wrong to his re¬
putation ; as is alfo laid dowm with regard to advocates
in the civil law, whofe honorarium was directed, by a
decree of the fenate, not to exeed in any cafe 10,000
fefterces, or about Sol. of Englifh money. And in
order to encourage due freedom of fpeech in the law¬
ful defence of their clients, and at the fame time to
check the unfeemly licentioufnefs of proftitute and il¬
liberal men (a few of whom may fometimes infinuate
themfelves even into the moft honourable profeflions),
it hath been holden that a counfel is not anfwerable for
any matter by him Ipoken, relative to the caufe in
handjand fuggefted in the client’s indruftions; although
it ftiould refleft upon the reputation of another, and
even prove abfolutely groundlefs ; but if he mentions
an untruth of his owm invention, or even upon inftruc-
tions, if it be impertinent to the caufe in hand, he is
then liable to an adlion from the party injured. And
counfel guilty of deceit and collufion are punifhable by
the ftatute Weftm. I. 3 Edw. I. c. 28. w'ith imprifon-
ment for a year and a day, and perpetual filence in the
courts : a puniftiment ftill fometimes infli&ed for grofs
mifdemeanors in pradice.
COUNSELLOR, in general, a perfon who advifes
another : thus we fay, a counfellor at law, a privy
counfellor, &c.
Counsellor at Law, a perfon retained by a client
to plead his caufe in a public court of judicature.
See Advocate, Barrister, Counsel, and Ser¬
jeant.
Pmiy-CouNSELLOR. See -Council.
COUNT, (Comes), a nobleman who pofleflfes a
domain ereded into a county. See Viscount.
Englifh and Scottilh counts we diftinguilh by the
title of carls j foreign ones ftill retain their proper
] c o u
name. 1 he dignity of a count is a medium between
that of a duke and a baron—According to the modern
ufe, moft plenipotentiaries and ambaflhdors aflume the
title of counts, though they have no county j as the
count d’Avaux, &c.
Anciently, all generals, counfellors, judges, and fe-
cretariesof cities under Charlemagne, were called
the diftinguiftiing charader of a duke and count be¬
ing this, that the latter had but one town under him,
but the former had feveral.
A count has a right to bear on his arms a coronet,
adorned with three precious ftones, and furmounted
with three large pearls, whereof thofe in the middle
and extremities of the coronet advance above the reft.
Counts were originally lords of the court, or of
the emperor’s retinue, and had their name comites, d
conutando, or d commeando : hence thofe who were
always in the palace, or at the emperor’s fide, were
called counts palatine, or comites d latere. See Pa¬
latine.
In the times of the commonwealth, comites among
the Romans wms a general name for all thofe who ac¬
companied the proconfuls and propraetors into the pro¬
vinces, there to ferve the commonwealth ; as the tri¬
bunes, praefeds, feribes, &c.
Under the emperors, comites were the officers of
the palace. The origin of what we nowT call counts
feems owing to Auguftus, who took feveral fenators to
be his comites, as J3ion obferves, i. e. to accompany
him in his voyages and travels, and to affift him in the
hearing of caufes 5 which were thus judged with the
fame authority as in full fenate. Gallienus feems to
have abolilhed this council, by forbidding the fenators
being found in the armies j and none of his fucceffors
re-eftablifhed it.
1 hefe counfellors of the emperor were really counts,
comites, i. e. companions of the prince ; and they
lometimes took the title thereof, but always with the
addition of the emperor’s name whom they accom¬
panied : fo that it was rather a mark of their office
than a title of dignity.—Conftantine was the firft who
conveited it into a dignity ; and under him it was
that the name was firft given abfolutely. The name
once eftablifhed, was in a little time indifferently con¬
ferred, not only on thofe who followed the court,
and accompanied the emperor, but alfo on moft
kinds of officers j a long lift whereof is given us by Du
Cange.
Eulebius tells us, that Conftantine divided the counts
into three claffes ; the firft bore the title of illujlres;
the fecond that of clarijjimi, and afterwards fpeffabiles ;
the third were caWed perfeciifjimi. Of the twofirft claffes
was the fenate compoled : thofe of the third had no
place in the fenate, but enjoyed feveral other of the
privileges of fenators.
"There were counts who ferved on land, others at
fea ; fome in a civil, fome in a religious, and fome in
a legal capacity : as comes ararii, comesfacrarum largi-
tionum, comes facri confijloni, comes curice, comes capclla,
comes archiatrorum, comescommerciorum, comes ve/liarius,
comes horreorum, comes opfoniorum or annona:, comes do-
mejlicorum, comes equorum regiorum or comes fiabuli, co¬
mes domorum, comesexcvbitorum,comes notariorum, comes
legum ox profejfor in jure, comes limitum or mar car um, co¬
mes portus Romce, conies patrimonii, &c.
Court.
The
C O U [ 701 ] c o u
The Francs, Germans, &c. paffing into Gaul and a real aftion j as the declaration is in a perfonal one;
Germany, did not abolifh the form of the Roman go- the libellus of the civilians anfwers to both. Yet, w
vernment : and as the governors of cities and provinces count and declaration are fometimes confounded, and Cm,nter-
were called counts, comites, and dukes, duces, they con- ufed for each other 3 as, count in debt, count in appeal, paffant.
tinned to be called fo. They commanded in time of
war 5 and in time of peace they adminiftered juftice.
Thus, in the time of Charlemagne, counts were the
ordinary judges and governors of the cities.
Thefe counts of cities were beneath the dukes and
counts who prefided over provinces; the fir(l being
conftituted in the particular cities under the jurifdicT
tion of the latter. The counts of provinces were in
nothing inferior to dukes, who themfelves were only
governors of provinces. Under the laft of the fecond
race of French kings, they got their dignity rendered
hereditary, and even ufurped the fovereignty when
Hugh Capet came to the crown : his authority was
not fufficient to oppofe their encroachments; and hence
it is they date the privilege of wearing coronets in their
arms ; they affumed it then, as enjoying the rights of
fovereigns in their particular diftridls or counties.
But, by degrees, moft of the counties became reuni¬
ted to the crown.
The quality of count is now become very different
from what it was anciently ; being now no more than
a title, which a king grants upon eretting a territory
into a county, with a referve of jurifdiftion and fove¬
reignty to himfelf. At firfl there was no claufe in
the patent of eredlion, intimating the reverfion of the
county to the crown in default of heirs male ; but
Charles IX. to prevent their being too numerous, or¬
dained that duchies and counties, in default of heirs
male, fhould return to the crown.
The point of precedence between counts and mar-
quifes was formerly much controverted : the reafon
was, that there were counts who were peers of France,
but no marquifes : but the point was given up, and
marquifes took place ; though anciently, when counts
were governors of provinces, they were on a level even
with dukes.
William the Conqueror, as is obferved by Camden,
gave the dignity of counts in fee to his nobles; annex¬
ing it to this or that county or province, and allotting
for their maintenance a certain proportion of money,
arifing from the prince’s profits in the pleadings and
forfeitures of the provinces. To this purpofe he quotes
an ancient record, thus : Heh. II. Rex Anglia his
verbis comitem creavit; fciatis nos fecijfe Hugonem
Bigot comitem de Norf, is'c. de tertio denarii de
Norwich et Norfolk, pent ahqms comes Anglia, <&'c.
The Germans call a count, graaf or grajf; which,
according to a modern critic, properly fignifies judge ;
and is derived from gravio or grajfio, of l write.
They have feveral kinds of thefe counts or graflfs ;
as landgraves, marchgraves, burg-graves, and palf-
graves, or counts palatine. Thefe laft are of two kinds;
the former are of the number of princes, and have the
inveftiture of a palatinate ; the others have only the
title of count palatine without the inveftiture of any pa¬
latinate. Some affert, that by publicly profefling the
imperial laws for twenty years, the perfon acquires the
dignity of a count palatinate ; and there are inftances
of profeffors in law who have affumed the title ac¬
cordingly ; but there are others who queftion this right.
Count, in Law, denotes the original declaration in
&c.
CouNT-Wheel, in the ftriking part of a clock, a
wheel which moves round once in 12 or 24 hours. It
is fometimes called the locking-wheel. See Clock-Ma¬
king.
COUNTER, a term which enters into the compo-
fition of divers words of our language, and generally
implies oppofition ; but when applied to deeds, means
an exaft copy kept of the contrary party, and fome¬
times figned by both parties.
CouNTER-Changed, in Heraldry, the intermixture or
oppofition of any metal with a colour.
CouNTER-Flory, in Heraldry, is faid of a treffure
whofe tlowers-de-luce are oppofite to others. See He¬
raldry.
CouNiER-Drawing, in Painting, is the copying a
defign, or painting, by means of a fine linen-cloth, an
oiled paper, or other tranfparent matter, where the
ftrokes appearing through are followed with a pencil,
with or without colour. Sometimes it is done on
glafs, and with frames or nets divided into fquares
with filk or with thread, and alfo by means of in-
ftruments invented for the purpofe, as the parallelo¬
gram.
CouNTER-Ermine, in Heraldry, is the contrary of
ermine, being a black field with white fpots.
COUNTERFEITS, in Law, are perfons that ob¬
tain any money or goods by counterfeit letters or falfe
tokens, who being convifted before juftices of aflize
or of the peace, &c. are to fuffer fuch puniftrment as
fliall be thought fit to be inflifted under death, as im-
prifonment, pillory, &c.
COUNTER-foil, or Counter;/?^, in the ex¬
chequer, that part of a tally which is kept by an offi¬
cer of the court.
CouNTER-G&arr/, in Fortification, is a work raifed
before the point of baftion, confifting of two long
faces parallel to the faces of the baftion, making a
faliant angle; they are fometimes of other ftrapes, or
otherwufe fituated.
Covstek-Light, or Counter jour, a light oppofite to
any thing, which makes it appear to difadvantage. A
fingle counter-light is fufficient to take aw7ay all the
beauty of a fine painting.
CouNTER-MarcZi, in military affairs, a change of the
face or wings of a battalion, by which means thofe
that w7ere in the front come to be in the rear. It al¬
fo fignifies returning, or marching back again.
Covhtzv.-Mine, in War, a w^ell and gallery drove
and funk till it meet the enemy’s mine, to prevent its
effedl.
CouNTER-Pd/W, in Heraldry, is when the elcutcheon
is divided into twelve pales parted per feffe, the two
colours being counter-changed ; fo that the upper are
of one colour and the lower of another.
CovsTEK-Part, in Mujic, denotes one part to be ap¬
plied to another. Thus the bafs is faid to be a coun¬
ter-part to the treble.
Couhtek-Pajfant, in Heraldry, is when two lions are
in a coat of arms, and the one feems to go quite the
contrary way from the other.
Counter-
c o u
Counter- CousTER-Por'nt, in Mujtc, a terra derived from the
P0j|nt Latin prepofition contra and the \tt\opungere ; becaufe
Counters. t^le nnifical charadlers by which the notes in each part
“-y—are fignified are placed in fuch a manner, each with re-
fpeft to each, as to fhow how the parts anfwer one ano¬
ther. See Composition.
Co unter-Po/wW [Contre-pointe), in Heraldry, is
when two chevrons in one efcutcheon meet in the
points, the one rifing as ufual from the bafe, and the
other inverted falling from the chief; fo that they are
counter to one another in the points. They may alfo
be counter-pointed when they are founded upon the
tides of the fhield, and the points meet that way, call¬
ed counter-pointed in fejje.
COUNTERPOISE, in the manege, is the liberty
of the adtion and feat of a horfeman ; fo that in all
the motions made by the horfe, he does not incline his
oody more to one fide than to the other, but continues
in the middle of the faddle, being equally on his flir-
rups, in order to give the horfe the proper and fea-
fonable aids.
COUNTER-potent (contre potence), in Heral¬
dry, is reckoned a fur as well as vaire and ermine ; but
compofed of fuch pieces as reprefent the tops of
crutches, called in French potences, and in eld Englilh
patents.
Counter Proo/, in rolling-prefs printing, a print
taken off from another frelh printed ; which by be¬
ing palled through the prefs, gives the figure of the
former, but inverted. To counter-prove, is alfo to
pafs a defign in black lead, or red chalk, through
the prefs, after having moiftened with a fponge both
that and the paper on which the counter-proof is to be
taken.
Counter -Quartered {contre-ecartele), in Heraldry,
denotes the efcutcheon, after being quartered, to have
each quarter again divided into two.
CouNTER-iSVi/ffl///, is when two beads are borne in
a coat leaping from each other dire&ly the contrary
way.
Counter-S£W/>, in Fortification, is properly the ex¬
terior talus or Hope of the ditch ; but it is often taken
for the covered way and the glacis. In this fenfe we
fay, the enemy have lodged themfelves in the coun¬
ter fcarp. Angle of the counter-fcarp, is that made by
two fides of the counter-fcarp, meeting before the mid¬
dle of the curtain.
CouNTER-iS’/g'ning, the figning the writing of a fupe-
rior in quality of fecretary. Thus charters are figned
by the king, and counter-figned by a fecretary of date,
or lord chancellor.
Counter-T/w, in the manege, is the defence or re-
fiftance of a horfe that interrupts his cadence, and the
meafure of his manege, occafioned either by a bad
horfeman or by the malice of a horfe.
Counter, is alfo the name of a counting-board in
a Ihop, and of a piece of metal with a damp on it,
ufed in playing at cards.
Counter of a Horfe, that part of a horfe’s fore¬
hand which lies between the Ihoulders and under the
neck.
Counters in a (hip are two. I. The hollow' arch¬
ing from the gallery to the low'er part of the draight
piece of the dern, is called the upper-counter. 2. The
[ 70-2 ]
o u
tranfom and the lower Counter
lower counter is between the
part of the gallery.
Counter, is alio the name of two prifons in the
city of London, viz. the Poultry and Wooddreet.
COUNFORS, Countours, or Counters, has
been ufed for ferjeants at law, retained to defend a
caufe, or to fpeak for their client in any courfe of
law\
It is of thefe Chaucer fpeaks :
 A dieriff had he been, and a contour,
Was nowhere fuch a worthy vavafour.
They were anciently called ferjeant contours.
COUNTRIES, among the miners, a term or ap¬
pellation they give to their works under ground.
COUNTRY, among geographers, is ufed indiffer¬
ently to denote either a kingdom, province, or leder
didriff. But its mod frequent ufe is in contradidinc-
tion to town.
Country is of Englifli origin, though now
tranfplanted into almod all the countries and courts of
Europe. There is no edabliflied rule for the compofi-
tion of tunes to this dance, becaufe there is in mufic
no kind of time whatever which may not be meafured
by the motions common in dancing ; and there are few
fong tunes of any note within the lad century, that
have not been applied to country-dances.
COUNTY, in Geography, originally fignified the
territory of a count or earl, but now it is ufed in the
fame fenfe wfith diire ; the one word coming from the
French, the other from the Saxon.—In this view, a
county is a circuit or portion of the realm ; into fifty-
two of which, the whole land, England and Wales, is
divided for its better government and the more eafy
adminidration of judice.
For the execution of the laws in the feveral counties
excepting Cumberland, Wedmorland, and Durham,
every Michaelmas term officers are appointed, under
the denomination of Jheriffs. Other officers of the fe¬
veral counties are, a lord-lieutenant, who has the com¬
mand of the militia of the county ; cudodes rotulo-
rum, judices of peace, bailiffs, ffiigh-condable, and co¬
roner.
Of the fifty-two counties, there are three of fpecial
note, which are therefore termed counties palatine, as
Lancader, Cheder, and Durham. See Palatine.
County Corporate, is a title given to feveral cities,
or ancient boroughs, on which our monarchs have
thought fit to bedow extraordinary privileges; annex¬
ing to them a particular territory, land, or jurifdi&ion;
and making them counties of themfelves, to be go¬
verned by their own ffieriffs and magidrates.
County Court, in Englifh Law, a court incident to
the junfdidlion of the dieriff. It is not a court of re¬
cord, but may hold pleas of debt or damages under
the value of 40s. Over fome of which caufes thefe
inferior courts have, by the exprefs words of the da-
tute of Glouceder, a jurifdidion totally exclufive of
the king’s fuperior courts. For in order to be enti¬
tled to fue ar. a&ion of trefpafs for goods before the
king’s judiciars, the plaintiff is diredted to make affi¬
davit that the caufe of adlion does really and bona fde
amount to 40s. which affidavit is now' unaccountably
difufed, except in the court of exchequer. The fta-
tute
C O U [ 703 j c o u
Court, tute alfo 43 Eliz. c. 6. which gives the judges in many
Coupar. perfonal a&ions, where the jury affefs lefs damages
than 40s. a power to certify the fame and abridge
the plaintiff of his full cofts, was alfo meant to pre¬
vent vexation by litigious plaintiffs j who, for pur-
pofes of mere oppreffion, might be inclinable to infti-
tute fuch fuits in the fuperior courts for injuries of a
trifling value. The county court may alfo hold plea
of many real aftions, and of all perfonal actions to any
amount, by virtue of a fpecial writ called jujlicies ;
which is a writ empowering the fheriff for the fake of
difpatch to do the fame juflice in this county-court, as
might otherwife be had at Weftminfter. The free¬
holders of the county are the real judges in this court,
and the fheriff is the minifterial officer. The great
conflux of freeholders, which are fuppofed always to
attend at the county court (which Spelman calls foru?n
plebeice juftitice et theatrum com'ttwee potejlath'), is the
reafon why all a&s of parliament at the end of every
feffion were wont to be there publifhed by the fheriff j
why all outlawries of abfconding offenders are there
proclaimed 5 and why all popular ele&ions which the
freeholders are to make, as formerly of fheriffs and con-
fervators of the peace, and ftill of coroners, verderors,
and knights of the (hire, muff ever be made in plena
comitatu, or in full county-court. By the ffatute 2.
Edw. VI. c. 25. no county-court fhall be adjourned
longer than for one month, confitfing of 28 days. And
this was alfo the ancient ufage, as appears from the
laws of King Edward the elder *, prepojitus (that is the
fheriff) acl quart am circiter feptimanam frequentem populi
eoncionem celebrato; cuique jus dicito; Utefque Jingulas
dirimito. In thofe times the county-court wTas a court
of great dignity and fplendour, the bifhop and the
ealdorman (or earl), with the principal men of the fhire,
fitting therein to adminifter juftice both in lay and ec-
clefiaftical caufes. But its dignity was much impaired,
when the bifhop was prohibited, and the earl neglefted
to attend it. And, in modern times, as proceedings
are removeable from hence into the king’s fuperior
courts, by writ of pone or recordare, in the fame man¬
ner as from hundred-courts and courts-barons j and as
the fame writ of falfe judgment may be had, in nature
of a writ of error, this has occafioned the fame difufe
of bringing adlions therein.
COUPAR, or Cupar of Angus, a town of Scot¬
land, in the valley of Strathmore, and though defig-
nated in Angus, by far the greater part is fituated in
the county of Perth. The town is placed on the Ifla,
and is divided by a rivulet into two parts ; that part
which lies fouth of this rivulet being all that belongs
to the county of Angus. The ftreets are well paved
and lighted, and the town has much improved of late
years 5 there is a towm-houfe and fteeple on the fpot
where the prifon of the court of regality flood. The
linen manufadture is carried on to a confiderable ex¬
tent, nearly 200,000 yards of different kinds of cloth
being annually ftamped here. The number of inhabi¬
tants in 1793, amounted to 1604. Cupar is diftant
about 12 miles from Perth, and nearly the fame di-
flance from Dundee. The parifh of Cupir extends
about 5 miles in length from fouth-weft to north-eafl,
and is from 1 to 2 miles in breadth; it is divided
lengthways by an elevated ridge : a confiderable ex¬
tent of haugh ground lies on the banks of the Ifla,
which is frequently fwelled by the rains, and lays Coupar
nearly 600 acres under water. There are flill vifible
at Cupar, the vefliges of a Roman camp, faid to have ‘
been formed by the army of Jlgricola in his 7th expe¬
dition. On the center of this camp, Malcolm IV. in
1104, founded and richly endow’ed an abbey for Ci-
ftertian monks; from what remains, it mull have been
a houfe of confiderable magnitude.
Coupar, or Cupar of Fife, a town in Scotland, ca¬
pital of the county of Fife, about 10 miles weft of
St Andrew’s : W. Long. 2. 40. N. Lat. 56. 20. It
is fituated on the north bank of the Eden, nearly in
the center of the county $ it boafls of great antiquity j
the thanes of Fife, from the earlieft times of which
any account has been tranfmitted to us, held here
their courts of jullice ; and in the rolls of parliament,
aflembled in the beginning of the reign of King Da¬
vid II. may be feen the names of commiftioners from
the royal borough of Cupar. It is governed by a pro-
voft, 3 bailies, a dean of guild, and 21 counfellors.
The revenue of the town amounts to 430I. fterling per
annum. Cupar has the appearance of a neat, clean,
wrell built, thriving town. The ftreets are well paved,
and upwards of one third of the town is newly built.
The church is a neat new building, and the fpire is
much admired for its light and elegant appearance.
Adjoining to the town-houfe, the gentlemen of the
county lately built a room for county meetings, and
other apartments. The prifons are on the oppofite fide
of the town-houfe. In Cupar,- and the neighbouring
country, a confiderable quantity of coarfe linens are
manufa&ured 5 about 500,000 yards are annually
ftamped, the aggregate value of which is nearly
30,000!. fterling. Population of the towm is about
3140. The parilh of Cupar is an irregular fquare of
5 miles, divided into two parts by the river Eden, the
banks of which are covered with numerous farm houfes,
and ornamented with elegant and ftately villas. Car-
flogie, the feat of Colonel Clephane, is an ancient man-
fion. Garlie bank, the property of James Wemyfis,
Efq. of Winthank, is celebrated for the treaty con¬
cluded on the 13th of June 1559* between the duke
de Chattelherault, on the part of the queen-regent,
and the earl of Argyll commanding the forces of the
congregation. The population of the parifli (inclu¬
ding the town of Cupar) in 1793, amounted to 3702^
in 1801, there were 4463 inhabitants in the fame di-
ftrift.
COUPED, in Heraldry, is ufed to exprefs the
head, or any limb, of an animal, cut off from the
trunk, fmooth ; diftinguixhing it from that which is
called erajfed, that is, forcibly torn off, and therefore
is ragged and uneven.
Couped, is alfo ufed to fignify fuch croffes, bars,
bends, chevrons, &.c. as do not touch the fides of the
efcutcheon, but are, as it w’ere, cut off from them.
COUPEE, a motion in dancing, wherein one leg
is a little bent, and fufpended from the ground ; and
with the other a motion is made forwards.
The word in the original French fignifies a cut.
COUPLE closs, in Heraldry, the fourth part of
a chevron, never borne but in pairs, except there be a
chevron between them, faith Guillim, though Bloom
gives an inftance to the contrary.
COUPLET, a divifion of a hymn, ode, fong, &c.
1 wherein
C O U [ 704 1 c o u
Courage wherein an equal number, or equal meafure, of verfes,
Gouri er *S ^oun<^ eac^ Part > which divifions, in odes, are
1 calledJirophes.—Couplet, by an abufe of the word, is
frequently made to fi^nify a couple of verfes.
COURAGE, in Ethics, is that quality of the mind,
derived either from conftitution or principle, or both,
that enables men to encounter difficulties and dangers.
See Fortitude.
COURANT, a French term fynonymous with cur¬
rent, and properly Signifies running. See Current.
Courant, is alfo a term in mufic and dancing j
being ufed to exprefs both the tune or air and the dance.
Without regard to the firft, courant, or currant, is a
piece of mufic in triple time : the air of the courant is
ordinatily noted in triples of minims; the parts to be
repeated twice. It begins and ends when he who
beats the meafure falls his hand j in contradiflindlion
from the faraband, which ordinarily ends when the
hand is raifed. With regard to dancing, the courant
was long the molt common of all the dances pra&ifed
in England : it confifts, eflentially, of a time, a flep, a
balance, and a coupee *, though it alfo admits of other
motions. Formerly they leaped their fteps; in which
point the courant differed from the low dance and pa-
vades. There are fimple courants and figured courants,
all danced by two perfons.
COURAP, the modern name for a diftemper
very common in Java and other parts of the Eaft
Indies. It is a fort of herpes or itch on the arm pits,
groins, breaft, and face j the itching is almoft perpe¬
tual j and the fcratching is followed by great pain and
a difcharge of matter, which makes the linen Hick fo
to the Ikin as not eafily to be feparated without tear¬
ing off the cruft. Courap is a general name for any
fort of itch j but this diftemper is thus called by way
of eminence. It is fo contagious that few efcape it.
For the cure, gentle and repeated purging is ufed, and
externally the fublimate in a fmall quantity is a good
topic.
COURAYER, Peter Francis, a Roman Catho¬
lic clergyman, diftinguilhed by great moderation,
charity, and temper, concerning religious affairs, as
well as by learning, was born at Vernon in Normandy,
1681. While canon regular and librarian of the abbey
of St Genevieve at Paris, he applied to our archbifhop
Wake for the refolution of fome doubts, concerning
the epifcopal fucceffion in England, and the validity
of our ordinations : he was encouraged to this by the
friendly correfpondence which had paffed between the
archbiffiop and M. du Pin of the Sorbonne. The arch-
bifhop fent him exa£f copies of the proper records j
and on thefe he built his “ Defence of Englifh Ordi¬
nations,” which was publifhed in Holland, in 1727.
This expofed him to a profecution in his own country $
he therefore took refuge in England; where he was well
received, and prefented the fame year by the univerfity
of Oxford with a do£tor’s degree. As it is fomewhat
uncommon for a Roman Catholic clergyman to be ad¬
mitted to degrees in divinity by Proteftant univerfities,
the curious may be gratified with a fight of the diplo¬
ma, and the do&or’s letter of thanks, in “The prefent
State of the Republic of Letters, for June 1728.”
In 1736, he tranflated into French, and pubfilhed,
<< Father Paul’s Hiftory of the Council of Trent,” in
2 vols folio, and dedicated it to Queen Caroline; who
I
Courland.
augmented to 200I. a penfion of tool, a-year, which Goucbaril
he had obtained before from the court. The learned
Jer. Markland, in a letter to his friend Bowyer, Sep¬
tember 1756, fays, “ Mr Clarke has given me F.
Courayer’s tranflation of the Hiftory of the Council
of Trent; with whofe preface I am fo greatly pleafed,
that if he be no more a Papift in other tenets than he
is in thofe he mentions (which are many, and of the
mo ft diftinguifliing clafs), I dare fay there are very few
confiderate Proteftants who are not as good Catholics
as he is.” His works are many, and all in French ;
he tranflated Sleidan’s “ Hiftory of the Reformation.”
He died in 1776, after two days illnefs, at the age of
95 j and was buried in the cloifter of Weftminfter-
abbey. In his will, dated Feb. 3. 1774, he declares,
that he “dies a member of the Catholic church, but
without approving of many of the opinions and fu-
perftitions which have been introduced into the Ro-
miffi church, and taught in their fchools and femi-
naries ; and which they have infifted on as articles
of faith, though to him they appear to be not only not
founded in truth, but alfo to be highly improbable.”
And his practice was conformable to this declaration ;
for at London he conftantly went to mafs, and at Eal¬
ing in the country, whither he often retired, as con¬
ftantly attended the fervice of the parilh church j de¬
claring at all times, that he “ had great fatisfaftion in
the prayers of the church of England.”
COURBARIL. See Hymenea.
COURIER, or Currier, (from the French courir,
“ to run,”) a meffenger fent poll, or exprefs, to carry
difpatches.
The ancients too, had their couriers. We meet with
two kinds: 1. Thofe who ran on foot, called by the
Greeks hemerodremi, q. d. “ couriers of a day.”
Pliny, Corn. Nepos, and Caefar, mention fome of
thefe who would run 20, 30, 36, and in the circus
even 40 leagues per day. 2. Riding couriers (car¬
fares equitantes'), who changed horfes as the modern
couriers do.
Xenophon attributes the firft couriers to Cyrus.
Herodotus fays they wrere very ordinary among the
Perfians, and that there was nothing in the world more
fwift than thefe kind of meffengers. “ That prince
(fays Xenophon) examined how far a horfe wmuld go
in a day, and built ftables, at fuch diftances from each
other, where he lodged horfes, and perfons to take
care of them j and at each place kept a perfon always
ready to take the packet, mount a freffi horfe, and for¬
ward it to the next ftage : and thus quite through his
empire.”
But it does not appear that either the Greeks or
Romans had any regular fixed couriers till the time
of Auguftus: under that prince they travelled in
cars ; though it would appear that they afterwards
went on horfeback. Under the weftern empire they
were called viatores; and under that of Conftan-
tinople, curfores: whence the modern name. See
Post.
COURLAND, a duchy fitnated between E. Long.
21. 26. and between N. Lat, 56. 30. and 57. 30. It
is bounded by the river Dwina, which divides it from
Livonia, on the north •, by Lithuania, on the eaft j
by Samogitia, on the fouth } and by the Baltic fea on
the weft; being 120 miles long and 30 broad. This
duchy
C O U [ 705 ] c o u
duchy was formerly independent, and elected their own
II duke •, but it is now fubjeft to Ruffia.
C.ouiTing^ COURSE (route), in Navigation, the angle con¬
tained between the neareft meridian and that point of
the compafs upon which a ihip fails in any particular
direflion.
Course, in ArchiteBure, denotes a continued range
of ftones, level, or of the fame height, throughout the
whole length of the building ; and not interrupted by
any aperture. It forms a parapet to the intermedi¬
ate fpace between the body of the building and the
wings.
Course of Plinths, is the continuity of a plinth of
hone or plafter in the face of a building ; to mark»the
feparation of the ftories.
Course is alfo ufed for the time ordinarily fpent
in learning the principles of a fcience, or the ufual
points and queilions therein. Thus, a ftudent is faid
to have finilhed his courfe in the humanity, in philo-
fophy, &c.
Course is alfo ufed for the elements of an art ex¬
hibited and explained, either in writing or by a&ual
experiment. Hence our courfes of philofophy, anato¬
my, chemiftry, mathematics, &c. probably fo called
as going throughout or running the whole length or
courfe of the art, &c.
COURSES, a name by which the principal fails of
a drip are diftinguifhed, viz. the main-fail, the fore¬
fail, and the mizen : the mizen day-fail and fore fail
are alfo fometimes comprehended in this denomina¬
tion •, as are the main day-fails of all brigs and fchoon-
ers. See Sail.
- COURSING, among fportfmen. There are three
fsveral forts of courfes with grehounds : 1. At the
hare ; 2. At the fox j and, 3. At the deer.
For the deer, there are two forts of courfes ; the
one in the paddock, the other either in the fored
or the purlieu. For the paddock couife, there mud
be the grehound and the terrier, and the mongrel
grehound, wdiofe budnefs it is to drive away the
deer before the grehounds are dipped j a brace or
a lealh are the ufual number dipped at a time, fti-
dom at the utmod more than two brace. In cour-
iing the deer in the fored or purlieu, there are turn
ways in ufe : the one is courfing from wood to wmod ;
and the other, upon the lawns clofe by the keeper’s
lodge. In the courdng from wood to wood, the way
is to throw in Tome young hounds into the wmod to
bring out the deer; and if any deer come out that is
not weighty, or a deer or antler which is buck, foie,
er forrel, then you are not to dip your grehounds,
which are held at the end of the wood, where the
keepers, who can guefs very well on thefe occafions,
expe£l that the deer ivill come out. If a proper deer
come out, and it is fufpefted that the brace or leadi of
grehounds dipped after him will not be able to kill
him, it is proper to waylay him with a couple of fredi
grehounds.
* The courfing upon the lawn is the mod agreeable
of all other ways. When the keeper has notice of this,
he will lodge a deer for the courfe ; and then, by co¬
ming under the wind, the grehounds may be brought
near enough to be dipped for a fair courfe.
The bell method of courfing the hare, is to go out
and find a hare fitting 3 which is eafily done in the
Vot. VI. Part II.
fummer, by walking acrofs the lands, either dubble, Courfing,
fallow', or corn grounds, and cading the eye up and 'r
down : for in fummer they frequent thofe places for
fear of the ticks, w’hich are common in the woods at
that feafon ; and in autumn the rains falling from the
trees od’end them. The led of the year there is
more trouble required ; as the bufhes and thickets
mud be beat to roufe them, and oftentimes they will
lie fo clofe, that they will not dir till the pole almolt
touches them: the fportfmen are always pleafed with
this, as it promifes a good courfe. If a hare lies near
any clofe or covert, and with her head that way, it
is always to be expe&ed that die will take to that im¬
mediately on being put up; all the company are there¬
fore to ride up and put themfelves between her and
the covert before die is put up, that die may take the
other way, and run upon open ground. When a hare
is put up, it is always proper to give her ground, or
law, as it is called ; that is, to let her run 12 fcore
yards, or thereabouts, before the grehounds are dip¬
ped at her ; otherwife die is killed too foon, the great¬
er part of the fport is throwm away, and the pleafure
of obferving the feveral turnings and windings that the
creature will make to get away is all lod. A good
fportfman had rather fee a hare fave herfelf after a fair
courfe, than fee her murdered by the grehounds as
foon as die is up.1
In courfing the fox^vio other art is required, than
danding clofe,. and in a clear wfind, on the outfide of
fome grove where it is expedted he wfill come out ;
and when he is come out, he mud have head enough
allowed him, otherwife he will return back to the
covert. The dowed grehound will be able to over¬
take him, after all the odds of didance neceffary; and
the only danger is the fpoiling the dog by the fox,
which too frequently happens. For this reafon, no
grehound of any value diould be run at this courfe;
but the drong, hard, bitter dogs, that will feize any
thing.
The laws of courfing edablidied by the duke of
Norfolk, and other fportfmen of the kingdom of Eng¬
land, are thefe :
1. He that is chofen fewterer or letter loofe of the
dogs, diall receive the grehounds matched to run
together into his leadi as loon as he comes into the
field ; he is to march next to the hare-finder, or him
who is to dart the hare, until he come to the form ;
and no horfeman or footman is to go before or Tide¬
ways, but all draight behind, for the fpace of about
40 yards. 2. A hare ought never to be courfed wfith
more than a brace of grehounds. 3. The hare-
finder is to give the hare three fohoes before he puts
her up from her form or feat, to the end that the dogs
may be prepared and attend her darting. 4. If
there be not a particular danger of lofing the hare,
die ihould have about twelve fcore yards law. 5. The
dog that gives the fird turn, if after that there be
neither cote, dip, nor wrench, wins the wager. 6. A
go-by, or bearing the hare, is counted equivalent
to two turns, 'j. If neither dog turns the hare, he that
leads to the lad covert wins. 8. If any dog turns the
hare, ietves himfelf, and turns her again, it is as much
as a cote, and a cote is efieemed as much as tw7o
turns. 9. If all the courfe be equal, he that bears
the hare diall win; and if he be not borne, the courfe
4 U dial!
c O U [ 7°6 ] C O U
Court, fhall then be judged dead. 10. If a dog take a fall
in his courie, and yet perform his part, he may
challenge the advantage of a turn more than he
gave. 11. If a dog turn the hare, ferve himfelf,
and give divers cotes, and yet in the end ftiall ftand
ilill in the field, the other dog, if he turns home to the
covert, although he gives no other, (hall be adjudged
to win the wager. 12. If by misfortune a dog be rid
over in the courfe, that courfe (hall be adjudged void,
and he that did the mifchief is to make reparation to
the owner. 13. If a dog gives the firft and laft turn,
and there be no other advantage betwixt them, he that
gives the odd turn wins. 14. A cote is when a gre-
hound goes endw’ays by the fide of his fellow, and
gives the hare a turn. 15. A cote ferves for two turns,
and two trippings or jerkings for a cote ; and if the
hare turns not quite about, (he only wrencheth, in the
fportfman’s phrafe. 16. If there be no cotes given by
either of the grehounds, but one ferves the other at
turning, then he that gives the mod turns wins the
wager. 17. Sometimes a hare does not turn, but
wrenches j for (he does not turn except fhe turns as it
were round. In thefe cafes, two wrenches ftand for
one turn. 18. He that comes in firft at the death of
the hare takes her up, and faves her from breaking j
he cheriihes the dogs, and cleanfes their mouths from
the wool*, he is adjudged to have the hare for his pains.
19. Finally, thofe who are judges of the leafh, muft
give their judgment before they depart out of the
field, or elfe it is not to ftand as valid.
COURT, an appendage to a houfe or habitation j
confiding of a piece of ground inclofed with walls, but
open upwards.
Court is alfo ufed for the palace or place where a
king or fovereign prince refides.
Court, in a law fenfe, is defined to be a place
wherein juftice is -judicially adminiftered. And as,
by our excellent conftitution, the foie executive power
of the laws is veiled in the perfon of the king, it will
follow that all courts of juftice, which are the me¬
dium by which he adminifters the laws, are derived
from the power of the crown. For whether created
Blacljlcnc's by aft Qf parliament or letters patent, or fubfifting by
Comment. prefcription (the only methods by which any court
of judicature can exift^, the king’s confent in the tw’o
former is exprefsly, and in the latter impliedly, given.
In all thefe courts, the king is fuppofed in contem¬
plation of law to be always prefent j but as that is in
fa£l impoflible, he is there reprefented by his judges,
whofe power is only an emanation of the royal prero¬
gative.
For the more fpeedy, univerfal, and impartial ad-
miniftration of juftice between fubjedl and fubje£t, the
law hath appointed a prodigious variety of courts,
feme with a more limited, others with a more exten-
five jurifdiftion ) fome conftituted to inquire only,
others to hear and determine } fome to determine in
the firft inftance, others upon appeal and by way of
review. See Law, N° xcviii. xeix. c. cxli. clvi. clvii.
clviii. and the relpe6tive articles in the order of the al¬
phabet. One diftinQion may be here mentioned, that
runs throughout them all j viz. that fome of them are
courts of record, others not of record. A court of re¬
cord is that where the a£!s and judicial proceedings are
enrolled in parchment for a perpetual memorial and
teftimony: which rolls are called the records of the Court.
court, and are of fuch high and fupereminent authori- 't—■
ty, that their truth is not to be called in queftion. For
it is a fettled rule and maxim, that nothing (hall be
averred againft a record, nor (hall any plea, or even
proof, be admitted to the contrary. And if the exift-
ence of a record be denied, it (hall be tried by nothing
but itfelf; that is, upon bare infpedlion whether there
be any fuch record or notj elfe there would be no end
of difputes. But if there appear any miftake of the
clerk in making up fuch record, the court will direft
him to amend it. All courts of record are the king’s
courts in right of his crown and royal dignity, and
therefore no other court hath authority to fine or im-
prifon : fo that the very ereftion of a new jurifdic-
tion with power of fine or imprifonment, makes it in-
ftantly a court of record.—A court not of record is
the court of a private man ; whom the law will not
intruft with any diferetionary power over the fortune
or liberty of his fellow fubjefts. Such are the courts-
baron incident to every manor, and other inferior ju-
rifdidions j where the proceedings are not enrolled or
recorded j but as well their exiftence as the truth of the
matters therein contained (hall, if difputed, be tried
and determined by a jury. Thefe courts can hold no
plea o( matters cognizable by the common law, unlefs
under the value of 40s. \ nor of any forcible injury
whatlbever, nor having any procefs to arreft the perfon
of the defendant.
In every court there muft be at lead three confti-
tuent parts, the aBcr, reus, andjWtw: the a&or, or
plaintiff, w7ho complains of an injury done •, the reus,
or defendant, who is called upon to make fatisfablion
for it; and the judex, or judicial power, which is to
examine the truth of the faft, to determine the law
arifing upon that fa<ft, and, if any injury appears to
have been done, to afeertain, and by its officers to ap¬
ply the remedy. It is alfo ufual in the fuperior courts
to have attorneys, and advocates or counlel, as aflift-
ants. See Attorwey and Counsel.
CouRT-Baron, in Eng/iJJo Law, a court incident to
every manor in the kingdom, to be holden by the
(lewaid within the faid manor. This court-baron is
of tw'o natures; the one is a cuftomary court, apper¬
taining entirely to the copyholders, in which their
eftates are transferred by furrender and admittance, and
other matters tranlabled relative to their tenures only.
The other is a court of common lawq and it is the
court of the barons, by which name the freeholders
were fometimes anciently called: for that it is held be¬
fore the freeholders w'ho owe fuit and (ervice to the
manor, the fteward being rather the regiftrar than the
judge. Thefe courts, though in their nature diftindf,
arr equally confounded together. The court we are
now confidering, viz. the freeholder’s court, was com-
poftd of the lord’s tenants, who were the peres of each
other, and were bound by their fecdal tenure to aflift
their lord in the difpenfation of domeftic juftice. 'This
was formerly held every three weeks; and its mod im¬
portant bufinefs is to determine, by writ of right, all
contioverfies relating to the right of lands within the
manor. It may alfo hold plea of any perfonal adlions,
of debt, trefpafs on the cafe, or the like, where the
debt or damages do not amount to 40s. Which is
the (ame fum, or three marks, that bounded the ju-
rifdi&ion
C O U f 707 ] cow
Ccuft rifdiAxon of the ancient Gothic courts in their loweft
ll inftance, or fierdittg courts, fo called becaufe four were
ouin' militated within every fuperior diftri£l or hundred.
But the proceedings on a writ of right may be remo¬
ved into the county-court by a precept from the iheriff
called a toll, quia tollit atque eximit caufam e curia baro-
num. And the proceedings in all other adlions may
be removed into the fuperior courts by the king’s writs
of pone, or accedas ad curium, according to the nature
of the fuit. After judgment given, a writ alfo of
falfe judgment lies to the courts at Weftminfter to re¬
hear and review the caufe, and not a writ of error ;
for this is not a court of record; and therefore, ifi
fome of thefe writs of removal, the firil direction given
is to caufe the plaint to be recorded, recordari facias
ioquclam.
Court-Martial, a court appointed for the puniih-
ing offences in officers, foldiers, and failors, the powers
of which are regulated by the mutiny-bill.
For other courts, fee Admiralty, Arches, Bench,
Chancery, Chivalry, CoMMON-Pleas, County,
Duchy, Ecclesiastical, Faculty, Forest,
Hustings, Leet, Legate, Mayor, Piepoudre,
Prerogative, Requests, Stannary, STAR-Cham-
ber. University, &c.
COURTESY, or Curtesy, of England; a certain
tenure whereby a man marrying an heirefs feized of
lands of fee-fimple, or fee-tail general, or feized as
heir of the tail fpecial, and getteth a child by her that
cometh alive into the world, though both it and his
wife die forthwith j yet, if ihe were in pofleffion, he
ffiall keep the land during his life, and is called tenant
per legem Anglice, or tenant by the courtefy of Eng¬
land j” becaufe this privilege is not allowed in any
country except Scotland, where it is called turialitas
Scotiee.
COURTESAN, a woman who proftitutes herfelf
for hire, efpecially to people of fuperior rank. Lais
the famous Theban courtefan, Hands on record for
requiring no lefs than 10,006 crowns for a iingle
night. Of all places in the world, Venice is that where
courtefans abound the moil. It is now 300 years iince
the fenate, which had expelled them, was obliged to
recal them; in order to provide for the fecurity of
women of honour, and to keep the nobles employed,
left they ffiould turn their heads to make innovations
in the ftate.
COURTRAY, a town of the Auftrian Netherlands,
fituated on the river Lys, about 23 miles fouth-weft of
Ghent, and 14 eaft ofYpres. E. Long. 3.10. N. Lat.
50. 48.
COUSIN, a term of relation between the children
of brothers and fitters, who in the firft generation are
called coujin-germans, in the fecond generation fecond-
coufins. Sec. If fprung from the relations of the fa¬
ther’s fide, they are denominated paternal coufins, if
on the mother’s, maternal.
The word is ordinarily derived from confanguineus;
though Menage brings it from cotogenius, or congeneus,
<]. d. ex eodefn genere.
In the primitive times, it was allowed coufin-ger-
mans to marry, to prevent their making alliances in
heathen families: but Theodofius the Great prohi¬
bited it under pain of death; on pretence that they
were, in fome fort, brothers and fitters with regard to Coufin,
each other. H
Cousin, john, a celebrated French painter, who Co™cs-
excelled in painting on glafs. His picture of the Laft
Judgment, in the veftry of the Minims of the Wood of
Vincennes, is much admired. He was alfo a good
fculptor. He wrote feveral works on geometry and
perfpedlive •, and died after the year 1689.
COUSU, in Heraldry, fignifies a piece of another
colour or metal placed in the ordinary, as if it were
fewed on, as the word imports. This is generally of
colour upon colour, or metal upon metal, contrary to
the general rule of heraldry.
COUTANCES, a port town of Normandy, and
capital of Coutantin, in W. Long. 1.32. N. Lat. 49.10.
This town, anciently called Conjlantia or Gofedia, is
pleafantly fituated among meadows and rivulets about
five miles diftant from the fea. By the remains of a Ro¬
man aqueduct, and other ancient ruins, it appears to
be a place of great antiquity. It is the fee of a bi-
fliop, fuffragan of Rome 5 and has a magnificent cathe¬
dral, efteemed one of the fineft pieces of Gothic ar-
chiteflure in Europe. The trade of this town is very
inconfiderable, and the fortifications are quite demo-
liffied. They have feveral religious houfes, and two
parochial churches.
COUTHUTLAUGH, from the Saxon couth,
“ knowing,” and utlaughy “ outlawbe that wit¬
tingly receives a man outlawed, and cheriffies or
conceals him j for which offence he was in ancient
times fubjedl to the fame puniffiment with the outlaw
himfelf.
COVERT, in Heraldry, denotes fomething like a
piece of hanging, or a pavilion falling over the top of
a chief or other ordinary, fo as not to hide, but only
to be a covering to it.
COW. See Bos, Mammalia Index.
Conr-Bumer. See Buprestis, Entomology
Index.
Sea-Corr. See TrIchecus, Mammalia Index.
Corv-ltch, or Couhage. See CouhaGe and Doli-
CHOS, Botany Index.
Corr's-Lip, See Primula, Botany Index.
COWARD, in Heraldry, a term given to a lion
borne in an efchutcheon with his tail doubled, or turn¬
ed in between his legs.
COWEL, Dr John, a learned and eminent civi¬
lian, born about the year 1554. In 1607 he compiled
a Law HiSionary, wffiich gave great offence to Sir
Edward Coke and the common lawyers: fo that they
firft accufed him to James I. as afferting that the king’s
prerogative was in fome cafes limited j and when they
failed in that attempt, they complained of him to the
houfe of commons, as a betrayer of the rights of the
people, by afferting that the king was not bound by
the laws ; for which he was committed to cuftody,
and his book publicly burnt. He alfo publiftied In-
Jlitutiones juris Anglican, in the manner of Juftinian’s
Inftitutes 5 and died in the operation for the (tone, in
1611.
COWES, a town and harbour on the north-eaft
coaft of the Ifie of Wight, in Hampffiire. It has no
market, but is the beft place for trade in the whole
iftand j but as it lies low, the air is accounted unhealthy.
4 U 2 It
COW- [ 7o
Cow’ey ^ ** m^es fouth-eaft of Portfmoutli. W. Long.
..1 I* a5- N. Lat. 50. 45.
COWL, or Coul, a fort of monkifh habit worn
by the Bernardines and Benedi&ines. The word is
formed from cucullus, by confounding the two firif fyl-
lanles into one, as being the fame twice repeated. 
Iheie are two kinds ot cowls ; the one w-hite, very
large, worn in ceremony, and when they affilt at the
office j tne other black, worn on ordinary occafions,
in the ftreets, &c.
F. Mabillon maintains the coul to be the fame thing
in its origin vrith the fcapular. The author of the
apology of the emperor Henry IV. diftinguifhes two
forms of couls: the one is a gown reaching to the
feet,, having fleeves, and a capuchin, ufed in cere¬
monies } the other a kind of hood to wTork in, cal¬
led alfo z fcapulary becaufe it only covers the head and
fhoulder®.
COWLEY, Abraham, an eminent poet, wras born
at London in 1618. His father, who was a grocer,
dying before he was born, his mother procured him
to be admitted a king’s fcholar at Weilminfter.
His fiill inclination to poetry arofe on his lighting
on Spenler’s Fairy Qjeen, when he w-as but juft able
to read ; and this inclination fo far improved in him,
that at 13 he began to write feveral poems 5 a col-
leflion of which wras publilhed in 1613, when he
was but 15. He has been reprefented as poffeffed
of fo bad a memory that his teachers could never
bring him to retain the ordinary rules of grammar.
But the fadft was, as Dr Johnfon notices, not that he
could not learn or retain the rules j but that being
able to perform his exercifes without them, he fpared
himfelf the labour. In 1636 he was ele£fed a fcholar
of Trinity college, Cambridge, and removed to that
univerfity. Here he went through all his exercifes
with a remarkable degree of reputation ; and at the
fame time muft have purfued his poetical turn with
great eagernefs, as it appears that the greateft part of
his poems were written before he left that univerfity.
He had taken his degree of mailer of arts before
1643, when, in confequence of the turbulence of the
times, he, among others, u'as ejefted from the col¬
lege ; whereupon, retiring to Oxford, he entered him-
ie!f of St John’s College ; and that very year, under the
denomination of a fcholar of Oxford, publilhed a fatire
called the Puritan and the Papift. It is apparent,
however, that he did not remain very long at Oxford ;
for his zeal to the royal caufe engaging him in the
iervice of the king, who was very fenfible of his abili¬
ties, and by whom he was frequently employed, he
attended his majefty in many of his journeys and ex¬
peditions, and gained not only that prince’s efteem,
but that of many other great perfonages, and in parti¬
cular of Lord balkland, one of the principal fecreta-
ries of Hate.
During the heat of the civil war, he tvas fettled in
the earl of St Alban’s family 5 and when the queen-
mother was obliged to retire into France, he accom¬
panied her thither, laboured ftrenuoufly in the affairs
of the royal family, undertook feveral very dangerous
journeys on their account, and was the principal in-
ftrument in maintaining an epiftolary correfpondence
between the king and queen, whofe letters he cipher¬
ed and deciphered with his own hand. His poenjs,
8 1 cow
entitled The Miftrefs, were publithed at London in
1647 j and his comedy called The Guardian, after¬
wards altered and publiflied under the title of Cutter
of Coleman-ftreet, in 1650. In 1656 it was thought
proper by thofe on whom Mr Cowley depended that
he (hould come over into England, and, under pretence
of privacy and retirement, ihould give notice of the
pofture of affairs in this nation. Upon his return he
publilhed a new edition of all his poems, confifting of
four parts j viz. I. Mifcellanies. II. The Miftrefs, or
Several Copies of Love-verfes. III. Pindaric Odes,
written in imitation of the ftyle and manner of Pindar,
IV. Davideis, a facred poem of the troubles of David,
in four books.
Soon after his arrival, however, he was feized, in
the fearch after another gentleman of confiderable note
in the king’s party; but although it was through mif-
take that he was taken, yet when the republicans
found all their attempts of every kind to bring him
over to their party proved ineffectual, he was commit¬
ted to a fevere confinement, and it was even with con¬
fiderable difficulty that he obtained his liberty •, when,
venturing back to France, he remained there, in his
former fituation, till near the time of the king’s re¬
turn. During his ftay in England he wrote his Two
Books of Plants, publilhed firft in 1662 ; to which he
afterwards added four books more ; and all fix, toge¬
ther with his other Latin poems, were printed at Lon¬
don in 1678. It appears by Mr Wood’s Fajli Oxoni-
enfes, that our poet was created do£tor of phylic at
Oxford, December 2. 1657.
Soon after the Reftoration he became poffeffed of a
very competent eftate, through the favour of his prin¬
cipal friends the duke of Buckingham and the earl of
St Alban’s ; and being now upwards of 40 years of
age, he took up a refolution to pafs the remainder of
a life which had been a feene of tempeft and tumult,
in that fituation which had ever been the objeff of his
willies, a itudious retirement. His eagernefs to get
out of the buftle of a court and city made him lefs
careful than he might have been in the choice of a
healthful habitation in the country ; by which meajrs
he found his folitude from the very beginning luit
lefs with the conftitution of his body than with his
mind. His firft rural refidence was at Barn Elms, a
place which, lying low-, and being near a large river,
was fubjefl to a variety of breezes from land and wa¬
ter, and liable in the winter-time to great inconveni¬
ence from the dampnefs of the foil. The confequence
of this Mr Cowley too foon experienced, by being
feized with a dangerous and lingering fever. On his
recovery from this he removed to Chertfey, a fituation
not much more healthy, where he had not been long
before he was feized wfith another confuming difeale.
Having languiffied under this for fome months, he at
length got the better of it, and feemed pretty well re¬
covered from the bad fymptoms, when one day in the
heat of fummer 1667, flaying too long in the fields to
give fome direftions to his labourers, he caught a moft:
violent cold, which was attended with a defluxion
and ftoppage in his breaft ; and for want of time¬
ly care, by treating it as a common cold, and re-
fufing advice till it w-as paft remedy, he departed this
life on the 28th of July in that year, being the 49thi
of bis age 3 and on the 3d of Auguft following, he
was
Cowley.
cow
[ 7°9 ]
COW
Cowley, was interred in Wefttninfter-abbeyj near the allies of
y - ii_j Chaucer, and bis beloved Spenfer. He was a man of
a very amiable charafter, as well as an admirable
genius. King Charles II. on the news of his death,
declared “ that Mr Cowley had not left a better man
behind him in England.” A monument was eredted
to his memory by George Villiers duke of Bucking¬
ham in 1675.
Befides the work already mentioned, Mr Cowley
wrote, among other things, A Propolition for the
Advancement of Experimental Philofophy ; A Dif-
courfe by way of Vifion concerning the Government
of Oliver Cromwell; and Several Difcourfes' by way
of Eflays in Profe and Verfe. Mr Cowley had defign-
ed alfo a Difcourfe concerning Style, and a Review
of the Principles of the Primitive C iriftian Church,
but was prevented by death. Afpurious piece, entitled
The Iron Age, was publilhed under Mr Cowley’s
name during his abfence ; and, in Mr Dryden’s Mif-
cellany Poems, we find A Poem on the Civil War,
faid to be written by our author, but not extant in
any edition of his wmrks. An edition of his works
was publilhed by Dr Spratt, afterwards bifliop of Ro-
chelter, who alfo prefixed to it an account of the au¬
thor’s life The reverend editor mentions, as very ex¬
cellent of their kind, Mr Cowley’s letters to his Friends j
none of which, however, wrere publilhed.
The moral charafter of Mr Cowley apprears, from
every account of it, to have been very excellent “ He
is reprefented by Dr Spratt (fays Dr Johnfon), as the
moft amiable of mankind ; and this pollhumous praife
miy be fafely credited, as it has never been contradict¬
ed by envy or bv faCtion.”
As a poet, his merits have been varioufly edimated.
Lord Clarendon has faid he made a flight above all
men ; Addifon, in his account of the Englilh poets,
that he improved upon the Theban bard j the duke of
Buckingham uoon his tomb Hone, that he was the
Eoglilh Pindar, the Horace, the Virgil, the delight,
the glory of his times. And with refpeci to the harlh-
nefs of his numbers, the eloquent Spratt tells us, that
if his verfes in fome places leem not as loft and fl >w-
ing as one w'ould have them, it was his choice and not
his fault.
“ Such (fays Mr Knox) is the applaufe lavilhed on
a writer who is now feldom read. I hat he could ever
be etteemed as a pindaric poet is a curious, literary
phenomenon. He totally miftook his own genius when
he thought of imitating Pindar. He totally miflook
the genius of Pindar, when he thought his own inco¬
herent fentiments and numbers bore the leaf! refem-
blance to the wild yet regular fublimity of the The¬
ban. He negleCted even thofe forms, the-ftrophe, an-
tiftrophe, and epode, which even imitative dulnefs can
copy. Sublime imagery, vehement pathos, . poetic
fire, which conftitute the effence of the Pindaric ode,
are ipcompatible with wdtty conceits, accurate anti-
thefes and vulgar expreflion. All thefe imply the
coolnefs of deliberate compofition, or the meannefs of
a little mind 3 both of them moft repugnant to the
truly Pindaric ode, in which all is rapturous and noble.
Wit of any kind would be improperly difplayed in fuch
compofition : hut to increafe the abfurdity, the wit of
Cowley is often falfe. That he had a tafte for Latin
poetry, and wrote in it with elegance, the well known
epitaph on himfelf, upon his retirement, and an ad- Covriey.
mirable imitation of Horace, are full proofs. But
furely his rhetorical biographer makes ufe of the fi¬
gure hyperbole, when he affirms that Cowley has ex¬
celled the Romans themfelves. He wTas inferior to
many a writer of lefs name in the Muf& Anghcancc.
But flill he had great merit •, and I muff confefs i.
have read his Latin verfes with more pleafure than
any of his Englilh can afford.” EJJ'ays, vol. ii. p.
363—365.
To Cowley’s compofitions in profe Mr Knox hath
paid a very honourable teftimony. He lays, that in
this department he is an elegant, a pleafing, a judicious
writer j and that it is much to be lamented that he
did not devote a greater part of his time to a kind of
writing which appeared natural to him, and in which
he excelled.
Dr Jofeph Warton obferves, that it is no caricature
of Cowley to teprefent him as being pofleffed of a
drained affe&ation of driving to be witty upon all oc-
cafions. “ It is painful (adds this excellent critic),
to cenfure a writer of lo amiable a mind, luch inte¬
grity of manners, and fuch fvveetnefs of temper. His
fancy was brilliant, ftrong, and fprightly ; but his tafte
falfe and unclaflical, even though he had much learn-
ing.”
Dr Beattie has charaflerifed Cowley in the follow¬
ing terms. “ I know not whether any nation ever
produced a more Angular genius than Cowley. He
abounds in tender thoughts, beautiful lines, and em-
pbatical expreflions. His wit is inexhauftible, and his
learning exteniive ; but his tafte is generally barbarous,
and feems to have been formed upon fuch models as
Donne, M .rtial, and the worft parts of Ovid; nor
is it poffible to read his longer poems with pleafure,
while we retain any reliih for the fimplicity of ancient
compofition. If this author’s ideps had been fewer,
his conceits would haye been lefs frequent j fo that in
one refpeft learning may be faid to have hurt his ge¬
nius. Yet it does not appear that Greek and Latin
did him any harm ; for his imitations of Anacreon are
almoft the only parts of him that are now remember¬
ed or read. His Davideis, and his tranflations of
Pindar, are deftitute of harmony, fimplicity, and every
other claflical grace.”
But the works of this celebrated poet have been no¬
where fo amply criticifed as in his Life by Dr John¬
fon. After a particular examination of the different
pieces, the DoAor, in taking a general review of
Cowley’s poetry, obferves, that he wrote with abun¬
dant fertility, but negligent or unfkilful feleflion ;
with much thought, but with little imagery ; that he
is never pathetic, and rarely fublime, but always either
ingenious or learned, either acute or profound.” Of
his profe he fpeaks with great approbation. “ No
author (fays he) ever kept his verfe and his profe at a
greater diltance from each other.. His thoughts are
natural, and his ftyle has a fmooth and placid equa¬
lity, which has never yet obtained its due commenda¬
tion. Nothing is far fought or hard laboured ; but all
is eafy without feeblenefs, and familiar without groff-
nefs.” Upon the whole, he concludes as follows:
“ It may be affirmed, without any encomiaftic fer¬
vour, that he brought to his poetic labours a mind re¬
plete with learning, and that his paffages are embel-
lilhed
COW [ 7
-€owper. Hflied with all the ornaments which books could fup-
~,""v ’ ply that he was the firll who imparted to Englilh
numbers the enthufiafm of the greater odfe and the
gaiety of the lefs j that he was qualified for fpright-
ly failles and for lofty flights : that he was among
thofe who freed tranflation from fervility, and, in-
fttad of following his author at a diftance, walked by
his fide j and that though he had left verfification yet
improvable, he left likewife from time to time fuch fpe-
cimens of excellence as enabled fucceeding poets to im¬
prove it.”
So many of Cowley’s produ&ions being now efteem-
ed fcarcely worthy of a perufal, while others of them
are diftinguifhed by their beauty, Dr Hurd (the pre-
fent bifhop of Worcefter), thought proper to make a
fele&ion of them, w'hich he publifhed in 1772, under
the title of Seleft Works of Mr Abraham Cowley,
in two volumes j with a preface and notes by the E-
ditor.
COWPER, William, a diftinguifhed modern poet*
was born at Berkhamftead in Hertfordfhire in the year
1732. His father, who w^as reftor of the parifh, was
nephew to Lord Chancellor Cowper. Mr Cowper
was educated at Weftminfter fchool ; and in that cele¬
brated feminary he acquired his claffical knowledge.
But it uTould appear from his poem, entitled “ Tiroci¬
nium” that the impreflions which he then received
were not favourable to this fyftem of education, and
gave him a permanent diftike to public fchools. Through
family intereft, the honourable and lucrative place of
clerk to the houfe of lords had been provided for him j
he was, therefore entered at the Temple for the ftudy
of the law, in order to qualify him for it. In this
fituation his manners wTere amiable and decent j and
though it is probable that he did not refufe to indulge
in thofe pleafures which are ufual among young men fi-
milarly fituated, yet there feems no reafon to fuppofe
that he had any peculiar caufes for felf-accufation. His
natural difpofition was timid and diffident } his fpirits
were conftitutionally weak, even to the borders of ab-
folute unfitnefs for worldly concerns j fo that when the
time came for afluming that poll to which he had been
deftined, he fhrunk with fuch terror from the idea of
making his appearance before the moft auguft aflembly
in the nation, that, after a violent ftruggle with him-
felf, he aflually refigned the employment, and with it
all his profpe&s in life. It appears to have been un¬
der the agitation of mind which this circumftance oc-
cafioned, and which threw him into a ferious illnefs,
that he was led to a deep confideration of his ftate in a
religious view $ and from the fyftem he had adopted,
this courfe of refte&ion excited in him the moft alarm¬
ing and diftrefsful apprehenfions. In vain did his
theological friends fet before him thofe encouraging
views w’hich the theory of chriftian juftification is cal¬
culated to prefent, and which to many is the fource of
a confidence perhaps as exceffive as their former fears 5
the natural difpofition of his mind fitted it to receive all
the horrors, without the confolations of his faith.
We are told, that “ the terror of eternal judgment
overpowered and wholly difordered his faculties; and
he remained feven months in a continual expectation
of being inftantly plunged into final mifery.” In this
{hocking condition he became the fubjeft of medical
care, and he was placed in the receptacle for lunatics
o ] COW
kept by- Dr Cotton of St Alban’s, an amiable and Cowper.
w’orthy phyfician, and the author of fome well known —y—.
poems. At length he recovered a degree of ferenity ;
but his mind had acquired that indelible tinge of me¬
lancholy by which it was ever after charatlerifed, and
which rendered his whole life little more than a fuc-
ceffion of intervals of comfort between long parox-
ifms of fettled defpondency. It is unneceflary to follow
him through all his fcenes of retirement. Bart of his
time was fpent at the houfe of his relation, Earl Cow¬
per, at Cole-green j and part at Huntingdon, with his
intimate friend the reverend Mr Unwin. After the
death of the latter, he removed wuth his widow to Ol-
ney in Buckinghamlhire, which was thenceforth the
principal place of his refidence. The affeftionate in¬
timacy he enjoyed with this lady is ftrongly expreff-
ed in the following lines, which have probably been
Underftood by moft readers as expreffive of a conjugal
union :
—-Witnefs, dear companion of my walks,
Whofe arm this twentieth winter I perceive
Faft lock’d in mine, with pleafui'e fuch as love
Confirm’d by long experience of thy worth
And well-tried virtues could alone infpire 
Witnefs a joy that thou haft doubled long.
Task, Book 1.
At Olney he contra&ed a clofe friendfhip with the
reverend Mr Newton, then minifter there, and fince
re&or of St Mary Woolnoth, London, whofe religious
opinions were in unifon with his own. When Mr
Newton publifhed his volume of Hymns, called “ The
Olney’s Colleftion,” it was enriched with fome com-
pofitions from the pen of Cowper, diftinguiftied by the
letter C. They bear internal evidence of a cultivated
underftanding, and an original genius. His time was
now wholly dedicated to that literary leifure, in which
the mind, left to its own operations, follows up that
line of purfuit wffiich is the moft congenial to its tafte,
and the moft adapted to its powders. In his garden, in
his library, and in his daily walks, he feems to have
difciplined his mufe to the pifturefque and vivid habits
of defcription, which will always diftinguifh CowTper
among our national poets. No writer, with the ex¬
ception of Thomfon, feems to have ftudied nature with
more diligence, and to have copied her with more fideli¬
ty. An advantage w'hich he has gained over other men,
by his difdaining to ftudy her “ through the fpectacles
of books,” as Dryden calls it ; and by his purfuing her
through her haunts, and watching her in all her atti¬
tudes, with the eye of a philofopher as well as of a
poet. As Mr Cowper had no relifh for public con¬
cerns, it was not Angular that he fhould have negledted
the ftudy of the law, on which he had entered. That
knowledge of a£tive life, which is fo requifite for the
legal profeffion, would hardly be acquired on the banks
of the Oufe, and in filent contemplations on the beau¬
ties of nature. In this retreat, he exchanged for the
fociety and converfe of the mufes, the ambition and
tumult of a forenfic occupation } dedicating his mind
to the cultivation of poetry, and ftoring it with thofe
images which he derived from the inexhauftible trea-
fury of a rich and varied fcenery, in a moft beautiful
and romantic country.—The firft volume of his poems,
which was publifhed by Mr Newton in 1787* confifts
COW [ 71
Cowper. of various pieces, on various fubjefls. It feems, that
 he had been affiduous in cultivating a turn for
grave and argumentative verlification, on moral and
ethical topics. Of this kind is I he I able 1 alk, and
feveral other pieces in the colle&ion. He who ob¬
jects to thefe poems as containing too great a negleft
of harmony in the arrangement of his words, and ufe
of expredions too prolaic, will condemn him on prin¬
ciples of criticifm which are by no means juft, if the
obje& and ftyle of the fubjett be confidered. Horace
apologized for the ftyle of his own fatires, which are,
ftriaiy fpeaking, only ethical and moral difcourfes, by
obferving, that thofe topics required the pedejlnan and
familiar di&ion, and a form of expreflion, not carried
to the heights of poetry. But if the reader will fore¬
go the delight of fmooth verfification, and recolleft
that poetry does not altogether conftft in even and po-
liftied metre, he will remark in thefe productions, no
ordinary depth of thinking and of judgment, upon the
moft important objeCts of human intercourfe ■, and he
will be occalionally ftruck with lines, not unworthy of
Dryden for their ftrength and dignity. His lighter
poems are well known. Of thefe, the verfes fuppofed
to be written by Alex. Selkirk, on the ifland of Juan
Fernandez, are in the moft popular eftimation. There
is great originality in the following ftanza.
I am out of humanity’s reach j
I muft finifh my journey alone ;
Never hear the fweet mufic of fpeech j
I ftart at the found of my own.”
It would be abfurd to give one general charaCler of
the pieces, that were publifhed in this volume : yet,
this is true concerning Mr Cowpei’s productions ; that
in all the varieties of his ftyle, there may ftill be dif-
cerned the likenefs and impreffion of the fame mind j
the fame unaffeCted modefty, which always rejeCts un-
feafonable ambitions and ornaments of language ; the
fame eafy vigour j the lame lerene and chearful hope,
derived from a fteady and unihaken faith in the dogmas
of Chriftianity. Mr Cowper, perhaps, does not derive
praife from the choice and elegance of his words •, but
he has the higher praife of having chofen them with¬
out affeftation. He appears to have ufed them as he
found them j neither introducing faftidious refinements
nor adhering to obfolete barbarifms. He underftood
the whole fcience of numbers, and he has praCtifed
their different kinds with confiderable happineis ; and,
if his verfes do not flow fo foftly as the delicacy of a
modern ear requires, that roughnefs, which is objeCted
to in his poetry, is his choice, not his defeCt. But this
fort of critics, who admire only what is exquifitely po-
lilhed, like Cuyp’s pictures, thefe lovers of “ gentle-
*DrSpratt's nefs without fiuews ought to take into_ their efti-
Life of mate, that vaft effufion of thought which is fo abun-
Goivley. dantly poured over the writings of Cowper, without
which human difcourfe is only an idle combination of
founds and fyllables. The favourable reception which
this volume experienced, produced another of fuperior
merit. His principal performance was undoubtedly
“ The Talk,” a poem. The occafion that gave birth
to it was trivial. A lady had requefted him to write
a piece in blank verfe, and gave him for its fubjeCt a
thing next to her, viz. the fofa. This he expanded in¬
to one of the fineft moral poems our language has pro-
i ] cow
duced. It is written in blank verfe as deirred ; and Cowper.
though in that refpeft it refembles Milton’s, it is ne-
verthelefs original and highly chara&eriftic. It is not
too ftately for familiar defcription, or too depreffed
for fublime and elevated imagery. If it has any fault,
it is that of being too much laden with idiomatic ex¬
preflion ; a fault which the author, in the rapidity with
which his ideas and his utterance feem to have flowed,
very naturally incurred. In this poem, his fancy ran
with the moft excurfive freedom. The poet enlarges
upon his topics, and confirms his argument by every
variety of illuftration. He never howxver dwells upon
them too long, and leaves off in fuch a manner, that
it feems it was in his power to have faid more. The
arguments of the poem are various. The works of
nature, the affociations with which they exhibit them-
felves, the defigns of Providence, and the paflions of
men. Of one advantage, the writer has amply availed
himfelf. The work not being rigidly confined to any
precile fubjeft, he has indulged himfelf in all the
laxity and freedom of a mifcellaneous poem. Yet he
has ftill adhered fo faithfully to the general laws of
congruity, that whether he infpires the fofter affeCtions
into his reader, or delights him with keen and playful
raillery, or difcourfes on the ordinary manners of hu¬
man nature, or holds up the bright piftures of religious
confolation to his mind, he adopts, at pleafure, a dic¬
tion juft and appropriate, equal in elevation to the
facred effufions of pious rapture, and fufficiently eafy
and familiar for defcriptions of domeftic life ; fkilful
alike in foaring without effort, and deicending without
meannefs. He who defires to put into the hands of
youth a poem, which not deftitute of poetic embellifh-
ment, is free from all matter of a licentious tendency,
will find in the Talk a book adapted to his purpofe.
It would be abfurd and extravagant aufterity to con¬
demn thofe poetical productions in which love confti-
tutes the leading feature. That paflion has in every
age been the concernment of life, the theme of the
poet, the plot of the rtage. Yet there is a kind of
amorous fenfibility, bordering on morbid enthufiafm,
which the youthful mind too often imbibes from the
glowing fentiments of the poets. Their genius de-
fcribes, in the moft fplendid colours, the operations of
a pafiion which requires rebuke rather than incentive,
and lends to the moft grovelling fenfuality, the en¬
chantments of a rich and creative imagination. But
in the Talk of Cowper, there is no licentioufnefs of
defcription. All is grave, majeftic, and moral. A
vein of fober thinking pervades every page, and, in
finifhed poetry, defcribes the infufticiency and vanity
of human purfuits. Not that he is always fevere. He
frequently enlivens the mind of his reader by fportive
defcriptions, and by reprefenting in elevated mealures,
ludicrous objeCfs and circumftances, a fpecies of the
mock heroic, fo admired in Phillip’s Splendid Shilling.
The hiftorical account he has given of chairs, in the
firft book of the Talk, is a ftriking fpecimen of his
powers of verfification, and of his talent for humour
in this latter ftyle. The attention is however the moll
detained by thofe pafi'ages, in which the charms of ru¬
ral life, and the endearments of domeftic retirement
are defcribed. The Talk abounds with incidents, in¬
troduced as epifodes, and interpofing an agreeable re¬
lief to the grave and ferious part of the poetry. His
l Crazy 4
cox [7
Cowper, Crazy Kate is a defcription of the calamity of a difor-
^ox’ dered reafon, admirably exaft and affe&ing.
“ She begs an idle pin of all Ihe meets.”
What poet would have introduced fo minute a circum-
ftance into his reprefentation ! and yet that minutenefs
conftitutes its happy effeft.
Of his talent for painting there cannot be a better
fpecimen than his lk,etch of the melancholy man, pro¬
bably Iketched from what too faithful remembrance
fuggefted of himfelf:
Look where he comes—In this embower’d alcove
Stand clofe concealed, and fee a ftatue move ;
Lips bufy, and eyes fixt, foot falling How,
Arms hanging idly down, hands clafp’d below,
Interpret to the marking eye, dillrefs,
Such as its fymptoms only can exprefs.
That tongue is filent now —that filent tongue
Could argue once, could jell or join the fong,
. Could give advice, could cenfure or commend,
Or charm the forrows of a drooping friend.
Renounc’d alike its office and its fport,
Its brilker and its graver llrains fall ffiort;
Both fall beneath a fever’s fecret fway,
' And like a fummer brook are pall away.
Retirement.
His John Gilpin is univerfally known, and may be
confidered as a fportive piece of humour, which would
have done credit to many writers, but can hardly be
faid to have added to Mr Cowper’s reputation. His
next work was a tranflation of the Iliad and Odyfley
into Miltonic blank verfe. It is an unjuft piece of cri-
ticifm to compare the verfion of Mr Pope to that of
Mr Cowper. The merits of each are diftimft and ap¬
propriate. Mr Pope has exhibited Homer as he would
have fung had he been born in England. Mr Cowper
has endeavoured to pourtray him, as he wrote in
Greece, adhering frequently to the peculiarities of his
original’s idiom, and defiring to preferve his ftrength
and energy, together with his harmony and fmooth-
nefs. Mr Cowper died of a fevere and lingering ill-
nefs, at Eaft Dereham, in Norfolk, April 25. 1800.
COX, Richard, a learned prelate, and principal
pillar of the Reformation, was born at Whaddon in
Buckinghamfhire, of low7 parentage, in the year 1499.
From Eaton fchool he obtained a fcholarfliip in King’s
college in Cambridge, of which he became a fellow in
1519: he was thence invited to Oxford by Cardinal
Wolfey, and was there made one of the junior canons
of Cardinal college. In 1525 he was incorporated
bachelor j and the following year took the degree of
mafter of arts in the fame univerfity. In this fitua-
tion he became remarkable for his learning and poeti¬
cal abilities j but his attachment to the opinions of
Luther rendered him hateful to his fuperiors, whoftrip-
ped him of his preferment, and threw him into piifon
on a fufpicion of herefy. Being, however, foon re¬
leafed, he was chofen mafter of Eton fchool, which
fiourilhed remarkably under his care. In 1537 he
commenced doctor of divinity at Cambridge ; in t ^40
was made archdeacon of Ely} and the follow ing year
prebendary of that cathedral, on its being new7 found¬
ed by King Henry VIII. In 1546 he was made dean
of Chrift-church, Oxford. By the recommendation
2
2 ] COX
of Archbifhop Cranmer and Biftiop Goodrich, to the Cox.
latter of whom he had been chaplain, he not only ob- Coxwold. '
tained the above preferments, but was chofen precep-
tor to Prince Edward, on whofe acceffion to the throne
he became a favourite at court, w7as fworn of the privy
council, and made king’s almoner. In 1547 he was
elefted chancellor of Oxford ; in 1548 canon of Wind*
for ; and the next year dean of Weftminfter. About
this time he was appointed one of the commiffioners
to vifit the univerfity of Oxford ; in which office his
zeal(for reformation was fo exceffive, that he deftroyed
a number of curious and valuable books, for no better
reafon than becaufe they were written by Roman Ca¬
tholics. On the acceffion of Queen Mary he was ftrip-
ped of all his preferments and committed to the Mar-
fhalfea. He was, however, foon releafed, and imme¬
diately left the kingdom. Having refided fome time
at Strafhurg with his intimate friend Peter Martyr,
on the death of Queen Mary he returned to England,
and, with other divines, was appointed to revile the
liturgy. He often preached before the queen ; and in
1559 was preferred to the fee of Ely, which he con¬
tinued to enjoy upwards of 21 years. He was, how7-
ever, no favourite wdth the queen : the reafon affigned
for which was, his zealous oppofition to her retaining
the crucifix and wax-candles on the altar of the royal
chapel ; alfo his ftrenuous defence of the marriage of
the clergy, which her majefty always difapproved.
He died on the 22d of July 1581, aged 81. Pic
was a man of confiderable learning, a zealous and ri¬
gid bulwark of the church of England, and an im¬
placable enemy both to Papifts and Puritans. In a
letter to Archbiffiop Paiker, he advifes him to proceed
vigoroufly in reclaiming or punifhitig the Puritans, and
not to be difcouraged at the frown of thofe court-fa¬
vourites who protefted them 5 affuring him that he
might expe£t the bleffing of God on his pious labours
to free the church from their dangerous attempts, and
to eftabliffi uniformity. This zealous reformer we find
had not totally loft fight of the Popiffi text, compel them
to come in ; but a ftronger proof of bis implacability
and felf-importance appears in his letter to the lord
treafurer Burleigh, in which he warmly expoflulates
with the council for interpofing in behalf of the Pu¬
ritans, or meddling in affairs of the church, admoniffi-
ing them to keep their own fphere. Such language
from a biftiop would make a modern privy council flare.
His wmrks are, 1. Two Latin Orations on the Difpute
between Dr Trefham and Peter Martyr, Lond. 1549,
4to. 2. Liturgy of the Churqh of England ; in com¬
piling, and afterwards correfting which, he w7as prin¬
cipally concerned. 3. The Lord’s Prayer in verfe,
commonly printed at the end of David’s Pfalms by
Sternhold and Hopkins. 4. Tranflation of the four
Gofpels, the Afts of the Apoftles, and the Epiftle
to the Romans, in the new tranflation of the Bible
in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. 5. Refolutions of
fome Queftions concerning the Sacrament in the Col¬
lection of Records at the end of Burnet’s Hiftory of
the Reformation. 6. Several Letters to the Queen
and others, publifhed in Strype’s Annals of the Re¬
formation. Fie is alfo faid to have been concerned in
the declaration concerning the divine inftitution of bi-
ffiops, and to have affifted Lilye in his Grammar.
COXWOLD, a town in the north riding of York-
fhire.
C R A f 7:
fovpel iliirc, 14 miles north of York. W. Long. 1. 10. N.
II Lat. 54. 16.
Crab- COY PEL, Anthony, an excellent French pain-
’ ter, born at Paris in 1661. Noyel Coypel, his father,
being chofen by M. Colbert to be direftor of the aca¬
demy at Rome, he took his fon with him into Italy,
■where Anthony Coypel formed himfelf on the works
of the greatell matters, and on his return to France
was made firft painter to the duke of Orleans. That
prince employed him in painting the grand gallery of
the royal palace, and allowed him a pentton. In 1714,
he was direftor of the Academy of Painting and Sculp¬
ture. In 1715, he was made the firft painter to the
French king, and was ennobled on account of his me¬
rit. He died in 1722. M. Coypel, his fon, alfo ex¬
celled in the fame art.
COZENING •, tricking, or defrauding.—In law,
it denotes ah offence where any thing is done deceit¬
fully, whether belonging to contracts or not, which
cannot be properly termed by any fpecial name.
COZUMEL, an ittand near the wettern coaft of
Jucatah, where Cortez landed and refrefhed his troops
before entering upon the conqueft of Mexico. W.
Long. 89. o. and N. Lat. 13. o.
CRAB. See Cancer, Entomology Index.
Crab’s Claws, in the Materia Medico, are the tips
of the claws of the common crab broken off at the
verge of the black part, fo much of the extremity of
the claws only being allowed to be ufed in medicine
as is tinged with this colouf. The blacknefs, howr-
ever, is only fuperficial 5 they are of a grayifh white
within, and when levigated furniffi a white powder.
Crab’s claws are of the number of the alkaline ab-
forbents •, but they are fuperior to the generality of
them, in fome degree, as they are found on a chemical
analyfis to contain a volatile urinous fait.
Crab’s Eyes, in Pharmacy, are a ttrong concretion
in the head of the cray-fifli. They are rounded on
one fide, and depreffed and finuated on the other, con-
fiderably heavy, moderately hard, and without fmell.
We have them from Holland, Mufcovy, Poland, Den¬
mark, Sweden, and many other places. What are
ufually met with in the drops are prepared by art.
Crab’s eyes are much ufed both in the Ihop medi¬
cines and extemporaneous prefcription, being account¬
ed abforbent.
Crab Lice, a troublefome kind of vermin, which
Hick fo fall with their claws to the fkin as to render
it difficult to diflodge them. They are called plaBulet,
morpiones, petal#, and peffolat* : they ufually infeft the
arm pits andCleanlinefs is the bell preven¬
tative. But thefe vermin may be eafily removed with
the application of a little mercurial ointment.
Crab, a fort of wooden pillar, whofe lower end,
s being let down through a ftdp’s decks, reft upon a
focket like the capftern ; and having in its upper end,
three or four holes, at different heights, through the
middle of it, one above another, into which long bars
are thruft, whofe length is nearly equal to the breadth
of the neck. It is employed to wind in the cable, or
to purchafe any other weighty body which requires
a great mechanical power. This differs from a cap¬
ftern, as not being furnilhed with a drurh-head, and
« by having the bars to go entirely through it, reaching
from one fide of the deck to the other $ whereas thofe
Vol. VI. Part II.
3 1 . C R. A
of the capftern, which are fuperior in number, reach Crab-yaws >
only about eight inches or a foot into the drum-head, ^ .||ow
according to its fize. See Capstern. ...—y—
CRAB-2hmr, a name in Jamaica for a kind of ulcer
on the foies of the feet, with hard callous lips, fo hard
that it is difficult to cut them. The ungt. ccerul.fort.
is their cure.
CRACATOA, the moft foutherly of a clutter of
ittands lying in the entrance of the ftraits of Sunda in
the Eaft Indies. Its whole circumference does not
exceed nine miles j and off its north-eaftern extremity
is a fmall ittand forming a road, in which Captain
Cook anchored when vifiting this ifiand on his latt voy¬
age. On the fouthern part of the fmall ittand is a
reef of rocks, within which is a tolerable flielter a-
gainft all northerly winds, there being 27 fathoms wfa-
ter in the mid channel, and 18 near the reef. Be¬
tween the two Hands there is a narrow paffage for
boats. The ttiore that conttitutes the weft fide of the
road runs in a north-wefterly diredlion, having a bank
of coral running into the fea for a little way, fo that
it is difficult for boats to land except at the time of
high water ; but the anchoring ground is very good
and free from rocks. In the inland parts the ground
is elevated, riling on all fides gradually from the fea,
and is entirely covered with wood, excepting a few
fpots which are cleared by the inhabitants for fowing
rice. The climate is reckoned very healthy in com-
parifon with the neighbouring countries, but it is very
thinly inhabited. There are abundance of turtle on
the coral reefs but other refrtfhments are fcarce, and
fold at an exorbitant price. Water is not plentiful :
Captain Cook was obliged to fupply himfelf from a
fmall fpring oppofite to the fouthern extremity of the
fmall ittand above-mentioned. To the fouthward is a
hot fpring, w’hofe wraters are ufed as a bath by the in¬
habitants. The road where the Refolution anchored
lies in S. Lat. 8. 6. and by obfervation, in 105. 36.
E. Long, by the time-keeper in 104. 48. The varia¬
tion of the compafs one degree W. On the full and
change days it is high w'ater at feven o’clock in the
morning, and the tide rifes three feet four inches per¬
pendicular.
CRACKOW, or Cracow, a city of Poland, fitua-
ted in a palatinate of the fame name, E. Long. 20. 16.
N. Lat. 50. 8. It was formerly the capital of Poland,
where the kings were eledted and crowned, and was
once almoft the centre of the Poliffi dominions, but is
now a frontier town ; a proof how much the power of
this republic has been contradfed.
Crackow Hands in an extenfive plain, watered by
the Viftula, which is broad but {hallow : the city and
its fuburbs occupy a valt trad! of ground, but are fo
badly peopled, that they fcarcely contain /6,000 in¬
habitants. The great fquare in the middle of the
town is very fpacious, and h@s feveral well-built houfes,
once richly furnilhed and well inhabited, but moll of
them now either untenanted or in a Hate of melan¬
choly decay. Many of the ftieets are broad and hand-
fome •, but almoft; every building bears the moft Unk¬
ing marks of ruined grandeur : the churches alone
feem to have preferved their original fplendour. The
devaftation of this unfortunate town was begun by the
Sw'edes at the commencement of the prefent century,
when .it was befieged and taken by Charles XII. but
4 X the
G R A [7
t.racfcow. the mifchiels it fuffered from that ravager of the north
were far lefs deftruftive than thofe it experienced du¬
ring the late dreadful commotions, when it underwent
repeated fieges, and was alternately in poffeflion of
the Ruffians and Confederates. The effeaS of can¬
non, grape, and mulket fhot, are ftill difcernible on
the walls^ and houfes. In a word, Crackow- exhibits
the remains of ancient magnificence, and looks like a
great capital in ruins : from the number of fallen and
falling houfes one would imagine it had lately been
tacked, and that the enemy had left it only yefterday.
The town is furrounded with high walls of brick,
ftrengthened by round and fquare towers of whimfical
fhapes, in the ancient ftyle of fortification : thefe walls
were built by Vencefiaus king of Bohemia during the
fhort period in which he reigned over Poland.
The univerfity of Crackow was formerly, and not
unjuflly, called the mother of Polifh literature, as it
principally fupplied the other feminaries with profef-
fors and men of learning 5 but its luftre has been great¬
ly obfcured by the removal of the royal refidence to
V\ arfaw, and ftiil more by the late intefline convul-
iions. . In this city the art of printing was firft intro¬
duced into Poland by Haller ; and one of the earlieft
books was the Conftitutions and Statutes compiled by
Cafimir the Great, and afterwards augmented by his
fucceffors. The characters are Gothic, the fame which
were univerfally ufed at the invention of printing : the
great initial letters are wanting, which fhows that they
were probably painted and afterwards worn away. The
year in which this compilation was printed is not pofi-
tively known j but its publication was certainly ante¬
rior to 1496, as it does not contain the ftatutes paffed
by John Albert in that year. The moft flourifhing
period of the univerfity w-as under Sigifmond Auguf-
tus in the 16th century, when feveral of the German
reformers fled from the perfecutions of the emperor
Charles V. and found an afylum in this city. They
gave to the world feveral verfions of the facred wai¬
tings, and other theological publications, which diffu-
fed the reformed religion over great part of Poland.
1 he protection which Sigilmond Auguftus afforded
to men of learning of all denominations, and the uni-
verfal toleration which he extended to every fed of
Chriftians, created a fufpicion that he wras fecretly in¬
clined to the new church 5 and it w7as even reported
that he intended to renounce the Catholic faith, and
publicly profefs the reformed religion.
Towards the fouthern part of the town, near the
Viflula, rifes a fmall eminence or rock, upon the top
of which is built the palace, furrounded wuth brick walls
and old towers, which form a kind of citadel to the
town. This palace owes its origin to Ladiflaus Jaghel-
lon ; but little ot the ancient ftrudure now appears,
as the greateft part was demolilhed by Charles XII. in
1701, when he entered this town in triumph after the
battle of Cliflbw. It has been fince repaired. The re¬
mains of the old palace confilt of a few apartments,
which are left in their ancient ftate as they exifled in
the laft century. This palace was formerly the refi¬
dence of the kings of Poland, who, from the time of
Ladiflaus Locketec, have been crowned at Crackow7.
The Polilh and German hiftorians differ concerning the
time when the title of king was firft claimed by the fo-
'4 ] C R a
yereigns of this country; but tbe mofl probable account Crackow,
is, according to Mr Coxe, that in 1295 Premiflaus af- Crathe.
1 timed the regal title, and was inaugurated at Gnefna by
the archbilhop of that diocefe. He was fucceeded by La¬
diflaus Locketec, who offending the Poles by his caprici¬
ous and tyrannical conduft, was depofed before he was
crowmed ; and Venceflaus king of Bohemia, who had
married Richfa daughter of Premiflaus, being elefled
in his ftead, was in 1300 confecrated at Gnefna. La¬
diflaus, after flying from his country and undergoing
a fenes of calamitous adventures, was at length brought
to a fenfe of his mifconduft. Having regained the
affe£hon of his fubjefts, he was reftored, in the life¬
time of Venceflaus, to part of his dominions j and he
recovered them all upon the demife of that monarch
m the year 1305 : he governed, however, for fome
years without the title of king ; but at length in 1320
was crowned at Crackow, to which place he transfer¬
red the ceremony of the coronation ; and afterwards
enafted, that for the future his fucceffors ftiould be
inaugurated in the cathedral of this city.
Since that period all the fovereigns have been confe¬
crated at Crackow, excepting the laft king. Previ¬
ous to his eledion a decree was iffued by the diet of
convocation, that the coronation fliould be folemnized
for this turn at Warfaw, wfithout prejudice in future to
the ancient right of Crackow 5 a provifo calculated to
fatisfy the populace, but which will not probably pre¬
vent any future fovereign from being crowned at War¬
faw, now become the' capital of Poland and the refi¬
dence of its kings. The diadem and other regalia
ufed at the coronation are ftill kept in the palace of
Crackow, under fo many keys, and with fuch care,
that it was impoflible to obtain a fight of them.
. Adjoining to the palace ftands the cathedral, alfo
wnhm the walls of the citadel. Here all the fove¬
reigns, from the time of Ladiflaus Locketec, have been
interred, a ferv only excepted, viz. Louis and Ladif¬
laus II. who were kings of Hungary as well as of
Poland, and whofe bodies were depofited in Hungary j
Alexander, who died and was buried at Vilna ; Henry
of Valois, interred in France ; and the late monarch
Auguftus III. The fepulchres of the kings of
Poland are not diftinguiftied by any peculiar mag¬
nificence ; their figures are carved in marble of no
extraordinary workmanlhip, and ibme are without in.
feriptions.
The bilhop of Crackow is the firft in the kingdom,
duke of Saveria, and very often a cardinal. His re¬
venues are larger than thofe of his metropolitan the
archbiftiop of Gnefna, and are computed to amount
to 40,000 dollars per annum.
CRADLE, a well known machine in which infants
are rocked to fleep.
It denotes alfo that part of the flock of a crols bow
where the bullet is put.
Cradle, in Surgery^ a cafe in which a broken leg
is laid after being let.
Cradle, in engraving, is the name of an inftrument
ufed in feraping mezzotintos, and preparing the plate.
It is formed of fteel, refembling a chifel with one
Hoping fide, upon which are cut hollow lines very
near earh other, and at equal diftances. The a&ing
part of this tool is made circular, and the corners are
rounded.
C R A f 7*
CraJlt rounded. After being properly tempered, it muft be
T fliarpened on the whetftone. There are vanoua ii^es
Granganor. c£ t^-s inftiUmetit.
  *  Cradle, among fhipwr.ghts, a frame placed under
the bottom of a (hip, in order to conduft her Imocthly
and fteadily into the water when (lie is going to be
launched ; at which time it fupports her weight whde
flie Aides down the defcent or Hoping paffage called
ways, which are for this purpoie daubed with foap and
talCRAFT a general name for all forts of veffels
employed to load or difcharge merchant (hips, or
to carry alongfide or return the ftores of men of
Such are lighters, hoys, barges, prames, &c. bee thole
articles, —^
CRAKE, or Corn-crake. See Rallus, Orni^
thology Index. .
CRAIL, orCAREiL, a parliament town ot Scotland,
fituated on the fea-coaft of the county of Fife, about
feven miles fouth-eaft of St Andrews. W. Long. 2.
30. N. Lat. 56. 17. „
CRAMBE, Sea-cabbage, Sea-beach Kabe, or
SEA-COLEWORT, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetradynamia clafs, and in the natural method ranking
under the 39th order, Sdiquof*. See Botany In-
"^CRAMERIA t A genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria clafs. See Botany /h^.y.
CRAMOND, Over and Nether, two villages
about four miles welt of Edinburgh ; of which only
the laft deferves notice, as having been once a famous
naval ftation of the Romans. It is fituated at the in-
flux of the river Almond into the Forth, Ro¬
man roads meet at this place, which was called by them
Alaterva, and whither they brought their grain lor the
fupport of their troops. The village contains about
Jo inhabitants. Here are the remains of a bath and
fudatory ; and many altars, medals, &.c. have een
CRAMP, a fpaftnodic affection of the mufcles of
different parts of the body, as of thofe of the neck,
arms, legs, &c. accompanied with a violent but tran-
fltory pain. See Medicine Index.
Cramp-Fz/S, or ’Torpedo. See Raja, Ichthyolo¬
gy Index. . - . , . .
Cramp /rm*, or Cramps, a p.ece of iron bent at
each end, which ferves to fallen together pieces of
wood, (tones, or other things. . . .
CRAMPONEE, in Heraldry, an epithet given to
a crofs which has at each end a cramp or fquare piece
coming from it •, that from the arm m chief towards
the (inifter angle, that frotn the arm on that fide down,
wards, that from the arm in bafe towards the dexte
£de, and that from the dexter arm upwards.
CRANAGE, the liberty ofufmg a crane at a wharf,
and alfo the money paid for drawing up wares out ot
a (hip, &c. with a crane.
CRANE. See Ardea, Ornithology Index.
Crane, in Mechanics, a machine uled in building
for railing large (tones and other weights, bee Me¬
Crane’s BUI. See Geranium, Botany Index.
CranS-F/j., a fpccies of Tipula. See Eutomolo-
GY Index. , Tv/i 1 u
CRANGANOR, a Dutch fadory on the Malabar
"1 C R- ^
Lad in the Eaft Indies, feated in E. Long. 75. 5- N. Cramoiari-
Lat. IO. O. See Cochin. . Granmer.
CRANIOLARIA: A genus of plants belonging   a
to the didynamia clafs ; and in the natural method
ranking under the 40th order, Berfonattt.
CRANIUM, in Anatomy, an aflemblage ot ieveral
bones which cover and enclofe the brain and cercbel-
lum, popularly called xhijkull. See Ahatomv Index.
 The word comes from the Greek k^xviov, ot
ralea, “ helmet becaufe it ferves to defend the
brain like a head-piece. Pezron, again, derives
from the Celtic cren, becaufe of its roundnefs.
CRANK a contrivance in machines, in manner o
an elbow, only of a fquare form, projefting out from
an axis or fpindle ; and ferving, by its rotation, to
raife and fall the piftons of engines for railing water
Crank, in fea-language. A thip is faid to be crank-
fided, when for want of a fufficient quantity of ballad
or cargo, the cannot bear her fails, or can bear but
fmall fail for fear of overletting.—She is faid to be
crank by the ground, when her floor is to narrow that
the cannot be brought on ground vvithout'danger.
Crank is alfo an iron brace which fupports the lan-
thorns on the poop-quarters, &c.
CRANMER, Thomas, a celebrated archbilhop,
reformer, and martyr, was the fon of Thomas Cran-
mer Efq. of Aflafton in Nottinghamfture where our
author was born in 1489. At the age of 14, he was
admitted a ftudent of Jefus College Cambridge, of
which he afterwards became fellow ; but marrying the
relation of an innkeeper’s wife, he loft his fellow! up
and quitted the college. On the death of his wife
he was re-admitted fellow of Jefus College. In 3523
he took the degree of dodor of divinity, and was made
theological lefturer and examiner. The plague oeing
at Cambridge, he retired to the houfe of a relation at
Waltham Abbey, where, meeting with Fox the Mng s
almoner, and Gardiner the fecretary, he gave his opi¬
nion concerning King Henry’s marnage with Catha¬
rine much to the fatisfa&ion of his majefty. This
opinion was, that inftead of dlfputing about the vali¬
dity of the king’s marriage with Catharine, “10^
reduce the matter to this Ample queftion, “ Whether
a man may marry his brother’s wife or not ? When
the king was told of it he faid, “ Fhis fellow has got
the right fow by the ear.” He then fent for him to
court, made him one of his chaplains, and ordered him
to write in vindication of the divorce m agitation.
This book having quieted the tender conlcience or the
king, he was defirous that all Europe (hould be con¬
vinced of the illegality of his marriage with Queen Ca¬
tharine : and for that purpofe fent Cranmer to France,
Italy, and Germany, to difpute the matter with the
divines of thofe countries. At Nuremberg Cranmer
married a fecond wife. Being returned to England,
in March 1533 he was confecrated archbiftiop ot Can¬
terbury ; in May following he pronounced the len¬
ience of divorce between the king and queen j am.
foon after married the amorous monarch to Ann tfa-
leyn. Being now at the head of the church, he exert¬
ed himfelf in the bufmefs of the Reformation.^ 1 he
Bible was tranflated into Englilh, and monafteries dil-
folved principally by his means. . . , , r
In 1^6 the royal confcience again required the at-
3 2 4X2 fiftance
c R A [ 7>6 ] c R A
Cranmer. finance of our archbifliop : in this year he divorced the
*   k,ng from Ann Boleyn. In 1537 he vifited his dio-
cefe, and endeavoured to abolilh the fuperftitious ob-
fervation of holidays. In 1539 he and lome of the
bilhops fell under the king’s diipleafure, becaufe they
could not, be brought to give their confent in parlia¬
ment that the monalleries Ihould be fuppreffed for the
king’s foie ufe. He alfo Itrenuoufly oppofed the a£l
for the fix articles in the houfe of lords, Ipeaking three
days again)! it; and upon the palling of that llatute
fent away his wife into Germany. In 1540 he was
one of the commiffioners for infpe&’mg into matters of
religion, and explaining fome of its chief do&rines.
rI he relult of their commiftion was the book entitled A
ntceffiry Erudition of any Chrillian man. After Lord
Cromwell’s death ( iti whofe behalf he had written to
the king), he retired and lived in great privacy, med¬
dling not at all with Hate affans. In 1541 he gave
orders purfuant to the king’s diredlions, for taking a-
way fuperftitious Ihrines ; and exchanging Bilhopf-
bourn for Beckelbourn, united the latter to his dioceie.
In 1542 ne procured the “ Ad for the advancement
of true icligion and the abohihment of the contrary,”
which moderated the rigour of the fix articles. But
the year following, form enemies preferring accufations
againft him, he had like to have been ruined, had not
thp king interpofed in his behalf. His majefty conti¬
nued afterwards to prote£l him from his enemies ; and
at his death appointed him one of the executors of his
will, a^d one of the regents of the kingdom. In 1556
he crownied young Edward, during whole Ihort reign
he promoted the reformation to the utmoft: of his
powder ; and was particularly inftrumental in compofing,
correcting, and eftabliihing the liturgy by a£t of par¬
liament. He h d all'o a lhare in compiling the thirty-
nine articles of religion./
In 1 553 he oppofed the new fettlement of the crown
upon Lady fane Grav, and would no way be concern¬
ed in that affair ( hough at laft, through many impor¬
tunities, he was prevailed upon to fet his hand to it) ;
neither would he foin in any of Dudley’s ambitious
projeCts. Upon Queen Mary’s acceffion to the throne,
be was committed to the Tower j partly for fetting
his hand to the inlirument of Lady Jane’s fucceflion,
and partly for the public off r he had made a little be¬
fore of juftifying openly the religious proceedings of
the late kmg. Some of his friends, forefeeing the liorm
that was likely to fall upon him, advifed him to fly,
but he abfolutely refufed. In the enfuing parliament,
ou November the 3d, he was attainted, and at Guild¬
hall found guilty of high treafon ; whereupon the fruits
of his archbifhopric were fcqueftered. In April j 554,
he and Ridl.y and Latimer were removed to Oxford,
in order for a public deputation with the Papifts j
which was accordingly held there towards the middle
of the month, with great noife, triumph, and impudent
confidence on the Papifts fide, and with as much gra¬
vity, learning, modelty,’ and convincing fufhciency on
the fide of the Proleftant bifhops. The 20th of Apiil,
two days a*ter the end of thefe difputations, Cranmer
and the two others were brought before- the commif¬
fioners, and afked, Whethef they would fubicribe (to
Paper ) ? which they unanimoufly tefufing, were con¬
demnas heretics. From this fentence the archbtfhop
appealed to the juft judgment of th«’ Almighty j and
wrote to the council, giving them an account of the <
difputation, and defiring the queen’s pardon for his
treafon, which it feems was not yet remitted. By the
convocation which met this year, his Defence of the
true and Catholic Dodrine of the Sacrament of the
Body and Blood of our Saviour Chrift was ordered to
be burnt. Some of his friends petitioned the queen in
his behalf j putting her in mind how he had once pre-
ferved her in her father’s time by his earneft intercef-
fions with him for her, lb that (he had reafon to be¬
lieve he loved her, and would fpeak the truth to her
more than all the reft of the clergy. All endeavours
in his behalf, however^ were ineffe&ual ; and the arch-
biihop being degraded and moft ignominioufly treated,
was at laft flattered and terrified into an infincere re¬
cantation and renunciation of the Proteifant faith. But
this triumph was not Sufficient to gratify the pious, ven¬
geance of the Romifti Mary. On the 24th of Feb.
1556, a writ was ligned for the burning of Cranmer ;
and on the 24th March, which was the fatal day, he
was brought to St Mary’s church, Oxford, and placed
on a kind of ftage over againft the pulpit, where Dr
Cole, provoft of Eton, was appointed to preach a ier-
mon on the occafion. While Cole was haranguing,
the unfortunate Cranmer expreffed great inward con-
fufion ; often lifting up his hands and eyes to heaven,
and frequently pouring out floods of tears. At the
end of the ieimon, when Cole defired him to make an
open profeflion of his faith, as he had promifed him he
would, he firlt prayed in the moft fervent manner;
then made an exhortation to the people prefent, not to
fet their minds upon the world, to obey the king and
queen, to love each other, and to be charitable. Af¬
ter this he made a confeflion of his faith, beginning
with the creed, and concluding with thefe words ;
“ And I believe every word and fentence taught by
our Saviour Jelus Chrift, his apollles, and prophets, in
the Old and New Teftament.—And now (added he)
I come to the great thing that fo much troubleth my
confcience, more than any thing I ever did or faid in
my whole life ; and that is the fetting abroad a writ¬
ing contrary to the truth, which I here now renounce
as things written with my hand contrary to the truth
which 1 thought in my heart ; and written for fear of
death, and to fave my life if it might be: that is, all
fuch bills and papers which I have written or figned
with my hand fince my degradation, wherein 1 have
written many things untrue. And forafmuch as my
hand offended, writing contrary to my heart, my hand
(hall firlt be punilhed ; for, may I come to the fire, it
(hail be firft burned. As for the pope, I refufe him as
Chrift’s enemy and antichrift, with all his falfe doflrine.
And as for the facrament, 1 believe as I have tnught
in my book againft the bdhop of Winchefter.” Tbun-
derftruck as it were with this unexpected declaration,
the enraged Popifti crowd admonilhed him not to dif-
femble. “ Ah ! ( eplied he with tears) fince I lived
hitherto, I have been a hater of falfehood and a lover
of fimplicity, and never before this time have I diffem-
bled.” Whereupon they pulled him off the ftage with
the utmoft fury, and hurried him to the place of his
martyrdom over againft Baliol college j where he put
off his clothes in hade, and (landing in his (hirt, and
without fnoes, was fattened with a chain to the (take.
Some prefling him to agree to his former recantation,
he
C R A [71
Cranmer. he anfwered, fhowing his hand, “ This is the hand
 that wrote it, and therefore it (hall firlt fuffer punifh-
ment.” Fire being applied to him, he Itretched out
his right hand into the flam", and held it there unmo¬
ved (except that once with it he wiped his face) till it
was confumed ; crying with a loud voice, “ This hand
hath offended }” and often repeating, “ This unwor¬
thy right hand.” At laid the fire getting up, he foon
expired, never ftirring or crying out all the while j
only keeping his eyes fixed to heaven, and repeating
more than once, “ Lord Jefus receive my fpirit.” Such
was the end of the renowned Thomas Cranmer, in the
67th year of his age.
It wra& noticed above, that after the pafling of the aft
tor the fix articles, Archbilhop Cranmer fent his wife
into Germany. But (he afterwards returned again to
England ; and Mr Strype informs us that “ in the
time of King Edward, when the marriage of the clergy
was allowed, he brought her forth, and lived openly
with her.” Mr Gilpin fays, “ he left behind him a
widow and children •, but as he always kept his family
in obfcurity for prudential reafons, we know little
about them. They had been kindly provided for by
Henry VIII. •, wrho, without any felicitation from the
primate himfelf, gave him a confiderable grant from
the abbev o*7 Walbeck in Nottinghamlhire, which his
family enjoyed after his dece ife. King Edward made
fome addition to his private fortune *, and his heirs
were reftored in blood by an aft of parliament in the
reign of E’izabeth.
Archbilhop Crarnner wrote a great number of books:
many of them he publifhed himfelf; and many of
them ftill remain in MSS. viz. two folio volumes in
the king’s library, feveral letters in the Cotton collec¬
tion, &c.
Mr G Ipin remarks, That “ the charafter of the
archbilhop hath been equally the fubjeft of exaggera¬
ted piaife and of undefe'tved cmfure. The moll inde-
fenfible parts of the archbifhop’s chavafter are the rea-
dinefs with which he fometimes concurred in the un-
juft:fiable proceedings of Henry VIII. and tOe inftan-
ces wherein he fhowed himfelf to be aftuated by into¬
lerant principles.
“ He firlt recommended himfelf to Henry by the zeal
which he difplayed in promoting the king’s divorce
from Queen Catharine. As to this, it may be allow¬
ed, that D Cranmer might think the marriage wrong :
but though it poflibly might be a point of confcience
With the king, it could however he none with him ;
and there was manifeitly a difference between advifing
not to do a thing, and advifing to undo it when al¬
ready done, at leaf! in a matter of fo difputable a na¬
ture. On the ovher hand, to repudiate a wmman with
w om the king had cohabited near 20 years as his
wife, and to illegitimate a daughter, bred up in the
highefl expectations, and now? marriageable, wrnre afts
of fuch cruelty, that it feems to ird cate a want of
feeling to be in any degree acctfiary to them. To
this may be added, that the notoriety of the king’s
pnflion for Ann B deyn, which all men believed to be,
if not the firfl mover, at leaf! the principal fpring of
his pretended fcruples, threw7 a very indelicate impu¬
tation on all who had any concern in the affair. No
ferious churchman, one would imagine, could be fond
of the idea of adminiftering to tire king’s pafiions. It
7 ] c R A
is w7ith concern, therefore, that we fee a man of Dr
Cranmer’s integrity and fimplicity of manners afting
fo much out of charafter as to compound an affair of
this kind, if not with his confcience, at lead with all
delicacy of fentiment } and to parade through Europe,
in the quality of an ambaffador, defendmg everywhere
the king’s pious intentions. But the caufe (continues
Mr Gilpin) animated him. With the illegality of the
king’s marriage, he endeavoured virtually to eflablifli
the infufficiency of the pope’s difpenlation ; and the
latter was an argument fo near his heart, that it leems
to have added merit to the former. We cannot indeed
account for his embarking fo zealoufly in this bufinefs
without fuppofing his principal motive was to fiee his
country from the tyranny of Rome, to which this flep
very evidently led. So defirable an end would in fome
degree, he might imagine, fanftify the means.”
Of two of the inftances of perfecution in which
Archbifhop Cbanmer was concerned, Mr Gilpin gives
the following account. “ Joan Bucher and George
Paris were accufed, though at different times ; one for
denying the humanity of Chrift, the other for denying
his divinity. They w7ere b(?th tried and condemned
to the flake ; and the archbiihop not only confented
to thefe afts of blood, but even periuaded the averflon
of the young king into a compliance. ‘ Your rhajefty
mull diltinguilh (faid he, informing his royal pupil’s
confcience) between common opinions and fuch as are
the effential articles of faith. Thefe latter we mull on
no account fuffer to be oppofed.” Mr Gilpin juflly ub-
ferves, that u nothing even plaufible can be fuggefted
in defence of the archbifhop on this occafion, except
onlV that the Ipirit of Popery was not yet wholly re-
preffed.” Thefe inllances of injuflice and barbaiity
were indeed totally indefenfible, and a gieat difgrace
to Cranmer and to all w7ho were concerned in them.
It does not appear that he endeavoured to promote the
death of Lambert *, but, as Mr Gilpin obferves, it
were to be wifhed he had rid his hand of the depu¬
tation likewife. The public difputation, in which
Cfaniner bore fome part, proved the means of bring¬
ing Lambert to the flake.
One of the moll honourable tranfaftions of Arch-
bilhop Cranmer’s life, w7as the firm Hand that he made
againtl the aft of the fix articles. This aft was fo
flrongly fupported by the king, that even the Pro-
te fants in parliament made little oppofition to it. But
Cranmer oppofed it with great zeal and ileadinefs.
“ The good archbifhop ('ays Mr Gilpin) never ap¬
peared in a more truly Chriftian light than on this oc¬
cafion. In the midil of fo general a defeftiom (for
there were numbers in the houfe who had hitherto
ftiown great forwardnefs in reformation) he alone made
a (lind. Three days he maintained his ground, and
baffled the arguments of all oppofers. B it argument
was not their weapon, and the archbilhop faw him¬
felf obliged to fink under fuperior power. Henry or¬
dered him to leave the houfe. The primate retufed :
“ It was God’s bufinefs (he find), and not man’s;
And when he could do no more, he boldly entered his
protefl. Such an inffanCe of fortitude is fufficient to
wipe off many of thofe courtly flains which have fallen-
ed on his memory.”
His behaviour in the caufe of the duke of Norfolk
was alfo entitled to great commendation. “ The laft
aft
C R A { 7
Cranmer. a& of this reign (fays Mr Gilpin) was an a& of blood,
v and gave the archbifhop a noble opportunity of fhovv-
ing how well he had learned that great Chriflian leflon
of forgiving an enemy. Almolt without the fhadow
of juftice, Henry had given directions to have the duke
of Norfolk attainted by an a& of parliament. The
king’s mandate (food in lieu of guilt, and the bill
paffed the houfe with great eafe. No man, except the
bifhop of Winchefter, had been fo great an enemy to
the archbilhop as the duke of Norfolk. He had al¬
ways thwarted the primate’s meafures, and oftener than
once had praftifed againft his life. How many would
have leen with fecret pleafure the workings of Provi¬
dence againft fo rancorous an enemy j fatisfied in hav¬
ing themfelves no hand in his unjuft fate ! But the
archbiftrop faw the affair in another light : he faw it
with horror ; and although the king had in a particu¬
lar manner interefted himfelf in this bufinefs, the pri¬
mate oppofed the bill with all his might j and when
his oppofition was vain, he left the houfe with indig¬
nation, and retired to Croydon.”
He was indeed remarkable for the placability of his
temper, and for flrowing kindnefs to thofe by whom
he had been greatly injured. Hence it is mentioned
in Shakefpeare’s Henry VIII. as a common faying
concerning him :
*  —“ Do my lord of Canterbury
But one (hrewd turn, and he’s your friend for ever.”
Archbifhop Cranmer w'as a great friend and patron
of learned foreigners, who had been perfecuted for their
attachment to the principles of the reformation. Mr
Gilpin fays, ” the fuffering profeffors of Proteftantifm,
who were fcattered in great numbers about the vari¬
ous countries of Europe, were always fure of an afy-
lum with him. His palace at Lambeth might be call¬
ed a feminary of learned men j the greater part of
whom perfecution had driven from home. Here,
among other celebrated reformers. Martyr, Bucer,
Alefs, Phage, found fanftuary. Martyr, Bucer, and
Phage, were liberally penfioned by the archbifhop till
he could otherwife provide for them. It was his wu’flr
to fix them in the two univerfities, wftiere he hoped
their great knowledge and fpirit of inquiry would for¬
ward his defigns of reftoring learning ; and he at length
obtained profeffoiftvps for them all. Bucer and Phage
were fettled at Cambridge ; where they only fhowred
what might have been expected from them, both dy¬
ing within a few months after their arrival. But at
Oxford Martyr afted a very confpicuous part, and con¬
tributed to introduce among the ftudents there a very
liberal mode of thinking.
Of the learning of Archbifhop Cranmer, Mr Gilpin
remarks, that “ it was chiefly confined to his profef-
fion. He had applied himfelf in Cambridge to the
ftudy of the Greek and Hebrew’ languages; which
though efteemed at that time as the mark of herefy,
appeared to him the only fources of attaining a critical
knowledge of the Scriptures. He had fo accurately
ftudied canon law, that he was efteemed the beft ca-
nonift in England ; and his reading in theology was
fo extenfive, and his colleflions from the Fathers fo
very voluminous, that there were few points in which
he was not accurately informed, and in which he could
not give the opinions of the feveral ages of the church
I
[8 ] C R A
from the times of the apoftles. He was a fenfible Cranmef.
writer, rather nervous than elegant. His writings
were entirely confined to the great controverfy which
then fubfilled, and contain the w’hole fum of the theo¬
logical learning of thofe times. His library was filled
wflth a very noble colleftion of books, and was open to
all men of letters.
Mr Gilpin, after remarking that Archbifhop Cran¬
mer preached often wherever he vifited, fays, “ In his
fermons to the people he was very plain and inflruc-
tive ; infilling chiefly on the eflentials of Chriftianity.
The fubjedls of his fermons, for the moil part, w’ere
from w'hence falvation is to be fetched, and on whom
the confidence of man ought to lean. They infifted
much on doftrines of faith and w’orks; and taught
what the fruits of faith were, and what place was to be
given to works j they inftiu6!ed men in the duties
they owed their neighbour, and that every one was
our neighbour, to whom we might any way do good *,
they declared what men ought to think of themfelves
after they had done all ; and, laftly, what promifes
Chrift hath made, and who they are to whom he wdll
make them good. Thus he brought in the true preach¬
ing of the gofpel, altogether different from the ordi¬
nary way of preaching in thofe days; which was to
treat concerning faints, to tell legendary tales of them,
and to report miracles wrought for the confirmation
of tranfubftantiation and other popifh corruptions.
And fuch a heat of convidftion accompanied his fer¬
mons, that the people departed from them with minds
poffeffed of a great hatred of vice, and burning with a
defire of virtue.”
He was a great economift of his time. Mr Gilpin
fays, “ he rofe commonly at five o’clock and conti¬
nued in his ftudy till nine. Thefe early hours, he
would fay, were the only hours he could call his own.
After breakfaft he generally fpent the remainder of the
morning either in public or private bufinefs. His
chapel-hour was eleven, and his dinner-hour twelve.
After dinner he fpent an hour either in converfation
wflth his friends, in playing at chefs, or m, what he
liked better, overlooking a chefs-board. He then re¬
tired again to his ftudy till his chapel-bell rang at five.
After prayers, he generally walked till fix, which was
in thofe times the hour of fupper. His evening meal
was fparing. Often he ate nothing ; and when that
was the cafe, it was his ufual cuftom, as he fat dowm to
table, to draw on a pair of gloves ; which was as
much as to fay, that his hands had nothing to do.
After fupper, he fpent an hour in walking and another
in his ftudy, retiring to his bedchamber about nine.
This was his ufual mode of living when he was moft
vacant, but very often his afternoons as well as his
mornings were engaged in bufinefs. He generally,
however, contrived, if poffible, even in the bufieft day,
to devote fome portion of his time to his books be-
fides the morning. And Mr Fox tells us, he always
accuftomed himfelf to read and write in a Handing
pofture ; efteeming conftant fitting very pernicious to
a ftudious man.”
Mr Gilpin alfo obferves, “ that he was a very ami¬
able mafttr in his family, and admirably preferved the
difficult medium between indulgence and reftraint. He
had, according to the cuftom of the times, a very nu¬
merous retinue, among whom the moft exaft order
was
C R A [7
Cranmer was obferved. Every week the Reward of his houfe-
!1 hold held a kind of court in the great hall of his pa-
t Grantor. lace . jn which all family affairs were fettled, fervants
wages were paid, complaints were heard, and faults
examined. Delinquents were publicly rebuked, and
after the third admonition difcharged. His hofpi-
tality and charities were great and noble ; equal to
his Ration, greater often than his abilities. A plenti¬
ful table was among the virtues of thofe days. His
was always bountifully covered. In an upper room was
fpread his own, where he feldom wanted company of
the firft diftinaion. Here a great many learned fo¬
reigners were daily entertained, and partook of his
bounty. In his great hall a long table was plentifully
covered every day for guefts and ftrangers of a lower
rank: at the upper end of which were three fmaller
tables, defigned for his own officers and inferior gen¬
tlemen. Among other inftances of the archbifhop’s
charity, we have one recorded which was truly noble.
After the deftruftion of monafteries, and before hofpi-
tals were erefted, the nation faw no fpecies of greater
mifery than that of wounded and difbanded foldiers.
For the ufe offuch miferable objeas as were landed on
the fouthern coafts of the iiland, the archbifliop fitted
up his manor-houfe of Beckefbourn in Kent. He form¬
ed <it indeed into a complete hofpital ; appointing a
phyfician, a furgeon, nurfes, and every thing proper,
as well for food as phyfic. Nor did his charity ftop
here. Each man, on his recovery, was furmffied with
money to carry him home, in proportion to the diflance
of his abode.”
To conclude with the charaaer given by Mr Hume
tl Archbifhop Cranmer was undoubtedly a man of
merit \ poffeffed of learning and capacity \ and adorn¬
ed with candour, fincerity, and beneficence, and all
thofe virtues which were fitted to render him ufeful
and amiable in fociety. His moral qualities procured
him univerfal refpedl ; and the courage of his martyr¬
dom, though he fell ffiort of the rigid inflexibility ob¬
ferved in many, made him the hero of the Pioteftant
party.”
CRANNY, in glafs-making, an iron inftrument
wherewith the necks of glaffes are formed.
CRANTARA, among the ancient Britons, was a
fort of military fignal ufed for collefting the. difiant
and fcattered warriors to the ftandard of their chief.
A prince having immediate occafion for the affiftance
of his followers to repel fome fudden invafion or en¬
gage in fome expedition, befides ftriking the fhield
and founding the horn to give warning to thofe who
were within hearing, he fent the crantara, or a Rick
burnt at the end and dipped in the blood of a goat,
by a fwift meffenger, to the neareR hamlet, where he
delivered it without faying one word but the name of
the place of rendezvous. Phis crantara, which was
well underRood to denounce deRrudlion by fire and
fword to all who did not obey this fummons, was car¬
ried with great rapidity from village to village $ and
the prince In a little time found himfelf furrounded by
all his w’arriors ready to obey his commands.
GRANTOR, Jt Greek philofopher and poet, was
born at Solos in Cilicia. He left his native country
wheie he was admired ; went to Athens, and there
fludied with Polemon under Xenocrates. He was
confidered as one of the chief fupporters of the Pla-
19 J G R A
tonic feft ; and was the firR who wrote commentaries
upon Plato’s works. He flouri!hed| 270 years before
CbriR.
CRAPE, a light tranfparent Ruff, in manner of
gauze : made of raw filk gummed and twiRed on the
Crape
II
Crafliaw.
mill j woven without croffing, and much ufed in mourn-
ing.
Crapes are either craped, i. e. crifped, or fmoothj the
firR double, expreffing a clofer mourning *, the latter
Angle, ufed for that lefs deep. Note, White js.re-
ferved for young people, or thofe devoted to virginity.
The filk deRined for the firfl is more twiRed than that
for the fecond ; it being the greater or lefs degree of
twiRing, efpecially of the warp, which produces the
crifping given it when taken out of the loom, fleeped
in clear water, and rubbed with a piece of wax for the
purpofe.
Crapes are all dyed raw. The invention of this
Ruff came originally from Bologna : but the chief ma¬
nufacture of it is laid to be at Lyons.
HiRory tells us, that St Batbilda, queen of France,
made fine crape (crefia) of gold and filver, to lay over
the body of St Eloy. The Bollandifls own they can¬
not find what this crepa was. Binet fays, it was 3
frame to cover the body of the faint: but others, with
reafon, take it to be a tranfparent fluff, through which
the body might be feen •, and that this was the crepa
whence our word crape was formed.
CRAPULA, among phyficians, a term for Sur¬
feit.
CRASHAW, Richard, who was in his lifetime
honoured with the friendflrip of Cowley, and fince his
death by the praife of Mr Pope, who condefcended
both to read his poems and to borrow from them, was
the fon of William Crafliaw, an eminent divine, and
educated at the Charter-houfe near London. He was
then fent to Pembroke hall in Cambridge, and was af¬
terwards of Peter-houfe, where he was fellow ; in
both which colleges he was diflinguiflied for his Latin
and Englifli poetry. Afterwards he was ejefted from
his fellowfliip, together with many others, for denying
the covenant in the time of the rebellion ; and he
changed his religion, being by catholic artifices per¬
verted to the church of Rome ; not converted, but ra¬
ther, as Pope fays, outwitted. He went to Paris, in
hopes of recommending himfelf t® fome preferment
there *, but being a mere fcholar, was incapable of ex¬
ecuting the new plan he bad formed. There he fell
into great diflrefs, which Cowley the poet hearing of
in 1646, very kindly fought him out, gave him all the
affiflance he could, and at lafl got him recommended to
Henrietta Maria queen of England, then refiding at Pa¬
ris. Obtaining from her letters of recommendation, he
travelled into Italy *, and by virtue of thofe letters be¬
came fecretary to a cardinal at Rome, and at lafl one of
the canons or chaplains of the rich church of our lady
at Loretto, fome miles diflance from thence, where he
died and was buried about 1650. Before he left Eng¬
land he wrote certain poems, entitled, “ Steps to the
Temple:” “ becaufe (lays Wood) he led his life in
the temple of God, in St Mary’s church near to his
college. There, as we learn from the preface to
thefe poems, he lodged under Tertullian’s roof of
angels. There he made his nefl more gladly than
David’s fwallow near the houfe of God } where, like
C R A
:Crafis
I!
Craffiis
a primitive faint, he offered more prayers in the night
than others ulually offer in the day. There he penned
^ the (aid poems called “ Steps to the Temple for Hap¬
py Souls to Climb to Heaven by.” To the faid Steps
are joined other poems called “ The Delight of the
Mufes,” whetein are feveral Latin poems: which
though of a mere human mixture, yet they are fweet
as they are innocent. He hath alfo written Carmen
Deo nojlro, being hymns and other facred poems, ad-
dreffed to the countefs of Denbigh. He was excellent
in five languages befides his mother tongue, namely,
Hebrew, Greek, Latin, Italian, and Spanifh.
CRASIS (from “ to mix”), the temper of
the blood peculiar to every conftitution.
Crasis, in Grammar, is a figure whereby two dif¬
ferent letters are either contracted into one long letter
or a diphthong. Such, e. g. is t'Pn for for
aAijfe*, &c. for rt^sej, &.c. where « and * are con¬
tracted into and t and a. into » ; and t and « into ».
CRASSAMENTUM, in Phyfic, the thick red or
fibrous part of the blood, otherwife called cruor, in
Contradiftinftion to the ferum or aqueous part.
CRASSULA, LESSER ORPINE, or Live-ever: A
genus of plants, belonging to the pentandria clafs j
and in the natural method ranking under the 13th
order, Succulentce. See Botany Index.
CRASSUS, M. Licinius, a celebrated Roman,
furnamed Rich on account of his opulence. At firft
he was very circumfcribed in his circumftances, but
by educating flaves and felling them at a high price he
loon enriched himlelf. The cruelties of Cinna obliged
him to leave Rome, and he retired to Spain, where he
remained concealed for eight months. After Cinna’s
death he paffed into Africa, and thence to Italy, where
he ferved Sylla and ingratiated himfelf in his favour.
When the gladiators with Spartacus at their head had
fpread an univerfal alarm in Italy and defeated fome
of the Roman generals, Craffus was fent againft them.
A battle was fought, in which Craffus flaughtered
12,000 of the flaves, and by this decifive blow foon
put an end to the war, and was honoured wuth an
ovatio at his return. He was foon after made conful
with Pompey in the year of Rome 682;, and in this
high office he difplaved his opulence by entertaining
the populace at 10,000 tables. He was afterwards
cenfor, and formed the firfl: triumvirate with Pompey
and Casfar. As his love of riches was more predo¬
minant than that of glory, Craffus never imitated the
ambitious conduct of his colleagues, but was fatisfied
with the province of Syria, which feemed to promife
an inexhauftible fource of wealth. With hopes of en-
larging his poffeffions he fet off from Rome, though
the omens proved unfavourable, and every thing feem¬
ed to threaten his ruin. He croffed the Euphrates,
and forgetful of the rich cities of Babylon and Seleu-
cia, he haftened to make himfelf mailer of Parthia.
He was betrayed in his march by the delay of Arta-
vafdes king of Armenia, and the perfidy of Ariamnes.
He was met in a large plain by Surena the general of
the forces of Orodes king of Parthia, and a battle was
fought in which 20,000 Romans were killed and
10 000 taken prifoners. The darknefs of the night
favoured the efcape of the refl 5 and Craffus, forced by
the mutiny and turbulence of his foldiers, and the
treachery of his guides, trufted himfelf to the general
[ 72° 1
c R A
of the enemy on pretence of propofing terms of accom- Crataegus,
modation, and he was killed. His bead was cutoff 
and fent to Orodes, who poured melted gold dowm
his throat, and infulted his misfortunes. Though he
has been called avaricious, yet he Ihowed himfelf al¬
ways ready of lending money to his friends without in-
tereft. He was fond of pbilofophy, and his knowledge
of hiflory was great and extenfive.
CRATAEGUS, WILD service tree, hawthorn,
&c. A genus of plants, belonging to the icofandria
clafs ; and in the natural method ranking under the
36ih order, Pomace*. See Botany Index.
The oxycanthus, hawthorn, or white thorn, grows
naturally all over Europe. It is fometimes cultivated
as an ornamental tree, but it is chiefly propagated for
the purpofe of planting as a fence. In order to pro¬
pagate a quantity of quick, one method is generally
praftifed } namely, fiift burying the haws, and taking
them up to fow the October following ; though, fays
Hanbury, there is another way more preferable ;
namely, to prepare the beds, and fow the haws loon
after they are gathered. Whoever purfues the former
method, having gathered what quantity of haws will
an(w7er his purpofe, (hould in fome bye-corner of the
kitchen-garden or nurfery dig a hole or pit capacious
enough to receive them j fome of the earth which came
out of the hole, after the haws are put in it, Ihould be
laid upon them j and being thus carefully covered down,
they may remain there till Oftober. ' Then, having
ground well dug, and cleared of the roots of all
troublefome weeds, and the mould being fit for work-
ing, the beds fliould be made for the haws. Four
feet is a very good width of thefe beds, as they may
be eafily reached over to be weeded 5 and if the alleys
between be each one foot and a half wide, they will
be of a good fize. The beds being marked out with a
line, fuflicient mould muff be taked out to cover the
haws an inch and a half deep. This being done, and the
bottom of the beds being made level and even the
haws fliould be fown, and afterwards gently tapped
down with the back of the fpade ; and then the fine
mould, which had been raked out of the beds, muff
be thrown over them, covering them an inch and a
half deep. In the fpring the plants w ill come up, and
in the fummer following fliould be kept clear of weeds j
though it does fometimes happen, that few of them
will appear till the fecond fpring after lowing. Some¬
times the young plants are planted out from the feed-
beds at one, two, or three years old ; but the bell plants
are obtained by tranfplanting them into frelh mould
the firft or fecond year, letting them remain in the
nurfery two or three years longer. The pra&ice of
the London nurferymen is this: The ftrongeft of the
feed-bed plants having been drawm at two or three years
old for fale, they clear the beds entirely by drawing
the remaining w-eak underling plants, and tranfplanting
them into frelh beds in this manner, which they call
bedding them : The ground having been trenched, and
the tips of the plants as well as the lower fibres of their
roots having been taken off with a fharp knife, they
ftrain a line along one fide of the bed j and by chop¬
ping with a fpade by the fide df the line, leave a clift
or drill of a depth propoitioned to the length of the
plants to be laid in ; and drawing the loofe mould
fomewhat towards them, leave the fide of the drill next
to
C R A t 72! ] C R A
Cratches to the line with a fmooth poliftied face. Againft this
II face the plants are fet up, leaning towards the line,
Crat,:>' . about three inches afunder, leaving their heads about
~ v an inch above the mould, an^ placing their roots at
fuch a depth as to bury their ftems from two to three
inches deeper than they flood in the feed-bed. The
loofe mould being returned and preffed gently to the
roots with the foot, the line is removed, and another
row planted in the fame manner about a foot from
the firfl.
CRATCHES, in the manege, a fwelling on the
paflern, under the fetlock, and fometimes under the
hoof-, for which reafon it is diftinguilhed into the
Anew cratches, which affeft the Anew, and thofe upon
the coronet, called quitter-bones.
CRA.TER, Cup, in AJironomy, a conftellation
of the fouthern hemifphere $ whofe ftars, in Ptolemy’s
catalogue, are feven ; in Tycho’s, eight; in Heveli-
us’s ten ; in the Britannic catalogue, thirty-one.
Crater is alfo ufed to Agnify the mouth or opening
of a volcano or burning mountain, from whence the
Are is difcharged. See Volcano.
CRATES, of Thebes, a famous philofopher, was
the difciple of Diogenes the Cynic. It is faid that he
threw all his money into the fea, that he might the
more freely apply himfelf to the ftudy of philofo-
phy. Others affert that he placed it into another per-
fon’s hands, with orders to give it to his children if
they fhould happen to be fools: For (faid Crates), if
they ftiould be philofophers, they will have no need of
it: in which cafe it was to be given to the people. He
flourilhed about 328 years before Cnrifl.
He ought not to be confounded with Crates, a fa¬
mous Academic philofopher, the difciple and friend of
Polemon. This laft Crates had ArceAlaus and other
celebrated philofophers for his difciples j and flourifhed
about 300 vears before Chrift.
CRATEVA, the garlic pear : A genus of plants
belonging to the dodecandria clafs; and in the natural
method ranking under the 25th order, Putaminece.
See Botany Index.
CRATINUS, an ancient comic poet, of whom we
fhould fcarcely have known any thing, had not Quin¬
tilian, Horace, and PerAus, mentioned him, Eupolis,
and Ariftophanes, as the great mafters of what we
call the ancient comedy. It is gathered that he died
in the 87th Olympiad. Suidas tells us that he wrote
21 plays, and that he was fplendid and bright in his
characters.
CRATIPPUS, a celebrated Peripatetic philofo¬
pher, was a native of Mitylene, where he taught phi-
lofophy : but at length went to Athens, where Brutus
and the fon of Cicero were his difciples. Pnmpey
went to fee him after the battle of Pharfalia, and pro-
pofed to him his difficulties in relation to the belief of
a Providence ; when Cratippus comforted him, and by
forcible arguments anfwered his obje&ions. He wrote
fome pieces about divination : and is fuppofed to be
the fame with him whom Tertullian, in his book De
Anima, has ranked among the writers upon dreams.
CRATO, a fmall town of Portugal, in the province
of Alentejo, with a rich priory. It is the chief com-
mandery which the knights of Malta have in Portugal.
W. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat. 38. <o.
Vol. VI. Part II.
CRAVEN, a town of France, in Burgundy, re¬
markable' for its good wine, and for a battle fought
there between the Engliffi and French. It is feat-
ed near the confluence of the rivers Cure and Yonne.
E. Long. 3 30. N. Lat. 47. 42.
CRAVEN, or Cravent, a word of reproach, ufed
in trials by battel. See Battel.
CRAX, the cura/fiju, a genus of birds, belonging
to the order of gallinae. See Ornithology Index.
CRAY-fish, or CitAjr-FiJh. See Cancer, Ento¬
mology Index.
GRAYER, Caspar de, a celebrated painter, was
born at Antwerp in 1585, and was a difciple of Ra¬
phael Coxis, the fon of that Coxis who had ftudied
under Raphael; but he foon ihowed fuch proofs of
genius, and of an elevated capacity, that he far fur-
paffed his mafter. Afterwards he made judicious ob-
fervations on the particular excellencies of the moft re¬
nowned mafters to which he had any accefs; and taking
nature for his conftant direftor and guide, he formed
for himfelf a manner that was exceedingly pleafing.
The firft work which eftablilhed him in the favour of
the court at Bruffels, was a portrait of Cardinal Fer¬
dinand, brother to the king of Spain, which he paint¬
ed at full length, and as large as life. In that pifture
he fucceeded fo happily, that it was fent to Madrid,
and received there with fuch concurrent approbation
of the king and the whole court, that it laid the foun¬
dation of the fame and fortune of Grayer. For the
king, as an acknowledgment of the painter’s merit,
fent him a gold chain with a medal; and added, as a
farther inftance of his favour, an appointment for a
confiderable penfion. But nothing places the talents
of Grayer in a ftronger light, than the teftimony .of fo
excellent an artift as Rubens. That great man went
to Antwerp particularly to vifit Grayer, and to fee
his wmrk j and after examining attentively a pifture of
his painting, in the refeftory of the abbey of Affleg-
hem, he publicly declared that no painter could fur-
pafs Grayer. Nor was this mafter lefs diftinguilhed by
Vandyck, who ahvays expreffed a real efteem and
friendlhip for him, and painted his portrait. He had
fomew’hat lefs fire in his compofitions than Rubens,
but his defign is frequently more correft. His com¬
pofitions generally confifted of a fmall number of fi¬
gures ; and with difcreet judgment, he avoided the en¬
cumbering his defign with fuperfluous particulars, or
loading his fubjett with any thing that feemed not to
contribute to its elegance or probability. He grouped
his figures with Angular fkill, and his expreflions have
all the truth of nature. There is a remarkable variety
in his draperies, and an equal degree of fimplicity in
their folds; and as to his colouring, it is admirable-
Of all his cotemporary painters, he was accounted to
approach neareft to Vandyck, not only in hiftory but
in portrait. He principally painted religious fubje&s,
and was continually at work ; and although he lived to
a great age, yet his temperance and conftant regula¬
rity preferved to him the full ufe of all his faculties j
and to the laft month of his life his pencil retained the
fame force and freedom which it poffeffed in his moft
vigorous time. The fubjeft of that piflure which was
fo honoured by the approbation of Rubens is the Cen¬
turion alighting from his horfe to proftrate himfelf at
4 Y th&
d: aven
C R A [72
Crayou, tlic feet of our Saviour. It is a' capital defign of
Crayon- Crayer j and although it confifts of a great number
painting. figures, the harmony and union are well preferved.
CRAYON, a general name for all coloured ftones,
earths, or other minerals and fubftances, ufed in de-
ligning or painting in paftel; whether they have been
beaten and reduced to a pafte, or are ufed in their pri¬
mitive confidence, after fawing or cutting them into
long narrow flips. In this lall manner are red crayons
made, of blood-ftone or red chalk j black ones, of
charcoal and black lead. Crayons of all other colours
are compofitions of earths reduced to pafte.
CRAYON-Painting. Whether the painter works with
oil colours, water-colours, or crayons, the grand objeft
of his purfuit is ftill the fame : a juft imitation of na¬
ture. But each fpecies has its peculiar rules and me¬
thods. Painting with crayons requires in many re-
fpe&s a treatment different from painting in oil-co¬
lours $ becaufe all colours ufed dry are in their na¬
ture of a much warmer complexion than when wet
with oils, &c. For this reafon, in order to produce
a rich pifture, a much greater portion of what pain¬
ters term cooling teints muft be applied in crayon paint¬
ing than would be judicious to ufe in oils. Without
any danger of a miftake, it is to be fuppofed, the not
being acquainted with this obfervation is one great
caufe why fo many oil painters have no better fuc-
cefs when they attempt crayon-painting. On the
contrary, crayon painters being To much ufed to thofe
teints which are of a cold nature when ufed wet, are
apt to introduce them too much when they paint with
oils, which is feldom produdlive of a good effedl.
We (hall now endeavour to give the ftudents fome
directions towards the attainment of excellence in this
art.
Of the Application of the Crayons, with fome previous
Difpqfitions. The ftudent muft provide himfelf with
fome ftrong blue paper, the thicker the better, if the
grain is not too coarfe or knotty, though it is almoft
impoflible to get any entirely free from knots. The
knots ftiould be levelled with a penknife or razor,
otherwife they will prove exceedingly troublefome.
After this is done, the paper muft be palled very fmooth
on a linen cloth, previoufly ftrained on a deal frame,
the lize according to the artift’s pleafure : on this the
pidlure is to be executed ; but it is moft eligible not to
pafte the paper on till the whole fubjeCt is firft dead co¬
loured. The method of doing this is very eafy, by
laying the paper with the dead-colour on its face, upon
a fmooth board or table, when, by means of a brulh,
the back fide of the paper rauft be covered with pafte ;
the frame, with the ftrained cloth, muft then be laid on
the pafted fide of the paper; after which turn the paint¬
ed fide uppernioft, and lay a piece of clean paper up¬
on it, to prevent fmearing it : this being done, it
may be ftroked gently over with the hand ; by which
means all the air between the cloth and the paper will
be forced out.
When the pafte is perfeftly dry, the ftudent may
proceed with the painting. The advantages arifing
from palling the paper on the frame according to this
method, after the piaure is begun, are very great, as
the crayons will adhere much better than any other
way ; which will enable the ftudent to finifti the picture
with a firmer body of colour and greater luftre.
2 ] c R A
When the painters want to make a very correCt copy Crayon-
of a picture, they generally make ufe of tiffany or pamting.
black gauze, ftrained tight on a frame, which they lay v '
flat on the fubjeCt to be imitated, and with a piece of
flcetching chalk trace ail the outlines on the tiffany.
They then lay the canvas to be painted on flat upon
the floor, placing the tiffany with the chalked lines up¬
on it, and with an handkerchief brufh the whole over;
this prefents the exaft outlines of the picture on the
canvas. The crayon painter may alfo make ufe of
this method when the fubjeCI of his imitation is in
oils; but in copying a crayon-pifture, he muft have
recourfe to the following method, on account of the
glafs.
The pifture being placed upon the eafel, let the out¬
lines be drawn on the glafs with a fmall camel’s hair
pencil dipped in lake, ground thin with oils, which
muft be done with great exaftnefs. After this is ac-
compliftied, take a (heet of paper of the fame fize and
place it on the glafs, ftroking over all the lines with
the hand, by which means the colour will adhere to
the paper, which muft; be pierced with pin-holes pret¬
ty clofe to each other. The paper intended to be ufed
for the painting muft next be laid upon a table, and
the pierced paper placed upon it ; then with fome
fine-pounded charcoal, tied up in a piece of lawn, rub
over the pierced lines, which will give an exaft out¬
line ; but great care muft be taken not to brufti this
off till the whole is drawn over with iketching chalk,
which is a compofition made of whiting and tobacco-
pipe clay, rolled like the crayons, and pointed at each
end.
When a ftudent paints immediately from the life, it
will be moft prudent to make a correCt drawing of the
outlines on another paper, the fize of the picture he is
going to paint, which he may trace by the preceding
method, becaufe erroneous ftrokes of the fketching
chalk (which are not to be avoided without great ex-
pertnefs) will prevent the crayons from adhering to
the paper, owing to a certain greafy quality in the com¬
pofition.
The ftudent will find the fitting pofture, with the
box of crayons in his lap, the moft convenient method
for him to paint. The part of the picture he is im¬
mediately painting (hould be rather below his face;
for, if it is placed too high, the arm will be fatigued.
Let the window's of the room where he paints be dark¬
ened, at leaf! to the height of fix feet from the
ground ; and the fubjeCl to be painted fhould be fitua-
ated in fuch a manner, that the light may fall with
every advantage on the face, avoiding too much fhadow,
which feldom has a good effeCt in portrait painting,
efpecially if the face he paints from has any degree of
delicacy.
Before he begins to paint, let him be attentive to
his fubjeCI, and appropriate the aCtion or attitude pro¬
per to the age of the fubjeCI : if a child, let it be
childiflb ; if a young lady, exprefs more vivacity than
in the majeftic beauty of a middle-aged woman, who
alfo fhould not be expreffed with the fame gravity as a
perfon far advanced in years. Let the tmbellifh-
ments of the picture, and introduction of birds, ani¬
mals, &c. be regulated by the rules of propriety and
confiftency.
The features of the face being correCtly drawn with
chalks,
C R A [ 723 1 G R A
Crayon- chalks, let the ftudent take a crayon of pure carmine,
painting. ancj carefully draw the noftril and edge of die nofe
^ "" * next the ihadowj then, with the fainteft carmine teint,
lay in the higheft light upon the nofe and forehead,
which muft be executed broad. He is then to proceed
gradually with the fecond teint, and the fucceeding
ones, till he arrives at the fhadows, which muft. be co¬
vered brilliant, enriched with much lake, carmine, and
deep green. This method will at firft offenfively ftrike
the eye, from its crude appearance ; but in the finifti-
ing, it will be a good foundation to produce a plea-
fing effedt, colours being much more eafily fullied when
too bright than when the firft colouring is dull, to
raife the pidfure into a brilliant ftate. The feveral
pearly teints difcernible in fine complexions muft be
imitated with blue verditer and white, which anfwers
to the ultramarine teints ufed in oils. But if the parts
of the face where thefe teints appear are in (hadow, the
crayons compofed of black and white muft be fubftitu-
ted in their place.
Though all the face when firft coloured Ihould be
laid in as brilliant as poftible, yet each part fhould be
kept in its proper tone j by which means the rotundity
«f the face will be preferved.
Let the ftudent be careful, when he begins the eyes,
to draw them with a crayon inclined to the carmine
teint, of whatever colour the irifes are of; he muft
lay them in brilliant, and at firft not loaded with co¬
lour, but executed lightly : no notice is to be taken of
the pupil yet. The ftudent muft let the light of the
eye incline very much to the blue caft, cautioufly
avoiding a flaring white appearance (which, when
once introduced, is feldom overcome), preferving a
broad ftiadow thrown on its upper part by the eye-
lalh. A black and heavy teint is alfo to be avoided in
the eyebrows j it is therefore beft to execute them
like a broad glowing fliadow at firft, on wdiich, in the
finilhing, the hairs of the brow are to be painted ) by
which method of proceeding, the former teints will
Ihow themfelves through, and produce the moft plea-
fin g effedf.
The ftudent fhould begin the lips with pure carmine
and lake, and in the Ihadow ufe fome carmine and
black ; the ftrong vermilion teints ftiould be laid on
afterwards. He muft beware of executing them with
ftiff, harfh lines, gently intermixing each with the
neighbouring colours, making the fliadow beneath
broad, and enriched with brilliant crayons. He muft
form the corner of the mouth with carmine, brown
ochre, and greens, varioufly intermixed. If the hair
is dark, he Ihould preferve much of the lake and deep
carmine teints therein ; this may eafily be overpowered
by the warmer hair-teints, which, as obferved in paint¬
ing the eyebrows, will produce a richer effedt when
the pidture is finiftied •, on the contrary, if this method
is unknown or negledled, a poverty of colouring will
be difcernible.
After the ftudent has covered over, or, as artifts
term it, has dead-coloured the head, he is to fweeten
the whole together, by rubbing it over with his fin¬
ger, beginning at the ftrongeft light upon the fore¬
head, pafiing his finger very lightly, and uniting it
with the next teint, which he muft continue till the
whole is fweetened together, often wiping his finger
on a towel to prevent the colours being fullied. He
muft be cautious not to fmooth or fweeten his pidlure Crayon-
too often, becaufe it will give rife to a thin and fcanty painting.
effedl, and have more the appearance of a drawing
than a folid painting ; as nothing but a body of rich
colours can conftitute a rich effect. To avoid this (as
the ftudent finds it neceffary to fweeten with the fin¬
ger), he muft commonly replenilh the pidture with
more crayon.
When the head is brought to fome degree of for-
wardnefs, let the back-ground be laid in, w'hich muft
be treated in a different manner, covering it as thin as
poflible, and rubbing it into the paper with a leather
flump. Near the face the paper fliould be almoft free
from colour, for this will do great fervice to the head,
and by its thinnefs give both a foft and folid appear¬
ance. In the back ground alfo, no crayon that has
whiting in its compofition Ihould be ufed, but chiefly
fuch as are the moft brilliant and the leaf! adulterated.
The ground being painted thin next the hair, will give
the ftudent an opportunity of painting the edges of the
hair over in a light and free manner when he gives the
finifliing touches.
The ftudent having proceeded thus far, the face,
hair, and back-ground being entirely covered, he muft
carefully view the whole at fome diftance, remarking
in what refpedl it is out of keeping, that is, what parts
are too light and what too dark, being particularly
attentive to the white or chalky appearances, which
muft be fubdued with lake and carmine. The above
method being properly put into execution, will produce
the appearance of a painting principally compofed of
three colours, viz. carmine, black, and white, which
is the beft preparation a painter can make for the pro¬
ducing a fine crayon piflure.
The next ftep is, to complete the back-ground
and the hair, as the duft, in painting thefe, will fall
on the face, and would much injure it if that was
completed firft. From thence proceed to the fore¬
head, finithing downward till the whole pi£ture is corm-
pleted.
In painting over the forehead the laft time, begin
the higheft light with the moft faint vermilion teint,
in the fame place where the faint carmine was firft
laid, keeping it broad in the fame manner. In the
next fhade 1'ucceeding the lighted, the ftudent muft
work in fome light blue teints, compofed of verditer
and white, intermixing with them fome of the deeper
vermilion teints, fweetening them together with great
caution, infenfibly melting them into one another, in-
creafing the proportion of each colour as his judgment
fhall direft. Some brilliant yellows may alio be ufed,
but fparingly; and towards the roots of the hair,
ftrong verditer teints, intermixed with greens, will be
of Angular fervice. Cooling crayons, compofed of
black and white, ftiould fucceed thefe, and melt into the
hair. Beneath the eyes, the fweet pearly teints are to
be preferved, compofed of verditer and white, and
under the nofe, and on the temples, the fame may
be ufed ; beneath the lips, teints of this kind alfo are
proper, mixing them with the light greens and fome
vermilion.
In finifliing the cheeks, let the pure lake clear them
from any dull contrafted from the other crayons; then
with the lake may be intermixed the bright vermilion }
and laft of all (if the fubjett fliould require it) a few
4 Y 2 touches
c R A [ 7-H ] G R A
Crayon- touches of die orange-coloured crayon, but with ex- When the fludent paints the neck, he (hould avoid
painting. treme caution ; after, fweeten that part with the fin- exprefling the mufcles too ftrong in the fttm, nor
ger as little as poflible, for fear of producing a heavy fliould the bones appear too evident on the chefl, as
difagreeable effea on the cheeks; as the beauty of a both have an unpleafing effedf, denoting a violent agi-
crayon-pidure confifts in one colour fliowing itfelf tation of the body ; a circumlfance feldom neceffary^to
through, or rather between, another : this the ftudent exprefs in portrait-painting. The moft neceffary part
cannot too often remark, it being the only method of to be expreffed, and which fhould ever be obferved,
imitating beautiful complexions. (even in the moft delicate fubjeds,) is a ftrong mark-
The eye is the moft difficult feature to execute in ing juft above the place where the collar bones unite :
crayons, as every pait muft be exprefled with the ut- and if the head is much thrown over the fhoulders.
moft nicety, to appear finiffied 5 at the fame time that
the painter muft preferve its breadth and folidity while
he is particularizing the parts. To accomplfth this,
it will be a good general rule for the ftudent to ufe his
crayon in fweetening as much, and his finger as little,
as poffible. When he wants a point to touch a fmall
part with, he may break off a little of his crayon
againft the box, which will produce a corner fit to work
wdth in the minuteft parts. If the eye-lafhes are dark,
he muft ufe fome of the carmine and brown ochre, and
the crayon of carmine and black ; and with thefe he
mav alfo touch the iris of the eye (if brown or hazel),
making a broad fliadow, caufed by the eye-laffi. Red
teints of vermilion, carmine, and lake, will execute
the corners of the eye properly j but if the eyelids are
too red, they will have a difagreeable fore appearance.
The pupil of the eye muft be made of pure lamp¬
black : between this and the lower part of the iris,
the light will catch very ftrong, but it muft not be
made too fudden, but be gently diffufed round the pu¬
pil till it is loft in {hade. When the eye-balls are fuf-
ficiently prepared, the ftiining fpeck muft be made with
a pure white crayon, which ffiould be firlt broken to
a point, and then laid on firm ; but as it is poffible
they may be defeffive in neatnefs, they ffiould be cor-
redled wTith a pin, taking off the redundant parts, by
which means they may be formed as neat as can be re¬
quired.
The difficulty, with refpefl to the nofe, is to pre¬
ferve the lines properly determined, and at the fame
time fo artfully blended into the cheek, as to exprefs
its projedfion, and yet no real line to be perceptible
upon a clofe examination ; in fome circumftances it
ffiould be quite blended with the cheek, which appears
behind it, and determined entirely with a flight touch
of red chalk. The ffiadow caufed by the nofe is gene¬
rally the darkeft in the whole face, partaking of no
refleflion from its furrounding parts. Carmine and
brown ochre, carmine and black, and fuch brilliant
crayons, will compofe it beft.
The ftudent having before prepared the lips with the
ftrongert lake and carmine, &c. muft with thefe co¬
lours make them completely correff j and wffien finiffi-
ing, introduce the ftrong vermilions, but with great
caution, as they are extremely predominant. This, if
properly touched, will give the lips an appearance
equal, if not fuperior, to thofe executed in oils, not-
withftanding the feeming fuperiority the latter has, by
means of glazing (a), of which the former is entirely
deftitute.
fome notice fliould be taken of the large mufcle that
rifes from behind the ear, and is inferted into the pit
between the collar bones. All inferior mufcles fliould
be, in general, quite avoided. The ftudent will find
this caution neceffary, as moft fubjefls, efpecially thin
perfons, have the mufcles of the neck much more evi¬
dent than would be judicious to imitate. As few
necks are too long, it may be neceffary to give fome
addition to the ftem, a fault on the other fide being
quite unpardonable, nothing being more ungraceful
than a ffiort neck. In colouring the neck, let the ftu¬
dent preferve the ftem of a pearly hue, and the light
not fo ftrong as on the cheft. If any part of the breaft:
appears, its tranfparency muft alfo be expreffed by
pearly teints ; but the upper part of the cheft ffiould
be coloured with beautiful vermilions delicately blend¬
ed with the other.
Of the Drapery. Dark blue, purple, black, pink,
and all kinds of red draperies alfo, fliould be firft tin¬
ged with carmine, which will render the colours much
more brilliant than any other method j over this ffiould
be laid on the paper the middle teint (a medium be¬
tween the light and dark teints, of which the drapery
is to be painted), except the dark maffes of fliadow,
which ffiould be laid on at firft as deep as poffible j
thefe, fweetened with the finger, being deftitute of the
fmaller folds, will exhibit a mafterly breadth, which
the leffer folds when added, ought by no means to
deftroy. With the light and dark teints, the fmaller
parts are next to be made with freedom, executing as
much with the crayon, and as little with the finger, as
poflible 5 in each fold touching the laft ftroke with the
crayon, which ftroke the finger muft never touch. In
the cafe of refleftions, the fimple touch of the crayon
will be too harffi, therefore fingering wall be neceffary
afterwards, as reflected lights are always more gentle
than thofe which are diredft. With refpeft to reflec¬
tions in general, they muft: always partake of the fame
colour as the objedl reflefting, but in the cafe of Angle
figures, it may be ufeful to make fome particular ob-
fervations.
In a blue drapery, let the reflexions be of a greenifli
caft ; in green draperies, make them of a yellow teint j
in yellow, of an orange *, in orange, refleX a reddiffi
caft ; in all reds, (omething of their owm nature, but
inclined to the yellow : black ffiould have a reddifti re*
fleXion ; the refleXion of a reddifti teint will alfo pre-
fent purples to the beft: advantage.
Of whatever colour the drapery is, the refleXion
on the face muft: partake thereof, otherwile the pic¬
ture,
Crayon-
painring.
(a) The method with which painters in oils exprefs tranfparency in the lips is, by painting them firft with
light vermilion teints, and, when dry, touching them over with pure lake.
C R A [ 725 j C R A
Crayon- ture, like paintings on glafs, will have but a gaudy
painting, gfe#.
w Linen, lace, fur, &c. (hould be touched fpiritedly
with the crayon, fingering very little, except the latter j
and the laft touches, even of this, like all other parts,
{hould be executed with the crayon, without fweetening
with the finger.
The methods above recommended have been prac-
tifed by the mod celebrated crayon-painters, whofe
works have been held in public eftimation ; but the
knowledge of, and ability to execute, each feparate part
with brilliancy and truth, will be found very infuffi-
cient to conftitute a complete painter, without his
judgment enables him to unite them with each other,
by corre&nefs of drawing, propriety of light and fha-
dow, and harmony of colouring. In order to accom-
plilh this, the ftudent fhould carefully avoid finilhing
one part in particular, till he has properly confidered
the connexion it is to have with the reft. The ne-
gledt of this is the principal reafon why the perfor¬
mances of indifferent painters are fo deftitute of what
is termed breadth, fo confpicuoufly beautiful in the
works of great mafters. It muft be granted, that this
obfervation relates more particularly to large compo-
fitions, where a diverfity of figures requires fuch a ju¬
dicious difpofition, that each may affift in the combi¬
nation of a kind of univerfal harmony 5 yet, even in
portrait-painting, the ftudent ftiould be particularly
attentive to obferve this idea of breadth, if he is defi-
rous of acquiring that importance and dignity which
conftitutes excellence in painting.
Of the Materials. The perfeftion of the crayons con-
fifts, in a great meafure, in their foftnefs •, for it is im-
poftible to execute a brilliant pi£lure with them if they
are otherwife j on which account great care {hould
be obferved in the preparing them, to prevent their
being hard. In all compofitions, flake-white and
white-lead {hould be wholly rejected, becaufe the flight-
eft touch with cither of thefe would unavoidably turn
black.
The ufual objection to crayon-paintings is, that they
are fubjeft to change $ but whenever this happens,
it is entirely owing to an injudicious ufe of the above-
mentioned whites, which will ftand only in oils. To
obviate the bad effects arifing from the ufe of fuch
crayons, let the ftudent make ufe of common whiting
prepared in the following manner.
Take a large veffel of water, put the w'hiting into
it, and mix them well together ; let this ftand about
half a minute, then pour off the top into another vef¬
fel, and throw the gritty fediment aw'ay ; let w>hat is
prepared reft about a minute, and then pour it off as be¬
fore, which will purify the whiting and render it free
from all dirt and grittinefs. When this is done let
the whiting fettle, and then pour the water from it ;
after which, lay it on the chalk to dry, and keep it
for ufe, either for white crayons, or the purpofe of pre¬
paring teints with other colours, for with this all other
teints may be fafely prepared. If the fhident choofes
to make crayons of the whiting immediately after it
is waftied, it is not neceffary to dry it on the chalk,
for it may be mixed inftantly with any other colour,
which will fave confiderable trouble. All colours of a
heavy or gritty nature, efpecially blue verditer, muft
be purified by walking after this method.
The ftudent muft be provided with a large, flexible
pallet-knife, a large ftone and muller to levigate the Pa*ntlri&‘
colours, two or three large pieces of chalk to abforb "   v
the moifture from the colours after they are levigated,
a piece of flat glafs to prevent the moifture from be¬
ing abforbed too much, till the colours are rolled into
form, and veffels for water, fpirits, &c. as neceflity
and convenience {hall direft.
I. Reds. It is rather difficult to procure either
good carmine or good lake. Good carmine is inclin¬
ed to the vermilion teint, and good lake to the car¬
mine teint. The carmine crayons are prepared in the
following manner.
1. Carmine. As their texture is inclinable to hard-
nefs, inftead of grinding and rolling them, take a
fufficient quantity of carmine, lay it upon the grind-
ing-ftone, mix it with a levigating knife wdth fpirits
of wine till it becomes fmooth and even. The chalk-
ftone being ready, lay the colour upon it to abforb the
fpirit ; but be careful that it is laid on in a proper ftate
for painting. If it is levigated too thin, the crayons
will be too flat; and if too thick, it will occafion a
wafte of colour, by their adhering to the pallet knife j
but praflice will render the proper degree of confiftency
familiar. The fimple colour being prepared, the next
ftep is to compofe the different teints by a mixture
with whiting j the proportion to be obferved confifting
of 20 gradations to one, which may be clearly under-
ftood by the following direftions. Take fome of the
fimple colour, and levigate it with fpirit of wine, ad¬
ding about one part of waffied whiting to three parts
of carmine, of which, when properly incorporated, make
two parcels. The next gradation {hould be compofed
of equal quantities of carmine and whiting, of which
four crayons may be made. The third compofition.
ffiould have one fourth carmine and three fourths
whiting y of this make fix crayons, which will- be a
good proportion for the reft. The laft teint fliould
be made of whiting, very faintly tinged with carmine,
of which make about eight crayons, which will com¬
plete the above-mentioned proportion. As thefe com¬
pound teints are levigated, they are to be laid imme¬
diately upon the chalk, that the moiftuce may be ab¬
forbed to the proper degree of drynefs- for forming
into crayons, which may be known by its lofing the
greater part of its adhefive quality when taken into
the hand ; if the confiftency is found to be right, it
may be then laid upon the glafs, which having no
pores, will prevent the moifture from being carried off
before it is convenient to form it into crayons, other-
wife the crayons would be full of cracks and very
brittle, which will be a great inconvenience when they
are ufed in painting.
2. Lake. This is a colour very apt to be hard j to
prevent which the ftudent muft obferve the following
particulars. Take about half the quantity of lake in¬
tended for the crayons, and grind it very fine with fpi¬
rits of wine 5 let it dry, and then pulverize it, which
is eafily done if the lake is good ; then take the other
half, and grind it with fpirits, after which mix it with,
the pulverized lake, and lay it out diredtly in crayons
on the chalk. This colour will not bear rolling. The
fimple colour being thus prepared, proceed with the
compound crayons as diredled before, and in the fame
degrees of gradation as the carmine teints.
3.-Vermilion.
C R A f 726 ] C R A
Crayon- 3. Vermilion. The beft is inclined to the carmine
painting. teintt Nothing is required to prepare this colour more
' _ • than to mix it on the Hone with foft water or fpirits,
after which it may be rolled into crayons. The diffe¬
rent teints are produced by a mixture of the Ample
colour with whiting, according to the proportion al¬
ready given.
II. Blues, j. Pruflian blue is a colour very apt
to bind, and is rendered foft with more difficulty than
carmine and hke. The fame method of preparation is
to be followed with this as direfted with relpeft to
lake, only it is neceffary to grind a larger quantity of
the pure colour, as it is chiefly ufed for painting dra¬
peries. The different teints may be made according
to neceffity, or the fancy of the painter. 2. Blue ver-
diter is a colour naturally gritty, and therefore it is
neceffary to wadi it well. Its particles are fo coarfe
as to require fome binding matter to unite them, other-
wife the crayons will never adhere together. To ac-
compliffi this, take a quantity fufficient to form two
or three crayons, to which add a piece of flaked pla-
Iter of Paris about the fize of a pea j mix thefe well
together, and form the crayons upon the chalk. This
blue is extremely brilliant, and will be of great ufe in
heightening draperies, See. The teints muft be form¬
ed with whiting as direfted in the former inftances, and
are highly ferviceable for painting flefh, to produce
thofe pearly teints fo beautiful in crayon pi&ures. It
is not neceffary to mix the compounds with fpirits, as
clear water will be fufficient.
III. Greens. Brilliant greens are produced with
great difficulty. In Switzerland, they have a method
of making them far fuperior to ours. We uiually
take yellow ochre, and after grinding it with fpirits,
mix it with the powder of Pruffian blue, then tem¬
per it with a knife, and lay the crayons on the
chalk, without rolling them. Inftead of this, fome
ufe king’s yellow mixed with Pruffian blue, and others
brown ochre and Pruffian blue. The crayons made of
the two laft may be rolled. Various teints may be
produced by thefe colours, according to fancy or ne¬
ceffity 5 fome to partake more of the blue, and others
of the yellow.
IV. Yellows, i. King’s yellow is the moft ufeful
and the moft brilliapt, levigated with fpirits of wine,
to compofe the different teints as before dire&ed.
2. Yellow ochre, and Naples yellow ground with fpirits,
will make ufeful crayons. 3. Orange is produced with
king’s yellow and vermilion ground together with
fpirits, and the teints formed as in other cafes, but no
great quantity of them is required.
V. Browns, i. Cullen’s earth is a fine dark
brown. After fix or eight of the Ample crayons are
prepared, feveral #rich compound teints may be pro¬
duced from it, by a mixture with carmine, in various
degrees. Black, carmine, and this colour, mixed to¬
gether, make ufeful teints for painting hair •, feveral
gradations may be produced from each of thefe by a
mixture with whitinv. Roman or brown ochre is an
excellent colour, either fimple or compounded with
carmine. Whiting tinged in feveral degrees with
eithen of thefe, will prove very ferviceable in paint¬
ing. 2. Umber may be treated in jutt the fame man¬
ner ; only it is neceffary to levigate it with fpirit .of
wine.
VI. Purples. Pruffian blue ground with fpirits Crayon-
and mixed with pulverized lake, will produce a good Paintmg.
purple. Carmine, thus mixed with Pruffian blue, will y
produce a purple fomething different from the former.
Various teints may be made from either of thefe com¬
pounds by a mixture with whiting.
VII. Black, i. Lamp-black is the only black that
can be ufed with fafety, as all others are fubjeft to
mildew j but as good lamp-black is very fcarce, the
ftudent will, perhaps, find it moft expedient to make
it himfelf; the procefs of which is as follows: Pro¬
vide a tin cone, fix it over a lamp at fuch a height
that the flame may juft reach the cone for the foot
to gather within it. When a fufficient quantity is
collefted, take it out, and burn all the greafe from
it in a crucible. It muft then be ground ivith fpirits,
and laid on the chalk to abforb the moifture. Various
gray teints may be formed from this by a mixture
with whiting, as mentioned in former inftances.—
2. Vermilion mixed with carmine : this is a compofi-
tion of great ufe, and teints made from this with whi¬
ting will be found to be very ferviceable. 3. Carmine
and black is another good compound, of which five or
fix gradations ffiould be made, fome partaking more of
the black, and others having the carmine moft predo¬
minant, befides feveral teints by a mixture with whi¬
ting. 4. Vermilion and black is alfo a very ufeful
compound, from which feveral different teints fhould
be made. 5. Pruffian blue and black is another good
compound, and will be found of Angular fervice in
painting draperies.
It is impoffible to lay down rules for the forming
every teint neceffary in compofing a fet of crayons,
there being many accidental compofitions, entirely de¬
pendent on fancy and opinion. The ftudent fliould
make it a rule to fave the leavings of his colours $ for
of thefe be may form various teints, which w-ill occa-
fionally be ufeful.
Of rolling the crayons, and difpoftng them for paint”
ing. The different compofitions of colours muft be cut
into a proper magnitude, after they are prepared, in
order to be rolled into paftils, for the convenience of
ufing them. Each crayon fiiould be formed in the left
hand with the ball of the right, firft formed cylindri-
cally, and then tapering at each end. If the compo-
fition is too dry, dip the finger in wrater if too wet,
the compofition muft be laid upon the chalk again to
abforb more of the moifture. The crayons ftrould be
rolled as quick as poffible •, and when finiftied, muft
be laid upon the chalk again, to abforb all remain¬
ing moifture. After the gradation of teints from
one colour is formed, the ftone ftiould be well
feraped and cleanfed with water before it is ufed for
another colour.
WLen the fet of crayons is completed according to
the rules preferibed, they ftiould be arranged in claffes
for the convenience of painting with them. Some thin
drawers, divided into a number of partitions, is the
moft convenient method of difpofing them properly.
The crayons Ihould be depofited according to the fe¬
veral gradations of light. The bottom of the partitions
muft be covered with bran, as a bed for the colours;
becaufe it not only preferves them clean, but prevents
their breaking.
The box made ufe of when the ftudent paints Ihould
be
C R E [ 727 1 C R E
Craze-mill be about a foot fquare, with nine partitions. In the
£ N upper corner on the left hand (fuppofing the box to
■ rea^K'r1, be in the lap when he paints), let him place the black
and gray crayons, thofe being the molt feldom ufed ;
in the fecond partition, the blues ; in the third, the
greens and browns •, in the firft partition on the left
hand of the fecond row, the carmines, lakes, vermi¬
lions, and all deep reds ; the yellows and orange in
the middle, and the pearly teints next ; and as thefe
lalt are of a very delicate nature, they mult be kept
very clean, that the gradations of colour may be
eafily diltinguilhed ; in the lower row, let the firll
partition contain a piece of fine linen rag to wipe
■ the crayons with while they are uling ; the fecond,
all the pure lake and vermilion teints } and the other
partition may contain thofe teints which, from their
complex nature, cannot be claffed with any of the
former.
CRAZE-mill, or Grazing Mill, a mill in all re-
fpedfs like a grift-mill to grind corn, and fo called by
the tin miners, who ufe it to grind their tin, which is
yet too great after trambling.
CREAM, a general name applicable to all fubftan-
ces that feparate from a liquor, and are colle6ted upon
its furface 5 but more particularly applied to the fol¬
lowing. i
Cream of Lime, is that part of the lime which had
been diffolved in the water in its cauftic ftate, but ha-
ving again attra&ed fome fixed air from the atmo-
fphere, becomes incapable of folution, and therefore
feparates from the water in the mild ftate of chalk or
limeftone.
Cream of Milk, generally called Ample cream, is the
moft oily part of the milk; which being naturally only
mixed, and not diftblved in the reft, foon feparates from
them, as being fpecifically lighter ; after which it col-
iefts on the furface ; from which it is generally Ikim-
med, to complete the difehgagement of the oily parts,
for the porpofe of making butter, from the cafeous and
ferous parts. See Agriculture Index. Cream of
milk is not only an agreeable aliment when recent, but
alfo ufeful in medicine as a lenient, when applied to
tetters and eryfipelas attended with pain and proceed¬
ing from an acrid humour.
Cream of Tartar, the trivial name of the fuper-
tartrate or the acidulous tartrate of potafti. It is alfo
denominated cryjiah of tartar. In this fait there is
an excefs of the tartaric acid. See Chemistry
Index.
GREAT, in the manege, an ulher to a riding ma¬
tter ; or a gentleman bred in the academy, with intent
to make bimfelf capable of teaching the art of riding
the great horfe.
CREATION, in its primary import, feems to fig-
nify the bringing into being fomething which did not
before exift. The term is therefore moft generally ap¬
plied to the original produ£!ion of the materials where¬
of the vifible world is «compofed. It is alfo, however,
ufed in a fecondary or fubordinate fenfe, to denote
thofe fubfequent operations of the Deity upon the mat¬
ter fo produced, by w'hich the whole fyftem of nature
and all the primitive genera of things received their
form, qualities and laws.
1 here is no fubjedl concerning which there have
been more difputes than this of creation. It is cer¬
tain that none of the ancient philofophers had the Creation.1
fmalleft idea of its being poflible to produce a fub- ' " y f
fiance out of nothing, or that even the power of the
• Deity himfelf could work without any materials to
wTork upon. Hence fome of them, among whom was
Ariftotle, afferted that the world was eternal both as
to its matter and form. Others, though they believed
that the gods had given the world its form, yet imagi¬
ned the materials whereof it is compofed to have been
eternal. Indeed the opinions of the ancients, who had
not the benefit of revelation, were on this head fo
confufed and contradiftory, that nothing of any con-
fequence can be deduced from them. The freethinkers
of our own and of former ages have denied the pofli-
bility of creation, as being a contradiction to reafon ;
and of confequence have taken the opportunity from
thence to difcredit revelation. On the other hand,
many defenders of the facred writings have afferted,
that creation out of nothing, fo far from being a con¬
tradiction to reafon, is not only probable, but de-
monftrably certain. Nay, fome have gone fo far as to
fay, that from the very infpeCtion of the vifible fyftem
of nature, we are able to infer that it was once in a
ftate of non-exiltence. It would be impoflible for us,
however, to enter into the multiplicity of arguments
ufed on both fides; nor can we pretend to fettle it,
as the fubjeCt is confeffedly above human comprehen-
fion. 1
As to the works of creation which the Deity isWhat
known to us to have performed ; all other beings, be-
fide himfelf, are his creatures. Men and other ani-Godis
mals that inhabit the earth and the feas ; all the im-known to
menfe varieties of herbs and plants of which the ve-1}avePer-
getable kingdom confifts ; the globe of the earth, and*orrnec^
the expanfe of the ocean ; thele we know to have been
produced by his power. Befides the terreftrial world
which we inhabit, wt fee many other material bodies
difpofed around it in the wide extent of fpace. The
moon, which is in a particular manner connefted with
our earth, and even dependent upon it ; the fun, and
the other planets with their fatellites, which, like the
earth, circulate round the fun, and appear to derive
from him light and heat ; thofe bodies which we call
fixed liars, and confider as illuminating and cheriftiing
with heat each its peculiar fyftem of planets; and
the comets which at certain periods furprife us with
their appearance, and the nature of whole conneClion
with the general fyftem of nature, or with any parti¬
cular fyftem of planets, we cannot pretend to have
fully difcovered ;—thefe are fo many more of the
Deity’s works, from the contemplation of which we
cannot but conceive the moft awful ideas of his crea¬
tive power.
Matter, however, whatever the varieties of form
under which it is made to appear, the relative difpo-
fition of its parts, or the motions communicated to
it, is but an inferior part of the works of creation.
We believe ourfelves to be animated with a much high¬
er principle than brute matter ; in viewing the manners
and economy of the lower animals, we can fcarcely
avoid acknowledging even them toconfift of fomething
more than various modifications of matter and motion.
T he other planetary bodies which feem to be in cir-
cumftances nearly analogous to thofe of our earth, are
furely, as well as it, deftined for the habitations of
* rational,
C R E
r 72s i
C R E
Creation.
The pe¬
riods of
time at
which God
executed
his works
of crea¬
tion.
| Brydons's
‘Ttur
through
Sicily and
jMalta,
rational, intelligent beings. The exigence of intellf
gences of a higher order than man, though infinitely
below the Deity, appears extremely probable :—Of
thofe fpiritual beings called Angels we have exprels in¬
timation in fcripture j (fee the article Angels.) Such
are our notions concerning the exiftence of beings
effentiallv diftmft from matter, and in their nature far
fuperior to it ; thefe, too, mull be the creatures of the
Deity, and of his works of creation the nobleft part.
But the limits of creation we muft not pretend to de¬
fine. How far the regions of fpace extend, or how
they are filled, we know not. How the planetary
worlds, the fun and the fixed ftars, are occupied, we
do not pretend to have afcertained. We are even ig¬
norant how wide a diverfity of forms, what an infinity
of living animated beings may inhabit our owm globe.
So confined is our knowledge of creation j yet fo
grand, fo awful, that part which our narrow under-
ftandings can comprehend !
Concerning the periods of time at which the Deity
executed his feveral works of creation, it cannot be
pretended that mankind have had opportunities of re¬
ceiving very particular information. From viewing
the phenomena of nature, and confidering the general
laws by which they are regulated, we cannot draw
any conclufive or even plaufible inference with refpedl
to the precife period at which the univerfe muft have
begun to exift. We know not, nor can we hope to
afcertain, whether the different fyftems of planets cir¬
culating round our fun and the other fixed ftars, were
all created at one period, or each at a different period.
We cannot even determine, from any thing that ap¬
pears on the face of nature, whether our earth was not
created at a later peiiod than any of her fellow planets
which revolve round the fame fun. Aftronomers are,
from time to time, making new difcoveries in the hea¬
vens ; and it is impoflible -to fay whether fome of thefe
fucceflive difcoverits may not be owing to fucceflive
creations.
Philofophers have, indeed, formed fome curious con-
ieftures concerning the antiquity of the earth, from
the appearances of its furface, and from the nature
and difpofition of its interior ftrata. The beds of lava
in the neighbourhood of volcanoes have afforded
ground for fome calculations, which, though they do
not fix the period of the earth’s origin, are yet thought
to prove that period to have been much more remote
than the earlieft age of facred or profane hiftory. Jin
the neighbourhood of Mount ./Etna, or on the fides of
that extenfive mountain, there ate beds of lava covered
with a confiderable thicknefs of earth; and at leaft
another, again, which though known from ancient mo¬
numents and hiftorical records to have iffued from the
volcano at leaft 2COO years ago, is ftill almcft entirely
deftitute of foil and vegetation : in one place a pit has
been cut through feven different ftrata of lava ; and
thefe have been found feparated from each other by
almoft as many thick beds of rich earth. Now, from
the faft, that a ftratum of lava 2000 years old is yet
fcantily covered with earth, it has been inferred by
the ingenious canon Recupero, who has laboured 3®
years on the natural hiftory of Mount .Etna, that the
loweft of thefe ftrata which have been found divided
by fo many beds of earth, muft have been emitted
from the volcanic crater at leaft 14,000 years ago j
and confequently that the age of the earth, whatever Creation,
it may exceed tois term of years, cannot pofiibly be v *
lefs. 0:her fa&s of a fimilar nature likewdie concur
to juftify this conje£lure.
But all thefe facts are as nothing in comparifon with
the long feries which would be rcquifite to eftablifh
fuch a conjecture as an incontrovertible truth. And
befides, any evidence rvhich they can be fuppofed
to afford, may be very eafily explained aw-ay. The
bed of lava which in the courfe of 2000 years has
fcarce acquired a covering of earth, is conlelfed to
ftand in a fituation in which it is expofed to the fpray
of the fea, and to all the violence of winds and rains.
In fuch a fituation, it cannot be thought that a thick
bed of earth could, in any length of time, be formed
on it: we might as well expeft depth of foil and vi¬
gorous vegetation on the craggy cliffs of hills. In
crevices here and there over it, in which the earth has
been retained, there is a depth of foil which fupports
large trees. This fad:, therefore, admits of no fuch
inference as that which Recupero has pretended to de¬
duce from it. The local circumflances, again, of the
feven ftrata that have been pierced through, are very
different. They are fituated at Jaci Reale, in a fitua¬
tion where fhowers of afhes from the volcano muft fre¬
quently fall; and where whatever falls muft be natu¬
rally retained and accumulated :—fo that feven beds
of earth might be formed on thefe feven ftrata of lava
much fooner than one thin layer could be formed on
the ftratum above-mentioned. In other places, fome
of which are within the influence of the lame awful
volcano, and fome adjacent to that of Vefuvius, foil
is known to have accumulated on lava with the help
of fhowers of afhes from the volcanoes, with fufficient
rapidity to juftify this fuppofition concerning the co¬
verings of the ftrata at Jaci Reale. From the obfer-
vation of tbefe phenomena of volcanoes, therefore, no
fafls have been gained that can help us to determine
with any certainty the earth’s age. And fo wide is
the variety of circumftances to be here taken into ac¬
count, that it cannot be hoped that this defuleratum
will be ever fupplied from this quarter. See further
the article Earth.
But by examining the compofition and arrange¬
ment of the interior ftrata of the globe, and by view¬
ing the general appearance of its furface, the ingenui¬
ty of philofophers has, with better hopes, fought to
guefs at the length of time during which it muft have
exifted. Obferving the exuviae of fea and land animals
depofited at profound depths under ground, and ac¬
companied with vegetable bodies in a good Itate of
prefervation, as. well as with oleaginous and bitumi¬
nous fubftances which have in all probability been
formed from vegetable bodies } and remarking at the
fame time with what confufion the other materials,
compofing the cruft of this terreftrial ball, are, in vari¬
ous inftances, not arranged, but caft together ; they
have concluded that the earth muft have exifted for
many an age before the earlieft events recorded in fa¬
cred or profane hiftory, and muft have undergone many
a revolution, before it fettled in its prefent ftate. Such
at leaft are the ideas which Buffon and M. de Luc,
and alfo Dr Hutton J, feem defirous to irnprefs us with f Ed. Pit!.
concerning its changes and antiquity.—It will be only
doing iuftice to thefe philofophers to acknowledge, that™1-1-
they
C R E r 729 1 C R E
Creation, they have colle&ed, with amazing induflry, almoft
every faft in the natural hiftory of the earth that can
ferve to give plaufibility to their conje&ures. But
Bill their fads, befides the inconfiftency of many of
them, are by far too fcanty to warrant the conclufions
which they have deduced from them. See the article
3 Earth.
Accounts "The voice of profane hiftory is far from being de-
ef the an- c;gve concerning the age of the world j nor is it to be
thenarth expe&ed that it ftioulft. When the earth firft arofe
from pro- into exiftence, we can be at no lofs to conceive that
fane hifto- mankind were not fpe&ators of the event j and we
may naturally imagine that the firft human beings who
occupied it, would be too much bufied in furniftiing
themfelves with the immediate neceffaries and the con¬
veniences of life, to think of curious refearches into
its origin, or even their own. Profane hiftory is not,
however, without accounts of the age of the earth
and the origin of human fociety; but thofe accounts are
various and contradiftory.—Plato in his dialogue enti¬
tled Crilias, mentions his celebrated Atalantis to have
been buried in the ocean about 9000 years before
the age in which he wrote. He afferts it to have
been well known to the Egyptian priefts and to the
contemporary inhabitants of Attica. The learned world,
indeed, generally agree in regarding his accounts of
that ifland as a fiftion, which the author himfelf did
not defign to be underftood in any other light : fome,
however, are more credulous, and others go fo far as to
acknowledge doubts: and, if the exiftence of fuch an
ifland, at a period fo diftant, be admitted as a faft
worthy of any credit, the age of the world may be
reckoned as at leaft confiderably more than 12,000
years. The pretenfions of the Chinefe reprefent the
world as fome hundreds of thoufands of years older :
* and we are alfo told* that the aftronomical records
Hijl. dI. 1. 0f the ancient Chaldeans carried back the origin of
Preface fociety to a very remote period; no lefs than 4*73,000
years. The Egyptian priefts reckoned between Me-
^ Herod. r‘es ar>d Sethon 341 generations-f-. But thefe accounts
1. iL c. 142. are fo difcordant, and fo flenderly fupported by evi¬
dence, that we cannot hefitate to rejedi them all as
falfe ; the fables of hiftorians fcarce merit fo much at-
4 tention as the hypothefes of philofophers.
The era of When from profane we turn to facred hiftory, we
the crea- may reafonably expeft more accurate and more cre-
tefT irfinformation concerning the antiquity of the
cred hifto- gh>be. As the authenticity of the Holy Scriptures
xy. is fo incontrovertibly eftablilhed, wherever they af¬
ford evidence concerning any fa£t, that evidence muft
be regarded as decifive. A faft fo important as the
prefent may be thought highly worthy of a place in
them. Unfortunately, however, even the facred wri¬
tings do not fix the era of the creation with fufficient
accuracy ; they leave us, in fome meafure, at a lofs
whether to extend what they fay concerning that era
to the whole contents of created fpace, or to confine
it to our earth and its inhabitants: different copies
give different dates; and even in the fame copy, differ-
eiit parts relating the fame events, either difagree or
do not fpeak dedifively with regard to the length of the
time in which they paffed.— In the beginning of the
fixth chapter of the firft book of Kings, the time
which elapfed between the departure of the children
of Ifrael from Egypt, and the period at which Solo-
Voi,. VI. Part II.
mon laid the foundation of his temple, Is faid to have Creation,
been 480 years: And in the book of Judges again, '* "
the age of all the patriarchs amounts to 592 years J.j Univerfat
The Hebrew copy of the Bible, which wc Chriftiam Hifl voi. 1.
for good reafons confider as the mod: authentic, dates
the creation of the world 3944 years before the Chri-
ftian era. The Samaritan Bibb , again, fixes the era
of the creation 4305 years before the birth of Chnft.
And the Greek tranflation, known by the name of
the Septuagint verfion of the Bible, gives 5270 as the
number of the years which intervened between thofe
two periods. As many other different calculations of
the years contained in the fame intermediate fpace of
time, might be formed upon other dates in the fa¬
cred volume, differing in the different copies. By
comparing the various dates in the facred writings,
examining vhow thefe have come to difagree and to
be diverfified in different copies, endeavouring to re¬
concile the moft authentic profane with facred chro¬
nology, and eking out deficiency of dates and evi¬
dence with conjetture; fome ingenious men have form¬
ed fchemes of chronology, plaufible indeed, but not
fupported by fufficient authorities, which they would
gladly perfuade us to receive in preference to any of
thofe above mentioned. Ufher makes out from the
Hebrew Bible 4004 years, as the term between the
creation and the birth of Chrift ; Jofephus, according
to Dr Wills and Mr Whifton, makes it 4658 years;
and M. Pezron, with the help of the Septuagint, ex¬
tends it to 5872 years. Uiher’s fyftem is the moft
generally received.
But though thefe different fyftems of chronology
are fo inconfiftent and fo flenderly fupported, yet
the differences among them are fo inconfiderable in
comparifon with thole wEich arife before us when we
contemplate the chronology of the Chinefe, the Chal¬
deans, and the Egyptians, and they agree fo w’ell
with the general information of authentic hiftory and
with the appearances of nature and of fociety, that
they may be confidered as nearly fixing the true pe¬
riod of the creation of the earth.
Profane hiftory cannot be expefted to contain an No i^f-or_
account of the firft events which paffed after the crea-mafion on
tion of the fubftances of which the univerfe confifts.th - head
The conjedlures of ancient philofophers on this fub-to.beob"
je6l cannot merit attention; for vague tradition, and^0^}^1*
the appearances of nature, the only data on which See but
they could proceed in forming their conjectures, could iacred hi-
admit of no fair inductions concerning thofe events • ftolT’
and befides, inftead of liftening to tradition, or exa¬
mining the appearances of nature, they generally con-
fulted imagination, and imagination alone, on fuch oc-
cafions. Here, therefore, we have nothing to hope
but from the facred writings. From them we may
expeCt hiftorical information, not to be obtained from
any other fource. What they communicate is com¬
municated on divine authority ; and it is only on luch
authority we can receive any accounts concerning the
creation.
A few* hints in the book of Job afford the earlieftHiScon-
information to be found in the feriptures concerningcerning the
the creation of the world. “ Where waft thou whencreation in
I laid the foundations of the earth, when the morningthe book°f
ftars fang together, and all the fons of God {houted^°b'
for joy* ?” “ Behold, he put no truft in his fervants,* ^-a?‘
. •ir 'XXaVili#
*** andver.4. fic 7.
} Milne',
LcBurcst
Ledt. I.
C R E
and his angels he charged with folly*.”
man, (or to Adam), he faid, Behold, the fear of the
Lord is wifdom, and to depart from evil is under-
i. (landing f.” Thefe paffages rather hint at than relate
fafts. But it has been inferred from them, that there
were ftars in the firmament, and angels in heaven,
before the formation of our globe ; that angels as well
as man have fallen j and that other injunftions, befides
that of abltaining from the forbidden fruit, were laid
on Adam when he was firft placed in Paradife J. I£
[ 73° 1 C R E
And unto whofe theory of the earth has now been long confider. Creation,
ed as fanciful and ill-founded. He fuppoTes all the 1 (
celeftial bodies, even the fun and all the other planets
of the folar fyftem, to have exifted long before the
earth. The chaos on which the fpirit of God moved,
confided, according to him, of the firft principles from
which all terreftrial bodies have been formed. When
thofe laws by which the material world is regulated
firft began to operate on the mafs, he fuppofes that
its grofler and heavier parts would fink towards the
the interpretation be admitted as juft, the firft of thefe centre, and there form a folid ball. Around this folid
fadts may be confidered as forming, as it were, a point ball two fpecies of particles would ftill float together in
with which our knowledge of the works of the Deity confufion. Of thefe he thinks one, being more vola-
Mofaic ac¬
count of
the crea¬
tion.
Q Gen. i. r.
commences : the period of time at which the fecond
event took place is not fpecified : and the precept to
Adam muft no doubt have been uttered after he was
formed and infpired with intelligence. Yet with re¬
gard to the firft of the above quotations from the book
of Job, the only one that is of importance to us at
prefent, it muft be acknowledged, that it has been dif¬
ferently underftood. The morning ftars might fing
together, and the fons of God ftrout for joy, on account
both of their own creation and of the creation of the
earth at one time •, and yet Job, having been himfelf
made a confcious being at a much later period, not be
able to tell where he was at that era of exulting gra¬
titude and congratulation.
Mofes relates, that|| “ in the beginning God created
the heavens and the earth. And the earth (continues
tile, would by degrees make its efcape from the other,
would leave it ftill recumbent on the folid centre, and
fpread around it in an atmofphere. The middle ftra-
tum he compofes of aqueous and oleaginous fluids $
and he makes no doubt, that after the air had made
its efcape, the levity of the oleaginous fluids would
enable them to rife above the aqueous, and difpofe
themfelves next the furface of the liquid mafs. On
them he fuppofes the impure atmofphere to have then
depofited a quantity of terrene particles, fufficient to
form, by intermixture with the oils, a thick cruft of
rich earth for the production of plants and herbage,
and to afford an habitation to animals. This delicate
fhell he was careful not to furrow with feas or load
with mountains : either of thele would have reduced
all to confufion. Such is his earth j and after mould-
he) was without form and void j and darknefs was ing it with fo much ingenuity, and into fo happy z
upon the face of the deep: and the fpirit of God mo- form, he contents himfelf, without venturing to ufe
ved upon the face of the waters. And God faid, Let the fame freedoms with the remaining part of Mofes’s
there be light j and there was light. And God faw
the light, that it was good : and God divided the
light from the darknefs. And God called the light day,
and the darknefs he called night: and the evening and
the morning were the firft day.” During five fucceed-
ing days the work of creation was carried on. On
the fecond day, a firmament was made to feparate the
waters, and that firmament called heapen: on the third
day, the waters were colleCled into feas, and the land
account of the creation.
But Mofes affords nothing that can be with any objeifHoRS
propriety ufed in the foundation of fuch a theory: he ro Dr Bur-
tells not whether the chaos confifted of thofe terrene, l,et’s th®0-
and aqueous, and oleaginous, and aerial particles which r^‘
Dr Burnet finds in it $ he confines not the feas within
a cruft of earth ; nor does he inform us that the
fcenery of nature was not diverfified by hills and
vales. Befides, the author of this theory has, w ithout
from which the waters retired caufed to produce grafs any evidence, fuppofed matter to have been originally
and trees and other plants: on the fourth day, lights under the influence of laws very different from thofe
were made to appear in the firmament 5 to enlighten
the earth, to divide the day from the night, and to
diftinguilh time into feafons and years: on the fifth
day, the feas were peopled with whales and other
fifties, and the air with fowls : on the fixth day, the
earth was furnilhed with reptiles and quadrupeds of
all kinds \ and on the fame day, the firft human pair,
the progenitors of all the human race, were created
in God’s own image.
9
Attempts
to folve
thole diffi¬
culties. Dr
Burnet’s
theory.
by which it is at prefent regulated. Oil, indeed, while
fluid, floats above water : but in a concrete ftate, it
finks in water like other folid bodies. If reduced in¬
to that ftate by combination with terrene mattejrs, fuf¬
ficient to render the mixture proper for the nouriftiment
and production of vegetables $ its fpecific gravity will
be ftill greater, and it will confequently fink fo much
the fooner. How a concrete fubftance, confifting of
earth and oil, could float on water, appears an inex-
Some difficulties occur in comparing this account of plicable enigma. But we need not here take farther
the creation with the laws which appear at prefent to pains in combating and triumphing over this theory,
regulate the fyftem of nature. We find it hard to eon- which has long fince fallen and funk to its grave. jj
ceive how the earth, wffiile yet a ftranger to the influ- Mr Whifton treats both the leriptures and the lawsMrWhif-
ence of the fun, could experience the viciffitude of day of nature with greater reverence. Yet he certainly ton’s
and night; and are aftoniihed at the rapidity with involves himfelf in no trifling difficulties in attempt-
which trees and herbage firft overfpread its furface. ing to folve thofe which Moles prelents. He fuppo-
The condition of matter when the earth was without fes the fun, moon, and ftars to be all more ancient
than the earth. The chaos from which the e^rth was
formed, he reprefents as having been originally the
atmofphere of a comet. The fix days of the creation
he would perfuade us to believe equal to fix of our
years}
form and void, and the operation of the fpiiqt of God
on the face of the waters, are equally myfterious.
Some ingenious men have eagerly laboured to re¬
move thefe difficulties. Among thefe is Dr Burnet,
C R E [73x1 C R E
Creation, years: for he is of opinion, that the earth did not re-
~v-—" volve daily round its axis, but only annually round
its orbit, till after the fall of man.
On the firft day or year, therefore, the more pon¬
derous parts of the chaos were, according to this the¬
ory, conglomerated into an orb of earth, the chinks
and interftices over that orb filled up with water, and
the exterior part or atmofphere rarefied, fo as to ad¬
mit fome faiht glimmering of the rays of the fun.
On the fecond day, the atraofphere was diffufed to
its due extent around the earth, and reduced to a de¬
gree of rarity and purity which rendered it ftill more
fuitable for the tranfmiffion of light $ the earth was
ftill more confolidated j and the waters being almoft
entirely excluded from the interftices which they be¬
fore occupied, were partly fpread over the furface of
the earth, and partly raifed in vapour into the atmo¬
fphere or firmament.
On the third day, the earth*ssfurface became fo ir¬
regular, in one place rifing into hills, in another fink¬
ing into vales, as to caufe the waters, which were be¬
fore equally diffufed, to colledl into feas and lakes,
leaving large trails of ground unoccupied. And no
fooner was a part of the earth’s furface left bare by
the waters, than the general influence of the fun pro¬
duced on it a rich covering of herbage, and all the
different fpecies of vegetables.
On the fourth day, the earth was rendered fubjeft
to the regular influence of the fun, moon, and ftars.
On the fifth day or year, things were fo far advan¬
ced, that fifties and fowls were now produced from
the waters.
On the fixth day wras the earth furniflied with ani¬
mals ; and the lord of all the other animals, man, was
now created.
fcbje^tions Such is Mr Whifton’s account of the phenomena of
to Mr Wif- the Mofaic creation. But he likewife affumes much
ton’s theo- more than can be reafonably granted. The atmo-
fphere of a comet could not well be the primitive chaos:
it is not an obfcure, but a pellucid fluid; and its exte¬
rior ftrata, if of the fame nature with the matter of our
earth, muft be fcorified by its near approaches to the
fun. Had the earth not begun to move round its axis
till after the work of creation was completed, the im¬
moderate degrees of heat and cold which its different
parts would have alternately felt, would in all proba¬
bility have proved fatal to both plants and animals.
Even the moft artful interpretation of Mofes’s words
cannot reprefent him as meaning to inform us that the
fun and moon were created at different periods. But
philofophy will fcarce permit us to imagine that the
moon was formed before the earth. And therefore
we cannot upon good grounds agree with Mr Whif-
ton, that the creation of the earth was later than that
15 of the other bodies of the folar fyftem.
M. de Luc’s Among others who have endeavoured to explain
*b'°dua d t^e or'g’nal formation of the earth, and the changes
Je ons* which it has undergone, is M. de Luc. This colmo-
logift, like Mr Whifton, thinks that the days of the
creation were much longer periods of time than our
prefent days. He feems to think that the earth had
exifted long before the Mofaic creation ; but being at
that era to experience new changes, and to be regu¬
lated by new laws: that all the different events de-
fcribed by Mofes in his hiftory of the creation, actual¬
ly took place in the order in which he relates them J Creaticr-
but that Mofes’s days are indefinite fpaces of time,v—
which muft have been very long, but of which we
cannot hope to afcertain the precife length. Thefe
are ingenious conjeftures; but they do not appear ne-
ceffary, nor are they juftified by fads. For a fuller
and more clofe inveftigation of this part of the fub-
jed, we muft refer to the article Earth : and (hall
now clofe the prefent article with a ftiort explanation
of what appears to us the moft natural way of under-
ftanding Mofes’s account of the creation.
It has been conje&ured*, with great probability,
that the creation of which Mofes is the hiftorian, was gjj0 ’1
neither confined to the earth alone, nor extended toF
the whole univerfe. The relation which all the pla¬
nets of the folar fyftem bear to the fame illuminating
body countenances the conjeflure, that they, together
with the luminary by which they are enlightened,
were all created at one period : but it would perhaps
be to conceive too meanly of the benevolence, wif-
dom, and a£tive power of the Deity, to fuppofe that
before that period thefe had never been exerted in
any work of creation. Yet even here we have not
demonftrative evidence.
On the fuppofition that the whole folar fyftem was
created at once, which has at leaft the merit of doing
no violence to the narrative of Mofes, the creation of
the fun and the other planets may be underftood to
have been carried on at the fame time with the crea¬
tion of the earth. In that cafe, even in the courfe
of the firft day, though not longer than our prefent
days, thofe bodies might be reduced to fuch order,
and their relative motions fo far eftablilhed, as to be¬
gin the diftin&ion between light and darknefs, day
and night.
On the fecond day, we may naturally underftand
from Mofes’s narrative, that the atmofphere was pu¬
rified, and the fpecific gravities of aqueous vapour and
atmofpheric air fo adjufted, as to render the latter ca¬
pable of fupporting the former.
On the third day the waters were firft cclle£led into
lakes and feas : but in what manner, we cannot well
determine. Some call in the operation of earthquakes ;
others tell us, that when the earth was firft formed,
the exterior ftrata were, at different parts over its fur¬
face, of different fpecific gravities ; and that the more
ponderous parts now funk nearer the common centre,
while the lighter parts ftill remaining equally remote
from it as before, formed iflands, continents, hills,
and mountains. But thefe are mere fancies ; and we
have no fads to offer in their Head. On the latter
part of this day vegetables were caufed to fpring up
over the earth. Their growth muft have been much
more rapid than we ever behold it now ; but by what
particular aft of fupernatural power that might be ef-
fefted, we ftiould in vain inquire.
On the fourth day the fun, moon and ftars, were
made to appear. But according to the conjefture
which we have mentioned as plaufib]e, though with¬
out afcribing to it the evidence of certain truth, thofe
heavenly bodies are to be confi lered as having been
created before this day. But they might now begin
to exert their full influence on the earth in the fame
manner as they have fince continued to do.
The creation of the inanimate world was now fi-
4 Z 2 nilhed,
G R E [73
©rebillon nilhed, and tlie earth prepared for the reception of
Credibility fn‘raaJs* t^!e ^ay» therefore, were the living
.. . . inhaoitants of the air and the waters created.
On the fixth day the inferior animals inhabiting the
earth were firll created 5 and after that, the whole work
was crowned by the creation of a male and female
of the human fpecies. To the account of the crea¬
tion of the animals, nothing certain can be added in
explanation of Mofes’s narrative. No more but one
pair of the human fpecies were at firft created : the
fame economy might poffibly be obferved in the crea¬
tion of the inferior animals.
CREBILLON, Pro s per Joliot de, a French wri¬
ter of tragedy, and ufually ranked after Corneille and
Racine, was bom at Dijon in 1674. was or^*
ginally deftined to the profedion of the law, and placed
at Paris with that view j but the impetuofity of his
paffions rendering him unfit for bufinefs, he wTas ur¬
ged by fome friends, who difcerned very well his na¬
tural turn, to attempt dramatic compofitions. He
complied, but not till after many refufals ; and gave
at length a tragedy, which met with great fuccefs.
He then marched on in the career he had begun, but
was checked by a fit of love for an apothecary’s
daughter ; which fit of love ended in marriage. His
father, doubly enraged at his fon for thus furrender¬
ing himfelf to the two demons of Love and Poetry,
difinherited him ; but falling fick fome years after, in
1707, he re-eftablifhed him in all his rights, and died.
Crebillon was, however, little better for his acquifi-
tions, the greateft part being probably wafted before
they came ; and thus, though high in fame and at the
prime of life, he ftill continued poor. He loft his wife
in 1711, and fortune long frowned upon him, till at
laft he obtained a place in the French academy, and
the employment of cenfor of the police. He was af¬
terwards in more profperous circumftances, which con¬
tinued to the end of a long life. He died in 1762, at
the age of 88, much regretted on account of his nu¬
merous virtues. He wras of a temperament extremely
robuft, wuthout which he could not have held out fo
long ; for he ate prodigioufly, and continued to the
laft fo to do. He fiept little, and lay as hard as if
upon the floor ; not from any pious principle of morti¬
fying, but becaufe he liked it. He was always fur-
rounded with about 30 dogs and cats; and ufed to
fmoke a good deal of tobacco, to keep his room fweet
againft their exhalations. Whenever he w7as ill, he ufed
to manage himfelf according to his owm fancy and feel¬
ings j for he made a jell of phyfic and phyficians. He
was a dealer in bans jnots. Being alked one day in full
company, wThich of his works he thought the beft ?
“ I don’t know (fays he) which is my beft produc¬
tion ; but this (pointing to his fon) is certainly my
worft.
CRECY, Crescy, or Cressy. See Cressy.
CREDENTIALS, letters of recommendation and
power, efpecially fuch as are given to ambafladors or
public min'fters, by the prince or ftate that fends them
to foreign courts.
CREDIBILITY, a fpecies of evidence, lefs indeed
than abfolute certainty or demonftration, but greater
than mere poflibility ; it is nearly allied to probability,
and feems to be a mean between poftfibility and de-
monftration.
2 ] c R E
CREDIT, in Commerce, a mutual truft or loan of Credit
merchandife or money, on the reputation of the pro- II
bity and folvability of a dealer. Credulity,
Credit is either public or private. Every trader ' —
ought to have fome eftate, flock, or portion of his
own, fufficient to carry on the traffic he is engaged in :
they ftiould alfo keep their dealings within the extent
of their capital, fo that no difappointment in their re¬
turns may incapacitate them from fupporting their cre¬
dit. Yet traders of w’orth and judgment may fome-
times lie under the neceflity of borrowing money for
carrying on their bufinefs to the beft advantage j but
then the borrower ought to be fo juft to his own re¬
putation, and to his creditors, as to be well affured that
he has fufficient eftefts wdthin his power to pay off his
obligations in due time. But if a trader (hould bor¬
row money to the extent of his credit, and launch out
into trade fo as to employ it with the fame freedom as
if it w7as his own proper flock, fuch a way of manage¬
ment is very precarious, and may be attended with
dangerous confequences. Merchants ought never to
purchafe their goods for exportation upon long credit,
with intent to difcharge the debt by the return of the
fame goods; for this has an injurious influence on trade
feveral ways : and if any merchant has occafion to
make ufe of his credit, it {hould always be for the
borrowing of money, but never for the buying of
goot4s ; nor is the large credit given to wholefale tra¬
ders a prudential or juftifiable practice in trade.
The public credit of a nation is faid to run high
wrhen the commodities of that nation find a ready vent^
are fold at a good price, and when dealers may be fafe-
ly trufted with them : alfo w’hen lands and houfes find
ready purchafers j when money is to be borrowed at
a low intereft ; when people think it fafe and advan¬
tageous to venture large flocks in trade; and when notes,
mortgages, &c. will pafs for money.
Letters of Credit, are thofe given to perfons in
whom a merchant, &c. can truft, to take money of
his correfpondent abroad, in cafe he happens to need
it.
Credit is alfo ufed for the currency which papers
or bills have in the public or among dealers. In this
fenfe credit is faid to rife, when in negociating the
ftiares of the company, they are received and fold at
prices above par, or the ftandard of their firft crea¬
tion. Difcredit is oppofed to credit, and is ufed where
money, bills, &c. fall below par.
Credit wTas alfo anciently a right which l<?rds had
over their vaffals ; confifting in this, that during a cer¬
tain time they might oblige them to lend them mo¬
ney. In this fenfe, the duke of Brittany had credit
during fifteen days on his own fubjefls, and thofe of
the bilhop of Nantes ; and the biflrop had the fame
credit or right among his fubjefts and thofe of that
prince.
CREDITON, a market town in Devonfhire, con-
fiderable for a good woollen manufaftory : it is fitua-
ted about 9 miles north-weft: of Exeter, in W. Long.
3. 50. and N. Lat. 50. 50.
CREDITOR, a perfon to whom any fum of mo¬
ney is due, either by obligation, promife, or other-
wife. See Debt.
CREDULITY denotes a weaknefs of mind, by
reafon of which a perfon yields his affent to propofi-
tiona
C R E
Creech, tions or fa£ls, before he has confidered their evi-
dence.
CREECH, Thomas, eminent for his tranflations
of ancient authors both in profe and verfe, was fon of
Thomas Creech, and born near Sherborne in Dorfet-
fhire in 1659. He was educated in grammar learning
under Mr Curganven of Sherborne, to whom he after¬
wards dedicated a tranflation of one of Theocritus’s
Idylliums : and entered a commoner of Wadham col¬
lege in Oxford in 1675. Wood tells us that his father
was a gentleman ; but Giles Jacob fays, in his Lives
and Charaflers of Englilh Poets, that his parents cir-
cumftances not being fufficient to afford him a liberal
education, his difpofftion and capacity for learning
raifed him up a patron in Colonel Strangevvays, whole
generofity fupplied that defeft. Be that as it will,
Creech diftinguilhed himfelf much, and was account¬
ed a good philofopher and poet, and a diligent ftudent.
June 13. 1683, he took the degree of mailer of arts,
and not long after was defied probationer fellow of All¬
fouls college ; to which, Jacob obferves, the great repu¬
tation acquired by his tranflation of Lucretius recom¬
mended him. Wood tells us, that upon this occafion
he gave lingular proofs of his claflical learning and
philofophy before his examiners. He alfo took the
degree of B. D. on the 18th of March 1696. He
now began to be well known by the works he publilh-
ed •, but Father Niceron obferves, that they were of
no great advantage to his fortune, lince his circumftan-
ces wTere always indifferent. In 1699, having taken
holy orders, he was prefented by his college to the li¬
ving of Welwynn in Hertfordlhire ; but this he had
not long enjoyed before he put an end to his owrn life.
The motives of this fatal catallrophe have been vari-
oufly reprefented. The author of the Nouvelles de la
Republique d?s Lettres informs us, that in the year 1700
Mr Creech fell in love with a woman who treated him
with great neglefl, though flie was complaifant enough
to feveral others. This affront he could not bear, and
refolved not tqfurvive it. Whereupon he {hut himfelf
up in his ftudy, where he hanged himfelf about the
end of June 1700, and was found in that fituation
three days after. The Poetical Regifter fays nothing
of the particular manner of his death, but only that
he unfortunately made away with himfelf in the year
1701} and afcribes this fatal cataftrophe of Mr Creech’s
life to the morofenefs of his temper, which made him
lefs efteemed than his great merit deferved, and enga¬
ged him in frequent animofities and difputes upon that
account. But from an original letter of Arthur Char-
lett, preferved in the Bodleian library, it has lately
been difcovered, that this unhappy event was owing
to a very different caufe. There was a fellow colle¬
gian of whom Creech frequently borrowed money :
but repeating his applications too often, he met one
day with fuch a cold reception, that he retired in a
fit of gloomy difguft, and in three days was found
hanging in his ftudy. Creech’s principal performances
are, 1. A tranflation of Lucretius. 2. A tranfla¬
tion of Horace ; in which, however, he has omitted
fome few odes. 3. The Idylliums of Theocritus, with
Rapin’s Difcourfe of Paftorals. 4. A tranflation of
Manilius’s Aftronomicon. Befides tranflations of fe¬
veral parts of Virgil, Ovid, and Plutarch ; printed in
different colle&ions.
[ 733 ]
C R E
CREED, a brief fummary of the articles of a
Chriftian’s belief. ^
The moft ancient form of creeds is that which goes v,.
under the name of the apoftplic creed : befides this,
there are feveral other ancient forms and fcattered
remains of creeds to be met with in the primitive re¬
cords of the church. The firft is the form of apofto-
lical do&rine, collefted by Origen j the fecond is a
fragment of a creed preferved by Tertullian*, the third
remains of a creed is in the works of Cyprian j the
fourth, a creed compofed by G egory Thaumaturgus,
for the ufe of his own church ; the fifth, the creed of
Lucian the martyr; the fixth, the creed of the apofto-
lical conftitutions. Befides thefe fcattered remains of
the ancient creeds, there are extant fome perfe£t forms,
as thofe of Jerufalem, Caefarea, Antioch, &c.
The moft univerfal creeds are, the Afostolical,
the Athanasian, and the Nicene creeds. See thefe
articles.
Thefe three creeds are -ufed in the public offices of
the church of England j and fubfcription to them is
required of all the eftablilhed clergy. Subfcription
to thefe was alfo required of the diffenting teachers,
by the toleration aft; but from which they are now
relieved by 19 Geo. III.
CREEK, a part of a haven, where any thing is
landed from the fea. So many landing places as there
are in a harbour or port, fo many creeks there are.
It is alfo faid to be a fliore or bank whereon the water
beats, running in a fmall channel from any part of the
fea ; from the Latin crepido. This word is ufed in the
flat. 4 Hen. IV. c. 20. and 5 E^z. c. 5.
CREENGLES. See Cringle.
CRFEPER, See Certhia, Ornithology Index.
Creeper, in naval affairs, an inftrument of iron
refembling a grappling, having aJhank3 and four hooks
or claws. It is ufed to throw- into the bottom of any
river or harbour, with a rope faftened to it, to hook
and draw up any thing from the bottom which may
have been loft. See Plate CL.
CRELLIUS, John, a famous Socinian, born in
1590, in a village near Noremberg. In 1612 he went
into Poland, where the Unitarians had a fchool, in
which he became profeffor of divinity, and minifter
at Crackow, where he died in 1632, aged 42. He
was the author, 1. Of a famous Treatife againft the
Myftery of the Trinity ; 2. Commentaries on a part
of the New Teftament; and other works. All of
them are fcarce.
CREMA, a city and bilhop’s fee of Italy, capital of
a diftrift of the Milanefe, called from it Cremafco ; it
Hands almoft in the middle between Milan and Man¬
tua, in E. Long. 10. 15. and N. Lat. 45. 20.
CREMASTER, in Anatomy, the names of a mufcle
of the tefticle, of which there is one on each fide. See
Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CREMATION is fometimes ufed for burning, par¬
ticularly w-hen applied to the ancient cuftom of burn¬
ing the dead. This cuftom is well known to have
prevailed among moft eaftern nations, and continued
with their defcendants after they had peopled the
different parts of Europe. Hence we find it prevail¬
ing in Greece, Italy, Gaul, Britain, Germany, Sw-e-
den, Norway, and Denmark, till Chriftianity abo-
liflied it.
CREMONA.
Gremona
II
Creon.
ORE [
CREMONA, in Ancient Geography, a Roman co¬
lony, with municipal rights, fettled beyond the Po, be¬
low the confluence’of the Addua, on the report ofHanni-
bal s march into Italy (Polybius) : a town at this day
Hill maintaining its name and flourifhing ftate. It was
an opulent and mercantile city ; but fufFered greatly in
the civil wars of Auguflus (Virgil). In the war with
Vitellius, it w as deftroyed by the partizans of Vefpa-
fian , but was foon after rebuilt by the munificence of
Crefi ent.
the citizens and exhortations of Vefpafian, (TacitusJ.
Now capital of the Cremonefe, in the duchy of Mi¬
lan. E. Long. to. 30. Lat. 45.
CRENATED, a term ufed in botany. See Bo¬
tany Index.
CRENELLE, or Imbattled, in Heraldry, is ufed
when any honourable ordinary is drawn, like the bat¬
tlements on a wall to defend men from the enemies
fliot. This attribute belongs to the arms of fuch as
have defended caftles for their prince or country, or
of fuch as are {killed in architecture.
CRENOPHYLAX, in antiquity, a magiftrate of
Athens, who had the infpeftion of fountains.
CREODIBA, in the cuftoms of the middle age, a
robbery and murder committed in a wood, where the
body of the perfon killed was burnt in order to pre¬
vent any difcovery of the crime. The word, lays
Wendelinus, is compounded of cruy and diven, that
is, “ wood-robbers.”
CREOLES, a name originally given to the families
defcended from the Spaniards who firft fettled at Mex¬
ico in America. 7 hefe are much more numerous than
the Spaniards properly fo called, and the Mulattoes,
which two other fpecies of inhabitants they diftinguilh $
and are excluded from all confiderable employments.
It is now ufed in a more extenfive fenfe, and applied to
all natives of the Weft Indies.
CREON, king of Corinth, was fon of Sifyphus.
Id promifed his daughter Glauce to Jafon, who had
repudiated Medea. To revenge the iuccefs of her rival,
Medea fent her lor a prefent a gown covered with poi-
ion. Glauce put it on, and was feized with fudden pains.
Her body took fire, and fhe expired in the j
torments. The houfe alfo wras confumed by t
and Creon and his family fhared Glauce’s fate.
Creon, fon of Menoetius, was father to Jocafta,
the wfife and mother of Oedipus. At the death of
Laius, who had married Jocafta, Creon afcended the
vacant throne of Thebes. As the ravages of the
Sphynx were intolerable, Creon offered his crown and
daughter in marriage to him who could explain the
enigmas which the monfter propofed. Oedipus was
happy in his explanations, and he aicended the throne
of I hebes, and married Jocafta without knowing that
{he was his mother, and by her he had two fons, Poly-
nices and Eteocles. Thefe two fons mutually agreed
after their father’s death to reign in the kingdom each
a year alternately. Eteocles firft afcended the throne
by right of feniority ; but when he was once in power
he refufed to refign at the appointed time, and his
brother led againft him an army of Argives to fupport
his right. The wax was decided by a Angle combat be¬
tween the tw'o brothers. They both killed one ano¬
ther, and C^eon afcended the throne till Leodamus
the fon of Eteocles fhould be of fufficient age to af-
reateft
ic fire,
734 1 C R E
fume the reins of government. In his regal capacity Grepancc
he commanded that the Argives, and more particular- II
ly Polynices, who w'as the caufe of all the bloodftud,
ftiould remain unburied. If this was in any manner
difobeyed, the offenders were to be buried alive. An¬
tigone the filler of Polynices tranfgreffed, and was ac-
cordingly punifhed. Haemon the fon of Creon, who
was paftionately fond of Antigone, killed himfelf on
her grave, when his father refufed to grant her par¬
don. Creon was afterwards killed by Thefeus, who
had made war with him becaufe he refufed burial to
the Argives.
CREPANCE, in the manege, a chop or cratch in
a horfe’s leg, given by the fpunges of the flioes of one
of the hinder feet crofting and ftriking againft the o-
ther hinder foot* This cratch degenerates into an ul¬
cer.
CREPID/E, among the Romans, a kind of flip¬
pers or Ihoes, which were always worn with the pal*
Hum, as the calcei vvere with the toga.
CREPIS, hawk-weed : A genus of plants belong¬
ing to the fyngenefia clafs $ and in the natural method
ranking under the 49th order, Compojilce. See Bota¬
ny Index.
CREPITATION, that noife which fome falts
make over the fire in calcination, called alfo detona¬
tion.
Crepitation is alfo ufed in furgery, for the noife
made by the ends or pieces of bones, when the fur-
geon moves a limb to affure himfelf by his ear of the
exiftence of a fra&ure.
CREPUNDIA, in antiquity, a term ufed to ex*
prefs fuch things as were expofed along with children,
as rings, jewels, &c. ferving as tokens w’hereby they
afterwards might be known.
CREPUSCULUM, in AJlronomy, twilight; the
time from the firft dawm or appearance of the morning
to the rifing of the fun ; and again, between the fet*
ting of the fun and the laft remains of day.
Papias derives the w'ord from creperur ; which, he
fays, anciently fignified uncertain, doubtful, q. d. a du¬
bious light. The crepufculum is ufually computed to
begin and end when the fun is about 18 degrees below
the horizon 5 for then the ftars of the fixth magnitude
difappear in the morning and appear in the evening.
It is of longer duration in the folftices than in the
equinoxes, and longer in an oblique than in a right
fphere.
The crepufcula are occafioned by the fun’s rays re¬
frained in our atmofphere, and refleiffed from the par¬
ticles thereof to the eye. See Twilight.
CRESCENT, the new moon, which, as it begins
to recede from the fun, {hows a little rim of light, ter¬
minating in points or horns, which are ftill increafing
till it become full and round in the oppofition. The
word is formed from crefco, “ I grow.”
The term is alfo ufed for the fame figure of the
moon in its wane or decreafe, but improperly ; be¬
caufe the points or horns are then turned towards
the weft, whereas they look to the eaft in the juft cre-
fcent.
Crescent, in Heraldry, is a bearing in form of a
half moon. The Ottomans bear finople, a crefcent
montant, argent.
The
C R E [ 735 1 ' C R E
Crefcent The crefcent is frequently ufed as a difference in
(1 coat armour, to diftinguifh it for that of a fecond bro-
^re^^e' ther or junior family.
« ^ The figure of the crefcent is the Turkifh fymbol j or
rather is that of the city Byzantium, which bore this
device from all antiquity; as appears from medals ftruck
in honour of Auguftus, Trajan, &c.
The crefcent is fometimes montant, i. e. its points
look towards the top of the chief, which is its molt or¬
dinary reprefentation ; whence fome contend, that the
crefcent, abfolutely fo called, implies that fituation ;
though other authors blazon it montant, when the
horns are towards the dexter fide of the efcutcheon,
in which pofition others call it incroiffant.
Crefcents are faid to be adojjed, when their backs
or thickeft parts are turned towards each other; their
points looking to the fides of the (hield. Crefcent in¬
verted, is that whofe points look towards the bottom ;
turned crefcents are placed like thofe adoffed ; the dif¬
ference is, that all their points look to the dexter fide
of the {hield : conturnedcrefcents, on the contrary, look
to the Unifier fide : affronted or appointed crefcents, are
contrary to the adolfed, the points looking towards
each other.
Crescent is alfo the name of a military order, in-
ftituted by Renatus of Anjou, king of Sicily, &c. in
1448 ; fo called from the badge or fymbol thereof, a
crefcent of gold enamelled. What gave occafion to
this eftablilhment was, that Renatus took for his de¬
vice a crefcent, with the word lo%, “ praife,” which, in
the ftyle of rebus, makes lo% in crefcent, q. by advan¬
cing in virtue, one merits praife.
CRESCENTIA, the calabash tree: A genus
of plants belonging to the didynamia clafs ; and in the
natural method ranking under the 25th order, Puta-
mineee. See Botany Index.
The {hells of calabafties are made ufe of for various
purpofes. At Barbadoes, befides drinking-cups and
punch-bowls, there are made of them fpoons, dirties,
and other utenfils for the {laves. Some of thefe fhells
are fo large, as to be capable of holding ij pints of
water. The pulp is feldom eaten, except by cattle in
the time of drought. The wood, which is hard and
fmooth, is made into ftools, chairs, and other furni¬
ture.
CRESCIMBENI, John Maria, an Italian poet, was
born at Macerata in Ancona, 1663. His talents for
poetry and eloquence developed themfelves early. His
verfes at firft had too much pomp and point; but re-
fiding in Rome, and reading the beft Italian poets,
brought him back to nature. He not only reformed
himfelf, but undertook to reform bad tafte in general.
From this motive he projedled the eftablifiiment of a
new academy, under the name of Arcadia; the mem¬
bers of which at firft did not exceed 14, but after¬
wards increafed much. They called themfelves the
fhepherds of Arcadia, and each took the name of fome
Ihepherd and fome place in that ancient kingdom.
The founder of this fociety was appointed the director
of it in 1690, and held this honourable poft 38 years ;
namely, to the year of his death, which happened in
1728. Among a great number of works, in verfe and
profe, the principal is, A Hiftory of the Italian Poe¬
try, very much > fteemed, and reprinted, in 1731,3! Ve¬
nice, in fix volumes, 4to. This hiftory is accompanied
with a commentary, containing anecdotes of Italian Crefcy
poets. He publilhed alfo A Hiftory of the Academy il
of Arcadia, together with the Lives of the moft illu- . re
ftrious Arcadians : and many other works.
CRESCY, or Cressy. See Cressy.
CRESS, water cress, or cresses. See Sisym¬
brium, Botany Index.
Indian Cress. See Tropjeolum, Botany Index.
CRESSY, a port town of Picardy in France, about
44 miles fouth of Calais, and 27 north-weft of Abbe¬
ville, remarkable on account of the victory obtained
there over the French by Edward III. of England, in
the year 1346. E. Long. 2. o. N. Lat. 50. 20.
Edward having encountered and overcome many
difficulties in his expedition, was at laft fo clofely fol¬
lowed and haraffed by the French army, commanded
by the king of France in perfon, that he determined
to make a {land at this place, and to give his purfuers
a check. For this purpofe he chofe his ground with
great judgment, on the gentle declivity of a hill, with
a thick wood in his rear. He ordered deep entrench¬
ments to be made on each flank, and waited with
firmnefs the approach of his enemies. The king of
France, dreading nothing fo much as the efcape of the
Englifh, began the march of his great army from Ab¬
beville early in the morning, Augull 26. and continued
it feveral hours with great eagernefs, till he received
intelligence that the Englifli had halted at Creffy, and
were prepared to give him battle. He was advifed at
the fame time not to engage that day, when his troops
were much fatigued with their march, and in great
diforder $ and he was difpofed to have taken this ad¬
vice. But the difcipline of thefe times was fo imperfefl,
that the orders given for halting were not obeyed j and
one corps of this mighty hoft impelling another, they
continued advancing till they came into the prefence
of their enemies in much conlufion.
Edward had employed the forenoon of this import¬
ant day in drawing up his army in the moft excellent
order, in three lines. The firft line, which confifled
of 800 men at arms, 4000 Englilh archers, and 600
Welfti foot, wTas commanded by his young, amiable,
and heroic fon, the prince of Wales, aflifted by the
earls of Warwick and Oxford, and feveral other no¬
blemen. The fecond line, compofed of 800 men at
arms, 4000 halbardiers, and 2400 archers, was led by
the earls of Arundel and Northampton ; the laft line
or body of referve, in which were 700 men at arms,
5300 billmen, and 6000 archers, was ranged along the
fummit of the hill, and conduced by the king in per¬
fon, attended by the lords Moubray, Mortimer, and
others. When the army was completely formed, Ed¬
ward rode along the lines, and by his words and looks
infpired his troops with the moft ardent courage and
ftrongeft hopes of victory. He then commanded the
cavalry to difmount, and the whole army to fit down
upon the grafs, in their ranks, and refrefti themfelves
with meat, drink, and reft. As foon as the French
army came in view, they fprung from the ground,
full of ftrength and fpirit, and ftood ready to receive
them.
The king of France, aflifted by the kings of Bo¬
hemia and Majorca, the dukes of Lorraine and Savoy,
and feveral other fovereign princes, with the flower of
the French nobility, laboured to reftore fome degree
I of
C'-fefi'y,
Creft.
C R E
t 736 ]
C R E
of order to Ills prodigious army, and drew it up alio
in three lines, but very indiltinflly formed. The firft
line was commanded in chief by the king of Bohemia ;
the fecond by the earl of Alcn^on, the king of France’s
brother ; and the third by Philip in perfon ; and each
ef thefe lines contained a greater number of troops
than the whole EngKfh army.
The battle of Crefly was begun about three o’clock
in the afternoon, Auguft 26. by a great body of Ge-
noefe crofs-bowmen, in the French fervice, who let fly
their cjuarrels at too great a dillance to do any execu¬
tion, and were prefently routed by a fhower of arrows
from the Englifh archers. The earl of Alengon, after
trampling to death many of the flying Genoefe, advan¬
ced to the charge, and made a furious attack on that
corps commanded by the prince of Wales. The earls
of Arundel and Northampton advanced with the fe¬
cond line to fuftain the prince, and Alen^on was fup-
ported by as many troops as could crowd to his aflift-
ance. Here the battle raged for fome time with un¬
common fury j and the earl of Warwick, anxious for
the fate of the day and the fafety of the prince, fent a
meffenger to the king, intreating him to advance with
the third line. Edward, who had taken his Hand on
a wind-mill on the top of the hill, from whence he had
a full view of both armies, afked the meffenger, if his
fon was unhorfed, or wounded, or killed ? and being
anfwered, that the prince was unhurt, and performed
prodigies of valour. “ Go then,” faid he, “ and tell
my fon and his brave companions, that I will not de¬
prive them of any part of the glory of their viaory.”
This flattering meffage being made known, infpired
the prince and his troops with redoubled ardour 5 and
the king of Bohemia, the earl of Alen5on, and many
other great men, being (lain, the whole fiift and fecond
lines of the French army were put to flight. Philip,
undifmayed at the {laughter of his troops, and the fall
of fo many princes, advanced to the charge with the
line under his immediate command. But this body
foon (hared the fame fate with the other two ; and
Philip, after having been unhorfed, and wounded in
the neck and thigh, w'as carried off the field by John
de Hainault, and fled with no more than five knights
and about 60 foldiers in his company, of all his mighty
army, w’hich at the beginning of the battle confided of
more than 120,000 men. Such wras the famous vic-
torv of Crtffy, the greateft ever gained by any king
of England. " After the battle, the king flew into the
arms of the prince of Wales, and grafping him to his
bofom, cried in an eeftafy of joy, “ My dear fon, you
have this day {bowed yourfelf worthy of the knight¬
hood which you lately received, and of the crowm for
which you have fo bravelv fought; perfevere in your
honourable courfe.” The prince, as modeft as he
was brave, funk down on his knees, his face covered
with blulhes, and begged his father’s blefling. Ed¬
ward continued with his army at Creflfy three days,
employed in numbering and burying the dead. The
French had left on this bloody feene the king of Bo¬
hemia, 11 other princes, 80 bannerets, 1200 knights,
I 500 gentlemen, 4000 meri 3Tins» anA other
foldiers.
CREST, in armoury, denotes the uppermoft part
of an armoury ; or that part rifing over the cafk or
helmet. Next to the mantle, fays Guillim, the creft
or cognizance claims the higheft place ; being feated
on the moft eminent part of the helmet *, yet fo as to
admit an interpofition of fome efcrol, wreath, chapeau,
crov n, &c.
The ancient w’arriors w’ore crefts to {trike terror in
their enemies, as the fight of the fpoils of animals
they had killed j or to give them the more formidable
mien, by making them appear taller, &c.
In the ancient tournaments, the cavaliers had plumes
of feathers, efpecially thofe of oftriches and herons,
for their crefts j thefe tufts they called phitnarts ; and
were placed in tubes, on the tops of high caps or
bonnets. Some had their crefts of leather ; others of
parchment, pafteboard, &c. painted or varnilhed, to
keep out the weather j others of fteel, wood, &c. on
which were fometimes reprefented a member or ordi¬
nary of the coat •, as an eagle, fleur-de-lys, Sec. but
never any of thofe called honourable ordinaries, as pale,
feffe, &c.' The crefts were changeable at pleafure 5
being reputed no other than as an arbitrary device or
ornament.
Herodotus attributes the rife of crefts to the Carians,
who firft bore feathers on their calks, and painted fi¬
gures on their bucklers; whence the Pcrfians called
them cocks.
The creft is efteemed a greater mark of nobility
than the armoury, as being borne at tournaments j to
which none were admitted till they had given proof
of their nobility. Sometimes it ierves to diftinguiftt
the feveral branches of a family. It has alfo lerved,
on occafion, as the diftinguifhing badge of factions.
Sometimes the creft is taken from the device j but
more ufually it is formed of fome piece of the arms :
thus, the emperor’s creft is an eagle •, that of Caftile,
a caftle, &cc. Families that exchange arms, as the
houfes of Brunfwick and Cologne have done, do not
change their crefts, the firft ftrll retain the horle, ano.
the latter the mermaid.
Crest, in Heraldry, the figure placed above the
helmet in an atchievement. See Heraldry.
CnEsr-fallen, a fault of a horfe, when the upper
part of his neck, called the crejl, hangs to one fide :
this they cure by placing it upiight, clipping away the
fpare (kin, and applying plafters to keep it in a proper
pofition.
CRETA, or Chalk, in Natural Hijlory. See
Chalk, Mineralogy Index.
CRETE, one of the largeft iflands in the Mediter¬
ranean, lying between 2 2 and 27 degrees of eaft lon¬
gitude, and between 35 and 36 degrees of north lati¬
tude. According to Strabo, this ifland is 287 miles
in length •, and according to Pliny, 270 j and accord¬
ing to Scylax, 312. As to its breadth, it is not, as
Pliny obferves, above 55 miles w here wideft ; whence
it was ftyled, as Stephanus obferves, the Long' ijland.
It has the Archipelago to the north, the African fea
to the fouth, the Carpathian fea to the eaft, and the
Ionian to the weft. Anciently it was known by the
names of Aeria, Chthoma, Idea, Lurete, Macans, &.c.
but its moft common name was that of Crete.
The Cretan mythologifts, quoted by Diodorus Si¬
culus, relate that the firft inhabitants of the ifland
were the Dadlyli Idafi, who dwelt around Mount Ida ;
they were regarded as magicians, because they poflef-
fed a variety of knowledge, and were particularly (kil¬
led
Creft
Crete.
C R
Grete. led in religious myfteries .
—^ 1 himfelf fo highly in poetry and mufic, was their dif-
ciple. They difcovered the ufe of fire, iron, and brafs,
and invented the art of working thefe metals in Ile-
recynthius, a mountain near Aptera. I hofe invalu¬
able difcoveries procured them divine honours. One
of them, named Hercules, rendered himfelf famous by
his courage and great exploits. He inflituted the O-
lympic games ; though poilerity, by a mdlake arifing
from his bearing the fame name, have afcribed that in-
ftitution to the fon of Alcmena who, indeed, tiode
in the Heps of his predeceffor, and raifed himfelf alfo
to immortality.
The Daftyli Idtei were the anceftors of the Cure-
tes. Thefe laft at firll inhabited the fore (Is and caves
of the mountains. Afterwards they entered into do-
meflic life, and contributed, by their inllitutions, to
the civilization of mankind. They taught men to
col left flocks of (Keep, to tame the ferocity of wild
animals for domeftic purpoles, and to invite bees into
hives, that thev might rifle them of the fruit of their
labours. They firft prompted men to the chafe, and
taught the ufe of the bow. They were the inventors
of fwords and of military dances. I he noiie W'hicn
they made, by dancing in armour, hindered Saturn
from hearing the cries of Jupiter, whole education
Rhea had entrufted to them. With the.afliftance of
the nymphs, they brought up that god in a cave in
Mount Ida, feeding him with the milk of the goat
Amalthea, and with honey.
To this period mythology afligns the origin of the
Titans •, their abode near Gnoffus, where flood the
palace of Rhea •, their travels over the whole earth ;
their wrar againft Ammon, and his defence by Bac¬
chus } the nuptials of Jupiter and Juno, celebrated
nigh the river Therenus in Crete *, the gods, goddefles,
and heroes, who defcended from them.
The moft illuftrious of thofe heroes were Minos and
Rhadamanthus. They are faid to have been the fons
of Jupiter and Europa, who wTas conveyed into tne
ifland on a bull. Minos becoming king, built feveral
cities; the moft confiderable of which are—Gnoffus,
on that fide of the ifland which faces Afia, Phceftus
on the fouthern fliore, and Cydon on the weftern, fa¬
cing Peloponnefus. He gave to his fubjefts a code
of admirable laws, which he pretended to have re¬
ceived from his father Jupiter in the grotto of Mount
Ida.
Rhadamanthus diftinguifhed himfelf by the impar¬
tiality of his judgments, and by the inflexible feverity
with which he inflifted punifhment on the impious aud
wicked. His empire extended over the chief ifles of
the Archipelago, and the inhabitants of the adjacent
coafts of Afia fubmitted to him on account of his high
reputation for probity and juftice. Mythologifts have
conflituted him judge in the regions below, to deter¬
mine the future ftate of the righteous and the wicked.
They have conferred on him the fame honours which
were beftowed on Minos, the jufteft of kings.
Thus far have been followed the Cretan traditions
as they are related by Diodorus 3 but hiftorians drfter
about the truth of them. There are a variety of opi¬
nions concerning the firft inhabitants of Crete. Stra¬
bo, who has difcuffed them wfith great erudition, fays,
after feveral pages on the fubjeft ; “ I am not iond of
Vot. VI. Part II.
E [ 737 1 c R E
Orpheus, who diftinguilhed fables; yeti have detailed thele at fome length, be-
Crtf-
caufe they are connefted with theology. Every dif-
courfe concerning the gods fliould examine the reli¬
gious opinions of antiquity, and diftinguifti them from
fable. The ancients were plealed to conceal their
knowledge of nature under a veil. It is now impof-
fible to unfold the meaning of thesr enigmas. But by
expofing to light the numerous allegories which they
have left us, and by examining attentively their mutual
relations and differences, genius may perhaps be able
to unfold the truths which are couched under them.”
But leaving mythology for the more certain records
and monuments of hiflory, we find that Crete received
its name from Cies, the firft of its monarchs. He was
author of feveral uleful inventions, which contributed
to the happinefs of his fubjefts. Prompted by grati¬
tude, they endeavoured to perpetuate the memory of
his favours, and to immortalize his name, by naming
the ifland after him.
In order to diftinguifh the true Cretans from ftran-
gers, they were named Eteocretcs. A number of co¬
lonies, from different parts of Greece, fettled in the
ifland. The agreeablenefs of the climate, and the
fertility of the foil, invited them to fix their habitation
there. The Lacedaemonians, Argives, and Atheni¬
ans, were the principal people who lent colonies into
Crete. This is what makes Homer fay, “ Crete is an
extenfive ifland in the midft of the ftormy main. The
foil is rich and fertile. It contains an immenfe number
of inhabitants. It is adorned with a hundred cities.
Its inhabitants fpeak in various languages. We find
there Acheeans, valiant Eteocretes, Cydonians, Do¬
rians, and godlike Pelafgians.” The Eteocretes inha¬
bited the fouthern divifion of the ifland ; they built
there the city of Prcefus, and ertfted a temple to Dic-
tsean Jove.
Cies was not the only monarch who reigned in the
ifland of Crete. He had a feries of fucctffors. But
hiftory affords little information concerning them :
only the names of a few of them are preferved, and
a fmall number of events which happened under the
reign of fome others, but blended and disfigured
with an intermixture of fable. Among thole mo¬
narchs we find two Jupiters, and two of the name of
Minos. However, moft writers confound them, and
aferibe to one thofe tianfaftions and exploits which
ftiould be fhared between the two.
This remark chiefly regards Minos, who was ef-
teemed the wifeft legiflator of antiquity. The office
affigned him in the regions below’ is a clear and cer¬
tain proof of his having gained an exalted reputation
by his juflice. Greece, fays Plato, has with great
propriety adopted the laws of Crete ; for they are
founded on the folid bafis of reafon and equity, and
have a natural tendency to render the people, who live
in fubjeftion to them, opulent and happy. One of
thofe laws forbade “ the Cretans ever to carry their
feftivity fo far as to intoxicate themfelves with wdne.”
The following was very fuitable to reprels the pre-
fumptuous ardour of youth : “ Let young people not
canvafs the laws with an indifereet curiolity ; let them
not examine whether the lawgiver has done right or
wrong in promulgating them ; but let them join una-
nimoufly in declaring them good, fince they proceed
from the gods. If any of the old men. perceive fome-
5 A thing
(
Crete.
G R E [738
^ tiling in them meriting amendment, let him mention
it to the inagiftrate, or difcufs it with his equals, but
never in the prefence of the young people.” That
excellent code was engraven on tables of brafs j and
Talos, chief miniiler to Minos, vifited all the towns
and cities in the ifland, three times a-year, to obferve
in what manner the laws were executed and obeyed.
I he king of Crete, well knowing that the marvellous
is neceflary to command the belief and enforce the
obedience of the people, pretended that he had re¬
ceived thofe laws from his father Jupiter, in the grot¬
to of Mount Ida. In the fame manner, Lycurgus,
before promulgating his laws, repaired to Delphos,
and gave out they had received the fanftion of Apol¬
lo. A like reafon induced Niima to pretend to an in¬
timacy with the nymph Egeria, and Mahomet to afcribe
his do&rines and inftitutions to the revelation of the
angel Gabriel.
# In contradi&ion to this account, others of the an¬
cients defcribe Minos as a prince impotently abandon¬
ed to the fury of his padions, and a barbarous conquer¬
or. Falling pafiionately in love with the nymph Dic-
tynna, wdio refufed to gratify his wifhes, he purfued
her to the brink of the fliore, and forced her to plunge
into the fea, where (he was faved by fome filhermen,
who received her in their nets. He was the firif of
the Greeks who appeared in the Mediterranean at the
head of a naval armament. He conquered the Cy¬
clades, expelled the Carians, eftablifhed Cretan colo¬
nies in thofe iflands, and committed the government
of them to his fon.
Being informed, while he was at Paros, that his
fon Androgeus was (lain at Athens, he declared war
againft Egeus, and impofed on him a difgraceful tri¬
bute ; from the payment of which Thefeus delivered
his country. He took arms againft Nifus, king of
Megara, made him prifoner by the treachery of his
daughter Scylla, and put him to death, together with
Megarus, the fon of Hippomanes, who had brought
fome forces to his aftiftance. Dsedalus, who had by
feme means incurred his difpleafure, defpairing of par¬
don from fo fevere and indexible a prince, employed
the refources of his inventive genius, in order to efcape
from his power. He fled to Sicily, gained the pro¬
tection of King Cocalus, and obtained an afylum in his
court. Valerius Flaccus has deferibed his flight in a
very lively and piCIurefque manner. “ Thus Daedalus,
with the wings of a bird, afeended from Mount Ida.
Befide him flew the comrade of his flight, with (hort-
er wings. They appeared like a cloud riling in the
air. Minos, feeing his vengeance thus eluded, glowed
with impotent rage. In vain he followed with his
eyes the fecure flight of his enemies through the wide
expanfe of heaven. His guards returned to Gortynia
with their quivers filled with arrows.” The Cretan
monarch did not, however, give up his prev. He
equipped a fleet, purfued the fugitive to Sicily, and
fell before the walls of Camicum.
It is plain, that thofe adlions cannot agree to the
chara&er of that juft monarch, whofe merits raifed
him to the office of determining, in the regions be¬
low, the unalterable fate of the righteous and the
wicked. We may, therefore, reafonably conclude,
that Minos the legiflator is a different perfon from
the conqueror $ that it was the former who gained a
] C R E
lading reputation by his wifdom and juftice •, and the
latter who fubdued molt of the iflands of the Archi-'
pelago, but being enllaved by his paflions, tarnilhed
his glory by his cruelty and mercilefs thirft for ven¬
geance.
The laft king of Crete was Idomeneus. This prince,
accompanied by Merion, conducted 24 Ihips to the
affiltance of Agamemnon. Homer informs us of the
illuftrious exploits by which he fignalized himfelf be¬
fore the walls of i roy. At his departure, he com¬
mitted the government of his kingdom to Leucus his
adopted fon, promifing him the hand of his daughter
Clifithera if he governed wifely in his abfence. That
ambitious young man foon forgot the favours which
had been fo lavifldy bellowed on him. Gaining a
number of partifans, he in a Ihort time afpired to the
immediate poffeffion of the crown. His impatience
would not wait till he fliould obtain it lawfully by
marriage. Flattering himlelf, from the long abfence
of the king, that he was perhaps fallen before Troy,
he determined to mount the throne. Mida, wife to
Idomeneus, and the princefs Clilithera, were an ob-
itacle to his wiflres. But ambition knows no reftraint,
and tramples under foot the molt facred obligations!
The bale wretch having feduced the people from their
allegiance, and captivated the affeftions of the nobles,
facrificed thole unfortunate victims in the temple.
When Idomer.eus, crowned wuth laurels, landed on
the coart of Crete, Leucus, who had now firmly efta-
bhHied his power, attacked him with an armed force,
and obliged him to reimbaik. A different account
is alfo given of the banilhment of Idomeneus. Servius
fays that he had vowed, in a ftorm, to facrifice to the
the gods the firft perfon that his eyes Ihould beheld
on the Cretan fhore ; that his fon having met him firft
after his arrival, he fulfilled his vow, by facrificing
him y and that the ifland, being foon after depopu¬
lated by peflilence, the inhabitants looked upon that
affluftion as the tffeft of divine vengeance, and expel¬
led the parricide ; who, retiring to Italy, founded Sa-
lentum, on the Meffapian coaft. But that opinion ap¬
pears entirely groundlefs. Hillory mentions no fon of
Idomeneus. If he had a fon of his own blood, why
did he adopt Leucus ? Why did he intruft to him the
government of the ifland, when he promifed him his
daughter in marriage ? The mere probable opinion is,
that the plague was introduced into the ifland by his
(hips, when he returned from the flege of 7'roy, as He¬
rodotus afferts; and that Leucus artfully made ufe of
that pretext to expel his lawful fovertign fiom the
ifland. But it appears that the ufurper did 1 ot long
enjoy the fruit of his crimes. Soon after the departure
of Idomeneus, monarchy was abolilhed, and the go¬
vernment of Crete became republican.
I he republic of Crete has been celebrated by the
panegyric of Plato, fervtd Lycurgus as a model for
that w'hich he eftablilhed in L icedemon, and was be¬
held by all Greece with rtlpedf and admiration. Stra¬
bo h as thought it not unworthy of hf pencil, and has
confecrated the leading features of its conftitution to
lading fame in his immortal work. It was indeed a
fyftem of legiflature, w hole diredf tendency was to call
forth the buds of virtue in the heart ot infancy ; to
open and expand them in youth ; to infpire man, as
be reached maturity, with the love of his countty, of
8lory»
Crete.
c R, E [ 739 ]
Crete, glory, and of liberty *, and to comfort and fupport the
■—v 1 infirmities of age with the refpefl and efteem due to
the experience and wifdom of that period of life. It
laboured to form affe&ionate friends, patriotic citizens,
and worthy magiftrates. It made no ufe, however, of
a multitude of afls and flatutes to produce' thofe inefti-
mable advantages. They flowed all from one fource :
the public education of youth, judicioufly direfted.
The virtuous examples fet before youth in the courfe
of that education, the illuftrious deeds which were re¬
cited to them with high applaufe, the honours confer¬
red on valour and on noble aftions, the opprobrium in¬
variably call on vice } thefe were the only means
which the Cretan lawgiver made ufe of to form a war¬
like, humane, and virtuous nation.
The Cretan government, foon after the expulfion
of Idomeneus, became ariftocratical. The power was
divided between the nobles and the people. Yet as
the chief employments were occupied by the nobles,
they direfted the adminiftration of affairs. Ten magi-
ftrates were annually elected, by a majority of voices,
in the national alfembly. Thefe Were named Cofmoi;
and their public office and chara&er were the fame
with thofe of the Ephori at Sparta. They were the
generals of the republic in time of war, and direfted
all affairs of any importance. They had the right of
choofing certain old men for counfellors. Thofe old
men, to the number of twenty-eight, compofed the
Cretan fenate. They were chofen from among fuch
as had difcharged the office of Cofmoi, or had diflin-
guiffied themfelves by extraordinary merit and blame-
lefs probity. Thofe fenators continued in office du¬
ring life, poffeffed a weighty influence, and were con-
fulted in every affair of any importance. This body
was a barrier oppofed by the wifdom of the legiflator
againfi: the ambition of the ten chief rulers. He had
impofed another reftraint on their power, by limiting
the period of their adminiftration to one year. His
forefight went ftill farther. The fuffrages of the peo¬
ple might be obtained by bribery or perfonal influence,
and of confequence their choice might fometimes fall
on a man unworthy of fo honourable an office. When
that happened, he who had been undefervedly advanced
to the dignity of Cofmos was degraded, either in a
national affembly, or Amply by the voices of his col¬
leagues. This, doubtlefs, is what Plato alludes to,
when he fays, “ Neither the commonwealth, which
approaches too near to a monarchical conftitution, nor
that which affedts a licentious liberty, is founded on
the folid bafis of a juft medium between anarchy and
defpotifm. O Cretans ! O Lacedemonians ! by efta-
blifhing yours on firmer foundations, you have avoided
thofe fatal extremes.”
’ Such were the diftribution of power and the ad¬
miniftration of public affairs in the Cretan govern¬
ment. Its fimplicity was admirable. A people who
veere bleffed with the facred enjoyment of liberty, but
poffeffed not fufficient knowledge and difcernment to
diredl themfelves, elefted magiftrates, to whom they
delegated their authority. Thofe magiftrates, thus
arrayed with fovereign power, chofe fenators to affift
and diredt their deliberations. Thefe counfellors
could neither enadt nor decide of themfelves; but they
held their office for life ; and that circumftance con¬
tributed to ftreng'then their influence and to increafe
C R E
their experience. The magiftrates were animated by
the moft powerful motives to diftinguilh themfelves
when in office, by unwearied adlivity in the public
fervice. On one fide, they were reftrained by the
fear of degradation j on the other, adluated by the
hope of becoming one day members of the national
council.
Yet let us inquire what means the Cretan lawgiver
ufed to form virtuous citizens. All the Cretans were
fubjedled to the power of their magiftrates; and di¬
vided into two claffes, the adults and the youth. Men
arrived at maturity w7ere admitted into the firft. The
fecond confifted of all the young men who were not.
below the age of feventeen. The fociety of adults ate
together in public halls. There rulers, magiftrates,
poor and rich, feated together, partook, without dt-
ftinftion, of the fame fimple fare. A large bowl, fill¬
ed with wine and water, which went round the com¬
pany from one to another, was the only drink, that
they were allowed. None but the old men had a right
to call for more wine. Doubtlefs, that people, fo ce¬
lebrated for wifdom, were not ftrangers to the power
of beauty ; for a woman was appointed to prefide at
each table. She openly diftributed the moft exquifite
meats to thofe who had diftinguiftied themfelves by
their valour or wifdom. That judicious preference
was fo far from exciting envy or jealoufy, that it only
prompted every perfon to deferve it by brave and pru¬
dent conduft. Near where the citizens fat, two tables
were laid, which they named Hofpitable i all ftrangers
and travellers were entertained at thtfe j and there was
alfo a particular houfe fet apart by the public, in which
they might fpend the night.
To fupply the public expences, every citizen was
obliged to bring a tenth part of his annual income in¬
to the treafury. The chief magiftrates were to take
care that every perfon contributed his proportion. In
Crete, fays Ariftotle, one part of the fruits of the
earth, of the produce of the flocks, of the revenues
of the ftate, and of the taxes and cuftoms, is facred to
the gods : the other is diftributed among the members
of the community ; fo that men, women, and children,
all fubfift at the public expence.
After dinner, the magiftrates and fenators ufually
fpent fome time in deliberating on the affairs of the
ftate ; they next recounted the noble deeds which had
been done in war, celebrated the courage of their moft:
diftinguifhed warriors, and animated the youth to he¬
roic valour. Thofe affemblies were the firft fchool of
the youth. At the age of feven, the boy was per¬
mitted to handle the bow j-—-from that time he was
admitted into the fociety of the adults, where he con¬
tinued till the age of feventeen. There, fitting on
the ground, and clothed in a plain and coarfe drefs,
he ferved the old men, and liftened, with refpeftffil
filence, to their advices. His young heart was in¬
flamed with the recital of noble deeds in arms, and
glowed with ardour to imitate them. He acquired
habits of fobriety and temperance. And being con-
ftjmtly witnefs of illuftiious examples of moderation,
wifdom, and patriotifm } the feeds of virtue were thus
fown and foftered in his heart before he attained the
ufe of reafon.
He was early accuftomed to arms and to fatigue,
that he might learn to endure exceffive heat or cold,
5 A 2 t<»
Crete-
c R E f 740 1 C R E
Crete, to clamber and leap among hills and precipices, and
to bear manfully the blows and wounds which he
might receive amid t,he gymnaflic exercifes or in bat¬
tle. His education was not confined to the gymnaflic
exercifes ; he was alfo taught to fing the lawTs, which
w’ere written in verfe, with a certain fpecies of melo¬
dy $ in order that the charms of mafic might difpofe
him to learn them wdth more pleafure, and might im-
prefs them more deeply on his heart, and that, if he
fhould ever tranfgrefs them, he might not have the
excufe of ignorance to offer. He next learned hymns
in honour of the gods, and poems compofed in praife
of heroes. When he reached his feventeenth year, he
retired from the fociety of the adults, and became a
member of that of the young men.
Here his education was ftill carried on. He e^er-
cifed himfelf in hunting, wreftling, and fighting with
his companions. The lyre played tunes of martial
mufic ; and he learned to follow7 exaflly the founds
and meafure of the mufician. Thofe fports and exer¬
cifes w’ere fometimes attended with danger; becaufe
arms of fleel w'ere fometimes ufed in them. One
dance, in which the youth afpired moil ardently to
excel, was the Pyrrhic, originally invented in Crete.
The performers in that dance were arrayed in com¬
plete armour :—they wore a light fhort coat, which
did not fall below the knee, and wras bound with a
girdle going twice round the waift : on their feet and
legs w’ere bufkins ; above thefe they bore their arms,
and performed various military evolutions to the found
of mufical inftruments. “ The Lacedemonians and
Cretans (fays Libanius) cultivated dancing with ama¬
zing ardour ; they confidered that their laws had di-
refted them to praftife it for the molt important pur-
pofes ; and it w7as fcarce lefs dilhonourable for a Lacede¬
monian or Cretan to negleH the military dances, than
to defert his pod in battle.”
Thofe Cretans who w7ere opulent and high-born,
were permitted to form focieties of young men of their
own age. They often drove, with emulation, who
ihould form the mod numerous ones. The father of
the young man w’ho formed one of thofe focieties ufu-
ally prefided in it. He had a right to educate thofe
warlike youth, to exercife them in running and in hunt¬
ing, to conier rewards and infl'ft punidiments.
Frienddiip w7as in high edimation among the Cre¬
tans ; but, fays Strabo, the manner in which they
conduced the intercourfe of friendfhip was pretty ex¬
traordinary. Indead of mild perfuafion, they made
ufe of violence to gain the objefts of their affedtio.ns.
He who conceived an affeflion for a young man of
his own age, and widied to attach him to himfelf by
indiffoluble bonds, formed a fcheme for carrying him
off by violence. Three days before putting it into ex¬
ecution, be communicated it to bis comrade. They
could not then interfere to prevent it 5 becaufe if they
had, they would have appeared to think the young
man unwmrthy of fuch an exceffive attachment. At
the appointed day they affembled to protect their com¬
panion. If the ravilher appeared to them not unwor¬
thy of the object of his affection, they made at fird a
faint refidance in obedience to the law’—but, at lad,
joyfully favoured his enterprife ; if, on the other hand,
they thought him unworthy of the object of his choice,
they made fuch refidance as to prevent him from exe¬
cuting his defign. The feigned refidance continued Crete,
till the ravidier had conducted his friend into the hall
of that fociety to which he belonged. They did not
regard him who poffeffed fuperior beauty and grace-
fulnefs of perfon as the mod amiable ; but him who
had mod didinguidied himfelf by his modedy and
valour.
The ravidier loaded his young friend with favours,
and conducted him wherever he defired j they were
accompanied by thofe who had favoured the rape : he
carried him from fead to fead, procured him the plea-
lures of the chafe and good cheer 5 and after ufing
all podible means to gain his heart for the courfe of
two months, brought him back to the city, and was
obliged to give him up to his parents. Eut fird he
prefented him with a fuit of armour, an ox, and a
drinking cup ; which w’ere the ufual and legal pre-
fents on fuch occafions. Sometimes his generofity
went dill farther j and he made more expenfive pre-
fents ; to defray the expence of which his comrades
contributed. The young man facrificed the ox to Ju¬
piter, and gave an entertainment to thofe who had
adided when he was carried off. He then declared
his fentiments concerning a connection with his ravilh¬
er, and told whether or not it was agreeable to him.
If he had reafon to complain of the treatment which
he had received, the law allow’ed him to forfake a
friend fo unworthy of the name, and to demand his pu-
nidiment.
It would have been difgraceful, adds Strabo, to a
young man who was handlome and well born, to be
rejected by his friends on account of the depravity of
his manners. Thofe who had been carried off recei¬
ved public honours. Theirs were the fird places in the
halls and at the race. They were permitted to wear,
during the red of life, thofe ornaments which they ow¬
ed to the tendernefs of frienddiip ; and that mark of
didin£lion tedified to. all who law them, that they had
been the objects of fome fond attachment.
When the youth had finidied their exercifes, and at¬
tained the legal age, they became members of the clafs
of adults •, being then confidered as men, they W’ere
permitted to vote in the national affemblies, and were
entitled to dand candidates for any public office. They
were then obliged to marry : but did not take home
their wives till fuch time as they w’ere capable of ma¬
naging their domedic concerns.
“ The legidator (fays Strabo) bad confidered li¬
berty as the greated bleffing that cities can enjoy. Li¬
berty alone can fecure the property of the citizens of
any date. Slavery either robs them of it, or renders
it precarious. The fird care of nations Ihould there¬
fore be to preferve their liberty. Concord drength-
ens and fupports her empire; die flourilhes wherever
the feeds of diffenfion are extinguiflied. Almod all
thofe hodilities which prevail among nations or indi¬
viduals fpring either from an inordinate defire of
wealth or the love of luxury. Introduce, indead of
thofe baneful principles, frugality, moderation, and
equality of conditions; you will thus baniffi envy, ha¬
tred, injudice, and haughty difdain.” I his was w’hat
the Cretan lawgiver happily effecled. And the com¬
munity, which was regulated by his wife inditutions,
rofe to glory, opulence, and power ; and was ho¬
noured with the panegyrics of the moll celebrated phi-
lofophers
C R E [ 741 ] ORE
Crete, lofopfiers of Greece j but the higheft honour It ever
   ' obtained, was that of ferving Lycurgus as a model
for the admirable form of government which he efta-
blifhed at Sparta.
The republic of Crete continued to flourifli till the
age of Julius Caefar. No other ftate has enjoyed fo
long a period of llrength and grandeur. The legilla-
ture, regarding liberty as the only fure balls of a na¬
tion’s happinefs, had inftituted a fyftem of laws, the
natural tendency of which was, to infpire men with
an ardent pafllon for liberty, and with fuch virtue and
valour as are neceffary to fupport and defend it. All
the citizens were foldiers j all of them were (killed in
the art of war. The valiant youth of other nations
reforted to Crete, to learn the exercifes, manoeuvres,
and evolutions, of the military art. “ Philopoemen
(fays Plutarch) being impatient of indolence, and ea¬
ger to acquire (kill in arms, embarked for Crete. Af¬
ter (pending a confiderable time in the nobleft exer-
ciies among that brave people, who were (killed in the
art of war, and accuftomed to an auftere and tempe¬
rate life, he returned to the Achaeans. The know¬
ledge which he had acquired made him fo eminent
among them, that he was immediately appointed ge¬
neral of their cavalry.”
On the other hand, the legiflator, being perfuaded
that conquefts are generally unjuft and criminal, that
they often exhauft the ftrength of the viflorious na¬
tion, and almoft always corrupt its manners, endea¬
voured to preferve the Cretans from the ambition of
conquert. The fertility of the illand abundantly fup-
plied their wants. They needed not that commerce
fhould introduce among them the riches of foreign
countries, along with which luxury and her train of
attendant vices would ,alfb be introduced 5 and he knew
how to infpire them with an indifference for fuch ac-
quifitions without exprefsly forbidding them. The
gymnaftic exercifes, which occupied the leifure of the
gallant youth ; the pleafures of the chafe ; the ardour
of friendlhip j the public (hows, at which all the dif¬
ferent orders of the community, both men and women,
ufed to affemble j the love of equality, order, and their
country, with which he inflamed every breaft; the
wife inftitutions, which united a whole nation fo clofely
that they comoofed but one family ;—all thefe ties at¬
tached the Cretans to their native illand : and finding
at home that happinefs which was the objedt of their
wilhes, they never thought of wandering abroad in
fearch of an imaginary glory, or of extending their
empire over other nations. Therefore, from the pe¬
riod at which that ftate affumed a republican form till
the time when they were attacked by the arms of
Rome, the nation was not once known to fend a
hoftile force into the territories of any of their neigh¬
bours. This inftance of moderation is unparalleled in
hiftory no other nation can divide the glory of it with
the Cretans. Individuals indeed might leave their
country to engage in foreign armies. Thofe princes
and dates who knew their valour and (kill in archery
eagerly fought to take them into their pay ; all the
neighbouring monarchs were defirous of having in
their armies a body of Cretan archers. Over the whole
world none were more celebrated than they for bend¬
ing the bow. “ The arrows of Gortynia (faysClau-
dian), aimed from a trufty bow, are fure to wound,
and never mifs the deftined mark.”
Though the multitude of independent cities which
flourifhed in Crete did not unite their arms to fubju-
gate the neighbouring illands, and drench them with
the blood of their inhabitants ; yet they were not fo
wife as to live in peace among themfelves. Difcord
often (talked among them wdth her flaming torch.
The mod powerful wilhed to enflave the reft. Some¬
times Gnoffus and Gortynia marched with focial ban¬
ners again ft their neighbours, levelled their fortreffes,
and fubje&ed them to their power ; at other times
they attacked each other with hoftile violence, and faw
their braveft youth perilh amid the horrors of civil
wrar. Ly&os and Cydon Oppofed an invincible bar¬
rier to their ambition, and preferved their own liberty.
The laft of thefe cities had acquired fuch ftrength and
influence, that (lie held the balance between the rival
powers of the ifland. Thofe wars deftroyed a number
of the cities, and drenched the native country of Jupi¬
ter with blood.
To what fource muft we attribute thofe inteftine dif-
fenfions ? One part of the iftand was occupied by the
EteOcretes, the original inhabitants; the reft was peo¬
pled with colonies from Athens, Sparta, Argos, and
Samos. Perhaps the ancient grudges which had fub-
fifted among thofe ftrangers, being (till unextinguilhed
in their breads, were eafily rekindled by accident or
circumftances, and inflamed with new fury. We may
alfo fuppofe, that the moft powerful among them, ex¬
ulting in their fuperiority, would endeavour to take
advantage of the weaknefs of the reft, and difregard
all laws but thofe of forcd : befides, the glowing ardour
of the youth, trained to military exercifes, was ever
ready to fly to arms. Such, probably, were the caufes-
which fomented difcord and hoftility among a people
living under the fame religion, cuftoms, and laws. 
Whatever thefe might be, the Cretans being perfua¬
ded that the firm union of their foldiers was effential to
vidftory, arrayed the braveft youths of the army in
fplendid robes, and caufed them to facrifice to friend-
(hip before engaging in battle. In fome countries it
would be very proper to oblige the generals on fuch oc-
cafions, to facrifice to concord. If (uch a facrifice were
performed with fincerity, it might preferve their glory
unftained, and prevent ■fuch deluges of blood from be¬
ing wafted without producing any advantages to the
ftate.
Their paflion for war did not extinguifti in the breads
of the Cretans that exquifite fenfibility which is the
mother and nurfe of the fine arts. “ The Cretans
(fiys Sozomen) gave an illuftnous proof of their mu¬
nificence to genius, by making Homer a prefent of a
thoufand pieces of filver ; and to perpetuate the me¬
mory of this aft of generofity, they recorded it by an
infcription on a public column.” In Cretej adds Pto¬
lemy, men are (till more defirous of cultivating their
underftandings than of exercifing their bodily powers.
Often when diffenfions arofe, the voice of wifdom and
the charms of poefy recalled them to reafon and har¬
mony. Thales of Gortynia, the preceptor of Lycur¬
gus, was one of their moft celebrated philofophers.
Being both a poet and legiflator, he made a happy
ufe of his abilities and knowledge tO' extinguilh among
his
G R E
[ 742 ]
C R E
his countrymen the kindling fparks of difcord. “ His
poems were moral difcourfes in verfe, which recalled
the people to concord and fubmiflion to the laws. U-
fing a regular meafure, he recommended the aufterity
of his fubjeft by the infinuating and powerful charm
of fentiment. So powerful were the effe&s of his ver-
fes, which addreffed at once the ears, the heart, and
the underftanding of his hearers, that their rage was
gradually foftened. Next, opening their hearts to the
love of peace, the advantages of which he deicribed in
glowing colours, they forgot their inteftine diffenfions,
and ranged themfelves around the ftandard of con¬
cord.” That fage is faid to have invented tunes for
the military dances and for the Cretan Pyrrhic. Men
who felt fo ftrongly the influence of poetry and mufic
could fcarcely be enemies to pleafure. Accordingly
they had a cuftom of diftinguilhing their fortunate days
with white flint Hones, their unfortunate days with
black. At the end of the year they counted the num¬
ber of their white Hones, and reckoned that they had
lived only fo many days as wTere diflinguiflied for ha¬
ying been fortunate. They did not think mere ex¬
igence, without the enjoyment of pleafure, worthy of
the name of life. For this reafon, they caufed to be
infcribed on their tombs : “ He lived fo many days ;
he continued in exiHence fo long.”
A paffion for gloVy is eafily awaked in a feeling and
generous bread. The Cretans eagerly repaired to the
famous folemnities of Greece, and were often crowned
at the Olympic, Nemaean, and Pythian games ; others
of them were favourites of the mufes, and verfified the
prediftions of prophets, or celebrated the glorious deeds
of their heroes. Several of them diflinguiflied them¬
felves by hiftorical compofitions. At the moft ancient
games, a prize is faid to have been beftowed on the
poet who fung the nobleft hymn in honour of Apollo :
Chryfothemis of Crete fung and gained the prize.
The ravages of time have deprived us of almoft all
their works *, and if Pindar had not prefer ved the me¬
mory of fome of their crowns, we ftiould not know
even the names of the conquerors who wore them.
The temple of Diana at Ephefus, built by the Cretan
Ctefiphon and his fon Metagenes, was not proof againft
the frantic hand of the incendiary. Thofe ingenious
archite£ls had built it on the principles of the Ionic
order : to the coftlinefs of the materials, the elegance
of the archite&ure, the fymmetry of the parts, and
the majefty and perfection of the whole, they had ad¬
ded folidity and ftrength, without which the reft muft
have been of fmall value. Their names have defcend-
ed to pofterity, but the pillars of that monument
which has perpetuated their memory have been dif-
perfed or deftroyed. Scarce a veftige remains of that
building which was efteemed one of the feven wonders
of the world.
Nations are effaced from the earth like the monu¬
ments of their power, and after the revolution of feveral
ages we can fcarcely trace in their pofterity any remains
of their ancient charafter. Some of them exift longer,
others ftiorter j but we may almoft always calculate the
period of their duration by the excellence of their laws,
and the fidelity with which they fupport and obey
them. The republic of Crete, being eftabliflied on a
folid bafis, knew no foreign mafter for a period of ten
centuries. She bravely repelled the attacks of thofe
princes who attempted to enflave her. At length the
time arrived when the warlike and victorious Ro-
mans afpired to the empire of the world, and would
fuffer none but their fubjeCts or flaves to inhabit with¬
in the reach of their arms. Florus does not fcruple to
acknowledge, that the Romans had no other motives
for invading Crete but the ambitious defire of fubdu-
ing the renowned native country of Jupiter. “ If any
perfon wifh to know the reafons which induced us to
attack Crete (fays he), the true reafon was our defire
to fubdue fo celebrated an ifland. The Cretans had
appeared to favour Mithridates, and the Romans
thought proper to declare war againft them on that
pretext. Mark Antony, father of the triumvir, at¬
tacked them with ftrong hopes of fuccefs $ but was
feverely punifhed for his prefumption and imprudence.
The Cretans took a great part of his fleet, hung up
his foldiers and failors on the mafts amid the fails
and cordage, and returned in triumph into their har¬
bours.”
The Romans never forgot nor forgave a defeat. Ai
foon as the Macedonian w^ar was brought to a happy
conclufion, they again took arms againft the Cretans
to revenge their ignominy and lofs. Quintus Metellus
was fent to Crete with a powerful armament. He met
with an obftinate and vigorous refiftance. Panarus and
Lafthenes, two experienced leaders, collecting a body
of 20,000 young warriors, all eager for battle, and of
determined courage, employed their arms and arrows
fuccefsfully againft the Romans, and protraCted the
fate of Crete for three years. Thofe conquerors could
not make themfelves mafters of the ifland before de-
ftroying its braveft warriors. They loft a great num¬
ber of troops, and bought a bloody victory at the
price of many a danger and much fatigue. However,
their ufual good fortune at length prevailed. The fiift
care of the conqueror was to abolifli the laws of Mi¬
nos, and to eftablifh in their room thole of Numa.
Strabo, that enlightened philofopher, complains of this
aCt of ftverity ; and informs us, that in his days the
original laws of Crete were no longer in force, becaufe
the Romans compelled the conquered provinces to
adopt their civil code. To fecure themfelves ftill more
fully in the poffeflion of the ifland, they lent a power¬
ful colony to Gnoffus.
From that era to the prefent time, that is, for a pe¬
riod of 1900 years, the Cretans have no longer formed
a feparate nation, or made any figure among the ftates
and kingdoms of the world : their noble and ingenuous
manners, their arts and fciences, their valour and their
virtues, are no more. They have loft thefe with the lofs
of liberty. So true is it that man is not born for hira-
felf; and that, when deprived of that aid which Nature
has defigned to ftrengthen and fupport his wjeaknefs,
the flame of genius and the ardent glow of valour are
extinguilhed in his breaft ; he becomes incapable of vi¬
gorous refolution, and finks below the natural virtue
and dignity of the fpecies.
The ifland of Crete, joined with the fmall kingdom
of Cyrene, on the Libyan coaft, formed a Roman pro¬
vince. It was at fir ft governed by a proconful ; a
queftor and an afliftant were afterwards fent there ; at
laft, as Suetonius informs us, it was put under the go¬
vernment of a conful. This ifland was one of the fir ft
places in the world that were favoured with the light
of
C R E
[ 743 ]
C R E
Crete
i!
Creux
of the gofpel. St Paul introduced the Chriftian faith
into Crete j and his difciple Titus, whom he left there
to cheridt and cultivate that precious plant, became the
firft bilhop of the ifland. In the reign of the emperor
Leo, it had twelve bifhops, who were all fubjedl to the
patriarch of Conftantinople* Conftantine feparated
Crete from Cyrene in the new divifion which he made
of the provinces of the empire. Leaving three fons,
Conftantius, Conftantine, and Conftans, he affigned
Thrace and the eaftern provinces to the firft •, to the
fecond, the empire of the weft j the ifland of Crete,
Africa, and Illyria, to the third.
When Michael Balbus fat on the throne of Conftan-
tinople, the rebellion of Thomas, which lafled three
years, caufed him to neglefl the other parts of the
empire. The Agarenians (a people of Arabia), who
had conquered the fineft provinces of Spain, feized that
opportunity. They fitted out a confrderable fleet,
plundered the Cyclades, attacked the ifland of Crete,
and made themfelves mafters of it without oppofition.
In order to fecure their conqueft, they built a fortrefs
which they named Khanc/ak, “ intrenchment.” From
that citadel the barbarians made inroads into the inte¬
rior parts of the ifland, carrying havock and devafta-
tion wherever they appeared. By repeated attacks,
they fubdued all the cities in Crete except Cydon.
Michael made fome ineffedfual efforts to expel them
from Crete. The emperor Bafilius, the Macedonian,
was not more fuccefsful. They defeated him in a
bloody battle j but being vanquifhed by one of his ge¬
nerals, they were fubjefted to the payment of an an¬
nual tribute. At the end of ten years, the Arabians
refufed the tribute. It w'as referved for Nicephorus
Phocas, who was afterwards emperor, to deliver tljis
fine ifland from the yoke of the infidels. He landed
on the ifland with a numerous army, boldly attacked
them, and routed them in various engagements. The
Saracens, no longer daring to meet fo formidable a
general in the field, fled for proteftion to their for-
treffes. Phocas being plentifully fupplied wdth all the
warlike machines neceffary for a fiege, levelled their
walls, and alarmed their hearts with terror. He took
their cities and fortreffes, and drove them into Khan-
dak their metropolis and laft refource. In the courfe
of nine months he fubdued the whole ifland, took their
king Curup and his lieutenant Aremas priioners, and
reunited to the empire a province which had been 127
years in the hands of the infidels. It remained under
the dominion of the Romans till the time wThen Bald¬
win count of Flanders, being raifed to the throne, li¬
berally rewarded the fervices of Boniface marquis of
Montferrat, by making him king of Theffalonica, and
•adding the ifland of Crete to his kingdom. That lord,
being more covetous of gold than glory, fold it to the
Venetians in the year 1194; under whom it affirmed
the name of Candia. See the fequel of its hiftory un¬
der that article.
CREITO, in Antiquity, a certain number of days
allowed the heir to confider whether he would
aft as heir to the deceafed or not; after which
time, if he did not a£l, he was excluded from the
ftate.
CREUX, a term in fculpture, much ufed by the
French
though
I
not yet, that we know of, natu¬
ralized among us: but the want of a word of equal
import in Engliftr, as it has frequently put us under a
neceflity of ufing this in the courie of the prefent __
work •, fo it pleads ftrongly for its admiflion into our
language.
Creux originally fignifies a hollow, cavity, or pit, out
of which fomething has been Icooped or dug : hence it
is ufed to denote that kind of fculpture and graving
where the lines and figures are cut and formed within
the face or plane of the plate or matter engraven on.
In which fenfe it Hands oppofed to relievo j w here the
lines and figures are embuffed, and appear prominent
above the face of the matter.
CREW, the company of failors belonging to a ftrip,
Foat, or other veflek
The failors that are to work and manage a {hip are
regulated by the number of lafts it may carry j each
laft making two tons. The crew of a Dutch (hip, from
40 to 50 lafts, is feven iailors and a (wabber $ from 50
to 60 lafts, the crew confifts of eight men and a fwab-
ber 'r and thus incieafes at the rate of one man for
every ten lafts j fo that a (hip of ICO lafts has I 2 men,
&.c. Englifti and French crews are ufually ftronger
than Dutch ; but always in about the fame proportion.
In a (hip of war there are feveral particular crews, or
gangs, as the boatlwain’s crew, the carpenter’s crewy
the gunner’s crew, &c.
CREVIER, John Baptist Lewis, a Parifian,
was trained under the celebrated Rollin, and afterwards
became profeffor of rhetoric. Upon the death of his
mafter, in 1741, he took upon him to finifti his Ro¬
man Hiftory. He publifhed other works, and was
greatly ferviceable to the caufe of virtue and religioa
as well as letters. His death happened in 176^, at a
very advanced age. Befides the continuation juft men¬
tioned, he publiftred, 1. An edition of Livius, cum
Notis, in 6 vols 410, 1748 ; and afterwards another edi¬
tion, better adapted to the ufe of his pupils, in 6 vols
fmall 8vo. 2. La Hijloire des Kmpcreurs de Romanis
jufqu'a Conjlantin, 1749. l2tom. 12mo. 3. HJlo re
de PUniverJite' de Paris, 7 tom. l2mo. 4. Rbetorique
Francoife, a juft and ufeful work. 5. Ohfirvations fur
PE/prit des Loix. Here he ventured out of his depth j
he fhculd have kept within the precinfts of the belles
lettres.
CREUSA, in fabulous hiftory, daughter of Creon
king of Corinth. As ftre was going to marry Jafon,
who had divorced Medea, fhe put on a poifoned gar¬
ment, which immediately fet her body on fire, and (he
expired in the moft excruciating torments. She had
received this gown as a gift from Medea, who wiftred
to take that revenge upon the infidelity of JTon.
Some call her Glauce. {Ovid, de Art. Ato. i. 335).
A daughter of Priam, king of Troy by Hecuba. She
married iEneas, by whom ftie had, among other chil¬
dren, Afcanius. When Troy was taken, fhe fled in
the night with her hufhand j but they were feparated
in the midft of the confufion and tumult, and ALneas
could not recover her, nor hear where fire was. Some
fay the Cybtle faved her, and carried her to her tem¬
ple, of which fire became prieftefs. Pauf.x. 'S.6.—Vtrgr
JEn. iii. 592.
CREX, a fpecies of Rallvs. See Ornithology
Index.
CRIB*
Crew
Crex*
Cnb
.11
Crichton.
CRT [ 744
CHIB, the rack or manger of a liable, or the flail
or cabin of an ox. It is alfo ufed for any fmall ha¬
bitation, as a cottage, &c.
Crib, in the Englifh fait-works, a name given to a
fort of cafe ufed in fome places inflead of the drab, to
put the fait into as it is taken out of the boiling
pan.
Cribbage, a game at cards, to be learnt only by
prcflice.
CRIERATION, in Pharmacy, the pafiing any fub-
Rance through a fieve or fearce, in order to feparate
the finer particles from the groffer,
CRIBROSUIYT os, in Anatomy, called alfo os eth-
moides. See Anatomy Index*
CRICEL ASI A, the driving a ring or hoop. Dri¬
ving a hoop was one of the ancient gvmnailics: this
hoop was as high as the bread of the petfon who ufed
it. It was commended for rendering the limbs pliable,
find for flrehgthening the nerves.
CRICETUS. See Mus, Mammalia Index.
CRICHTON, James, a Scots gentleman, wTolived
in the 16th century, and who, on account of his extra¬
ordinary endowments both of body and mind, obtained
the appellation of “ the admirable Crichton by which
title he has been diflinguifhed to the prefent day. The
time of this celebrated perfon’s birth is faid, by the
generality of writers, to have been in 1551 ; but ac¬
cording to fome he was born in Augufl 1560. There
is a difference likewife between the biographers of
this extraordinary man, with regard to his family,
and the rank and fituation of his father. By fome
is is afferted, that James Crichton’s father was Ro¬
bert Crichton of Clunie, in the county of Perth ; and
that this Robert Crichton commanded Queen Mary’s
army at the battle of Langfide in the year 1568. But
it is faid by others, that this gentleman w'as of Elliock
in the fame county, and that he was lord advocate of
Scotland in Queen Mary’s reign from 1561 to 1573 j
part of which time he he1d that office in conjunc¬
tion with Spens of Condie. The mother of James
Crichton wTas Elizabeth Stuart, the only daughter of Sir
James Stuart of Beath, wffio was a defcendant of Robert
duke of Albany the third fon of King Robert the fe-
cond, by Elizabeth Muir or More, as ffie is commonly
called ; fo that w’hen the admirable Crichton boalled
(as he did abroad), that he w’as fprung from Scottiffi
kings, he laid nothing but what was agreeable to
truth.
James Crichton is faid to have received his gram¬
matical education at Perth, and to have lludied philo-
fophy in the univerfity of St Andrew’s. Elis tutor in
that univerfity was. Mr John Rutherford, a profeffor at
that time famous ffir his learning, and who diftinguiffi-
ed himfelf by waiting four books on Arillotle’s logic
and a commentary on his poetics. According to Al¬
dus Manutius, who calls Crichton firll coufin to the
king, he wras alfo inftrudled, along with his majefty,
by Buchanan, Hepburn, and Robertfon, as well as by
Rutherford 5 and he had fcarcely arrived at the 20th
year of his age, when he had run through the w-hole
circle of the fciences, and could fpeak and wnite to
perfeflion in ten different languages. Nor was this
all ; for he had likewife improved himfelf to the high-
eft degree in riding, dancing and finging, and in play-
ing upon all forts ©f inftruments.
] c R 1
Crichton, being thus accompliffied, went abroad Crkhton.
upon his travels, and is faid to have gone to Paris ; of' ““v
his tranfadlions at which place the following account
is given. He caufed placards to be fixed on all the
gates of the fchools, halls, and colleges belonging to
the univerfity, and on all the pillars and polls before
the houfes of the moft renowned men for literature in
the city, inviting all thofe w ho wTere w'ell verfed in any
art or fcience, to dffpute with him in the college of
Navarre, that day fix weeks, by nine of the clock in
the morning, where he wrould attend them, and be
ready to anfw’er to whatever ftiould be propokd to him
in any art or fcience, and in any of thefe 12 languages,
Hebrew', Syriac, Arabic, Greek, Latin, Spanilh,
French, Italian, Englilh, Dutch, Fienvlh, and Scla-
vonian 5 and this either in verfe or prole at the dif-
cretion of the dilputant. During this whole time, in-
ftead of clofely applying to his fudii s, he regarded no¬
thing but hunting, hawking, tilting, vaulting, riding
of a w'ell managed horle, tolling the pike, handling the
mufket, and other military feats ; or elfe he employed
himfelf in dortteftic games, fuch as balls, concerts of
mufic vocal and inftrumental, cards, dice, tennis, and
the like diverfions of youth. This conduft fo provo¬
ked the ftudents of the univerfity, that, beneath the
placard w'hich was fixed on the Navarre gate, they cau¬
fed the following words to be w ritten: “ If you would
meet with this monfter of perfeftion, to make fearch
foi him either in the tavern or bawdy-houfe, is the
readieft w’ay to find him.” Neverthelefs, when the
day appointed arrived, Crichton appeared in the col¬
lege of Navarre, and acquitted himlelf beyond expref-
fion in the difputation, which lafted from nine o’clock
in the morning till fix at night. At length, the pre-
fident, after extolling him highly for the many rare
and excellent endowments which God and nature had
bellowed upon him, rofe from his chair, and accom¬
panied by four of the moft eminent profeffors of the
univerfity, gave him a diamond ring and a purfe full
of gold, as a teftimony of their love and favour. The
whole ended with the repeated acclamations and huzzas
of the fpe£lators •, and henceforward our young difpu-
tant was called, “ the admirable Crichton.” It is ad¬
ded, that he was fo little fatigued with the difpute,
that he went on the very next day to the Louvre,
where he had a match of tilting (an exeicife then in
much requeft), and in the prefence of fome of the
princes of the court of France, and a great many la¬
dies, carried away the ring 15 times fucceffively.
About tw'o years after this we find him at Rome,
where he affixed a placard upon all the eminent places
of the city, in the following terms; ~Nos jacobus Crich-
tonus Scotus, cuicumque reipropojitce ex improvifo refpon-
deb'imus. In a city which abounded in wit, this bold
challenge, to anfwer to any queftion that could be
propofed to him wihout his being previoufty adver-
tifed of it, could not efcape the ridicule of a paf-
quinade. It is faid, however, that being nowife
difcouraged, he appeared at the time and place ap¬
pointed j and that, in the prefence of the pope,
many cardinals, biffiops, do£lors of divinity, and pro¬
feffors in all the fciences, be difplayed fuch wonderful
proofs of his univerfal knowledge, that he excited no
]efs furprife than he had done at Paris. Boccalini,
w ho was then at Rome, gives fomething of a different
relation
C R I [74
Crichton, relation of the matter. According to this author,
1 "-y1-1 tyje pafquinade againft Crichton, which was to the
following effeft, “ jlnd he that will fee it, let him go to
the fgn of the Falcon and it fhall be fhoiunf made tuch
an impreiTion upon him, that he left a place where he
’ had been fo grofsly affronted as to be put upon a level
with jugglers and mountebanks.
From Rome he went to Venice ; where he contrafted
an intimate friendfhip with Aldus Manutius, Lauren*
tins' Maffa, Speron Speronius, Johannes Donatus, and
various other learned perfons, to whom he prefented
feveral poems in commendation of the city and uni-
verfity. At length he was introduced to the doge
and fenate, in whofe prefence he made a fpeech,
which was accompanied with fuch beauty of eloquence,
and fuch grace of perfon and manner, that he received
the thanks of that illuttrious body, and nothing was
talked of through the whole city but this rara in terns
avis, this prodigy of nature. He held, likewife, dif-
putations on the fubjefts of theology, philolophy, and
mathematics, before the moft eminent profeffors, and
large multitudes of people. His reputation w^as fo
great, that the defire of feeing and hearing him brought
together a vail concourfe of perfons from different
quarters to Venice. It may be collected fionp Ma¬
nutius, that the time in whiefr Crichton exhibited
thefe demonftrations of his abilities was in the year
^During his refidence at Venice, he fell into a bad
Rate of health, which continued for the fpace of four
months. However, before he was perfedly recover¬
ed, he went, by the advice of his friends, to Padua,
the univerfity of which city was at that time in great
reputation. The next day after his arrival, there was
a meeting of all the learned men of the place, at the
houfe of Jacobus Aloyfius Cornelius ; when Crichton
opened the affembly with an extemporary poem in
praife of the city, the univerfity, and the company
who had honoured him with their prefence. After
this, he difputed for fix hours with the mod celebra¬
ted profeffors on various fubjefls of learning j and he
expofed, in particular, the errors of Ariftotle and his
commentators, with fo much folidity and acutenefs,
and at the fame time with fo much modefty, that he
excited univerfal admiration. In conclufion, he de¬
livered extempore an oration in praife of ignorance,
which was conducted with fuch ingenuity and elegance,
that his hearers were aftonifhed. This exhibition of
Crichton’s talents was on the 14th of March 1581.
Soon after he appointed a day for another deputa¬
tion to be held at the palace of the bifhop of Padua ;
not for the purpofe of affording higher proofs of his
abilities, for that could not poffibly be done, but in
compliance with the earned folicitations of fome pei-
fons who were not prefent at the former affembly.
However, feveral circumdances occurred which pre¬
vented this meeting from taking place. Such is the
account of Manutius : but Imperialis relates, that he
was informed by his father, who was prefent upon the
occafion, that Crichton was oppofed by Archangelus
Mercenarius, a famous philofopher and that he ac¬
quitted himfelf fo well as to obtain the approbation of
a very honourable company, and even of his antago-
nid himfelf.
Amidd the difeourfes which were occafioned by our
Voi. VI. Part IL
5 ] C R 1
young Scotfman’s exploits, and the high applaufes that C»c^oi:
were bedowed upon his genius and attainments, there
were not wanting fome who endeavoured to detract from
his merit. For ever, therefore, to confound thefe in¬
vidious impugners of his talents, he caufed a paper to
be fixed on the gates of St John and St Paul’s church,
wherein he offered to prove before the univerfity, that
the errors of Aridotle, and of all his followers, were
almod innumerable ; and that the latter had failed
both in explaining their mader’s meaning, ani^. *u
treating on theological fubjefts. He promifed like¬
wife to refute the dreams of certain mathematical pro¬
feffors 5 to difpute in all the fciences, and to anfwer
to whatever diould be propofed to him or objected a-
gaind him. All this he engaged to do, either in the
common logical way, or by numbers and mathemati¬
cal figures, or in 100 forts of verfes, at the pleafure
of his opponents, According to Manutius, Ciichton
fudained this conted, wdthout fatigue, for three da) s 5
during which time he fupported his credit, and main¬
tained his propofitions, with fuch fpirit and energy,
that from an unufual concourfe of people, he obtain¬
ed acclamations and praifes, than which none more
magnificent were ever heard by men.
From Padua, Crichton fet out for Mantua ; where
there happened to be at the time a gladiator, who
had foiled in his travels the mod famous fencers in
Europe, and had lately killed three who had entered
the lids with him in this city. The duke of Mantua
was much grieved at having granted this man his pro¬
tection, as he found it to be attended with fuch fatal
confequences. Crichton, being informed of his high-
nefs’s concern, offered his fervice, not only to drive
the murderer from Mantua, but from Italy ; and to
fight him for 1500 pidoles. Though the duke was
unwilling to expofe fuch an accomplifhed gentleman to
fo great a hazard ; yet, relying upon the report he had
heard of his warlike atchievements, he agreed to the
, propofaT, and the time and place being appointed, the
whole court attended to behold the performance. At
the beginning of the combat Crichton dood only
upon his defence j while the Italian made his at¬
tack wdth fuch eagernefs and fury, that, having over-
afted himfelf, he began to grow weary. Crichton
now feized the opportunity of attacking his antagoniL
in return ; which he did with fo much dexterity and
vigour, that he ran him through the body in three
different places, of which wounds he immediately died.
The acclamations of the fpeClators were loud and ex¬
traordinary upon this occafion \ and it was acknow¬
ledged by all of them, that they had never feen Art
grace Nature, or Nature fecond the precepts of Art,
in fo lively a manner as they had beheld thefe two
things accomplifhed on that day. Fo crown the^ glory
of the action, Crichton beftowed the prize of his vic¬
tory upon the widows of the three perfons who had
loft their lives in fighting with the gladiator.
It is afferted, that in confequence of this and his other
w’onderful performances, the duke of Mantua, made
choice of him for preceptor to his fon Vincentio di Gon-
zaga, who is reprefented as being of a riotous temper and
a diffolute life. The appointment was highly pleading to
the court. Crichton, to teftify his gratitude to his friends
and benefaftors, and to contribute to their diverfion,
framed, we are told, a comedy, wherein he expofed
5 B and
C R I [ 746
^Cnchton. and ridiculed all the xveakneffes and failures of the fe-
^ veral employments in which men are engaged. This
compofition was regarded as one of the moft ingenious
fatires that ever was made upon mankind. But the
moft aftoniftring part of the ftory is, that Crichton
fuftained 15 chara&ers in the reprefentation of his
own play. Among the reft, he adled the divine, the
philofopher, the lawyer, the mathematician, the phy-
fician, and the foldier, with fuch inimitable grace, that
every time he appeared on the theatre he feemed
to be a different perfon.
From being the principal a£tor in a comedy, Crich¬
ton foon became the fubjeft of a dreadful tragedy.
One night, during the time of carnival, as he was
walking along the ftreets of Mantua, and playing
upon his guitar, he was attacked by half a dozen
people in malks. The affailants found that they had
no ordinary perfon to deal with, for they were not
able to maintain their ground againft him. In the
iffue, the leader of the company being difarmed, pull¬
ed off his mafk, and begged his life, telling him that
he was the prince his pupil. Crichton immediately
fell upon his knees and expreffed his concern for his
miftake j alleging, that what he had done was only in
his own defence, and that if Gonzaga had any defign
upon his life, he might always be mafter of it. Then
taking his own fword by the point, he prefented it to
the prince, who immediately received it, and was fo
irritated by the affront which he thought he had fuf¬
tained in being foiled with all his attendants, that he
inftantly ran Crichton through the heart.
Various have been the conjedtures concerning the
motives w'hich could induce Vincentio di Gonzaga to
be guilty of fo ungenerous and brutal an aflion. Some
have afcribed it to jealoufy, afferting that he fufpefted
Crichton to be more in favour than himfelf with a lady
whom he pafllonately loved ; and Sir Thomas Ur-
quhart has told a ftory upon this head which is extra¬
vagant and ridiculous in the higheft degree. Others,
wuth greater probability, reprefent the whole tranfac-
tion as the refult of a drunken frolic : and it is uncer¬
tain, according to Imperialis, whether the meeting of
the prince and Crichton w’as by accident or defign.
However, it is agreed on all hands that Crichton loft
his life in this rencounter. The time of his deceafe
is faid, by the generality of his biographers, to have
been in the beginning of July 1583 •, but others fix
it to the fame month in the preceding year. There is
a difference, likewife, with regard to the period of
life at which Crichton died. The common accounts
declare that he was killed in the jzd year of his age :
but Imperialis afferts that he was only in his 22d year
when that calamitous event took place ; and this fa£t
is confirmed by other writers.
Crichton’s tragical end excited a very great and ge¬
neral lamentation. If Sir Thomas Urquhart is to be
credited, the whole court of Mantua wrent three quar¬
ters of a year into mourning for him ; the epitaphs
and elegies that were compofed upon his death and
ftuck upon his hearfe, would exceed, if collefted, the
bulk of Homer’s works ; and, for a long time after¬
wards, his pidlure w is to be feen in moft of the bed¬
chambers and galleries of the Italian nobility, repre-
fenting him on horfeback, with a lance in the one
hand and a book in the other. The fame author
] c r 1
tells us, that Crichton gained the efteem of kings and Crichton,
princes, by his magnanimity and knowledge ; of no¬
blemen and gentlemen, by his courtlinefs and breed¬
ing j of knights, by his honourable deportment and
pregnancy of wit ; of the rich, by his affability and
good fellowfhip j of the poor, by his munificence
and liberality 5 of the old, by his conftancy and wif-
dom ; of the young by his mirth and gallantry; of
the learned, by his univerfal knowledge ; of the fol-
diers, by his undaunted valour and courage ; of the
merchants and artificers, by his upright dealing and
honefty j and of the fair fex, by his beauty and hand-
fomenefs, in which refpedf he was a mafterpiece of
nature.
Joannes Imperialis, in his life of Crichton, fays,
that he was the wonder of the laft age 5 the prodi¬
gious produ&ion of nature ; the glory and ornament
of Parnaffus, in a ftupendous and unufual manner;
and that, in the judgment of the learned world, he
was the phoenix of literature, and rather a ftiining par¬
ticle of the Divine Mind and Majefty than a model of
what could be attained by human induftry. The
fame author, after highly celebrating the beauty of his
perfon, afferts, that his extraordinary eloquence and
his admirable knowledge of things teftified that he
poffcffed a ftrength of* genius wholly divine. “ What
('adds this writer) can more exceed our comprehen-
fion, than that Crichton, in the 21ft year of his age,
ftiould be mafter of ten different languages, and per-
feftlv wrell verfed in philofophy, mathematics, theolo¬
gy, polite literature, and all other fciences ? Befides
w'as it ever heard in the whole compafs of the globe,
that to thefe extraordinary endowments of the mind,
flrould be added a Angular fkill in fencing, dancing,
finging, riding, and in every exercife of the gymnaftic
art ?” Nay, Imperialis, in his account of Crichton’s
death, declares, that the report of fo fad a cataftrophe
was fpread to the remoteft parts of the earth ; that it
difturbed univerfal nature $ and that in her grief for
the lofs of the wonder {he had produced, fhe threaten¬
ed never more to confer fuch honour upon mankind.
Compared with thefe extravagancies, the affertion of
Bayle that Crichton wTas one of the greateft prodigies
of wit that ever lived, and the teftimony of Felix
Aftolfus concerning his wonderful memory, may be
confidered as model! encomiums.
Such are the accounts which, by a fucceflion of
writers, and particularly fince the time of Mackenzie,
have been given of the admirable Crichton. Thefe
accounts are indeed fo wonderful, that many peifons
have been difpoled to confider them as in a great
meafure, if not entirely, fabulous. We (hall therefore
fubjoin from the Biographic Britannica the following
obfervations of Dr Kippis, with a view to afcertain
w'hat portion of faith is due to the different parts of
the preceding narrative, or at leaft to affift the reader
in forming a proper judgment concerning them.
The dodtor begins with obferving, “ That no cre¬
dit can be granted to any fadls which depend upon the
foie authority of Sir Thomas Urquhart. Mr Pennant
indeed fpeaks of him with approbation *, and D* Sa¬
muel Johnfon laid a ftrefs on his veracity, in the ac¬
count ofCrichton which he dedicatedtoDrHaukefworth,
and is inferted in the 81ft number of the Adventurer;
of which account it may be oblerved, that it is only
an
C R I [ 747 ] C R I
Gtichton. an elegant furamary of the life written by Mackenzie.
But with all deference to thefe refpeftable names, I
muft declare my full perfuafion that Sir Thomas Ur-
quhart is an author whofe teftimony to fa&s is totally un¬
worthy of regard 5 and it is furprifing that a perufal of
his works does not ftrike every mind with this convic¬
tion. His prodttdtions are fo inexpreflibly abfurd and
extravagant, -that the only rational judgment which can
be pronounced concerning him is> that he was little, if
•at all, better than a madman. To the chara&er of his
having been a madman muft be added that of his being
a liar. Severe as this term may be thought, I appre¬
hend that a diligent examination of the treatife which
contains the memorials concerning Crichton would
Aow that it is ftridlly true. But of his total difregard
to truth there is incortteftable evidence in another work
t)f his, entitled, The true Pedigree and Lineal Defcent
of the moft ancient and honourable Family of the
Urquharts in the Houfe of Cromarty, from the Crea¬
tion of the World until the year of Cod 1652. In
this work it is almoft incredible what a number of
fallities he has invented both with refpeft to names
and fa&s. Perhaps a more flagrant inftance of im-
pofture and fiiftion was never exhibited j and the ab¬
surdity of the wfliole pedigree is beyond the power of
words to exprefs. It can only be felt by thofe who
have perufed the tra& itfelf. Such a man therefore
can juftly be entitled to no degree of credit, efpecially
when he has a purpofe to ferve, as was the cafe with
Sir Thomas Urquhart. His defign was to exalt his
own family and his own nation at any rate. With
refpeft to his own nation, there was no occafton
for having recourfe to fidlion, in order to difplay the
luftre of Scotland, in the eminent men whom it has
produced in arms and literature. The pencil of
truth alone would have been amply fufficient for that
purpofe (a).
“ So far therefore as Sir Thomas Urquhart’s au¬
thority is concerned, the wonderful exhibitions of
Crichton at Paris, his triumph at Rome, his combat
with the gladiator, his writing an Italian comedy, his
fuftaining fifteen chara&ers in the reprefentation of
that comedy, the extraordinary ftory of the amour
which is defcribed as the caufe of his death, the nine
months mourning for him at Mantua, and the poems
hung round his hearfe to the quantity of Homer’s
works, muft be regarded as in the higheft degree
doubtful, or rather abfolutely falfe. I cannot forbear
mentioning two circumftances, which (how how much
Sir Thomas Urquhart was deftitute of prudence, as
well as of fcrupulofity, in his violations of truth. He
fays that the duke of Mantua was pleafed to confer
upon the young lady that was Crichton’s miftrefs and Crichton
future wife, a penfion of five hundred ducats a year •,l—
and that the prince alfo beftowed as much upon her
during all the days of his life, “ which was (adds Sir
Thomas) but fhort; for he did not long enjoy him-
felf"after the crofs fate of fo miferable an accident.
Now it is well known that Vincenzo di Gonzaga fuc-
ceeded his father in the dukedom of Mantua in 1587,
and that he did not die till the year 16125 which was
almoft, if not entirely, thirty years after Crichton’s
deceafe. The other inftance of the imprudence of
Sir Thomas Urquhart in the contrivance of his fic¬
tions, occurs at the conclufion of his narrative, where
he afferts that the verity of the ftory which he hath
related concerning the incomparable Crichton, ‘ may
be certified by two thoufand men yet living who have
known him.’ Two thoufand men yet living ! that is, in
1652, fixty-nine or feventy years after Crichton’s
death, for fuch was the time of Sir Thomas’s publi¬
cation. Our author would have been fadly puzzled
to colleft together thefe two thoufand living witneffes
who could certify the verity of his ftory.
“ With regard, however, to the account which is
given of the prodigious exertions of Crichton, both
corporeal and mental, at Paris, Mackenzie imagines
that he has found a full confirmation of them in a
paffage produced by him from the Difquifitiones of
Stephen Pafquier, and which he confiders as the tefti¬
mony of an eye-witnefs. But the whole of what has
been built upon it by Mackenzie, and fucceeding bio¬
graphers, is founded on a miftake. ' In the quotation
from the Difquifitiones, the name of Crichton is not
mentioned, and the author doth not appear to have
been perfonally prefent at the exhibitions of the ex¬
traordinary youth there defcribed. The expreflions
which are fuppofed to carry that meaning may well be
referred not to the writer himfelf, but to his country¬
men the French, before whom the young man is faid
to have difplayed his furprifing talents. But the dif-
cuflion of this point is totally needlefs, becaufe the
paffage in queftion is not an original authority. The
book entitled Stephani Pafchieri Difquijitiones is only
an abridgment in Latin of Pafquier’s Des Recherches
de la France. Now in this laft w-ork there is indeed
an account of a wonderful youth, fuch as is related in
Mackenzie’s quotation, and from which that paffage
was formed. But this wonderful youth, whoever he
might be, was not the admirable Crichton : for Paf¬
quier, who does not tell his name, exprefsly fays that
he appeared in the year 1445 (b). The evidence
therefore, produced by Mackenzie falls entirely to the
ground. Indeed, if the ftory of Crichton’s exploits at
5 B 2 Paris
(a) This was probably meant as a fatire, and not as a ferious production.
(b) This matter has been fet in a clear light by the writer of the following letter.
“ Sir,
“ We are informed by Sir John Hawkins, that Dr Johnfon dictated from memory that account of the
perfon vulgarly named the Admirable Crichton, which is to be found in one of the papers of the Adventurer.
“ That account is plainly an abridgment of the life of Crichton by Dr George Mackenzie. Dr Mac¬
kenzie fuppofes that Pafquier, the French lawyer and antiquary, was an eye-witnefs of the feats performed
in arts as well as in arms by Crichton. This is one of the groffeft errors in biography which has occurred
to me in the courfe of my reading: and it is an error which I perceive is gaining ground daily, and bids fair
in a Ihort time to be received as an indifputable truth.
The
Crichton.
C R I
Paris liad been true, no man was more likely to be ac-
quainted-with them than Stephen Pafquier, who lived
at the time, and who would be fond enough of record¬
ing tranfa&ions fo extraordinary. It may farther be
obferved, that Thuanus, who was likewife a contem¬
porary, and who in his own life is very particular in
what relates to learned men, makes no mention of
Crichton. I he only authority for his having ever re-
fided in France at all (Sir Thomas Urquhart except¬
ed) is that of Dr John Johnfton, who fays Gallia pec-
tus excolit. But this amounts to no proof of the truth
of the tranfa&ions related by Uiquhart. The whole
which can be deduced from it is, that Crichton, in the
courfe of his travels, might make fome ftay in France
for the purpofe of improvement. Even this, however,
doth not agree with the narration of Imperialis, who
informs us, that when troubles arofe in Scotland on
account of religion, and Queen Mary fell into fo
many calamities, Crichton was fent by his father
direaiy from that country to Venice as a place of fecu-
rity.
“ It is acknowledged by Sir John Hawkins, that
Sir I homas Urquhart has produced no authorities in
fupport of his furprifing narrations. But this defedf,
Sir John thinks, is fupplied in the Life of Crichton
which is given in Mr Pennant’s Tour. I am under the
neceffity of faying, that this is by no means the cafe.
The article in Pennant w'as not drawm up by that in¬
genious and learned gentleman, but is the tranfeript of
a pamphlet, that was printed fome years ago at Aber¬
deen; and which pamphlet is nothing more than a re¬
publication, with a few verbal alterations, of the Life
of Cfichton written by Mackenzie. It doth not,
therefore, furnilh a fingle additional teflimony in con-
/.imation of Sir Thomas Urquhart’s ftones, excepting
in the miftaken inftance from Pafquier. In other re-
fpe&s it only borrows fads from Sir Thomas Urquhart,
[ 748 ]
C R I
without elhblifliing them upon frelh proofs. It is ob- Crichton,
lervable, that the earlier biographers of Crichton had
no knowledge of moft of the tranfaftions enlarged
upon by this extravagant writer; for if they had
known them, they would have been eagerly difpofed
to 1 elate them, and to do it with every circumflance
of exaggeration. How much this was the charafter
of Thomas Dempfter, with regard to his own coun¬
trymen, is fufficiently underftood, and hath frequently
been remarked; and yet his account of Crichton is un¬
commonly modeft, compared with thofe of fucceeding
authors. I he extravagance of Imperialis in refpeifl to
Crichton has already appeared. There feems indeed to
have been an univerfal tendency in the writers of this
young Scotfman’s life to produce wonder and aftonilh-
ment. Mackenzie remarks, that Imperialis could not
but know the truth of all, or at leaft of moft of, the
things he has related concerning Crichton, fince he
lived upon the places in which they were tranfa&ed,
and had them from an eye and ear witnefs, even his
ov n father. It is, however, to be remembered, that
Imperialist Mufeum Hifloricum was not publiflied tiH
1640, nearly fixty years after the events recorded by
him happened ; to which may be added, that the in¬
formation he derived from his father was probably very
imperfeff. Imperialis the elder was not born till 1568,
and confequently was only thirteen years old when
Crichton difplayed his talents at Padua. What real
dependence, therefore, could there be on the accuracy
of the account given by a youth of that age ? He could
only relate, and perhaps from inadequate intelligence
the things, which were talked of when he was a boy!
Befides, hif authority is appealed to for no more than
a fingle fad, and that a doubtful one, fince it does not
accord with Manutius’s narrative: and who ever
heard of the famous philofopher Archangelus Merce-
narius ?
“ The
* Edln.
* ,f he f r™r fe.?ms to hay® an^n fror? the following circumftance: Dr Mackenzie had never read the ori-
fnia, W°rfk °f Pa^U,fr’ e"tl.t!ed R*c!>erchts de la France ; what he quotes concerning the wonderful young wan
js.taken from a Latin abridgment of that work; he refers to Steph. Pafch. Difquif. lib. v. cap. L. and he
gives his quotation in Latin ; indeed it does not appear that Dr Mackenzie had ever heard of the original
wor . Now Pafquier, inftead of faying that he was an eye-witnefs of the wonders exhibited by Crichton gfays
1 h r wTT ;tkat Wha; he rdates was taken ‘ f‘-°m a manufeript which was occafionally
uled by him, (d tin tivre eent a la maw, dontje m' aide felon les occurrences). And he adds, ‘ I will reprefent
t e ftory in its own fimple garb, without any artificial colouring, fo that my readers may be the more inclined
W?!V/?e Crel/ tof> (vous’fl>refentant cette hi/loire en fa fmplicitejans y apporter aucun fard pour ce que vous v
djouferes plus de foy). He then tranfenbes the narrative from the MS. which places the appearance of this
p;—- year I445, a ful1 centmy bef°re the birth of our Crichton. See Recherches de la France,
Dr Mackenzie, although he had not read the original of Pafquier, appears to have read an author who
quotes the lame dory : ‘ The learned M. du Launoy W he, in hisHiftory of the CollegT of Navarre0
^ a"! ! hiftory of this, difpute recorded in a MS. Hiftory of the College of Navarre, and tlfe like account
• Ik T hem,US’ confounds the two together, and robs our author of the glory of this atfion, and
^ough? m 1445 5 wW?aS 1C niould be in the year 1571.’ This charge oi robbery is fingular
“ Let me only add, that Pafquier tranferibes fome verfes written by George Chaftelain, a French poet in
^ne reign of Charles VII. king of France, which allude to the fame ftoiy ; and that Pafquier himfelf was
bon, at Pans m 1528, paffed his life in that city, and was an eminent lawyer and pleader in i;7i ; fo that it
is impoffible the feats of Crichton, had they been really performed at Paris, could have been unknown to him
and moft improbable that, knowing them, he would have omitted to mention them ; for, in the lame lib vi
Map I7g7 yC3?' he’S at Pai"Si r° cxanspks of great proficiency, difplayed by men in a much humbler rank of
Ma-Z I7»7-lite than that of philofophers and public difputants. t U 01
I am, See.*”
Crichton*
C R I [ 749 ]
“ The truth of the matter is, that, fome flight dr- Crichton
cumftances excepted, neither Demplter nor Imperialis
have produced any evidences of Crichton’s extraor¬
dinary abilities befrdes thofe which are recorded by
the younger Aldus Manutius. He therefore is to be
regarded as the only living authority upon the fubjeft.
Manutius was contemporary with Crichton *, he w’as
clofely conne£ted with him in friendlhip 5 and he re¬
lates feveral things on his own perfonal knowledge.
He is a pofitive and undoubted witnefs with refpeft to
our voung Scotfman’s intellectual and literary exer¬
tions at Venice and at Padua ; and from him it is that
our account of them is given above. Neverthelefs,
even Aldus Manutius is to be read with fome degree
of caution, Dedications are apt to aflame the ftyle
of exaggeration, and this is the cafe with Manutius’s
dedication of the Paradoxci Ciceroms to Crichton. In
addition to the general language of fuch addrefles,
he might be carried too far by his afleftion for his
friend, which appears to have been very great : nor
was the younger Aldus eminent for fteadinefs and
confiftency of charafter. It is even faid that by his
imprudencies he fell into contempt and mifery. But
independently of any confiderations of this kind, it
may be obferved, that Manutius’s narrative, previous
to Crichton’s arrival at Venice, could not be derived
from perfonal knowledge. For that part of it (which
is fufficiently erroneous) he w’as probably indebted to
Crichton himfelf. Neither does he appear to have
been an eye-witnefs of the w’hole of the deputations
which were held at Padua ; for fpeaking of his young
friend’s praife of ignorance, he relates, that thofe who
were prefent told him afterwards how much they were
{truck with that oration. Howpver, at the other de¬
putation, which lafted three days, Manutius teems cer¬
tainly to have attended ; for he concludes his accounts
of it with faying, that he was not only the advifer
but the fpeftator of Crichton’s wonderful contefts.
It is evident, however, from the dedication, that his
extraordinary abilities w’ere not univerfally acknow¬
ledged and admired. Some there were who detra&ed
from them, and were difpleafed writh Manutius for fo
warmly fupporting his reputation.
“ As to the real caufe and manner of our young
Scotfman’s death, both of them ftill remain in fome
degree of obfcunty. That he was killed in a ren¬
counter at the carnival at Mantua, is teflified by too
many authors to be reafonably doubted. But whether
there was that particular malignity on the part of
Vincenzo di Gonzaga, which is commonly afcribed
to him, may be confidered as uncertain.
“ One important method yet remains by w’hich w>e
may be enabled to form a judgment of Crichton’s ge¬
nius, and that is from a perufal of the four poems of
his which are ftill preferved. It is, however, to be
feared, that thefe will not exhibit him in a very high
point of view. Some fancy, perhaps, may be thought
to be difplayed in the longeft of his poems, vvhich w’as
written on occafion of his approach to the city of Ve¬
nice. He there reprefents a Naiad as rifing up before
him: and, by the order of the Mutes and of Minerva,
dire&ing him how to proceed. But this is a fentiment
which fo eafily pretents itfelf to a claflical reader, that
it can fc^rcely be confidered as deferving the name of
a poetical invention. The three other poems of
C R I
    have ftill lefs to recommend them. Indeed Crichton
his verfes will not Hand the teft of a rigid examination ^r;coi,jeSi
even with regard to quantity.
What then is the opinion which on the whole we
are to form of the admirable Crichton ? It is evident
that he was a youth of fuch lively parts as excited
great prefent admiration, and high expe£fations with
regard to his future attainments. He appears to have
had a fine perfon, to have been adroit in his bodily ex-
ercifes, to have pofleffed a peculiar facility in learning
languages, to have enjoyed a remarkably quick and
retentive memory, and to have excelled in a power of
declamation, a fluency of fpeech, and a readinefs of
reply. His knowledge, likewite, was probably very
uncommon for his years; and this, in conjunction with
his other qualities, enabled him to fliine in public dif-
putation. But whether his knowledge and learning
were accurate or profound, may juftly be queftioned ;
and it may equally be doubted whether he would haVe
arifen to any extraordinary degree of eminence in the
literary world. It will always be reflected upon
with regret, that his early and untimely death pre¬
vented this matter from being brought to the teft of
experiment.”
From the portraits which remain of Crichton, it ap¬
pears that in his face and form he was beautiful and ele¬
gant, and that his body and limbs, though not mufeu-
lar or athletic, were well proportioned, and fitted for
feats of agility. The following catalogue of Crichton’s
works is given by Dempfter : 1. Odce ad LaurentiuTn
Majfam plures, 2. Landes Patavince, Carmen extempore
effufum, cum in Jacobi Moyfii Cornelii domo experimen-
tum ingenn coram tota jHcademtoe frequentia ^ non fine
multorum Jiupore, faceret. 3- Ignorationis Lavdatioy
extemporale Lhema ibidem redditum, pojl fex horarum
difputationes, ut preefantes fomnia potius fovere quamrem
fe veram videre affirmannt, ait Manutius. 4* L)e Ap-
putfu fuo Venetias. 5. Odse ad Aidum Manvtium.
6. Epifolce ad Diverfos. 7. Prafationes folemnes in
omnes Scientias facras et prof anas. 8. Judicium de
Phi/ofophis. 9. Errores Arijlotelis. 10. Anna an
Lit era- Prof ant, Contraverfia oratoria. Refuta-
tio Mathematicorum. 12. A Comedy in the Italian
language.
CRICK, among farriers, is when a horfe cannot
turn his neck any manner of way, but holds it fore
right, infomuch that he cannot take his meat from the
ground without great pain.
CRICKET. SeeGnYLLUS, Entomology Index.
Cricket is alfo the name of an exercife or game,
with bats and a ball.
Mo/c-Cricket. See Gryllotalfa, Entomolo*
gy Index.
CRICKLADE, a borough-town of Wiltlhire, fi-
tuated on the river Ifis, about 26 miles fouth-vveft of
Oxford. It fends two members to parliament. W. Long. •
1. 55. N. Lat. 51. 35.
CRICOARYTENOIDiEUS, in Anatomy, a name
given to two mufcles of the larynx. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
CRICOIDES, in Anatomy, a cartilage of the la¬
rynx, called alfo the annular cartilage. It occupies the
loweft part by way of bate to the reft of the cartilages,
and to the lower part of it the afpera arteria adheres.
See Anatomy, Table of the Mufcles.
CRICOTHYROIDiEUS,
Cricolliy-
roidaeus
C R 1 [ jjs ]
CRICOl H\ ROID^EUS, in Anatomy, one of the uniform,
proper mufcles of the larynx. See Anatomy,
five proper mufcles of the
Crime and °f the Mufcles.
CRIM tartars, a people of Alia, fo called be-
caufe they originally came from Crimea. They rove
from place to place in fearch of paftures, their houfes
being drawn on carts. There are a great number
of them about Aftrachan, to which place they flock
in the winter-time ; but they are not permitted to en¬
ter the city : for this reafon, they erect huts up and
down in the open fields: which are made either of
bulrulhes or reeds, being about 12 feet in diameter,
of a round form, and with a hole at the top to let out
the fmoke. Their fuel is turf or cow-dung 3 and when
the weather is very cold, they cover the hut with a
coarfe cloth, and fometimes pafs feveral days without
ftirring out. They are generally of fmall ftature,
with large faces, little eyes, and of an olive com¬
plexion. The men are generally fo wrinkled in their
faces, that they look like old women. Their com¬
mon food is fifh dried in the fun, which ferves them
inftead of bread 3 and they eat the flefli of horfes as
vvell as camels. Their drink is water and milk, efpe-
cially mares milk, which they carry about in nafty
leathern bags. Their garments are of coarfe gray
cloth, wflth a loofe mantle made of a black Iheep’s
Ikin, and a cap of the fame. The women are clothed
in white linen, with which likewife they drefs their
heads, hanging a great many Mofcovian pence about
,them 3 and there is likewife a hole left to ftick fea¬
thers in. As for their religion, they are a fort of Ma¬
hometans 3 but do not coop up their women like the
Turks.
CxiM-Tartary, or Crimea* See Crimea.
CRIME and Punishment. The difeuflion and
admeafurement of crimes and punifliments forms in
every country the code of criminal law 3 or, as it is
more ufually denominated in England, the doflrine of
the pleas of the crown; fo called, becaufe the king, in
whom centres the majefly of the whole community,
is fuppofed by the law to be the perfon injured by every
infra&ion of the public rights belonging to that com¬
munity 3 and is therefore in all cafes the proper profe-
cutor for every public offence.
The knowledge of this branch -of jurifprudence,
which teaches the nature, extent, and degrees of
every crime, and adjufts to it its adequate and neceffary
penalty, is of the utmofi: importance to every indivi¬
dual in the Hate. For no rank or elevation in life,
no uprightnefs of heart, no prudence or circumfpeftion
of conduft, Ihould tempt a man to conclude, that he
may not at fome time or other be deeply interefted in
thefe refearches. The infirmities of the beft among
us, the vices and ungovernable paflions of others, the
inftability of all human affairs, and the numberlefs un-
forefeen events which the compafs of a day may bring
forth, will teach us (upon a moment’s refle&ion), that
to know with precifion what the laws of our country
have forbidden, and the deplorable confequences to
which a wilful difobedience may expofe us, is a matter
of univerfal concern.
In proportion to the importance of the criminal
law, ought alfo to be the care and attention of the le-
giflature in properly forming and enforcing it. It
ihould be founded upon principles that are permanent,
C R I
and univerfal ; and always conformable to Crime and
the dictates of truth and juflice, the feelings of huma-
nity, and the indelible rights of mankind ; though it, rnent-
fometimes (provided there be no tranfgrefllon of thefe 1 v Li"
eternal boundaries) may be modified, narrowed, or
enlarged, according to the local or occafionai necefli-
ties of the ftate which it is meant to govern. And
yet, either from a want of attention to thefe prin¬
ciples in the firft concodion of the laws, and adopting
in their Head the impetuous didates of avarice, ambi¬
tion, and revenge 3 from retaining the difeordant po¬
litical regulations, which fucceffive conquerors or fac¬
tions have effablilhed, in the various revolutions of go¬
vernment 3 from giving a lafting efficacy to fandions
that were intended to be temporary, and made (as
Lord Bacon expreffes it) merely upon the fpur of the
occafion 3 or laflly, from too haftily employing fuch
means as are greatly difproportionate to their ends, in
order to check the progrefs of fome very prevalent
offence 3 from fome, or from all, of thefe caufes, it
hath happened, that the criminal law is in every coun¬
try of Europe more rude and imperfed than the civil.
We fhall not here enter into any minute inquiries
concerning the local conftitutions of other nations 3 the
inhumanity and miftaken policy of which have been
fufficiently pointed out by ingenious writers of their
own *. But even with us in Britain, where our * As Baroa
crown-law is with juftice fuppofed to be more nearly Montef-
advanced to perfedion 3 where crimes are more accu-qui611*
rately defined, and penalties lefs uncertain and arbi-I''Iar<lu!s
trary 3 where all our accufations are public, and our
trials in the face of the world 3 where torture is un¬
known, and every delinquent is judged by fuch of his
equals, againft whom he can form no exception, or
even a perfonal diflike -even here we fhall occafion-
ally find room to remark fome particulars that feem
to want revifion and amendment. Thefe have chief¬
ly arifen from too fcrupulous an adherence to fome
rules of the ancient common law, when the reafons
have ceafed upon which thofe rules were founded 3 from
not repealing fuch of the old penal laws as are either
obfolete Or abfurd } and from too little care and atten¬
tion in framing and paffing new ones. The enacling
of penalties to which a whole nation fhall be fubjed,
ought not to be left, as a matter of indifference, to the
paflions or interefts of a fewr, who upon temporary
motives may prefer or fupport fuch a bill 3 but be
calmly and maturely confidered by perfons who know
wTat provifions the laws have already made to reme¬
dy the mifehief complained of, who can from experi¬
ence forefee the probable copfequences of thofe which
are now propofed, and who will judge without paffion
or prejudice how adequate they are to the evil. It is
never ufual in the houfe of peers even to read a private
bill which may affed the property of an individual,
without firfl: referring it to fome of the learned judges,
and hearing their report thereon. And furely equal
precaution is neceffary, when laws are to be eftablifhed
which may affed the property, the liberty, and per¬
haps even the lives of thoufands. Had fuch a reference
taken place, it is impoflible that in the 18th century it Comment.
could ever have been made a capital crime, to break
down (however malicioufly) the mound of a fiflipond,
whereby any fifli flialj efcape 5 or to cut down a cher¬
ry-tree in an orchard. Were even a committee ap¬
pointed
C R I [ 7‘
Siimeand pointed but once in loo years to revife the criminal
Puniih- iaw> coul(l not have continued to this hour a felony
ment- , without benefit of clergy, to be feen for one month in
the company of perfons who call themfelves, or are
called, Egyptians. . .
It is true, that thefe outrageous penalties, being
feldom or never inflifted, are hardly known to be the
law by the public j but that rather aggravates the
mifchief, by laying a fnare for the unwary. Yet they
cannot but occur to the obfervation of any one, who
hath undertaken the talk of examining the great out¬
lines of our law, and tracing them up to their prin¬
ciples : and it is the duty of fuch a one to hint them
with decency to thofe whole abilities and flations
enable them to apply the remedy. We now proceed
to confider (in the fir ft place) the general nature of
crimes.
j. A crime, or mifdemeanour, is an aft committed,
or omitted, in violation of a public law,, either forbid¬
ding or commanding it. This general definition com¬
prehends both crimes and mifdemeanours ; which, pro¬
perly fpeaking, are mere fynonymous terms 5 though,
in common ufage, the word “ crimes” is made to de¬
note fuch offences as are of a deeper and more atro¬
cious dye ; while fmaller faults, and omiflions of lefs
confequence, are comprifed under the gentler name of
“ mifdemeanours” only.
The diftinftion of public wrongs from private, of
crimes and mifdemeanours from civil injuries, feems
principally to confift in this : that private wrongs, or
civil injuries, are an infringement or privation of the
civil rights which belong to individuals, confidered
merely as individuals •, public wrongs, or crimes and
mifdemeanours, are a breach and violation of the pub¬
lic rights and duties, due to the whole community,
confidered as a community, in its focial 3ggregat£ ca_
pacity. As if I detain a field from another man, to
which the law has given him a right, this is a civil in¬
jury, and not a crime ; for here only the right of an
individual is concerned, and it is immaterial to the
public which of us is in poffefiion of the land ; but
treafon, murder, and robbery, are properly ranked a-
mong crimes ; fince, befides the injury done to indivi¬
duals, they ftrike at the very being of fociety ; wTich
cannot poftibly fubfift, where adlions of this fort are
fuffered to efcape with impunity.
In all cafes the crime includes an injury j every pub¬
lic offence is alfo a private wrong, and fomewhat more;
it affefts the individual, and it likewife affefts the com¬
munity. Thus treafon in imagining the king’s death,
involves in it confpiracy againft an individual, which
is alfo a civil injury ; but as this fpecies of treafon in
its confequences principally tends to the diffolution of
government, and the deftruftion thereby of the order
and peace of fociety, this denominates it a crime of
the higheft magnitude. Murder is an injury to the
life of an individual ; but the law of fociety confiders
principally the lofs which the ftate fuftains by be¬
ing deprived of a member, and the pernicious ex¬
ample thereby fet for others to do the like. Rob¬
bery may be confidered in the fame view : it is an in¬
jury to private property ; but, were that all, a civil
fatisfaftion in damages might atone for it ; the. public
mifchief is the thing, for the prevention of which our
laws have made it a capital offence. In thefe grofs
1 1 c R 1 .
and atrocious injuries the private wrong is {wallowed Cp1^^lt*
up in the public ; we feldom hear any mention made ment>
of fatisfaftion to the individual ; the fatisfaftion to the 1.,
community being fo very great. And indeed, as the
public crime is not otherwife avenged than by forfei¬
ture of life and property, it is impoflible afterwards
to make any reparation for the private wrong ; which
can only be had from the body or goods of the ag-
greffor. But there are crimes of an inferior nature,
in which the public puniftiment is not fo fevere, but it
affords room for a private compenfation alfo ; and
herein the diftinftion of crimes from civil injuries is
very apparent. For inftance, in the cafe of battery,
or beating another, the aggreffor may be indifted for
this at the fuit of the king, for difturbing the public
peace, and be punilhed criminally by fine and impri-
fonment ; and the party beaten may alfo have his pri¬
vate remedy by aft ion of trefpafs for the injury, which
he in particular fuftains, and recover a civil latisfac-
tion in damages, bo alfo, in cafe of a public nuilance,
as digging a ditch acrofs a highway, this is punifhable
by indiftment, as a common offence to the whole
kingdom, and all his majefty’s fubjefts : but if any in¬
dividual fuftains any fpecial damage thereby, as lam¬
ing his horfe, breaking his carriage, or the like,
the offender may be compelled to make ample fatis¬
faftion, as well for the private injury as for the public
wrong.
II. The nature of crimes and mifdemeanours in ge¬
neral being thus afcertained and diftinguilhed, we
proceed in the next place to confider the general na¬
ture of punilhments : Which are evils or inconvenien¬
ces confequent upon crimes and mifdemeanours; be¬
ing devifed, denounced, and inflifted by human laws,
in confequence of difobedience or miftiehaviour in
thofe, to regulate whofe conduft fuch laws were re-
fpeftively made. And herein we will briefly confi¬
der the power, the end, and the meafure, of human pu¬
niftiment.
1. As to the power of human puniftiment, or the
right of the temporal legiftator to inflift difcretionary
penalties for crimes and mifdemeanours. It is clear,
that the right of puniftiing crimes againft the law of
nature, as murder and the like, is in a ftate of mere
nature, vefted in every individual. For it mu ft be
vefted in fomebody ; otherwife the laws of nature
would be vain and fruitlefs, if none were empowered
to put them in execution ; and if that power is vefted
in any one, it muft alfo be vefted in all mankind;
fince all are by nature equal. Whereof the firft mur¬
derer Cain was fo fenfible, that we find him expref-
fing his apprehenfions, that whoever ftiould find him
would flay him. In a ftate of fociety this right is
transferred from individuals to the fovereign power ;
whereby men are prevented from being judges in their
own caufes, which is one of the evils that civil go¬
vernment was intended to remedy. Whatever power
therefore individuals had of puniftiing offences againft:
the law of nature, that is now vefted in the magi-
ftrate alone ; who bears the fword of juftice by the
confent of the whole community. And to this pre¬
cedent natural power of individuals muft be referred
that right, which fome have argued to belong to every
ftate (though, in faft, never exercifed by any), of
puniftiing not only their own fubje&s, but alfo foreign
i ambaffadors?
/
C R I [ 75
Gtime ar.d ambaffadors, even witli death itfelf; in cafe they have
mem offended, not indeed againft the municipal laws of the
i country, but againft the divine laws of nature, and
become liable thereby to forfeit their lives for their
guilt.
As to offences merely againft the laws of fociety,
which are only mala prohibit a, and not mala in fe;
the temporal mngiftrate is alfo impowered to inflict
coercive penalties for fuch tranfgreffion : and this by
the confent of individuals j who, in forming focieties,
did either tacitly or exprefsly invert the fovereign
power with a right of making laws, and of enforcing
obedience to them when made, by exercifing, upon
their non-obfervance, feverities adequate to the evil.
The lawfulnefs, therefore, of punifhing fuch Criminals
is founded upon this principle, that the lawr by which
they fuffer was made by their own confent ; it is a part
of the original contrail into which they entered, when
firft they engaged in fociety ; it was calculated for, and
has long contributed to, their own fecurity.
I his right therefore, being thus conferred by uni-
verfal confent, gives to the ftate exactly the fame
power, and no more, over all its members, as each
individual member had naturally over himfelf or
others; which has occafioned fome to doubt, how far
a human legiftature ought toinflift capital puniftiments
for pofitive offences ; offences againft the municipal law
only, and not againft the law of nature j fince no in¬
dividual has naturally a power of inflifting death upon
himfelf or others for aflions in themfelves indifferent.
With regard to offences mala in fe, capital punilhments
are in fome inftances infli&ed by the immediate com¬
mand of God himfelf to all mankind ; as, in the cafe
of murder, by the precept delivered to Noah, their
common anceftor and reprefentative, “ Whofo fheddeth
man’s blood, by man fhall his blood be ftied.” In
other inftances they are inflicted after the example of
the Creator, in his pofitive code of laws for the regu¬
lation of the Jewifti republic \ as in the cafe of the
crime againft nature. But they are fometimes inflitt-
cd without fuch exprefs warrant or example, at the
will and difcretion of the human legiflature ; as for
forgery, for theft, and fometimes for offences of a
lighter kind. The practice is thus juftified by that
great and good man Sir Matthew Hale : “ When of¬
fences grow enormous, frequent, and dangerous to a
kingdom, or ftate, deftruftive or highly pernicious to
civil focieties, and to the great infecurity and danger
of the kingdom or its inhabitants, fevere punifhment
and even death itfelf is neceffary to be annexed to laws
in many cafes by the prudence of lawgivers.” It is
therefore the enormity, or dangerous tendency, of the
crime, that alone can warrant any earthly legillature
in putting him to death that commits it. It is not its
frequency only, or the difficulty of otherwife prevent¬
ing it, that will excufe our attempting to prevent it by
a wanton effufion of human blood. For though the
end of punifliment is to deter men from offending, it
never can follow from thence, that it is lawful to de¬
ter them at any rate and by any means ; fince there
may be unlawful methods of enforcing obedience even
to the jufteft laws. Every humane legiflator will be
therefore extremely cautious of tftabliffiing laws that
inflift the penalty of death, efpecially for flight offen-
.ces, or fuch as are merely pofitive. He will expeft a
2 ] CRT
better reafon far his fo doing than that loofe one which Crime and
generally is given j that it is found by former experi- Puniih-
ence that no lighter penalty will be effectual. For is ment‘
it found upon farther experience, that capital puniffi-
ments are more effedtual ? Was the vaft territory of all
the Ruffias worfe regulated under the late emprefs
Elizabeth, than under her more fanguinary predecef-
fors ? Is it now, under Catharine II. lefs civilized, lefs
facial, lefs fecure ? And yet we are affured, that nei¬
ther of thefe illuftrious princeffes have, throughout their
whole adminiftration, inflitted the penalty of death :
and the latter has, upon full perfuafion of its being ufe-
lefs, nay ev&i pernicious, given orders for abolifhing
it entirely throughout her extenfive dominions.- But
indeed, were capital punifhments proved by experience
to be a fure and effeftual remedy, that would not prove
the neceffity (upon which the juftice and propriety de¬
pend ) of infliding them upon all oceafions when other
expedients fail. It is feared this reafoning would ex¬
tend a great deal too far. For inftance, the damage
done to our public roads by loaded waggons is univer-
fally allowed, and many laws have been made to pre¬
vent it, none of which have hitherto proved effedual.
But it does not therefore follow, that it would be juft
for the legiflature to inflid death upon every obftinate
carrier, who defeats or eludes the provifions of for¬
mer ftatutes. Where the evil to be prevented is not
adequate to the violence of the preventive, a fovereign
that thinks ferioufly can never juftify fuch a law to the
didates of confcience and humanity. To fhed the
blood of our fellow creature is a matter that requires
the greateft deliberation, and the fulleft convidion of
our own authority ; for life is the immediate gift of
God to man j ■which neither he can refign, nor can it
be taken from him, unlefs by the command or per-
miffion of Him who gave it, either exprefsly revealed,
or colleded from the law’s of nature or fociety by
clear and indifputable demonftration.
We would not be underftood to deny the right of
the legiflature in any country to enforce its own laws
by the death of the tranfgreffor, though perfons of
fome abilities have doubted it 5 but only to fuggeft a
few hints for the confideration of fuch as are, or may
hereafter become, legiflators. When a queftion arifes,
whether death may be lawfully inflided for this or
that tranfgreffion, the wifdom of the laws muft de¬
cide it : and to this public judgment or decifion all
private judgments muft fubmit ; elfe there is an end
of the firft principle of all fociety and government.
The guilt of blood, if any, muft lie at their doors,
who mifinterpret the extent of their warrant; and
not at the doors of the fubjed, who is bound to re¬
ceive the interpretations that are given by the fovereign
power.
2. As to the end, or final caufe, of human punifh¬
ments. This is not by w’ay of atonement or expia¬
tion for the crime committed ; for that muft be left to
the juft determination of the Supreme Being ; but as
a precaution againft future offences of the fame kind.
This is effeded three ways : either by the amend¬
ment of the offender himfelf 5 for which purpofe all
corporeal punifhments, fines, and temporary exile or
imprifonment, are inflided ; or, by deterring others
by the dread of his example from offending in the like''
way, “ utpcena (as Tully expreffes it) adpaucos, me-
“ tux
C R I [ 753 ] C R I
Grime and “ tut adotnnes, perveniatwhich gives rife to all igno-
Punifh- minious puniflrments, and to fuch executions of juftice
. menl:' as are open and public : or, lattly, by depriving the
party injuring of the power to do future mifchief;
which is effected by either putting him to death, or
condemning him to perpetual confinement, flavery, or
exile. The fame one end, of preventing future crimes,
is endeavoured to be anfwered by each of thefe three
fpecies of punifhment. The public gains equal fecu-
rity, whether the offender himfelf be amended by
wholefome correftion, or whether he be difabled from
doing any farther harm : and if the penalty fails of
both thefe effe6ts, as it may do, ftill the terror of his
example remains as a warning to other citizens. The
method,, however, of inflifting punifhment ought al¬
ways to be proportioned to the particular puipofe it
is meant to ferve, and by no means to exceed it:
therefore the pains of death, and perpetual difability
by exile, flavery, or impriforfment, ought never to be
infiidted, Jout when the offender appears incorrigible :
which may be collefted either from a repetition of
minuter offences ; or from the perpetration of fome
one crime of deep malignity, wdrich of itfelf demon-
ffrates a difpofition without hope or probability of
amendment : and in fuch cafes it would be cruelty to
the public to defer the punifhment of fuch a criminal
till he had an opportunity of repeating perhaps the
wot fl of viilanres.
3. As to the meafure of human punifhments. From
what has been obferved in the former articles, we may
colledt, that the quantity of punifhment can never be
abfolutely determined by any ftanding invariable rule $
but it muft be left to the arbitration of the legiflature
to inflift fuch penalties as are warranted by the laws
of nature and fociety, and fuch as appear to be the
beft calculated to anfwer the end of precaution againft
future offences.
Hence it will be evident, that what fome have fo
highly extolled for its equity, the Itx ta/ionis, or “ law
of retaliation,” can never be in all cafes an adequate or
permanent rule of punifhment. In fome cafes indeed it
feems to be diftated by natural reafon ; as in the cafe
of confpiracies to do an injury, or falfe accufations of
the innocent ; to which we may add that law of the
Jew's and Egyptians, mentioned by Jofephus and Dio¬
dorus Siculus, that w'hoever without fufficient caufe
was found with any mortal poifon in his cuftody, fliould
himfelf be obliged to take it. But, in general, the dif-*
ference of perfons, place, time, provocation, or other
circumftances, may enhance or mitigate the offence ;
and in .fuch cafes retaliation can never be a proper
meafure of juftice. If a nobleman ftrikes a peafant,
all mankind will fee, that if a court of juftice awards
a return of the blow', it is more than a juft compen-
fation. On the other hand, retaliation may fometimes
be too eafy a fentence ; as, if a man malicioufly fhould
put out the remaining eye of him who had loft one
before, it is too flight a punifhment for the maimer
to lofe only one of his: and therefore the law of the
Locrians, which demanded an eye for an eye, was in
this inftance judicioufly altered ; by decreeing, in imi¬
tation of Solon’s laws, that he who flruck out the eye
of a one-eyed man, fhould lofe both his own in re¬
turn. Befides, there are very many crimes, that will
in no fhape admit of thefe penalties, without manifeft
Vox. VI. Part II.
abfurdity and wickednefs. Theft cannot be punifhed Grime and
by theft, defamation by defamation, forgery by for- f11-•ft-
gery, adultery by adultery, and the like. And we rnent' ^
may add, that thofe inftances, wherein retaliation ap¬
pears to be ufed, even bv the divine authority, do not
really proceed upon the rule of exaft retribution, by
doing to the criminal the fame hurt he has done to
his neighbour, and no more 5 but this correfpondence
between the crime and punifhment is barely a confe-
quence from fome other principle. Death is ordered
to be punifhed with death ; not becaufe one is equiva¬
lent to the other, for that would be expiation, and not
punifhment. Nor is death always an equivalent for
death : the execution of a needy decrepid affaffin is a
poor fatisfa&ion for the death of a nobleman in the
bloom of his youth, and full enjoyment of his friends,
his honours, and his fortune. But the reafon upon
which this fentence is grounded feems to be, that
this is the higheft penalty that man can inflift, and
tends moft to the fecurity of the world : by remo¬
ving one murderer from the earth, and fetting a dread¬
ful example to deter others : fo that even this grand
inftance proceeds upon other principles than thofe of
retaliation. And truly, if any meafure of punifhment
is to be taken from the damage fuftained by the fuf-
ferer, the punifhment ought rather to exceed than
equal the injury j fince it feems contrary to reafon and
equity, that the guilty (if convifted) fhould fuffer no
more than the innocent has done before him ; efpeci-
ally as the fuffering of the innocent is paft and irrevo¬
cable, that of the guilty is future, contingent, and li¬
able to be efcaped or evaded. With regard indeed to
crimes that are incomplete, which confift merely in the
intention, and are not yet carried into aft, as confpira¬
cies and the like ; the innocent has a chance to fruftrate
or avoid the villany, as the confpirator has alfo a
chance to efcape his punifhment : and this may be one
reafon why the lex talionis is more proper to be in-
flifted, if at all, for crimes that confift in intention,
than for fuch as are carried into aft. It feems indeed
confonant to natural reafon, and has therefore been
adopted as a maxim by feveral theoretical waiters, that
the punifhment, due to the crime of which one falfely
accufes another, fhould be inflifted on the perjured
informer. Accordingly, when it was once attempted
to introduce into England the law' of retaliation, it
was intended as a punifhment for fuch only as pre¬
ferred malicious accufations againft others ; it being
enafted by ftatute 37 Edw. III. c. 18. that fuch as
preferred any fuggeftions to the king’s great council
fhould put in fureties of taliation •, that is, to incur
the fame pain,that the other fhould have had, in cafe
the fuggeftion were found untrue. But, after one
year’s experience, this punifhment of taliation was re¬
jected, and imprifonment adopted in its {lead.
But though from what has been faid it appears, that
there cannot be any regular determinate method of
rating the quantity of punifhments for crimes, by any
one uniform rule 5 but they muft be referred to the
will and difcretion of the legiflative power : yet there
are fome general principles, drawn from the nature
and circumftances of the crime, that may be of fome
afliftance in allotting it an adequate punifhment.
As, firft, with regard to the objeft of it: for the
greater and more exalted the objeft of an injury is,
5 C the
C R I
^Paniili^ t^ie more care be taken to prevent that injury,
ment." and cour^e under this aggravation the puniftiment
fliould be more fevere. Therefore treafon in con-
fpiring the king’s death is (in Britain) punifhed with
greater rigour than even a&ually killing any pri¬
vate fubjefh And yet, generally, a defign to tranf-
grefs is not fo flagrant an enormity as the attual
completion of that defign. For evil, the nearer we
approach it, is the more difagreeable and fhocking :
fo that it requires more obftinacy in wickednefs to
perpetrate an unlawful aflion, than barely to enter¬
tain the thought of it : and it is an encouragement
to repentance and remorfe, even till the lafi: ftage of
any crime, that it never is too late to retraft 5 and that
if a man flops even here, it is better for him than if he
proceeds : for which reafons an attempt to rob, to ra-
viili, or to kill, is far lefs penal than the actual rob-
bery, rape, or murder. But in the cafe of a treafon-
able confpiracy, the objedl whereof is the king’s majefly,
the bare intention will deferve the higheft degree of
feverity : not becaufe the intention is equivalent to the
aft itfelf 5 but becaufe the greateft rigour is no more
than adequate to a treafonable purpofe of the heart,
and there is no greater left to inflift upon the aftual
execution itfelf.
Again, The violence of paflion, or temptation, may
fometimes alleviate a crime ; as theft, in cafe of hunger,
is far more worthy of compaflion, than when commit¬
ted through avarice, or to fupply one in luxurious ex-
cefles. To kill a man upon fudden and violent refent-
ment is lefs penal than upon cool deliberate malice.
The age, education, and charafter, of the offender j
the repetition (or otherwife) of the offence j the time,
the place, the company wherein it was committed ; all
thefe, and a thoufand other incidents, may aggravate
or extenuate the crime (a).
Farther, As punilhments are chiefly intended for
the prevention of future crimes, it is but reafonable
that among crimes of different natures thofe fhould be
moft feverely punilhed, which are the moft deflruftive
of the public fafety and happinefs ; and, among crimes
of an equal malignity, thofe which a man has the moft
frequent and eafy opportunities of committing, which
cannot be fo eafily guarded againft as others, and
which therefore the offender has the ftrongeft induce¬
ment to commit : according to what Cicero obferves,
Ea funt animadvertenda peccata maxime, quce difficillime
prcecaventur. Hence it is, that for a fervant to rob
his mafter is in more cafes capital than for a ftranger.
If a fervant kills his mailer, it is a fpecies of treafon ;
in another it is only murder. To fteal a handkerchief,
or other trifle of above the value of twelvepence, pri¬
vately from one’s perfon, is made capital; but to carry
off a load of corn from an open field, though of fifty
times greater value, is puniftied with tranfportation
only. And in the ifland of Man this rule was formerly
carried fo far, that to take away a horfe or an ox w’as
there no felony, but a trefpafs, becaufe of the difficulty
[ 7j'4 }
C R I
ment.
in that little territory to conceal them or carry them Crime and
off: but to fteal a pig or a fowl, which is eafily done, Punifti-
was a capital mifdemeanour, and the offender was pu¬
niftied with death.
Laftly, As a conclufion to the whole, we may ob-
feive, that punilhments of unreafonable feverity, efpe-
cially when indifcriminately inflifted, have lefs effeft
in preventing crimes, and amending the manners of a
people, than fuch as are more merciful in general, yet
properly intermixed with due diftinftions of feverity.
It is the fentiment of an ingenious waiter, who feems
to have well ftudied the fprings of human aftion, that
crimes are more effeftually prevented by the certainty
than by the feverity of punilhment ; for the exceflive
feverity of laws (fays Montefquieu) hinders their exe¬
cution. When the punilhment furpaffes all meafure,
the public will frequently prefer impunity to it. Thus
alfo the ftatute 1 Mar. ft, 1. c. 1. recites in its pream¬
ble, “ that the ftate of every king confifts more affu-
redly in the love of the fubjefts towards their prince,
than in the dread of laws made with rigorous pains j
and that laws made for the prefervation of the com¬
monwealth without great penalties, are more often
obeyed and kept than law's made with extreme punilh-
ments.” Happy had it been for the nation if the fub-
fequent praftice of that deluded princefs in matters of
religion, had been correfpondent to thefe fentiments
of herfelf and parliament in matters of ftate and go¬
vernment ! We may further obferve, that fanguinary
laws are a bad fymptom of the diftemper of any ftate,
or at leaft of its weak conftitution. The laws of the
Roman kings, and the twelve tables of the decemviri^
were full of cruel puniftiments : the Porcian law, which
exempted all citizens from fentence of death, filently
abrogated them all. In this period the republic flou-
nfhed : under the emperors fevere puniftiments were
revived, and then the empire fell.
It is, moreover, abfurd and impolitic to apply the
fame puniftiment to crimes of different malignity. A
multitude of fanguinary laws, (befides the doubt that
may be entertained concerning the right of making
them) do likewife prove a manifeft defeft either in the
wifdom of the legiflative, or the ftrength of the exe¬
cutive, pow'er. It is a kind of quackery in govern¬
ment, and argues a want of folid fldll, to apply the
fame univerfal remedy, the ultimum fupplicium, to every
cafe of difficulty. It is, it muft be owned, much eafier
to extirpate than to amend mankind ; yet that magif-
trate muft be efteemed both a weak and a cruel fur-
geon who cuts off every limb which through igno¬
rance or indolence he wull not attempt to cure. It has
been therefore ingenioufty propofed, that in every ftate
a fcale of crimes ftiould be formed, with a correfpond-
ing fcale of puniftiments, defcending from the greateft
to the leaft. But if that be too romantic an idea, yet
at leaft a wife legiflator will mark the principal divi-
fions, and not aflign penalties of the firft degree to of¬
fences of an inferior rank. Where men fee no diftinc-
Uon
(a) Thus Demofthenes (in his oration againft Midas) finely works up the aggravations of the infults he
had received. “ I was abufed (fays he) by my enemy, in cold blood, out of malice, not by heat of wine, in
“ the morning, publicly, before ftrangers as w7ell as citizens $ and that in the temple, whither the duty of mv
“ office called me.”
C R I [ 7SS ] C R I
crtme and tion made in the nature and gradations of punifhment,
Punifti- jjjg generality will be led to conclude there is no dif-
* ment‘ . tin&ion in the guilt. Thus in France the punifhment
of robbery, either with or without murder, is the fame :
hence it is, that though perhaps they are therefore
fubjeft to fewer robberies, yet they never rob but
they alfo murder. In China murderers are cut to pie¬
ces, and robbers not: hence in that country they never
murder on the highway, though they often rob. And
in Britain, befides the additional terrors of a fpeedy
execution, and a fubfequent expofure or diffeflion,
robbers have a hope of tranfportation, which feldom is
extended to murderers. This has the fame effeft here
as in China, in preventing frequent affaflination and
(laughter.
Yet though in this inftance we may glory in the
wifdom of our law, we (hall find it more difficult to
juftify the frequency of capital punifhment to be found
therein ; inflifted (perhaps inattentively) by a multi¬
tude of fucceffive independent ftatutes, upon crimes
very different in their natures. It is a melancholy
truth, that, among the variety of aftions which men
are daily liable to commit, nolefs than l6o have been
declared by aft of parliament to be felonies without
benefit of clergy; or, in other words, to be worthy
of inftant death. So dreadful a lift, inftead of diminifh-
ing, increafes the number of offenders. The injured,
through compaflion, will often forbear to profecute ;
juries, through compaffion, will fometimes forget their
oaths, and either acquit the guilty or mitigate the na¬
ture of the offence; and judges, through compaffion,
will refpite one half of the convifts, and recommend
them to the royal mercy. Among fo many chances of
efcaping, the needy and hardened offender overlooks
the multitude that fuffer: he boldly engages in fome
defperate attempt to relieve his wants or fupply his
vices $ and if, unexpeftedly, the hand of juftice over¬
takes him, he deems himfelf peculiarly unfortunate in
falling at laft a facrifice to thofe laws which long im¬
punity has taught him to contemn.
As to the trials and mode of punifhment, fee Ar¬
raignment j Trial, and the references therefromj
Conviction *, Judgment; Attainder; Corruption
of Blood; Forfeiture; Execution; the feveral
Crimes under their refpeftive names. See Law Index.
Perfons capable or incapable of committing Crimes ;
or (which is all one) of fuffering the cenfures of the law
upon the commiffion of forbidden afts.
All the feveral pleas and excufes which proteft the
committer of a forbidden aft from the punifhment
which is otherwife annexed thereto, may be reduced
to this fingle confideration, the want or defeft of will.
An involuntary aft, as it has no claim to merit, fo
neither can it induce any guilt: the concurrence of
the will, when it has its choice either to door to avoid
the faft in queftion, being the only thing that renders
human aftions either praifeworthy or culpable. In¬
deed, to make a complete crime, cognizable by human
laws, there muft be both a will and an aft. For
though, in foro confcientia, a fixed defign or will to
do an unlawful aft is almoft as heinous as the commif¬
fion of it; yet as no temporal tribunal can fearch the
heart, or fathom the intentions of the mind, otherwife
than as they are demonftrated by outward aftions, it
therefore cannot punifh for what it cannot know. For
which reafon, in all temporal jurifdiftions, an overt aft, Crifnei.
or fome open evidence of an intended crime, is necef- •v—■*
fary in order to demonftrate the depravity of the will,
before the man is liable to puniffimenh And as a vi¬
cious will without a vicious aft is no civil crime ; fo,
on the other hand, an unwarrantable aft without a
vicious will is no crime at all. So that to conftitute a
crime againft human laws, there muft be, firft, a vici¬
ous will j and, fecondly, an unlawful aft confequent
upon fuch vicious will.
■ Now there are three cafes in which the will does
not join with the aft; i. When there is a defeft of
underftanding. For where there is no difcernment^
there is no choice ; and, where there is no choice,
there can be no aft of the will, which is nothing elfe
but a determination of one’s choice tq do or abftain
from a particular aftion ; he, therefore, that has no
underftanding, can have no wTill to guide his conduft.
2. Where there is underftanding and will fufficient
refiding in the party, but not called forth and exerted
at the time of the aftion done; which is the cafe of
all offences committed by chance or ignorance. Here
the will fits neuter, and neither concurs with the aft.
nor difagrees to it. 3. Where the aftion is conftrain-
ed by fome outward force and violence. Here the
will counterafts the deed; and is fo far from concur¬
ring with, that it loaths and difagrees to what the man
is obliged to perform. Infancy, idiocy, lunacy, and
intoxication, fall under the firft clafs ; misfortune and
ignorance may be referred to the fecond ; and compul-
fion or neceflity may properly rank in the third. See
Infancy, Idiocy, Drunkenness,Misfortune, Ig¬
norance, Necessity.
CRIMEA, or Crim Tartary, anciently the Cher-
fonefus Tauricay a peninfula fituated direftly to the
fouth of St Peterfburg, between the 51ft and 55th de¬
grees of latitude, and in 46 longitude. Its fouthern and
weftern coafts lie on the Euxine, its northern and eaft-
ern on the Rotten fea and the Palus Mseotis. It is
joined, however, to the continent on the north by a
fmall neck of land not more than fix miles broad. This
peninfula has been known more than 3000 years fince
the firft naval expedition of the Argonauts ; a ftory,
though mixed with fable, yet well founded in its prin¬
cipal fafts. The mountainous parts Tvere inhabited by
the Tauri, probably a colony of Scythians ; and its
coafts on the weft, the eaft, and the fouth, by Greeks.
The Scythians were driven out by Mithridates; the
Greeks by the Sarmatians ; and thefe again by the A-
lani and Goths, a northern horde of Scythians. The
Hungarians, the Coffacks, and Tartars, fucceeded in
their turn ; while the Genoefe in the 12th century,
held a temporary and precarious poffeffion of the fea-
ports, which they were obliged to yield to the Turks
in 1475. At the peace of 1774, the Tartars of the
Crimea were declared independent ; and in 1783} this
peninfula was united to the Ruffian empire.
From the above-mentioned ifthmus, on which is
built the fortrefs of Or-kapi or Perekop, to the firft
rifing of the hill at Karafubafar, the country is one
continued flat; elevating itfelf, by an eafy gradation,
to the fummit of the hill, which forms the fouth fide
of the peninfula and the ftiore of the Euxine fea.
The furface of the foil is almoft all of one kind, a red-
dilh-gray loam; on digging, you find it more or lefs
5 C 2 mixed
C R I
Crimea.
mixed with a black earth, and the hills abound with
marie. I he whole flat from Perekop to the river
Salgir, which may be an extent of 80 miles, is full of
fait marfties and lakes j from whence the neighbouring
Ruffian governments, as well as the Ciim itfelf, Ana¬
tolia, and Beflarabia, are fupplied with fait. The
moll remarkable of thefe lakes are five in number $
Kollof and Keffa, lo called after the towns near which
they lie, are very large; the Tufla, about 15 verfis
from Perekop, on the road from Keffa ; the Red lake,
not far from the laft mentioned ; and the Black lake!
Befides thefe, there are many other fwamps and lakes
from whence the inhabitants get fait for their own con!
fumption.
The greateft part of the peninfula is fo level that a
man may travel over the half of it without meeting
With a river, or even the fmalleft brook. The inhabi¬
tants of the villages, therefore, make a pit in the yard
of every houfe for receiving the rain or the water that
runs from the hills. The whole tra& is bare of every
kind of tree. Not a bulb or a bramble is to be feen,
and the herbage is extremely fcanty. This, however!
does not proceed fo much from the unfruitfulnefs of
the place, as from the vaft herds of cattle which rove
the whole year long from place to place ; by which
means all the grals in fpring, fummer, or autumn, no
fooner appears through the long drought which fuc-
ceeds the rainy feafon, but it is immediately devoured
or trodden down. The univerfal prevalence of this
cuftom of keeping cattle to wander up and down, joined
to the flothfulnefs of the Tartars, with their inaptitude
and -averfion to agriculture, is the reafon of the total
neglef! of that fcience here. Otherwife, were the land
divided into portions and properly managed, there
would be a fufficiency for the cattle, and the reft
wmuld be fruitful in corn and grain. By this means
alone the Crim would become a fertile country, and
no natural defedf would be found in oppolition to
the welfare of its inhabitants. The truth of this is
well known by their neighbours; where, of a hun¬
dred Tartars, one perhaps follow’s hufhandry, who
finds it to anivver to fo much profit, that he has not
only enough for his own ufe, but wherewith to fell
to the ninety-nine.
This peninfula, which is indeed but a little diftrifi,
yet, from the many advantages conferred upon it by
nature, may be efteemed peculiarly rich, is divided
into the hilly country and the flat. The latter, which
extends from Perekop to Koflof and the river Bulga-
nap, to Karafubafar, Keffa, and Yenicali, is ftrewn there
and there with little Tartar villages, maintained by
cattle and the produce of the fait lakes. The high¬
lands, or hilly country, form the fouthern part of the
Crim, along the ftrajght coaft of the Black fea, and
ftretching weftward in a right line from Keffa to the
vicinity of Belbek. Thefe hills are compofed of layers
of chalk : which, in the headlands and promonto¬
ries, is foft, but more inland quite hard. The ftrata
of the high hills are like thofe of the promontories
and take a direftion from north to fouth. Thefe qua¬
lities of the ftrata prevail not throughout the whole
hills, but only in the large and lofty ones ; fuch as the
twro that rife near Karafubafar, and one very high by
Achmetfched, which bears the name of Aktau. The
tfther imaller hills lie fcattered and difperfed, but take
[ 75c ]
C R I
tne names of the greater ones, to which they feem to
belong ; as the great ridge of Caucafus does, which
extends beyond the Donau, through Bulgaria, and are
named Balkans.
^ All accounts agree in this, that nature has favoured
thefe highland countries with great advantages, and
blefjed them with abundance of all things, A number
of fpnngs that flow7 from the mountains form the two
confiderable rivers Salgir and Karafu, which run into
the Rotten fea. The former, which takes its rife
from a cavern in a high hill near Achmetfched, falls
ftraight into the plain below, and waters a great part
of the Crim ; the other commencing behind Karafu-
oauii, falls likewife into the plain, and mingles with
the Salgir. . There are many other little rivers and
flreams, which run eaftwTard, and either join the two
fore-mentioned or fall immediately into the Rotten
fea. All the ftreams, for the whole length of the
hills, which begin at Keffa, and proceed in a chain of
the fame height, flow to the north or the north-eaft
excepting the one behind Achmetfched, where the
great mountain Aktau is, which falls on the other fide-
tffis river, rifing on the northern fide of this mountain!
flows, as was before obferved, towards the north-eaft
to the Salgir and the Rotten fea ; as likewife thole
which fpring on the weftern fide, take their courfe
we ft ward to the Bulganak, and thence ftraight to the
Black iea ; wmch alfo receives all the other little ri-
vers that arife from thefe hills, as the Amma, the Kat-
fcha, the Belbek, the Kafulkioi, &c.
1 he mountains are well covered with woods fit for
the purpofe of fhip-building, and contain plenty of
wild beafts. f he valleys confift of fine arable land ; on
tne fides of the hills grow7 corn and vines in great
abundance, and the earth is rich in mines. But thefe
mountaineers are as caielefs and negligent as the inha¬
bitants of the deferts ; flighting all thefe advantages ;
and, like their brethren of the lowlands, are fufficiently
happy if they are in pofleffion of a fat Iheep and as much
bread as ferves them to eat.
About 20 years ago this peninfula was uncommonly
full of inhabitants and wealth. They reckoned at that
time at leaft 1200 villages ; but, from the late troubles
jn the Crim, it has loft mote than a third part of its
inhabitants, and now7, wherever we turn, we meet with
the ruins of large villages and dwellings. The people
wTere compofed ot various nations, who lived together
under the Tartars in the moft unbounded freedom -
but in the late T urkiffi war they either put themlelves
under the Ruffian government, and were transferred
to that empire, or fled to Abcafia and the Tfchirkaffian
hills.
The houfes in the towms, as well as the villages,
are for the moft part of fquare timbers, having the in-'
terihees filled with brick w7ork, if the poffeffor can af¬
ford it, and thofe of the poorer fort wdth turf. The
chinks and crannies are made tight with clay, and then
prailered within and w’lthout. The covering is com¬
monly either of bricks or of turfs. Only the medfeheds,
minarets, and baths, are of ftone, and a few extreme¬
ly handfome of marble. 1 hey have chimneys in the
chambers, at w-hich they likewife drefs their vidluals ;
but ftoves in the Ruffian manner none. In extreme
fiofts a great iron pan of charcoal is brought into the
room, for making it comfortable. Their cuftom is,
to
Crimea.
C R I
[ 757 ] C R I
to fit upon low fofas, with Turkifii coverings and cu-
fliions, pr upon a clay feat, fomewhat raifed above the
earth, and fpread with ,a carpet. In thefe rooms are
cupboards and chefts, often covered with cufliions, to
ferve as feats •, in which they keep their gold, filver,
and valuables. Such are the inner apartments or ha-
rams, in which the women generally live ; the others
are not fo fine. Thefe contain only a fofa, or a bank
of clay covered with a carpet, as in the chimney
rooms.
The rich Tartars, and their nobility or murzas (ex¬
cepting only fuch as are about the perfonof the khan),
commonly dwell all the year round in the country,
coming only to town when they have bufinefs there,
There are but few towns in the Crim, at leaft in com-
parifon of its former population. The Krimlkoi Tar¬
tars have no tribunal of juftice, controverfies and quar¬
rels being feldom heard of among them ; and if a dif-
pute fhould arife, it is immediately fettled by an appeal
to the Koran. Little differences in the villages inevi¬
tably happening about property, or other matters not
taken notice of in that code, are amicably adjufted by
the elderman or abefes j but in the towns all weighty
concerns, excepting the fingle cafe of murder or ho¬
micide, are brought before the kaimakan, or command¬
ant, who fettles them abfolutely without appeal.
The refidence of the khans of the Crimea was for¬
merly Bachtfehifarai, in which city they held their feat
for upwards of zoo years. They went thither from
Efki-Crim, or Old Crim, the capital city of the Ge-
noefe, upon Bengli Ghirei Khan’s plundering the fea-
ports, and driving all the Genoefe from their ftations.
Before Elki-Crim, and indeed upon the firft coming
of the Ta;tars into this peninfula, the fovereign refi¬
dence was at Koflof; but here they remained not long.
Under the late Khan Shagin Ghirei it was held at Kef-
fa, the ancient Theodofia 5 which is ten miles diftant
from Eiki-Crim, faid to be the Cimmerium of the an¬
cients.
The principal cities or towns of the Crimea are :
I. Bachtfehifarai, an extenfive and wealthy city, ly¬
ing in a vale between two high mountains, and fur-
rounded by a number of gardens. From this circum-
ftance it has its name ; hachtfchi, fignifving in the Tar¬
tarian language “ a garden,” and farai, “ a palace.”
It formerly contained 3000 houfes, and many fumptu-
ous medfeheds. The palace of the khans, with its gar¬
dens and ponds, was much improved under the go¬
vernment of Khan Kerim Ghirei, under whofe govern¬
ment the laft Turkilh war took its rife. In this palace
is the burial-place of all the khans of Crimea, wherein
all the khans that have reigned here lie interred. The
fine Krimlkoi vines, with their large clufters of grapes,
grow in great plenty all about this town, and a profu-
fion of other delicious fruits, from whence the neigh¬
bouring parts of Ruflia are fupplied. 2. Keffa, the
prefent refidence of the khans, Hands on the fliore of
a large harbour in the Black fea. Its file is on the
declivity of a long ridge of mountains ; and is mantled
by a ftone w'all, fortified by feveral towers, and encom-
paffed by a deep ditch. On both fides of the city for¬
merly flood caftles, and in the middle of them a lofty
turret for the purpofe of giving fignals by fire. Before
the wall were wide extended fuburbs ; containing a-
mong other confiderable buildings, medfeheds, church¬
es for the Greek and Armenian worfhip j of all which Crimea,
now only the veftiges remain. The caftles and towers ' ^
lie alfo in ruins •, and not one-third part of the houfes
of the city itfelf are now remaining, and thofe chiefly
built of materials taken from the aforefaid ruins. They
formerly reckoned Keffa to contain 4000 houfes, in¬
cluding the fuburbs, with a number of medfeheds and
Chriftian churches; but this number has been much
diminifhed by the laft Turkifh war. The prefent inha¬
bitants confift moftly of Tartars 5 who carry on a trade
by no means inconfiderable, in commodities brought
from Turkey. The late khan, an intelligent and en¬
lightened perfonage, made this city the place of his re¬
fidence, and brought hither the mint from Bachtfehi¬
farai, built himfelf a palace, and erefled a divan, which
affembled three times a-week, and the fourth time was
held in the palace of the khan, in wdiich he always
perfonally aflifted. Here is alio a cuftomhoufe, the
management of which is farmed out. 3. Karafubafart
likewiie a very rich city in former times, ftands at the
beginning of the mountains, about half-wTay between
Keffa and Bachtfehifarai. It is a large trading town j
contains a confiderable number of dwelling-houfcs and
medfeheds, but the greateft part of them in decay, and
many fine gardens. This place is the moft famous in
all the Crim for its trade in horfes, and has a market
once a-week for that article of traffic ; to which are
likewife brought great numbers of buffaloes, oxen,
cow’s, camels, and ffieep for lale. Near this city flows
one of the principal rivers of the Crim, called the
Karafu, that is, the Black Water. Of this river they
have an opinion in Ruffia, that one part of it flows
upwards for feveral verfts together. But this is in fome
fort true, not only of the Karafu, but of all the rivers
of the Crim-that have a ftrong current. The Tartars,
who dwell either in the valleys or on the fides of the
mountains (frequently without confidering whether
the place is fupplied with w-ater or not), dig canals
either from the fource of the next river,, or from that
part of it which lies neareft to their particular habita¬
tion, about an arlhine in breadth, for their gardens
and domeftic ufe. From thefe they cut fmaller ones
through the villages, to fupply them with water, and
not unfrequently to drive a mill. Thefe canals ap¬
pear, to the imagination of the common people, to
run in a contrary direction to the current of the river ;
and in fadl: thefe canals do lie, in many places for a
verft in length, fome fathoms higher than the level of
the ftream from whence they are fupplied. 4. Achmet-
Jied, a pretty large city not far from Bachtfehifarai $
now’ made the capital of all the Crimea by the regu¬
lations of Prince Potemkin in the fummer of 1785.
5. Kojlofy formerly a very confiderable trading town,
lies on the weftern fide of the peninfula, in a bay of
the Black fea ; which, as well as the found at Keffa,
might rather be called a road than a haven. This
was the firft town the Tartars poffeffed themfelves of
on their firft entrance into the Crim, and eftabliffied
a cuftomhoufe therein, after the example of the Gef
noefe, which is now farmed out.
The other remarkable places are, Sudah, which is
built on the hills upon the ffiore of the Black fea, at
the fouth fide of the peninfula, and is famous for its
excellent wine, refembling Champagne both in colour
and .ftrengthj Alufchtir oa the fame fide, among th*
hills.'
Cringle.
G R I [ yjg
Crimea hills on the fea fhore ; Baluklava, where there is a fine
harbour, and perhaps the only one on the Black fea,
containing ample room for a very good fleet; Inker-
man may be noticed for its commodious though not
very large haven, called Achtiar ; and Mangup, the old
Cherfonefus : which were all formerly very flourifhing
towns; but are now either in ruins, or dwindled into
fmall villages.
All thefe places, fo long as the Genoefe remained
mailers of the Crim, were well fortified $ but the Tar¬
tars, in taking them, demolilhed all the works. While
they were under the Turks, they left the fortreffes of
Keffa, Kertfch, and Koflof, and built the fort Arabat
on the neck of land between the fea of Azof (or Palus
Maeotis) and the Rotten fea, where Perekop alfo is.
In Arabat are but few houfes ; but here the warlike
Bores of the khans were kept.—Percalled by the
Turks Or-kapty is a fortrefs of moderate ftrength j
Banding about the middle of the neck of land that
joins the peninfula with the continent. This iflhmus,
which is at leaft fix miles broad, is cut through with a
wide and deep ditch lined with ftone, and reaches from
the Black to the Rotten fea. This was formerly kept
without water, but now is filled from both feas. On
the Crimean fide a high wall of earth runs the whole
length of it, flraight from one fea to the other. The
people pafs over the ditch by means of a drawbridge,
and through the wall by a gateway. The walls of the
fortrefs are fome fathoms from the road fide $ of which
the ruins are only now difcernible, namely, large brick
houfes, with a number of bomb-fliells and cannon-balls
about them, which were formerly kept in the fortrefs.
At leaft two miles from this is a pretty populous but
miferable place, which was probably the town to which
this fort belonged. Near the gate is a cuftomhoufe,
where all imports and exports pay duty.
Phis peninfula was formerly extremely populous 5 the
number of its inhabitants, in Tartars, Turks, Greeks,
Armenians, Jews, and others, amounted to above
200,000 men. Since that, however, the greateft part
of the Chriftians have betaken themfelves to the other
parts of the Ruffian empire, particularly the govern¬
ment of Azof j and many other inhabitants, particu¬
larly 1 artars, have gone to Taman and Abchafia ; fo
that the prefent population of the Crim cannot now
be reckoned at more than 70,000 men at moft.
The Crim wras heretofore divided into 24 kaduliks
or diftrifts ; namely, Yenikali, Kertfch, Arabat, Ef-
ki-krim, Keffa, ^ Karafubafar, Sudak, Achmetfched,
Yalof, Bachtfchifarai, Balaklava, Mangup, Inkerman,
Koflof, Or, Manfur, Tarkan, Sivafch, Tifchongar,
Sarubulat, Barun, Argun, Sidfchugut, and Schirin.
Several of thefe diftrifts are named after the town
or village wherein the murza, their governor, dwells ;
and many of them are at prefent in a ftate of total
decay.
CRIMEN falsi. See Fjisi Crimen.
CRIMSON, one of the feven red colours of the
dyers. See Dyeing.
CRINGLE, a fmall hole made in the bolt-rope of
a fail, by intertwifting one of the divifions of a rope,
called a Strand, alternately round itfelf and through
ihtjlrands of the bolt-rope, till it becomes threefold,
and affumes the fhape of a wreath or ring. The ufe
of the cringle is generally to contain the end of lome
1
R I
thereto for the purpofe of Crimitn
||
Crithutn.
^ . C
rope, which is faftened
drawing up the fail to its yard, or of extending the
fkirts by the means of bridles, to ftand upon a fide wind.
The word feems to be derived from krinckelen (Belg.)
“ to run into twills.”
CRINUM, asphodel-lily: A genus of plants
belonging to the hexandria clafs ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 9th order, Spathacece. See
Botany Index.
CRISIS, in Medicine, is ufed in different fenfes, both
by the ancient and modern phyficians. With fome it
means frequently no more than the excretion of any
noxious fubftance from the body. Others take the
word for a fecretion of the noxious humours made in
a fever. Others ufe it for the critical motion itfelf;
and Galen defines a crifis in fevers, a Bidden and in-
ftantaneous change, either for the better or the worfe,
productive of recovery or death.
CRISPIN and Crisfianus, two legendary faints,
whofe feftival, as marked in the kalendar, is on the
25th of October. According to the legend, they
were brethren, born at Rome *, from whence they tra¬
velled tb Soiffons in France, about the year 303, to
propagate the Chriftian religion j and becaufe they
would not be chargeable to others for their mainte¬
nance, they exercifed the trade of fhoemakers : but
the governor of the town difcovering them to be Chri¬
ftians, ordered them to be beheaded. From which
time the flioemakers made choice of them for their
tutelar faints.
CRISTiE, in Surgery, a term for certain excref-
cences about the anus and pudenda. See Medicine
Index.
CRISTA ga lli, in Anatomy, an eminence in the
middle of the os ethmoides, advancing wdthin the cavi¬
ty of the cranium $ and to which is faftened that part
of the dura mater which divides the brain, called falx.
It has its name from its figure, which refembles that
of a cock’s comb. In adults, this procefs appears of a
piece with the feptum nariutn. See Anatomy Index.
CRITERION, or Criterium, a ftandard by
which propofitions and opinions are compared, in order
to difcover their truth or falfehood.
CRITHE, in Surgery, commonly called the Jlye, is
a fort of tubercle that grow7s on the eye-lids. When
fmall, it is feated on the edge of the eye-lid j but when
large, it fpreads further. When they do not fuppu-
rate they become w7ens. They are apt to difappear
and return. If there is inflammation, endeavour to
fuppurate it with the white bread poultice : if it is
hard, deftroy it with a mixture of equal parts of hog’s
lard and quickfilver. If the lowrer eye-lid is affe&ed,
the tumor is more frequently on its infide j and then
it is beft to diffeft it, or to make way for it outwardly
by applying a cauftic on the fkin juft upon it.
CRITHUM, samphire: A genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria clafs j and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 45th order, Umbe/latce. See
Botamy Index.—Its leaves are an excellent pickle ufed
for fauces, and are by many eaten raw in falads. It
is of a faltifh relifh, palatable, and comfortable to the
ftomach. It is net very eafily preferved in gardens. It
muft be fown on gravelly or rocky ground, half an
inch deep j in which fituation the plants will come up,
and laft fome years.
CRITHOMANCY,
C R I
[ 759 1
C R I
Cfi thom an.
cy
II.
Criticifm
CRITHOMANCY, a kind of divination, perform¬
ed by confidering the dougb or matter of the cakes
offered in facrifice, and the meal ftrewed over the vic-
i tims to be killed. Hence, in regard they ordinarily
ufed barley-meal in thefe ceremonies, this kind of di¬
vination was called cnthomancy, from xgtl))!, barley, and
ftaivTux, divination,
CRITIAS, one of the 3® tyrants fet over Athens
by the Spartans. He was eloquent and well bred, but
of dangerous principles. He cruelly perfecuted his
enemies, and put them to death. He wras killed about
400 years before the Augullan age, in a battle againft
thofe citizens whom his oppreflion had banifhed. He
had been among the difciples of Socrates, and had
written elegies and other compofitions, of which fome
fragments remain.
CRITICAL days and symptoms, among phyfi-
cians, are certain days and fymptoms in the courfe of
acute difeafes, which indicate the patient’s ftate, and
determine him either to recover or grow worfe. See
Med 1 cine Index.
CRITICISM, the art of judging with propriety
concerning any objeft or combination of objects. But,
in a more limited fenfe, the fcience of criticifm is con¬
fined to the fine arts. The principles of the fine arts
are beft unfolded by ftudying the fenfitive part of our
nature, and by learning what objefts are naturally
agreeable and what are naturally difagreeable. The
man who afpires to be a critic in thefe arts, mull
pieice ftill deeper: he mull clearly perceive what ob-
jefts are lofty, what low, what are proper or impro¬
per, what are manly, and what are mean or trivial.
Hence a foundation for judging of tafte, and for rea-
foning upon it : where it is conformable to principles,
we can pronounce with certainty that it is corre<5l j
otherwife, that it is incorreft, and perhaps whimfical.
Thus the fine arts, like morals, become a rational fci¬
ence ; and, like morals, may be cultivated to a high
degree of refinement.
Manifold are the advantages of criticifm, when thus
fludied as a rational fcience. In the firft place, a tho¬
rough acquaintance with the principles of the fine arts
redoubles the entertainments thofe arts afford. To
the man who refigns himfelf entirely to fentiment or
feeling, without interpofing any fort of judgment,
poetry, mufic, painting, are mere paflime; in the prime
of life, indeed, they are delightful, being fupported by
the force of novelty and the heat of imagination : but
they lofe their relifh gradually with their novelty j
and are generally neglefted in the maturity of life,
which difpofes to more ferious and more important
occupations. To thofe who deal in criticifm as a re¬
gular fcience, governed by juft principles, and giving
Icope to judgment as well as to fancy, the fine arts
are a favourite entertainment j and in old age main¬
tain that relifh which they produce in the morning of
life.
In the next place, a philofophical inquiry into the
principles of the fine arts, inures the reflefting mind
to the moft enticing fort of logic : the praftice of
reafoning upon fubjefls fo agreeable tends to a habit j
and a habit ftrengthening the reafoning faculties, pre¬
pares the mind for entering into fubjedls more difficult
and abftraft. To have, in this refpeft, a juft con¬
ception of the importance of criticifm, we need but
refleft upon the common method of education ; which, Criticifm:<
after fome years fpent in acquiring languages, hurries
us, without the leaft preparatory difcipline, into the
moft profound philofophy : a more effectual method
to alienate the tender mind from abftraft fcience, is
beyond the reach of invention : and accordingly, with
refpeft to fuch fpeculations, the bulk of our youth
contract a fort of hobgoblin terror, which is feldom,
if ever, fubdued. Thofe who apply to the arts are
trained in a very different manner : they are led, ftep
by ftep, from the eafier parts of the operation to
what are more difficult j and are not permitted to
make a new motion till they be perfected in thofe
which regularly precede it. The fcience of criticifm
appears then to be a middle link, connetting the dif¬
ferent parts of education into a regular chain. This
fcience furnifheth an inviting opportunity to exercife
the judgment : w^e delight to reafon upon fubje£!s that
are equally pleafant and familiar ; we proceed gradu¬
ally from the fimpler to the more involved cafes : and
in a due courfe of difcipline, cuftom, which improves
all our faculties, bellows acutenefs upon thofe of rea¬
fon, fufficient to unravel all the intricacies of philo-
fophy.
Nor ought it to be overlooked, that the reafonings
employed upon the fine arts are of the fame kind with
thofe which regulate our condu£l. Mathematical and
metaphyfical reafonings have no tendency to improve
focial intercourfe ; nor are they applicable to the com¬
mon affairs of life : but a juft tafte in the fine arts, de¬
rived from rational principles, furnilhes elegant fub-
jedls for converfation, and prepares us finely for afting
in the focial ftate with dignity and propriety.
The fcience of rational criticifm tends to improve
the heart not lefs than the undei Handing. It tends,
in the firft place, to moderate the felfiffi affedlions : by
fweetening and harmonizing the temper, it is a ftrong
antidote to the turbulence of paffion and violence of
purfuit ; it procures to a man fo much mental enjoy¬
ment, that, in order to be occupied, he is not tempted
in youth to precipitate into hunting, gaming, drinking j
nor in middle age, to deliver himfelf over to ambition j
nor in old age, to avarice. Pride and envy, two dif-
guftful paffions, find in the conftitution no enemy more
formidable than a delicate and difcerning tafte : the
man upon whom nature and culture have bellowed
this bleffing, feels great delight in the virtuous difpo-
fitions and aftions of others ; he loves to cherilh them,
and to publilh them to the world : faults and failings,
is is true, are to him not lefs obvious ; but thefe he
avoids, or removes out of fight, becaule they give him
pain. On the other hand, a man void of tafte, upon
whom the moft linking beauties make but a faint im-
preffion, has no joy but in gratifying his pride or en¬
vy by the difcovery of errors and blemilhes. In a.
word, there may be other paffions, which, for a fea-
fon, difturb the peace of fociety more than thofe men¬
tioned : but no other paffion is fo unwearied an anta-
gonift to the fweets of focial intercourfe : thefe paf¬
fions, tending affiduoufly to their gratification, put a
man perpetually in oppofition to others p and dilpofe
him more to relifh bad than good qualities, even in a
companion. How different that difpofition of mind,
where every virtue in a companion or neighbour, is,
by refinement of tafte, fet in its ftrongeft light *, and
defefls
c R I [ 760 ] C R I
■Sriticifm defers or Hemillies, natural to all, are fuppreffed, or their too great proportion, are fubjea, either from the Croatia,
Crizzelling. out v*ew ' . adventitious nitre of the air from without, or from warm Croc°<bl<N
v—t^e next pjac_e, delicacy of tafle tends not lefs to liquors put in them, to be either increafed in quantity v J
invigorate the focial aftefh'ons than to moderate thofe or diffblved, and thereby induce a fcabrities or rough-
that are lelfiih. lo be convinced of this tendency, nefs irrecoverably clouding the tranfparence of the
we need only reflea, that delicacy of tafte neceffarily glafs. This is what was called crizzellirg ; but by
heightens our fenfibility of pain and pleafure, and of ufing an Italian white pebble, and abating the pro-
couile our fympathy, which is the capital branch of portions of the falts, the manufafiure is now carried
every focial paflion. Sympathy, in particular, invites on with advantage, and the glafs made with thefe falts
a communication of joys and forrows, hopes and is whiter than the fined Venetian, and is fubjefl to no
fears : iuch exercife, foothing, and latisfaftory in it- faults.
felf, is neceffarily productive of mutual good-will and CROATIA, a part of the ancient Illyricum, is
affe&ion. . bounded on the eaft by Sclavonia and Bofnia, on the
One other advantage of rational criticifm is refer- fouth and fouth-weft by Morlachia, and on the north
ved to the lad place, being of all the mod important ; by the Drave, which feparates it from a part of Scla-
which is, that it is a great fupport to morality. No vonia. It is about 80 miles in length and 70 in
occupation attaches a man more to his duty than that breadth, and was once divided between the Hunga-
of cultivating a tade in the fine arts : a jud relifli of rians and Turks ; but now the greated part of it is
what is beautiful, proper, elegant, and ornamental, in fubjefl to the houfe of Audria. The Croats derive
writing or painting, in architefture or gardening, is their origin from the Sclav! ; and their language is a
a fine preparation for the fame jud relifli of thefe qua- dialed! of the Sclavonian, approaching very near to
lities in charadler and behaviour. To the man who that of the Poles. The country is divided into two
has acquired a tade fo acute and accompliflied, every parts, viz. that under, and that beyond, the Save. In
aftion wrong or improper mud be highly difguflful : the late wars between the emprefs queen and the king
if, in any indance, the overbearing power of paflion of Pruflia, no lefs than 50,000 men were raifed out
fway him from his duty, he returns to it upon the firfl of this fmall territory. Both horfe and foot are good
refledlion with redoubled refolution never to be fway- foldiers, efpecially the former. The foil, where culti-
ed a fecond time : he has now an additional motive vated, is fruitful in wine and oil, &x. but being a fron-
to virtue, a convidlion derived from experience, that tier country, and much expofed to inroads, it is not
happinefs depends on regularity and order, and that a fo well cultivated as otherwife might be.
difregard to judice or propriety never fails to be pu- CROCODILE. See Lacerta, Erpetology
niftied with (hame and remorfe. Index.
For the rules of criticifm applicable to the fine arts, Fojfil Crocodile, one of the greated curiofities in
and derived from human nature, fee Architecture, the foflil world which the late ages have produced.
Beauty, Congruity, Comparison, Grandeur, It is the Ikeleton of a large crocodile, almod entire,
&c. found at a great depth under ground, bedded in done.
CRI FO, an Athenian philofopher, flouriflied 400 This was in the pofleflion of Linkius, who wrote many
years before Chrid. He was one of the mod zeal- pieces of natural hiflory, and particularly an accurate
ous difciples of Socrates, and fupplied him with what- defcription of this curious foflil. It was found in the
ever he wanted. He had feveral fcholars who proved fide of a large mountain in the midland part of Ger-
great men, and he compofed fome dialogues which are many, and in a dratum of black foflil done, fomewhat
lofi. like our common date, but of a coarfer texture, the
CRITOLAUS, a citizen of Tegea in Arcadia, fame with that in which the foflil fillies in many parts
He with two brothers fought againd the three fons of of the world are found. This fkeleton had the back
Demondratus ofpheneus, to put an end to a long war and ribs very plain, and was of a much deeper black
between their refpeftive nations. The brothers of than the red of the done ; as is alfo the cafe in the
Critolaus w’ere both killed, and he alone remained to foflil filhes which are preferved in this manner. The
withdand his three bold antagonifls. He conquered part of the done where the head lay was not found j
them ; and when at his return his fifler deplored the this being broken off jufl at the fhoulders, but that ir-
death of one of his antagonifls, to whom die was be- regularly ; fo that in one place, a part of the back
trothed, he killed her in a fit of refentment. The of- of the head was vilible in its natural form. The two
fence deferved capital punilhment; but he was pardon- fhoulder-bcnes were very fair, and three of the feet
ed on account of the fervices he had rendered his coun- were well preferved : the legs wTere of their natuial
try. He was afterwards general of the Achaeans j fli-ipe and fize, and the feet preferved even to the ex-
?nd it is faid that he poifoned himfelf becaufe he had tremities of the five toes of each.
been conquered at Thermopylae by the Romans, about Crocodile (crocodilus'), in Rhetoric, a captious and
,146 years before the Auguflan age. fophiflical kind of argumentation, contrived to feduce
CRIZZELLING, in the glafs trade, a kind of the unwary, and draw them Ipecioufly into a inare. It
roughnefs arifing on the furface of fome kinds of glafs. has its name crocodile from the following occafion, in-
This wTas the fault of a peculiar fort of glafs made in vented by the poets. A poor woman, begging a cro-
Oxfordlhire and fome other places, of black flints, a .codile that bad caught her fon walking by the river-
crydallized fand, and a large quantity of nitre, tartar, fide to fpare and reflore him, wTas anfwered, that he
and borax. The glafs thus made is very beautiful, but, would rellore him, provided die fliould give a true an-
from the too great quantities of the falts in the mixture, fwer to a quedion he dmuld propofe : the queflion w'as,
.is fubjeid to crizzel; that is, the falts in the mixture, from Willi reflore thy fon or not ? To this the poor wo-
2 man
C R CE [ 761 ] G R CE
Crocus man, fufpe&ing a deceit, forrowfully anfwered, Thou
Croefus. wilt not: and demanded to have him reitored, becaufe
>_ flie had anfwered truly. Thou lieft, fays the croco¬
dile $ for if I rettore him thou haft not anfwered truly :
I cannot therefore reftore him without making thy an-
fwer falfe. Under this head may be reduced the pro-
pofitions called mentientes or infolubiles ; which deftroy
themfelves. Such is that of the Cretan poet : Otnnes
ad unum Cretenfetfemper mentiuntur : “ all the Cretans,
to a man, always lie.” Either, then, the poet lies
when he afferts that the Cretans all lie, or the Cretans
do not all lie.
CROCUS, saffron : A genus of plants belonging
to the triandria clafs ; and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 6th order Enfata. See Botany In¬
dex.
Crocus, in Chemijlryy denotes any metal calcined
to a red or deep yellow colour.
Crocus Me tailor urn, an emetic preparation of anti¬
mony and nitre. See Chemistry Index.
CRCESUS, the laft king of Lydia, remarkable for
his riches, his conquefts, his temporary profperity, and
the fad reverie of his fortune. He fubdued the Phry¬
gians, Myllans, Paphlagonians, Thracians, and Cari-
ans; amaffed together immenfe riches 5 and became
one of the moft powerful and magnificent princes in
the wmrld. He drew the learned to his court, and
took a pleafure in converfing with them. Thales of
Miletus, Pittacus of Mitylene, Bias of Priene, Cleo-
bulus of Lindus, and moft of the other “ wife men,”
as they are emphatically ftyled, who lived in that age,
as well as iEfop the fabulift, and the elegant Greek
poets of the times, were bountifully received at the
court of Croefus. There is ftill on record a memorable
converfation between that prince and Solon, which
feemed to predict the fubfequent events of his reign,
and w'hich had a late but important influence on the
charafter and fortune of the Lydian king. Croefus
having entertained his Athenian gueft, according to
the ancient falhion, for feveral days, before he alked
him any queftions, oftentatioufly ftiowed him the mag¬
nificence of his palace, and particularly the riches of
his treafury. After all had been difplayed to the beft
advantage, the king complimented Solon upon his cu-
riofity and love of knowledge ; and alked him as a
man who had feen many countries, and reflefled with
much judgment upon what he had feen, Whom of all
men he efteemed moft happy ? By the particular oc-
cafion, as well as the triumphant air with which the
queftion was propofed, the king made it evident that
he expe&ed flattery rather than information. But So¬
lon’s charatler had not been enervated by the debilita¬
ting air of a court; and he replied with a manly free¬
dom, “ Tellus, the Athenian.” Croefus, who bad
fcarcely learned to diftinguilh, even in imagination,
between wealth and happinefs, inquired with a tone of
furprife, why this preference to Tellus ? “ Tellus,”
rejoined Solon, *‘ w'as not confpicuous for his riches
or his grandeur, being only a Ample citizen of Athens;
but he was defcended from parents who deferved the
firft honours of the republic. He was equally fortu¬
nate in his children, who obtained univerfal efteem by
their probity, patriotifm, and every ufeful quality of
the mind or body : and as to himfelf, he died fighting
gallantly in the fervice of his country, which his va-
Vol. VL Part II.
lour rendered vi&orious in a doubtful combat; on Croefus.
which account the Athenians buried him on the fpot v '
where he fell, and diftinguifhed him by every honour
which public gratitude can confer on illuftrious me¬
rit.”
Croefus had little encouragement, after this anfw'er,
to alk Solon, in the fecond place. Whom, next to Tel¬
lus, he deemed moft happy? Such, however, is the
illufion of vanity, that he ftill ventured to make this
demand ; and ftill, as w’e are informed by the moft cir-
cumftantial of hiftorians, entertained hopes of being
favourably anfwered. But Solon replied w ith the fame
freedom as before, “ The brothers Cleobis and Biton,
two youths of Argos, whofe ftrength and addrefs were
crowned with repeated vi&ory at the Olympic games ;
who deferved the affeflion of their parents, the grati¬
tude of their country, the admiration of Greece ; and
who, having ended their lives with peculiar felicity,
were commemorated by the moft fignal monuments
of immortal fame.” “ And is the happinefs of a king,
then,” faid Croefus, “ fo little regarded, O Grecian
ft ranger, that you prefer to it the mean condition of
an Athenian or Argive citizen ? The reply of Solon
fufficiently juftified his reputation for wnfdom. “ The
life of man,” faid he, “ confifts of 70 years, which
make 25,550 days; an immenfe number: yet in the
longeft life, the events of any one day will not be found
exaflly alike to thofe of another. The affairs of men
are liable to perpetual viciflitudes : the Divinity who
prefides over our fate is envious of too much profpe¬
rity ; and all human life, if trot condemned to calami¬
ty, is at leaft liable to accident. W7hoever has unin¬
terruptedly enjoyed a profperous tide of fuccefs may
juftly be called fortunate: but he cannot before his
death be entitled to the epithet of happy."
The events which foon followed this converfation,
prove how little fatisfaftion is derived from the poffef-
fion of a throne. Viftorious in w?ar, unrivalled in
wealth, fupreme in power, Croefus felt and acknow'-
ledged his unhappineis. The warmeft affe&ions of his
foul centered in his fon Atys, a youth of the molt
promifing hopes, wTo had often fought and conquered
by his fide. The ftrength of his attachment was ac¬
companied w7ith an excefs of paternal care, and the
anxiety of his waking hours difturbed the tranquillity
of his reft. He dreamed that his beloved fon w’as flain
by a dart; and the folicitude with which he watched
his fafety, preventing the youth from his ufual occu¬
pations and amufements, and thereby rendering him
too eager to enjoy them, moft probably expofed him
to the much-dreaded misfortune. Reluctantly permit¬
ted to engage in a party of hunting, the juvenile ar¬
dour of Atys, increafed by the impatience of long re-
ftraint, made him negleCt the precautions neceffary in
that manly amufement. He was flain by a dart aim¬
ed at a wild boar of monftrous fize, which had long
fpread terror over the country of the Myfians. The
weapon came from the hand of Adraftusj a Phrygian
prince and fugitive, whom Croefus had purified from
the involuntary guilt of a brother’s blood, and long
diftinguiflied by peculiar marks of bounty. To the
grateful protection of the Phrygian, Cioefus recom¬
mended, at parting, the fafety of his beloved fon. A
mournful proceflion of Lydians brought to Sardis the
dead body of Atys. The ill-fated murderer follow ed
5 D behind.
C R CE [ 762 ] C R O
behind. When they approached the royal prefence,
Adraftus ftepped forward and entreated Croefiis to put
him to death j thinkiiig life no longer to be endured
after killing, firft his own brother, and then the fon of
his benefa&or. But the Lydian king, notwithftanding
the excefs of his affliftion, acknowledged the inno¬
cence of Adraftus, and the power of fate. “ Stranger,
your aftion is blamelefs, being committed without de-
fign. I know that my fon was deftined to a prema¬
ture death.” Adraftus, though pardoned by Croefus,
could not pardon himfelf. When the mourners were
removed, he privately returned, and perifhed by his
own hand on the tomb of Atys.
Twro years Croefus remained difconfolate for the lofs
of his fon : and might have continued to indulge his
unavailing affli&ion during the remainder of life, had
not the growing greatnefs of Perfia, which threatened
the fafety of his dominions, roufed him from his dream
of mifery. (See Lydia).—He marched againft Cyrus
with a great army, but was defeated j and retreating
to his capital Sardis, was there befieged. The city
was taken by affault j and as a Perfian foldier was go¬
ing to kill Croefus, that prince’s only furviving fon,
who had hitherto been dumb, terrified at his danger,
cried, Stop, foldier, and touch not Crcefus. But though
delivered by this extraordinary accident from the blind
rage of the foldier, he feemed to be referved for a
harder fate. Dragged into the prefence of his conque¬
ror, he was loaded with irons ; and the ftern, unrelent¬
ing Cyrus, of whofe humane temper of mind we have
fo beautiful, but fo flattening, a piflure in the philofo-
phical romance of Xenophon, ordered him, with the
melancholy train of his Lydian attendants, to be com¬
mitted to the flames. An immenfe pile of wood and
other combuftibles was ere6led in the moft ipacious
part of the city. The miferable viftims, bound hand
and foot, were placed on the top of the pyre. Cyrus,
furrounded by his generals, witnefled the dreadful
fpe&acle, either from an abominable principle of fu-
perftition he had bound himfelf by a vow to facri-
fice Croefus as the firft fruits of his Lydian viftory, or
from a motive of curiofity, equally cruel and impious,
to try whether Crcefus, who had fo magnificently
adorned the temples and enriched the minifters of the
gods, would be helped in time of need by the miracu¬
lous interpofition of his much honoured proteftors.
Meanwhile the unfortunate Lydian, opprefled and
confounded by the intolerable weight of his prefent ca¬
lamity compared with the fecurity and fplendor of his
former ftate, recolle&ed his memorable converfation
with the Athenian fage, and uttered with a deep
groan the name of So/on. Cyrus alked by an inter¬
preter, “ Whofe name he invoked ?” “ Hisf replied
Croefus, emboldened by the profpe£l of certain death,
“ whofe words ought ever to fpeak to the heart of
kings.” This reply not being fatisfadlory, he was
commanded to explain at full length the fubjeft of his
thoughts. Accordingly he related the important dif-
courfe which had palled between himfelf and the A-
thenian, of which it was the great moral, That no
man could be called happy till his death.
The words of a dying man are fitted to make a
ftrong impreflion on the heart. Thofe of Crcefus
deeply affefted the mind of Cyrus. The Perfian con-
fidered the fjpeech of Solon as addreffed to himfelf.
He repented of his intended cruelty towards the unfor- Croefus
tunate prince, who had formerly enjoyed all the pomp Qro||a<je
of profperity : and dreading the concealed vengeance .
that might lurk in the bofom of fate, gave orders that
the pyre fhould be extinguifhed. But the workmen
who had been employed to prepare it, had performed
their talk with fo much care, that the order could not
fpeedily be obeyed. At that moment, Croefus calling
on Apollo, whofe favourite Ihrine of Delphi had expe¬
rienced his generous munificence, and whofe perfidious
oracle had made him fo ungrateful a return 5 the god,
it is faid, fent a plentiful {bower to extinguifh the pyre.
This event, which faved the life, and which fufficiently
attefted the piety, of Crcefus, ftrongly recommended
him to the credulity of his conqueror. It feemed im-
poflible to pay too much refpeft to a man who was evi¬
dently the favourite of heaven. Cyrus gave orders
that he fhould be fea'ced by his fide, and thenceforth
treated as a king ; a revolution of fortune equally hid¬
den and unexpefted. But the mind of Croefus had un¬
dergone a ftill more important revolution : for, tutor¬
ed in the ufeful fchoolof adverfity, he learned to think
with patience and to aft with prudence, to govern his
own pafiions by the diftates of reafon, and to repay
by wholefome advice the generous behaviour of his.
Perfian matter.
The firft advantage which he derived from the
change in Cyrus’s difpofition towards him, was the
permiflion of fending his fetters to the temple of the Del¬
phian Apollo, whofe flattering oracles had encouraged
him to wage war with the Perfians. “ Behold,” were
his meffengers inftrufted to fay, “ the trophies of our
promifed fuccefs ! behold the monuments of the un¬
erring veracity of the god !” The Pythia heard their
reproach with a fmile of contemptuous indignation,
and anfwered it with that folemn gravity which {he
was fo carefully taught to affume: “ The gods them-
felves cannot avoid their own dtftiny, much lefs avert,
how'ever they may retard, the determined fates of
men. CioefusTas fuffered, and juftly fuffered, for the
crime of his anceftor Gyges j who, entrufted as chief
of the guards, with the perfon of Candaules, the laft
king of the race of Hercules, was feduced by an im¬
pious w'oman to murder his mafter, to defile his bed,
and to ufurp his royal dignity. For this complicated
guilt of Gyges the misfortunes of Croefus have atoned ;
but know, that through the favour of Apollo, thefe
misfortunes have happened three years later than the
fates ordained.” The Pythia then proceeded to explain
her anfwers concerning the event of the war againft
Cyrus, and proved, to the conviftion of the Lydians,
that her words, if properly underftood, portended the
deftruftion, not of the Perfian, but of the Lydian em¬
pire. Croefus heard with refignation the report of his
meffengers, and acknowledged the juftice of the Del¬
phian oracle, which maintained and increafed the lulfre
of its ancient fame. T his fallen monarch {urvived
Cyrus. The manner of his death is not known.
CROFT, a little clofe adjoining to a dwelling-
houfe, and inclofed for pafture or arable land, or any
other purpofe.—In fome ancient deeds, cruft a occurs
as the Latin word fora “croft;” but cum tojtis et
croftis is more frequent. Croft is tranflated in Abbo
Floriacenfis, by prcvdium, a “farm.”
CROISADE, or Crusade, a name given to the
expeditions
C R O [ 763 ] C R O
CroHade. expeditions of the Chriftians againft the infidels for the
' v""" ' conqueft of Paleftine.
Thefe expeditions commenced in the year 1096.
The foundation of them was a fuperftitious veneration
for thofe places where our Saviour performed his mi¬
racles, and accompliihed the work of man’s redemp¬
tion. Jerufalem had been taken, and Paleftine con-
* Se*/r;?‘ quered, by Omar the fucceflbr of Abu Beer *, who
ia' 1 ’ fucceeded Mahomet himfelf. This proved a confi-
derable interruption to the pilgrims, who flocked from
all quarters to perform their devotions at the holy fe-
pulchre. They had, however, ftill been allowed this
liberty, on paying a fmall tribute to the Saracen ca¬
liphs, who were not much inclined to moleft them.
But, in 1065, this city changed its matters. The
Turks took it from the Saracens j and being much
more fierce and barbarous than the former, the pil¬
grims now found they could no longer perform their
devotions with the fame fafety they did before. An
opinion was about this time alfo prevalent in Eu¬
rope, which made thefe pilgrimages much more fre¬
quent than formerly. It was fomehow or other ima¬
gined, that the thoufand years mentioned in the 20th
chapter of the Revelations, were fulfilled ; that Chrift
was foon to make his appearance in Paleftine, to judge
the world j and confequently that journeys to that
country were in the higheft degree meritorious, and
even abfolutely neceffary. The multitudes of pilgrims
which now flocked to Paleftine meeting with a very
rough reception from the Turks, filled all Europe with
complaints againft thofe infidels who profaned the
holy city by their prefence, and derided the facred
myfteries of Chriftianity even in the place where they
were fulfilled. Pope Gregory VII. had formed a de-
fign of uniting all the princes of Chriftenndom againft
the Mahometans j but his exorbitant encroachments
upon the civil power of princes had created him fo
many enemies, and rendered his fchemes fo fufpicious^
that he was not able to make great progrefs in the
undertaking. The work was referved for a meaner
inftrument.
Peter, commonly called the hermit, a native of A-
miens in Picardy, had made the pilgrimage to Jeru¬
falem ; and being deeply affefled with the dangers to
which that aft of piety now expofed the pilgrims, as
well as with the oppreflion under which the eaftern
Chriftians now laboured, formed the bold, and, in all
appearance, imprafticable defign of leading into Afia,
from the fartheft extremities of the weft, armies fuf-
ficient to fubdue thofe potent and warlike nations that
now held the Holy Land in flavery. He propofed
his fcheme to Martin II. who then filled the papal
chair 5 but he, though fenfible enough of the advan¬
tages which muft accrue to himfelf from fuch an un¬
dertaking, refolved not to interpofe his authority till
he faw a greater probability of fuccefs. He fummon-
ed, at Placentia, a council confifting of 4000 ecclefia-
ftics and 30,000 feculars. As no hall could be found
large enough to contain fuch a multitude, the aflembly
was held in a plain. Here the Pope himfelf, as well
as Peter, harangued the people, reprefenting the dif-
mal fituation of their brethren in the eaft, and the in-
dignity offered to the Chriftian name in allowing the
holy city to remain in the hands of the infidels. Thefe
fpeeches were fo agreeable to thofe who heard them,
that the whole multitude fuddenly and violently de- Croifacfe.
dared for the war, and folemnly devoted themfelves '■““"''v ~
to perform this fervice, which they believed to be fo
meritorious in the fight of God.
But though Italy feemed to have embraced the de¬
fign with ardour, Martin yet thought it neceffary, in
order to infure perfeft fuccefs, to engage the greater
and more warlike nations in the fame enterprife. Ha¬
ving therefore exhorted Peter to vifit the chief cities
and fovereigns of Chriftendom, he fummoned another
council at Clermont in Auvergne. The fame of this
great and pious defign being now univerfally diffufed,
procured the attendance of the greateft prelates, nobles,
and princes j and when the Pope and the hermit re¬
newed their pathetic exhortations, the whole affembly,
as if impelled by an immediate infpiration, exclaimed
with one voice, “ It is the will of God! it is the will
of God!” Thefe words were deemed fo memorable,
and fo much the effeft of a divine impulfe, that they
were employed as the fignal of rendezvous and battle
in all future exploits of thefe adventurers. Men of all
ranks now flew to arms with the utmoft ardcur, and a
crofs was affixed to their right fhoulder by all who in-
lifted in this holy enterprife.
At this time Europe was funk in the moft profound
ignorance and fuperftition. The ecclefiaftics had
gained the greateft: afeendant over the human mind $
and the people, who committed the moft horrid
crimes and diforders, knew of no other expiation than
the obfervances impofed on them by their fpiritual pa¬
llors.
But amidft the abjeft fuperftition which now pre¬
vailed, the military fpirit had alfo univerfally diffufed
itfelf j and, though not fupported by art or difeipline,
was become the general paffion of the nations govern¬
ed by the feudal law. All the great lords poffeffed
the right of peace and war. They were engaged in
continual hoftilities with one another: the open coun¬
try was become a feene of outrage and diforder : the
cities, ftill mean and poor, were neither guarded by
walls nor protefted by privileges. Every man was
obliged to depend for fafety on his own force, or his
private alliances ; and valour was the only excellence
which was held in efteem, or gave one man the pre¬
eminence above another. When all the particular fu-
perftitions, therefore, were here united in one great
objeft, the ardour for private hoftilities took the fame
direftion ; “and all Europe (as* the princefs Anna
Comnena expreffes herfelf), torn from its foundations,
feemed ready to precipitate itfelf in one united body
upon Afia.”
All orders of men, now deeming the croifades the
only road to heaven, were impatient to open the way
with their fwords to the holy city. Nobles, artifans,
peafants, even priefts, inrolled their names ; and to
decline this fervice was branded with the reproach of
impiety or cowardice. The nobles who inlifted them¬
felves were moved, by the romantic fpirit of the age,
to hope for opulent eftablifhments in the eaft, the
chief feat of arts and commerce at that time. In pur-
fuit of thefe chimerical projefts, they fold at the low-
eft price their ancient caftles and inheritances, which
had now loft all value in their eyes. The infirm and
aged contributed to the expedition by prefents and
money ; and many of them, not fatisfied with this, at-
5 I) 2 tended
C R O [ 764 1 C R O
tended it in perfon, being determined, if poflible, to
breathe their laft in fight of that city where their Sa¬
viour had died for them. Women themfelves, con¬
cealing their fex under the difguife of armour, attend¬
ed the camp ; and commonly forgot their duty ftill
more, by profiituting themfelves to the army. The
greateft criminals were forward in a fervice which they
confidered as an expiation for all crimes j and the molt
enormous diforders were, during the courfe of thefe
expeditions, committed by men inured to wickednefs,
encouraged by example, and impelled by neceflity.
The multitude of adventurers foon became fo great,
that their more fagacious leaders became apprehenfive
left the greatnefs of the armament would be the caufe
©f its own difappointment. For this reafon they per¬
mitted an undifciplined multitude, computed at 300,000
men, to go before them under the command of Peter
the hermit, and Gautier or Walter, furnamed the
tnoneylefs^ from his being a foldier of fortune. Thefe
took the road towards Conftantinople through Hun¬
gary and Bulgaria ; and, trufting that heaven, by fu-
pernatural afliltance, would fupply all their necefii-
ties, they made no provifion for fubfiftence in their
march. They foon found themfelves obliged to ob¬
tain by plunder what they vainly expedled from mi¬
racles •, and the enraged inhabitants of the countries
through which they palled, attacked the diforderly
multitude, and fiaughtered them without refiftance.
The more difciplined armies followed after; and, paf-
fing the ftraits of Conftantinople, they were muftered
in the plains of Afia, and amounted in the whole to
700,000 men.
The rage for conquering the Holy Land did not
ceafe with this expedition. It continued for very
near two centuries, and eight different croifades were
fet on foot, one after another. The firft was in the
year 1096, as already obferved. The princes enga¬
ged in it were, Hugo, count of Vermandois, brother
to Philip L king of France ; Robert, duke of Nor¬
mandy ; Robert, earl of Flanders ; Raimond, earl of
Touloufe and St Giles ; Godfrey of Bouillon, duke of
Lorrain, with his brothers Baldwin and Euftace ; Ste¬
phen, earl of Chartres and Blois ; Hugo, count of St
Paul; with a great number of other lords. The ge¬
neral rendezvous was at Conftantinople. In this ex¬
pedition, the famous Godfrey befieged and took the
city of Nice. The city of Jerufalem wras taken by the
confederated army, and Godfrey chofen king. The
Chriftians gained the famous battle of Afcalon againft
the foldan of Egypt; which put an end to the firft
croifade.
The fecftnd croifade, in the year 1144, w^as headed
by the emperor Conrad III. and Louis VII. king of
France. The emperor’s army was either deftroyed
by the enemy, or perifhed through the treachery of
Manuel the Greek emperor; and the fecond army,
through the unfaithfulnefs of the Chriftians of Syria,
was forced to break up the fiege of Damafcus.
The third croifade, in the year 1188, immediately
followed the taking of Jerufalem by Saladin the fol¬
dan of Egypt. The princes engaged in this expedi¬
tion were, the emperor Frederic Barbaroffa ; Frederic
duke of Suabia, his fecond fon ; Leopold duke of Au-
ftria ; Berthold duke of Moravia ; Herman marquis
ef Baden; the counts of Naffau, Thuringia, Miffer,
and Holland ; and above 60 other princes of the em- “Croifade;
pire ; wuth the bifhops of Befan^on, Cambray, Mun- -y—_
fter, Ofnaburgh, Miffen, Paffau, Vilburg, and feveral
others. In this expedition, the emperor Frederic de¬
feated the foldan of Iconium : his fon Frederic, joined
by Guy Lufignan king of Jerufalem, in vain endea¬
voured to take Acre or Ptolemais. During which
tranfa£lions, Philip Auguftus king of France, and Ri¬
chard I. king of England, joined the croifade ; by
which means the Chriftian army confifted of 300,000
fighting men : but great difputes happening between
the kings of France and England, the former quitted
the Holy Land, and Richard concluded a peace with
Saladin.
The fourth croifade was undertaken, in the year
1195, by the emperor Henry VI. after Saladin’s death.
In this expedition the Chriftians gained feveral battles
againft the infidels, took a great many towns, and
were in the way of fuccefs, when the death of the em¬
peror obliged them to quit the Holy Land, and return
into Germany.
The fifth croifade was publilhed, by order of Pope
Innocent III. in 1198. Thofe engaged in it made
fruitlefs efforts for the recovery of the Holy Land; for,
though John de Nesde, who commanded the fleet
equipped in Flanders, arrived at Ptolemais a little after
Simon of Montfort, Reynard of Dampierre, and others;
yet the plague deftroying nanny of them, and the reft
either returning, or engaging in the petty quarrels of
the Chriftian princes, there was nothing done; fo
that the foldan of Aleppo eafily defeated their troops
in 1204.
The fixth croifade began in 1228; in which the
Chriftians took the town of Damietta, but were for¬
ced to furrender it again. The next year the em¬
peror Frederic made peace with the foldan for 10
years. About 1240, Richard earl of Cornwall, and
brother to Henry III. king of England, arrived in Pa-
leftine at the head of the Englifti croifade ; but find¬
ing it moft advantageous to conclude a peace, he re¬
embarked, and fteered towards Italy. In 1244, the
Karafmians being driven out of Perfia by the Tartars,
broke into Paleftine, and gave the Chiiftians a general
defeat near Gaza.
The feventh croifade wras headed by St Lewis, in the
year 1249, who took the town of Damietta: but
a ficknefs happening in the Chriftian army, the king
endeavoured a retreat; in which being purlued by the
infidels, moft of his army were miferably butchered,
and himfelf and the nobility taken prifoners. Then a
truce w-as agreed upon for 10 years, and the king and
lords fet at liberty.
The eighth croifade, in 1 270, was headed by the fame
prince, who made himfelf matter of the port and cattle
of Carthage in Africa ; but dying in a fhort time, he
left his army in a very ill condition. Soon after, the
king of Sicily coming up with a good fleet, and join¬
ing Philip the Bold, fon and fucceffor of Lewis the king
of Tunis, after feveral engagements with the Chrifti-*
ans, in which he was always worfted, defired peace,
which was granted upon conditions advantageous to
the Chriftians : after which both princes embarked for
their own kingdoms. Prince Edward of England,
who arrived at Tunis at the time of this treaty, failed
towards Ptolemais, where he landed with a fmall body
C R O [ 765 J C R O
Croifade. of 300 Engtlfli and French, and hindered Eendocdar
from laying fiege to Ptolemais : but being obliged to
quit the Holy Land to take pofleffion of the crown of
England, this croifade ended without contributing any
thing to the recovery of the Holy Land. In 1291, the
town of Acre, or Ptolemais, was taken and plundered
by the foldan of Egypt, and the Chriflians quite dri¬
ven out of Syria. There has been no croifade fince that
time, though feveral popes have attempted to itir up
the Chriftians to fuch an undertaking; particularly
Nicholas IV. in 1292, and Clement V. in 1311.
Though thefe croifades were effe&s of the moft ab-
furd fuperftition, they tended greatly to promote the
good of Europe. Multitudes indeed were deftroyed.
M. Voltaire computes the people who perilhed in the
different expeditions at upwards of two millions. Many
there were, however, who returned; and thefe ha¬
ving converfed fo long with people who lived in a
much more magnificent way than themfelves, began
to entertdin fome tafte for a refined and polifhed way
of life. Thus the barbarifm in which Europe had been
fo long immerfed, began to wear off foon after this
time. The princes alfo who remained at home, found
means to avail themfelves of the frenzy of the people.
By the abfence of fuch numbers of reftlefs and martial
adventurers peace was eftabliibed in their dominions.
They alfo took the opportunity of annexing to their
crown many confiderable fiefs, either by purchafe, or
by the extinction of the heirs ; and thus the mifchiefs
which mud always attend feudal governments were
confiderably lelfened.
With regard to the bad fuccefs of the croifaders, it
was fcarce poffible that any other thing could happen
them. The emperors of Conflantinople, inftead of
affifting, did all in their power to difconcert their
fchemes. They were jealous, and not without rea-
fon, of fuch an inundation of barbarians. Yet, had
they confidered their true intereft, they would rather
have adided them, or at lead dood neuter, than en¬
tered into alliances with the Turks. They followed
the latter method, however, and were often of very
great diflervice to the wedern adventurers, which at
* See Con- lad occalioned the lofs of their city *. But the word
Jlaniinofle, enemies the croifaders had, were their own internal
■N° 144. feuds and diffenfions. They neither could agree
while marching together in armies with a view to
conqued, nor could they unite their conqueds under
one government after they had made them. They
fet up three fmall dates, one at Jerufalem, another at
Antioch, and another at Edeffa. Thefe dates, indead
of adiding, made war upon each other, and on the
Greek emperors j and thus became air eafy prey to the
common enemy. The horrid cruelties they committed
alfo were fuch as mud have infpired the Tuiks with
the mod invincible hatred againd them, and made them
redd with the greeted obdinacy. They were fuch as
could have been committed only by barbarians inflamed
with religious enthufiafm. When Jerufalem was taken,
not only the numerous garrifon were put to the fword,
but the inhabitants were mafiacred without mercy
and without diflin&ion. No age or fex was fpared,
even children at the bread were barbaroufly murder¬
ed. According to Voltaire, fome Chridians, who had
been differed by the Turks to live in that city, led the
conquerors into the mod private caves where wmmen
had concealed themfelves with their children, and not Croats
one of them was differed to efcape. What eminently
fliows the enthufiafm wdth which thefe conquerors. wx*
were animated, is their behaviour after this terrible
daughter. They marched over heaps of dead bodies
towards the holy fepulchre j and while their hands
were yet polluted with the blood of fo many innocent
perfons, ding anthems to the common Saviour of man¬
kind. Nay, fo far did their religious enthufiafm
overcome their fury, that thefe ferocious conquerors
now burd into tears. If the abfurdity and wicked-
nefs of this conduct can be exceeded by any thing,
it mud be by what follows. In the year 1204, the
frenzy of croifading feized the children, who are ever
ready to iipitate what they fee their parents engage
themfelves in. Their childifli folly was encouraged
by the monks and fchoolmaders 5 and thoufands of
thofe innocents were conducted from thehoufes of their
parents on the faith of thefe words, “ Out of the mouth
of babes and fucklings had thou perfe£!ed praife.”
Their bafe conduftors fold a part of them to the Turks,
and the red periflied miferably.
CROISES, or Croixes, in Englilh antiquity, pil¬
grims bound for the Holy L ind, or fuch as had been
there $ fo called from a badge they wore in imitation
of a crofs. The knights of St John of Jerufalem,
created for the defence and protedhon of pilgiims, were
particularly called croifes.
CROIS1ERS, a religious order founded in honour
of the invention or difcovery of the crofs by the em-
prefs Helena. They are difperfed in feveral parts of
Europe, particularly in the Low Countries, France,,
and Bohemia, thofe in Italy being at prefent fuppreffed.
Thefe religious follow the rule of St Augudine. They
had in England the name of crouched friars.
CROIX, Francis Petis de la, fecretary and in¬
terpreter to the king of France in the Turkifli and
Arabic languages, died November 4. 1695, ,n his >
73d year ; after having executed this employment for
the fpace of 44 years. And it appears, that he exe¬
cuted it with as much integrity as abilities; for,
when the Algerines fought for peace of Louis XIV.
conditions were offered, by which they wrere required
to reimburfe to this monarch 600,oco franks. The
terms being thought exorbitant, they had recourfe to
dratagem : and they offered a large fum to La Croix,
who was the interpreter of all that paffed, if he would
put into the treaty “ crowns of Tripoli,” indead of
“ French crowns : which would have made to the Al¬
gerines a difference of more than 100,000 livre?. ' But
the integrity of the interpreter triumphed over the
temptation; which however was the greater, as it
was next to impoflible he drould be difcovered. Befides
the Turkilh and the Arabic, the Perfian and the Tar¬
tarian, he alfo underdood the Ethiopian and Arme¬
nian languages. He is well known to the learned
world by many works. He tranflated the “ Hidory
of France” into the Turkidr language. He digefled
the three volumes of “ Voyages into the Ead Indies”
of M. Thevenot. He made an accurate catalogue of
all the Turkifli and Perfian books which are in the
king’s library. He compofed two complete Di&ion-
aries for the French and Turkifli languages : and,
when he was dying, he was about to prefent the world
with the hidory of Jenghis Khan. He undertook this
hidory.
C R O
r 766 i
Cromarty, hiftory by the order of M. Colbert: for this minifter,
y " altogether Intent upon aggrandizing his mailer, was ac-
cuftomed every week to call together, either in the
king’s library or his own, certain of the learned,
whom, according as they excelled in their feveral de¬
partments in literature, he conftantly fet to work.
This hiftory, which coll La Croix more than ten years
labour, is ufeful, not only to the learned who are
curious to know pall events, or to geographers who
had hitherto been greatly ignorant of Grand Tartary,
but likewife to all who trade to China, Perfia, or other
eaftern parts of the world. There is a good map of
northern Alia drawn by M. de I’llle, accompanying
the work; which M. Petit de la Croix, the author’s
fon, not only revifed, but, to render it more curious,
added to it an abridgment of the lives of all thofe
authors from whom it was extra&ed. It was tranf-
lated into Englilh, and publilhed at London, 1722,
8vo.
CROMARTY, a tovrn of Scotland capital of the
county of the fame name. The town is fmall, and
lituated upon a rock or point of land, which over¬
hangs the fea in a romantic manner, and is much ex-
pofed to the call wind j it was formerly a royal borough,
but was disfranchifed by an aft of the privy council of
Scotland, in confequence of a petition for that purpofe
prefented by Sir John Urquhart, proprietor of the eftate
of Cromarty; it is now under the baronial jurifdiftion
of the earl of Cromarty. The parifh extends about
feven miles in length, and from one to four in breadth,
bounded by the frith of Cromarty on the north. On
the banks of the frith the furface is level, and covered
with verdure. A bank about two miles from the coaft,
extends the whole length of the parifh, above which
the ground is covered with heath and mofs. The foil is
everywhere wet and moorifh, which makes the feafons
late, and the crop uncertain. The coaft towards the
eaft is bold and rocky, fome of the cliffs being nearly
250 feet perpendicular to the fea ; the reft is flat and
fandy. After every ftorm a great quantity of fea weed
is thrown aftiore, which is partly ufed as a manure, and
partly burnt into kelp, of which there is annually made
about 10 or 12 tons. The harbour of Cromarty, in¬
ferior, perhaps, to none in Britain for fafety, and a
commodious quay, was lately built at the joint expence
of government and the proprietor of the eftate of Cro¬
marty, where veffels of 350 or 400 tons may lie in per-
feft fecurity. A confiderable trade in the hempen or
fack-cloth line has been long eftablifhed in Cromarty
and the neighbourhood.
Cromarty, County of, in Scotland, forms a kind of
peninfula, wafhed on three fides by the friths of Cro¬
marty and Moray, and bounded on the fouth-weft and
fouth by the county of Rofs. Its extreme extent in
length is about 16 miles, and on an average about fix
and a half or feven in breadth. It was erefted into a
diftinft county about the end of the 17th century, at
the requeft of Sir James MTCenzie, earl of Cromarty,
to whom it almoft entirely belonged. The face of the
country is pleafant ; a long ridge of hills extending
the whole length in the middle of the county, having
a fine declivity on either fide towards the fhores of the
friths. The higher grounds are moftly covered with
heath, but towards the (bores the foils are light and
^arly. A great many plantations have been lately
C R O
made out, which will fhortly be a great ornament and Cromarty,
(belter to the country. The language is generally Cromlech.^
Gaelic, but many fpeak that broad Scotch, which is y
commonly called the Buchan or Aberdeenftiire dialeft.
Freeftone, granite, and reddifti-coloured porphyry, are
almoft the only minerals, if wTe except topa%es, fimilar
to thofe of Cairngorum, found in the parilh of Kincar¬
dine. Fiftieries are very fuccefsfully carried on, and
pearls of confiderable value are fometimes found in the
frith of Cromarty, where the river Conal falls into that
bay.
Population of the county of Cromarty at two different
periods.
Population Population in
in 179-—1798.
2096 2184
1483 1730
1584 1370
Parifhes.
Cromarty
Fodderty
Tarbat
5284
5163
Increafe 121
Cromarty, Frith of, is one of the fined bays in
Great Britain •, hence called by Buchanan Portus Salu-
tis. It is divided from the Moray frith by the coun¬
ty of Cromarty, and walhes the fouthern (hore of the
county of Rofs. It is about 16 miles in length, and
fometimes three in breadth. The entrance is between
twm promontories or headlands, called the Si/tors of
Cromarty, which are about a mile and a half diftant :
there is the fined anchorage ground after pafling the
Sutors, for feveral miles up the bay, with deep w?ater
on both fides, almoft clofe to the (bore, where in mod
places the coaft is fo fmooth, that fuppofing a vtffel to
part her cables (a thing fcarcely probable), (lie might
run aground without fuftaining much damage. Such
is the extent of fea room in the bay, and fuch is the ca¬
pacity, that almoft the whole Britifti navy might lie
here in fafety.
CROMLECH, in Britilh antiquities, are huge,
broad, flat Hones, raifed upon other (tones fet up on
end for that purpofe. They are common in Anglesey j
under which article a very large one is defcribed. See
Plate CLX1V.
Thefe monuments are fpoken of largely by Mr Row¬
land, by Dr Borlafe, and by Wormius, under the name
of Ara or altar. Mr Rowland, how'ever, is divided in
his opinion ; for he partly inclines to the notion of their
having been altars, partly to their having been fepul-
chres : he fuppofes them to have been originally tombs,
but that in after times facrifices wTere performed upon
them to the heroes depofited within. Mr Keiller pre-
ferves an account of King Harold having been interred
beneath a tomb of this kind in Denmark, and Mr
Wright difcovered in Ireland a (keleton depofited under
one of them. The great fimilarity of the monuments
throughout the north, Mr Pennant obferves, evinces
the fame religion to have been fpread in every part,
perhaps wuth fome flight deviations. Many of thefe
monuments are both Britilh and Danifti 5 for we find
them where the Danes never penetrated.
The cromlech, or cromleh, chiefly differs from the
KisT'Vaen, in not being clofed up at the end and fides,
that
C R O [767] C R O
Cromwell, that is, in not To much partaking of the cheft-like fi-
' gure ; it is alfo generally of larger dimenfions, and
fometimes confifts of a greater number of Hones : the
terms cromleh and kift-vaen are however indifcriminately
ufed for the fame monument. The term cromlech is by
fome derived from the Armoric word crum, “ crooked
or bowing,” and leh “ Hone,” alluding to the reverence
which perfons paid to them by bowing. Rowland
derives it from the Hebrew words carem-luach, fignify-
ing a “ devoted or confecrated ftone.” They are called
by the vulgar coetne Artbor, or Arthur's quoits, it be¬
ing a cuftom in Wales as well as Cornwall to afcribe
all great or wonderful objects to Prince Arthur, the
hero of tbofe countries.
CROMWELL, Thomas, earl of Eflex, was the
fon of a blackfmith at Putney, and born in 1498.
Without a liberal education, but endowed with a ftrong
natural genius, he confidered travelling as the proper
means of improving his underftanding $ and to this
early token of his found judgment he Hood indebted
for the high rank and diftinguilhed honours he after¬
wards enjoyed. He became by degrees the confi¬
dential favourite and prime minifter of Henry VIII. ;
and from the moment he acquired any authority in
the cabinet, he employed it in promoting the refor¬
mation, to his zeal for which he became a viftsm ;
for, the more firmly to fecure the Proteftant caufe, he
contrived to marry the king to Ann of Cleves, whofe
friends were all Lutherans. Unfortunately H nry
took a difguft to this lady, which brought on Crom¬
well’s ruin ; the king, with his ufual cruelty and ca¬
price, taking this opportunity to facrifice this minifter
to the Roman Catholic party, to whom he feemed de-
firous of reconciling himfelf as foon as he had Catha¬
rine Howard in view. Cromwell was a great poli¬
tician, and a good man $ but, like moft ftatefmen, was
guilty of great errors. In his zeal for the new reli¬
gion, he had introduced the unjuftifiable mode of at¬
tainder in cafes of treafon and herefy 5 and his ene¬
mies, who were numerous (confifting of two claffes,
the ancient nobility and gentry, who were enraged to
fee the higheft honours beftowed on a man of mean
extraftion, and the Roman Catholics, who detefted
him), having preferred many complaints againft him,
availed themfelves of his own law. He was attaint¬
ed of tre Ton and herefy, convi&ed unheard, and be¬
headed in 1540. He was the chief inftrument of the
fuppreffion of the abbeys and monafteries, and of the
deftruftion of images and relics j to him alfo we are
indebted for the inftitution of parifh-regifters of births,
marriages, and burials.
Cromwell, Oliver, ftyled Lord ProteElor of the
commonwealth of England, one of the moft extraor¬
dinary perfonages mentioned in hiftory, was the fon
of Mr Robert Cromwell of Hinchinbrooke in the
county of Huntingdon. His anceftors were of very
honourable extra<ftion j but no ways related to Tho¬
mas Cromwell earl of Effex, the prime minifter and
favourite of Henry VIII. He was born in the parilh
of St John, Huntingdon, where his father moftly li¬
ved, on the 25th or 26th of April J 599, and educated
at the free fchool of that town. Little is known con¬
cerning him in his younger years, or indeed concern¬
ing his behaviour in private life. It is, however, re¬
lated by authors of unfufpe&ed veracity, that when at
fchool he gave many figns of a very turbulent and Cromwell,
reftlefs difpofition. He is alfo faid from his early' ^
years to have been fubjeft to the hypochondriac difor-
der, and to many deceptions of the imagination. He
had a very remarkable one while at fchool. It hap¬
pened in the day-time, when he w-as lying melancho¬
ly upon his back in bed. A fpe&re, as he thought,
approached him, and told him that he fhould be the
greateft man in the kingdom. His father, being in¬
formed of this, was very angry, and defired his ma¬
iler to corre6l him feverely. This, however, produ¬
ced no effe£l. Oliver perfifted in the truth of his fto-
ry, and would fometimes mention it, though his uncle
told him “ it was too traiterous to be repeated.”—
From this fchool Oliver was removed to Sidney col¬
lege in Cambridge, “where he was admitted in 1616.
His progrefs in his ftudies is uncertain ; but he fpent
much time in playing at foot-ball, cricket, and other
robuft exercifes, at which he was very expert. His
father dying after he had been about two years at col¬
lege, CromwTell returned home ; but the irregularity
of his life gave fuch offence to his mother, that, by the
advice of lome friends, flie fent him to London, and
placed him in Lincoln’s-inn. This expedient by no
means anfwered the purpofe $ her fon gave himfelf
up to gaming, wine, and women, fo that he quickly
diflipated all that was left him by his father. This
diflipation, however, could be but of very Ihort conti¬
nuance ; for he was married, before he was 21 years
of age, to Elizabeth daughter of Sir James Bcuchier
of Effex. Soon after his marriage he returned to the
country, where he led a very grave and fober life.
This hidden reformation has been afcribed to his fal¬
ling in wfith the Puritans ; but it is certain, that Mr
Cromwell continued then, and for fome time after, a
zealous member of the church of England, and form¬
ed a clofe friendfiiip with feveral eminent divines.
He continued at Huntingdon, where he fettled after
his marriage, till an eftate of between 400I. and
500I. per annum devolved to him by the death of
his uncle Sir Thomas Stuart. This induced him to
remove to the ifie of Ely where the eftate lay, and
here he embraced the puritanical do6trines. He was
defied a member of the third parliament of Charles I.
which met on the 10th of January 1628 5 and was a
member of the committee for religion, where he dif-
tinguiflied himfelf by his zeal'againft popery. After
the diffolution of that parliament, he returned again
into the country, where he continued to exprels much
concern for religion, to keep company with filenced
minifters, and to invite them often to leflures and fer-
mons at his houfe. Thus he brought his affairs again
into a very indifferent fituation : fo that, by way of re¬
pairing the breaches he made in his fortune, he took
a farm at St Ives, which he kept five years. But this
fcheme fucceeded fo ill, that he was obliged to give it
up ; and at laft, chagrined with his difappointments,
and made uneafy by the treatment his party at that
time received, he formed a defign of going over to
New England. In this, however, he was difappointed j
the king iffued out a proclamation againft all fuch emi¬
grations, and Cromwell was obliged to remain in Eng¬
land againft his will.
In 1638, Cromwell had firft an opportunity of get¬
ting himfelf publicly taken notice of. The earl of
Bedford
C R O
Cromwell. Bedford, and fome other perfons of high rank, who
v had eftates in the fen country, were very defirous of
having it better drained ; and though one projeft of
this fort had failed, they fet on foot another, got it
countenanced by royal authority, and fettled a part of
the profits upon the crown. This, though really in¬
tended for a public benefit, was oppofed as injurious
to private property : and at the head of the oppofers
was Mr Oliver Cromwell, who had confiderable in¬
fluence in thefe parts. The vigour he {bowed on this
occafion recommended him to his friend and relation
"Mr Hampden j who afterwards characterized him in
.parliament, as a perfon capable of contriving and con¬
ducing great defigns. But for all this he was not ve¬
ry fuccefsful in his oppofition j and as his private af¬
fairs were (till declining, he was in very neceflitous
circumftances at the approach of the long parliament.
In this critical fituation he got himfelf eleCed member
of parliament in the following manner. In the puri¬
tanical meetings which he conftantly frequented, Oli¬
ver had moft eminently diftinguiftied himfelf by his
gifts of praying, preaching, and expounding. At one
of thefe meetings, he met wdth one Richard Tims, a
tradefman of Cambridge. This man was fo much ta¬
ken with Oliver, that he took it into his head to at¬
tempt getting him chofen burgefs for the approaching
parliament. Being himfelf one of the common coun¬
cil, Tims imagined this defign might be brought about;
and with this view went to Mr Wildbore a relation of
Cromwell’s, to whom he communicated his intention.
Wildbore agreed as to the fitnefs of the perfon ; but
told him the defign was impraCicable, becaufe Oliver
was not a freeman. Tims next addreffed one Evett
on the fame fubjeft, who alfo made the fame objec¬
tion. He recolleCed, however, that the mayor had
a freedom to beftow, and a fcheme was immediately
laid for fecuring this freedom to Cromwell. On ap¬
plication to the mayor, however, he told them that
the freedom was already dilpofed of to another ; but
this objeCion being obviated by promifing that perfon
a freedom from the town, the mayor being informed
that Cromwell was a man of great fortune, fignified
his intention of beftowing the freedom upon him.
Our hero being informed of the good offices of his
friends, made his appearance in the court drefled in
fcarlet richly laced with gold, and having provided
.plenty of claret and fweatmeats, they were fo freely
circulated among the corporation, that Mr Mayor’s
freeman was unanimoufly declared to be a very civil
worthy gentleman. When the election came on, the
mayor difcovered his miftake, but it was now too late;
the party among the burgeffes was ftrong enough to
choofe him, and accordingly did fo at the election
next year.
When Cromwell firft came into parliament, he af-
fedled great plainnefs, and even carelefihefs in his
drefs. His attention to farming had entirely ruftica-
ted him, fo that he made a very uncouth appfarance.
“ Who (fays Dr South) that had beheld fuch a bank¬
rupt, beggarly fellow, as Cromwell, firft entering the
parliament houfe, with a thread-bare torn coat and
greafy hat, and perhaps neither of them paid for, could
have fufpefted, that, in the fpace of fo few years, he
ftrould, by the murder of one king, and the banifh-
ment of another, afcend the throne, be inyefted with
2
[ 768 ]
C R O
the royal robes, and want nothing of the ftate of a Cromwell.
king but the changing his hat into a crown ?” Crom-  v——'
well was very attive in promoting the famous Remon-
Jlrance *; which in reality laid the foundation of the*See^r/-
civil war. He declared afterwards to Lord Falkland,
that if the remonftrance had not been carried, he de-
figned to have converted the fmall remains of his
eftate into ready money the next day, and to have left
the kingdom by the firft opportunity. His firmnefs
on this occafion fo effe&ually recommended him to
Hampden, Pym, and the other leaders of the popular
party, that they took him into all their councils j and
here he acquired that clear infight into things, and
that knowledge of men, of which he afterwards made
fuch prodigious ufe. His exploits during the civil
war, his murder of the king, and ufurpation of the
kingdom, are related under the article Britain, Na
127—188.
With regard to the charafter of Cromwell, Mr
Hume exprefies himfelf as follows : “ The writers
attached to this wonderful perfon make his charafler,
with regard to abilities, bear the air of the moft ex¬
travagant panegyric : his enemies form fuch a repre-
fentation of his moral qualities as refembles the moft
virulent inve&ive. Both of them, it muft be confef-
fed, are fupported by fuch ftriking circumftances in
his fortune and conduct, as beftow on their reprefen-
tation a great air of probability. ‘ What can be
more extraordinary (it is faid), than that a perfon of
private birth and education, no fortune, no eminent
qualities of body, which have fometimes, nor fhining
qualities of mind, which have often, railed men to the
higheft dignities, ftiould have the courage to attempt,
and the abilitjes to execute, fo great a defign as the
fubverting one of the moft ancient as well as beft
eftabliftred monarchies in the w'orld ? That he ftiould
have the power and boldnefs to put his prince and
mafter to an open and infamous death ? fhould banifti
that numerous and ftrongly allied family—-cover all
thefe temerities under a feeming obedience to a par¬
liament, in whofe fervice he pretended to be retain¬
ed—trample too upon that parliament in their turn,
and fcornfully expel them as foon as they gave him
ground of diffatisfadlion—-ereft in their place the do¬
minion of the faints, and give reality to the moft vi-
fionary idea which the heated imagination of any fa¬
natic was ever able to entertain—fupprefs again that
monfter in its infancy, and openly let himfelf up above
all things that ever were called fovereign in England—
overcome firft all his enemies by arms, and all his
friends afterwards by artifice-—ferve all parties pa¬
tiently for a while, and afterwards command them
vi&orioufly at laft—overrun each corner of the three
nations, and fubdue with equal facility both the riches
of the fouth, and the poverty of the north—be feared
and courted by all princes, and adopted a brother to
the gods of the earth—call together parliaments
with a word of his pen, and fcatter them again by the
breath of his mouth—reduce to fubjeftion a warlike
and difcontented nation by means of a mutinous ar¬
my—command a mutinous army by means of fedi-
tious and faftious officers—be humbly and daily pe¬
titioned, that he would be pleafed, at the rate of mil¬
lions a year, to be hired as mafter of thofe who had
formerly hired him for their fervant—have the eftates
and
e r o
Cromwell, and lives of three nations as much at his difpofal as
u“—"v was once the little inheritance of his father, and be as
noble and liberal in the fpending of them ? And, laft-
ly, (for there is no end of enumerating every parti¬
cular of his glory), with one word bequeath all this
power and fplendour to his pofterity—die poffeffed of
peace at home, and triumph abroad—be buried
among kings, and with more than regal folemnity,
and leave a name behind him not to be extinguiftied
but with the whole world j which, as it was too little
for his praife, fo it might have been for his conquefts,
if the Ihort line of his mortal life could have ftretched
out .to the extent of his immortal defigns ?
“ My intention is not to disfigure this pidlure
drawn by fo mafterly a hand : I (hall only endeavour
to remove from it fomewhat of the marvellous; a cir-
cumftance which, on all occafions, gives much ground
for doubt and fufpicion. It feems to me that the
circumftance of Cromwell’s life in which his abilities
are principally difcovered, is his rifing, from a private
ftation, in oppofition to fo many rivals, fo much ad¬
vanced before him, to a high command and authority
in the army. His great courage, his fignal military
talents, his eminent dexterity and addrefs, were all
requifite for this important acquifition. Yet will not
this promotion appear the effeft of fupernatural abili¬
ties, when we confider that Fairfax himfelf, a private
gentleman, who had not the advantage of a feat in
parliament, had through the fame fteps attained even
to a fuperior rank $ and, if endued with common ca¬
pacity and penetration, had been able to retain it.
To incite fuch an army to rebellion againft the par¬
liament, required no uncommon art or induftry : to
have kept them in obedience had been the more diffi¬
cult enterprife. When the breach is once formed
between the military and civil powers, a fupreme and
abfolute authority, from that moment, is devolved on
the general; and if he is afterwards pleafed to em¬
ploy artifice or policy, it may be regarded on moft
occafions as great condefcenfion, if not as fuperfluous
caution. That Cromwell was ever able really to blind
or overreach either the king or the republicans, does
not appear : as they poffeffed no means of refilling the
force under his command, they were glad to temporize
with him j and, by feeming to be deceived, to wait
for an opportunity of freeing themfelves from his do¬
minion. If he feduced the military fanatics, it is to
be confidered, that their intereft and his evidently con¬
curred j that their ignorance and low education ex-
pofed them to the groffeft impofition $ and that he
himfelf was at bottom as frantic an enthufiaft as the
worft of them j and in order to obtain their confi¬
dence, needed but to difplay thofe vulgar and ridi¬
culous habits which he had early acquired, and on
which he fet fo high a value. An army is fo forcible,
and at the fame time fo coarfe a weapon, that any
hand which wields it, may, without much dexterity,
perform any operation, and attain any afcendant in
human fociety.
“ The domeftic adminiftration of Cromwell, though
it difcovers great ability, was condufted without any
plan either of liberty or arbitrary power : perhaps his
difficult fituation admitted of neither. His foreign
enterprifes, though full of intrepidity, were pernicious
to national intereft ; and feem more the refult of im-
Vol. VI. Part II.
C R O
petuous fury or narrow prejudices, than of cool fore- Cromwell.,
fight and deliberation. An eminent perfonage, how- ^
ever, he was in many refpe£ts, and even a fuperior
genius ; but unequal and irregular in his operations :
and, though not defective in any talent except that of
elocution, the abilities which in him were mod admi¬
rable, and which contributed moft to his marvellous
fuccefs, were the magnanimous refolution of his en-
terprifes, and his peculiar dexterity in difcovering the
charadters and pradtifing on the weakneffes of man¬
kind.
“ If we furvey the moral character of Cromwell,
with that indulgence which is due to the blindnefs and
infirmities of the human fpecies, we flrall not be in¬
clined to load his memory with fuch violent reproaches
as thofe which his enemies ufually throw upon it. A-
midft the paflions and prejudices of that time, that he
ffiould prefer the parliamentary to the royal caufe, will
not appear extraordinary $ fince even at prefent many
men of fenfe and knowledge are difpofed to think,
that the queftion, with regard to the juftice of the
quarrel, may be regarded as doubtful and ambiguous.
The murder of the king, the moft atrocious of all his
adlions, was to him covered under a mighty cloud of
republican and fanatical illufions 5 and it is not impof-
fible but he might believe it, as many others did, the
moft meritorious aflion which he could perform. His
fubfequent ufurpation was the effeft of neceffity, as
well as of ambition •, nor is it eafy to fee how the va¬
rious factions could at that time have been reftrained
without a mixture of military and arbitrary authority.
The private deportment of Cromwell as a fon, a huf-
band, a father, a friend, is expofed to no confiderable
cenfure, if it does not rather merit praife. And, up¬
on the whole, his character does not appear more ex¬
traordinary and unufual by the mixture of fo much ab-
furdity with fo much penetration, than by his temper¬
ing fuch violent ambition and fuch enraged fanaticifm
with fo much regard to juftice and humanity.”
That Cromwell continued a moft: complete and bi-
gotted enthufiaft: to the very laft, appears from his be¬
haviour in his laft ficknefs. His difeafe, which at firfl:
was a kind of flow fever, brought on by the cares
and anxiety of his mind, foon degenerated into a ter¬
tian ague. For about a week the diforder continued
without any dangerous fymptoms, infomuch that every
other day he walked abroad ; but one day after din¬
ner his five phyficians coming to wait upon him, one
ef them having felt his pulfe, faid that it intermitted.
At this Cromwell was furprifed, turned pale, fell into
a cold fweat, and, when he was almoft fainting, or¬
dered himfelf to be carried to bed; where, by the af-
fiftance of cordials, being brought a little to himfelf,
he made his will with refpedl to his private affairs. The
next morning, when one of his phyficians came to vifit
him, Cromwell alked him, why he looked fo fad ? and
when anfwer was made that fo it became every one
who had the weighty charge of his life and health
upon him, “ Ye phyficians (fays Cromwell), think I
ftiall die;. I tell you I flrall not die this bout, I am fure
of it. Do not you think (faid he to the phyfician,
looking more attentively at him), do not think that I
am mad : I fpeak the words of truth upon furer grounds
than your Hippocrates or Galen can furniffi you with.
God Almighty himfelf hath given that anfwer, not to
5 E my
[ 769 1
c R o [ 770 ] C R O
Cromwell, my prayers alone, but alfo to tbe prayers of thofe who
v~ entertain a ftri&er commerce and greater intereft with
him. Go on cheerfully, baniihing all fadnels from your
looks ; and deal with me as you would do with a fer-
ving man. Ye may have a {kill in the nature of things,
yet nature can do more than all phyficians put toge¬
ther, and God is far more above nature.” As this phy-
fician was coming out of the chamber, he accidentally
met with another, to whom he expreffed his fear that
the proteflor w'as turning light-headed. But the o-
ther informed him that the chaplains, being difperfed
the preceding night into different parts of the houfe,
had prayed for the prote&or’s recovery, and unani-
moufly received for anfwer that he fhould recover.
Nay, to fuch a degree of madnefs did they at laft ar¬
rive, that, a public fall being kept at Hampton court,
they did not fo much pray to God for the prote&or’s
health, • as return thanks for the undoubted pledges
they had of his recovery. On this account, though
the phyficians perceived his diftemper increafing every
hour, they took no notice of his danger, till it became
neceffary for him to appoint a fucceffbr vthile he had
any breath remaining. But being then in a lethargic
fit, he anfwered from the purpofe ; upon which he was
again afked whether he did not name his eldeft fon
Richard ? and to this queftion he anfwered, Yes. Be¬
ing then afked where his will was which he had for¬
merly made concerning the heirs of the kingdom : he
fent to look for it in his clofet and other places, but
in vain ; for fomebody had either ftolen it, or he him-
felf had burnt it. Soon after, he expired, on the 3d of
September 1658, aged fomewhat more than 59 years
and four months. This day of September he had al¬
ways reckoned to be the moft fortunate for him in the
whole year. A violent tempeft, which immediately
fucceeded his death, ferved as a fubjeft of difcourfe to
the vulgar. His partizans, as well as his opponents,
were fond of remarking this event j and each of them
endeavoured, by forced inferences, to interpret it as beft
fuited their particular prejudices.
It has been imagined by fome, that Oliver Crom¬
well was poifoned : but for this there feems to be no
reafonable foundation. His body was opened by Dr
Bates. He found the brain fomewhat overcharged
with blood, and the lungs a little inflamed ; but what
he reckoned to have been the principal caufe of his
diforder was a total degeneracy of the iiibftance of the
fpleen into a matter refembling the lees of oil. This,
he thought, alfo accounted for the hypochondriac dif-
pofitions to which Cromwell had from his infancy
been fubjeft. Though the bowels were taken out,
and the body filled with fpices wrapped in a fourfold
cere cloth, put firfl: into a coffin of lead, and then into
one of wood, yet the corruption was fo great that the
humour wrought itfelf through the whole, and there
was a neceffity of interring the body before the fo-
lemnity of the funeral. A very pompous funeral was
ordered at the public expence, and performed from
Somerfet-houfe, with a fplendor not only equal but
fuperior to that beftowed upon crowned heads. Some
have related that his body was depofited in Nafeby-
field } others, that it was wrapped in lead, and funk in
the deepeft part of the Thames, to prevent any infult
that might afterwards be offered to it. But it feems
beyond doubt that his body was interred at Weftmin-
fler : as we are informed, that on the order to difinter Cromwell
him after the Reftoration, his corpfe was found in a II
vault in the middle aide of Henry VII’s chapel. In L Cro"ms- f
the infide of the coffin, and on the breaft of the corpfe, '
was laid a copper plate finely gilt, enclofed in a thin
cafe of lead. On one fide of this plate were engraven
the arms of England impaled with thofe of Oliver, and
on the reverfe the following legend : Oliverius Prote&or
Reipublicce Anglit, Scotia, et Hibernia, not us 25. Apri/is
1599, inauguratus 16. Decembris 1653, mortuus 3. Sep-
tembris arm. 1658, hie fuus eji.
Cromwell was of a robuft frame of body, and of a
manly, though not agreeable afpeft. His nofe being
remarkably red and fhining, was often made the fub-
je<ff of ridicule. He left only two fons, Richard and
Henry ; and three daughters : one married to General
Fleetwood, another to Lord Fauconberg, and a third
to Lord Rich. His mother lived till after he was pro-
teftor ; and contrary to her orders he buried her with
great pomp in Weftminfter abbey. She could not
be perfuaded that ever his power or his perfon was
in fafety. At every noife (he heard ffie would exclaim
that her fon was murdered ; and was never fatisfied
that he was alive if ffie did not receive frequent vifits
from him. She was a decent woman ; and by her fru¬
gality and induftry had raifed and educated a nume¬
rous family upon a fmall fortune. She had even been
obliged to fet up a brewery at Huntingdon, which ffie
managed to good advantage. Hence Cromwell, in the
invettives of that age, is often ftigraatized with the
name of brewer. Ludlow, by way of infult, mentions
the great acceffion which he would receive to his royal
revenues upon his mother’s death, who poffdTed a join¬
ture of 60 pounds a-year upon his eftate. She was of
a good family, of the name of Stuart; and is by fome
fuppofed to have been remotely allied to the royal fa¬
mily.
Cromwell, Richard, eldeft fon of Oliver Cromwell,
was by his father appointed fucceffor to the proteftor-
ffiip, but very foon depofed by tbe army*. They * See 2?r/-
difeharged his debts, took all tbe houfehold ftuff, plate, to/*,N0i8y,
&c. gave him a proteftion for fix months, and fo he
retired. He was by no means qualified to fupport the
ftation gained by the afpiring talents of his father. He
was of a moderate temper, and untainted with that fa¬
natical fpirit which his father had fo fuccefsfully culti¬
vated. On the Reftoration he went abroad j but re¬
turned in 16^0 under the affumed name of Clark, and
fettled at Cheihunt in Hertfordffiire, where he lived
privately, and died in 1712, aged 86.
CRONENBURG, a town of Germany, in the circle
of the Upper|Rhine, and in the landgravate of Heffe
Caffel, with a ftrong caftle. It is feated at the foot of
a high mountain, on a fertile foil, and is furround-
ed with a double wall. E. Long. 8. 15. N. Lat. 50.
Cronenburg, a ftrong fortrefs of Denmark, in the
ifle of Zealand, at the entrance of the Sound, where
the Danes take toll of fuch fliips as are bound for the
Baltic. It was very richly furnifhed, but pillaged by
the Swedes in 1658, who took away the furniture,
among which were fome ftatues of mafly filver. It is
built upon piles. E. Long. 12. 50. N. Lat. 56. b.
CRONIUS, in Chronology, the ancient name of
the Athenian month Hecatombseon j which was the
firft
C R O [ 77* ] C R O
Cronflot, £rfl of their year, and anfwered to the latter part of
pronftadt. our June and beginning of July.—There were fealts
called Cronienes celebrated at Athens in this month,
in honour of Saturn, anfwering to the Saturnalia of the
Romans.
CRONSLOT. See Cronstadt.
CRONSTADT, a fea-port town of Ruflia, where
the greateft part of the navy is Rationed. It ftands up¬
on the ifland of Retufari in the gulf of Finland ; and
was founded by Peter I. as being provided with the
fafeft harbour in thefe parts, and as forming a ftrong
bulwark by fea for the defence of the new metropolis.
The only paffage by which (hips of burden can ap¬
proach Peterfburgh lies on the fouth fide of Retufari,
through a narrow channel $ one fide whereof is com¬
manded by Cronftadt, and the oppofite by Cronflot and
the citadel. Cronflot, which ftands upon a fmall ifland
of fand, is a circular wooden building, and furround-
ed with fortifications of wood that jut into the water.
It contains a garrifon of 100 men. The citadel is
another fmall wooden fortrefs, conftru£ted alfo upon
an adjacent fand-bank, and capable of holding about
30 foldiers. All large veffels muft fail between Cron¬
ftadt and thefe two fortreffes, expofed to the fire of the
oppofite batteries j for the other parts of the gulf are
only from one to eleven feet in depth. All thefe for¬
tifications were, at the time of their conftru£!ion, ef-
teemed places of confiderable ftrength $ but n'ow they
derive their confequence more from their paft import¬
ance than from any refiftance they could make againft
the attack of a powerful fleet.
Cronftadt is built upon the fouth-eaftern extremity
of the ifland, and is defended towards the fea by
wooden piers proje&ing into the water, and towards
the land by ramparts and baftions. It is a very ftrag-
gling place $ and occupies, like all the Ruflian towns,
a larger fpace of ground than the number of habita¬
tions ieems to require ; the houfes are moftly of wood,
excepting a few fronting the harbour, which are of
brick ftuccoed white. Among the latter are the im¬
perial hofpital for failors, the barracks, and the aca¬
demy for marines and officers of the navy. That fe-
minary ufually contains between three and four hun¬
dred cadets, who are clothed, maintained, and taught
at the expence of the crown. They are admitted at
the age of five, and are fuffered to remain until they
reach their feventeenth year. They learn accounts,
mathematics, drawing, fortification, and navigation ;
and have mailers in the French, German, Engliffi, and
Swedilh, languages. They are trained to naval affairs,
and make an annual cruife in the Baltic as far as Re¬
vel.—Cronftadt has a feparate haven appropriated to
the men of war, and another to merchant fnips. Clofe
to the haven for merchant ffiips is a canal and feveral
dry docks, begun in 1719 by Peter I. for the purpofe
of refitting the men of war. This ufeful work was ne-
gle£ted under his fucceffors, and was not completed
until the reign of his daughter Elizabeth. It has been
ftill further beautified and improved by the prefent em-
prefs ; and is now applied for building as well as careen¬
ing (hips of the line. At the extremity of thefe docks
is a great refervoir 568 feet in length, wrhich contains
water fufficient, and half the quantity over, to fupply
all the docks j which is pumped into it by means of a
fire engine, the diameter of whofe cylinder is fix feet.
The length of this work, from the beginning of the Cr«hftat
canal to the end of the laft dock, is 4221 feet. The
fides of the docks are faced with ftone, and the bottom u——
is paved with granite. They are 40 feet deep and 150
broad j and are capable of containing nine men of war
upon the flocks.
CRONSTAT, a town of Tranfylvania, near the
frontiers of Moldavia, fubjeft to the houfe of Auftria.
E. Long. 25. o. N. Lat. 47. o.
CROP, the high part or end of any thing cut off.
It is particularly ufed for the corn gathered off a field
in harveft. See Agriculture
CROSIER, or Crozier, a ffiepherd’s crook j afym-
bol of paftoral authority, confifting of a gold or filvef
Itaff, crooked at the top, carried occafioftally before
biftiops and abbots, and held in the hand when they
give the folemn benediftions. The cuftosa of bearing
a paftoral ftaff before biffiops is very ancient, as appears
from the life of St Caefarea of Arles, who lived about
the year 500. Among the Greeks none but the patri¬
archs had a right to the crofier. The crofiers were at
firft ho more than Ample wooden ftaves in form of a
T, ufed to reft and lean upon. By degrees they were
made longer j and at length arrived at the form we
now fee them of. Regular abbots are allowed to of¬
ficiate with a mitre and crofier.
Crosier, in AJlronomy, four ftars in the fouthern
hemifphere, in the form of a crofs, ferving thofe who
fail in fouth latitudes to find the antar&ic pole.
CROSLET, in Heraldry, is when a crofs is eroffed
again at a fmall diftance from each of the ends. Up¬
ton fays it is not fo often borne by itfelf in arms as
other croffes are, but often in diminutives, that is, in
fmall croflets fcattered about the field. See Heraldry.
CROSS, a gibbet made with two pieces of wood
placed crofswife, whether they crofs with right angles
at the top like a T, or in the middle of their length
like a X. The crofs to which our Saviour was faften-
ed, and on which he died, was of the former kind 5
being thus reprefented by old monuments, coins, and
croffes ; and St Jerome compares it to a bird flying, a
man fwimming, or praying with his arms extended.
The puuiftmient of the crofs was common among the
Syrians, Egyptians, Perfians, Africans, Greeks, Ro¬
mans, and Jews.
The death of the crofs was the moft dreadful of
all others, both for the ffiame and pain of it; and fo
fcandalous, that it was infli£led as the laft mark of de-
teftation upon the vileft of people. It was the punifh-
ment of robbers and murderers, provided that they were
flaves too j but otherwife, if they were free, and had
the privileges of the city of Rome, this was then
thought a proftitution of that honour, and too infa¬
mous a puniffiment for fuch a one, let his crimes be
what they would.
The Mofaic law ordained, that the perfons executed
fhould not be left upon the tree after funfet, becaufe
he that is hanged in this manner is accurfed of God,
Deut. xxi. 22. The Jews believe, that the fouls of
thofe who remain upon the gibbet, and without burial,
enjoy no peace, and receive no benefit from the prayers
of other people ; but wander up and down till their
bodies are buried : which agrees with the notions that
the Greeks and Romans had of this matter, as may be
feen in Horn. Iliad 4. and Virg. JEneid. 6.
5 E 2
The
C R O [ 77* 1 C R O
The form of a crofs being fuch as has been already
defcribed, the body of the criminal was fattened to the
upright piece by nailing the feet to it, and on the other
tranfverfe piece generally by nailing the hands on each
fide. Now, becaufe thefe parts of the body, being the
inftruments of adlion and motion, are provided by na¬
ture with a much greater quantity of nerves than others
have occafion for j and becaufe all fenfation is per¬
formed by the fpirit contained in thefe nerves ; it will
follow, as Stanhope obferves, that wherever they
abound, the fenfe of pain mutt needs in proportion be
more quick and tender.
The Jews confefs, that indeed they crucified people
in their nation, but deny that they inflidted this punifti-
ment upon any one alive. They firft put them to death,
and then fattened them to the crofs either by the hands
or neck. But there are indifputable proofs of their
crucifying men frequently alive. The worlhippers of
Bal-peor and the king of Ai were hung up alive j as
were alfo the defcendants of Saul, who were put into
the hands of the Gibeonites, 2 Sam. xxi. 9.
Before crucifixion the criminal was generally fcour-
ged with cords : fometimes little bones, or pieces of
bones, were tied to thefe fcourges, fo that the con¬
demned perfon might fuffer more feverely. It was alfo
a cuftom, that he who was to be crucified Ihould bear
his own crofs to the place of execution. After this
manner we find Chrift was compelled to bear his own
crofs j and as he funk under the burden, Simon the
Cyrenian was conftiained to bear it after him and with
him. But whereas it is generally fuppofed that our
Lord bore the whole crofs, i. e. the long and tranfverfe.
part both, this feems to be a thing impoffible j and
therefore Lipfius (in his treatife De Supplicio Crucis)
has fet the matter in a true light, when he tells us that
Jefus only carried the tranfverfe beam *, becaufe the
long beam, or the body of the crofs, was either fixed
in the ground before, or made ready to be fet up as foon
as the prifoner came : and from hence he obferves,
that painters are very much miftakcn in their defcrip-
tion of our Saviour carrying the whole crofs.
There were feveral ways of crucifying; fometimes
the criminal was fattened with cords to a tree, fome¬
times he was crucified with his head downwards. This
way St Peter chofe out of refpeft to his matter Jefus
Chrift, not thinking himfelf worthy to be crucified
like him ; though the common way of crucifying was
by fattening the criminal with nails, one through each
hand, and one through both feet, or one through each
of them : for this was not always performed in the fame
manner; the ancients fometimes reprefenting Jefus
Chrift crucified with four nails, and fometimes wdth
three. The criminal was fixed to the crofs quite na¬
ked 5 and in all probability the Saviour of the world
was not ufed with any greater tendernefs than others
upon whom the punilhment was infli&ed. The fol-
diers divided his clothes among them, and caft lots for
his tunic, which is an under garment worn over the
flefli like a (hirt.
The text of the gofpel Ihows clearly, that Jefus
Chrift was fattened to the crols with nails •, and the
Pfalmift (xxii. 16.) had foretold long before, that
they Ihould pierce his hands and his feet : but there
are great difputes concerning the number of thefe nails.
The Greeks reprefent our Saviour as rattened to the
crofs with four nails *, in which particular Gregory of
Tours agrees with them, one at each hand and foot.
But feveral are of opinion, that our Saviour’s hands
and feet were pierced with three nails only, viz. one
at each hand, and one through both his feet: and the
cuftom of the Latins is rather for this lalt opinion j for
the generality of the old crucifixes made in the Latin
church have only three nails. Nonnus thinks that our
Saviour’s arms were befides bound fall to the crofs
with chains $ and St Hilary fpeaks of the cords where¬
with he was tied to it.
Sometimes they who were fattened upon the crofs
lived a good while in that condition. St Andrew is
believed to have continued three days alive upon it.
Eufebius fpeaks of certain martyrs in Egypt who were
kept upon the crofs till they were ftarved to death.
Pilate was amazed at Jefus Chrift dying fo foon ; be¬
caufe naturally he mutt have lived longer, if it had not
been in his power to have laid down his life and to take
it up again. The thighs of the two thieves who were
crucified together with our Saviour were broken in
order to haften their death, that their bodies might
not remain upon the crols on the Sabbath-day (John
xix. 31, 32, 33.), and to comply with the law of Mo-
fes, which forbids the bodies to be left there after fun-
fet. But among other nations they were fuffered to
remain upon the crofs a long time. Sometimes they
were devoured alive by birds and beafts of prey. Guards
w'ere appointed to obferve that none of their friends
or relations Ihould take them down and bury them.
The ftory of the Ephtfian matron and the foldier who
w:as fet to guard the crofs, is very well known. The
Roman foldiers w ho had crucified Jefus Chrift and the
two thieves continued near the croffes till the bodies
were taken down and buried.
Crofies were ufually, in former times, ere&ed on the
tops of houfes, by which tenants pretended to claim the
privileges of the Templars Hofpitallers, to defend them-
felves againft their rightful lords. This was condemned
by the ftatute Wil. II. c. 37. It was ufual alfo, in
thole days, to fet up croffes in places where the corpfe
of any of the nobility retted as it w*as carried to be bu¬
ried, that a tranfeuntibus pro ejus animo deprecettir.
Croffes, &c. are forbidden to be brought into Eng¬
land by 13 Eliz. c. 2. on pain of a pramunire, &c.
Invention of the Cross, an ancjent feaft folemnized
on the third of May, in memory of St Helena’s (the
mother of Conftantine) finding the true crofs of Chrift
deep in the ground on Mount Calvary ; where Ihe
ertfted a church for the prefervation of part of it ; the
reft being brought to Rome and depofited in the church
of the Holy Crofs of Jerufalem.
Theodoret mentions the finding of three croffes ;
that of Jefus Chritt and thofe of the two thieves j and
that they diftinguilhed between them by means of a
fick woman, who wTas immediately healed by touching
the true crofs. The place is faid to have been pointed
out to her by St Quiriacus, then a Jew, afterwards
converted and canonized.
Exaltation of the Cross, an ancient feaft, held on the
14th of September, in memory of this, that Heracli¬
tus reftored to Mount Calvary the true crofs in 642,
which had been carried off 14 years before by Cofroes
king of Perfia, upon his taking Jerufalem from the em¬
peror Phocas.
* rrK»
•Croft.
C R O [ 773 J C R O
The adoration of the crofs appears to have been
J pra&ifed in the ancient church j inafmuch as the hea¬
thens, particularly Julian, reproach the primitive Chri-
ftians with it. And we do not find that their apolo-
gifts difclaimed the charge. Mornay, indeed, afferted,
that this had been done by St Cyril, but could not
fupport his allegation at the conference of Fountain-
bleau. St Helena is faid to have reduced the adora¬
tion of the crofs to its juft principle, fince fhe adored
in the wood, not the wood itfelf, which had been di-
reffc idolatry and heathenifm, but him who had been
nailed to this wood. With fuch modifications fome
Proteftants have been induced to admit the adoration
of the crofs. John Hufs allowed of the phrafe, provid¬
ed it were exprefsly added, that the adoration was re¬
lative to the perfon of Chrift. But however Roman Ca¬
tholics may feem to triumph by virtue of fuch diftinc-
tion and mitigations, it is well known they have no
great place in their own praftice. Imbert, the good
prior of Gafcony, was feverely profecuted in 1683 for
telling the people, that in the ceremony of adoring the
crofs, praftifed in that church on Good Friday, they
were not to adore the wood, but Chrift, who was cru¬
cified on it. The curate of the parifh told them the
contrary : it was the wood ! the wood ! they were to
adore. Imbert replied, it was Chrift, not the wood :
for which he was cited before the archbifhop of Bour-
deaux, fufpended from his funftions, and threatened
with chains and perpetual imprifonment. It little a-
vailed him to cite the bilhop of Meaux’s diftinftion ; it
was anfwered that the church allowed it not.
Cuoss-Bearer (port-croix, cruciger), in the Romiftl
church, the chaplain of an archbilhop or a primate,
who bears a crofs before him on folemn occafions.
The pope has the crofs borne before him every¬
where ; a patriarch anywhere out of Rome $ and pri¬
mates, metropolitans, and thofe who have a right to the
pallium, throughout their refpeftive jurifdiftions.
Gregory XI. forbade all patriarchs and prelates to have
it borne in prefence of cardinals. A prelate bears a
Angle crofs, a patriarch a double crofs, and the pope a
triple one on his arms.
Citoss-Bearers alfo denote certain officers in the in*
quifition, who make a vow before the inquifitors or
their vicars to d .fend the Catholic faith, though with
the lofs of fortune and life. Their bufinefs is to pro¬
vide the inquifitors with neceffaries. They were for¬
merly of great ufe •, but in procefs of time fome of
their conftitutions were changed, and they were called
of the penance of St Dominic.
Pe&oral Cross, is a crofs of gold or filver, or other
precious materials, often enriched with diamonds,
which the bifhops, archbifhops, &c. and regular ab-
befles, wear hanging from the neck.
Order of the Cross, or Croifade, an order of ladies
intlituted in 1668 by the emprefs Eleonora de Gonza-
gua, wife of the emperor Leopold ; on occafion of
the miraculous recovery of a little golden crofs where¬
in were inclofed two pieces of the true crofs, out of
the allies of part of the palace. It feems the fire had
burnt the cafe wherein it was inclofed, and melted the
cryftal, yet the wood remained untouched.
Maids of the Cross, a community of young women
inftituted in 1265 at R°ye in Picardy, and fince difi
perfed to Paris and other towns. They ioftruft young
perfons of their own fex. Some take the three vows Croft,
of poverty, chaftity, and obedience j others retain their W“"V"*
liberty. They are under the direction of a fuperior.
Cross, in Heraldry, is defined by Guillim, an or¬
dinary compofed of fourfold lines ; whereof two are
perpendicular, and the other two tranfverfe ; for fo we
muft conceive of them, though they be not drawn
throughout, but meet by couples, in four right angles,
near the feffe point of the efcutcheon. See He¬
raldry.
This bearing was firft bellowed on fuch as had per¬
formed, or at leaft undertaken, fome fervice for Chrift,
and the Chriftian profelfion j and is held by divers the
moll honourable charge in all heraldry. What brought
it into fuch frequent ufe, was the ancient expeditions
into the Holy Land ; and the holy war pilgrims, af¬
ter their pilgrimage, taking the crofs for their cogni¬
zance j and the enfign of that war being the crofs. In
thofe wars, fays Mackenzie, the Scots carried St An¬
drew’s crofs ; the French a crofs argent j the Englilh
a crofs or ; the Germans, fable j the Italians, azure ;
the Spaniards, gules.
St George's Cross, or the red crofs, in a field argent,
is now the ftandard of England 5 that faint being the
reputed patron of this nation.
Nor is it only in croffes that the variety is fo
great; the like is found in many other bearings, and
particularly in lions, and the parts of them ; whereof
Columbiere gives us no lefs than 96 varieties. Leigh
mentions but 46 feveral croffes ; Sylvanus Morgan,
26} Upton, 30; Johannes de Bado Aureo, 12 j and
fo others, whom it is needlefs to mention. Upton
owns he dares not prefume to afcertain all the various
croffes ufed in arms, for that they are at prefent almoft
innumerable $ and therefore he only takes notice of
fuch as he had feen ufed in his own time.
Cross, in mining, two nicks cut on the fuperficies
of the earth, thus -f-, which the miners make when
they take the ground to dig for ore. This crofs gives
the miners three days liberty to make and fet on
Hones. As many of thefe croffes as the miner makes
fo many meats of ground he may have in the vein,
provided he fet on ftones within three days after mak¬
ing his crofs or croffes. But if he make but one crofs^
and a Hander by makes the fecond, and a ftranger
makes the third, every one is ferved with the next
mear, according as they have firft or laft, fooner or
later, made their crofs or crofles upon the ground.
Cross, in coins, a name given to the right fide or
face, the other being called the pile or reverfe. It
has been a common error, that the reverfe was meant
by the crofs ; becaufe at this time, with us, it is mark¬
ed with figures difpofed in that form : but the ftamp-
ing the head of the prince in thefe kingdoms on the
right fide of the coin, was preceded by a general cuf-
tom of ftriking on that part the figure of a crofs;'
w'hile the other, called the pile, contained the arms, or
fome other device.
Cross, inftead of a fignature to a deed, &c. is de¬
rived from the Saxon practice of affixing the fign of
the crofs, whether they could write or not.
Cross, in furveying, is an inftrument which confifts
of a brafs circle, divided into four equal parts by two
lines crofting each other in the centre. At each ex¬
tremity of the lines is fixed a perpendicular fight, with
1 final!
C R O
fmall holes below each flit, for the better difcovering
of diftant objefts. The crofs is mounted on a ftaff or
Hand, to fix it in the ground, and it is found to be a
very ufeful inftrument for meafuring fmall pieces of
land, and taking offsets, &c.
Cuoss-Btir Shot, a bullel with an iron bar paffing
through it, and Handing fix or eight inches out at
both fides. It is ufed at fea for deflroying the enemy’s
rigging.
Cross-BM. See Loxia, Ornithology Index.
Cross-BM, in chancery, is an original bill, by which
the defendant prays relief againfl the plaintiff.
Cross-Bows. See Bows and Archery.
Ckoss-grained Stuff, in joinery. Wood is faid to be
crofs-grained, when a bough or branch has fhot out of
it; for the grain of the branch (hooting forward, runs
athwart that of the trunk.
In wTood well grown this defeft is fcarce perceiv¬
able, except inw’orking; but in deal-boards thefe boughs
make knots. If the bough grew up with the young
trunk, inHead of a knot is found a curling in the Huff,
very fenfible under the plane.
Czoss-Jack, pronounced cro-jech, a fail extended on
the lower yard of the mizen-maff, which is hence
called the crofs-jack yard. This fail, however, has
generally been found of little fervice, and is therefore
very feldom ufed.
Cuoss-Ptece, a rail of timber extended over the
windlafs of a merchant (hip from the knight-heads to
the belfry. It is fluck full of wooden pins, which are
ufed to faffen the running rigging as occafion requires.
See Windlass.
CROSS-Staff, or Fore-Jiaff, is a mathematical inffru-
ment of hard wood, confifling of a fquare flaff of about
three feet long, having each of its faces divided like a
line of tangents, and having four crofs pieces of une¬
qual lengths to fit on the ffaff, the halves of thefe be¬
ing as the radii to the tangent lines on the faces of the
flaff.—The inffrument was formerly ufed in taking the
altitudes of the celeftial bodies at fea.
CROss-Tining, in Hujbandry, a method of harrowing
land, confifling in drawing the harrow up the interval
it went down before, and down that ■which it was
drawn up.
CROSS-Trees, certain pieces of timber, fupported by
the cheeks and treffle-trees, at the upper ends of the
lower maffs, athwart which they are laid to fuffain
the frame of the top.
CROss-Tree 7ard, is a yard Handing fquare, juff un¬
der the mizen-top, and to it the mizen-top is faflened
below. See Ckoss-Jack.
CROss-Wort. See Valantia, Botany Index.
Ordeal of the Cross, a fpecies of trial frequently
praftifed in the .days of fuperffition. See Ordeal.
Cross, an Engliftr artiff, famous only for copying,
in the reigns of Charles I. and Charles II. Of this ta¬
lent there is a flory current, more to the credit of his
{kill than of his probity. He is faid to have been em¬
ployed by Charles I. to copy the celebrated Madona
of Raphael in St Mark’s church at Venice ; and that,
having obtained leave of the flate for that purpofe, he
executed his piece fo well as to bring away the origi¬
nal and leave his copy in the place of it. The decep¬
tion was not detected until it was too late to recover
the lofs 5 and this piece was bought in Oliver Crom-
C R O
well’s time by the Spanifti ambaffador for his maffer, Croflcn
who placed it in the Efcurial. 11
CROSSEN, a handfome town of Silefia in Ger-, Crot‘llu''
many, and capital of a principality of the fame name.
It is fituated at the confluence of the rivers Bobar
and Oder, in a fertile country abounding in wine and
fruits. There is a bridge over the Oder which is for¬
tified. E. Long. 15. 20. N. Lat.52. 5.
CROSSOSTYLUS, in Botany: A genus of plants
belonging to the monadelphia clafs.
CROTALARIA, Rattle-wort : A genus of
plants belonging to the diadelphia clafs; and in the
natural method ranking under the 32d order, Papilio-
nacex.
CROTALO, an inffrument of military mufic, like
that defcribed in the next article. The Turks were
the firff, among the moderns,, who introduced the
ufe of it for their troops. It is now common in Flan¬
ders and Florence, and other territories on the conti¬
nent. It has only one tone } but its effeft in marking
time may be diftin&ly heard through the noife of forty
drums. This is the fame inftrument with the ancient
cymbalum.
CROTALUM, an ancient kind of caftagnetta, or
mufical inftrument, found on medals, in the hands of
the priefts of Cybele. The crotalum differed from
the fiftrum ; though authors frequently confound the
two. It confided of two little brafs plates or rods,
which were ftiaken in the hand, and in (hiking againfl
each other made a noife.
It wTas fometimes alfo made of a reed fplit length-
wife 5 one part whereof they ftruck againft the other ;
and as this made a noife fomewhat like that of a crane’s
bill, they called that bird crotali/Iria, a player on the
crotala : and Ariftophanes calls a great talker a crota-
lutn.
Clemens Alexandrinus attributes the invention to
the Sicilians; and forbids the ufe thereof to the Chri-
ftians, becaufe of the indecent motions and geftures
that accompany it.
CROTALUS, or Rattle snake, in Zoology, a.
genus belonging to the order of amphibia ferpentes.
See Ophiology Index. The following is the account
given by Mr Catefby of the crotalus horridus, or Ame¬
rican rattle-fnake. This grows fometimes to the length
of eight feet, and weighs between eight and nine
pounds. The colour of the head is brown ; the eye
red ; the upper part of the body of a yellowilh-brown
colour, tranfverfely marked with irregular broad black
lifts. The rattle is of a brown colour, compoled of
feveral horny, membranous, cells, of an undulated py¬
ramidal figure. Thefe are articulated within one ano¬
ther in fuch a manner that the point of the firft cell
reaches as far as the bafis of the protuberant ring of
the third, and fo on $ which articulation, being very
loofe, gives liberty to the parts of the cells that are in-
clofed within the outward rings to ftrike againft the
fides of them, and fo to caufe the rattling noife which
is heard when the fnake (hakes its tail. This is the
moft inaflive and flowT-moving of all the fnakes, and is
never the aggreffor except in what it preys upon.. The
above gentleman is of opinion that no remedy is yet
diicovered for the bite of this animal. He had fre¬
quently accefs to fee Indians bitten by it, and always
thought that thofe who recovered were cured more
through
[ 774 ]
c R o [ 775 1 C R O
Crotaiy- through the force of nature, or by reafon of the flight-
*';r*ae nefs of the bite, than by the remedies ufed. He tells
Crgtr) us, that the Indians know their deltiny the moment
^ they are bitten ; and if the bite happens to be on any
of the large veins, they apply no remedies, as knowing
them to be entirely ufelefs. He believes the reports of
the fafcinating power of this ferpent, though he never
had an opportunity of feeing it. See the articles Poi¬
son and Serpent.
CROTALYSfRIiE in antiquity, a kind of mo-
rice dancers, admitted to entertainments, in order to
divert the company with their dancing and playing
on an inftrument called crotalum, whence they had
their name.
CROTCHET, in Mujic, one of the notes or cha-
rafters of time, equal to half a minim, and double of
a quaver.
Crotchets are alfo marks or chara£ters, ferving
to inclofe a word or fentence which is diftinguiihed
from the reft, being generally in this form [ ].
CROTO, or Croton, in Ancient Geography, a no¬
ble city of the Bruttii, built by the Acheans, 150 fta-
dia to the north of Lacinium, and in the neighbour¬
hood of Metapontum. It was twelve miles in compafs
before the arrival of Pyrrhus in Italy ; but after the
defolation produced by that war, fcarce half of it was
inhabited. The citadel on one fide hung over the fea,
on the other towards the land. It was naturally ftrong
from its fituation, but afterwards walled round ; on
which fide it was taken by Dionyfius by ftratagem, by
means of the rocks behind it.
Pythagoras, after his long peregrinations in fearch
of knowledge, fixed his refidence in this place, which
fome authors think his native one, at leaft that of his
parents, fuppofing him to have been born in the ifle of
Samos, and not at fome town of that name in Italy.
This incomparable fage fpent the latter part of his life
in training up difciples to the rigid exercife of fublime
and moral virtue, and inftru&ing the Crotonites in the
true arts of government, fuch as alone can infure hap-
pinefs, glory, and independence. v
Under the influence pf this philofophy, the Croto¬
nites inured their bodies to frugality and hardlhips,
and their minds to felf-denial and patriotic difintereft*
ednefs. Their virtues were the admiration of Greece,
where it was a current proverb, that the laft of the
Crotonites was the firft of the Greeks. In one Olym¬
piad, feven of the viftors in the games were citizens
of Croton •, and the name of Milo is almoft as famous
as that of Hercules. The vigour of the men and
beauty of the women were afcribed to the climate,
which was- believed to be endowed with qualities pe¬
culiarly favourable to the human fyftem. Their phy-
ficians were in high repute ; and among thofe, Alc-
meon and Democides rendered thf-mfelves moft con-
fpicuous. Alcmeon was the firft who dared to ampu¬
tate a limb, in order to fave the life of a patient ; and
alfo the firft writer who thought of inculcating mora/1
precepts under the amufing cloak of apologues. This
invention is more commonly attributed to iEfop, as
he was remarkably ingenious in this fpecies of com-
■ pofition. Democides was famous for his attachment
to his native foil. Though careffed and enriched by
the king of Perfia, whofe queen he had fnatched from
the jaws of death, he abandoned wealth and honours, Croto
and by ftratagem efcaped to the humble comforts of a II
private life at Croton.—The Pythagoreans are faid to ^°utc<
have difcovered that difpofition of the folar lyftem, v
which, with fome modifications, has been revived by
Copernicus, and is now univerfally received, as being
moft agreeable to nature and experiment. Theano,
the wife of Pythagoras, and many other women, emu¬
lated the virtues of their hufbands.
In thofe fortunate days the ftate of Croton was
moft flouriftung. Its walls inclofed a circumference
of 12 miles. Of all the colonies fent out from Greece,
this alone furniftied fuccour to the mother-country
when invaded by the Perfians. By its avenging arms
the Sybarites were puniflied for their lhameful dege¬
neracy •, but vidtory proved fatal to the conquerors,
for riches, and all their pernicious attendants, infinua-
ted themfelves into Croton, and foon contaminated
the purity of its principles. Indeed, the very confti-
tution of human nature militates againft any long con¬
tinuance in fuch rigid pradlices of virtue j and there¬
fore it is no wonder if the Crotonites fell by degrees
into the irregularities they once abhorred. Not long
after the Locrians, who wrere lefs corrupted, defeated
them on the banks of the Sagra, and reduced the re¬
public to diftrefs and penury. This reftored the re¬
maining Crotonites to their priftine vigour of mind, and
enabled them to make a brave, though unfuccefsful
refiftance, when attacked by Dionyfius of Syracufe.
They fuffered much in the war with Pyrrhus, and,
by repeated misfortunes, decreafed in ftrength and
numbers, from age to age, down to that of Hannibal,
when they could not mufter 20,000 inhabitants. This
fmall population being incapable of manning the ex-
tenfive works eredled in the days of profperity, Croton
was taken by the Carthaginians, and its citizens tranf-
ported to Locri. The Romans fent a colony hither
200 years before Chrift. In the Gothic war, this city
rendered itfelf confpicuous by its fidelity to Juftinian,
and Totila befieged it long in vain.
CROTON, wild ricinUs: A genus of plants,
belonging to the moncecia clafs j and in the natural
method ranking under the 3.8th order, Tricocee. See
Botany Index.
CROTONA, a town of Italy,in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, feated on the gulf of Taranto, with a biftiop’s fee
and citadel. E. Long. 17. 27. N. Lat. 39. 10.
CROTOPHAGA, a genus of birds belonging to
the order of picae. See Ornithology Index.
CROTOY, a town of France, in Picardy, and in
Ponthieu. The fortifications are demolifhed. It is
feated at the mouth of the river Somme. E. Long.
I. 45. N. Lat. 50. 15.
CROUCHED friars. See Croisiers.
CROUP, in Medicine. See Medicine Index.
Croup of a Horfe, in the manege, the extremity of
the reins above the hips.
CROUPADE, in the manege, a leap, in which the
horfe pulls up his hind legs, as if he drew them up to
his belly.
CROUTE, Sour Croute, or Kroute. As this
preparation of cabbage has been found of fovereign
efficacy as a prefervative in long voyages from the fea-
fcurvy, it may not be unacceptable to give a concife
account
Crcw-cet.
C R O [776
Ctoufaz account of the procefs for making it, according to the
information communicated by an ingenious German
gentleman.
The foundeft and moft folid cabbage are fele&ed
for this ule, and cut very fmall, commonly with an in-
ftrument made for this purpofe, not unlike the plain
which is ufed in this country for dicing cucumbers.
A knife is ufed when the preparation is made with
great nicety. The cabbage thus minched is put into
a barrel in layers, hand high, and over each is ftrewed
a handful of fait and carraway feeds; in this manner
it is rammed down with axvimmtrJlratumfuperJIratum,
till the barrel be full ; when a cover is put over it and
prefled down with a heavy weight. After Handing
fome time in this ftate it begins to ferment ; and it is
not till the fermentation has entirely fubfided that the
head is fitted to it, and the barrel is finally (hut up and
preferved for ufe. There is not a drop of vinegar em¬
ployed in this preparation. The Germans write this
preparation in the following manner : Sauer kraut, or
fauer kohl; that is, in their language, “ four herb, or
four cabbage.”
CROUSAZ, John Peter de, a learned philofopher
and mathematician, was born in 1663. Having made
great progrefs in the mathematics and the philofophy
of Des Cartes, he travelled to Geneva, Holland, and
Trance j was fucceflively profeflbr in feveral uniyer-
fities*, and at length was chofen governor to Prince
Trederic of Hefle Caffel, nephew to the king of Swe¬
den. He wrote many works 5 the moft efteemed of
which are, I. His Logic, the beft edition of which is
that of 1741, in 6 vols 8vo. 2. A Treatife on Beauty.
3. A Treatife on the Education of Children, 2 vols
1 amo. 4. Several Treatifes on Philofophical and Ma¬
thematical Subjedts, &c. He died at Laufanne in
1748.
CROW. See Corvus, Ornithology Index.
Crow, in Mechanics, a kind of iron lever, with a
claw at one end and a {harp point at the other j uted
for heaving or purchafing great weights.
Crojv^s Bill, among furgeons, a kind of forceps
for drawing bullets and other foreign bodies out of
wounds.
Cuorr's Feet, in the military art, machines of iron,
having four points, each about three or four inches
long, fo made, that whatever way they fall there is
ftill a point up ; they are thrown upon breaches, or in
pafles were the enemy’s cavalry are to march, proving
very troublefome, by running into the horfe’s feet and
laming them.
Crow's Foot, on fliip board, a complication of fmall
cords fpreading out from a long block, like the Imaller
parts which extend from the back-bone of a her¬
ring. It is ufed to fufpend the ownwgs ; or to keep the
top-fails from ftriking violently, and fretting againft
the tops.
Cnow-Net, is an invention for catching wild-fowl
in the w inter feafon, and may be ufed in the day-time.
This net is made of double thread, or fine packthread j
the mefhes ftiould be tw'o inches wide, the length about
ten yards, and the depth thiee ; it muft be verged on
the fide with good ftrong cord, and ftretched out very
ftiff on long poles prepared for that purpofe. W hen
you are come to the place where you would fpread
your net, open it, and lay it out at its full length and
J
C R O
breadth 5 then faften the lower end of the net all along
the ground, fo as only to move it up and down •, the
upper end of the net muft ftand extended on the long
cord ; the further end thereof being ftaked firft to the
earth by a ftrong cord about five yards diftant from
the net. Place this cord in an even line with the lower
edge of the net. The other end muft be at leaft 25
x yards diftant to reach into fome natural or artificial
fhelter, by the means of which you may lie concealed
from the fowl, otherwdfe no good fuccefs can be ex¬
pected. The net muft be placed in fuch exaft order
that it might give way to play on the fowl on the leaft
pull of the cord, which muft be done fmaitly, left the
fowl fhould prove too quick for you. This net may
be ufed for pigeons, crows, or other birds, on corn-fields
newly town ; as alfo in ftubble-fields, provided the ftub-
ble conceals the net from the birds.
CROWD, in a general fenfe, fignifies a number of
people aflembled in a place fcarce big enough to hold
them all.
To Crowd, in the fea-language, is to carry an ex¬
traordinary force of fail upon a fhip, in order to ac¬
celerate her courfe on fome important occafion $ as in
purfuit of, or flight from an enemy j to efcape any im¬
mediate danger, &c.
CROWLAND, a town in Lincolnfhire, feated in
the fens, in a dirty foil, and had formerly an abbey of
very great note. There is no coming at it but by nar¬
row caufeways, which will not admit a cait. It has
three ftreets, feparated from each other by water-courfcs,
wrhofe banks are fupported by piles, and fet with wil¬
low trees. Their chief trade is in fifh and fowl, which
are in great plenty in the adjacent pools and marfhes.
W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat. 52. 40.
CROWN, an ornament worn on the head by kings,
fovereign princes, and noblemen, as a mark of their
dignity.
In fcripture there is frequent mention of crowns,
and the ufe of them feems to have been very common
among the Hebrews. The high pried wore a crown,
which was a fillet of gold placed upon the rorehead,
and tied with a ribbon of hyacinth colour, or azure
blue. It feems alfo as if private priefts, and even
common Ifraelites, wore alfo a fort of crown, fince
God commands Ezekiel not to take off his crown, nor
aflume the marks of one in mourning. This crown
was no more than a ribbon or fillet, with which the
Jews and feveral people in the eaft girt their heads.
And indeed the firft crowns were no more than a ban¬
delet drawn round the head, and tied behind, as we
ftill fee it reprefented on medals round the heads of
Jupiter, the Ptolemies, and kings of Syria. After¬
wards they confifted of two bandelets j by degrees
they took branches of trees of divers kinds j at length
they added flowers, infomuch that Claudius Saturni-
nus fays, there was not any plant whereof crowns had
not been made. The woods and groves were fearched
to find different crowns for the ieveral deities j and
they were ufed not only on the ftatues and images of
the gods, by the priefts in facrificing, and by kings and
emperors, but alfo on altars, temples, doors of houfes,
facred viftims, fhips, &c. .
The Roman emperors had four kinds of crowns, ftrll
feen on medals, viz. a crown of laurels, a radial or ra¬
diating crown, a crown adorned with pearls and preci-
0 ou$
<' <> IV ON A or HA 1,0
C OK S AN tin NX T Y.
O OU XKT
[lhu'/»o., ]
r K O AVr Y
CIVOWTH
t//;?,.//. //»/!> fie*
c
1. l!
\ j
i. ^
Grown.
C R O [ 777 3 C
ous flones, and the fourth a kind of bonnet or cap, feveral ancient ttatues, &c.
fomething like the mortier.
The Romans had alfo various kinds of crowns,
which they diftributed as rewards of military atchieve-
ments j as, l. The oval crown, made of myrtle, and
beftowed upon generals, who were entitled to the ho¬
nours of the lefftr triumph, called, ovation. 2. The
naval or rolfral crown, compoled of a circle of gold,
with ornaments reprefenting beaks of drips, and given
to the captain who firft grappled, or the loldier who
firft boarded, an enemy’s (hip. 3* crown caPe<^
in Latin vallaris, ctljlrenjis, a circle of gold railed
with jewels or palifades •, the reward of him who firlf
forced the enemy’s entrenchments. 4. The mural
crown, a circle of gold indented and embattled \ given
to him who firft mounted the wall of a befieged place,
and there lodged a ftandard. 5‘ T CIVIC> c1"0"’11*
made of the branch of a green oak, and given him
who had faved the life of a citizen. 6. The trium¬
phal crown, confifting at firft of wreaths of laurel,
but afterwards made of gold } proper to fuch generals
as had the honour of a triumph. 7* ■^e cfow|1 call¬
ed objidionahs, or gratninea, made of grafs growing on
the place *, the reward of a general who had delivered
a Roman army from a fiege. 8. 1 he radial crown,
given to princes at their tranflation among the gods.
We meet alfo with the corona aurea, often beftowed
on foldiers without any other additional term \ ath¬
letic crowns, and crowns of laurel, deftined to crown
viflors at the public games, poets, orators, &c. All
thefe crowns were marks of nobility to the wearers j
and upon competitions with rivals for rank and digni¬
ties, often determined the preference in their favour.
See Plate CLXIV. For an account of modern crowns,
fee Heraldry. #
Crown is alfo ufed to fignuy the poneffions and
dignity of a king. The crown of England, according
to Sir William Blackftone, is, by common law and con-
ftitutional cuftom, hereditary j and this in a manner pe¬
culiar to itfelf y but the right of inheritance may from
time to time be changed or limited by add of parlia¬
ment, under which limitations the crown ftill continues
hereditary. See Succession.
Pleas of the Crown. See Pleas.
Crown, in Commerce, is a general name, for coins,
both foreign and domeftic, of or near the value of five
(hillings fterling. In its limited lenfe, crown is only
applicable to that popular Englifh coin which bears the
name and which is equivalent to fixty Englifti pence or
five (hillings, or to fix livres French money. But, in
its extenfive fenfe, it takes in feveral others j as the
French ecu, which we call the French crown, (truck
in 1641 for fixty fols, or three livres-, alfo the penta¬
gon, dollar, ducatoon, rixdollar, and piaftre or piece
of eight. . „ . ,
Crown, in an ecclefiaftical fenfe, is u(ed for the
clerical tonfure; which is the mark or charaaer of the
Romifti ecclefiaftics. This is a little circle of hair
fhaved off from the crown of the head more or lefs
broad, according to the quality of the orders received:
That of a mere clerk is the fraalleft ; that of priefts
and monks the largeft. The clerical crown was an-
ciently a round lift of hair, fhaved off around the head,
reprefenting a real crown : this is eafily obfervable in
Vol. VI. Part II.
R O
The religious of St Do¬
minic and St h rancis ftill retain it.
Crown, among jewellers, the upper work of the
rofe diamond, which all centres in the point at the top,
and is bounded by the horizontal ribs.
Crown-Office, an office belonging to the king’s
bench court, of which the king’s coroner or attorney
is commonly mafter. In this office, the attorney ge¬
neral and clerk of the crown feverally exhibit infor¬
mations for crimes and mifdemeanours at common
law, as in the cafe of batteries, confpiracies, libelling,
&c. on which the oftender is liable to pay a fine to the
king.
Crown-GIo/s, denotes the fined fort of windovv-
glafs. See Glass.
CkotrN-Scabs. See Farriery Index.
Crown-Wheel of a Watch, the upper wheel next the
balance, which by its motion drives the balance, and
in royal pendulums is called the fiving-wheel.
Crown Imperial. See Fritillaria, Botany
Crown-IVork, in Fortification, is an out-work run¬
ning into the field j defigned to keep oft the enemy,
gain fome hill or advantageous poft, and cover the
other works of the place. The crown-work confifts
of two demi-baftions at the extremes, and an entire
baftion in the middle, with curtains..
Crown, in AJlronomy, a name given to two con-
ftellations, the fouthern and the northern.^
Crown, in Geometry, a plane ring included be¬
tween two parallel or concentric peripheries of une¬
qual circles.
Crown-PoJI, is a poft in fome building (landing up¬
right in the middle between tw7o principal raiteis; and
from which proceed ftruts or braces to the middle of
each rafter. It is otherwife called a king pofi, or king's-
piece, or jo^fie-piece.
CROWNE, John, a celebrated dramatic writer,
born in Nova Scotia, where his father was a minifter.
Being impatient of the gloomy reftraint of that coun¬
try, he came to England, where he was reduced to
enter into the fervice of an old lady ; of which he
was foon as weary as he had been of America. He
then had recourle to his pen, wThich qinckly procured
him favour at court : but this kind of fubfiftence pro¬
ving precarious, he ventured to folicit Charies II. for
fome eftablifhment. Charles promifed to provide for
him, but infifted firft on having another comedy and
fuggefted to him the plan of a Spamfh play, from
which Crowne produced the comedy of Sir Courtly
Nice : but the fudden death of the king on the laft
day of the rehearfal, plunged him at once from his
pleafing expe&ations into difappointment and diftrefs,
and left him no refource but his wits. He died Ibme
time about the year 1703; and left behind him 17 tra¬
gedies and comedies, (ome of which are aifted with
great fuccefs. His chief excellence lay in comedy;
yet his tragedies are far from being contemptible.
His plots are for the moft part his own inventionhis
charaflers are in general ftrongly coloured and highly
finifhed j and his dialogue lively and fpirited, atten¬
tively diverfified, and well adapted to the feveral
fpeakers. So that on the whole he may affuredly be
allowed to (land at lead in the third rank of our dra¬
matic writers.  ......
5 F CROWNING,
Crowii,
Crowne.
Crowning
Crucita.
C R U
CROWNING, in ArchiteBure,
the general, of any thing that terminates or finifhes
, a member or decoration. Thus, a corniche, a pedi¬
ment, &c. are called crownings. Thus alfo the abacus
is laid to crown the capital j and thus any member or
moulding is faid to be crowned when it has a fillet over
it; and a niche is crowned when it is covered with a
capital.
Crowning, in fea-language, denotes the finifhing
part of a knot made at the end of a rope. It is per¬
formed by interweaving the ends of the different
ftrands artfully amongfl each other, fo as that they
may not become loofened or untwiiled. They are ufe-
ful in all kinds of ftoppers.
GROWTH, or Cruth. See Cruth.
CROXAL, Samuel, an ingenious Englifh divine,
who in his youth w^rote the celebrated poem entitled
The Fair CircaJJian. He had the livings of Hampton
in Middlefex, and the united parifhes of St Mary So-
merfet, and St Mary Mounthaw, in London ; both
W'hich he held till his death in 1751. He publifhed
many other poems and tranflations, with an entire
Englifh edition of JEfop’s Fables. In confequence of
his attachment to Whig principles, he enjoyed fome
other preferments, and was chaplain in ordinary to
George II.
CROYDON, a town in Surry in England. Its
fituation is low, near the fpring-head of the river
Wandel, and it is in a manner furrounded with hills.
It is pretty large, and is chiefly noted for being the
feat of the archbifhop of Canterbury. It has a large
handfome church, an hofpital, and a free fchool. W.
Long. o. 5. N. Lat. 51. 22.
CRUCIAL incision, in Surgery, an incifion made
in the form of a crofs.
CRUCIANELLA, petty madder: A genus of
plants, belonging to the tetrandria clafs} and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 47th order, Stellatce.
See Botany Index.
CRUCIBLE, a chemical veffel made of earth, and
fo tempered and baked as to endure the greateft fire.
They are ufed to melt metals, and to flux minerals,
ores, &c.
CRUCIFIX, a crofs upon which the body of Chrifl
is faftened in effigy, ufed by the Roman Catholics to
excite in their minds a flrong idea of our Saviour’s
paffion.
They efleem it an effential circumflance of their reli¬
gious worfhip performed at the altar •, and on Good
Friday they perform the ceremony of adoring it, which
is done in thefc wmrds, 0 crux ave.fpes unica; “ Hail,
thou crofs, our only hope.” The officiating prieft
uncovers the crucifix, elevates it with both his hands,
and fays, Ecce lignum crucis ; “ Behold the wood of
the crofs.” The people anfwer, in quo falus mundi
pependit; “ on which the Saviour of the world fuffered
death.” Then the whole congregation bow' with great
reverence, and devoutly kiis the holy wood.
CRUCIFIXION, a capital punithment by nailing
the criminal to a crofs. See Cross.
CRUCIFORM, in general, fomething difpofed
crofs-ways; but more efpecially ufed by botanifts, for
flow’ers confifting of four petals difpofed in the form
of a crofs.
CRUCITA, in Botany: A genus of the digynia or-
[ 77s 1 ' C R U
is underflood, in der, belonging to the tetrandria clafs of plants', and
in the. natural method ranking with thofe the order
of which is doubtful. The interior calyx is tetra-
phyllous, the exterior calyx triphyllous j there is no
corolla, and only one feed.
CRUDE, an epithet given to fomething that has
not paired the fire or had a proper degree of codlion.
CRUDITY, among phyficians, is applied to undi-
gefled fubftances in the flomach j to humours in the
body which are unconcofted, and not prepared for
expulfion ; and to the excrements.
CRUISE, from the German hruifs, “ acrofs,” fig-
nifies to crofs to and fro, to fail up and down within
a certain fpace of the fea, called the cruijing latitude,
in queft of veilels, or fleets of an enemy, &c.
CRUISERS, in the navy, are fmall men of war
made ufe of to and fro in the Channel, and elfewhere,
to fecure our merchant fliips and veflels from the
enemy’s fmafl frigates and privateers. They are
generally fuch as fail wrell, and are commonly well
manned : and indeed the fafety of the trade in the
Channel, and up and down the foundings, and other-
places, abfolutely requires the conftant keeping out
fuch fliips at fea.
CRUM ENT AT A, among zoologifts, animals fur-
niflied with a pouch or bag, wherein to receive their
young in time of danger j as the oppoffum. See Di-
DELPHUS.
CRUOR, fometimes fignifies the blood in general;
fometimes only the venous blood ; and fometimes ex-
travafated or coagulated blood : but is moll frequent¬
ly ufed for the red globules of the blood; in contradif-
tinftion to the limpid or ferous part.
CRUPPER, in the manege, the buttocks of a horfe;
the rump: alfo a thong of leather put under a horfe’s
tail, and drawn up by thongs to the buckle behind the
faddle, fo as to keep him from calling the faddle for¬
wards on his neck.
CRUR2EUS, or Crureus, Mufcuius, in Anatomy,
a flefliy mafs, covering almoft all the forefide of the
os femoris, between the twm vafti, which likewife cover
the edges of this mufcle on each fide. See Anatomy,
Table of the Mufcles.
CRURAL, in Anatomy, an epithet given to the ar¬
tery which conveys the blood to the crura or legs, and
to the vein by which this blood returns towards the
heart. See Anatomy Index.
CRUS, in Anatomy, all that part of the body con¬
tained between the buttocks and the toes.
CRUSADE. See Croisade.
CRUSADO, in commerce, a Portuguefe coin, firuck
under Alphonfus V. about the year 1457, at the time
when Pope Calixtus fent thither the bull for a croifade
againll the infidels. This coin has a crofs on one fide
and the anqs of Portugal on the other.
CRUSCA, an Italian term fignifying bran, is in ufe
among!! us to denote that celebrated academy called
Della Crufca, eftabliffied at Florence for purifying and
perfecting the Tufcan language. See Academy,
N° 11. The academy took its name from its office,
and the end propofed by it; w'hich is, to refine the
language, and as it were to feparate the bran from
it. Accordingly, its device is a fieve; and its motto,
II pin belfor ne cog/ie ; that is, “ It gathers the fine!!
flour thereof.” In the hall or apartment where the
academy
Crude
i!
Crufca.
e r u
[ 779 1
C R U
Cm ft a
ii
Cruth.
academy meets, M. Moneonis informs us, tliat every
thing bears an allufion to the name and device 5 the
feats are in form of a baker’s batket } their backs like
a fhovel for moving of corn y the culhions ot gray fa-
tin, in form of facks or wallets 5 and the branches
where the lights are placed refembling lacks.. The
vocabulary Della Ct'ufca is an excellent Italian diction¬
ary, compofed by this academy.
CRUSTA LACTEA, in Medicine^ the fame with
‘A. C H O R •
CRUSTACEOUS fish, in Natural Hi/lory, are
thofe covered with fliells, confiding of feveral pieces or
fcales 5 as thofe of crabs, lobfters, &c.
Thefe are ufually fofter than the fiiells of the tefta-
ceous kind, which confift of a fingle piece, and gene¬
rally much thicker and ftronger than the former j fuch
as thole of the oyfter, fcallop, cockle, &c.
Dr Woodward obferves, in his Natural Hiftory, that
of all the fhells found in beds of all the different mat¬
ters dug out of the earth, there are fcarce any of the
cruftaceous kind 1 the reafon he gives for it is, that
thefe being much lighter than the reft, muft have
floated on the furface at the time of the deluge, when
all the ftrata were formed j and there have corrupted
and periflied.
CRUTH, or Growth, a kind of mufical inttru-
ment formerly in ufe among the common people in
Wales. It is of the fidicinal kind, fomewhat refem¬
bling a violin, 12 inches in length, and an inch and a
half in thicknefs. It has fix firings fupported by a
bridge, and is played on with a bow: the bridge dif-
fers from that of a violin, in that it is flat and not
convex on the top j a circumflance from which it is
to be inferred, that the firings are to be flruck at the
fame time, fo as to afford a fucceflion of concords.
The bridge is not placed at right angles with the fides
of the inftrument, but in an oblique diredlion ; and,
which is further to be remarked, one of the feet of
the bridge goes through one of the found-holes,
which are circular, and refls on the infidc of the backj
the other foot, which is proportionably {hotter, refling
on the belly before the other found-hole. Of the firings
the four firfl are conduced from the bridge down the
finger board, as in a common violin } but the fifth
and fixth, which are about an inch longer than the
others, leave the fmall end of the neck about an inch
to the right. The whole fix are wound up either, by
wooden pegs in the form of the letter f, or by iron
pins, which are turned with a wrell like thofe of a
harp or fpmet. Of the tuning, it is to be remarked,
that the fifth and fixth firings are the unifon and oc¬
tave of G j the fourth and fifth, the fame of C 5 and
the fecond and firfl, the fame of D j fo that the fecond
pair of firings are a fourth, and the third a fifth, to the
firfl. See Plate CLX1V.
Concerning the antiquity of this inflrument, there
is but little written evidence to carry it further back
than the time of Leland ; neverthelefs the opinion of
its high antiquity is fo ftrong among the inhabitants of
the country where it was ufed, as to afford a probable
ground of conjeaure, that the cruth might be the pro-
totvpe of the whole fidicinal fpecies of mufical inflru-
ments. Another evidence of its antiquity, but which
tends alfo to prove that it wTas not peculiar to Wales,
arifes from a difcovery lately made and communica¬
ted to the fociety of antiquarians, refpe£ling the abbey-
church of Melrofe in Scotland, fuppofed to have been
built about the time of Edward II. It feems that a-
mong the outfide ornaments of that church theie is
the reprefentation of a cruth, very little different from
the defcription above given. The inilrument is now
difufed, infomuch that Sir John Hawkins, from whom
we extraft, tells us, that there is but one perfon in
the whole principality of North Wales that can play
upon it *, and as he was at that time near 60 years of
age, the fucceflion of performers is probably near
an end.
CRUX, or St Croix, one of the Caribbee iflands,
fituated about 60 miles fouth-eafl of Porto Rico, and
fubjeft to Denmark. From being a perfed defert, it
has begun to flourifh exceedingly, being made a free
port, and receiving great encouragement from govern¬
ment. W. Long. 64. o. N. Lat. 17* 3°*
La CRUZ, an excellent harbour on the north-wefl
coaft of America, which was difcovered. by the Spa¬
niards in 1779. They were introduced into it by ^
paffage which they called Bucarelli's entrance, and
which they placed in 55. 18. N. Lat. and 139. 15.
W. Long, from the meridian of Paris. The latitude
of this paffage as laid down by the Spaniards feems to
be correft ; but the editor of Peroufe’s voyage con¬
cludes, from the furvey made by Captain Cook on the
coafls adjacent to the entrance of Rucarelli, that this
entrance is about 135° to the well of Paris, or near
1330 weft of Greenwich.
The Spaniards were not long in the harbour of La
Cruz before they received a vifit from the inhabitants
in its neighbourhood. Bartering took place. The In¬
dians gave their peltry, and various trifles, for glafs
beads, bits of old iron, &c. By this traffic the Spa¬
niards were enabled to gain a fufficiently exa6l know¬
ledge of their genius, of their offenfive and defenfive
arms, of their manufaftures, &c. Their colour is a
clear olive 5 many among them have, however, a per-
feflly white fkin : their countenance is well propor¬
tioned in all its parts. They are robuft, courageous,
arrogant, and rvarlike. They clothe themfelves in one
or two undreffed fkins (with the fur apparently) j thefe
are the fkins of otters, of fea-wolves, of benades (a
fpecies of deer), of bears, or other animals. Thefe
dreffes cover them from the neck to the middle of the
leg 5 fome, however, among them w'ear boots of fmooth
fkin, refembling Englifh boots, only that thofe of.the
Indians open before, and are laced tight with a firing.
They wrear hats woven from the fine bark of trees,
which is formed into the fhape of a funnel or a cone.
At the wrifls they have bracelets of copper or iron,
or for want of thefe metals the fins of whales; and
round the neck, necklaces of fmall fragments of bones
of fifires and other animals, and even copper collars
of the bignefs of two fingers. They wear in their
ears pendants of mother-of-pearl, or flat pieces of
copper, on which is emboffed a refin of a topaz co¬
lour, and which are accompanied with jet beads.
Their hair is long and thick, and they make ufe of a
comb to hold it together in a fmall queue from the
middle to the extremity; a narrow ribbon of coarfe
linen, woven for this purpofe, ferves as a ligament.
They wear alfo as a covering a kind of fcarf, woven
in a particular manner, fomething more than a yard
j F 2 and
Crux.
La Gnu:,
C R U
La Cruz.
and a half long, and about half a yard broad, round
which hangs a fringe fomething more than half a
quarter 6f a yard deep, of which the thread is regu¬
larly two’fled.
The women give proofs of their modelfy and decen¬
cy by their drefs. Their phyfiognomy is agreeable,
their colour frefh, their cheeks vermilioned, and their
hair long ; they plait it together in one long trefs.
They wear a long robe of a fmooth fkin tied round the
loins, like that of a nun; it covers them from the neck
as low as the feet j the fleeves reach down to the wrifts.
Upon this robe they put divers fkins of otters or other
animals to defend themfelves from the inclemency of
the weather. All the married wmmen have a large
opening in the under lip, and this opening or orifice is
filled up by a piece of wood cut in an oval (liape, of
which the fmalieft diameter is almofl. an inch ; the
more a woman is advanced in years the more this cu¬
rious ornament is extended : it renders them frightful,
the old women efpecially, whofe lip, deprived of its
wonted fpring, and dragged by the weight of this
extraordinary jewel, neceflarily hangs in a very disa¬
greeable manner. The girls wear only a copper needle,
which crofles the lip in the place where the ornament
is intended hereafter to be placed.
Thefe Indians in war make ufe of cuiraffes and
fhoulder pieces of a manufa&ure like that of the whale¬
bone flays among the Europeans. Narrow boards or
fcantlings form, in fome fort, the woof of the texture,
and threads are the warp : in this manner the w hole is
very flexible, and leaves a free ufe to the arms for the
liandling of weapons. They wrear round the neck a
coarfe and large gorget which covers them as high as
below the eyes, and their head is defended by a morion,
or fkull-piece, ufually made of the head of fome feroci¬
ous animal. From the waift downwards, they wear a
kind of apron, of the fame contexture as their cuirafs.
Laftly, a fine fkin hangs from their fhoulders down to
the knee. With this armour, they are invulnerable to
the arrows of their enemies; but thus armed, they can¬
not change pofition with fo much agility as if they w ere
lefs burdened.
Their offenfive arms are arrows; bows, of which the
firings are w’oven like the large cords of our belt mufi-
cal inftruments ; lances, four yards in length, tongued
with iron; knives, of the fame metal, longer than Eu¬
ropean bayonets, a wreapon however not very common
among them; little axes of flint, or of a green ftone, fo
hard that they cleave the moil compadl wood without
injury to their edge.
The pronunciation of their language is extremely
difficult ; they fpeak from the throat, with a move-
ment of the tongue againfl the palate. The little ufe
the women make of their inferior lip greatly injures
the diflindlivenefs of their language. The Spaniards
could neither pronounce nor write the words which
they heard.
From the vivacity of fpirit in thefe Indians, and from
their attention amply to furnifh the market eftablifhed
in the harbour, it may be concluded that they are pret¬
ty laborious. They continually brought fluffs well
tvoven and fhaded with various colours, the fkins of land
and fea wolves, of otters, bears, and other fmaller ani¬
mals; of thefe fome were raw, and others drefled.
There were to be found at this market alfo coverlets of
[ 7So ]
C R U
coai fe cloth, (haded with white and brown colours, very La Cruz,
well woven, but in fmall quantities: large ribbons ofL-—>--■
the fame linen which might match with" that of the
Spaniffi officers mattreffes; fkeins of thread fuch as this
cloth was made of; wooden plates or bowls neatly
worked ; fmall boats, or canoes, painted in various co¬
lours, the figures of which reprefented heads with all
their parts; frogs in wood, nicely imitated, which open¬
ed like tobacco boxes, and which they employed to
keep their trinkets in ; boxes made of (mall planks, of
a cubical form, being three quarters of a yard on each
fide, with figures well drawn, or carved on the outfide,
reprefenting various animals; the covers fabricated like
Flanders etwees, with rabbeted edges, formed fo as to
(hut into the body of the box ; animals in wTood, as
well thofe of the earth as of the air ; figures of men of
the fame material, with fkull-caps reprefenting the heads
of various fierce animals ; fnares and nets for fifhing ;
copper collars for the neck, and bracelets of iron for
the wTrift, but which they would not part with except
at a very high price; beak-like inftruments, from which
they drew founds as from a German flute. The prin¬
cipal officers took iuch of thefe merchandifes as were
mod agreeable to them, and left the remainder to the
(hips crews.
As the Indians difeovered that the Spaniards were
very dainty in their fifli, they did not let them want for
choice : the gieateft abundance was in falmon, and a
fpecies of foie or turbot three yards and a quarter long,
broad and thick in proportion; cod and pilchards were
alio brought to market, and fifties refembling trout.
From all this it may be inferred, that this gulf is full of
fifli; the banks too are covered tvith (hells.
The quantity of mother-of-pearl that thefe Indians
cut to pieces for making ear-rings awakened the curio-
fity of the Spaniards: they tried to difeover whether
thefe people had not in their poffcffion, or whether their
country did not produce pearls, or fome precious ftones :
their refearches W'ere fruitlefs, they only found fome
ftones which they judged to be metallic, and which they
carried on board, not having the neceiTary means for ex¬
tracting the metal they might contain. ^
The inhabitants of La Cruz feed upon fifh, frefli or
dry, boiled or roafted ; herbs and roots which their
mountains yield them, and particularly that which in
Spain is called fea parfley ; and, laftly, upon the flefti
of animals which they take in hunting : the produc¬
tions of the chafe are undoubtedly abundant, feeing
the number of dogs they keep for this purpofe.
They appeared to the Spaniards to worftiip the fun,
the earlieft and moft natural of all idolatrous worftiip ;
and they paid a decent refpeft to the remains of their
dead. Don Maurelle, one of the Spanifti officers, in
an expedition round the gulf, found in two iflands
three dead bodies laid in boxes of a fimilar form to
thofe wffiich have been deferibed above, though confider-
ably larger, and decked in their furs. Thefe biers w ere
placed in a little hut upon a platform, or raifed floor,
made of the branches of trees.
The countiy is very hilly ; the mountains are lofty,
and their (lope extends almoft everywhere to the fea.
The foil is lime-ftone ; it is neverthelefs covered with an
impenetrable foreft of tall fir trees, very large and very
ftraight. As thefe trees cannot ftrike very deep into the
earth, the violence of the wind often tears them up by
the
CRY [ 75
Cryinodes the roots : they rot and become a light mould, upon
H which grows a bulhy thicket; and in this are found
^ nettles> chamomile, wild celery, anife, a fpecies of cab-
s.—y-s bage, celandine, elder, wormwood, forrel; and without
doubt there are other plants along the rivers.
The Spaniards faw ducks, gulls, divers, kites, ravens,
geefe, ftorks, gold-finches, and other little birds un¬
known to them. ,
The commerce between the Spaniards and the In¬
dians was quite undifturbed j and fo defirous were the
latter to obtain iron, cloths, and other fluffs, that they
fold their children for broken iron hoops and other
wares. The Spaniards in this manner bought three
young lads, one from five to fix years old, another of
four, and the third from nine to ten, not to make
flaves, but Chriflians of them ; they hoped befides to
derive ufeful information from them as to the nature of
the country and its inhabitants. Thefe youths were fo
contented in being with the Spaniards, that they hid
themfelves wdien their parents came on board, from the
apprehenfion of being again reftored to them. Two
young girls were alfo purchafed with the fame view ;
one very ugly, feven years of age j the other younger,
better made, but fickly, and almoft at the gates of death.
At the full and change of the moon, the fea rifes in
the harbour of La Cruz feventeen feet three inches
Englilh j it is then high water at a quarter after 12 at
noon j the loweft tides are fourteen feet three inches 5 the
night tides exceed byone foot nine inchesthofeof theday.
CRYMODES, among phyficiaris, a kind of fever
attended wdth a {hivering cold, and inflammation of
the internal parts of the body.
CRYPT A, a fubterraneous cell or vault, efpecially
under a church, for the interment of particular families
or perfons. S. Ciampini, defcribing the outfide of
the Vatican, fpeaks of the cryptcs of St Andrew, St Paul
&c. The word is formed of k^xtu, abfcondo, “ I hide j”
whence crypta.
Vitruvius ufes the word crypta for a part of a build¬
ing, anfwering nearly to our cella; Juvenal for a cloaca.
Hence crypto porticus, a fubterraneous place arched or
vaulted, ufed as an under-work or paffage in old walls.
The lame is alfo ufed for the decoration at the entry
of a grotto.
Crypta is alfo ufed by fome of our ancient writers
for a chapel or oratory under ground.
Crypto, in Anatomy : A name given by Ruyfch to
glands iituated on the back of the tongue, and to glands
of the inteftines.
CRYPTOGAMIA, (from k^vtctos, occulti/s, “con¬
cealed,” and bctpos, nuptia, “ nuptials”), the 24th
clafs in the Linnaean {yftem, comprehending thofe
plants whofe fru&ification is concealed, either through
jninutenefs, or within the fruit. See Botany Index.
CRT PTOGRAPHY, the art of writing in cipher,
or v th fympathetic ink. Among the methods which
Ovid teaches young women to deceive their guardians,
when they write to their lovers, he mentions that of
waiting with new milk, and of making the writing
legible by means of coal duft or foot ; from which
it appears, that the ufe of fympathetic ink was known
to the ancients.
Tula quoque ejl, fallitque ocu/os, e laUe recenti
Litera : carbonis pulvere tange ; leges.
De Arte Ajnandi, lib. iii.
1 ] CRY
Aufonius propofes the fame means to Paulinus in the
two following verfes : v
La Be incide notes ; arefeens charta tenebit
Semper inafpicuas ; prodentur feripta favilhs.
Epift. xxiii.
But it would appear, that the commentators on this
poet have miftaken the meaning of the W’ord favd/a,
which is ufed here to fignify fttligo, or foot; and in
the fame fenfe it is often employed by other poets.
Columella, fpeaking of the method of preferving plants
from infers with foot, calls it nigra favil/a. In ano¬
ther place he mentions the fame pra&ice, and fays
fuliginem qua fupra focus teBis inheeret. Other glu¬
tinous juices befides milk may be employed for the
fame purpofe, as they will equally hold faft the black
powder ftrewed over them. Pliny, therefore, recom¬
mends the milky juice of certain plants, and particu¬
larly mentions that of lettuce, to produce this effedt.
It is now well known that feveral metallic folutions
may be employed for a fimilar purpofe, and being ex-
pofed to the adlion of certain vapours, the charafters
which are written with them become vifible. This
effett was perhaps accidentally difeovered ; but it does
not appear to be of great antiquity. In a book De
fecrelis, compiled by Wecker from Porta, Cardan,
and fome other old writers, and printed in 1592, there
is no mention of it j nor even is it noticed by Cane-
parius in his book de Atramentis, printed in 1619. The
firft receipt given for the preparation of a fympathetic
ink is in a work by Peter Borel printed at Paris in
i 653, where it is called magnetic water which aBs at
a diflance. Beckmann. Hijl. of Invent. See Chemis¬
try Index, Cipher, and Ink.
CRYSTAL, in its original meaning, fignified ice.
It was aftemards applied to rock cryftal, or cryftallized
filiceous earth ; for the ancients, according to Pliny,
regarded that body, as water which was congealed by
the attion of cold.
Crystal, a fpecies of ftone belonging to the quartz
or filiceous genus. It always appears, where there
has been no interruption to its cryftallization, in
hexagonal prifms pointed at both ends. It is found
of different kinds and colours. 1. Opaque or femi-
tranfparent, and white or of a milk colour. 2.
Opaque and red, or of a carnelian colour, from Oran
in Barbary. 3. Opaque and black, from the fame
place. 4. Clear. The fpecific gravity of thefe kinds
of cryftals is from 2650 to 2700. Profeffor Bergman
extracted from them about fix parts of argilla and one
of calcareous earth per hundred weight; but Mr Ger¬
hard found fome fo pure as to contain neither.
5. Clear and blackifti brown} the fmoky topaz, or ranch
topaz of the Germans. It is found at Egan in Nor¬
way, and at Lovifa in Finland. Thefe cryftals are
faid to become clear by boiling them in tallow. 6. Clear
and yellow j found in Bohemia, and fold inftead of
topazes. 7. Clear and violet-coloured j the amethyft
from Saxony, Bohemia, and Dannemore in Upland.
The moft tranfparent of thefe are called falfe diamonds,
Briftol, Kerry fiones, Alen^on diamonds, &c. 8. Co-
lourlefs rock cryftal, properly fo called, found in Bo¬
hemia, the province of Jemtland, and many other
places. 9. Pyramidal cryftal with one or two points.
Thefe have no prifmatic fhape, but either ftand upon -
a bafe in cavities of quarts veins, have only a Angle
pyramid,.
CRY [ 7S2 ] CRY
pyramid, and are of various colours j or they lie in
clayey earths, and have both pyramids, but no prifm.
They are found at Blackenburg upon the Hartz, and
at Morferolh in the Silverland in Tranfylvania.
The coloured tranfparent cryftals derive their tinge
from an exceedingly fmall portion of metallic oxide,
but lofe them entirely when ftrongly heated. They
are called falfe gems ; viz. the red from Oran in Bar¬
bary, falfe rubies j the yellow from Saxony, falfe to¬
pazes *, the green from Dauphiny, very rare, falfe
emeralds or prafes ; the violet from Vil in Catalonia,
falfe amethyfts j the blue from Puy in Valais in France,
falfe fapphires. There are likewife opal or rainbow
cryftals, the various colours of which are thrown out
in zones acrofs the furface. They make a very fine ap¬
pearance, though they never ftiine like the oriental opal.
M. Fourcroy makes a remarkable difference between
the cryftals and quartz, by affirming that the former
are unalterable in the fire, in which they neither lofe
their hardnefs, tranfparency nor colour j while the
quartz lofes the fame qualities, and is reduced by it to
a white and opaque earth. He claffes the rock cryftals,
I. According to their form, viz. 1. Infulated hexa¬
gonal cryftals ending in pyramids of fix faces, which
have a double refraction, or fhow two images of the
fame objeCt when looked through. 2. Hexagonal
cryftals united, having one or two points. 3. Te-
traedral, dodecaedral, flatted cryftals ; and wrhich,
though hexagonal, have neverthelefs their planes irre¬
gular. 4. Cryftals in large maffes, from the ifland of
Madagafcar, which have a Ample refraCtion.
II. With regard to their colour, as being either
diaphanous, reddifh, fmoky, or blackifh.
III. With regard to accidental changes, fome are
hollow ; fome contain water within one or more cavi¬
ties : fome are cafed one within the other ; fome are
of a round form, as the pebbles of the Rhine j fome
have a cruft of metallic calces or of a pyrites; fome
are found cryftallized in the infide of a cavity ; while
fome feem to contain amianthus or afbeftus 5 and others
contain fliirls. The fame author reckons among
cryftals the oriental tppaz, the hyacinth, the ori¬
ental fapphire, and the amethyft. M. Daubenton has
always looked upon this laft as a quartz of a cryftal.
When the rock cryftals are femitranfparent or inter¬
mixed with opaque veins, they are called by the Swe*
diftr lapidaries milk-cryjlah. When they are found in
the form of round pebbles, which is occafioned by
their being tofled about and rubbed againft one ano¬
ther by floods or by the fea, they are called by the
Englifh lapidaries pebble-cryjiah. They come from
the Indies, Siberia, and other places.
According to Bomare, the rock-cryftals are gene¬
rally formed upon or among quartz, which (hows their
great affinity, and are to be found in all parts of the
world. The greateft quantity of them is brought
from Mount Saint Gothard in Switzerland. Large
pieces of thefe, weighing from 5 to 800 pounds, were
found there at Grimfelberg : another of about 1200
pounds weight was found fome years ago at Fifbach
in the Valais: and a piece fix feet long, four wide, and
equally thick, w-as found in the ifland of Madagafcar,
where thefe natural produ&ions are of the moft extra¬
ordinary fize and perfeflion.
In the imperial collettion at Vienna, there is a py-
1
ramidal cryftal vafe two ells in height, cut wholly out Cryftal.
of one piece. It is ufual with the largeft cryftals of—v~
the German mountains to be full of cracks and flaws,
and to be fo conftrubied internally as to ftiow all the
prifmatic colours ; but the above-mentioned ones were
quite free from thefe blemifhes, and refembled columns
of the pureft glafs, only much clearer than any glafs
can be made. Cryftal is alfo found in many parts of
Britain and Ireland. About Briftol it is found of an
amethyftine tinge. In Silefia and Bohemia in Ger¬
many it is found ftained writh the colours of the ruby,
fapphire, emerald, and topaz ; in which cafe jewellers
take great advantage of it, felling it under the name
of occidental fapphire.
The orders of pure cryftal are three : the firft is
perfeft columnar cryftals, with double pyramids, com-
pofed of 18 planes, in an hexangular column, termi¬
nated by an hexangular pyramid at each end : the fe«
cond order is that of perfect cryftals, with double py¬
ramids, without a column, compofed either of 12 or
of t6 planes, in two hexangular pyramids, joined
clofely bafe to bafe, without the intervention of any
column : the third order is that of imperfeft cryftals,
with Angle pyramids, compofed either of 12 or 10
planes, in an hexangular or pentangular column, af¬
fixed irregularly at one end to fome folid body, and
terminated at the other by an hexangular or pentan¬
gular pyramid.
Thefe are all the general forms into which cryftal,
when pure, is found concreted : but under thefe there
are almoft infinite varieties in the number of angles,
and the length, thicknefs, and other accidents of the
columns and pyramids.
When cryftal is blended with metalline particles at
the time of its formation, it affumes a variety of fi¬
gures wholly different from thefe, conflituting a fourth
order, under the name of metalline cryfals : when that
metal is lead, the cryftal affumes the form of a cube :
when it is tin, of a quadrilateral pyramid, with a broad
bafe ; when iron, the cryftal is found concreted in
rhomboidal figures ; thefe cryftals are very common
about mines ; but the common fpars, which are liable
to be influenced in the fame manner by the metals,
and to appear in the very fame form, are to be care¬
fully diftinguiihed from them. There is one very
eafy teft for this purpofe, which is, that all fpars are
fubjeft to be diffolved by aquafortis, and effervefce
violently only on its touching them : but it has no fuch
effefts on cryftal.
The pebble-cryftal is common enough in all parts of
the world ; but that which is formed of hexangular
columns, affixed to a folid bafe at one end, and ter¬
minated by a hexangular column at the other, is infi¬
nitely more fo : this is what we call Jjt>rlg or rock
cryftal, and is the fpecies defcribed by moft authors
under the name of cryftal of the /hops, or that kept for
medicinal ufes.
With regard to the formation of cryftals, it is cer¬
tain that they muft have been once in a .f®ft ftate,
fince fome are found to have wTater in their cavities.
Profeffor Bergman obtained 13 regular formed cry-
ftals, by fuffering the powder of quartz to remain in a
veffel with fluor acid for two years. Thefe were about
the fize of fmall peas, and were lefs hard than quartz.
Mr Magellan informs us, that he received from Mr
Achard
CRY [ 7g3 1
CM. Acliard two cryftals, one of the fpnrry kind 4nd the of the earth m mafles a foot long
 v other as hard and tranfparent as rock cryftal. 1 he
firft he procured by means of calcareous earth, and the
latter from the earth of alum, both diflolved in water
impregnated with fixed air, the water filtrating very
{lowly through a porous bottom of baked clay. 1 he
apparatus is defcribed by the author in the ’journal
de Phyjlque for January 1778 : but though the procels
was attempted by Mr Magellan, and _ afterwards a
fecond time by Mr Achard himfelf, neither of them
were able to fucceed. Mr Morveau, however, in the
firft volume of the Dijon Memoirs for 1785, afferts that
he has produced a very fmall artificial cryftal j and gives
the proper method for fucceeding in the procels.
Cryftal is frequently cut } and luflres, vales, and
toys, are made of it as of other beautiful ftones. For
this purpofe it is to be chofen perfedly clear and tranf¬
parent. It is to be tried by aquafortis, or by draw¬
ing it along a pane of glafs. The genuine cryftal will
not be affefted by the acid, and will cut glals
like a diamond. When any piece of worktnanftup. of
natural cryftal is become foul and dark, the following
method is to be ufed for recovering its brightnefs
without hurting the polifti. Mix together fix parts o
common water and one part of brandy •, boil theie
over a brifk fire, and let the cryftal be kept in it, in a
boiling ftate, a quarter of an hour •, then take it out
and rub it carefully over with a brufti dipped in the
fame liquor; after this it is to be wiped with a nap¬
kin, and by that means its furface will be perfeftly
cleaned, and rendered as bright as at firft, without
any injury to the points of the cutting or the polifh of
the planes or faces, which would probably have hap¬
pened had the cleaning been attempted by mere rub¬
bing with a cloth.
Natural cryftal may be reduced by calcination into
a ftate proper for making glafs ivith alkaline falts, and
thus becomes a very valuable frit. The method of
doing it is as follows : calcine natural cryftal in a cru¬
cible ; when it is red-hot, throw it into cold water.
Repeat this eight times, covering the crucible, that no
dull or afties may get in among the cryftal. Dry this
calcined mafs, and reduce it to an impalpable powder.
Colouring Crystal, for the imitation of gems. See
Doublet. „ . , , n •
Crystal is alfo ufed for a faftitious body, call in
glafs-houfes, called cryjlal-^lafs, being in faa no
more than glafs carried, in the compofition and manu-
fa&ure, to a greater perfe&ion than the common glafs.
The beft kind of glafs-cryftal is that called Ventce-
cryjlal, made at Moran near Venice. See Glass.
' Ifland or Iceland Crystal, a tranfparent fiffile ftone,
brought from Iceland, loft as talc, clear as. rock cry¬
ftal, °and without colour, remarkable for its unufual
refraftions. It is a carbonate of lime.
It is there found in great abundance all over the
country, but is particularly plentiful in a mountain,
not far ’from the bay of Roezfiord, where, the fineft
and moft pellucid pieces are found on digging. The
mountain lies in 65 degrees latitude, and has its whole
outfide made up of it; but though.this makes a very
bright and glittering appearance, it is not fo fine as
that which lies at a little depth, and^ is met wuth on
opening the furface. This is generally taken up out
C R Y'
and its corners very . Cryftal.
frequently are terminated in thefe large maffes by. a
fort of cryftals, very different in figure and qualities
from the reft of the mafs. The ftone itlelf is of a
paralellopiped figure; but thefe excrefcences are ei¬
ther fingle pyramids, affixed to columns like common
cryftal, or double pyramids with or without columns
between. The ftone itfelf is foft ; thefe are hard, and
cut glafs : the ftone calcines to lime in the fire ; thefe
run into glafs J in flrort, the ftone itfelf is true fpar,
and thefe are true cryftal. Befide thefe, there fome-
times grows out of the end of the larger maffes a pure
fine albeftos. This likewife is the cafe fometimes in
the fpar found about Bareges in France, and ffiows
how nearly together the formation of bodies, wholly
different from one another, may happen. The gene¬
ral figure of the ftone is parallelepiped ; or, as fomer
exprefs it, rhomboide ; and it retains this not only
while whole, but alfo when broken to pieces. F\ery
fragment it naturally falls into, though ever fo Imall,
being truly of that ftiape. But it is remarkable, that
in fome places of this mountain the fame fort of mat¬
ter is found in form of triangular pyramids, all which
have the fame property of the double refraftion with
the parallelopipids of the fame fubftan.ee ; fo. that the
original error of fuppofing its qualities owing to its
ftrape, is refuted by this, as well as by the trials made
with other pellucid bodies of the fame figure, which
do not {how this remarkable property.
The Iceland cryftal is eleftrical, and when rubbed
will attraft ftraws, feathers, and other light fubftan- -
ces, in the fame manner that amber does.
The vail maffes of white fpar which are found in the
lead mines of Derbyfhire, though they are not exter¬
nally of the parallelepiped figure of the Iceland cryftal,
nor have any thing of its brightnefs or tranlparence
in the general lump; yet when they are broken they
feparate into rhomboidal fragments, and fome of thefe
are found to be tolerably pellucid ; all thole which are
fo have the property of the Iceland cryftal ; and being
laid upon paper where a black line is drawn, they all
{how that line double, in the fame manner as the real
Iceland cryftal does.
Iceland cryftal bears a red heat without lofing its
tranfparency ; and in a very intenfe heat calcines with¬
out fufion 1 fteeped a day or two in wTater, it lofes its
natural polifti. It is very foft and eafily fcratched with
the point of a pin : it will not give fire on being ftruck
againft fteel ; and ferments and is perfectly diffolved
in aquafortis. It is found in Iceland, from whence
it has its name ; and in France, Germany, and many
other places. In England fragments of other fpars'
are very often miftaken for it, many of them having
in fome degree the fame property. It has none of the
diftinguiftiing chara&ers of cryftal; and is plainly a
genus of fpars, called from their figure para/lelopipediay
which, as well as fomc other bodies of a different ge¬
nus, have the fame properties. Bartholine, Huygens,
and Sir Ifaac Newton, have delcribed the body at
large, but have accounted it either a cryftal or a talc ;
errors which could not have happened, had the crite-
rions of foffils been at that time fixed ; fince Sir Ifaac
Newton has recorded its property of effervefeing with
nitric acid, which alone mull prove that it is neither
talc
■ CryftaJ*
CRY
[ 784 3 CRY
talc nor cryftal, both thofe bodies being wholly un-
aff;.61ed by that menitruum. It is always found in
form of an oblique parallelepiped, with fix fides ;
and is found of various fizes, from a quarter of an
inch to three inches or more in diameter. It is pel¬
lucid, and not much lei's bright than the pureft cryllal;
and its planes are all tolerably fmooth, though when
nicely viewed they are found to be waved with crook¬
ed lines made by the edges of impeifedd plates. What
appears very lingular in the ftrufture of this body is,
that all the furfaces are placed in the fame manner,
and consequently it will Split off into thin plates, ei¬
ther horizontally or perpendicularly ; but this is found,
on a microfcopic examination, to be owing to the re¬
gularity of figure, fmoothnefs of furface, and nice
joining of the feveral fmall parallelepiped concretions,
of which the whole is compofed ; and to the fame
caufe is probably owing its remarkable property in re-
fraflion.
The phenomena of this done are very remarkable,
were firlf fuggefted by Bartholin, and have been exa¬
mined with great accuracy by Mr Huygens and Sir
Ifaac Newton.
1. Whereas in other pellucid bodies there is only
one refraftion, in this there are two } fo that objedts
viewed through it appear double.
2. Whereas in other tranfparent bodies, a ray falling
perpendicularly on the furface, paffies draight through,
without differing any refradlion. and an oblique ray
is always divided; in Iceland crydal, every ray, whe¬
ther perpendicular or oblique, becomes divided into
two, by means of the double refradlion. One of thefe
refradtions is, according to the ordinary rule, the fine
■of incidence out of air into crydal, being to the fine
of refradfion as five to three ; but the other is perfedlly
new. The like double refradlion is alfo obferved in
crydal of the rock, though much lefs fenfibly. When
an incident ray is thus divided, and each moiety ar¬
rives at the farther furface, that refradled in the fird
furface after the ufual manner, is refradled entirely
after the ufual manner at the fecond *, and that re¬
fradled in the unufual manner in the fird is entirely
refradled after the like manner in the fecond ; fo that
each emerges out of the fecond furface parallel to the
fird incident lay. Again, if two pieces of this crydal
be placed over each other, fo that the furfaces of the
one be parallel to the correfponding ones of the other ;
the rays refradled in the ufual manner in the fird fur¬
face of the fird, are refradled after the ufual manner
in all the other furfaces ; and the fame uniformity ap¬
pears in the rays refradled after the unufual manner ;
.and this in any inclination of the furfaces, provided
their planes of perpendicular refradlion be parallel.
From thefe phenomena Sir Ifaac Newton infers,
that there is an original difference in the rays of light;
by means whereof fome are here condantly refradled
after the ufual manner; and others in the unufual
manner. Were not the difference original, and did it
arife from any new modifications impreffed on the rays
at their fird refradlion, it would be altered by new
modifications in the three following ones whereas, in
fadl, it differs no alteration at all. Again, he hence
takes occafion to fufpedl, that the rays of light have
feveral fides, endued with feveral original properties :
for it appears from the circumdances, that thefe are Ctyflaldne,
not two lorts of rays diffeiing in their nature fiom^ry^aianie,
each other, one condantly, in all pofitions, refradl-
ed in the ufual, and the other in the unufual manner ;
the difference in the experiment mentioned being only
in the pofition of the fides of the rays to the plane of
perpendicular refradlion. For one and the fame ray
is refradled fometimes after the ufual, and fometimes
after the unufual manner, according to the pofition of
its fides to the cry dal : the refradlion being alike in
both, when the fides of the rays are pofited the fame
way to both, but different when different. Every ray
therefore may be confidered as having four fides or
quarters ; two of which, oppofite to each other, dif-
pofe the ray to be refradled after the unufual manner ;
and the other two in the ufual. Thefe difpofitions,
being in the rays before their incidence on the fecond,
third, and fourth furfaces, and fuffeiing no altera¬
tions ; for what appears in their pafiage through them
mud be original and connate.
Father Beccaria corredls the obfervations of Huy¬
gens and Newton concerning the refradlion of rock or
mountain crydal. The double refradlion of the latter
happens when a ray paffes through two fides that are
inclined to each other, and confequently iffues colour¬
ed : whereas that of the Iceland crydal is made by the
paffage of a ray through two parallel ddes, and there¬
fore it iffues colourlefs. He fuggeds, that there may¬
be other fubdances in which there is a manifold rtT-
fradlion. Gravefande had a prifm of Brafil pebble,
which had a double refradlion at each angle, but of a
different kind from one another. Mr B. Martin pre¬
pared feveral prifms of Iceland crydal, which exhibited
not only a double but a multiple refradlion. A finglc
prifm produced a fix-fold refradlion ; and by combining
feveral prifms, a number of refradlions was obtained
equal to the produdl of thofe of the fingle prifms ; i. e.
a prifm which afforded two images applied to one of
fix, produced a prifm of twelve images, &c. He far¬
ther obferves, with refpedl to Iceland crydal, that though
the ddes of its plane of perpendicular refradlion be pa-
ralleltoone another, a beam of light tranfmitted through
them will not be colourlefs ; in which property it dif¬
fers from all other known fubdances.
CRYSTALLINE, in general, fomething compofed
of or refembling crydal. See Crystal.
Crystalline Heavens, in Ancient AJlronomy, two
fpheres, imagined between the primum mobile and
the firmament, in the Ptolemaic fydem, which fup-
pofes the heavens folid, and only fuiceptible of a fin¬
gle motion. See Astronomy.
Crystalline Humour. See Anatomy Index.
CRYSTALLINE, or Crystallines, in Medi¬
cine, are pudules filled with water, and fo called on
account of their tranfparency, They are one of the
word fymptoms attendant on a gonorrhoea. They
are lodged on the prepuce, without pain ; and though
caufed bv coition, have_nothing of infedlion attending
them. The caufe is fuppofed to be a contufion of the
lymphatic veffels in the part affedled. Dr Cockburn,
who hath deferibed this cafe, recommends for the cure
a mixture of three parts of lime-water and two of
redtified fpirit of wine, to be ufed warm, as a lotion,
three times a day.
CRYSTALLIZATION,
2
[ 785 3
CRYSTAL
L I Z A T I O N.
Introduc- /CRYSTALLIZATION is tbe fymmetrical ar-
tion. VA rangement of the particles of a body when it paffes
from the liquid to the folid form. This arrangement
Definition ’s mined by the mutual adlion of the fmall folids
of which the body is compofed ; and thefe folids are
feparated from the liquid by their force of cohefion.
Cryftallization is one of the moft remarkable effefls of
cohefion. The qualities of a folid in which the force
of cohefion is more eafily overcome in one dire£Hon
than another ; its brittlenefs, elafticity, and duflility,
z depend on this arrangement of its particles.
Bodies Solid bodies are found either in irregular mafles, or
which cry- ex]Lbit certain determinate forms by the procefs of
nmll be cryftallizatipn. Thole fubftances which are capable of
fufcepiible afluming regular figures, uniformly affe& the fame
of form ; fubjeft, however, to certain deviations from the
operation of particular circumftances. Thofe bodies
only can affume the form of cryitals which are fufcepti-
ble of being reduced to the fluid Hate. This is the
ufual method of cryftallizing faline fubftances. The
fubftance to be cryftallized is diflblved in a fufficient*'
quantity of w-ater to retain it in folution. This is
flowly evaporated •, and as the bulk of the fluid is di-
minilhed the particles are brought nearer to each other j
they combine together by the force of cohefion, and
form cryftals. Some faline bodies, which diffblve but
^ in fmall proportion in cold water, are found to be very
folution ; foluble in hot water. But when this water cools, it is
no longer capable of holding them in folution. The
particles then gradually approach each other, and ar¬
range themfelves into certain determinate forms j or
they cryftallize. Many of the faline bodies which cry-
fUllize in this manner, combine with a confiderable
portion of water. This is called the water of cr)flalli-
%ation. Other faline fubftances are equally foluble in
hot and cold water. Thefe fubftances do not cryftal¬
lize by cooling the fluid j they affume regular forms
only by diminiftiing its quantity. This is effe&ed by
means of evaporation by the application of heat. In
falts which are cryftallized in thefe circumftances, the
proportion of water which enters into combination is
4 fmall.
•r fulion. There are fome claffes of bodies which affume regu¬
lar forms, but are not foluble in any liquid. Such, for
inftance, are metallic fubftances, glafs, and fome other
bodies. Subftances of this nature are cryflallized, by
being previoufly fubjedfted to fufion ; and thus having
combined with caloric, they are reduced to the li¬
quid ftate, and the particles being feparated from each
other are left at liberty to arrange themfelves into re-
(. gular forms, or to cryftallize, as the body cools,
•onje&ures But w’hat is the caufe which operates in determining
about the the regular arrangement of the particles of bodies in
caufe. thefe circumftances ? or what is the caufe of the fame
bodies in the fame circumftances affuming regular fi¬
gures ? The ancient philofophers fuppofed that the ele¬
ments of bodies confifted of certain regular geometri¬
cal figures 'y but it does not appear that they applied
this theory to explain cryftallization. The fchoolmen
Vot. VI. Part II.
afcribcd the regular figure of cryftals to their fubftan- jntroduc-
tial forms ; and others fuppofed that it depended mere- t on.
ly on the aggregation of the particles, but without ex-
plaining to what this aggregation was owing, or the
reafon of the regular figures thus produced. Accord- 5
ing to Sir Ifaac Newton and the theory of Bofcovich, Newton’s,
the particles of bodies held in folution in a fluid, are
arranged at regular diftances, and in regular order j
and when the force of cohefion between the particles
and the fluid is diminilhed, it is inCreafed between the
particles themfelves. Thus they feparate from the fluid,
and combine together in groups rvhich are compofed of
the particles neareft to each other. If we fuppofe that
the particles compofing the fame body have the fame
figure, the aggregation of any determinate number of
fuch particles will produce fimilar figures. Bergman
is of opinion that the particles of faline fubftances pof-
fefs a double tendency : by the one they arrange them¬
felves in the form of fpiculae; and by the other, thefe
fpiculs arrange themfelves at certain angles of inclina*
tion, and according to the difference of thefe angles,
different forms of cryftals are produced. Thefe effefls
are afcribed by the ingenious author to the mutual at¬
traction which exifts between the particles, which, ac¬
cording to the peculiar figures of the atoms, at one
time arranges them in the form of fpiculas, and then
combines the fpiculas thus formed under different angles
of inclination. But this arrangement of the particles, y
or tendency to arrangement, affigned by Bergman as a Bergman’s,
caufe, is only explaining the phenomenon by itfelf j
while the caufe of the tendency is yet unexplained.
Nor will Newton’s hypothefls be more fatisfaClory ; for
if the particles of a body, after being equally diffufed
in a fluid, are brought together by a general attraction,
it will follow that every faline body Ihould cryftallize
in the fame manner.
According to the ingenious theory which has been s
propofed by Hauy, the integrant particles always com-Hauy’s.
bine in the fame body in the fame way j the fame faces
and the fame edges are always attraCled towards each
other. But thefe faces and edges are different in dif¬
ferent cryftals ; and hence originates that variety of
forms which different bodies affuming regular figures
by cryftallization exhibit. But why are the fame
edges and the fame faces attraCled in the fame way ?
This ftill wants explanation. If it be afcribed, as fome
have fuppoted, to a certain degree of polarity exifting
among the particles, it might enable us to account for
the regular figures of bodies produced by the procefs of
cryftallization. For by the effeCts of this agent we
might fuppofe that different parts of the particles of bo¬
dies are endowed with different forces ; one an attrac¬
tive, and another a repulfive force j and by the aClion
of thefe two forces, the fame arrangement of the par¬
ticles will uniformly take place j for when one part of
a particle is attraCled, the other will be invariably re¬
pelled y and thus the fame faces and edges will always
be difpofed in the fame way. But it ought to be ob-
ferved that the exiftence of this power, however fatis-
5 G fadorily
786
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Pheno-
fiCtarily it might account for the phenomena, has by
, mena- no means been proved ; and even if its exiftence were
'" completely eftablifhed, the difficulty Hill remains how
this polarity is to be explained.
Without entering farther into thefe fpeculations, we
propofe, in the two following fections, to prefent our
readers with a comprehetffive view of the formation
and ftru&ure of cryftallized bodies. In the firft fec-
tion we (hall treat of the phenomena of cryllallization,
the means of conducing this procefs to obtain the molt
perfect cryftals, and the modifications of which each
of the forms is fufceptible. In the fecond we ffiall
give a ffiort view of the theory of the ftru£ture of
cryftals.
Seel. I. Of the Phenomena of Cryftallizationy and
the modifications to which it is fubjeti.
The moft complete fet of obfervations which has yet
appeared on this branch of praflical chemiftry have
been made by M. Leblanc ; and to his ingenious me-
^'Jour.dc moir f we muft acknowledge ourfelves indebted for
Fbyftque, what we now lay before our readers that is newT or in¬
tome Iv. terefting on this fubje£l. This art, he obferves, of
^0O' managing or conducing the cryftallization of falts, is
9 in a great meafure new7; for it has hitherto attradled
Conditions, little attention. To infure fuccefs in obtaining per-
feft cryftals, the procefs muft be conduced in flat-bot¬
tomed vefiels *, and veflels of glafs or porcelain are
found preferable to thofe of any other materials for
this purpofe. The fait employed fliould be in a ftate
of purity ; and to favour the increafe and regular form
of the cryftals, they are to be placed at a diftance from
each other in the veflels containing the folution. To
thefe neceffary precautions, it may be added, that the
veflels in which the evaporation goes on ftiould be at
perfe£t reft, and that it is requifite to obferve the
denfity, or fpecific gravity, at which the folution begins
to yield cryftals.
The particles of any faline body cannot come into
conta6l and form cryftals, as long as the force of affini¬
ty between thefe particles and the fluid in which they
1G are held in folution is greater than the mutual affinity
Prepara- of the particles among themfelves. A fait, for in-
tion of the fl;ance5 which begins to cryftallize at a certain fpecific
iolution. gravity Gf its folution in water, will afford no cryftals
when that fpecific gravity is diminiffied ; for then the
particles of the fait are removed to a greater diftance
from each other •, and while by this diftance, the force
of their mutual attra&ion is diminilhed, the attraftion
between thefe particles and the water in which they
are diflblved is increafed by the increafe of the quan¬
tity of the folvent. But, on the other hand, if a folu¬
tion which begins to cryftallize at a certain fpecific
gravity, is more concentrated, the cryftals which
are thus obtained are greatly multiplied, but they are
heaped together in confufed maffes, exhibiting no regu¬
lar forms. Thus, a folution which has been fcarcely
reduced to that degree of concentration at which it be¬
gins to cryftallize, being poured while it is hot into
the proper veflel for carrying on the procefs, or left at
reft in the fame veffel in which the folution is made, to
cool flowly, will yield a fmail number of cryftals, which
will have no other defedls than what are occafioned by
iheir contad with the veffel. Even pevfed cryftals
will be fometimes found among the fmaller ones. When
the concentration of the folution has not been carried
too far, or not farther than what is effefted by flow
cooling, not only have the embryo cryftals lefs bulk,
but the particles having come into contad flowly and
without confufion, they poffefs a greater degree of tranf-
parency. After a certain period, which varies accord¬
ing to the fpecies of fait which is fubjeded to the ope¬
ration, fmail cryftals may be diftindly obferved. Thefe
are to be carefully detached from each other, and
placed in a different pofition. Being placed by this
management on a different fide, the defeds occafioned
by their contad with the veffel are foon repaired. From
the cryftals treated in this way, the fineft and moft per-
fed are to be obtained. This operation of changing
the pofition of the cryftal from one fide to the other,
ought to be repeated at leaft once every day, if we wifh
to obtain the eompleteft cryftals.
At the end of a certain period, the fmall cryftals are
to be removed, that the fluid may be more concentra¬
ted, either by a new' evaporation, or by diffolving a
new' portion of the fame fait. After the new’ lolution
has cooled, and the cryftals which have formed in it are
feparated, if it has been too much concentrated, or too
great a portion of fait has been added ; the cryftals of the
firft folution are then to be introduced and treated in
the fame way as formerly. n
When the cryftals have acquired a fufficient volume Manage- ^
to handle them and to choofe fuch as we wiftr ftiould me^‘t
increafe to the largeft fize, either as Ample or com-cr> a s?
plete cryftals, or as exhibiting varieties from pofition
or particular circumftances, the individual cryftals are
then to be feparated, and folutions are to be prepared
for them and brought to fuch a degree of concentra¬
tion as to afford cryftals in a mafs j which latter being
removed, the Angle cryftals are introduced into thefe
folutions, which are now in a proper ftate to favour
their increafe. The cryftals may be either previoufly
difpofed in the veffel, and then the folution may be
poured on *, or, having firft introduced the latter, they
may be afterwards diftributed on the bottom of the
veffel. And thus by continuing the fame procefs, by
taking care to change the pofition of the cryftal from
one fide to the other frequently, and by keeping up
the folution to a proper degree of ftrength, we may ob¬
tain cryftals of any bulk we choofe. . _ I2
When the quantity of particles, which in a certain which de¬
flate of concentration continue to be mutually attraft-creafe if
ed, has ditniniflied in confequence of their accumula-j^
tion on the cryftals which are formed, at a certain
ftage of this diminution the cryftals ceafe to enlarge
or increafe in bulk 5 it happens, on the contrary, if they
are left in the fluid, that they begin to diffolve. It is
ufually on the corners and angles that this decreafe
takes place ■, and in fome falts it feems to go on piece¬
meal, fo as to prefent diftindl layers of the particles ;
for in this cafe lines parallel to the fides may be obfer¬
ved, and thefe are difpofed like fleps of ftairs. Should
the accident which is here alluded to be allowed to go on
too far, it may often require a long time to repair it $
but it is in general eafy to avoid this inconvenience,
by watching the piogrefs of the operation and the
increafe of the cryfta’ls. If their corners or angles
are obferved to become lefs {harp, they muft be
removed till the fluid is farther concentrated, or
they
CRYSTAL
Miene* they muft be introduced into a new folution of the
mena- fame fait of the proper degree of ftrength. To pre-
pare the new folution for the increafe of the cryftals, a
quantity of the fame fait is to be diflblved in a given
portion of water, fo that it (hall be fully faturated.
It is then allowed to cool and cryftallize. The cry¬
ftals being feparated, the remaining folution is to be
employed in fuch quantity as may be judged neceffary
to replace that in which the diminution of the cryftals
had commenced.
Sometimes it happens, from want of neceffary pre¬
caution, that the new folution in which the procefs is
to be condufted, either being too much faturated, or
being difturbed by pouring from one veffel to another,
exhibits many other points of attraftion befide the cry¬
ftals whofe increafe is propofed. In this cafe a great
number of fmall cryftals make their appearance, and
cover the furface of the former with a kind of incrufta-
tion. The fmall cryftals, provided they are taken in
time, may be removed without injury to the others j if
not, they will be unavoidably fpoiled.
Their pofi- When the cryftals have reached fuch a fize as that
tion muft they may be placed one by one, without being in
be chan- contaft with each other, we muft ftill continue fre-
* quently to change their pofition. This may be done
with a fpatula, a glafs rod, or with any inftrument
which will communicate nothing to the fluid. In this
way the fides of the cryftal which are alternately in
conta£l with the bottom of the veffel will increafe in
equal proportion, and it will always remain complete.
It is chiefly in falls which furnilh elongated prifms
that the influence of pofition may be moft diftin&ly
feen. If, for inftance, a cryftal before it has acquired
much volume is found to reft on one of its bafes as
well as on one of its fides, it will be obferved to be
compreffed in the dire&ion from bafe to bafe ; and it
will appear to be only a regular fegment of the cry¬
ftal, w'hich having been placed on one of its fides has
obtained a great bulk. If we take a fix-fided prifm
whofe fummits are obliquely truncated, and if it be
placed on one of its fides, it will enlarge in a greater
or lefs degree, but always in fuch a manner that the
diftance from one bafe to the other {hall never be lefs
than the diftance between the fides. But if the pofi¬
tion be on one of its bafes, then its principal increafe
will be in the direction of the fides, and it will appear
to be compreffed between the bafes. At firft fight, a
cryftal treated in this way will feem different from
the former. For the corners form the fummit of appar¬
ent pyramids which are feparated by a four-fided
prifm. This circumftance affords a fufficient explana¬
tion of one of the caufes which produce varieties in
the appearances of a cryftal with regard to its relative
extent 5 it {hows that there is no foundation for the
opinion of a fuppofed balance between the particles
of the fait and that of the folvent; and it {hows alfo,
that if the force of attraction be the efficient caufe of
the faline particles coming into contaft, the force of
gravitation a£ls at the fame time, and modifies in a
greater or lefs degree the effedts of the firft.
According to thefe obfervations, and the different
ftates in which cryftallized fubftances are found, it has
been fuppofed that we might conclude, that the force
of adhefion between the particles of the fait and thofe
of the folvent, varies according to circumftances which
L I Z A T I O N. 787
depend on the degree of tendency to combination be- Pheno-
tween the bodies, and the relative weight or bulk of mena-
the parts of which thefe bodies are compofed. If a 'r™r'’
cryftal in the incipient ftage of its increafe be placed
on one of its bales, it enlarges in the direction of its
fides j but if it be reverfed and placed on one of its
fides, it enlarges in the dimenfions of an elongated prifm.
An infulated cryftal, placed on one of its fides on a
fmooth furface, and left undifturbed to enlarge in fize,
prefents on this part a kind of hollow, which corre-
fponds exaClly with the fide which it replaces. Here
the faline particles which cannot reach this furface,
are diftributed on the neighbouring parts with which
they come in contaft, with this circumftance, that the
edges of the furface on which the cryftal refts increafe
in proportion, but without allowing the liquid to have
accefs to this furface.
The hollows which are formed at the furface of li-
quids differ fometimes from each other even in the
fame fait. If we fuppofe that a particle forms the in¬
cipient point of the hollow, the latter will affume a
configuration correfponding to the fide of the particle
prefented to the furface of the liquid : but the part
which it touches increafes alfoj and if by any circum¬
ftance a change of pofition happens, the hollow', thus
neceffarily formed according to the arrangement of the
part which correfponds exaftly to the furface of the li¬
quid, will change its form, becaufe the new pofitiou
of the fide prefented differs from the firft.
When a neutral fait, in a ftate of purity, and after
being cryftallized, ceafes to produce any effeft on ve¬
getable blues, it is not fuppofed that any of its confti-
tuent principles is in excefs. But if in this ftate it is
found to combine with other bodies, in fuch a manner
as to produce folid and well defined cryftals, we muft
admit that there exifts an affinity between the fait and
the body with which it has combined. r4
This fubjeft, Leblanc obferves, of the fupra-compo-Compound
fition, or compound combination, as it might perhaps .ornbioa*
be called, of which feveral falls are fufceptible, has not110”'
hitherto much occupied the attention of chemical phi-
lofophers. Some indeed have been pointed out by
Bergman and others : but it has been remarked that
thefe affinities are probably much more extenfive than
has been fuppofed $ and not only wfith regard to neu¬
tral falls with each other, but alfo neutral fails with
other bodies. O' this kind of combination is not
to be reckoned that of one of the conftituent parts of
a fait being in excefs, which frequently takes place
in fome falls, and is found to be more or lefs perma¬
nent. This circumftance feems to prove that certain
falls have twm different points in the combination of
their conftituent parts. Let us fee what has been ob¬
ferved in this refpeft of the fulphate of alumina, which
will perhaps explain the reafon that this fait is almoft al¬
ways found in nature in the acidulous ftate. It is found
that the more that alum approaches to the ftate of fa-
turation by an additional portion of bafe, the lefs folid
the new combination becomes} and in all cafes, after
a certain time, which is longer or fhorter according to
circumftances, the portion which w'as added feparates.
It will perhaps appear in the fequel, that this tendency
to combination which is conftantly in aflion, produ¬
cing an immenfe multitude of different individuals, re-
fides not only among the properties of the fimple prin-
5 G 2 ciples,
CRYSTALLIZATION.
T5
Cryftals
ciples, bat alfo in thofe which belong to all the com¬
pound*.
Many of the fulphates are always found in the aci¬
dulous ilate ; and all of them feem to be fufceptible of
combination with a new quantity of the fame bafe, till
they reach the point of faturation. For example, the
fulphate of copper, in the date in which it is ufually
found, cryftallizes in eight-fided, oblique prifms, termi-
ated by fides according to the obliquity of the prifin.
But if another portion of bafe be added, the cryllals
affume the form of pyramids of feveral faces, feparated
by a four-fided prifm. The acidulous fulphate of zinc
gives cryllals of fix-fided prifms, which are often very
regular ; but an addition of bafe produces a great
change, for then the cryllals are in the rhomboidal
form, very little diiTerent from the cube. Alum in its
ordinary llate of combination cryftallizes in the form
of a regular odlaedron ; but in the intermediate propor¬
tions between this llate and that of faturation, it al-
fumes the form of a cube.
Hauy, as will be afterwards noticed, has demonflra-
ted that the form of the primitive molecules is the
fame in all cry flab pf the fame fait, and he has fhown
by calculation that the variations ariic from the laws
of decrement in the layers which furround the nucleus;
but that the order according to which the fecondary
forms are produced may be interrupted, whether this
form be complete or not j and the cryflal may then,
according to circumftances, return to its primitive form,
or to fome of thofe which are derived from it. But
from the experiments of Leblanc, be thinks that thefe
changes always depend on new conditions in the (late
of the fluid, as a different proportion of the principles
of which the fait is coropofed.
If a cryftal of ocfaedral alum be placed in a folution
modified by which forms cubic cryflals of the fame fait, the former
the falu- wjjj affume (-he cubic form, by giving up a feries of
molecules from the fummits of the lolid angles, fo that
the layers continue to decreale on the triangular faces
till the cryflal has completed its new form. In this
procefs, the change may be flopped at any period, and
cryitals of every modification of form may be obtained.
From this it follows, that the centre of each of the
faces of the o&aedron correfponds to a folid angle of
the cube in which it is infenbed. But if a cubical
cryflal be introduced into the folution which yields
the oftaedron, its return to this latter form proceeds
in the fame order, by the fubtra&'ron of a ferics of mo¬
lecules from the folid angles of the cube. It often
happens, however, at the fame time, that the fubtra£fion
of the molecules extends to the coiners of the cryflal ;
fo that the layers of fuper-pofition decreafe all at once,
according to the order of the formation of the odlae-
dren, and the dodecaedron with rhombohlal furfaces.
This circumfhnce feems to fugged the podibility of
obtaining cryflals of alum of this latter form 5 but it
feems to depend on a particular proportion which is not
cafily determined.
Thus we learn from experiment that falts which ex¬
hibit different forms of cryflals can be made to affume
each of thefe at pleafure. This phenomenon, which
has not been much attended to, feems to merit parti¬
cular invedigation. The tranfition from one form to
another may be explained according to the laws of di¬
minution, by the fucceffive and regular fubtra&icn of
feries of molecules 5 fo that the form actually obtained,
the redoration of the preceding form, is eafily expli¬
cable on the principle of reditution alone. It may be
obferved that during tthis kind of metamorpbofis, both
operations, namely that by which the cryftal receives on
the one hand a new form, and that by which on the
other hand it increafes on all its fides, conftantly take
place.
Pheno.
men a.
16
The particles of a fait which are in folution in a Cryftals dif-
fluid, are attradled by it, particle by particle, without ler{ent,>'af-
any feparation or decompofition ; but it is neceffary cf
that there be a balance of the attrafling forces between heights in
the fait and the folvent. This is demondrated by the the fluid,
following experiment. A veffel two feet high and
two inches in diameter was filled with a folution of a
proper degree of concentration for the growth of cry-
dais, which vveie fufpended at different heights from
the bottom of the veffel to the furface of the fluid ;
and it was obferved that the increafe of the cryftal was
in proportion to its depth in the veffel, that which was
neared the bottom increafing mod rapidly. When
the liquid wras deprived of faline particles by their ac¬
cumulation on the crydals, by red, and fometimes even
by the influence of the atmofphere, the cryftals de-
creafed by fimilar gradations to thofe of their increafe;
fo that it at lad reached that date when the crydals
near the furface of the liquid were diffolved, while thole
towards the bottom continued to increafe ; and fome¬
times it happened that the crydals at the bottom of
the veffel continued to increale on the furface which
v/as in contact with it, while the oppofite upper furface
was in a date of diffolution.
All the experiments which were made on falts
of different degrees of fpecific gravity accord with
this obfervation ; and the difference in the degrees
of faturation of the waters of the ocean, which de¬
pends on the difference of depth, feems to be in fa¬
vour of this opinion. It is confirmed by the analyfis
of fea-water by Bergman and others, which was tak¬
en up in different places and at different depths. It
receives dill farther confirmation from a pradiice of
the inhabitants of Salies in Bearn in eftimating the de¬
gree of ftrength of a fait fpring. An egg is thrown
into the waters of the fpring, and the whole water
which covers the furface of the egg is thrown away,
as it is not of a fufficient degree of concentration.
It is well known that a cold temperature is mod
convenient for the cryfiallization of ialts. But it is
not at the peiiod when the fait begins to cryftallize that
it is mod convenient to carry on the protels ; for then it
fometimes happens, from too great concentration of
the fluid, that the cryfiallization is too rapid and con-
fufed. 17
Hitherto faline fubdances which are fufceptible of T""'0 c'iaf-
regular crydallization have been divided into two
claffes, according to the peculiarities in the formation
of their crydals. The one clafs comprehends thofe
cryftals which are formed by cooling the fluid in which
the folution is made. The other clafs includes thofe
which are produced only during the evaporation of
the folution. This diftindlion is no doubt well found¬
ed ; but there are fome exceptions to it which are ne-
ceffary to be attended to in condufling the procefs of
cryftallization. If a faline folution which is too much
faturated be cooled, it furnifties a mafs of cryftals
which
CRYSTAL
which are confufed and irregular, and which prelent
no determined form except on thole fide. “e^n
contaft with the hquid^
iirg liquid is
cryftals. but in
gree
will take
xS
attradl
moifture
If in this ft ate the remain-
poured off, it will yield another let of
cryftals, but in very fmall number- and there are
fame falts which continue to form cryftals a.ter oeing
feveral times fucceffively treated in this way, the num¬
ber of the cryftals ftill dimmilhing from the firlt de-
of concentiation. It will be found too that this
place whether the procefs be carried on m
the open air or in clofe veffeR It follows from this
that the increnfe or the formation of cryftals, in this
cafe, depends folely on the mutual attraaxon of the
particles, or on the attrattion between the particles
and the cryftal •, an attraftion or affinity which is not
deftroyed by the cooling of the fluid, but is probab y
regulated by the diftance of the particles, and the de¬
cree of force or affinity which exifts between the par-
ticks arid the folvent. In fome falir.e folutions the m-
creafe of the cryftals goes on in this manner tor a long
time. It is only in the interval between the cooling
of the liquid to the temperature of the atmofphere, and
that period when its degree of concentration is to dt-
minifhed that the increafe of the cryftals ceafes, that
the latter proceeds with that degree of pentftion of
which it is fufceptible. , r . a . u
Some fa line It is not a property peculiar to dry fubftances o ab-
folutions forb moifture from the atmofphere. Liquids laturated
with certain falts feem alfo to poffefs this property ;
for in fome faline folutions, the liquids affume a folvent
power which never fails to attack the cryftals, and not
only to prevent their increafe, but to diminifh the
bulk which they had acquired. This accident can
only be obviated by regulating the (late of the atmo¬
fphere in which the evaporating veffels are placed and
preferving it free from an excels of moifture. From
caufes which produce a contrary effeft, the evaporation
becomes too rapid ; this circumftance alio requires to
be attended to, and properly regulated, to emure the
full fuccefs of the operation. _
From the preceding observations it will appear, that
folutions of falts which are fufceptible of cryftalhzation
have certain degrees of concentration which are necei-
farv for the formation of cryftals 5 and that they muft
be'reduced nearly to that degree in which they begin to
yield crvftals, before it can be expe&ed that they af¬
ford proper refults. It is therefore neceffary to attend
particularly to the degree of concentration which each
•fait requires for the regular formation of its cryftals,
and to obtain them with that degree of tranfpvuency
of which they are fufceptible. We have feen that m
the formation of cryftals they may be removed from
one veffel to another, and from one folution to another j
and that in proportion to the flownefs of the Pjocefs
they become more beautiful and more perfefl. 1 hete
operations, it may be added, require much patience
and attention, but at the fame time the obfevver is
fully compenfated for his trouble, by perceiving the
progrefs of the cryftallization, and by the mtereft which
is excited in all its ftageS. . f
It is effential to know that neither the cryfta.s form¬
ed during the artificial evaporation, nor thole which
are produced during <he cooling of the folution, are
proper to be made choice of for being mcrea'ed and
brought forward to the moft perfea cryftals. V hen
L I Z A T I O N.
a folution has become cold, that is to fay, when it has
acquired the temperature of the atmolphere, and u is
deprived of the excels of faline particles which it held
in combination during its increale of temperature, it is
Hill in a condition to yield cryftals, and as long as the
diftances between the particles are not too great to al¬
low of mutual attra£lion. A folution laturated to ex¬
cels affords on cooling a confufed mafs of cryhals ;
after the fluid is poured off, it will ftill produce more
cryftals, but in fmaller number. The degree of con¬
centration of the folution before it yielded the laft pro-
dutf may be confidered as the term of faturation mo^
proper to be employed for the fpemes of fait which is
thus treated. But by the repetition of the.e opera¬
tions, and the obfervation of their progrefs, it will not
be difficult to difeover the proper proportions between
the fait and the folvent.
It feems to be a miftake to ffippoie, vvitn fome, that
the cryftals which are placed in favourable circumltan-
ces to become larger and more perfea, are injured try-
coming in contabl with each other during their in¬
creale. It is undoubtedly better that they ffiould be
kept fe pa rate ; but it does not appear that they are nurt
by touching each other, if the number in the veffel be
not too great, and they are not heaped or prehed to¬
gether. "in that cryftallization which refults from the
cooling of a folution too much faturated, the cryftals
are always confufed and interlaced with each other j
and the molecules which are arranged in this kind ol
diforder experience a kind of irregular diftnbution ;
and it may be obferved, that in this cafe the fummrts
only of the cryftals which are elevated from the kind
of cake which is formed on the lurtaccs of the vcffel
containing the folution, prefent regular and determin¬
ed forms. The mafs in which thefe cryftals are im¬
planted is a confufed heap.
No cavities have been obierved on the .aces o ci}-
ftals, excepting thofe which are formed on the iur-
frtce of fluids. Thofe which me produced on that
fide of a cryftal which refts on the bottom of the veifel
are more common in other falts. This phenomenon
feems to merit more attention than has yet been be¬
llowed upon it j as it explains eafiiy the introduaion
of extraneous bodies which are iometimes detefted in 19
the interior of cryftals. For when a cavity o. this Cannes oz,
kind has acquired a certain depth, it is capable of re¬
ceiving part of any foreign fubilance, and to be filled
up by the change of pofition of the fame cryftal, re¬
taining- at the fame time the extraneous mattei. By a
little art and dexterity, thefe fortuitous circumftances
may be favoured, fo that phenomena exhibited by luch
occurrences may be traced and obferved at the pleafure
of the operator. Experiments have been made with
the view of afeertaining whether an extraneous iub-
ftance could be fubftituted as the nucleus of a cryftal;
but from the refult of thefe experiments, it does not
appear that the particles of any fait have a tendency to
combine with any foreign matter, and to form regular
cryftals. The portions of the fait which were attach¬
ed to the extraneous fubftance were always feparate
and independent cryftals. . .
There are fome faline fubftances which retain m
their folution an excefs of particles even after cooling,-
and which being ftrongly agitated mftantly depoht a
great number of fmall cryftals which render the folu-
79°
Phenc-
20
Variations
in cryftals
from chan¬
ges in the
folution.
CRYSTALL
tkm turbid. 1 He xntroduftion of cryftals of the fame
„ !alt> It is well known, as in the cafe of a folution of
Glauber’s fait, promotes this fudden cryftallization or
feparation of the excels of the fait. If, in this ftate of
the folution, cryftals are immerfed with the view of
haying them large and regular, they are certain of
being fpoiled by the accumulation of a great number
of fmall cryftals on their furface, unlefs the precaution
o immediately walking them with pure water when
this happens is obferved.
It may be remarked alfo that when the folution is
diminilhed below a certain degree of faturation, the
cryftals not only ceafe to increafe, but are alfo again
in lome meafure diilolved j the corners and angles re¬
duced and rounded. And if the cryftals in this ftate
be introduced into a folution of fufficient ftrength to
promote their increafe, fupernumerary faces and trun-
catures, as’they are denominated in technical language,
are formed on the rounded corners and angles. But
thefe faces always difappear as the increafe of the cry-
Itab proceeds, and are replaced by corners and angles
which become at laft lharp and diftinft.
By attention to preferve the folutions of fait in per-
fed! purity, we fliall be more certain of obtaining the
mod beautiful and tranfparent cryftals. Some fluids,
after a certain time, are obferved to depofit fubftances
which are foreign to the fait held in folution, and were
diliolved along with it. Thefe fubftances fometimes
appear in the form of earthy matters, wdiich precipi¬
tate to the bottom of the veffel ; in other cafes they
are diffufed in the form of flakes, and fometimes they
rife and fwim on the furface. In all thefe cafes, the
cryftals whofe formation and increafe are going for¬
ward muft be removed, and the liquor muft be filtra¬
ted before they are replaced.
A faline fubftance, w'hich is capable of cryftalliza¬
tion, poffeffes, in the ftate of minute divifion in which
it is in folution, or in the condition of the molecules
which compofe it, a determined property which is uni¬
form and conftant, in which refides effentially the
power of uniting in a certain fymmetrical manner, and
thus conftrudling regular folids. The refults alfo are
uniform and conftant when the procefs is carefully con-
dufted j but it is neceflary to diftinguifh with accuracy
the circumftances which accompany the operation, and
anay occafion a deviation from this uniformity. The
fulphate of iron, for inftance, ufually cryftallizes in
the form of rhomboids ; but fometimes it has been
found to affume that of an irregular oftaedron. And
although it may be true that an elongated o61aedron
may be clafled with prifmatic cryftals, it does not on
that account belong lefs to the o6taedral form ; but it
feems probable that thefe different varieties, in the
forms of cryftals, depend on fome changes w'hich take
place in the folutions themfelves. The iron in the
prefent cafe is conftantly receiving new portions of
oxygen from the atmofphere, and in this new combi¬
nation it is precipitated in the fluid : this, therefore,
occafions a change in the conftituents of the fait.
Several fulphates are found to combine readily with
each other: thofe of iron and copper are of this de-
fcription ; and the refult of this compound cryftal is
always a rhomboid. It feems to be doubtful whether
this Ihould be confidered as a cafe of Ample interpofi-
tion of one fait with the other.
I Z A T T O N.
When a liquid, which holds faline bodies in folu¬
tion, is evaporated to a certain degree, a cruft forms
on the furface, acquires a certain thicknefs, and when
this is removed, it is renewed. The point at which
the liquid exhibits this appearance is known in chemi-
ftry, by the appellation of evaporation to a pellicle. 2T
When it has reached this point, the folution is in aFormaucfl
ftate of complete faturation $ and the fmalleft addition-°f den-
al quantity of fluid cannot be withdrawn without a cor-duces*
refponding quantity of fait affuming the folid form.
On this principle Robinet has attempted to account
for the formation of dendrites, or the arborefcent ap¬
pearance and efflorefcence of fome falts. Almoft all
the different fpecies of fucus or fea-weed, he obferves,
are covered, in drying, with an efflorefcence of white
matter. In fome fpecies, this white matter was ob¬
ferved to poffefs a faccharine quality. A number of
large roots of the fucus palmatus was hung up in the
fliade, and ten days had elapled without the appear¬
ance of any thing on the furface. After that period it
became white, and it was foon covered with a light
downy fubftance, the filaments of which gradually in-
creafed to a confiderable length. When this downy 5
matter was bruflied off with a feather, it was renewed
till the plants were completely dry. This fubftance,
it appeared on examination, was of a faccharine na¬
ture, mixed with a fmall portion of common fait, and
a great quantity of mucilaginous matter. By folution
and cryftallization the fugar was feparated from the
other fubftances.
In comparing the circumftances of this efflorefcence
with thofe of the formation of the pellicle, in the pro-
grefs of evaporation, the former feems to be a modifi¬
cation of the latter. In a veffel which contains a li¬
quid faturated with a fait, the furface fubjefted to eva¬
poration has no fooner aflumed a folid form, than the
furface immediately inferior is expofed to the action
of the fame caufes, and produces the fame effedl j and
this effedl continues till this cruft has become fo thick,
or fo compact, as to prevent the contadl of air, and
then the evaporation ceafes. But, on the contrary, in
the fucus, the air afting only on the furface of the
plant, the liquid which it contains cannot undergo the
procefs of evaporation, without coming to the furface.
The attraftion of the matter of the plant tends to pro¬
mote this motion ; for as the liquid is equally diffufed
through its whole mafs, it rifes conftantly to the lur-
face, in pioportion as this furface is dried by the fur¬
rounding air } and it would appear that this is the pro¬
cefs in the deficcation of all thick and maffy bodies.
Now, the faline matter which, in the prefent cafe, is
in the ftate of efflorefcence, having the fame power of
attraction on the liquid, the rudiments of each fila¬
ment conftitute, at the inftant of their formation, part
of the whole mafs or body of the plant. They parti¬
cipate, therefore, of the fame degree of moifture as
that of the plant, and it is on their furface that the
evaporation and cryftallization of faline matter chiefly
take place.
The mechanifm of the dendritical or arborefcent
form of faline bodies feems to be in this way capable of
explanation. The whole faline mafs, which extends
to the edges of the veffel, and even redefcends exter¬
nally, is conftantly in the humid flate, as long as
any liquid remains in the veffel. It may be fuppofed,
that
CRYSTALLIZATION,
Pheno- that the matter of the fides of the veflel determine?,
t mena. attraftion, the external circle of the furface of
v ' the liquid to rife above the furface ; a phenomenon
which is fufficiently obvious, but efpecially in narrow
veffels. This portion of liquid, which is more com¬
pletely fubje£ted to evaporation, gives origin to a cir¬
cle of faline matter, which appears thus raifed above
the furface of the liquid, and which, being the firft
rudiments of the dendrites, contributes afterwards to
its increafe, in the way which has been already ex¬
plained. Thus the vegetation of falts bears a ftriking
refemblance to the procefs of efflorefcence, or the for¬
mation of the downy matter on the furface of the
aj fucus.
Effloref- There is yet another kind of cryftallization which
cence. feems to depend on the fame caufe. This is the faline
effiorefcence, which occurs in different places on the
furface of the globe, and is frequently in fuch quantity
as to become an important objeft of manufafture.
Without extending our obfervations to the efflorefcence
of foda on the furface of the foil in Egypt, or that of
nitre in Afiatic countries, we may refer to the produc¬
tion of muriate of foda, or common fait, in different
parts of Europe, in thofe places which are covered
with the waters of the ocean during high tides. The
waters of the fea with which the fandy fhores are twice
periodically moiftened in the courfe of the month, are
far diftant from the point of faturation which deter¬
mines cryftallization. They rarely contain more than
3 parts of fait in loo ; and the fand at the degree of
moifture in which it is left by the fea, is not impreg¬
nated with a fufficient quantity of faline matter to be
worth the labour of manufadluring; but, during the
interval between the tides, thefe circumftances are
greatly changed. The dry air of fummer, by evapo¬
rating the moifture on the furface, allows the matter
of the fand to attraft towards the furface a fimilar
portion of water, which was in the lower part of the
foil, and which always tends to diffufe itfelf equally
through the whole mafs. This liquid, carrying with
it the fait which it holds in folution, increafes the
quantity of faline matter which exifts on the furface.
This procefs continues without interruption, as long
as there is no fall of rain. It reaches at laft a certain
point, at which the water fubje&ed to evaporation is
faturated with the fait; and this procefs cannot pro¬
ceed farther without the depofition of cryftals of the
fait, which difcover themfelves by their fhining ap¬
pearance. After fome days, the fand on the furface is
collefted, and about fix times the quantity of faline
matter is found in the fame proportion of fand, when
23 it was firft moiftened by the fea water (a).
Cruft on Another phenomenon which takes place during the
of veffeL°m Proce^s artihcial evaporation, fhould not pafs unno¬
ticed. This is the formation of a faline cruft at the
bottom of the veffels in which the procefs is conduced.
This feems to be the immediate effedl of ebullition j
for when the temperature of the liquid is kept under Pheno-
the boiling point, no fuch effeft is produced. This ’rc6113,
cruft is compofed of all the faline fubftances which are v
held in folution in the liquid 5 and even thefe fubftan¬
ces are found combined in the fame proportion in which
they actually exift in the folution. Whatever be the
attra&ion of thefe fubftances for water, or even if they
poffefs a deliquefcent property, they are not lefs dif-
pofed to enter into combination during the formation
of the folid cruft on the bottom of veffels in which the
procefs of evaporation is conduced with a temperature
equal to the boiling point. A flight degree of atten¬
tion will fatisfy us, that the formation of this cruft de¬
pends on the particular circumftances of the evapora¬
tion in the cafe of ebullition. It muft be obvious, that
in this cafe the ftratum of liquid which is in immediate
contadl with the veffel, receives the caloric which pe¬
netrates its fides, is charged with it beyond its capa¬
city, changes its ftate, and affumes the gafeous form,
and by this change having entirely loft its folvent
power, whatever faline matter is held in folution muft
affume the folid ftate in contact with the fides of the
veffel, and confequently adhere to it. Thus it hap¬
pens, according to a very judicious obfervation, that
in different faline folutions, the refults of which have
been compared, thefe fcales or crufts are more abun¬
dant in proportion as the degree of faturation is lefs *. * Jcur. d*
To thefe obfervations we fliall only add a ftrort ac-Ivili»
count of the phenomena of cryftallization, as they were
obferved, with the affiftance of a microfcope, by Mr Microfco-
Baker, and of the appearances of different faline bo-pical cry-
dies which he has defcribed. This will not afford anyftals*
fcientific information to the philofopher, but it may
perhaps be the fource of amufement to fome of our
readers, and the means, by a minute obfervation of
the phenomena, of leading to fome ufeful difcoveries.
The method which he followed in conducing thefe
experiments, is the following. The fubftance to be
examined is to be diffolved in a quantity of pure wa¬
ter, fo as to be completely faturated. For falts of eafy
folubility, cold water may be employed •, but for falts
which are diffolved with more difficulty, hot or boiling
water may be found neceffary. In preparing the folu¬
tion, the fame rule may be obferved as in preparing
folutions for obtaining large cryftals, which has been
given in the former part of this feftion. The folution
Ihould be allowed to remain at reft for fome hours, fo
that the firft cryftallization, if too much faline matter
has been added to the liquid, may be allowed to take
place. Thus the folution will be always of the fame
ftrength, and the fame appearances may be uniformly
expefted.
When the folution is thus prepared, a drop of it
may be taken up with the point of a quill, cut in the
form of a pen, and placed on a flat flip of glafs, fpread-
ing it on the glafs with the quill till the liquid is fo
ftiallow as to rife very little above its furface. It is
then
(a) Common fait is manufactured in this way on the fandy Ihores of the Solway Frith, in Annandale, in Scot¬
land. Thefe flat ftiores are covered with the waters of the ocean during fpring tides; and in the interval of
thefe tides the evaporation by the heat of the fun and the aftion of the air is fo confiderable, as to leave the fand
impregnated with a quantity of fait, fufficient to defray the expence and trouble of manufacturing it by filtra¬
tion and boiling.
l
79 2
Pheno¬
mena.
Plate’5
CLXV.
CRYSTALLIZATION.
then to be held over the clear part of a moderate fire,
or the flame of a candle, and fuch a degree of heat ap¬
plied as is found from experience to produce the necef-
firry evaporation. This will be known by obferving
the formation of faline particles at the edges of the
drop of fluid. The microfcope being previoufly ed-
jufled, and a magnifier of a moderate power being fit¬
ted on, the flip of glafs is to be placed immediately
under the eye, and brought exactly to the focus of the
magnifier. After running ever the whole drop, the
attention is to be directed to that fide on which the
procefs of cryftallization firft commences, and proceeds
from the circumference tow'ards the centre. The mo¬
tion is at firft flow', if too much heat has not been ap¬
plied, but becomes quicker as the evaporation conti¬
nues. In fome cryftallizations the configurations are
produced towards the end of the procefs with great ra¬
pidity, and exhibit an elegance, order, and regularity,
which imagination only can conceive. When this ra¬
pid a£lion has once begun, the eye muft be kept fixed on
the objeift, till the whole procefs is completed, becaufe
new forms appear, quite different from thofe which
W’ere firft produced, and which have been properly
aferibed to a quantity of different falts mixed with the
fubftance to be examined, when the precaution has not
been ufed of having it in a ftate of purity. When
the configurations are fully formed, and the w7ater eva¬
porated, fuch falts as are deliquefcent, it is fcarcely
neceffary to obferve, are foon deftroyed by attra<5Hng
the moifture from the air 5 but thofe wdiich are more
permanent, and not difpofed either to deliquefee or to
be deprived of their water of cryftallization, may be
preferved, by being enclofed between glaffes, for a
long time, as amufing objefts for the microfcope. To
make the liquid fpread readily on the glafs, the furface
of it may be moiftened with a little of it, and rubbed
with the finger. In this way, the repulfion which
fometimes. is obferved between the liquid and the glafs
is completely removed. During the evaporation, the
objeft-glafs of the microfcope is fometimes obfeured by
the condenfation of the water from the faline folution
on the flip of glafs, and the vifion is thus rendered in-
diftin£l:. When this happens, if the circumftance be
recollefted, the glafs muft be wiped and replaced. In
examinations of faline folutions, and in obferving the
progrefs of cryftallization, Mr Baker recommends the
light of a candle in preference to the light of day,
which latter being of a w'hiter colour and nearly the
fame with the tranfparent cryftals, they are lefs di-
ftin£l:ly feen than with the brown light of a candle.
Fig. 1. is a reprefentation of the microfcopical cry¬
ftals of nitre or faltpetre. They begin to {hoot out
from the edges wfith very moderate heat into flat fi¬
gures of different lengths, with ftraight parallel fides,
and exceedingly tranfparent. They appear in differ¬
ent ftates of their progrefs at the letters, a, b, cy d, and
e; a exhibits the appearance w hen they firfl: begin to
form. When a number of cryftals have made their
appearance they fometimes diffolve under the eye, and
difappear entirely *, but, by continuing to watch the
changes which go on, the procefs is frequently obfer¬
ved to recommence, and new {hoots puih out. The
firft cryftals fometimes become larger without under¬
going any change of figure j and lometimes form in
the way which is reprefented in the figure. When the
heat is too great, as might be expefled the procefs
goes on with great rapidity, and numerous ramifica¬
tions are formed. This arifes no doubt from the con-
fuled cryftallization.
Fig. 2. fhews the microfccpical cryftals of hive vi¬
triol (fulphate of copper), which appear firft round the
edges, fliort at the beginning, but gradually increafing,
as they are reprefented at the letters a, b, c, which
denote their difference of form, and the progrels of
their growth. Thefe cryftals, wFich are traniparent,
afiume a {olid regular form, and refledl the light from
their poliftied fides and angles. As the evaporation
proceeds, a great number of filaments as fine as hairs
make their appearance, fome crofting each other, as at
d; and others exhibiting a ftellated form with many
radiations, as at e e. The cryftallization of this fait
proceeds {lowly. Towards the end of the procefs the
regular cryftais appear, and are finely branched as
at/‘
Fig. 3. is a view of the cryfials of diftilled verdigrife,
or acetate of copper. When it is immediately applied
to the microfcope, the regular figures 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,
6, 7, make their appearance *, but if the folution is al¬
lowed to remain at reft for a fewT hours, and a drop of
it is then heated on a flip of glafs till it begins to con¬
crete about the fides, fliarp-pointed, folid figures are
formed, and fhoot fonvards. Thefe cryftals are often
ftriated obliquely, frequently arife in clufters, or ftioot
from a centre. Sometimes, towards the end of the
procefs, and in the middle of the drop, they affume a
foliated form, and have the appearance of four leaves
of fern united by their ftems.
Fig. 4. fhews the microfcopical cryftals of alum.
Thefe are more or lefs perfeft according to the ftrength
of the folution, and the temperature employed. To
prepare this fait for examination, the faturated folution
may remain for fome days. In that time cryftals will
form, and if what remains liquid ft.ould be found too
w'eak, heat may be applied, which will again diffolve
the cryftals.
In fig. 5. is a view of the cryftals of borax, or the
fubborate of foda. The drop of this folution ftiould
not be held too long over the fire, as it hardens on the
flip of glafs, and no cryftals appear. A brifk heat for
about a fecond is recommended as the beft method. It
is then applied to the microfcope, and the cryftals will
form as in the figure.
Fig. 6. {hews the microfcopical cryftals of fal ammo¬
niac, or muriate of ammonia. Great numbers of thick,
{harp, and broad fpiculae {hoot from the edges, and
from their fides are protruded others of the fame form,
which are parallel to each other, but perpendicular to
the main ftem. The formation of theie cryftals, un-
lefs the heat employed be very moderate, is very
rapid.
Fig. 7. exhibits the appearance of the cryftals of
acetate of lead (fugar of lead). After a little of thre
fait is diffolved in hot w^ater, and allowed to remain at
reft for a ftrort time, it is fit for being examined with
the microfcope. A drop of it put on a flip of glafs,
and heat being applied, wfill be feen forming round
the edge, a regular border of a clear and tranfparent
fubftance, which with a ftrong heat runs over the
whole of the drop, and hardens on the gla(s ; but when
the heat employed is moderate, bundles of lines, ar¬
ranged
Phene*
men a.
C R
YSTALLIZATION.
Structure of ranged in a radiated form, make their appearance.
Cryfta'.s. ^hey arife from points in the interior edge of the bor-
*“ " der, and fpread out nearly at equal diftances from
each other, in all direftions. ?
In fig. 8. are repreiented the cryftals of Glauber s
fait (fulphate of foda), which affume the form of ra¬
mifications, proceeding from the fide of the drop, like
the growth of minute plants. Other appearances pre-
fent themfelves in different periods of the procefs. It
is indeed but of fhort duration, for when the cryflal-
lization has once begun, it goes on with great rapi¬
dity. .
The examples which we have now given will, we
apprehend, be fufficient to enable thofe who are cu¬
rious in microfcopical obfervation?, to profecute re-
fearches of this kind. Many more might have been
given from the fame author ; but as experiments on
cryftallization, conduced in this way, are little fufcep-
tible of accuracy or precifion, we wifli to avoid fuell¬
ing out the article without conveying fome ufeful in¬
formation. Our chemical readers will readily per¬
ceive, that very different appearances will be the re-
fult of a flower or more rapid cryfiallization, greater
or lefs purity of the fait, and different degrees of
ftrength of the folution. In compound bodies, for in-
ftance, modifications in the form ot the cryilals, are
produced by a difference in the proportion of the con-
ftituent parts. The cryftals of alum, which is a triple
fait, viz. a fulphate of alumina and potafh, are in the
form of oftahedrons. I he addition of a quantity of
alumina changes the form of the cryftals to that of
cubes ; and if a cubic cryftal of alum be introduced
into a folution, the proportions of which afford oda-
hedral cryftals, the cubic cryftal wall aflume the form
of an o&ahedron, and the oftahedral cryftal put into
a folution which affords cubic cryftals, paffes into that
of the cube. The nature of the folvent alfo, in which
the cryftailization takes place, produces certain devia¬
tions in the form of the cryftals. The folution of com¬
mon fait in water affords cubical cryftals, but fn urine
it cryftallizes in the form of o£lahedrons. Muriate of
ammonia diftolved in water, cryftallizes in the form of
an octahedron, but in urine it affords crytfals in the
form of cubes. But we now proceed to confider the
theory of the ftruclure of cryftals, which will be the
fubjeCt of the next feCtion.
Sect. II. Of the Theory of the Structure of Cryfals.
In the former feCtion we have given a view of the
phenomena of cryftallization. The regular forms
which bodies affume by means of this procefs, have oc¬
cupied no fmall fhare of the attention of naturalifts
Vol. VI. Part II.
793
and chemical philofophers. The refearches and in-Strufliueof'
veftigations of Bergman, Romd de L’lfie, and Hauy, :v _ i
have been particularly direCted this way. Bergman,
in his 12th Differtation *, treats of the variety of the* Pbyfc. tc
forms of cryftals, of the various figures derived from CJ-’fnic-
the fpathaceous form, of the ftruaure of the moft mi-
nute parts, and of the different modes in which cnftals
are generated. Rome de LTfle has arranged ciyftals
into fix fpecies, derived from the varieties of form,
x, 'Tetrahedron. 2. Cube. 3’ OCtahedron. 4* Paral¬
lelepiped. 5. Rhomboidal oCfahedron. 6. Dodecahe¬
dron. But the ingenious refearches of Kauy on this
fubjeCl have been followed by the completeft and moft
fuccefsful inveftigation of the theory of the ftruchure
of cryftals which has yet appeared. Of this theory,
an account of which the reader will find in the Annates
de Chitnie f, and in his Trade de Mmtralogie J, we f Vol. xvi-,
now propofe to give a comprehenfive view. t ^oi* u
This theory, the author obferves, cannot be fully
underftood without the aid of analytical calculations.
For befide the convenience cf analyfis, including in the
fame formula a great number of different problems, it
is by means of it alone, that tne theory can ailume the
chara£!er of abfolute certainty in arriving at the fame
refults which are obtained by obfervation. But not*
withftanding thefe confiderations, it feemed to be bet¬
ter for thofe who had not a competent knowledge of
the fcience of calculation to prefer the method of
fimple reafoning, but accompanied with geometrical
figures, which are fo uleful in giving a diftinft con¬
ception of -the arrangement of the fmall folids which
combine together to form a cryftal. This arrange¬
ment is denominated fruBure, in oppofition to the
term organucatioti, which exprefles the more compli¬
cated mechaniim of vegetables and animals. T his me¬
thod may perhaps be lefs dire£l, and lefs precife and
expeditious, and it may require attention to thofe de¬
tails which are paffed over in the analytical method to
reach its objeCl more fpeedily } it has, however, this
advantage, that the mind by its means perceives bet¬
ter the connexion of the different parts under confi-
deration, and can more eafily comprehend the fads
with which it is furnifhed.
I. Mechanical Division of Crystals.
The fame mineral fubftance, it is known, is fuf-
ceptible of feveral different forms, w-ell defined,
fome of which do not appear, at firft fight, to have
any common point of refemblance to indicate their re¬
lation. If, for inftance, we compare the regular hex-
ahedral prifm of calcareous fpar with the rhomboid oi
the lame mineral (b), whole large angle is about ioiT\
5 H we
CbI The name of rhomboid \% given by the author to a parallelepiped <j, ^ (fig. 12.) terminated by fix equal
and fimilar rhombufes. In every rhomboid, two of the folid angles, fuch as a, e, oppofed to each other, are
formed by the iun&ion of three equal plane angles*, each of the fix folid angles is formed by a plane ang e
equal to each of the three preceding, and by two other angles of a different mealure, but equal to each other.
The points a e are the fummits, the line a e h the axis. In any one of the rhombufes a h, df, which compofe.
the furface, the angle a contiguous to the fummit, is called the luperior angle ; the angle d the inferior angle 5
and the angles b and/are the lateral angles. The Tides a b, af are the fupenor edges, and the Tides bd df
the inferior edges : bf is the horizontal diagonal, and a d, the oblique diagonal. The rhomboid is obtule or
acute, according as the angles of the fummits are obtufe or acute. The cube is the limit of the rhomboids.
/
CRYSTALLIZATION.
794
Stradhire of vve fhould be led to believe that each of thefe two
, Cryftais. ^ forms ;s qUite diftinft from the other. But this point
of relation, which efcapes notice, when we confider
only the external form, becomes fenfible when we at¬
tend to the intimate mechanifm of the ftructure. Here
the author gives a hiftorical view of the progrefs of
his refearches, and traces the fteps which led him to the
difcovery of what became as it were the key of his
whole theory.
He had in his hand a hexahedral prifm of calcare¬
ous fpar, fimilar to that mentioned above, and which
had been detached from a group of the fame cryftals.
The frafture prefented a very fmooth furface, lituated
obliquely, like the trapezium pfut (fig. 9.), and
which had an angle of 1350, both with the remain¬
der ab c s ph of the bale, and with the remainder
tuef of the plane in ef. Obferving that the cu¬
neiform fegment psutin which this fra&ure fe-
parated from the cryftal, had for its vertex one of the
edges of the bafe, namely the edge z«, he attempted to
feparate a fecond fegment in that part to which the
contiguous edge c n belonged. For this purpofe he
employed the blade of a knife, diredfed with the fame
degree of obliquity as the trapezium pfut and aid¬
ed by the ftroke of a hammer. This attempt failed ;
but having tried the fame operation towards the next
edge /; c a new trapezium fimilar to the firft came in¬
to view. The fourth edge a b refifted the inftrument,
but the following, a h, readily yielded to mechanical
divifion, and prefented a third trapezium, having as
fine a polifh as the other twm. The fixth edge i h, it
is fcarcely neceffary to obferve, could not be divided,
more than the fourth and the fecond.
Proceeding then to the inferior bafe defgkr,
it was foon found that the edges of this bafe, which ad¬
mitted of divifions fimilar to the preceding, were not
the edges ef dr, g k, which correfponded to thofe
which could be divided towards the upper part, but
the intermediate edges cle, vy, gf. The trapezium
iqyv fhews the feftion made below the edge hr.
This fed!ion is obvioufly parallel to that of the trape¬
zium pfut and the four other feftions are in like
manner parallel, two and two. Now, thefe different
fedlions being in the diredlion of the natural joints of
the laminae, it was eafy to obtain others parallel to
each of them, but it wras found impoffible to divide the
cryftal in any other dirediion. Following this mecha¬
nical divifion according to the parallelilm ftated above,
new fedfions were obtained, always nearer to the axis
of the prifm', and when the fedlions were carried fo far
as to make the remainder of the tw'o bafes difappear,
the prifm was transformed into a lohd OX (fig. 10.)
terminated by 12 pentagons, parallel two to two, of
which thofe of the extremities, namely, SAOIR,
GIODE, BAODC, on the one fide, and KNPQF,
MNPXU, ZQPXY on the other, were the refults
of the mechanical divifion, and had their common ver¬
tices O, P, fituated in the centers of the bafes of the
prifm, fig. 9. The fix lateral pentagons RSUXY,
ZYRIG, &c. (fig. 10.) were the remainders of the
planes of the fame prifm.
In proportion as the fedtions were multiplied, always
parallel to the preceding, the lateral pentagons dimi-
niftied in height, and at a certain term the points R,
G being confounded with the points Y, Z, the points
S, R with the points U, Y, &c. there remained no Stmdlureof
more of thefe pentagons, but the triangles YIZ, UXY, Cryftais. ^
&c. (fig. ix.). Beyond that term the fedlions coming *~~~
to pals over the furface of thefe triangles, diminiftied
gradually in extent, till at laft the fame triangles were
loft, and then the folid obtained from the hexahedral
prifm, appeared to be a rhomboid ae (fig. 12.) exadt-
ly fimilar to that which is commonly denominated
Iceland fpar.
So unexpedfed a refult led the ingenious author to
the examination of other calcareous cryftals in a fimi¬
lar manner, all of which yielded to mechanical divi¬
fion in fuch a way, as, when all the external furfaces
had difappeared, the nucleus which remained was 1
alwTays a rhomboid, of the fame form as the firft. All
that was neceffary was to difcover the diredlion of the
fedtions which condudted to the central rhomboid.
To extradt, for inftance, this rhomboid from the
fpar which is ufually denominated lenticular, and which
is itfelf a much more obtufe rhomboid, having its large
plane angle equal to 1140 18' 56", it wras neceffary to
begin with the two vertices, and to make the fedtions
pafs through the Imall diagonals of the faces. But if
it is wifhed, on the contrary, to get at the nucleus of
the rhomboidal fpar with acute vertices, the diredtion
of the fedtions of the planes muft be parallel to the
edges contiguous to the fummits, and in fuch a man¬
ner that each of them ftiall be equally inclined to the
faces which it cuts.
Thefe refults are the more worthy of attention, as
it wmuld feem at firft, that in the procefs of cryftalli-
zation, after the rhomboid has been once adopted with
regard to a determined fpecies of mineral, it ought al¬
ways to re-produce it wfith the fame angles. But the
paradox which arifes from this diverfity of appearance,
is explained by the double ufe of the rhomboidal form,
which ferves here to difguife itfelf, and conceals fixed
and conftant charadlers under a variable external ap¬
pearance.
If we take a cryftal of a different nature, fuch as a
cube of fluor fpar, the nucleus will have a different
form. This will be, in the prefent cafe, an odtahe-
dron, which we (hall obtain by taking off the eight
folid angles of the cube. Heavy fpar will produce for
a nucleus a right prifm with rhomboidal bafes \ feld
fpar, an oblique-angled parallelepiped, but not rhom¬
boidal *, apatite or beryl, a right fix-fided prifm 5 the
adamantine fpar a rhomboid, a little acute ; blende, a
dodecahedron, with rhomboidal planes j iron of the
iiland of Elba, a cube, &c. 5 and each of thefe forms
will be conftant in relation to the whole fpecies, fo
that its angles will undergo no variation which is ap¬
preciable : and if we attempt to divide the cryftal in
any other direction, w’e lhall not be able to find any
joint •, we fhall only obtain indeterminate fragments j
it will rather be broken than divided.
Thefe folids inferibed each in all the cryftals of the
fame fpecies, ought to be regarded as the true primi¬
tive forms on which all the other forms depend. All
minerals, it is true, are not fufceptible of mechanical
divifion, but the number is greater than what appear¬
ed at firft fight', and with regard to thofe cryftals in
which the attempts to difcover the natural joints have
failed, it has been remarked that their furface ftriated
in a certain direction, or the relation of their different
forms,
CRYSTAL
Structure of forms, among thofe which belong to the fame fub-
Cryftals. ftance> frequently prefented indications of their ftruc-
' » ture, and by reasoning from their analogy with other
divisible cryftals, we m«y determine this ftrudlure, at
lead with a good deal of probability.
All deviations from the primitive form are called by
Hauy, fecondary forms. The number of thefe forms
has certain limits, which can be determined by theory,
according to the laws which regulate the ftrudlure of
cryftals.
The folid of the primitive form, which is obtained by
means of the operation defcribed above, may be farther
fubdivided in a direftion parallel to its different faces.
All the furrounding matter is equally divifible by fec-
tions parallel to the faces of the primitive form. Hence
it follows, that the parts detached by the aid of all
thefe fe£tions are fimilar, and only differ in their
volume, which continually decreafes in proportion to
the extent of the divifion. Thofe, however, mutt be
excepted, which are near to the faces of the fecondary
folid •, for thefe faces not being parallel to thofe of the
primitive form, the fragments which have one of their
facets taken in the fame faces, cannot exaftly referable
thofe which are detached towards the middle of the
cryftal. For inftance, the fragments of the hexahedral
prifm (fig. 9.), whofe external facets make part of the
bafes, or of the planes, have not, in this refpeft, the
fame figure with thofe which are fituated nearer to the
center, all of whofe facets are parallel to the feflions
pfut, Iqyv ; but the difficulty which prefents itfelf
at firft fight, in confequence of that diverfity, is re¬
moved by the help of the theory, and the whole are
educed to a unity of form.
But the divifion of the cryftal into fmall, fimilar
folids, has a certain limit, beyond which we Ihould
arrive at particles fo fmall, that they are no longer di¬
vifible, without deftroying the nature of the fubrtance,
or decompofing it. At this term, the inveftigation
flops ; and to thefe fmall folids, which we might infu-
late if our organs and inftruments were fufficiently
delicate, Hauy has given the name of integrant or
integral molecules. He thinks it probable, that thefe
molecules are thofe which were fufpended in the fluid
in which the cryftallization took place. In general it
may be obferved that with the aid of thefe molecules,
the theory reduces to Ample laws the different forms
of cryftals, and arrives at refults which exaflly repre-
fent thofe of nature.
When the nucleus is a parallelepiped, that is, a folid
having fix parallel faces, two to two, like the cube,
the rhomboid, 8tc. and this folid admits of no other
divifions than thofe which are made in the direAion
of its faces ; it is obvious that the molecules which
- refult from the fubdivifion, whether of the nucleus,
or of the furrounding matter, are fimilar to this nu¬
cleus. In other cafes, the form of the molecules is
different from that of the nucleus. There are, befides,
other cryftals which afford, by means of mechanical
divifion, particles of different figures combined to¬
gether through the whole extent of thefe cryftals.
The ingenious author of the theory has thrown out
fome conjeflures on the manner of refolving the dif¬
ficulty which thefe kinds of mixed ftru&ures prefent \
and at any rate he obferves that it does not affeft the
liability of the theory.
, I Z A T I O N. 795
Structure of
II. Laws of Decrement. Cryftals.
I. Decrements at the Edges.
The primitive form, and that of the integrant mole¬
cules being determined, after the difffftion of the cry¬
ftals, we muft inveftigate the laws according to which
thefe molecules were combined, to produce around the
primitive form thofe kinds of coverings which terminated
fo regularly, and from which refulted polyhedra fo dif¬
ferent from each other, although originally of the fame
fubftance. Now, fuch is the mechanifm of the ftru&ure
fubjefl to thefe laws, that all the parts of the fecondary
cryftal fuperadded to the nucleus, are formed of la¬
minae, which decreafe regularly by fubtraftions of one
or more ranges of integral molecules, fo that theory
determines the number of thefe rows, and by a ne-
ceffary confequence the exa£t form of the fecondary
cryftal.
To have a diftinft idea of thefe laws, let us take a
very Ample and elementary example. Conceive EP
(fig. 13.) to reprefent a dodecahedron whofe faces are
equal and fimilar rhombufes, and that this dodecahedron
is a fecondary form, having a cube for its nucleus or
primitive form. By the infpe&ion of fig. 14. the po-
fition of this cube in the ciyftal may be eafily con¬
ceived. The fmall diagonals DC, CG, GF, FD of
the four faces of the dodecahedron, being united round
the fame folid angle, form a fquare CDFG. Now there
are fix folid angles, compofed of the four planes, name¬
ly the angles L, O, E, N, R, P (fig. 13.), and confe-
quently, if fe&ions are made to pafs through the fmall
diagonals of the faces which compofe the folid angles,
fix fquares will be fucceffively uncovered. Thefe
fquares will be the faces of the primitive cube, of which
three are reprefented at fig. 14. namely CDFG, ABCD.
BCGH.
This cube would evidently be an affemblage of
cubic integral molecules, and it would be neceffary
that each of the pyramids, fuch as LDCGF (fig. 14.),
which reft on the faces ftiould be itfelf cowipofed of
cubes equal to each other, and to thofe which form
the nucleus. To have a more diftinft conception of
this arrangement, let us compofe an artificial dodeca¬
hedron of a certain number of fmall cubes, the arrange¬
ment of which will be an imitation of the procefs of
nature in difpofing the molecules in the formation of
the dodecahedron.
Let ABGF (fig. 15.) be a cube compofed of 729
fmall cubes equal to each other, in which cafe each
face of the whole cube will include 81 fquares, that
is, 9 on each fide, which will be the external faces of as
many partial cubes reprefenting the molecules. This
cube will be the nucleus of the dodecahedron which is
to be conftrudted. On one of the faces, as ABCD, of
the cube apply a fquare lamina, compofed of cubes
equal to thofe which form the nucleus, but having to¬
wards each a row of cubes lefs than if it were on a
level with the contiguous faces BCGH, DCGF, &c.
This lamina will be compofed of 49 cubes, that is, 7
on each fide, fo that if the inferior bafe onfg (fig,
16.) this bafe will fall exaflly on the fquare mark.d
with the fame letters in fig. 15. Above this firft la¬
mina let a fecond be applied, compofed of 25 cubes,
5 on each fide, fo that if Impu (fig. 17.) reprefent
5 H 2 its
796 CRYSTALL
Smuflurc ofits inferior bafe, this bafe will correfpond exaftly with
. fy‘t‘lls- , the fquare marked with the fame letters in fig. I 5. If
in like manner a third lamina be applied to the fecond,
which is compofed only of 9 cubes, that is 3 on each
fide, fo that v xy % (fig* 18.) being the inferior bafe,
ftiall correfpond with the fquare marked with the fame
letters in fig. 15’ 5 ori the middle fquare r of
the preceding lamina the fmall cube r (fig. 19.) be
placed, this will rcprefent the lafi temina.
When this operation is completed, it will appear
that there is formed on the face ABCD (fig. 15.)
a four-fided pyramid, of which this face is the bafe,
and the cube r (fig. 19.) is the fummit. And if the
lame operation be continued on the other five fides of
tne cube, we fhall have fix four-fided pyramids, refting
on the fix faces of the nucleus, which is enveloped with
them on all fides. But as the different rows of lami¬
nae compofing thefe pyramids project beyond each
other for a certain way, as appears on fig. 20. where
the parts raifed above the planes BCD, BCG repre-
fent the two pyramids which reft on the faces ABCD,
BCGH (fig. ij.), the faces of the pyramids will not
form continued planes j for they will be alternately re¬
entering and falient, in fome meafure imitating a flair
with four fides.
Let us now fuppofe that the nucleus is compofed of
a number of almolt imperceptible cubes incomparably
greater, and that the laminae applied on the different
faces, w'hich may be called the laminae of fuperpofi-
tion, continue to increafe towards their four edges by
fubtra&ions of one range of cubes equal to thofe of
the nucleus, the number of thefe laminae will be in¬
comparably greater than in the preceding hypothefis ;
and at the fame time the cavities or furrows which they
lorm, as they alternately become falient or re-entering,
will be almort imperceptible j and indeed it might be
fuppofed that the cubes of which the cryltal is compo-
led are io fmall as to become quite imperceptible to
our fenfes, and the faces of the pyramids to be per-
fe6fly fmooth.
Now DCBE (fig. 20.) being the pyramid w’hich
refts on the face ABCD (fig. 15.), and CBOG(fig. 20.)
the pyramid applied to the face BCGH (fig. 15.), if we
confider that every thing is uniform from E to O (fig.
20.) in the manner in which the laminae of fuperpofi-
tion mutually projeft beyond each other, we may rea¬
dily conceive that the face CEB of the firft pyramid
ought to be exaftly in the fame plane as the face COB
of the contiguous pyramid, fo that the union of thefe
two faces thould form a rhombus ECOB. But we have,
for the 6 pyramids, 24 triangles fimilar to CEB,
which confequently will be reduced to 1 2 rhombufes,
from which refult a dodecahedron fimilar to what is
reprefented in fig. 13. and 14.
The cube, before it arrives at the form of the dode¬
cahedron, paffes through a multitude of intermediate
modifications, of which one is Ihown at fig. 21. The
fquares/> <7 e 0, klqu, runts, &c. correfpond to the
Squares ABCD, DCGF, CBHG, &c. (fig. 14.), and
I Z A T I o N.
form the fuperior bafes of as many pyramids, incomplete Stru&ure Gf
from the deficiency of the laminae with which they Crjftals.
ought to terminate. The rhombufes EDLC, ECOB —v—'
(%• 13O1 by a neceffary confequence, are reduced to
limple hexagons a e C l kD, e oB n m C (fig. 21.), and
the furface of the fecondary cryfial is ccrrpofed of 12
of thefe hexagons and 6 fquares. This is the cafe
with the boracic fpar (the borate of magnefia and
lime), with the exception of fome facets which furmount
the folid angles, and which depend on a different law
of decrement.
If the diminution of the laminae of fuperpofition
proceeded in a more rapid ratio $ for example, if each
lamina had had on its circumference, two, three, or four
rows of cubes lefs than the inferior lamina, the pyra¬
mids produced on the nucleus by this diminution be¬
ing more deprefied, and their contiguous faces being
*10 longer on a level, the furface of the fecondary fo¬
lid would have been compofed of 24 ifofceles triangles,
all inclined to each other. Decrement on the edges, is
that which takes place parallel to the edges of the nu¬
cleus, and it ought to be diitinguifhed from another
kind of decreale to be afterwards mentioned.
2. Examples of Decreafe on the Edges.
Martial Pyrites, or Dodecahedral Sulphurct of Iron.
Geometric Chara&er.—Inclination of any one of the
pentagons, as DPRFS (fig. 27.), to the pentagon
CPRGL, which has the fame baie PR, 126° 56' 8".
Angles of the pentagon CPRGL, L =121° 35'
I?"? C or G = 1 o6° 35' 57" 30"'} P or R rz 102*
36' 19".
Let us conceive again a cubic nucleus, whofe diffe¬
rent edges are lines of departure to the fame number
of decrements which take place at the fame time in
two different wTays j that is, by the fubtraftion of two
rows parallel to the edges AB, CD (fig. 15.), and of one
row' parallel to the edges AB, BC. Let it be fup¬
pofed alfo that each lamina being onlv equal in thick-
nefs to a fmall cube of the fide AB and CD, is on the
contrary equal to double the thicknefs of the fide AD
and BC. Fig. 2 2. reprefents this difpofition with re¬
gard to the decrements which proceed from the lines
DC, BC, (fig. 15.) It is plain that on account of the
more rapid decreafe in proceeding from DC or AB,
than from BC or AD, the faces produced in the firft
cafe will be more inclined to the plane ABCD, while
the faces produced in the fecond will remain as it were
behind, fo that the pyramid will no longer be termi¬
nated by a fingle cube E, as in fig.' 20. which on ac¬
count of its minutenefs feems to be only a point, but
by the row' of cubes MNST (fig. 22.) which, fuppofing
thefe cubes to be infinitely fmall, will prefect the ap¬
pearance of a fimple ridge. By a neceffary confe¬
quence, the pyramid will have for its faces two trape¬
ziums, fuch as DMNC, refulting from the firft decre¬
ment, and two ifofceles triangles, fuch as CNB, w'hich
will be the tffed of the fecond decrement (c).
Let
(c) Here the face which correfponds to ABCD (fig. 15.) has 25 fquares on each fide, as may be feen in fig. 22^
The ftruflure of this pyramid may be imitated artificially, by regulating the arrangement and number of the
cubes reprefented in the fame figure.
«
CRYSTALI
Struiftureof Let us fuppofe farther, that with regard to the la-
Cryftals. ixiinas of fuperpofition, which anfe on the facp BCGH
' * ’ (fig. 15.), the decrements follow the fame laws, but in
crofs directions: in fuch a way that the more rapid of
the two may take place in proceeding from BC, or
from GH, towards the vertex of the pyramid, and the
flower decrement in proceeding from CG, or BH, to¬
wards the fame vertex. The pyramid which refults
from thefe decrements will be placed in a direction op-
pofite to that which refts on ABCD, and will have
the pofition reprefented at fig. 25. where the.edge KL,
which terminates the pyramid, inftead of being paral¬
lel to CD, like the edge MN, (fig. 22. and 23.). is mr
the contrary parallel to BC. \\ e ihall then conceive
what is to be done, that the pyramid which wall reft on
DC, GF (fig. 15.) may be turned as it is reprefented in
fig. 24. and may have its terminating edge PR parallel
to CG (fig. 15.). The pyramids which will reft on
three other faces of the cube, will ftand like that which
arifes on the oppofite face.
But as the decrements which produce the triangle
CNB (fig. 23.) make a continuity with thole from
which refults the trapezium CBKL (fig. 25.),theie two
figures wall be in the fame plane, and wull form a pen¬
tagon CNBKL (fig. 26.). For the fame reafon the
triangle DPC (fig. 24.), will be on a level with the tra¬
pezium DMNC (fig. 23.) j and by applying the fame
reafoning to the other pyramids, it will be conceived
that the fix pyramids having for their whole faces 12
trapeziums and 1 2 triangles, the furface of the fecon-
dary folid will be compofed of 12 pentagons, which
will correfpond to the 1 2 rhombufes of fig. 13. but with
this difference, that they will have other inclinations.
This folid is reprefented at fig. 27. and with its cubic
nucleus at fig. 28. where it may be feen how to pro¬
ceed in the extraction of this nucleus. If, for exam¬
ple, a feClion be made paffing through the points D,
C, G, F, the pyramid which refts on the face DCGF
of the nucleus will be detached, and by this fection
the latter will be uncovered.
Among the crvftals belonging to the fulphuret of
iron, or the arfeniate of cobalt, there is found a dode¬
cahedron, having the faces equal and fimilar pentagons,
and having for its nucleus a cube in the pofition above
defcribed. But there are an infinite number of poffible
dodecahedra, which may have for faces equal and fimilar
pentagons, and will differ from each other by the re-
fpeClive inclinations of their faces. Of all thefe do¬
decahedra, the one whofe ftruClure would be fubjeCled
to thefe laws, gives 126° 56' S'', as the angle formed
by the inclination of any tw-o of its faces DPRFS,
CPRGL (fig. 27.) at the edge of junClion PR, as
might be fhewn by calculation. Some mineralogifts,
overlooking the ufe of geometry in the confideration
of cryftals, have confounded the dodecahedron of py¬
rites with the fame regular, geemetrical figure in which
all the fides and angles of each pentagon are equal j
but there is a ftriking difference between thefe two do¬
decahedra. The regular dodecahedron gives only
ll6° 33' 54", as the inclination of its refpeftive pen¬
tagons, making a difference of nearly ii-J0 between
it and the other. And indeed the regular dodecahedron
cannot be produced by any law of decrement what¬
ever, however compound it may be fuppofed, in re¬
gard to a cubic nucleus 3 and, as may be demonftrated
, I Z A T I O N. 797
generally, for a nucleus of any form. There are then two Stnnfturc 0*
kinds of dodecahedra, one whofe faces are rhombufes, Cl)^ a b'.
and another whofe faces are pentagons, produced upon
a cubical nucleus, in confequence of two Ample and
regular laws of decrement, in a direflion parallel to
the edges of the nucleus. By varying thefe laws in
different other xvays, a multitude of new’ polyhedra, ha¬
ving the fame nucleus, may be conftrufled.
Obtufe, or Lenticular Calcareous S/>ar, (fig. 30.).
Geometric Inclination of the rhombus/zd////*
to the rhombus aif d\ 1340 25' 36/'. Angles of the
rhombus n a db'\ a or b'—i 140 iS' 56^3 n or a'—6^(
A l' a"
41 4 .
This variety arifes from a decrement by a Angle
row on both fides of the edges a b, ag, af (fig. 31.)
and e 0, c d, e x, contiguous to the fummits a, e, of the
nucleus. An idea may be formed of its ftrublure, by
comparing it with that of the dodecahedron whofe planes
form rhombufes (fig. 13. and 20.), originating from
the cube, (fig. 15.) 3 and by fuppofing that the laminae,
inftead of decrealing at the fame time on all the edges,
decreafe only to thofe contiguous, three by three, to
the angle C and its oppofite. The faces formed in
that cafe will be reduced to fix, which, by prolonging
themfelves, according to the law of continuity, fo
as to interfeff each other, will compofe the furface of
a rhomboid analogous to the one which we are now
treating of, excepting that it will have other angles,
on account of the cubical form of its integral mole¬
cule.
From this it may be conceived, that the diagonals
drawn from a to b' (fig. 30.), from a to/, from a to/',
&c. on the fecondary rhomboid, will be confounded
wdth the edges a b, a g, af (fig. 31.) of the nucleus,
W’hich ferve as lines of departure for the decrements j
and hence to extraft this nucleus, the planes of the.
fedions muft pafs along thefe diagonals, as has been al¬
ready remarked.
Common Topaz, (fig. 33•)•
Geometric CharaBer.—The inclination of the trape¬
zoid s r t m X.o the adjacent plane r t ey, I 36° 3 of the
fame plane, to k r y zG'-, of the plane tmger.
Xomlig, 930.
The primitive form of this topaz is that of a right-
angled, four-fided prifm by (fig. 32.), the bafes of which
are rhombufes, having the angle h or 7—124° 26'. Ac¬
cording to theory, in regard to the integrant molecule,
the height ry is to the fide rn nearly in the ratio of 3
to 2. The pyramidal fummit of the topa^ refults from
a decrement by two rows of fmall prifras on the edges
x r, r n, nh, hx of the fuperior bafe of the primi¬
tive form. The planes tmge, Imge (fig- 33 ) on one
fide, and b kosp, budp, on the other, arife from a de¬
crement by three rows on each fide of the edges n vy
x (] (fig. 32.), which decrement remains (ufpended at a
certain term, and leaves four redangles t r y e, kryx,
Ihci, ubcd, (fig. 33.), parallel to the planes of the
primitive form. The effed of this decrement is (hewn
at fig. 34. where the rhombus h nr x is the fame as
fig. 32 3 and all the fmall rhombs by which it is fubdi-
vided, or which are exterior to it, reprefent the bafes
of fo many molecules. The lines x d} x n 1, n et
are
798 CRYSTALI
Stm&ureofare direfted according to the law of decrement already
. Cryftals. explained, and the lines c d, c i, yz, ye, correfpond
~ ^ to the planes of the prifm, which are not fubjeft to
this law.
3. Decrement on the Angles.
This pofition of the rhomboidal nucleus inclofed in
the regular hexahedral prifm of the calcareous ipar
being difcovered, did not dire&ly lead to the determi¬
nation of the laws of thofe decrements of fecondary
cryftals. More fimple intermediate fteps were necef-
fary. To conceive the method of inveftigating thefe
new decrements, it may be remarked that the fame
fubftances which exhibit the dodecahedron with penta¬
gonal planes originating from the cubes (fig. 27. and
28.), and which might aflume the form of the dodecahe¬
dron whofe planes are rhombufes (fig. X3‘ I4')’ ?lre
found alfo under that of the regular o&ahedron. But
if the laminae of fuperpofition decreafe only on the
edges of the two oppofite faces of this cube, as on
thofe of the fuperior bafe ABCD (fig. 14.) and of the
inferior bafe, we fhall in general have two pyramids
applied on thefe bafes. And if wre fuppofe the effefl
of the law of decrements continued in the fpace fitua-
ted between the bafes of the cube, we {hall arrive at
an octahedron, whofe angles will vary as there is a
greater or fmaller number of rows fubtraCted. But
no law', however complicated, can give equilateral tri¬
angles as the faces of this oCtahedron.
On the other hand, by dividing a regular oCtahe-
dron originating from a cube, the cubic nucleus wdll
appear to be fo fituated in this oCtahedron that each
of its fix folid angles correfponds to the centre of one
of the faces of the oftahedron ; but this could not be
the cafe by fuppofing a decrement on the edges. The
law of decrement accomplilhes its ends, in fuch cafes,
by a different progrefs from that which condudls to
the forms already deferibed.
Let ABCD (fig. 35.) be the fuperior or inferior fur-
face of a lamina compofed of fmall cubes, whole bafes
are reprefented by the fquares which fubdivide the
whole fquare. The feries of cubes to which the fquares
a, b, c, d, e, f g, h, i, belong, are on the. diagonal
drawn from A to C ; and they form one firing, (fig.
36.) which will not differ from the firing of the cubes
*, *, g, r', /,/, a', (fig- 35-)’ in the direc-
tion of the edge AD, excepting that in the former
the cubes touch only by one of their edges, and in
the latter by one of their faces. There are alfo,
throughout the whole extent of the lamina, firings of
cubes parallel to the diagonal. The feries of letters
q, v, k, u, x, y, z, (hews one, and the letters n, t,
/, m, p, 0, r, s, fhew another firing.
The laminae of fuperpofition, it may be conceived,
proje£t beyond each other one or more rows of cubes
in a direftion parallel to the diagonal. In like man¬
ner may be conftrufted around the cubic nucleus,
folids of different figures, by placing fucceflively a-
bove the diffe rent faces of this nucleus laminae which
may arife in the form of pyramids, and which will ex¬
perience this kind of decrement. The faces of thefe
folids will be roughened by an infinite number of fa-
lient angles formed by the exterior points of the com-
pofing cubes. This follows from the angular figure
which is continually prefented by the edges of the
1
I Z A T I O N.
laminae of fuperpofition. But thefe points being on aStru&ureaf
level, the cubes may be fuppofed to be fo fmall that Cryftals' ,
the faces of the folid will appear fmooth and continued " *
planes.
Around the cube ABGF (fig. 37.), as a nucleus,
let a fecondary folid be confirufted, in which the la¬
mina of fuperpofition ftiall decreafe on all fides by a
fingle row of cubes, in a direction parallel to the dia¬
gonals ; and let ABCD (fig. 38 ), the fuperior bafe of
the nucleus, be fubdivided in 81 fmall fquares, repre-
fenting the exterior faces of an equal number of mole¬
cules. Fig. 39. reprefents the fuperior furface of the
firft lamina which ought to be placed above ABCD
(fig. 38.) in fuch a manner that the point a1 may cor¬
refpond to the point a, the point b' to the point b, the
point c to the point c, and the point d' to the point d.
By this difpofition the fquares Atf, B£, Cc, Dd (fig.
38. ) remain uncovered, which will fulfil the above law
of decrement •, and the borders Q\r, ON, IL, GF (fig.
39. ) projeft by one row beyond the borders AB, AD,
CD, BC (fig. 37.). which is neceffary that the nucleus
may be enveloped towards thefe edges. For if the
edges of the lamina, reprefented (fig. 39.) as well as the
following, coincided with the lines SI, EZ, YX, MU,
on which fuppofition they would be on a level with
AD, AB, CD, BC (fig. 38.), they would form re¬
entering angles towards the analogous parts of the
cryftal. Thus in the laminse applied on ABCD (fig.
37.) all the edges anfwering to CD would be on a level
w ith CDFG, of which they wmuld form a prolonga¬
tion j and in the laminae applied on DCGF all the
edges analogous to the fame ridge CD would be on a
level with ABCD, from which neceffarily refults a
re-entering angle oppofite to the fahent angle formed
by the two faces ABCD, and CDFG. But by the
laws which determine the formation of fimple cryftals,
re entering angles appear to be excluded. The folid
will then increafe in thofe parts to which the decre¬
ment does not extend. But this decrement alone be¬
ing fufficitnt to determine the form of the fecondary
cryftal, all the other variations which intervene only in
a fubfidiary manner may be fet afide, excepting in the
conftru£lion of artificial cryftals, and in exhibiting the
the details relating to the ftrufture.
The fuperior face of the fecond lamina will be like
A'G'LK/ (fig. 40.), and this lamina muft be placed
above the preceding, in fuch a manner that the points
a", b", c", d", may correfpond with the points a', b't
d, d' (fig. 39.), which will leave uncovered the fquares
having their exterior angles fituated in CL S, E, O, V,
T, M, G, &c. and continuing to produce the decre¬
ment bv one row. The folid increaies towards the
analogous edges at AB, BC, CD, AD (fig. 3®-)’ hnce
between A' and L', for inftance, (fig. 40.) there are 13
fquares, but between QV and LI (fig. 39.) there are
only eleven.
The lar^e faces of the laminae of fuperpofition which
were hitherto oftagons QVGITLNO (fig* 39') having
arrived,at the figure of the fquare A'G'L'K' (fig. 40.)
will after pafiing that term, decreafe on all fides at the
fame time, and the following lamina will have for its fu¬
perior face the fquare B'M'I'S' (fig. 40> lefs U1 eveiT
direction by one row than the fquare A'G L K (fig. 40.).
Let this fquare be difpofed above the preceding fo that
the points b’ (fig. 4t-) ma7 correfpond with
CRYSTAL
Stru&ureof the points c, f, g, h, (fig. 40.). 42, 43. 44* and
Cryftals. 4,-< reprefent the four laminae which ought to nie
 ' fucceffively above the preceding, the fame letters be¬
ing made to correfpond. The laft lamina is reduced
to one cube •z! (fig. 46.) which fliould conefpond uit
the fame letter (fig. 45.). .
Thus it follows, that the laminae of fuperpofition ap¬
plied on the bafe ABCD (fig. 37- and 38-) Produce,
by the total of their decreafing _ edges, four faces,
which in proceeding from the points A, B, C, D, in¬
cline one to another in the form of a pyramidal ium-
mit. Thefe edges, it may be remarked, have lengths
which begin by increafing as in fig. 39. and 40. and
which then proceed decreafing. Thus the faces pro¬
duced by the fame edges increafe at firft, and after¬
wards decreafe in breadth, fo that they become qua¬
drilaterals. One of thefe is reprefented at fig. 47.
in which the inferior angle C is confounded with the
anp-le C (fie. 37-) nucleus j and the diagonal
LQjeprefentsthiedge L'O'of the lamina A'G'L'K'
_'G'of the lamina A
(fig740.), which is the moft extended in the direftion
of that edge. And the number of laminae of fuper¬
pofition producing the triangle LCQ_(fig. 47.) be¬
ing lefs than that of the laminae producing the tri¬
angle LZO. fince there is here only one lamina pre-
ceding thriamina A' G' V K' (fig. 4°;). ^ <h'r'
are fix which follow it as far as the cube z (hg- 4b-,)
inclufively, the triangle LZQJfig. 470 compofed of
the fum of the edges of thefe latter laminae, will have
a much greater height than the inferior triangle
as it is exprefied in the figure.
The furface of the fecondary folid, then, will be
formed of 24 quadrilaterals, difpofed three and three
around each folid angle of the nucleus. But decreat¬
ine by one row, the three quadrilaterals belonging to
Jch folid angle, fuel, as C (fig. 37-). »i'1 ^ *e
fame plane, forming an equilateral triangle /AN (hg.
48 ) The 24 quadrilaterals, then, will prouuce eight
equilateral triangles. One of thefe is reprefented at
fig. 49. the wing the arrangement of the cubes that
concur to form it j and the fecondary folid w.ll be a
regular oftahedron. This oftahedron is reprefented
at fig. CO. enclofing the cubic nucleus, fo that each of
its folid angles correfponds to the centre of one of the
triangles IZN, IPN, PIS, SIZ, &c. of the ofahe-
dron/ To extra£t this nucleus, it would be necefiary
to divide the oftahedron in its eight folid angles,
by feaions parallel to the oppofite edges. This is
the ftructure of oftahedral fulphuret of lead or ga-
lena. .
Such then is an example of decrements on the angles
wdiich take place in a direftion parallel to the diago¬
nals. By this denomination may be expreffed precife-
]y the refult of each decrement, by denoting the angle
which ferves it as a point of departure.
j4cule calcareous Spar, (fig. 51.).
Geometric Inclination of pzry to p u oy
*78° 27' 47', and to Ir z s, 101° 32' 13". Angles of
the rhombus p * r y, p or r = T? 3/' i 25 °r
y — 104° 28' 40." Inclination of the oblique di¬
agonal drawn from /> to r with the edge p u, 710
33' 54-"
Gcomet> Propert.—T\it angles of the rhombus are
L I Z A T I O N. 799
equal to the refpeaive inclinations of the faces of the Struaure of
nucleus, and reciprocally. The angles of the princi- , .... j
pal quadrilateral, or that which palfes through two
oppofite oblique diagonals p r, u z, and through the in¬
termediate edges p u, 1 r, are the lame as on the nu¬
cleus.
To conceive the ftrufture of this rhomboid, tuppoie
that a b df (fig. 52.) reprefents the face of the nu¬
cleus marked with the fame letters (fig. 12.) fubdivided
into a multitude of partial rhombufes, which are the
exterior faces of fo many molecules. Suppofe faither,
that the laminae of fuperpofition, applied on this face,
decreafe by one row towards the lateral angles a b d,
afd, in fuel) a manner, that on the firft the two rhom¬
bufes bhk l,fm i n are uncovered j that on the fecond
the uncovered rhombufes are thole traverfed by the
diagonals c 0, ay, on the third thofe travel fed by the
diagonals s t, q z, &c.j in which cafe the decrea.ing
edges will fucceflively correfpond with thele diagonals.
By this law of decrement two faces will be produced ;
which, proceeding from the angles b f, will rile in the
form of a roof above the rhombus abdf and will
meet on a common edge fituated immediately above
the diagonal a d, and which will be parallel to it j
and, as there are fix rhombufes, which undergo like
decrements on the primitive form, the faces produced
will be 12 in number. But, by the law of decrement
by one row, the two faces which have the fame angle
b,f,g, &c. (fig. 12.) for the point of departure will
be in the fame plane j thus reducing the 12 faces to
fix', and transforming the fecondary cryftal into an acute
rhomboid p i (fig. 51.). In this rhomboid the edges
p %,py,p u, are fituated each as the oblique diagonals
of the nucleus, or thofe which would be drawn from
a to d, from a to x, from a to c, &c. (fig. 12.).
Cryftals of this variety are found near Lyons in
France ; and the freeftone of Fontainbleau, commonly
called cry/Iallized JandJlone, which is nothing elfe than
calcareous fpar, mixed with particles of quartz, ex¬
hibits the fame form. The cryftals of this ftone yield
to mechanical divifion, and have their natural join¬
ings like thofe of pure fpar, fituated in the planes
parallel to the edges p x, p y, P u, &c- (fig’
and which w-ould pafs at an equal diftance from thele
edges.
Rhomboidal Iron ore, (fig. Sd-)*
of
BCRP to
angles of the
B or Rrr62°
Geometric Character .—Inclination
ECO A or OCRS, 146° 26' 33";
rhombus BCRP, Cor 2' 9''
57'5i"*
The laminae compofing this rhomboid decreafe by
two row-s on the angles b cr, 0 c r,b c 0, &c. (fig. 54.)
which concur to the formation of the two lolid angles
c 77, of a cubic nucleus. The faces produced, inftead
of being on a level, three and three, around thefe angles,
as in the cafe of decrement by a fingle row’, incline one
to the other, and extend above the faces of the nucleus
in fuch a manner that their diagonals are parallel to
the horizontal diagonals of the fame faces. The cube
here anfwers the purpofe of a rhomboid, which (hould
have its fummits in c and n, in which cafe there would
be only one axis palling through the fummits. In the
dodecahedron, on the other hand, with pentagonal
goo crystal:
'ft^(^irjeo^planes (fig. 27.) the cube performs the fun£Hons of a
^ a ^ rectangular parallelopipedon, and then three different
axes may be conceived, each of which pafies through
the middle of the two oppofite faces. When the cube
begins to perform the one or the other, in regard to
one fpecies of mineral, it is obferved to continue that
funCtion in all the varieties of that fpccies.
The cryftals of rhomboidal iron are found among
tbofe of the iron ore of the ifiand of Elba. It is un*
commop, however, for the law' of decrement to attain
to its boundary, and for the rhomboid not to be modi¬
fied by facets parallel to the faces of the nucleus. If
the decrement which produces the rhomboid took place
at the fame time on the eight folid angles of the cube,
there would refult a polyhedron of 24 facets, of
which nature are the cryftals found at the Calton hill,
Edinburgh, which have been confidered as zeolites.
4. Intermediate Decrements.
In fome cryftals the decrements on the angles do not
take place in lines parallel to the diagonals, but paral¬
lel to lines fituated between the diagonals and the ed¬
ges. This happens when the fubtraCtions are made by
double, triple, &c. rows of molecules. In figure 55.
which is an inllance of thefe fubtraCtions, the molecules
compofing the row reprefented by the figure, are fo ar¬
ranged as if, of two, one only was formed. To reduce
this cafe under that of the common decrements on the
angles, w'e have only to conceive the cryftal compofed
of parallelepipeds, having their bafes equal to the fmall
reCtangles abed, edfgy hgil, &c. The name of
intermediate decrement is given to this kind of diminu¬
tion.
Syntactic Iron Ore, (fig. 56.).
Geometric CharaBer.—RefpeCtive inclination of the
trapeziums b e go, n q g 0 of the rifing pyramids
= l35° 34' 3l"> of the edges eg, g q, 1290 31'
16". Angles of the trapezium be go,b or erzioj0
48' 35"-, 0 or 0=76° IX' 25."
This variety of iron ore is found at Framont in Les
Vofges. It commonly appears under the form of two
oppofite pyramids, and fome groups refleCt from the
furface the prifmatic colours. Thefe cryftals, claffed
by De L’lfle among the modifications of the dodeca¬
hedron with ifofceles triangular planes, have for nu¬
cleus a cube performing the funClions of the rhomboid.
The two regular hexagons by which they are termina¬
ted, arife from a decrement by a fingle row of cubic
molecules on the angles c, n, (fig. 54.) of the nucleus.
To comprehend the effeCt of this law, combined
with the preceding, and which produces the lateral tra¬
peziums, let it be fuppofed that cbpr (fig. 57.) re-
prefents the fame fquare as fig. 54. fubdivided into
fmall fquares, which are the external faces of fo many
molecules. Taking thefe molecules by pairs, fo that
they form reClangular parallelepipeds^ having for bafes
the oblong fquares bttgh, hgm G, &c. and imagine,
that the fubtraClions are made by two rows of thefe
double moleculesr the edges of the laminae of fuperpo-
fition will be fucceflively ranged in lines, as PG, TL,
R />, S/>, h y z, &c. and the fum of all thefe edges
will produce two faces, which departing from the
angles b, r, will converge, the one towards the other,
2
I Z A T I O N.
and will unite themfelves on a common ridge, fituated Structure of
above the diagonals/), but inclined to that diagonal. Cryttals.
The complete refult of this decrement, then, is 12 fa-' v
ces $ and it is {hewn by calculation, that the fix fupe-
rior faces being prolonged to the point where they *
meet the fix lower faces, will form with them the fur-
face of a dodecahedron, compofed of two right pyramids
united at their bafes. By the effedl of the firft law,
thefe pyramids are here incomplete, which gives the
hexagon abedru (fig. 36.) and its oppefite.
3. Mixed Decrements.
The decrements in other cryftals, either on the edges,
or on the angles, vary according to laws, the propor¬
tion of which can only be exprefled by the fradlion
or 4. It may happen, for inftance, that each lamina
exceeds the following by two rowrs parallel to the ed¬
ges, and that it may, at the fame time, have an alti¬
tude triple that of a fimple molecule. A vertical, geo¬
metrical fedtion of one of the kinds of pyramids, re-
fulting from this decrement, is reprefented at fig. 62.
The eftedls of this decrement may be readily conceived
by confidering that AB is a horizontal line taken on
the upper bafe of the nucleus b a %r, the fedlion of the
firft lamina of iuperpofition, gfen that of the fecond.
Thefe are called mixed decrements, which exhibit this
new kind of exception from the fimpleft laws. They,
as well as the intermediary ones, rarely exift anywhere
elfe, and they have been particularly difeovered in cer¬
tain metallic fubftances. The application of the ordi¬
nary laws, Hauy obferves, to a variety of thefe fubftan¬
ces, prefented fuch errors in the value of the angles, as
led him to believe that they were inconfiftent with
theory. But extending his theory, he arrived at re-
fults fo corredt as removed every doubt of the exiftence
of the law's on which thefe refults depended.
All the changes to which cryftals are fubjedled de¬
pend on the laws of ftrudlure which have been explain¬
ed, and others of a fimilar kind. The decrements fome-
times take place at the fame time on all the edges, as
in the dodecahedron having rhombufes for its planes,
or on all the angles, as in the odlahedron originating
from a cube. Sometimes they take place only on cer¬
tain edges of certain angles. There is fometimes a uni¬
formity between them, fo that it is one fingle law by one,
two, three rows, &c. which adts on the different edges,
or the different angles. Sometimes the law varies
from one edge to the other, or from one angle to the
other. This happens particularly, when the form of
the nucleus is not fymmetrical, as,Tor inftance, when it
is a parallelepiped, vvhofe faces differ by their refpec-
tive inclinations, or the meafure of their angles. In
fome cafes there is a concurrence of the decrements on
the edges, with thofe on the angles, to produce the
fame form ; and fometimes the fame edge or the fame
angle is fubjedled to feveral laws of decrement fucceed-
ing each other. The fecondary cryftal, in fome cafes,
has faces parallel to thofe of the primitive form, and
which combine with the faces produced by the decre¬
ments to modify the figure of the cryftal. Simple fe¬
condary forms, are thofe which arife from a fingle law
of decrement, the effedt of w'hich entirely conceals the
nucleus. Compound fecondary forms arife from feve¬
ral fimultaneous laws of decrement, or from one fingle
law not having attained to its extent j fo that there re-
maia
CRYSTAL
1Stni(fliire'of main faces parallel to thofe of the nucleus, which con-
Cryftals. cur with the faces produced by the decrement, to diver-
* V  fify the form of the cryftal. If,_amidft this diverfity of
laws, fometimes infulated, fometimes united by more or
lefs complicated combinations, tne number ot the rows
fubtracted were itfelf extremely variable j if, for in-
ftance, thefe decrements were by I 2, 20, or 30 rows,
or more, which is poflible, the number of forms which
xnight exift in each kind of mineral would be immenfe.
But the power by which the iubtra£lions are effected,
feems to be very limited in its aftion. Its extent rare¬
ly exceeds 1 or 2 rows of molecules. Beyond four
rows, only one variety of calcareous fpar has been dii-
covered. The ftruaure of this variety depends on- a
decrement by fix rows ; but this feems to be a rare oc¬
currence in nature. Yet, although the laws of cryftal-
lization are limited to two of the limpleft, that is, thofe
which produce fubtraftions by one or two rows, cal¬
careous fpar is fufceptible of 2044 difterent forms, a
number exceeding more than 50 times, that of the
forms at prefent known *, and, admitting into the com¬
bination decrements by 3 and 4 rows, calculation will
give 8,388,604 poflible ‘forms of the fame fubftance,
and by the operation of either mixed or intermediate
decrements, this number will be greatly augmented.
The ftriae obferved on the furface of many ciyftals
is another proof in favour of the theory } for they al¬
ways have direftions parallel to the projefting edges
of the laminse of fuperpofition, which mutually go be¬
yond each other, if the regularity of the proceis has not
been difturbed. It muff not, however, be fuppofed, that
the inequalities arifing from the decrements muft be al¬
ways fenfible, if the form of the cryftals be complete j
for the molecules being extremely minute, the furface
will appear finely poliflied, and no ftriae would be per¬
ceptible. In fome fecondary cryftals, therefore, they
are not to be feen, while they are quite diflin£l in ci¬
thers of the fame nature and form. In the. latter caie,
the action of the caufes producing cryftallization, has
not enjoyed all the neceffary conditions; the operation
has been interrupted •, and the law of continuity not
having been obferved, there have remained on the fur¬
face of the cryftal, perceptible vacancies. Thefe devia¬
tions have this advantage, that they point out the di-
reftion, according to which the ftriae are arranged in
lines, and thus contribute to difeover the real mechamfm
of the ftrufture. .
The fmall vacuities which the edges of the laminae
of fuperpofition leave on the furface of even the rnoft
perfeft fecondary cryftals, by their re-entering and falient
angles, {hew that the fragments obtained by divifion,
wbofe external facets form part of the faces of the .fe¬
condary cryftal, are not like thofe drawn from the in¬
terior part. For this apparent diverfity arifes from thefe
facets being compofed of a multitude of fmall pianes,
really inclined to each other, but which being very mi¬
nute, prefent the appearance of one plane. And if the
divifion could reach its utmoft bounds, tbefe fragments
would be refolved into molecules fimilar to each other,
and to thofe fituated towards the centre. It happens,
too, that molecules of difterent figures arrange them-
felves in fuch a manner, as to produce fimilar polyhe-
dra in different kinds of minerals. T hus. the dodeca¬
hedron with rhombufes for its planes, which is. obtain¬
ed by combining cubic molecules, exifts in granite, with
Vol. VI. Part II.
L I Z A T I O N. box
a ftruaure compofed of fmall tetrahedra, having ifofceles Stradure ol
triangular faces. It exifts alfo in fparry fluor, where v^
there is alfo an affemblage of tetrahedra, but regular ;
that is to fay, the faces of whicn are equilateral tri¬
angles.
Examples of Compound Secondary Forms.
Prifmatic Calcareous Spar, (fig- (jO*
The bafes of this prifm are produced in confequence
of a decrement, by a Angle row on the angles of the
fummits baf, gof, bag, dcx,dec,ccx (fig. 12.)
of the primitive form. The fix planes remit from a
decrement bv two rows on the angles bdf,fxg, ^^Si
dfx, db c, eg x, oppofiteto the preceding, hetabdf
(fig. j8.) be the fame face of the nucleus, as fig. 12.
The decreafing edges fituated towards the angle of the
fummit a, will fucceflively correfpond with the lines b 1,
kl, &c. and thofe which look towards the inferior
angle d, will have the pofitions pointed out by m n, op\
but as the firft decrement takes place by one row, rt is
proved, that the face which refults from it is perpendi¬
cular to the axis *, and calculation (hews, in like man¬
ner, that the fecond decrement taking place by two
rows, produces planes parallel to the axis, and thus
the fecondary folid is a regular, hexahedral.prifm.
To develope farther the ftrufture of this pram, it
may be remarked, that in the produftion of anv one
abenih (fig. 9.) of the two bafes, the effect 01 one
only of the three decrements whicn take place around
the folid angle a (fig. 12.) may be confidered, for ex¬
ample, of that which takes place on the angle b af, fup-
pofing that the laminae applied on the two other faces
f ag x, b a g c, 6.0 not decreafe, but to aflift the refult o..
the principal decrement which takes place in regard to
the angle b af. Here thefe auxiliary decrements are
quite fimilar to that whofe effedl they are fuppofed to
prolong.
The cafe will be totally different by applying the
fame obfervation to the decrements which are affefted
by two rows on the inferior angles b df, dfx, fxg,
&c. and which produce the fix planes oi the priim. If*
for example, we confider the effedl of the decrement
on the angle dfxt it is neceffary alfo that the laminse
'applied on the faces ofxg (fig* 12.) fhould
experience, towards their lateral angles afd, afx, ad¬
jacent to the angle dfx> variations which iecond the
effect of the generating decrement. Here, however,
thefe variations are intermediary decrements by rows of
double molecules.
Amphitrigonous Iron Ore. Fig. 59. rtiews this cryftal in
a horizontal projection, and fig. 60. in perfpeftive.
Geometric CharaBer.—RefpeCtive inclination of the tri¬
angles gcn,gc d, &c. from the fame fummit, 146° 26'
33" ; of the lateral triangles bgu, bg q, to the adja¬
cent pentagons, fuch *s gut mn, 1540 45' 39".
This is the common form of the iron ore of the ifiand
of Elba. It refults from a decrement by two rows on
the angles c, n (fig. 54.) to the fummits of a cubic nu¬
cleus, which produces the ifofceles triangles gcn,gcdy
11c d (fig. 59. and 60.), and of a fecond decrement by
three rows on the lateral angles cbp, c r p, ers, &c.
which produce the triangles mnr, rnk, ug b, gg b,
&c Thefe two jdecrements flop at a certain term, fo
5 I that
802 CRYSTAL I
Structure of that there remain faces parallel to thofe of the nucleus,
, Cryftals- viz, the pentagons gutmn, hdnkl, &c. (fig. 59.).
”^ The firft decrement is fimilar to that which produces
the rhomboidal iron ore. The fecond has this proper¬
ty, that if its effeft were complete, it would give a do¬
decahedron of ifofceles triangles, or compofed of two
right pyramids united at their bafes. The triangles
of the fummits are frequently furrowed by ftrias parallel
to the bafes g n, d «, g d, of thefe triangles, and which
point out the diredlion of the decrement.
Analogical calcareous fpar, ( IIauy'), fig. 61.
Geometric CharaEler.—Inclination of any one, /e
of the trapezoids of the fummits to the correfponding
vertical trapezoid e1 c/jg, 1160 33'54r/; angles of
the fame trapezoid i~\ 14° 18' 56"; er=75° 31' 20'' j
in or £—85° 4' 52,\ Angles of the trapezoid ehog,
e=go° ; 0=127° 25' 53" 1 ^=670 47' 44"; ^=74°
46' 2 3/'; of the trapezoid c=z6o°
12' 46" 5 c or g=\oo° 53' 37".
Geomet. Propert, 1. In each vertical trapezoid, the
triangle c eg \s equilateral. 2. The height ex of this
triangle is double the height p x oi the oppofite tri¬
angle cpg. 3. In the trapezoid ehog, and the other
fimilarly fituated, the angle h eg is a. right angle. 4.
If the diagonal ^ /6 be drawn, the triangle h eg will be
fimilar to any one a of{f\g. 12) of thofe which would
be produced by drawing in the primitive rhombus the
two diagonals bf, ad. 5. If in the trapezoid einih,
or any other fituated at the fummits, the diagonals
e i, m h be drawn, the height <? /of the inferior triangle
meh will be double the height il of the fuperior tri¬
angle m ih. 6. The triangle m ih is fimilar to 4 of the
rhombus of very obtufe fpar, divided by the horizontal
diagonal, and the triangle m e h\s fimilar to of the
rhombus of the acute fpar divided in the fame manner.
The numerous analogies connefting this variety with
different cryftalline forms, whether confidering certain
angles formed by planes, or certain triangles obtained
by drawing the diagonals of the trapezoids, led the au¬
thor of this theory to give it the name of analogical
[par. It is derived from three other varieties, viz.
very obtufe fpar, by the trapezoids e m ih, f ih t, &c ;
metaflatic fpar, by the trapezoids e m dc, e h 0g,ohtcz>,
&c ; and the prifmatic fpar by the trapezoids
cegp, &c, which are confequently parallel to the axis.
The trapezoids imeh, fiht, &c. are often feparated by
an intermediary ridge from the vertical trapezoids
c egp, g 0% r, &c. In that cafe the trapezoids c drn e,
g e h 0, See. are changed into pentagons.
Icofahedral Sulphuret of Iron, (fig. 63.).
Geometric CharaBer.—Refpeftive inclinations of the
ifofceles triangles PLR, PSR, 126° 52' 11" ; of any
one PNLof the equilateral triangles to each adjacent
ifofceles triangle, PLR, or LNK, 140° 46/ 1 y".
Angles of the ifofceles triangle PLR, L=48° 111
20" \ P or R=:650 54' 20".
This variety is the refult of a combination of the law
which produces the oftahedron originating from a cube
(fig. 50.), with that which takes place for the dodeca¬
hedron with pentagonal planes (fig. 27. and 28.).
I Z A T I O N.
The firft lawr produces the eight equilateral trianglesStnnfture of
which correfpond with the folid angles of the nucleus j ^ Cryftals. ^
and the fecond produces twelve ifolceles triangles, fitu- v "
ated two and two above the fix faces of the fame nu¬
cleus. If a dodecahedron fimilar to that of fig. 28.
were converted geometrically into this icofahedron, it
would be fufficient to make the planes of eight fedlions
pafs through it in the following manner •, viz. one
through the angles P, N, L, (fig. 27.), another through
the angles P, M, S •, a third through the angles
L, R, U, &c. By comparing the figures 27. and 63.
the relation between the polyhedra will be feen by the
correfpondence of the letters ; but this is merely an
artificial operation j for it may be obferved, that the
nucleus of the icofahedra which would be obtained,
would be much fmaller than that of the dodecahedron,
fince the folid angles of the latter nucleus would be
confounded with the angles D, C, G, &c. (fig. 28) oi
the dodecahedron j but the other nucleus would have
its folid angles fituated in the middle of the equilateral
triangles PtdPS, NPL, URL, (fig. 63.).
The icofahedron of the fulphuret of iron, which is not
very common, has been confounded with the regular
geometrical icofahedron which has all its angles equila¬
teral. Theory fhows that the exiftence of the latter
icofahedron is equally impoflible in mineralogy as the
geometrical dodecahedron. Among the five regular
polyhedra of geometry, viz. the cube, the tetrahedron,
the oftahedron, the dodecahedron, and the icofahe¬
dron, the three former can only exift among minerals
according to the laws of cryftalhzation.
Polynomous Petuntse (Hdur), fig. 64.
Geometric CharaEler.—Refpeftive inclination of the
narrow planes, 0 n k m, c f h g, to the adjacent planes
on each fide 150° , of the planes ctYg, P 0 w N
to thofe contiguous to them by the edges t F, PN,
120° ; of the heptagon p G c l de % to the enneagon
Bx eb no Pi-J, 990 41' 8" ■, of the trapezium dafe
both to the plane nbafhilk, and to the heptagon
pGtcdex, 135°; of the facet r/c a/>, or AB
to the fame heptagon, I 240 if 15".
Hauy had not obferved the petunze cryftallized un¬
der its primitive form. T his form, fuch as it is given
by the mechanical divifion of fecondary cryftals, is that
of an oblique prifm of four planes (fig* 06.), two of
which, fuch as GOAD, RBHN, are perpendicular
to the bafes ADNH, OGRB ; the other two, viz.
BOAH, RGDN, make with the former, angles of
120° at the ridges OA, RN, and angles of 6o° to¬
wards the oppofite ridges BH, GD. Thefe planes
are inclined to the bafes at the place of the ridges
GO, BR, 111° 29' 43", and at the oppofite ridges
68° 3c/ 17". This form is at the fame time that of
the molecule. By theory, the two parallelograms
GOAD, OGRB, as well as their parallels, are equal
in extent ; and the parallelogram BOAH, or its oppo¬
fite, RGDN, is double each of the preceding. This
may ferve to explain the roughnefs of the feftions made
in the direflion BOAH, when compared with thofe
in the direftions of the fmall parallelograms, the latter
being always fmooth and brilliant. If, how'ever, tne
diagonal OR, be drawn, it will be found perpendicu¬
lar to OA and RN ) or, it will be fituated horizon¬
tally.
CRYSTAL
Struftore oftally, by fuppofing that the ridges OA,BH have a
Cryftals. vertiCal pofition.
^ r—' This mineral exhibits the moft complicated variety
which the author has obferved among this kind of cry-
ftals. To comprehend its (Iruflure, fuppofe that bpy r,
(fig.* 65.) reprefents a feftion of the nucleus AR, (fig.
66 ),madeby a plane perpendicular to the parallelograms
GOAD, BOAH, and fubdivided into a multitude of
fmall parallelograms, which are the analogous fieftions
of fo many molecules. Here the fide jy r (fig- 65*)’
which is the fame fedion of the cutting plane as
GOAD, is greater than it ought to be in regard to the
fide cr (fig. 65.), which is the fame feajon as BOAH
(fig. 66.). But thefe dimenfions are tinted to thofe of
the fecondary cryftal, and here occafion no difficulty,
becaufe it may be fuppofed that the primitive form has
been extended more in one dire£tion than in another j
for this form is to be confidered only as a convenient
datum for the explanation of the ftrufture, and the
cryftal confifts merely in an affemblage of fimilar
molecules j fo that it is the dimenfions of thele mole¬
cules, which remain invariable.
Bv comparing fig. 64. and 65. it will be found, 1.
That the plane fabnklih (fig. 64.) and its oppofite
which correfpond to mn, dg (fig. 65.) are parallel to
two planes of the nucleus, viz GOAD, BRNH (fig-
fib.), and therefore do not refult from any law of decre¬
ment. 2. That the plane P 0 w N, and its oppofite (fig.
64.) which correfpond to « 0, eg, (fig. 65.) are alto pa¬
rallel to two of the planes of the nucleus, viz. BOAH,
RGDN, (fig. 66.). 3. That the plane 0 n k m, and
its oppofite (fig. 64.) which correfpond to on, eg,
(fig. 6f.) refult from a decrement by two rovvs paral¬
lel to the ridges AO, NR, (fig. 66.). 4. I hat the
plane £■/£• Z>, and its oppofite, (fig. 64.), refult nom
a decrement by four rows parallel to the ridges GD,
BH, (fig. 66.), which decrement takes place on the
other fide of thefe ridges. From this it may be feen,
that decrements different in their meafure, give rile to
planes fimilarly fituated, fuch as or?£w, and cfgh, (hg*
64.), which is a confequence of the particular figure of
the molecules. With regard to the faces of the lummit,
the heptagon p G tedez, (dig- 64.), is fituated pa¬
rallel to the bafe BRGO, (fig. 66.). The enneagon
BrrPon^ez (fig. 64.) is produced in confequence
of a decrement by one row on the angle OBR (fig.
66.), or parallel to the diagonal OR ; which decre¬
ment does not attain to its full extent, and leaves fub-
fifting the neighbouring heptagon parallel to the bale
BRGO. It may be conceived, from what has been
faid on the pofition of the diagonal OR, why the line
(fig. 64.), which feparates the two large faces of
the fummit, is fituated horizontally, by fuppofing that
the planes have a vertical pofition.
The trapeziums daf c, A-p GC, are tne refult 01 a
decrement by one row on the ridges GO, BR (fig*
66.). The facet de b a (fig. 64.) arifes from a decre¬
ment by two rows parallel to the ridge BO (fig. 66.).
With regard to the other facet AB z/>, which has the
fame pofition as the preceding, in relation to the oppo¬
fite part of the cryftal, it refults from an intermediary
law, by a row of double molecules on the angle OBR
(fig. 66.). The rhombufes bclh, klsu (fig. 67.) re-
prefent the horizontal fedlions of two of thele double
molecules taken in the fame row, and whole relation
L I Z A T I O N. S°3
to the reft of the arrangement will become fenfible,Stm^ureot
by comparing thefe rhombufes with thofe marked with
the fame letters in fig. 65. I his variety ol crylials is
fubjedt to a change of dimenfions, the faces/* G t c de z,
fabnklih, and their oppofites, which are at right
angles to each other, are elongated in the direction of
their breadth, exhibiting the appearance of a quadri¬
lateral, redtangular prifm, the fummits of which would
be formed by the faces fituated towards the ridges
PN, F/. Cryftals of this variety, which are opaque,
and of a whitiftr, yellowiffi, and fornetimes reddiffi
colour, are found in granites; fome are in groups, and
fome, but more rarely, are met with in fingle cry¬
ftals.
III. Number of Primitive Forms.
In the examples which have been given, the author
of the theory has chofen the parallelepiped for a nu¬
cleus, on account of the fimplicity of its form. He
has hitherto found that all the primitive forms may be
reduced to fix. 1. The parallelepiped in gen^ra]>
which comprehends the cube, the rhomboid, an an
the folids terminated by fix faces parallel two and two.
2. The regular tetrahedron. 3* ^ he odlaheuron
triangular faces. 4. The hexagonal prifm. 5. The
dodecahedron with rhomboidal planes. 6. I he dode¬
cahedron with ifofceles triangular faces.
Among thefe forms there are fome found as nucleus,
which have the meature of their angles the lame m
different kinds of minerals. It is to be confidered that
thefe nuclei are compofed, in the firft inftance, o. ele¬
mentary molecules, and that it is poffible that the iame
form of nucleus may be produced in one ipecies by
elements of a certain nature, and in another fpecies by
different elements combined in a different manne., a>
we fee integrant molecules, fome cubic, and iome te¬
trahedral, produce fimilar fecondary forms by the ope¬
ration of different laws of decrement. But it may be ob¬
ferved, that all the forms which have hitherto occurred
as nuclei, on the different Ipecies, are fuch as have a
particular charaaer of perfeaion and regularity, as the
cube, the regular oaahedron, and the dodecahedron
with equal and fimilar rhombufes for its faces.
IV. Forms of the Integral Molecules.
The primitive form is that which is obtained by fec-
tions made on all the fimilar parts of the fecondary
cryftal; and thefe feaions, continued parallel to them-
felves, condua to a determination of the form of the
integral molecules, of which the whole cryftal is the
affemblage. There is no cryftal from which a nucleus
in the form of a parallelepiped may not be extiaaed,
by making the limitation to fix feaions, parallel two
and two. In a great number of fubitances, this pa-
rallelopiped is the laft term of the mechanical divifion,
and confequently the real nucleus but in fome mine¬
rals this parallelepiped is divifible, as well as the reft
of the cryftal, by farther feaions made in tne different
direaions of the faces, from which refults a new iolid,
which will be the nucleus, if all the parts of the ie-
condary cryftal fuperadded to this nucleus are fimi¬
larly fituated. When the mechanical divifion con-
duas to a parallelepiped, divifible only by feaions pa¬
rallel to its fix faces, the molecules are parallelepipeds
j X 2 fimuar
804 crystal:
Stmdlure offimilar to the nucleus; but in all other cafes their form
, Cryftais. (jjffers from that of the nucleus. This may be illu-
ftrated by an example.
Let ach s no (fig. 68.) be a cube, having two of its
foil’d angles rf, s, fituated on the fame vertical line j
this line will be the axis of the cube, and the points
a and j- will be its fummits. Let it be fuppofed that
this cube is divifible by feffions, each of which, fuch
as a h n, pafles through one of the fummits a, and by
two oblique diagonals ah, an, contiguous to the fum-
mit. By this feflion the folid angle i will be detach¬
ed j and as there are fix folid angles, fituated laterally,
viz. /, h, c, r, o, n, the fix feftions will produce an
acute rhomboid, the fummits of which will be con¬
founded with thofe of the cube. At fig. 69. this
rhomboid is reprefented exifting in the cube in fuch a
manner, that its fix lateral folid angles b, d,f,p,g, e,
correfpond with the middle of the faces a c hi, c r s h,
bins, &c. of the cube ; but each of the angles at the
fummits bag, dsf, psf, &c. of the acute rhomboid,
are —6o°, from which it follows, that the lateral
angles abf, agf, &c. are ~I20°. Befides, it is pro¬
ved by theory, that the cube is the refult of a decre¬
ment which takes place by a fingle row of fmall rhom¬
boids, fimilar to the acute rhomboid on the fix oblique
ridges ab, a g, a e, s d, sf, sp. This decrement
produces two faces, one on each fide of each of thefe
ridges, making in the whole i 2 faces ; but as the two
faces, having the fame line of ridge for their departure,
are on the fame plane 5 by the nature of the decre¬
ment, the 1 2 faces will be reduced to fix, which are
fquares, fo that the fecondary folid is a cube.
Suppofe that the cube (fig. 68.) admits, in regard to
its fummits a, s, two new divifions fimilar to the pre¬
ceding fix, one of which palfes through the points
e, i, 0, and the other through the points h, n, r. The
firfl; will alfo pafs through the points b, g, e, and the
fecond through the points d,f p (fig. 69. and 70.) of
the rhomboid ; from which it follows, that thefe two
divifions will each detach a regular tetrahedron b a g e,
ox dsfp (fig. 70.) j fo that the rhomboid will be found
converted into a regular oftahedron e./’(fig. 71.), which
will be the real nucleus of the cube j for it is produced
by divifions fimilarly made in relation to the eight fo¬
lid angles of the cube. If we fuppofe the fame cube
to be divifible throughout its whole extent by analo¬
gous feftions, it is clear that each of the fmall rhom¬
boids, of which it is the afiemblage, will be found in
like manner fubdivided into an offahedron, and two
regular tetrahedrons, applied on the two oppofite faces
of the o£tahedron. By taking the oflahedron for a
nucleus, a cube may be conftrufted round it, by regu¬
lar fubtra£lions of fmail complete rhomboids. If, for
example, we fuppofe decrements, by a fingle row of
thefe rhomboids, having b for the point of their depar¬
ture, and made in a direflion parallel to the inferior
edges gf, eg, de, df, of the four triangles, which
unite to form the folid angle b, there will refult four
faces, which will be found on a level, and like the
o&ahedron, with fix folid angles, fimilar decrements
around the other five angles will produce twenty faces,
which taken four and four will be equally on a level,
making in the whole fix diftinft faces, fituated as thofe
of the cube (fig. 68.). The refult will be exactly the
I Z A T I O N.
fame as in the cafe of the rhomboid, confidered as nu-Structure of
cleus. Cryftals.
In whatever wTay wTe proceed to fubdivide, either the ' v
cube, the rhombus, or the oflahedron, we (hall always
have folids of two forms, that is to lay, oftahedrons and
tetrahedrons, without being able to reduce the refult of
the divifion to unity. But the molecules of a cryftal be¬
ing fimilar, Hauy thinks it probable, that the ftruflure
was, as it were, interfperfed with a multitude of fmall
vacuities, occupied either with the water of cryftalliza-
tion or lome other fubftance ; fo that, if it were poflible
to carry the divifion to its limits, one of thofe two kinds
of folids wmuld difappear, and the whole cryftal wmuld
be found compofed only of molecules of the other
form. This view is the more admiflible, as each oc¬
tahedron being enveloped with eight tetrahedrons, and
each tetrahedron being in like manner enveloped with
four octahedrons, whichever of thefe forms may be
fuppofed to be fupprefled, the remaining folids willjoin
exaCtly by their edges; fo that in this refpeCt there
will be continuity and uniformity throughout the whole
extent of the mafs. It may be readily conceived how
each octahedron is enveloped with tetrahedrons. By
attending to the divifion of the cube only by the fix
feCtions which give the rhomboid, we may depart at
pleafure from any two, a, j; 0, h ; c, n ; 1, r, of the
eight folid angles, provided that thefe two angles be
oppofite to each other. But by departing from the
angles a, s, the rhomboid will be in the pofition {hewn
at fig. 70. If, on the contrary, we depart from the
folid angles 0, h, thefe angles will become the fum¬
mits of a new rhomboid (fig. 72.), compofed of the
fame oftahedron as that of fig. 71. with two new te¬
trahedrons applied on the faces/»«(/, egp, (fig« 720»
which were unoccupied on the rhomboid of fig. 70.
Fig. 73. reprefents the cafe in which the two tetrahe¬
drons repofe on the faces dbe, fgp, of the octahe¬
dron ; and fig. 74. reprefents the cafe in which they
would reft on the faces bfg, dep. Hence, what¬
ever may be the two folid angles of the cube aiTumed
for the points of departure, we {hall always have the
fame oClahedron, with two tetrahedrons contiguous by
their fummits to thefe two folid angles j and there be¬
ing eight of thefe folid angles, the central oClahedron
will be circumfcribed with eight tetrahedrons, which
will reft on its faces. By continuing the divifion al¬
ways parallel to the firft fe&ions, the fame efteft will
always take place. Each face of the oftahedron, how¬
ever fmall it may be fuppofed to be, adheres to a face
of the tetrahedron, and reciprocally j and each tetra¬
hedron is enveloped with four oftahedrons.
The ftruffure which is here explained is that of
fluate of lime, or fluor fpar. By dividing a cube of
this fubftance, we may at pleafure extract rhomboids
which have the angles formed by their planes equal to
1200, or regular octahedrons, or tetrahedrons equally
regular. In fome other fubftances, as rock cryftal,
carbonate of lead, &c. which being mechanically di¬
vided beyond the term at which w7e fhould have a
rhomboid or a parallelepiped, parts of various different
forms are obtained, arranged together even in a more
complicated manner than in fluor fpar. In confe-
quence of thefe mixed ftruCtures, there is feme uncer¬
tainty refpeCting the real figure of the integral mole¬
cules
C R Y S
Structure ofcules which belong to thefe fubftances. It is obferved,
Cryftals. however, that the tetrahedron is always one of thole
v folids which concur to the formation of fmall rhom¬
boids or parallelepipeds that would be extracted from
the cryftal by a firft diviflon. But, on the other hand,
there are fubitances, which being divided in every pof-
lible direftion, refolve themfelves only into tetrahe¬
drons. Garnet, blende, and tourmaline, belong to
this number.
Several minerals are divifible into right triangular
prifms. Such is the apatite, whole primitive form is a
regular right hexahedral prifm, divifible parallel to its
bafes and its planes, from which neceffarily refult right
prifms with three planes, hig- 7^' reprefents erne of
the bafes of the hexahedral prifm, divided into fmall
equilateral triangles, which are the bafes of fo many
molecules, and which being taken two and two, form
quadrilateral prifms, with rhombufes for their bafes.
By adopting then the tetrahedron, in the doubtful
cafes already mentioned, all the forms of integral mo¬
lecules may be in general reduced to three, which are
remarkable for their fimplicity, viz. the parallelepiped,
the fimplefl of all the folids, having parallel faces two
and two j the triangular prifm, the fimplefl; of all
prifms j and the tetrahedron, which is the fimpleft of .
pyramids. This fimplicity may furnifh a reafon for
the preference given to the tetrahedron in fluor fpar,
and the other fubflances which have been mentioned
as examples. But the ingenious author of the theory
cautioufly declines to fpeak decifively on the fubjeft,
as the want of direft and precife obfervations, he ob-
ferves, leaves to theory only conjeftures and probabi¬
lities.
But the eflential obje£l is, that the different forms
to which thefe mixed ftruftures lead, are arranged in
fuch a manner, that their affemblage is equivalent to
a fum of fmall parallelepipeds, as has been feen to be
the cafe in regard to fluor fpar *, and that the laminae
of fuperpofition applied on the nucleus, decreafe by
fubtraftions of one or more rows of thefe parallelepi¬
peds. The bafis of the theory exifts, therefore, inde¬
pendently of the choice which might be made of any
of the forms obtained by the mechanical divifion.
With the help of this refult, the decrements to which
cryftals are fubjeft, whatever be their primitive forms,
are found reducible to thofe which take place in lub-
ftances, where this form, as well as- that of the mo¬
lecules, are indivifible parallelepipeds ; and the theory
has this advantage of being able to generalife its ob¬
ject, by connefting with one fa£I, that multitude of
fafts which, on account of their diverfity, feem to be
little fufceptible of being brought to one common
point. But what has been faid, will be flill more il-
luftrated by; examples of the manner in which we may
reduce to the theory of the parallelepiped, that of the
forms which are different from that fohd.
Cry/Ia/s xvhofe Molecules are Tetrahedrons, with Ifofcelcs
Triangular Faces.
TALLIZATION. 805
of the rhombus CLGH, C or G=ZI09° 28' 16" ;
Garnet.
I. Primitive Garnet (fig. 76.).
Geometric CharaBer.—Refpe&ive inclinations
two of the faces of the dodecahedron, 120°.
of any
Angles
L or H=r 78° 31'44"-
Notwithftanding the vitreous appearance in general
exhibited on the fra&ures of garnets of the primitive
form, laminae may be perceived on them, fituated pa¬
rallel to the rhombufes which compofe their iurface.
Let us fuppofe the dodecahedron divided in the direc¬
tion of its laminae, and for the greater fimplicity, let
us fuppofe the feftions to pafs through the centre.
One of thefe feaions, viz. that which will be parallel
to the two rhombufes DLFN, BHOR, will concur
with a hexagon, which would pafs through the points
E, C, G, P, I, A, by making the tour of the cryftal.
Afecond fedion parallel to the two rhombufes GLPF,
BEAR, will coincide with another hexagon (hewn by
the points D, C, H, O, I, N. And if the divifion be
continued parallel to the other eight rhombufes, taken
two and twro, it will be found that the planes of the,
feaions will be confounded with four new hexagons*
analogous to the preceding. But by refuming all thefe
hexagons, it will appear that their fides correlpond,
fome of them with the fmall diagonals of the rhombu¬
fes of the dodecahedron, viz. thofe which would be
drawn from C to G, from A to I, from C to B, &-c.
ahd others would correfpond with the different ridges
EC, GP, PI, EA, &c. , _ |
1. The planes then of the feaions pafling through
the fides and through the fmall diagonals of the twelve
rhombufes, will fubdivide the whole furface into 24
ifofceles triangles, which will be the halves of thefe
rhombufes. 2. Since the planes of the fe&ions pafs
alfo through the centre of the cryftal, they will de-
tach 24 pyramids with three faces \ the bafes of
which, if we choofe, will be the external triangles
that make part of the furface of the dodecahedron,
and of which- the fummits will be uniteu in the centie.
Befides, if we take, for example, the fix tetrahe¬
drons, which have for external faces the halves of the
three rhombufes CEDE, CLGH, CEBH, thefe fix
tetrahedrons will form a rhomboid reprefented by fig.
77. and in which the three inferior rhombufes DLGS,
GHBS, DEBS, refult from three divifions which pafs,
one through the hexagon DLGORA, (fig. 76.^; the
fecond through,the hexagon GHBANL \ and the third
through the hexagon BEDFPO. Fig. 77. alfo repre¬
fents the two tetrahedrons, the bales of which make
part of the rhombus CLGH. One of thefe is marked
wdth the letters L, C, G, S, and the other with the
letters H, C, G, S. And by applying what has been
faid to the other nine rhombufes, which are united,
three and three, around the points F, A, H, (fig- 77-)»
w’C fhall have three new rhomboids j from which it
follows, that the 24 tetrahedrons, confidered fix and
fix, form four rhomboids j fo that the dodecahedron
may be conceived as being itfelf immediately compofed
of thefe four rhomboids, and in the laft analyfis of 24-
tetrahedrons.
It may be obferved, that the dodecahedron having
eight folid angles, each formed with three planes, they
might have been confidered as the affemblage of the
four rhomboids, which w’ould have for exterior fum¬
mits the four angles G, B, D, A •, from which it fol¬
lows that any one of the faces, fuch as CLGO, is
common to two rhomboids, one of which would have
i As
8o6
CRYSTALLIZATION.
Structure of Its fammit in C, and the other in G, and which would
Cryftais. themlelves have a common part in the interior of the
V"" I,L'' cryftal.
We may remark farther, that a line GS (fig. 77.)
drawn from any one G (fig. 76.) of the folid angles
compofed ol three planes, as tar as the centre of the
dodecahedron, is at the fame time the axis of the rhom¬
boid, which would have its fummit in C (fig. 76. and
77.). The compofing rhomboids then have this proper¬
ty, that their axis is equal to the fides of the rhombus.
From which, with a little attention, we may conclude,
that in each tetrahedron, fuch as CLGS (fig. 77.), all
the faces are equal and fimilar ifofceles triangles.
If the divifion of the dodecahedron be continued by
feflions paHing between thofe which we have luppofed
to be directed towards the centre, and which fhould be
parallel to them, wTe Ihould obtain tetrahedrons always
(mailer, and arranged in fuch a manner, that taking
them in groups of fix, they would form rhomboids of
a bulk proportioned to their own.
The tetrahedrons, which wrould be the term of the
divifion, were it poffible to reach it, ought to be con-
fidered as the real molecules of the garnet. But it
will be feen, that in the paffage to the fecondary forms,
the lamina; of fuperpofition, which envelope the nu¬
cleus, really decreafe by rows of fmall rhomboids,
each of which is the afifemblage of thefe tetrahedrons.
The fulphuret of zinc, or blende, has the fame ftruc-
ture as the garnet. Hauy informs us that he has divid¬
ed fragments of this lubltance by very clean fe£fions,
in fuch a manner as to obtain fuccelTively the dodeca¬
hedron, the rhomboid and the tetrahedron.
2. Trapezoidal Garnet, (fig. 78.).
Geomet. CharaRer Refpeftive inclination of the tra¬
pezoids, united three and three around the fame
folid angle D, C, G, &c. 146° 26' 33" ; of the tra¬
pezoids united four and four around the fame folid
angle, u, x, r, &c. 1310 48' 36". Angles of any
one of the trapezoids w D« L, LrryS0 27' 46";
,D=i 17° 2' 8"; m or w=:8 20 15' 3". The value of
the angle L is the fame as that of the acute angle
of the nucleus of calcareous (par.
This variety is the refult of a feries of laminae, de-
creafing at the four edges, on all the faces of the pri¬
mitive dodecahedron. For the more fimplicity, let us
firft confider the effefl of this decrement in regard to
the rhombus CLGH (fig. 76.). We have juft feen
that this rhombus w7as fuppofed to belong in common
to two rhomboids, which (hould have for fummits, one,
the point C, and the other the point G. Let us fuppofe
that the laminae applied on this rhombus decreafe to¬
wards their four edges by fubtraftions of a fingle row
of fmall rhomboids, in fuch a manner that in regard
to the two edges CL, CH, circumftances are the fame
as if the rhombus belonged to the rhomboid which
has its fummit in C j and that in regard to the other
two edges GL, GH, the effeft is the fame as if the Stnnfhue of
rhombus belonged to the rhomboid, which has its fum- Cryftais.
mit in G. This difpofition is admiftible here in con-
fequence of the particular ftrudlure of the dodecahe¬
dron, which permits us to obtain fmall rhomboids ;
force of which have their faces parallel to the faces of
that with its fummit in C, and the reft to that having
its fammit in G (d).
The refults of the four decrements being thus quite
fimilar to each other, the laminae of luperpofition, ap¬
plied on the rhombus CLGH, and on each of the
other rhombufes of the dodecahedron, will form as
many right quadrangular pyramids, which will have
for bafes thefe fame rhombufes. Fig. 79. reprefents
the pyramids which reft on the three rhombufes CLUE,
CEBH, CGHB (fig. 76.), and which have for (um-
mits the points m, e, J-, (fig. 76.) •, but on account of
the decrement by a fimple row, the adjacent triangu¬
lar faces, fuch as EwC, EjC of the two pyramids
that belong to the rhombufes CLDE, CEBH, are on
a level, and form a quadrilateral E/^Cr. But we
had 12 pyramids, and confequently 48 triangles.
Thefe divided by two give 24 quadrilaterals, which
will compofe the furface of the fecondary cryftal.
But becaufe the rhomboidal bafes of the two pyramids
extend more, in proceeding from L to E, or from H
to E, than in proceeding from D to C, or from B
to C, the fides w?E, Ej of the quadrilateral will be
longer than the fides Cw, Q-s. And befides m E will
be equal to Ej-, and Cwz equal to Cs. rI hus the qua¬
drilaterals will be trapezoids which have their fides
equal two and two. There is no cryftalline form in
which the ftriae, when they do exift, (hew in a more
fenfible manner the mechanifm of the ftrudlure than
in this variety of garnet. We ma^ here iee the feries
of decreafing rhombufes which form each of the pyra¬
mids CLDEiVr, CEBHj, &c. (fig. 79.), and fome-
times the furrows arc fo deep that they produce a
kind of flair, the fteps of which have a more particu¬
lar polilh and brilliancy than thofe of the facets,
which are parallel to the faces CEDL, CHBE, 01
the nucleus.
If the decrements flop abruptly at a certain term,
fo that the pyramids are not terminated, the 24 tra¬
pezoids will be reduced to elongated hexagons, which
will intercept 12 rhombufes parallel to the faces of
the nucleus. To this variety Hauy has given the
name of intermediary garnet.
In the fulphuret of zinc the regular o&ahedron is
the refult of a decrement by a row around the eight
folid angles, compofed of three planes., viz. C, B, O,
G, F, I), A, I, (fig. 76.). The fame fubftance alfo
affumes the form of a regular tetrahedron, by the help
of a decrement by one row on four only of the eight
folid angles before mentioned, luch as C, O, F, A. The
ftrufture of this tetrahedron is remarkable, as it pre*
fents an affemblage of other tetrahedrons with ifofceles
faces.
Cryflals
(d) Theory, the author obferves, has conduced him to another refult, which is, that the fum of the nucleus
and laminae of fuperpofition taken together in proportion as the latter are applied one upon the other is always
equal to a fum of rhomboids ; though at firfi view it does not appear that this fhould be the cafe, according to
the figure of thefe laminae, which reprefent riling pyramids.
1
StmAiire of
Cryftals.
CRYSTAL
Cryjlals whofe Molecules are Triangular Prt/ms.
Oriental.
Hauy lias thus denominated the gem which is known
under the different names of ruby, fapphire, oriental
topax, according as the colour is red, blue, or yellow.
The different varieties of this gem have not been ac¬
curately defcribed, and the nature of the paiticular
angles of each has not been precifely indicated, on ac¬
count of the rare occurrence of regularly formed cry-
ftals, or, when fuch have been found, on account of
their being defaced by being water-worn, or otherwife
injured. But from fome cryftals which were fuffi-
ciently charafterifed, Hauy obtained the following
refuits.
i. Primitive Omental.
This mineral cryftallizes in the form of a regular
hexahedral prifm which is divifible parallel to its bafes.
According to theory, which points out other joinings
parallel to the planes, the molecule is an_equilateral
triangular prifm. ft he height of this prifm, calcu¬
lated by theory, is a little lefs than three times the
height of the triangle of the bafe.
2. Elongated Oriental, (fig. 80.).
Geometric Charatter.—Refpeftive inclinations of the
triangles IAS, IBS, 1390 54'. Angles of the tri¬
angle IAS, A~ 22° 54b I or S=r 78° 47'.
This form is the refult of a decrement by a fimple
row of fmall quadrangular prifms on all the edges of
the bafes of the nucleus. Let qd (fig. 75-)
fuperior bafe, fubdivided into fmall triangles, which
reprefent the analogous bafes of fo many molecules.
The edges of the laminae of fuperpofition will corre-
fpond fucceffivelv to the hexagons h i l ni n r, eh u xyvt
&c. ; from which it follows that the fubtraftions
take place by rows of fmall parallelepipeds of quadran¬
gular prifms, compofed each ol two triangular prilms.
3. Minor Oriental.
Geometric Chara&er.—Dodecahedron formed of two
right pyramids lefs elongated than thofe of the pre¬
ceding variety. The triangles correfponding to
IAS, IBS, are inclined to each other 122° 36'. In
each of thefe triangles the angle of the fummit is 3 1°,
and each of the angles at the bafe is 740 30'.
The law of which this variety is the refult, differs
from that which produces the preceding, as it deter¬
mines a mixed decrement by three rows in breadth and
turn rows in height.
4. Enneagonal Oriental, (fig. 81.).
Geometric CharaBer.—Inclination of each fmall tri¬
angle, fuch as cy i, to the adjacent bafe aciplbged,
1220 18'.
This is the elongated oriental, whofe fummits are re¬
placed by two faces, parallel to the bafes of the nucleus,
with the addition of fix fmall ifofceles triangles c q i,
Ibf, v z m, 8zc. the three fuperior of which are alter¬
nate in pofition with the three inferior. Thefe triangles
L I Z A T I O N. 807
are the refult of a decrement, by three row, of fmallStruetureor
quadrangular prifms on the three angles of the fuperior ^ ^
bafe of the nucleus, fuch as b, d, g (fig. 75), and on
the intermediate angles of the inferior bafe. It may
be readily conceived, that in the decrement which
takes place, for example, on the angle g, the three
rows which remain unoccupied between that angle and
the correfponding edge of the firft lamina of fuperpofi¬
tion, are, 1. the fmall rhombus^ 0 ip, which alone forms
the firft row ; 2. the two rhombules osti,p,zdi', 3r
the three rhombufes fituated on the fame line behind
the two preceding.
Cryftals of this gem are chiefly found in the king¬
dom of Pegu. Some have been found in France, which
have received the name of fapphires of Puy. They
have been alfo found at a little diitance from Velay,
on the banks of a rivulet near the village of Expailiy,
where they are mixed with garnets and hyacinths. I hefe
have all the characters of the ftone which is denomina¬
ted oriental fapphire.
V. Difference
BETWEEN
MENT.
Structure and Incre-
In what has been faid refpefting the decrements to
which the laminae of fuperpofition are fubjetted, the
author obferves, that it was his view' only to unfold the
laws of ftrufture \ and he adds, that he is far from be¬
lieving that in the formation of a dodecahedral cryftal,
or one of any other form, having a cube for a nucleus,
the cryftallization has originally produced that nu¬
cleus iuch as it is extra&ed from the dodecahedron,
by the fucceflive application of all the laminae of fuper-
pofition with which it is covered. It feems proved, on
the contrary, that from the firft moment the cryftal is
already a very fmall dodecahedron, containing a cubi¬
cal nucleus proportioned to its fmall fize, and that the
cryftal afterwards increafes by degrees without chang¬
ing its form, by new layers which envelope it on all
fides, fo that the nucleus increafes alfo, preferving al¬
ways the fame relation with the whole dodecahedron.
An example taken from a plane figure will make
this more linking j and what is faid refpe&ing this fi¬
gure may be eafily applied to a folid, fince a plane fi¬
gure may be always conceived as a feftion of a folid.
Let ERFN (fig. 82.) be an arrangment of fmall
fquares, in which the fquare ABCD, compofed of 49
partial fquares, reprefents a fedion of the nucleus, and
the extreme fquares R, S, G, A, I, L, &c. that of the
kind of ftair formed by the laminae of fuperpofition.
It may be readily conceived, that the arrangement be¬
gan w’ith the fquare ABCD j and that different files
of fmall fquares were afterwards applied on each of
the fides of the central fquare : for example, on the
fide AB, firft the five fquares comprehended between-
I and M, next the three fquares comprehended be¬
tween L and O, and then the fquare E. 'I his incre¬
ment correfponds with that which would take place if
the dodecahedron began by being a cube proportioned
to its bulk, and which increafed afterwards with the
addition of continually decreafing laminae.
But on the other hand, the arrangement may be
conceived to be fuch as is reprefented in fig. 84. in
which the fquare a b c d h compofed of only nine mo¬
lecules, and be.ars upon each of its fides only one
fquare
CRYSTALLIZATION.
808
Stmdture offquare <>, n,f, or r ; and that afterwards by means of
. Cryftals- the application of new fquares arranged around the for¬
mer, the affortment has become that of fig. 83. where
the central fquare a' b' c'd' is formed of 25 fmall
fquares, and bears on each fide of its fides a file of
three fquares, plus a terminating fquare d, f, or r'y
and that, in fhort, by a farther application, the affort¬
ment of fig. 83. is converted into that of fig. 82.
Thefe different tranfitions will give fome notion of
the manner in which fecondary cryftals may increafe
in bulk, and yet retain their form $ and from this it
will appear, that the ftrufture is combined with that
augmentation of bulk, fo that the law, according to
which all the laminae applied in the nucleus of the cry-
ftal, when arrived at its greateft dimenfions, fucceffive-
ly decreafe, in departing from this nucleus, exifted al¬
ready in the rifing cryftal.
Such is the ingenious theory of the ftrufture of
cryftals, which the author obferves, is in this fimilar
to other theories, that it fets out from a principal fa&,
on which it makes all fa£ts of the fame kind to de-Struftureof
pend, and which are only as it were corollaries. This _
fa£l is the decrement of the lamime fuperadded to ’
the primitive form ; and it is by bringing back this
decrement to fimple and regular laws, fufceptible of
accurate calculation, that theory arrives at refults, the
truth of which is proved by the mechanical divifion of
cryftals, and by obfervation of their angles. But new
refearches are ftill wanting, in order to afcend a few
fteps farther towards the primitive law's by which
cryftallization is regulated. The objedt of one of
thefe refearches would be to explain how thefe fmall
polyhedrons, which are as it were the rudiments of
cryftals of a fenfible bulk, fometimes reprefent the pri¬
mitive forth, without modification ; fometimes a fe¬
condary form produced in virtue of a law of decre¬
ment ; and to determine the circumftances which pro¬
duce decrements on the edges, as well as thofe which
give rife to decrements on the angles.
END OF THE SIXTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. VI.
Part I.
Plate CXLV. to face
CXLVI.—CXLVIII.
CXLIX.
CL. CLI.
Part II.
CLI I.—CLV.
CLVI.—CLXIII.
CLXIV.
CLXV.—CLXVII.
Page
94
208
27.6
370,
484
548
776
808
ERRATA in CONIC SECTIONS.
Page 527. col. 2. line 7. from bottom, for (Cor. 5.) read (1 Cor. 5.)
538. col. 2. line 14. for Cor. 2. Prop, read Cor. 2. Prop. 8.
543. col. 2. line 21. for and AH. read and take AH.
547 col. 2. line 5. from bottom, for ^ P : ^ S read p P : LP.
548. col. 2. line 26. for (18. Part II. and 25. Part III.) read (Cor. 17. Part II. and Cor. 25. Part III.)
— col. 2. line 32. for (14. Part II.) read (15, Part II.)
I
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